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3,600 | Near-Earth_object | Asteroid 4179 Toutatis is a Potentially Hazardous Object that has passed within 2.3 Lunar distances Earth's artificial satellites form a halo of space debris A near-Earth object (NEO) is a Solar System object whose orbit brings it into close proximity with the Earth. All NEOs have a perihelion distance < 1.3 AU Glossary of Astronomical Terms . They include a few thousand near-Earth asteroids (NEAs), near-Earth comets, a number of solar-orbiting spacecraft, and meteoroids large enough to be tracked in space before striking the Earth. It is now widely accepted that collisions in the past have had a significant role in shaping the geological and biological history of the planet. NEOs have become of increased interest since the 1980s because of increased awareness of the potential danger some of the asteroids or comets pose to the Earth, and active mitigations are being actively pursued. A study showed that the United States and China are the nations most vulnerable to a meteor strike. Krajik, K. (2007) Killer Space Rocks. Popular Science magazine, September. pg 72-73. Those NEOs that are asteroids (NEA) have orbits that lie partly between 0.983 and 1.3 astronomical units away from the Sun. When an NEA is detected it is submitted to the Harvard Minor Planet Center for cataloging. Some near-Earth asteroids' orbits intersect Earth's so they pose a collision danger . The United States, European Union and other nations are currently scanning for NEOs in an effort called Spaceguard. In the United States, NASA has a congressional mandate to catalogue all NEOs that are at least 1 kilometer wide, as the impact of such an object would be expected to produce severe to catastrophic effects. 982 of these mandated NEOs have been detected . It was estimated in 2006 that 20% of the mandated objects have not yet been found . Efforts are under way to use an existing telescope in Australia to cover the ~30% of the sky that has not yet been surveyed. Potentially Hazardous Objects (PHOs) are currently defined based on parameters that measure the object's potential to make threatening close approaches to the Earth. Mostly objects with an Earth Minimum Orbit Intersection Distance (MOID) of 0.05 AU or less and an absolute magnitude (H) of 22.0 or less (a rough indicator of large size) are considered PHOs. Objects that cannot approach closer to the Earth (i. e. MOID) than 0.05 AU (roughly 7,480,000 km or 4,650,000 mi), or are smaller than about 150 m (500 ft) in diameter (i. e. H = 22.0 with assumed albedo of 13%), are not considered PHOs http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/neo/groups.html . Some NEOs are of high interest because they can be physically explored with lower mission velocity even than the Moon, due to their combination of low velocity with respect to Earth (ΔV) and small gravity, so they may present interesting scientific opportunities both for direct geochemical and astronomical investigation, and as potentially economical sources of extra-terrestrial materials for human exploitation . This makes them an attractive target for exploration . As of 2008, two near-Earth objects have been visited by spacecraft: 433 Eros, by NASA's Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous probe , and 25143 Itokawa, by the JAXA Hayabusa mission . Classification of near-Earth objects by kind and size Meteoroid Asteroid Comets Near-Earth meteoroids Near Earth Meteoroids are objects with orbits in the vicinity of Earth's orbit having a diameter less than 50 metres. Near-Earth asteroids Computer model of the object 6489 Golevka, an Apollo asteroid These are objects that have a near-Earth orbit, yet far enough from the Sun so that the surface material never evaporates, having a diameter over 50 metres. As of December 31, 2008, 5,857 near-Earth asteroids are known, ranging in size up to ~32 kilometers (1036 Ganymed) . The number of near-Earth asteroids over one kilometer in diameter is estimated to be 500 - 1,000 . The composition of near-Earth asteroids is comparable to that of asteroids from the main asteroid belt, reflecting a variety of asteroid spectral types . NEAs only survive in their orbits for a few million years . They are eventually eliminated by orbital decay and accretion by the Sun, collisions with the inner planets, or by being ejected from the solar system by close-approaches with the planets. With orbital lifetimes short compared to the age of the solar system, new asteroids must be constantly moved into near-Earth orbits to explain the observed asteroids. The accepted origin of these asteroids is that main belt asteroids are moved into the inner solar system through orbital resonances with Jupiter. The interaction with Jupiter through the resonance perturbs the asteroid's orbit and it comes into the inner solar system. The asteroid belt has gaps, known as Kirkwood gaps, where these resonances occur as the asteroids in these resonances have been moved onto other orbits. New asteroids migrate into these resonances due to the Yarkovsky effect that provides a continuing supply of near-Earth asteroids . A small number of NEOs are extinct comets that have lost their volatile surface materials. Also, having sometimes a faint comet-like tail does not necessarily result in a classification as a Near Earth Comet, making the boundaries somehow fuzzy. The rest of the near-Earth asteroids appear are driven out of the asteroid belt by gravitational interactions with Jupiter . There are three families of near-Earth asteroids: The Atens, which have average orbital radii closer than one AU The distance from the Earth to the Sun and aphelia of greater than Earth's perihelion (0.983 AU), placing them usually inside the orbit of Earth. The Apollos, which have average orbital radii greater than that of the Earth and perihelia less than Earth's aphelion (1.017 AU). The Amors, which have average orbital radii in between the orbits of Earth and Mars and perihelia slightly outside Earth's orbit (1.017 - 1.3 AU). Amors often cross the orbit of Mars, but they do not cross the orbit of Earth. Many Atens and all Apollos have orbits that cross that of the Earth, so they are a threat to impact the Earth on their current orbits. Amors do not cross the Earth's orbit and are not immediate impact threats. However, their orbits may evolve into Earth-crossing orbits in the future. Also sometimes used is the Arjuna asteroid classification for asteroids with extremely Earth-like orbits . Near-Earth comets As of December 31, 2008, 82 near-Earth comets have been discovered. No impact of a comet in earth history has been confirmed. But the Tunguska object may have been a fragment of Comet Encke. Cometary fragmenting may also be responsible for some impacts from near earth objects. These near-Earth objects were probably derived from the Kuiper belt, a repository of comets residing beyond the orbit of Neptune. Planet Earth collision probability with near-Earth objects Impact rate Objects with diameters of 5-10m impact the Earth's atmosphere approximately once per year, with as much energy as the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, approximately 15 kilotonnes of TNT. These ordinarily explode in the upper atmosphere, and most or all of the solids are vaporized . Objects of diameters of the order of 50 meters strike the Earth approximately once every thousand years, producing explosions comparable to the one observed at Tunguska in 1908 . Objects with a diameter of one kilometer hit the Earth an average of twice every million year interval. Large collisions with five kilometer objects happen approximately once every ten million years. Historic impacts Illustration of the impact of an asteroid a few kilometers across. Such impacts are expected to occur less often than every 100 million years. The general acceptance of the Alvarez hypothesis, explaining the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event as the result of a large object impact event, raised the awareness of the possibility of future Earth impacts with other objects that cross the Earth's orbit . 1908 Tunguska Event On 30 June 1908 a stony asteroid exploded over Tunguska with the energy of the explosion of 10 megatons of TNT. The explosion occurred at a height of 8.5 kilometers. The object that caused the explosion has been estimated to have had a diameter of 45-70 meters . 2002 Eastern Mediterranean event On June 6, 2002 an object with an estimated diameter of 10 meters collided with Earth. The collision occurred over the Mediterranean Sea, between Greece and Libya, at approximately 34°N 21°E and the object exploded in mid-air. The energy released was estimated (from infrasound measurements) to be equivalent to 26 kilotons of TNT, comparable to a small nuclear weapon . 2008 Sudan event <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle">Main article: </div> On 5 October 2008, scientists calculated that a little Near-Earth asteroid just sighted that night should impact the Earth on 6 October over Sudan, at 0246 UTC, 5:46 local time . The asteroid arrived as predicted . This is the first time that an asteroid impact on Earth has been accurately predicted. However, no reports of the actual impact have so far been published since it occurred in a very sparsely populated area. Little Asteroid Makes a Big Splash Sky and Telescope, October 9, 2008. Close approaches Flyby of Asteroid 2004 FH. The other object that flashes by is an artificial satellite. On August 10, 1972 a meteor that became known as The Great Daylight 1972 Fireball was witnessed by many people moving north over the Rocky Mountains from the U.S. Southwest to Canada. It was an Earth-grazing meteoroid that passed within 57 kilometres (about 34 miles) of the Earth's surface. It was filmed by a tourist at the Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming with an 8-millimeter color movie camera Grand Teton Meteor Video, Youtube . On March 23, 1989 the 300 meter (1,000-foot) diameter Apollo asteroid 4581 Asclepius (1989 FC) missed the Earth by 700,000 kilometers (400,000 miles) passing through the exact position where the Earth was only 6 hours before. If the asteroid had impacted it would have created the largest explosion in recorded history, thousands of times more powerful than the Tsar Bomba, the most powerful nuclear bomb ever exploded by man. It attracted widespread attention as early calculations had its passage being as close as 64,000 km (40,000 miles) from the Earth, with large uncertainties that allowed for the possibility of it striking the Earth . On March 18, 2004, LINEAR announced a 30 meter asteroid 2004 FH, which would pass the Earth that day at only 42,600 km (26,500 miles), about one-tenth the distance to the moon, and the closest miss ever noticed. They estimated that similar sized asteroids come as close about every two years . On March 31, 2004, two weeks after 2004 FH, meteoroid 2004 FU162 set a new record for closest recorded approach, passing Earth only 6,500 km (4,000 miles) away (nearly one-sixtieth of the distance to the Moon). Because it was very small (6 meters/20 feet), FU162 was detected only hours before its closest approach. If it had collided with Earth, it probably would have harmlessly disintegrated in the atmosphere. On March 2, 2009, a near-Earth asteriod, Asteroid DD45 2009 flew by Earth at about 8:40 a.m. ET (1340 UT). The estimated distance from Earth was 44,740 miles (72,000 km); approximately twice the height of a geostationary communications satellite. The estimated size of the space rock was about 115 feet (35 meters) wide. Yahoo News - 20090302 - Asteroid Flies Past Earth Future impacts radar image of Asteroid 1950 DA Although there have been a few false alarms, a number of objects have been known to be threats to the Earth. (89959) 2002 NT7 was the first asteroid with a positive rating on the Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale, with approximately one in a million on a potential impact date of February 1, 2019. Asteroid (29075) 1950 DA was lost after its discovery in 1950 since not enough observations were made to allow plotting of its orbit, and then rediscovered on December 31, 2000. The chance it will impact Earth on March 16, 2880 during its close approach has been estimated as 1 in 300. This chance of impact for such a large object is roughly 50% greater than that for all other such objects combined between now and 2880 . It has a diameter of about a kilometer (.6 of a mile). The asteroids 99942 Apophis (provisionally known as 2004 MN4), 2007 VK184, and 2008 AF4 have had above-normal rankings on the Torino Scale. Projects to minimize the threat Detected NEO's Astronomers have been conducting surveys to locate the NEOs. One of the best-known is LINEAR that began in 1996. By 2004 LINEAR was discovering tens of thousands of objects each year and accounting for 65% of all new asteroid detections . LINEAR uses two one-meter telescopes and one half-meter telescope based in New Mexico . Spacewatch, which uses a 90 centimeter telescope sited at the Kitt Peak Observatory in Arizona, updated with automatic pointing, imaging, and analysis equipment to search the skies for intruders, was set up in 1980 by Tom Gehrels and Dr. Robert S. McMillan of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory of the University of Arizona in Tucson, and is now being operated by Dr. McMillan. The Spacewatch project has acquired a 1.8 meter telescope, also at Kitt Peak, to hunt for NEOs, and has provided the old 90 centimeter telescope with an improved electronic imaging system with much greater resolution, improving its search capability . Other near-earth object tracking programs include Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT), Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search (LONEOS), Catalina Sky Survey, Campo Imperatore Near-Earth Objects Survey (CINEOS), Japanese Spaceguard Association, and Asiago-DLR Asteroid Survey . NEOSSat is a micro satellite by Canada's CSA that will hunt for NEOs from space. "Spaceguard" is the name for these loosely affiliated programs, some of which receive NASA funding to meet a U.S. Congressional requirement to detect 90% of near-earth asteroids over 1 km diameter by 2008 . A 2003 NASA study of a follow-on program suggests spending US$250-450 million to detect 90% of all near-earth asteroids 140 meters and larger by 2028 . Research published in the March 26, 2009 issue of the journal Nature, describes how scientists were able to identify an asteroid in space before it entered Earth’s atmosphere, enabling computers to determine its area of origin in the solar system as well as predict the arrival time and location on Earth of its shattered surviving parts. The four-meter-diameter asteroid, called 2008 TC3, was initially sighted by the automated Catalina Sky Survey telescope, on October 6, 2008. Computations correctly predicted impact would occur 19 hours after discovery in the Nubian Desert of northern Sudan. We Saw It Coming: Asteroid Monitored from Outer Space to Ground Impact Newswise, Retrieved on March 26, 2009. Impact calculation error pattern Why asteroid impact probability goes up, then down. Impact predictions often make the news. The next few observations show an increasing chance of impacts, but then further observations rule out any impact. The reason for this pattern is shown in the diagram at right. The ellipses in this diagram show the likely object position at closest earth approach. At first, with only a few observations, the error ellipse is very large and includes the Earth. This leads to a small, but non-zero, impact probability. Further observations shrink the error ellipse, but it still includes the Earth. This raises the impact probability, since the Earth now covers a larger fraction of the error region. Finally, yet more observations (often radar observations, or discovery of a previous sighting of the same object on archival images) shrink the ellipse still further. Now the earth is outside the error region, and the impact probability returns to near zero . Number of near-earth objects , 5,474 NEOs have been discovered: 65 near-Earth comets and 5,409 near-Earth Asteroids. Of those there are 453 Aten asteroids, 2,053 Amor asteroids, and 2,894 Apollo asteroids. There are 943 NEOs that are classified as Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHAs). Currently, 138 PHAs and 743 NEAs have an absolute magnitude of 17.75 or brighter, which roughly corresponds to at least 1 km in size NEO Discovery Statistics . The rate of impacts of objects of at least 1 km in diameter is estimated as 2 per million years. Assuming that this rate will continue for the next billion years, there exist at least 2,000 objects of diameter greater than 1 km that will eventually hit Earth. However, most of these are not yet considered Potentially Hazardous Objects because they are currently orbiting between Mars and Jupiter. Eventually they will change orbits and become NEOs. Objects spend on average a few million years as NEOs before hitting the Sun, being ejected from the Solar System, or (for a small proportion) hitting a planet Morbidelli, A., W. F. Bottke, Ch. Froeschle, and P. Michel. 2002. Origin and evolution of near-Earth objects. In Asteroids III, (W. F. Bottke, A. Cellino, P. Paolicchi, R. Binzel, Eds). U. Arizona Press, 409-422. . , there are 191 NEAs on the impact risk page at the NASA website. A significant number of these NEAs – 121 – are equal to or smaller than 50 meters in diameter and none of the listed objects is placed even in the "yellow zone" (Torino Scale 2), meaning that none warrant the attention of general public. , only one asteroid is listed as having Torino Scale score 1. , asteroid was downgraded to Torino Scale 0 Current Impact Risks The Torino Impact Hazard Scale . Estimating the risks There are two schemes for classification of impact hazards: the simple Torino Scale, and the more complex Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale The annual background frequency used in the Palermo scale for impacts of energy greater than E megatonnes is estimated as: For instance, this formula implies that the expected value of the time from now till the next impact greater than 1 megatonne is 33 years, and that when it occurs, there is a 50% chance that it will be above 2.4 megatonnes. This formula is only valid over a certain range of E. However, another paper "The flux of small near-Earth objects colliding with the Earth" by P. Brown et al., Nature, 420, pp. 294-6, November 2002. published in 2002 – the same year as the paper on which the Palermo scale is based – found a power law with different constants: This formula gives considerably lower rates for a given E''. For instance, it gives the rate for bolides of 10 megatonnes or more (like the Tunguska explosion) as 1 per thousand years, rather than 1 per 210 years as in the Palermo formula. However, the authors give a rather large uncertainty (once in 400 to 1800 years for 10 megatonnes), due in part to uncertainties in determining the energies of the atmospheric impacts that they used in their determination. On 25 December 2004, minor planet 2004 MN4 was assigned a 4 on the Torino scale, the highest rating so far. On 27 December 2004 there was a 2.7% chance of Earth impact on 13 April 2029. However, on 28 December 2004, the risk of impact dropped to zero for 2029, but, due to a resonant return possibility the Torino rating for an April 2036 impact rose to 4 in early 2005, and () has dropped gradually to a Torino rating of 0 (zero). The Palermo rating (August 2006) is −2.25 . Currently, the only known NEO with a Palermo scale value greater than zero is (29075) 1950 DA, which is predicted to pass very close to or collide with the Earth (p ≤ 0.003) in the year 2880. Depending on the orientation of its axis of rotation, it will either miss the earth by tens of millions of kilometres, or have a 1 in 300 chance of hitting the earth. However, humanity has over 800 years to refine its estimates of the orbit of (29075) 1950 DA, and to deflect it, if necessary. The Apollo asteroid 2007 TU24 approached Earth on January 29, 2008 with a distance of 1.4 LD (lunar distance), or 450,000 km, with an estimated size between 300-600 meters. It may be the closest asteroid to pass Earth until 2027. NASA maintains a continuously updated web page of the most significant NEO threats in the next 100 years NASA Near Earth Object Program Impact Risks Retrieved July 16, 2006 . All or nearly all of the items on this page are highly likely to drop off the list eventually as more data comes in enabling more accurate predictions. (The page does not include 1950 DA, because that will not strike for at least 800 years.) Detection from space On November 8, 2007, the House Committee on Science and Technology's Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics held a hearing to examine the status of NASA's Near-Earth Object survey program. The prospect of using the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer was proposed by NASA officials Hearing Charter: Near-Earth Objects: Status of the Survey Program and Review of NASA's 2007 Report to Congress | SpaceRef Canada - Your Daily Source of Canadian Space News . WISE will survey the sky in the infrared band at a very high sensitivity. Asteroids that absorb solar radiation can be observed through the infrared band. NASA officials told Committee staff that NASA plans to use WISE to detect NEOs, in addition to performing its science goals. It is projected that WISE could detect 400 NEOs (roughly two percent of the estimated NEO population of interest) within the one-year mission. See also 6Q0B44E Asteroid deflection strategies Bolide Co-orbital moon J002E3 Mission Marco Polo NEODyS Orbit@home Space debris Tunguska event References External links The Jet Propulsion Laboratory's NEO website Spaceguard UK House Holds Hearing On NEO Threat The UK NEO Information Centre Earth in the Cosmic Shooting Gallery Paper published 2005 Near Earth Asteroids Astronomy Cast episode #29, includes full transcript. 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3,601 | Midas | Midas or King Midas (in Greek Μίδας) is popularly remembered for his ability to turn everything he touched into gold: the Midas touch. In alchemy, the transmutation of an object into gold is known as chrysopoeia. Midas was king The reign-names Midas and Gordias alternate in historic Phrygia: Herodotus (i.14) tells an anecdote of Adrastus "the son of Gordias, son of Midas" at the court of Croesus. of Pessinus, a city of Phrygia, who as a child was adopted by the king Gordias and Cybele, the goddess whose consort he was, and who (by some accounts) was the goddess-mother of Midas himself. "King Midas, a Phrygian, son of Cybele" (Hyginus, Fabulae 274). Some accounts place the youth of Midas in Macedonian Bermion. "Bromium" in Graves 1960:83.a; Greek traditions of the migration from European Macedon to Anatolia are examined— as purely literary constructions— in Peter Carrington, "The Heroic Age of Phrygia in Ancient Literature and Art" Anatolian Studies 27 (1977:117-126). In Thracian Mygdonia, Mygdonia became part of Macedon in historical times. Midas was known for his garden of roses: Herodotus Herodotus, Histories 8.138.1 remarks on the settlement of the ancient kings of Macedon on the slopes of Mount Bermion "the place called the garden of Midas son of Gordias, where roses grow of themselves, each bearing sixty blossoms and of surpassing fragrance". In this garden, according to the Macedonian, Silenos was taken captive. Herodotus' place is identified with Aegae by many readers, such as N.G.L. Hammond, A History of Macedonia I (Oxford 1972) p. 410, and Panayiotis B. Faklaris, "Aegae: Determining the Site of the First Capital of the Macedonians" American Journal of Archaeology 98.4 (October 1994, pp 609-616) p. 613 and note. Are the "rose gardens" a late interpolation? Though the rose was associated with Aphrodite in Rhodes and Cyprus, roses otherwise do not appear in Greek mythology, and Greek rose gardens were not adopted from Macedonian, but from Persian models: Midas' other domain, Phrygia, became a Persian satrapy in 546 BCE. According to Iliad (v.860), he had one son, Lityerses, the demonic reaper of men, but in some variations of the myth he had a daughter, Zoë or "life" instead. For the legend of Gordias, a poor countryman who was taken by the people and made King, in obedience to the command of the oracle, see Gordias. Tomb of King Midas (reconstruction) Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara, Turkey For the son of Midas, see Adrastus. The great tumulus In 1969, archaeologists connected with the University of Pennsylvania opened a chamber tomb at the heart of the Great Tumulus (height 53m, diameter about 300m) on the site of ancient Gordion (modern Yassihöyük, Turkey), where there are more than 100 tumuli of different sizes and from different periods. They discovered an early eighth century BC royal burial, complete with remains of the funeral feast and "the best collection of Iron Age drinking vessels ever uncovered" Science News, "King Midas' modern mourners" . This inner chamber was rather large; 5.15m by 6.2m in breadth and 3.25m high. On a wooden bedstead in the corner of the chamber lay a skeleton of a man 1.59m in height and about 60 years old. In the room there were decorated furniture and panels plus many vessels with grave offerings. Though no identifying texts were associated with the site, it is popularly dubbed the "Tomb of Midas" (Penn). Later investigations showed that this funerary monument could not have been constructed after the Cimmerian invasion in the early seventh century BC. Therefore, it is now believed to be the monument for an earlier king than Midas. In the nineteenth century, at Midas Sehri, another "Tomb of Midas" was discovered. The name was given on the basis of the word "Mida", identified in incompletely translated Phrygian inscriptions. That "tomb" is no longer believed to be a tomb, but rather a sacred site to Cybele. Myth Once, as Ovid relates in Metamorphoses XI On-line text at Theoi.com Dionysus found his old schoolmaster and foster father, the satyr Silenus, missing. This myth appears in a fragment of Aristotle, Eudemus, (fr.6); Pausanias was aware that Midas mixed water with wine to capture Silenus (Description of Greece 1.4.1); a muddled version is recounted in Flavius Philostratus' Life of Apollonius of Tyana, vi.27: "Midas himself had some of the blood of satyrs in his veins, as was clear from the shape of his ears; and a satyr once, trespassing on his kinship with Midas, made merry at the expense of his ears, not only singing about them, but piping about them. Well, Midas, I understand, had heard from his mother that when a satyr is overcome by wine he falls asleep, and at such times comes to his senses and will make friends with you; so he mixed wine which he had in his palace in a fountain and let the satyr get at it, and the latter drank it up and was overcome". The old satyr had been drinking wine and had wandered away drunk, later to be found by some Phrygian peasants, who carried him to their king, Midas (alternatively, he passed out in Midas' rose garden). Midas recognized him and treated him hospitably, entertaining him for ten days and nights with politeness, while Silenus entertained Midas and his friends with stories and songs. Aelian, Varia Historia iii.18 relates some of Silenus' accounts (Graves 1960:83.b.3). On the eleventh day, he brought Silenus back to Dionysus in Lydia. Dionysus offered Midas his choice of whatever reward he wished for. Midas asked that whatever he might touch should be changed into gold. Midas rejoiced in his new power, which he hastened to put to the test. He touched an oak twig and a stone; both turned to gold. Overjoyed, as soon as he got home, he ordered the servants to set a feast on the table. "So Midas, king of Lydia, swelled at first with pride when he found he could transform everything he touched to gold; but when he beheld his food grow rigid and his drink harden into golden ice then he understood that this gift was a bane and in his loathing for gold, cursed his prayer" (Claudian, In Rufinem). In a version told by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Hawthorne, Twice-Told Tales. Midas found that when he touched his daughter, she turned into a statue as well. Now, Midas hated the gift he had coveted. He prayed to Dionysus, begging to be delivered from starvation. Dionysus heard, and consented; he told Midas to wash in the river Pactolus. Midas did so, and when he touched the waters, the power flowed into the river, and the river sands turned into gold. This explained why the river Pactolus was so rich in gold, and the wealth of the dynasty claiming Midas as its forefather no doubt the impetus for this etiological myth (Graves). Gold was perhaps not the only metallic source of Midas' riches: "King Midas, a Phrygian, son of Cybele, first discovered black and white lead". Hyginus, Fabulae274 Midas, now hating wealth and splendor, moved to the country and became a worshipper of Pan, the god of the fields and satyr. This myth puts Midas in another setting. "Midas himself had some of the blood of satyrs in his veins, as was clear from the shape of his ears" was the assertion of Flavius Philostratus, in his Life of Apollonius of Tyana (vi.27), not always a dependable repository of myth. (on-line) Roman mythographers<ref>Cicero On Divinationi.36; Valerius Maximus, i.6.3; Ovid, Metamorphoses, xi.92f.</ref> asserted that his tutor in music was Orpheus. Once, Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and challenged Apollo, the god of the lyre, to a trial of skill (also see Marsyas). Tmolus, the mountain-god, was chosen as umpire. Pan blew on his pipes and, with his rustic melody, gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then, Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but one agreed with the judgment. Midas dissented, and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey. Hyginus, Fabulae 191. The myth is illustrated by two paintings, "Apollo and Marsyas" by Palma il Giovane (1544-1628), one depicting the scene before, and one after, the punishment. Midas was mortified at this mishap. He attempted to hide his misfortune under an ample turban or headdress, but his barber of course knew the secret, so was told not to mention it. However, the barber could not keep the secret; he went out into the meadow, dug a hole in the ground, whispered the story into it, then covered the hole up. A thick bed of reeds later sprang up in the meadow, and began whispering the story, saying "King Midas has donkey's ears". The whispering sound of reeds is an ancient literary trope: the Sumerian Instructions of Shurppak (3rd millennium BCE) warn "The reed-beds are ......, they can hide (?) slander". (Instructions of Shuruppak, lines 92-93). Sarah Morris demonstrated (Morris 2004) that donkeys' ears were a Bronze Age royal attribute, borne by King Tarkasnawa (Greek Tarkondemos) of Mira, on a seal inscribed in both Hittite cuneiform and Luwian hieroglyphs: in this connection, the myth would appear to justify for Greeks the exotic attribute. See also The tales of King Midas have been told by others with some variations: John Dryden; in the Wife of Bath's Tale, by Geoffrey Chaucer, making Midas' queen Demodike (or Hermodike) of Kymi; Aristotle, Eudemus fr. 611, 37; Pollux 9, 83, Greek language reference ) the betrayer of the secret. Berecynthian Hero (after Mount Berecynthus in Phrygia). Midas touch, see Grey goo effect and Ice-nine. Notes References Graves, Robert, 1960. The Greek Myths'', rev. ed., 83.a-g. Sarah Morris, "Midas as Mule: Anatolia in Greek Myth and Phrygian Kingship" (abstract), American Philological Society Annual Meeting, 2004. (University of Pennsylvania) "The Funerary feast of King Midas" "Tomb of Midas" report Calos Parada, "Midas" Separating historical Midas from mythical Midas. Herodotus on Midas Theoi.com Classical references to Midas, in English translations. | Midas |@lemmatized midas:56 king:16 greek:9 μίδας:1 popularly:2 remember:1 ability:1 turn:4 everything:2 touch:8 gold:9 alchemy:1 transmutation:1 object:1 know:3 chrysopoeia:1 reign:1 name:2 gordias:6 alternate:1 historic:1 phrygia:5 herodotus:5 tell:6 anecdote:1 adrastus:2 son:7 court:1 croesus:1 pessinus:1 city:1 child:1 adopt:2 cybele:4 goddess:2 whose:1 consort:1 account:3 mother:2 phrygian:5 hyginus:3 fabulae:2 place:3 youth:1 macedonian:4 bermion:2 bromium:1 graf:4 tradition:1 migration:1 european:1 macedon:3 anatolia:2 examine:1 purely:1 literary:2 construction:1 peter:1 carrington:1 heroic:1 age:3 ancient:4 literature:1 art:1 anatolian:2 study:1 thracian:1 mygdonia:2 become:4 part:1 historical:2 time:2 garden:6 rose:3 histories:1 remark:1 settlement:1 slope:1 mount:2 call:1 grow:2 bearing:1 sixty:1 blossom:1 surpass:1 fragrance:1 accord:2 silenos:1 take:2 captive:1 identify:3 aegae:2 many:2 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3,602 | Mandriva_Linux | Mandriva Linux showing the menu and the control panel (in French) Mandriva Linux (formerly Mandrakelinux or Mandrake Linux) is an operating system created by Mandriva (formerly Mandrakesoft). It uses the RPM Package Manager. The product lifetime of Mandriva Linux releases is 18 months for base updates (kernel, drivers etc.) and 12 months for desktop updates (window managers, desktop environments, web browsers etc.) . Server products receive full updates for at least 24 months after their release. History The first release was based on Red Hat Linux (version 5.1) and KDE (version 1.0) in July 1998. It has since diverged greatly from Red Hat and has included a number of original tools mostly to ease system configuration. Mandriva Linux was originated by Gaël Duval, and intended to focus on ease of use for new users. Duval was also a co-founder of Mandrakesoft, but was laid off from the company in 2006. Name changes From its inception to version 8.0, Mandrake named its flagship distribution Linux-Mandrake. From version 8.1 to 9.2 it was called Mandrake Linux. In February 2004 MandrakeSoft lost a court case against Hearst Corporation, owners of King Features Syndicate. Hearst contended that MandrakeSoft infringed upon King Features' trademarked character Mandrake the Magician. As a precaution, MandrakeSoft renamed its products by removing the space between the brand name and the product name and changing the first letter of the product name to lower case, thus creating one word. Starting from version 10.0, Mandrake Linux became known as Mandrakelinux, and its logo changed accordingly. Similarly, MandrakeMove became Mandrakemove. In April 2005 Mandrakesoft announced the corporate acquisition of Conectiva, a Brazilian based company that produced a Linux distribution for Portuguese-speaking (Brazil) and Spanish-speaking Latin America. As a result of this acquisition and the legal dispute with Hearst Corporation, Mandrakesoft announced that the new company name would be Mandriva, and that Mandriva Linux would be the new name covering products. Features The major features of Mandriva Linux are: Installation, control and administration Mandriva Linux contains the Mandriva Control Center, which eases configuration of some settings. It has many programs known as Drakes or Draks, collectively named drakxtools, to configure many different settings. Examples include MouseDrake to set up a mouse, DiskDrake to set up disk partitions and drakconnect to set up a network connection. They are written using GTK+ and Perl, and most of them can run in both graphical and text mode using the ncurses interface. Desktops Mandriva Linux uses KDE or GNOME as the standard desktops, but also includes others such as Xfce and twm. Themes A unique theme provides consistency between applications and desktop environments. Mandrakegalaxy debuted in version 9.1 and Mandrakegalaxy II appeared in 10.0. A variant of Mandrakegalaxy is "Mandrakegalaxy Squared", which uses square window buttons rather than round ones. A new default theme named "Ia Ora" was introduced with the release of Mandriva Linux 2007, but "Galaxy" remains available as an option for those who prefer it. Package manager Rpmdrake, Mandriva's graphical package manager Mandriva Linux uses a package manager called urpmi, which functions as a wrapper to the RPM package management system. It is similar to apt-get or Yellow dog Updater, Modified in that it allows seamless installation of a given software package by automatically installing the other packages needed. It is also media-transparent due to its ability to retrieve packages from various media, including network/Internet, CD/DVD and local disk. Urpmi also has an easy-to-use graphical front-end called rpmdrake, which is integrated into the Mandriva Control Center. Remote sources for urpmi / rpmdrake can be added during the installation of recent Mandriva Linux versions. After installation, they can be added through an option in the Software Sources Manager, or by using console commands generated either manually or by one of several helper sites such as Easy URPMI. This functionality allows the user to choose some or all of the various software repositories available for their version of Mandriva Linux and can greatly expand the amount of software that the user can install through the urpmi system. Instructions on adding repositories and installing software can be found on the Mandriva Wiki. Live USB A Live USB of Mandriva Linux can be created manually or with UNetbootin. Availability Mandriva provides multiple editions of Linux. Some are freely-distributable, while others are sold online and via a network of authorized resellers. Versions Since 2007, Mandriva is released on a 6-month fixed-release cycle, similar to Ubuntu and Fedora. However, while newer features are added per release, the base system of the Spring release are the same as the first release, so as to ensure the stability of a yearly release. Latest version The latest stable version is Mandriva Linux 2009 Spring (2009.1), released on 2009-04-29. Development version The development tree of Mandriva Linux has always been known as Cooker. This tree is directly released as a new stable version. The current release is named 2009.1 Spring and was released in April 2009. Table of versions Year Number Name19985.1Venice19985.2Leeloo19995.3Festen19996.0Venus19996.1Helios20007.0Air20007.1Helium20007.2Odyssey (called Ulysses during beta)20018.0Traktopel20018.1Vitamin20028.2Bluebird20029.0Dolphin20039.1Bamboo20039.2FiveStar200410.0Community and Official200410.1Community200410.1Official200510.2Limited Edition 200520052006.0Mandriva Linux 200620062007Mandriva Linux 200720072007.1Mandriva Linux 2007 Spring20072008.0Mandriva Linux 200820082008.1Mandriva Linux 2008 Spring20082009.0Mandriva Linux 200920092009.1Mandriva Linux 2009 Spring Editions Each release of Mandriva Linux is split into several different editions. Each edition is derived from the same master tree, most of which is available on the public mirrors: all free / open source software, and all non-free software which is under a license that allows unrestricted distribution to the general public, is available from the public mirrors. Only commercial software under a license that does not allow unrestricted distribution to the general public (but for which Mandriva has negotiated an agreement to distribute it with paid copies) is not available from public mirrors. Current Mandriva Linux Free Mandriva Linux Free is a 'traditional' distribution (i.e. one that comes with a dedicated installer, named DrakX, which is first used to install the distribution to the hard disk of the computer before it is run). It is 'free' in both senses: it consists entirely of free and open-source software, and it is made available for public download at no charge. It is usually available in CD (three or four discs) and DVD editions for x86 32- and 64-bit CPU architectures. It is aimed at users to whom software freedom is important, and also at users who prefer a traditional installer to the installable live CD system used by One. The package selection is tailored towards regular desktop use. It consists of a subset of packages from the 'main' and 'contrib' sections of the master tree. Mandriva Linux One 100|Mandriva Linux One's Live CD Mandriva Linux One is free to download. It is a hybrid, being both a Live CD and an installer (with an installation wizard that includes disk partitioning tools). Several Mandriva Linux One versions were provided for each Mandriva Linux release preceding Mandriva 2008. Users could choose between different human languages, select either the KDE or GNOME desktops and include or exclude non-free (as in speech) software. (It is not possible to fit both KDE and GNOME desktops, or more than a few languages, on a single live CD.) The 'lead' version is the KDE version with non-free software included. The One images consist of a subset of packages from the 'main', 'contrib' and 'non-free' sections of the master tree, with the documentation files stripped from the packages to save space. Mandriva Linux One 2008 has a smaller range of versions. There are KDE and GNOME versions with the default set of languages. There are also two KDE versions with alternative sets of languages. All versions include non-free software. Mandriva Linux Powerpack Mandriva Linux Powerpack is a 'traditional' distribution (i.e. one that comes with a dedicated installer - named DrakX - which is first used to install the distribution to the hard disk of the computer before it is run). It is the main commercial edition of Mandriva Linux, and as such, requires payment for its use. It contains several non-free packages intended to add value for the end user, including non-free drivers like the NVIDIA and ATI graphics card drivers, non-free firmware for wireless chips and modems, some browser plugins such as Java and Flash, and some full applications such as Cedega, Adobe Reader and RealPlayer. It is sold directly from the Mandriva Store website and through authorized resellers. It is also made available via a subscription service, which allows unlimited downloads of Powerpack editions for the last few Mandriva releases for a set yearly fee. It consists of a subset of packages from the 'main', 'contrib', 'non-free' and 'restricted' sections of the master tree. In Mandriva Linux 2008, the Discovery and Powerpack+ editions have been merged into Powerpack, which will become Mandriva's only commercial offering. Users will be able to choose between a novice-friendly Discovery-like setup or an installation process and desktop aimed at power users. Discontinued Mandriva Linux Discovery Mandriva Linux Discovery was a commercial distribution aimed at first-time and novice Linux users. It was sold via the Mandriva Store website and authorized resellers, or could be downloaded by some subscribers to the Mandriva Club. Mandriva Linux 2008 does not include a Discovery edition, having added optional novice-friendly features to the Powerpack edition. In releases prior to Mandriva Linux 2007, Discovery was a 'traditional' distribution built on the DrakX installer. In Mandriva Linux 2007 and 2007 Spring, Discovery is a hybrid "Live DVD" which can be booted without installation or installed to hard disk in the traditional manner. Discovery was a DVD rather than a CD, allowing all languages to be provided on one disc. It consisted of a subset of packages from the 'main', 'contrib', 'non-free' and 'non-free-restricted' sections of the master tree. The package selection was tailored towards novice desktop users. A theme chosen to be appealing to novice users was used, and the 'simplified' menu layout in which applications are described rather than named and not all applications are included was the default (for all other editions, the default menu layout was the 'traditional' layout, where all graphical applications installed on the system were included and were listed by name). Mandriva Linux Powerpack+ Mandriva Linux Powerpack+ was a version of Powerpack with additional packages, mostly commercial software. Like Powerpack, it was sold directly from the Mandriva Store website and through authorized resellers; it was also a free download for Mandriva Club members of the Gold level and above. Powerpack+ was aimed at SOHO (small office / home office) users, with the expectation that it could be used to run a small home or office server machine as well as desktop and development workstations. The package selection was tailored with this in mind, including a wide range of server packages. It consisted of a subset of packages from the 'main', 'contrib', 'non-free' and 'restricted' sections of the master tree. Mandriva 2008 no longer includes a Powerpack+ edition; instead, the Powerpack edition includes all the available packages. Derivatives Derivatives are distributions that are based on Mandriva Linux, some by Mandriva itself, others by independent projects. Some maintain compatibility with Mandriva Linux, so that installing a Mandriva Linux RPM also works on the offspring. Current Mandriva Flash Mandriva Flash is a pre-installed Mandriva Linux distribution on a 8GB USB key. http://store.mandriva.com/product_info.php?products_id=394&language=en 1st of August 2008 The user can choose how much space is used for system files and how much is reserved for user files. An earlier version of Mandriva Flash was 4GB and before that 2GB in size with fixed ratios. It can be booted directly from the key on systems that support booting from USB devices, or from a 'kickstart' CD (the image for the CD is provided with the Flash) on systems that do not. Flash runs faster than live CDs due to the relative speed of flash memory, and the read/write nature of the medium allows users to save files, configuration options and even to install new packages. Mandriva Corporate Server Mandriva Corporate Server is a distribution specifically tailored for enterprise-level general purpose server usage. Development is started from the basis of a previous Mandriva Linux release, with the package selection altered, important packages updated, certain extra configuration tools and applications added, and some extra support for enterprise-level hardware. The maintenance lifetime of each release is five years. The current release of Corporate Server is 4.0. Mandriva Corporate Desktop Mandriva Corporate Desktop is the desktop counterpart to Corporate Server. Again it is based on a Mandriva Linux release with enterprise-specific modifications and a five-year maintenance lifetime. The current release of Corporate Desktop is 4.0. Discontinued Multi Network Firewall Linux Mandrake 7.2 had a version tailored specifically for use as a firewall, known as Single Network Firewall (SNF). Its successor, based on Mandrake 8.2, was titled Multi Network Firewall (MNF). The third iteration is named MNF 2 and is based upon Mandrakelinux 10.0. These firewall distributions are designed to provide security for computer networks, and can be administered remotely via a browser-based interface or Secure Shell. MNF 2 is now counted as part of the Corporate product line and can only be bought, with support, from Mandriva. GlobeTrotter GlobeTrotter is a LaCie mobile USB drive loaded with a specific version of Mandriva Linux. Like Move, it can boot most PCs into Linux without installing first. The 40 GB hard drive makes it a convenient way to carry a Linux workstation around. GlobeTrotter was launched in August 2003 and can be ordered through Mandriva's online store. It is now superseded by Mandriva Flash and Linutop. Gaming Edition Mandrake Linux 8.1 had a Gaming Edition, which was a game oriented Linux distribution. It had a port of The Sims using the Transgaming WineX technology. CLIC CLIC (aka Cluster LInux pour le Calcul) is a dedicated version of Mandrakelinux created by MandrakeSoft specifically for clustering environments. It was sponsored by the RNTL, other partners were ID-IMAG, Groupe Bull and Mandrakesoft. This project's aim was to produce a HPC Linux Distribution for 32- and 64-bit processors. The objective of project CLIC was to allow the realization of large scientific computers while being based on free software. The objective consists of the realization a Linux distribution for clusters of machines, meeting the needs for deployment, administration and programming of clusters within the framework of exploitation for intensive calculation. It features an automated installation of a full cluster using the Ka tools, urpmi and the clusterscripts. This project was finished on 1 December 2003 and Mandrakesoft decided to continue that project with a product called Mandrake Linux Clustering. This product included Drakcluster (GUI) for improved usability. It was dedicated to the HPC market but it could also be used (with some modifications) to all kinds of clusters (such as High Availability, applicative or grid). It features parallel commands (bash, copying tools), deployment (disks), software upgrade/downgrade (urpmi parallel), monitoring (ganglia), etc. Clustering was available on x86 and x86-64 architectures. Mandrake Move A LiveMove is the set formed by a Live CD and a bootfloppy or USB flash drive. Mandrake Move was a Mandriva product that benefits from a Mandrake Linux Live CD which doesn't need to be installed to run on a computer, and a USB key that automatically records bootloader, hardware configuration and personal data. The first version of Mandrake Move was released in December 2003 (but only distributed to customers in January 2004, due to production delays). It brought two main innovations compared to competitors: ability to eject the cdrom if the machine has 256 MB of RAM or more (Knoppix also can, but needs to copy the whole cdrom into RAM, therefore needs a machine with 1 GB of RAM or more), and continue to operate in a "downgraded" mode allowing only to play multimedia files transparent save of any user modification of his/her own files and system configuration files, if operated with a USB key The second version, now simply called Move, was released in October 2004. Hardware support and stability have seen much improvement. Move is now superseded by Mandriva One and Mandriva Flash. See also MCNLive, a fork PCLinuxOS, a fork Unity Linux, another fork References External links Mandriva Linux | Mandriva_Linux |@lemmatized mandriva:76 linux:69 show:1 menu:3 control:4 panel:1 french:1 formerly:2 mandrakelinux:4 mandrake:14 operating:1 system:11 create:4 mandrakesoft:10 use:20 rpm:3 package:24 manager:6 product:10 lifetime:3 release:25 month:4 base:10 update:4 kernel:1 driver:3 etc:3 desktop:14 window:2 environment:3 web:1 browser:3 server:8 receive:1 full:3 least:1 history:1 first:8 red:2 hat:2 version:28 kde:7 july:1 since:2 diverge:1 greatly:2 include:16 number:2 original:1 tool:5 mostly:2 ease:3 configuration:6 originate:1 gaël:1 duval:2 intend:2 focus:1 new:7 user:17 also:12 co:1 founder:1 lay:1 company:3 name:15 change:3 inception:1 flagship:1 distribution:17 call:6 february:1 lose:1 court:1 case:2 hearst:3 corporation:2 owner:1 king:2 feature:8 syndicate:1 contend:1 infringe:1 upon:2 trademarked:1 character:1 magician:1 precaution:1 rename:1 remove:1 space:3 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home:2 expectation:1 machine:4 well:1 workstation:2 mind:1 wide:1 longer:1 instead:1 derivative:2 independent:1 project:5 maintain:1 compatibility:1 work:1 offspring:1 pre:1 key:4 http:1 com:1 php:1 en:1 august:2 much:3 reserve:1 early:1 size:1 fixed:1 ratio:1 support:4 device:1 kickstart:1 faster:1 relative:1 speed:1 memory:1 read:1 nature:1 even:1 specifically:3 enterprise:3 purpose:1 usage:1 basis:1 previous:1 alter:1 certain:1 extra:2 hardware:3 maintenance:2 five:2 counterpart:1 specific:2 modification:3 multi:2 firewall:5 snf:1 successor:1 title:1 mnf:3 third:1 iteration:1 design:1 security:1 administer:1 remotely:1 secure:1 shell:1 count:1 part:1 line:1 buy:1 globetrotter:3 lacie:1 mobile:1 drive:3 load:1 move:6 pc:1 gb:2 convenient:1 way:1 carry:1 around:1 launch:1 order:1 supersede:2 linutop:1 game:2 gaming:1 orient:1 port:1 sims:1 transgaming:1 winex:1 technology:1 clic:3 aka:1 cluster:7 pour:1 le:1 calcul:1 sponsor:1 rntl:1 partner:1 id:1 imag:1 groupe:1 bull:1 hpc:2 processor:1 objective:2 realization:2 large:1 scientific:1 consists:1 meet:1 deployment:2 programming:1 within:1 framework:1 exploitation:1 intensive:1 calculation:1 automated:1 ka:1 clusterscripts:1 finish:1 december:2 decide:1 continue:2 drakcluster:1 gui:1 improve:1 usability:1 market:1 kind:1 high:1 applicative:1 grid:1 parallel:2 bash:1 copying:1 disks:1 upgrade:1 downgrade:2 monitoring:1 ganglia:1 clustering:1 livemove:1 form:1 bootfloppy:1 benefit:1 record:1 bootloader:1 personal:1 data:1 customer:1 january:1 production:1 delay:1 bring:1 innovation:1 compare:1 competitor:1 eject:1 cdrom:2 mb:1 ram:3 knoppix:1 whole:1 therefore:1 operate:2 play:1 multimedia:1 second:1 simply:1 october:1 see:2 improvement:1 mcnlive:1 fork:3 pclinuxos:1 unity:1 another:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram mandriva_linux:43 mandrake_linux:6 web_browser:1 kde_gnome:4 main_contrib:5 gnome_desktop:2 contrib_non:4 powerpack_edition:5 mandriva_flash:5 groupe_bull:1 usb_flash:1 mb_ram:1 external_link:1 |
3,603 | Mobil | Mobil logoMobil gas station East Village section of New York City Mobil was a major American oil company which merged with Exxon in 1999 to form ExxonMobil. Today Mobil continues as a major brand name within the combined company. Its former headquarters in Fairfax, Virginia, are currently used as ExxonMobil's downstream headquarters. Mobil Corporation Headquarters History Following the break-up of Standard Oil in 1911 the Standard Oil Company of New York or Socony was founded, along with 33 other successor companies. In 1920 the company registered the name "Mobiloil" as a trademark. Henry Clay Folger was head of the company until 1923, when he was succeeded by Herbert L. Pratt. Beginning February 29, 1928 on NBC, Socony Oil reached radio listeners with a comedy program, Soconyland Sketches, scripted by William Ford Manley and featuring Arthur Allen and Parker Fennelly as rural New Englanders. Socony continued to sponsor the show when it moved to CBS (1934-35). In 1931, Socony merged with Vacuum Oil to form Socony-Vacuum. In 1955, Socony-Vacuum was renamed Socony Mobil Oil Company. In 1963, it changed its trade name from "Mobilgas" to simply "Mobil", introducing a new logo. To celebrate its 100th anniversary in 1966, "Socony" was dropped from the corporate name. The Mobil Economy Run generated publicity and promotions such as this 1962 advertisement by Champion spark plugs with a Rambler American. From 1936 to 1968, Mobil sponsored an economy run each year (except during World War II) in which domestic automobiles of various manufacturers in several price and size classes were driven by light-footed drivers on cross-country runs. The Economy Run originated with the Gilmore Oil Company of California in 1936 (which was purchased by Socony-Vacuum in 1940) and later became the Mobilgas Economy Run and still later, the Mobil Economy Run. The cars driven in the economy run were fueled with Mobil gasoline and Mobiloil and lubricants were also used. The vehicles in each class that achieved the highest fuel economy numbers were awarded the coveted title as the Mobilgas Economy Run winner. Through the years, Mobil was among the largest sellers of gasoline and motor oils in the United States and even held the top spot during the 1940s and much of the 1950s. Various Mobil products during the Socony-Vacuum and Socony-Mobil years included Metro, Mobilgas and Mobilgas Special gasolines; Mobilfuel Diesel, Mobil-flame heating oil, Mobil Kerosine, Lubrite, Gargoyle, Mobiloil and Mobiloil Special motor oils; Mobilgrease, Mobillubrication, Mobil Upperlube, Mobil Freezone and Permazone antifreezes, Mobilfluid automatic transmission fluid, Mobil Premiere tires, Mobil Stop-Leak, Mobil Lustrecloth, among many others. In 1954, Mobil introduced a new and improved Mobilgas Special in response to trends toward new automobiles powered by high-compression engines that demanded higher and higher octane gasolines. The newest formulas of Mobilgas Special was advertised as offering "A Tune-Up in Every Tankful" due to a combination of chemicals known as the "Mobil Power Compound" which was designed to increase power, check pre-ignition ping, correct spark plug misfiring, control stalling and combat gumming up of carburetors. Later Mobil campaigns advertised Mobilgas as the "New Car Gasoline" following extensive testing during the annual Mobilgas Economy Run. A Mobil Handy Mart petrol station in Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia In 1962, the gasoline product lines marketed as Mobilgas and Mobilgas Special were rebranded as Mobil Regular and Mobil Premium in a move to emphasize the shortened brand name "Mobil" in promotional efforts although Mobiloil continued as a single word term until the 1970s. After a few years of advertising Mobil gasolines as "Megatane"-rated and as "High Energy" gasolines, Mobil in 1966 began promoting both its Regular and Premium fuels as "Detergent Gasolines" due to additives designed to clean carburetors and various internal engine parts. During the early 1970s, Mobil ran a TV commercial featuring a character known as Mr. Dirt to show the ruinous effects that dirt had on automotive engines for which a tank of Mobil Detergent Gasoline could provide a cure and preventive medicine against damage that could lead to costly repairs. Speaking of detergent gasolines, as automakers were switching en masse from carbureted to fuel injected engines during the early to mid 1980s and detergent additives which existed in most available gasolines were insufficient to prevent injection clogging leading to drivability problems, Mobil received accolades from General Motors and other automakers for increasing the detergency of its Super Unleaded gasoline in 1984 to prevent formation or deposit build-ups of the injectors but also remove existing deposits as well in normal driving. At the end of the 1980s Mobil sold its fuel stations in Norway, Sweden and Denmark to Norsk Hydro, who converted them into Hydro stations. William P. Tavoulareas was President of Mobil Corporation until succeeded by Allen E. Murray in 1984. In 1998 Mobil and Exxon agreed on a merger to create ExxonMobil, which was completed on November 30, 1999. Lou Noto was Chairman of Mobil at the time of the merger. When Exxon Corporation merged with Mobil Corporation in 1999, the newly-merged company ended enrollment in Mobil Corporation's domestic partner benefits for same-sex partners of employees, and it rescinded formal prohibitions against discrimination based on sexual orientation by removing it from the company's Equal Employment Opportunity policy. Mobil brands Mobil continues to operate as a major brandname of ExxonMobil. Many of its products feature the Mobil symbol of a winged red horse, Pegasus, which has been a company trademark since its affiliation with Magnolia Petroleum Company in the 1930s. Mobil encompasses three brands: Mobil A typical Mobil gas station Mobil Pegasus logo The wider Mobil brand encompasses the Mobil service station and fuel (gasoline, diesel, heating oil, kerosene, aviation fuels and marine fuel) divisions. The Mobil brand also covers the wide range of lubricants (commercial & industrial, aviation and marine). Mobil 1 Mobil 1 is a brand name of ExxonMobil. It was introduced in 1974 as a 5w-20 viscosity synthetic motor oil. The brand now includes - along with motor oils - oil filters, synthetic grease, transmission fluids, and gear lubricants . It is the GM warranty requirement for the Chevrolet Corvette. Mobil Delvac Mobil Delvac is a range of heavy-duty lubricants; including engines oils, drivetrain lubricants and greases. Lukoil Transaction In 2000, Lukoil purchased the remaining assets of Getty Oil, and began opening Lukoil stations in the US in 2003. Most of the US Lukoil locations are converted Getty stations, although some are also converted Mobil stations bought from ConocoPhillips when that company left the Northeast. In Spring 2004, Lukoil purchased 779 Mobil gas stations throughout New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and in 2005 began converting them to the Lukoil brand. All New Jersey Mobil locations were converted to Lukoil stations. Mobil UK Vacuum Oil Company started selling lubricating oils in Europe in the late 19th century. By the 1930s its Mobiloil had become one of the main brands. Mobil gradually expanded its operation into fuels retailing as well, and opened its first UK service stations in the early 1950s, after the wartime POOL monopoly was disbanded. Mobil grew to become the seventh largest brand of petrol in Britain supplying 1,990 outlets in 1965, and claimed in the mid-1960s to be the first company to operate 100 self-service stations. As well as its downstream interests, Mobil was active in the North Sea and operated an oil refinery in Coryton (opened in 1953), on the Thames estuary. In 1996, Mobil's fuels operations in Europe were placed into a joint venture 70% owned by BP and the Mobil brand disappeared from service stations. Mobil continued to sell lubricants through BP and independent service stations. Following Mobil's merger with Exxon, at the start of 2000 BP acquired all the petrol retailing assets as well as the Coryton refinery (but sold it to Petroplus in 2007). Mobil returned to being purely a lubricant brand in Europe, and became the premium quality oil on sale at Esso service stations. Mobil Australia The Vacuum Oil Company began operating in Australia in 1895, introducing its Plume brand of petrol in 1916. The Flying Red Horse logo was introduced in 1939, and in 1954 the Plume brand was replaced by Mobilgas. Mobil constructed its Altona refinery in Melbourne in 1946, originally producing lubricating oils and bitumen, before producing motor vehicle fuels in 1956. A second refinery at Port Stanvac, south of Adelaide, came on stream in 1963, before being closed in 2003. Mobil has no position on whether the refinery will reopen. Jamieson oil industry history In 1990 Mobil acquired the service station network of Esso Australia. On 27th May 2009, Caltex Oil Australia Ltd. announced it would be acquiring 301 Mobil service stations in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Adelaide, subject to approval of the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25545618-5013408,00.html References External links Exxon Mobil Corporate Website Mobil Official Website Mobil Travel Guide | Mobil |@lemmatized mobil:72 logomobil:1 gas:3 station:18 east:1 village:1 section:1 new:11 york:2 city:1 major:3 american:2 oil:24 company:16 merge:4 exxon:5 form:2 exxonmobil:5 today:1 continue:5 brand:15 name:6 within:1 combined:1 former:1 headquarters:3 fairfax:1 virginia:1 currently:1 use:2 downstream:2 corporation:5 history:2 follow:3 break:1 standard:2 socony:11 found:1 along:2 successor:1 register:1 mobiloil:6 trademark:2 henry:1 clay:1 folger:1 head:1 succeed:2 herbert:1 l:1 pratt:1 begin:5 february:1 nbc:1 reach:1 radio:1 listener:1 comedy:1 program:1 soconyland:1 sketch:1 script:1 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travel:1 guide:1 |@bigram celebrate_anniversary:1 spark_plug:2 octane_gasoline:1 wagga_wagga:1 preventive_medicine:1 en_masse:1 receive_accolade:1 norsk_hydro:1 sexual_orientation:1 gasoline_diesel:1 chevrolet_corvette:1 oil_refinery:1 thames_estuary:1 joint_venture:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 exxon_mobil:1 |
3,604 | Liar_paradox | In philosophy and logic, the liar paradox, known to the ancients as the pseudomenon, encompasses paradoxical statements such as "This sentence is false." or "The next sentence is false. The previous sentence is true." These statements are paradoxical because there is no way to assign them a consistent truth value. If "This sentence is false" is true, then what it says is the case; but what it says is that it is false, hence it is false. On the other hand, if it is false, then what it says is not the case; thus, since it says that it is false, it must be true. History Generally attributed to Epimenides, the original version of the Liar's Paradox was actually devised in the fourth century BC by Greek philosopher Eubulides. Epimenides is rather a fictional speaker in the dialogue in which the Liar's Paradox first makes its appearance. The fictional speaker Epimenides, a Cretan, reportedly stated: The Cretans are always liars. The paradox is often considered equivalent or interchangeable with the liar paradox, but they are not the same. The liar paradox is a statement that cannot consistently be true or false, while Epimenides' statement is simply false, as long as there exists at least one Cretan who has told the truth at least once. It is unlikely that Epimenides intended his words to be understood as a kind of liar paradox, and they were probably only understood as such much later in history. The oldest known version of the liar paradox is instead attributed to the Greek philosopher Eubulides of Miletus who lived in the fourth century BC. It is very unlikely that he knew of Epimenides's words, even if they were intended as a paradox. Eubulides reportedly asked: A man says that he is lying. Is what he says true or false? Explanation of the paradox and variants The problem of the liar paradox is that it seems to show that common beliefs about truth and falsity actually lead to a contradiction. Sentences can be constructed that cannot consistently be assigned a truth value even though they are completely in accord with grammar and semantic rules. The simplest version of the paradox is the sentence: This statement is false. (A) If the statement is true, everything asserted in it must be true. However, because the statement asserts that it is itself false, it must be false. So the hypothesis that it is true leads to the contradiction that it is false. Yet the sentence cannot be false for that hypothesis also leads to contradiction. If the statement is false, then what it says about itself is not true. It says that it is false, so that must not be true. Hence, it is true. Under either hypothesis, the statement is both true and false. However, that the liar sentence can be shown to be true if it is false and false if it is true has led some to conclude that it is neither true nor false. This response to the paradox is, in effect, to reject the common beliefs about truth and falsity: the claim that every statement has to abide by the principle of bivalence, a concept related to the law of the excluded middle. The proposal that the statement is neither true nor false has given rise to the following, strengthened version of the paradox: This statement is not true. (B) If (B) is neither true nor false, then it must be not true. Since this is what (B) itself states, it means that (B) must be true and so one is led to another paradox. Another reaction to the paradox of (A) is to posit, as Graham Priest has, that the statement follows paraconsistent logic and is both true and false. Nevertheless, even Priest's analysis is susceptible to the following version of the liar: This statement is only false. (C) If (C) is both true and false then it must be true. This means that (C) is only false, since that is what it says, but then it cannot be true, creating another paradox. Non-paradoxes The statement "I always lie" is often considered to be a version of the liar paradox, but is not actually paradoxical. It could be the case that the statement itself is a lie, because the speaker sometimes tells the truth, and this interpretation does not lead to a contradiction. The belief that this is a paradox results from a false dichotomy - that either the speaker always lies, or always tells the truth - when it is possible that the speaker occasionally does both. Possible resolutions Alfred Tarski Alfred Tarski diagnosed the paradox as arising only in languages that are "semantically closed" by which he meant a language in which it is possible for one sentence to predicate truth (or falsehood) of another sentence in the same language (or even of itself). To avoid self-contradiction, it is necessary when discussing truth values to envision levels of languages, each of which can predicate truth (or falsehood) only of languages at a lower level. So, when one sentence refers to the truth-value of another, it is semantically higher. The sentence referred to is part of the "object language," while the referring sentence is considered to be a part of a "meta-language" with respect to the object language. It is legitimate for sentences in "languages" higher on the semantic hierarchy to refer to sentences lower in the "language" hierarchy, but not the other way around. This prevents a system from becoming self-referential. A. N. Prior A. N. Prior asserts that there is nothing paradoxical about the liar paradox. His claim (which he attributes to Charles Sanders Peirce and John Buridan) is that every statement includes an implicit assertion of its own truth. Thus, for example, the statement "It is true that two plus two equals four" contains no more information than the statement "two plus two equals four," because the phrase "it is true that..." is always implicitly there. And in the self-referential spirit of the Liar Paradox, the phrase "it is true that..." is equivalent to "this whole statement is true and ...". Thus the following two statements are equivalent: This statement is false This statement is true and this statement is false. The latter is a simple contradiction of the form "A and not A", and hence is false. There is therefore no paradox because the claim that this two-conjunct Liar is false does not lead to a contradiction. Eugene Mills Mills, Eugene (1998) ‘A simple solution to the Liar’, Philosophical Studies 89: 197-212. and Neil Lefebvre and Melissa Schelein Lefebvre, N. and Schelein, M., "The Liar Lied," in Philosophy Now issue 51 present similar answers. Saul Kripke Saul Kripke points out that whether a sentence is paradoxical or not can depend upon contingent facts. If the only thing Smith says about Jones is A majority of what Jones says about me is false. and Jones says only these three things about Smith: Smith is a big spender. Smith is soft on crime. Everything Smith says about me is true. and Smith really is a big spender but is not soft on crime, then both Smith's remark about Jones and Jones's last remark about Smith are paradoxical. Kripke proposes a solution in the following manner. If a statement's truth value is ultimately tied up in some evaluable fact about the world, that statement is "grounded". If not, that statement is "ungrounded". Ungrounded statements do not have a truth value. Liar statements and liar-like statements are ungrounded, and therefore have no truth value. Barwise and Etchemendy Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy propose that the liar sentence (which they interpret as synonymous with the Strengthened Liar) is ambiguous. They base this conclusion on a distinction they make between a "denial" and a "negation". If the liar means "It is not the case that this statement is true" then it is denying itself. If it means "This statement is not true" then it is negating itself. They go on to argue, based on their theory of "situational semantics", that the "denial liar" can be true without contradiction while the "negation liar" can be false without contradiction. Dialetheism Graham Priest and other logicians have proposed that the liar sentence should be considered to be both true and false, a point of view known as dialetheism. In a dialetheic logic, all statements must be either true, or false, or both. Dialetheism raises its own problems. Chief among these is that since dialetheism recognizes the liar paradox, an intrinsic contradiction, as being true, it must discard the long-recognized principle of ex falso quodlibet, which asserts that any sentence whatsoever can be deduced from a true contradiction. Thus, dialetheism only makes sense in systems that reject ex falso quodlibet. Such logics are called paraconsistent. Logical structure of the liar paradox For a better understanding of the liar paradox, it is useful to write it down in a more formal way. If "this statement is false" is denoted by A and its truth value is being sought, it is necessary to find a condition that restricts the choice of possible truth values of A. Because A is self-referential it is possible to give the condition by an equation. If some statement, B, is assumed to be false, one writes B = false. The statement (C) that the statement B is false would be written as C = "B = false". Now, the liar paradox can be expressed as the statement A, that A is false: A = "A = false" This is an equation from which the truth value of A = "this statement is false" could hopefully be obtained. In the boolean domain "A = false" is equivalent to not A and therefore the equation is not solvable. This is the motivation for reinterpretation of A. The simplest logical approach to make the equation solvable is the dialetheistic approach, in which case the solution is a A being both "true" and "false". Other resolutions mostly include some modifications of the equation e.g. A. N. Prior claims that the equation should be A = "A = false" and "A = true" and therefore A is false. See also Quine's paradox Socratic paradox List of paradoxes Notes References Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy (1987) The Liar. Oxford University Press. Greenough, P.M., (2001) " ," American Philosophical Quarterly 38: Hughes, G.E., (1992) John Buridan on Self-Reference : Chapter Eight of Buridan's Sophismata, with a Translation, and Introduction, and a Philosophical Commentary, Cambridge Univ. Press, ISBN 0-521-28864-9. Buridan's detailed solution to a number of such paradoxes. Kirkham, Richard (1992) Theories of Truth. MIT Press. Especially chapter 9. Saul Kripke (1975) "An Outline of a Theory of Truth," Journal of Philosophy 72: 690-716. Lefebvre, Neil, and Schelein, Melissa (2005) "The Liar Lied," Philosophy Now issue 51. Graham Priest (1984) "The Logic of Paradox Revisited," Journal of Philosophical Logic 13: 153-179. A. N. Prior (1976) Papers in Logic and Ethics. Duckworth. Smullyan, Raymond (19nn) What is the Name of this Book?. ISBN 0-671-62832-1. A collection of logic puzzles exploring this theme. External links Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Liar Paradox" -- by Bradley Dowden. | Liar_paradox |@lemmatized philosophy:5 logic:8 liar:32 paradox:32 know:3 ancient:1 pseudomenon:1 encompass:1 paradoxical:6 statement:39 sentence:19 false:48 next:1 previous:1 true:39 way:3 assign:2 consistent:1 truth:20 value:10 say:13 case:5 hence:3 hand:1 thus:4 since:4 must:9 history:2 generally:1 attribute:3 epimenides:6 original:1 version:6 actually:3 devise:1 fourth:2 century:2 bc:2 greek:2 philosopher:2 eubulides:3 rather:1 fictional:2 speaker:5 dialogue:1 first:1 make:4 appearance:1 cretan:3 reportedly:2 state:2 always:5 often:2 consider:4 equivalent:4 interchangeable:1 cannot:4 consistently:2 simply:1 long:2 exist:1 least:2 one:5 tell:3 unlikely:2 intend:2 word:2 understand:1 kind:1 probably:1 understood:1 much:1 later:1 old:1 known:1 instead:1 miletus:1 live:1 even:4 ask:1 man:1 lie:6 explanation:1 variants:1 problem:2 seem:1 show:2 common:2 belief:3 falsity:2 lead:7 contradiction:11 construct:1 though:1 completely:1 accord:1 grammar:1 semantic:2 rule:1 simple:4 everything:2 assert:4 however:2 hypothesis:3 yet:1 also:2 either:3 conclude:1 neither:3 response:1 effect:1 reject:2 claim:4 every:2 abide:1 principle:2 bivalence:1 concept:1 relate:1 law:1 excluded:1 middle:1 proposal:1 give:2 rise:1 following:4 strengthen:2 b:8 mean:5 another:5 reaction:1 posit:1 graham:3 priest:4 follow:1 paraconsistent:2 nevertheless:1 analysis:1 susceptible:1 c:5 create:1 non:1 paradoxes:2 could:2 sometimes:1 interpretation:1 result:1 dichotomy:1 possible:5 occasionally:1 resolution:2 alfred:2 tarski:2 diagnose:1 arise:1 language:10 semantically:2 close:1 predicate:2 falsehood:2 avoid:1 self:5 necessary:2 discuss:1 envision:1 level:2 low:2 refers:1 high:2 refer:3 part:2 object:2 meta:1 respect:1 legitimate:1 hierarchy:2 around:1 prevent:1 system:2 become:1 referential:3 n:5 prior:4 nothing:1 charles:1 sander:1 peirce:1 john:4 buridan:4 include:2 implicit:1 assertion:1 example:1 two:6 plus:2 equal:2 four:2 contain:1 information:1 phrase:2 implicitly:1 spirit:1 whole:1 latter:1 form:1 therefore:4 conjunct:1 eugene:2 mill:2 solution:4 philosophical:4 study:1 neil:2 lefebvre:3 melissa:2 schelein:3 issue:2 present:1 similar:1 answer:1 saul:3 kripke:4 point:2 whether:1 depend:1 upon:1 contingent:1 fact:2 thing:2 smith:8 jones:5 majority:1 three:1 big:2 spender:2 soft:2 crime:2 really:1 remark:2 last:1 propose:3 manner:1 ultimately:1 tie:1 evaluable:1 world:1 ground:1 ungrounded:3 like:1 barwise:3 etchemendy:3 jon:2 interpret:1 synonymous:1 ambiguous:1 base:2 conclusion:1 distinction:1 denial:2 negation:2 deny:1 negate:1 go:1 argue:1 theory:3 situational:1 semantics:1 without:2 dialetheism:5 logician:1 view:1 dialetheic:1 raise:1 chief:1 among:1 recognize:2 intrinsic:1 discard:1 ex:2 falso:2 quodlibet:2 whatsoever:1 deduce:1 sense:1 call:1 logical:2 structure:1 good:1 understanding:1 useful:1 write:3 formal:1 denote:1 seek:1 find:1 condition:2 restrict:1 choice:1 equation:6 assume:1 would:1 express:1 hopefully:1 obtain:1 boolean:1 domain:1 solvable:2 motivation:1 reinterpretation:1 approach:2 dialetheistic:1 mostly:1 modification:1 e:2 g:2 see:1 quine:1 socratic:1 list:1 note:1 reference:2 oxford:1 university:1 press:3 greenough:1 p:1 american:1 quarterly:1 hughes:1 chapter:2 eight:1 sophismata:1 translation:1 introduction:1 commentary:1 cambridge:1 univ:1 isbn:2 detailed:1 number:1 kirkham:1 richard:1 mit:1 especially:1 outline:1 journal:2 revisit:1 paper:1 ethic:1 duckworth:1 smullyan:1 raymond:1 name:1 book:1 collection:1 puzzle:1 explore:1 theme:1 external:1 link:1 internet:1 encyclopedia:1 bradley:1 dowden:1 |@bigram liar_paradox:17 epimenides_cretan:1 truth_falsity:2 excluded_middle:1 false_dichotomy:1 alfred_tarski:2 truth_falsehood:2 self_referential:3 sander_peirce:1 saul_kripke:3 cambridge_univ:1 univ_press:1 external_link:1 |
3,605 | Finch | The true finches are passerine birds in the family Fringillidae. These mainly seed-eating songbirds are found mainly in the Southern Hemisphere, with one subfamily endemic to the Neotropics, one to the Hawaiian Islands, and one subfamily – monotypic at genus level – found only in the Palaearctic. The scientific name Fringillidae comes from the Latin word fringilla for the Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) – a member of that last subfamily – which is common in Europe. There are many birds in other families that are also called "finches". They are generally Passeroidea and thus not too distantly related to true finches. These "other" finches include many species in the very similar-looking waxbills (family Estrildidae) which occur in the Old World tropics and Australia, and several groups of the bunting and American sparrow family (Emberizidae) are also named as finches, as are Darwin's finches of the Galapagos islands, which provided evidence of natural selection and are now recognized to be peculiar tanagers (Thraupidae). Newton (1973), Clement et al. (1993) Description The "classical" true finches are small to moderately large and have strong, stubby beaks, which in some species can be quite large. Hawaiian honeycreepers are famous for the wide range of bill shapes and sizes brought about by adaptive radiation. All have 12 remiges and 9 primary rectrices. The true finches range in size from the Andean Siskin (Carduelis spinescens) at 9.5 cm (3.8 in) and 8.4 g (0.3 oz) to the Collared Grosbeak (Mycerobas affinis) with its nearly 23 cm (9 in) and 80 g (3 oz). The basic plumage colour is brownish, sometimes greenish; not a few have considerable amounts of black, while white plumage is generally absent except as wing-bars or other signalling marks. Bright yellow and red carotenoid pigments are commonplace in this family, and thus blue structural colours are rather rare, as the yellow pigments turn the blue color into green. Many, but by no means all true finches have strong sexual dichromatism, their females typically lacking the bright carotenoid markings of males. They are typically inhabitants of well-wooded areas, but some can be found on mountains or even in deserts. They are primarily granivorous, but euphoniines include considerable amounts of arthropods and berries in their diet, and Hawaiian honeycreepers evolved to utilize a wide range of food sources including nectar. The diet of Fringillidae nestlings includes a various amount of small arthropods. True finches have a bouncing flight like most small passerines, alternating bouts of flapping with gliding on closed wings. Most sing well and several are commonly-seen cagebirds; foremost among these is the domesticated Canary (Serinus canaria domestica). The nests are basket-shaped and usually built in trees, more rarely in bushes, between rocks or on similar substrate. Systematics and taxonomy The taxonomic structure of the true finch family, Fringillidae, has been fairly disputed in the past, with some upranking the Hawaiian honeycreepers (Drepanidinae) as family Drepanididae and/or uniting the cardueline and fringilline finches as tribes (Carduelini and Fringillini) in one subfamily; the euphonious finches (Euphoniinae) were thought to be tanagers due to general similarity in appearance and mode of life until their real affinities were realized. In particular North American authors have often have merged the buntings and American sparrow family (Emberizidae) – and sometimes the bulk of the nine-primaried oscines – with the split-up Fringillidae as subfamilies of a single massive family. But the current understanding of Passeroidea phylogeny is better reflected in keeping the fundamental nine-primaried oscine clades as distinct families. However, Przewalski's "Rosefinch" (Urocynchramus pylzowi) is now classified as a distinct family, monotypic as to genus and species, and with no particularly close relatives among the Passeroidea. Clement et al. (1993), Groth (2000), Jønsson & Fjeldså (2006), Arnaiz-Villena et al. (2007) Fossil remains of true finches are rare, and those that are known can mostly be assigned to extant genera at least. Like the other Passeroidea families, the true finches seem to be of roughly Middle Miocene origin, around 20-10 million years ago (Ma). An unidentifable finch fossil from the Messinian age, around 12 to 7.3 million years ago (Ma) during the Late Miocene subepoch, has been found at Polgárdi in Hungary. Hír et al. (2001), Mlíkovský (2002) Subfamilies and genera The systematics of the cardueline finches are contentious. The layout presented here follows the recent decades' molecular phylogenetic studies, and takes into account the traditional splitting of the genus Carduelis. The exact position of several genera in the cardueline sequence is tentative. Marten & Johnson (1986), Arnaiz-Villena et al. (1998, 2001, 2007, 2008) Subfamily Fringillinae – fringilline finches. Three species, which feed their young on insects and few if any seed Genus Fringilla Subfamily Carduelinae – cardueline finches. A much larger group that contains several genera which feed their young mainly on seeds. This subfamily consists of several well-defined clades. Typical grosbeaks Genus Eophona – Oriental grosbeaks Genus Coccothraustes – Holarctic grosbeaks (polyphyletic?) Genus Mycerobas – Mycerobas grosbeaks American rosefinches Genus "Carpodacus" – House Finch, Cassin's Finch, and Purple Finch Bullfinches Genus Pinicola – Pine Grosbeak Genus Pyrrhula – bullfinches Arid-zone clade Genus Leucosticte – mountain finches Genus N.N. – Dark-breasted Rosefinch, "Carpodacus" nipalensis Genus Rhodopechys – Trumpeter Finch and relatives Asian rosefinches Genus Carpodacus – rosefinches (Genus in need of substantial revision. May consist of two or more genera; alternatively may include Haematospiza and Uragus) Genus Haematospiza – Scarlet Finch Genus Uragus – streaked rosefinches Goldfinch-canary-crossbill clade (Carduelis and Serinus are polyphyletic and are probably best regarded as a collection of independent sub-groups or genera.) Genus Serinus sensu lato – canaries, African seedeaters, serins and African siskins (Sub)Genus Serinus sensu stricto – European Serin and relatives (possibly related to Spinus) (Sub)Genus Crithagra – Afrotropical canaries, African seedeaters, citrils (probably only distantly related to Serinus) Genus Linurgus – Oriole Finch (possibly basal to Crithagra) Genus Rhynchostruthus – golden-winged grosbeaks (tentatively placed here) Genus "Serinus" thibetanus – Tibetan Serin (probably related to Spinus and Serinus sensu stricto) Genus Carduelis sensu lato (Sub)Genus Carduelis sensu stricto – European Goldfinch, Citril Finch and Corsican Finch (probably only distantly related to Spinus) (Sub)Genus Spinus – siskins and American goldfinches (Sub)Genus Linaria – linnets and twite (related to Spinus) (Sub)Genus Chloris – greenfinches and Desert Finch (Sub)Genus Acanthis – redpolls (related to Loxia) (Sub)Genus Loxia – crossbills Carduelinae incertae sedis Genus Pyrrhoplectes – Gold-naped Finch Genus Chaunoproctus – Bonin Grosbeak (extinct: 1830s) Genus Callacanthis – Spectacled Finch Genus Neospiza – Sao Tomé Grosbeak Subfamily Drepanidinae – Hawaiian honeycreepers. Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands; formerly often treated as a separate family. Some 10-12 living genera, about 7 recently extinct Subfamily Euphoniinae – Euphonious finches. Endemic to the Neotropics; formerly placed in Thraupidae. Genus Euphonia – euphonias Genus Chlorophonia – chlorophonias Footnotes References (1998): Phylogeny and rapid Northern and Southern Hemisphere speciation of goldfinches during the Miocene and Pliocene Epochs. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 54(9): 1031–1041. PDF fulltext. Erratum: Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 55(1): 148. PDF fulltext (2001): Phylogeography of crossbills, bullfinches, grosbeaks, and rosefinches. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 58(8): 1159–1166. PDF fulltext (2007): Bayesian phylogeny of Fringillinae birds: status of the singular African oriole finch Linurgus olivaceus and evolution and heterogeneity of the genus Carpodacus. Acta Zoologica Sinica 53(5): 826-834. PDF fulltext (2008): Mitochondrial DNA Phylogenetic Definition of a Group of 'Arid-Zone' Carduelini Finches. Open Ornithology Journal 1: 1–7. PDF fulltext (1993): Finches and Sparrows: an identification guide. Christopher Helm, London. ISBN 0-7136-8017-2 (2000): Molecular evidence for the systematic position of Urocynchramus pylzowi. Auk 117(3): 787-792. DOI:10.1642/0004-8038(2000)117[0787:MEFTSP]2.0.CO;2 HTML abstract (2001): Elõzetes beszámoló a felsõtárkányi "Güdör-kert" n. õslénytani lelõhelykomplex újravizsgálatáról [A preliminary report on the revised investigation of the paleontological locality-complex "Güdör-kert" at Felsõtárkány, Northern Hungary)] Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis 25: 41-64 [Hungarian with English abstract]. PDF fulltext (2006): A phylogenetic supertree of oscine passerine birds (Aves: Passeri). Zool. Scripta 35(2): 149–186. (HTML abstract) (1986): Genetic relationships of North American cardueline finches. Condor 88(4): 409-420. DjVu fulltext PDF fulltext (2002): Cenozoic Birds of the World (Part 1: Europe). Ninox Press, Prague. ISBN 80-901105-3-8 PDF fulltext (1973): Finches (New Naturalist series). Taplinger Publishing. ISBN 0-8008-2720-1 Further reading Groth, J. G. 1994. A mitochondrial cytochrome b phylogeny of cardueline finches. Journal für Ornithologie, 135: 31. Groth, J. G. 1998. Molecular phylogeny of the cardueline finches and Hawaiian honeycreepers. Ostrich, 69: 401. Klicka, J., K.P. Johnson, and S.M. Lanyon. 2000. New World nine-primaried oscine relationships: Constructing a mitochondrial DNA framework. Auk 117:321-336. Ryan, P.G., Wright, D., Oatley, G., Wakeling, J., Cohen, C., Nowell, T.L., Bowie, R.C.K., Ward, V. & Crowe, T.M. 2004. Systematics of Serinus canaries and the status of Cape and Yellow-crowned Canaries inferred from mtDNA and morphology. Ostrich 75:288-294. Treplin, S. 2006. Inference of phylogenetic relationships in passerine birds (Aves: Passeriformes) using new molecular markers. (Dissertation - available online) http://opus.kobv.de/ubp/volltexte/2006/1123/pdf/treplin_diss.pdf. Yuri, T., and D. P. Mindell. 2002. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Fringillidae, "New World nine-primaried oscines" (Aves: Passeriformes). Mol. Phylogen. Evol. 23:229-243. 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3,606 | Meat_Loaf | Michael Lee Aday (born Marvin Lee Aday; September 27, 1947), better known by his stage name Meat Loaf, is an American rock musician and actor. He is noted for the Bat out of Hell album trilogy consisting of Bat out of Hell, Bat out of Hell II: Back into Hell and Bat out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose. Bat out of Hell has sold more than 43 million copies, which places it among the top 5 selling albums of all time. Federal appeals court sides with Clevelander in 'Bat Out of Hell' dispute, "Cleveland Business News", November 21, 2007. Retrieved on September 14, 2008. After more than 30 years, it still sells an estimated 200,000 copies annually, and stayed on the charts for over 9 years. BBC 'http://www.jimsteinman.com/00classicr3.htm Jim Steinman official site] Although he enjoyed success with Bat out of Hell and Bat out of Hell II: Back into Hell, Meat Loaf experienced some initial difficulty establishing a steady career within his native United States; however, he has retained iconic status and popularity in Europe, especially the UK, where he ranks 23rd for number of weeks overall spent on the charts, and is one of only two artists with an album never to have left the music charts. He ranked 96th on VH1's '100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock'. Meat Loaf has also appeared in over 50 movies or television shows Meat Loaf sometimes as himself, or as characters resembling his stage persona. His most notable roles include Eddie and Dr. Scott in the American premiere of The Rocky Horror Show, Eddie in The Rocky Horror Picture Show, Robert "Bob" Paulson in Fight Club and JB's father in Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny. Biography Early life Meat Loaf was born Marvin Lee Aday in Dallas, Texas, United States. He was the first child of Wilma Artie (née Hukel), a school teacher and a member of the Vo-di-o-do Girls gospel quartet, and Orvis Wesley Aday, a police officer. His father was an alcoholic who would go on drinking binges for days at a time. Marvin and his mother would drive around to all the bars in Dallas, looking for Orvis to take him home. Because of this, Marvin often stayed with his grandmother, Charlsee Norrod. Meat Loaf relates a story in his autobiography, To Hell and Back, about how he, a friend, and his friend's father drove out to Love Field to watch John F. Kennedy land. After watching him leave the airport, they went to Market Hall, which was on Kennedy's parade route. On the way they heard that Kennedy had been shot, so they headed to Parkland Hospital, where they saw Jackie Kennedy get out of the car and Governor John Connally get pulled out, although they never saw the president taken out. In 1965, Meat Loaf graduated from Thomas Jefferson High School, having already started his acting career via school productions such as Where's Charley? and The Music Man. Chamberlain, Adrian. Meat Loaf, reheated: Singer says energy and voice are back, thanks to exercise and vocal coach The Ottawa Citizen, March 13, 2007. After attending college at Lubbock Christian College, Marvin transferred to North Texas State University (now the University of North Texas at Denton). While there, he was called in for an Army physical, which he tried to fail by gaining sixty-eight pounds (31 kg) in four and a half weeks. They determined that he was fit despite being color blind, having a trick shoulder, and being very concussion prone. Move to California In 1967, when his draft notice arrived, Meat Loaf ignored it. Instead, after seeing his mother hospitalized and her health deteriorating, Marvin stole his dad's credit card and moved to Los Angeles, where he became a bouncer at a teenage nightclub. In his autobiography, Meat Loaf claims that shortly after his mother died, his father, in a drunken rage, tried to kill him with a knife, and that he barely managed to escape after they had a bad fight. After Marvin got his inheritance from his mother's death, he rented an apartment in Dallas and isolated himself for three and a half months. Eventually a friend found him. Marvin bought a car with his inheritance and drove to California. Early musical career In Los Angeles, he formed his first band, Meat Loaf Soul. During the recording of their first song, Meat Loaf hit a note so high that he managed to blow a fuse on the recording monitor; he was immediately offered three recording contracts, which he turned down. Meat Loaf Soul's first gig was in Huntington Beach at the Cave, opening for Them, Van Morrison's band. While performing their cover of the Yardbirds' "Smokestack Lightning," the smoke machine they used, made too much smoke and the club had to be cleared out. Later, the band was the opening act at Cal State Northridge for Renaissance, Taj Mahal and Janis Joplin. The band then underwent several changes at lead guitar, changing the name of the band each time - including Popcorn Blizzard, and Floating Circus. As Floating Circus, they opened for The Who, The Fugs, The Stooges, MC5, Grateful Dead and The Grease Band. Their regional success led them to release a single, "Once Upon a Time" backed with "Hello." Meat Loaf joined the Los Angeles production of "Hair." Early recordings Stoney & Meatloaf French picture sleeve of Stoney & Meatloaf's "What You See Is What You Get" With the publicity generated from Hair, Meat Loaf was invited to record with Motown. They suggested he do a duet with Stoney Murphy, to which he agreed. The Motown production team in charge of the album wrote and selected the songs while Meat Loaf and Stoney came in only to lay down their vocals. The album, titled Stoney & Meatloaf (Meatloaf being shown as one word), was completed in the summer of 1971 and released in September of that year. A single released in advance of the album, What You See Is What You Get, reached number thirty six on the R&B charts and seventy-one on Billboard Hot 100 chart. To support their album, Meat Loaf and Stoney toured with Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers, opening up for Richie Havens, The Who, The Stooges, Bob Seger, Alice Cooper and Rare Earth. Meat Loaf left soon after Motown replaced his and Stoney's vocals from the one song he liked, "Who Is the Leader of the People?", with new vocals by Edwin Starr. The album has been re-released after Meat Loaf's success, with Stoney's vocals removed from all songs from the original Stoney and Meatloaf album. "Who Is the Leader of the People?" was released with Meat Loaf's vocals intact, only Stoney was missing and the album failed. Stoney, in Meat Loaf's absence, brought out a solo single which flopped and she quit Motown shortly after. Stoney, aka Shaun Murphy, went on to sing backup with many acts, including Bob Seger and Eric Clapton, and became a full time member of Little Feat in 1993. She continues to work with Little Feat and Seger. More Than You Deserve After the tour, Meat Loaf rejoined the cast of Hair, this time on Broadway. After he hired an agent, he auditioned for the Public Theater's production of More Than You Deserve. It was during the audition that Meat Loaf first met his future collaborator Jim Steinman. He sang a former Stoney and Meatloaf favorite of his, "(I'd Love to Be) As Heavy as Jesus" (On VH1 Storytellers, Meat Loaf said Steinman said something like "I think you're as heavy as two Jesuses, son!") , and with that, got the part of Rabbit, a maniac that blows up his fellow soldiers so they can "go home." Also in the show were Ron Silver and Fred Gwynne. After it closed he appeared in "As You Like It" with Raúl Juliá and Mary Beth Hurt. He recorded a single of More Than You Deserve and had a cover of In the Presence of the Lord as its b-side. He was only able to save three copies of it because the record company wouldn't allow its press release. With those three copies he released many rare CDs featuring the two songs, which can occasionally be spotted at CD outlets. He later recorded it again (1981) in a slightly rougher voice. The Rocky Horror Picture Show During the winter of 1973, after returning from a short production of Rainbow in New York in Washington, D.C., Meat Loaf received a call asking him to be in The Rocky Horror Show where he played the parts of Eddie and Dr. Scott. The success of the play led to the filming of The Rocky Horror Picture Show where Meat Loaf played only Eddie. About the same time, Meat Loaf and Jim Steinman started work on Bat out of Hell. Meat Loaf convinced Epic Records to shoot videos for four songs, "Bat Out Of Hell", "Paradise by the Dashboard Light", "You Took the Words Right out of My Mouth" and "Two out of Three Ain't Bad". He then convinced Lou Adler, the producer of Rocky Horror, to run the "Paradise" video as a trailer to the movie. Meat Loaf's final show in New York was Gower Champion's Rock-a-bye Hamlet, a Hamlet musical. It closed two weeks into its initial run. Meat would later return occasionally to perform Hot Patootie for a special Rocky Horror reunion or convention, and rarely at his own live shows (one performance of which was released in the 1996 Live Around the World CD set). During his recording of the soundtrack for Rocky Horror, Meat Loaf recorded two more songs: "Stand By Me" (a Ben E. King cover), and "Clap Your Hands". They remained unreleased until 1984, when they appeared as b-sides to the "Nowhere Fast" single. In 1976, Meat Loaf recorded lead vocals for Ted Nugent's Free-for-All album when regular Nugent lead vocalist Derek St. Holmes quit the band. Meat Loaf sang lead on 5 of the album's 9 tracks. Bat out of Hell Meat Loaf and friend/songwriter Jim Steinman started Bat out of Hell in 1972, but did not get serious about it until the end of 1974. The two-year gap in the production was due to controversy surrounding his son born in Afton, Wyoming. Meat Loaf decided to leave theatre, and concentrate exclusively on music. Then, the National Lampoon Show opened on Broadway, and it needed an understudy for John Belushi, a close friend of Meat Loaf since 1972. It was at the Lampoon Show that Meat Loaf met Ellen Foley, the co-star who sang "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" with him on the album Bat out of Hell. After the Lampoon show ended, Meat Loaf and Steinman spent time seeking a record deal. Their approaches were rejected by each record company, because their songs did not fit any specific recognized music industry style. Finally, they performed the songs for Todd Rundgren, who decided to produce the album, as well as play lead guitar on it (other members of Todd's band Utopia also lent their musical talents). Roger Powell, keyboardist for Utopia http://trbazaar.com/rogerpowell.htm They then shopped the record around, but still had no takers until Cleveland International Records decided to take a chance. On October 21, 1977, Bat out of Hell was released. Meat Loaf and Steinman formed the band The Neverland Express to tour in support of Bat out of Hell. Their first gig was opening for Cheap Trick in Chicago. He gained national exposure as musical guest on Saturday Night Live on March 25, 1978. Guest host Christopher Lee introduced him by saying, "And now ladies and gentlemen I would like you to meet Loaf. (pauses, looks dumbfounded) I beg your pardon, what? (he listens to the director's aside) Oh! Why...why I'm sorry, yes, of course...ah... Ladies and gentlemen, Meat Loaf!" The huge success of the album caused a rift to open up between Meat Loaf and Steinman: the group, named after Meat Loaf for ease of labeling, seemed to Steinman to sideline his work as creator, and Steinman started to resent the attention that his partner was getting. During a show in Ottawa, Meat Loaf fell off the stage and broke his leg. He toured with the broken leg, performing from a wheel chair. During this time, Meat Loaf began heavy use of cocaine, had a nervous breakdown and threatened to commit suicide by jumping off the ledge of a building in New York. Then, in December 1978, he went to Woodstock to work with Steinman. It was at the Bearsville studio that Meat Loaf met his future wife, Leslie G. Edmonds; they were married within a month. Leslie had a daughter from a previous marriage, Pearl, who has since followed in her stepfather's footsteps to become a singer. In the middle of recording his second album, Bad for Good, Meat Loaf lost the ability to sing; it is unclear as to the exact cause - the tour was a punishing one, and the vocals and energy intense. However, his doctors said that physically he was fine and that his problem was psychological. Nevertheless, Steinman decided to keep recording Bad for Good without Meat Loaf. Bat out of Hell has sold over 43 million copies worldwide, making it one of the highest selling albums of all time. In the UK alone, its 2.1 million sales put it in 38th place. Despite peaking at #9 and spending only two weeks in the top ten in 1981, it has now clocked up 474 weeks on the UK album chart, a figure bettered by only by Rumours by Fleetwood Mac - 478 weeks. In Australia, it knocked the Bee Gees off the number #1 spot and went on to become the biggest-selling Australian album of all time. Bat out of Hell is also one of only two albums that has never exited the Top 200 in the UK charts; this makes it the longest stay in any music chart in the world, although the published chart contains just 75 positions. Life after Bat out of Hell In 1976, Meat Loaf appeared in the short-lived Broadway production of the rock musical Rockabye Hamlet. In 1980, he started working on Dead Ringer. Steinman wrote all of the songs, but had little else to do with the album. At the time, his manager, David Sonnenberg, stepped out, and Al Dellentash stepped in to manage Meat Loaf's career. The tour they planned, to support the album, was cancelled after one show, because they ran out of the money that the studio advanced them. Sonnenberg and Dellentash also convinced CBS to advance more money for the making of the movie Dead Ringer, which was shown at the Toronto Film Festival and won some favorable reviews, but was poorly considered after Dellentash and Sonnenberg re-edited the movie. In 1981, Leslie gave birth to Amanda Aday, now a television actress. That same year, Meat Loaf changed managers, after finding out that Dellentash and Sonnenberg were stealing his money. The two had all of Meat Loaf's assets frozen and sued him for breach of contract. They also started spreading rumors that Meat Loaf was violent and had threatened people with guns. Meat Loaf ended up declaring bankruptcy. In 1983, he released the self written Midnight at the Lost and Found. Meat Loaf, a poor songwriter by his own admission, did not care for the songs he wrote for the album. On December 5, 1981, Meat Loaf and the Neverland Express were the musical guests for Saturday Night Live where he was reunited with fellow Rocky Horror Picture Show alum Tim Curry. Tim Curry and Meat Loaf team up in a hilarious skit to open a One-Stop Rocky Horror Shop. Later, Tim Curry performed "The Zucchini Song" and Meat Loaf & The Neverland Express performed "Bat Out of Hell" and "Promised Land". In 1984, Meat Loaf went to England, to record the album Bad Attitude, which included a duet with Roger Daltrey and two songs written by Jim Steinman; the recording of the album was rushed. During the tour to support the album, Leslie had a nervous breakdown and had to check into Silver Hill rehab facility in Connecticut. Things finally looked like they were going to turn around in 1986, when Meat Loaf found a new writer, John Parr, and started recording a new album, Blind Before I Stop. Unfortunately, the producer put a dance beat underneath every song, which resulted in critical failure, and Meat Loaf going bankrupt, eventually losing everything. His relationships with lifelong friend Jim Steinman and Leslie also deteriorated. To try to get his career back off the ground, Meat Loaf started touring small venues, such as pubs and clubs. Slowly, he developed a faithful following which grew to the point where they were unable to fit into the venues that Meat Loaf was playing, and then they too began to grow. This carried on until the late '80s, where he began to sell out arenas and stadiums again, including over 10,000 tickets at The Ohio State University. Leslie studied to be a travel agent, so they could save on travel expenses, and they toured all over the United States, Germany, England, Scandinavia, Ireland, Italy, Spain, Greece, Abu Dhabi, Oman and Bahrain. With the help of his New York collection of musicians — John Golden, Richard Raskin and Paul Jacobs — his European tours enjoyed immense popularity in the 1980s. Due to the success of the touring, Meat Loaf and Jim Steinman began to work on Bat Out Of Hell II which was finally released in 1993, sixteen years after Bat Out Of Hell. The album was a huge success and is considered one of the greatest comebacks in music history. Meat Loaf and Leslie divorced in 2001. He is now engaged to be married again. Deborah Gillespie, his fiancée, hails from Edmonton. 1980s Dead Ringer Songwriter Jim Steinman started to work on Bad for Good, the album that was supposed to be the follow-up to 1977's Bat out of Hell, in 1979. During that time, a combination of touring, drugs and exhaustion had caused Meat Loaf to lose his voice. Without a singer, and pressured by the record company, Steinman decided that he should sing on Bad for Good himself, and write a new album for Meat Loaf; the result was Dead Ringer, which was later released in 1981, after the release of Steinman's Bad for Good. After playing the role of Travis Redfish in the movie Roadie, Meat Loaf's singing voice returned, and he started to work on his new album in 1980. Steinman had written five new songs which, in addition to the track "More Than You Deserve" (sung by Meat Loaf in the stage musical of the same name) and a reworked monologue, formed the album Dead Ringer, which was produced by Meat Loaf and Stephan Galfas, with backing tracks produced by Todd Rundgren, Jimmy Iovine, and Jim Steinman. (In 1976, Meat Loaf appeared on the track "Keeper Keep Us", from the Intergalactic Touring Band's self-titled album, produced by Galfas.) The song "Dead Ringer for Love" was the pinnacle of the album, and launched Meat Loaf to even greater success after it reached #5 in the UK and stayed in the charts for a surprising 19 weeks. Cher provided the lead female vocals in the song, which contributed to the success of the single. The album reached #1 in the UK, and three singles were released from the album: "Dead Ringer for Love" (with Cher), "I'm Gonna Love Her for Both of Us," and "Read 'Em and Weep". Midnight at the Lost and Found Following a dispute with his former songwriter Jim Steinman, Meat Loaf was contractually obliged to release a new album. Struggling for time, and with no resolution to his arguments with Steinman seemingly on the horizon (eventually, Steinman would sue Meat Loaf, who subsequently sued Steinman as well), he was forced to find songwriters wherever he could. Meat Loaf is credited with being involved in the writing of numerous tracks on the album, including the title track, "Midnight at the Lost and Found". However, when the album was released in 1983, it was regarded by many as being poor. Fans were disappointed to see that the iconic pictures on the covers of Bat out of Hell and Dead Ringer were replaced by a black-and-white photograph of Meat Loaf (on some later re-releases, a colour image of a screaming Meat Loaf was used as the cover image). The title track still regularly forms part of Meat Loaf concerts, and was one of very few 1980s songs to feature on the 1998 hit album The Very Best of Meat Loaf. This was the last album that Meat Loaf did with the record label Epic until the 'best of' album. Bad Attitude Bad Attitude, released 1984, features two songs by Jim Steinman, both previously recorded, and was mainly an attempt to keep Meat Loaf from going bankrupt during this period of lawsuits. It concentrated more on the hard rock side of Meat Loaf, was a minor success around the globe and released a few hit singles, the most successful being "Modern Girl." It also holds some of Meat Loaf's favorite songs that include "Jumpin' the Gun" and "Piece of the Action". It was recorded in England. Blind Before I Stop Blind Before I Stop was released in 1986. It features production, mixing, and general influence by Frank Farian. Meat Loaf gave songwriting another shot with this album and wrote three of the songs on the album. However, the only song released as a single (in the UK) was "Rock 'n' Roll Mercenaries," which was a duet with rock singer John Parr. Meat Loaf would not be able to sing the song live with John Parr for too long, because of an incident just after the release of the single. During a sold out show in London, Meat Loaf was going to perform the song, and as Meat Loaf did not introduce John onto the stage, he stormed off supposedly after the song was performed. Meat Loaf never saw Parr again, even after leaving dozens of phone messages begging him for forgiveness. But, in Meat's own words, "I never introduce people in the middle of a show — it breaks the continuity. You don't stop in the middle of a play and say 'And now ladies and gentlemen, entering the stage is Robert De Niro'". The song was included on Live at Wembley, which was released in 1987, with no sign of Parr as his vocal lead-off. According to Meat Loaf's 1998 autobiography, the album sold poorly due to the production of the album. Meat Loaf would have preferred to cancel the project and wait to work with more Steinman material. The album, however, has gained a cult following over the years, citing the songs "Execution Day" and "Standing on the Outside" as standout tracks on the record. "Standing on the Outside" was also featured during the third season of the 1980s TV show Miami Vice. Used several times during the episode titled "Forgive Us Our Debts" (first aired December 12, 1986), the track accompanied the execution-style murder of a witness and the preparation of a convicted murder for execution in the electric chair. The video for "Getting Away with Murder" (along with "Modern Girl"), another single released from the album before its release, is one of the available videos to be viewed on Meat's artist's page on MTV.com. Later career Bat out of Hell II: Back into Hell Due to the success of Meat Loaf's touring in the eighties, he and Steinman began work during the Christmas of 1990 on the sequel to Bat out of Hell. After two years, Bat out of Hell II: Back into Hell was finished and became a success. It sold over 15 million copies, and the single "I'd Do Anything for Love (But I Won't Do That)" reached number one in 28 countries. Meat Loaf won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Vocal Performance, Solo in 1994 for "I'd Do Anything for Love". This song stayed at #1 in the UK charts for seven consecutive weeks. The single features a female vocalist who was credited only as "Mrs. Loud." Mrs. Loud was later identified as Lorraine Crosby, a performer from North East England. Meat Loaf promoted the song with American vocalist Patti Russo who performed lead female vocals on tour with him. In Germany, Meat Loaf became notably popular following the release of Bat out of Hell II but has enjoyed most of his success among pop/rock fans. Also in 1994, he was honored by singing "The Star Spangled Banner" at the Major League Baseball All-Star Game, something he says was one of the two biggest highlights of his career. Meat Loaf attempted to follow the success of "I'd Do Anything for Love (But I Won't Do That)" by releasing "Rock and Roll Dreams Come Through" as a follow-up; this song reached #13 in the US. After Bat out of Hell II In 1995, Meat Loaf released his seventh studio album, Welcome To The Neighborhood. The album went platinum in the United States and the UK. It released three singles which all hit the top 40, including "I'd Lie for You (And That's the Truth)" (which reached #13 in the US and #2 in the UK charts) and "Not a Dry Eye in the House" (which reached #7 in the UK charts). "I'd Lie for You (And That's the Truth)" was a duet with Patti Russo (who had been touring with Meat Loaf and singing on his albums since 1993). The video, which had a bigger budget than any of his previous videos, helped the single in its success. Two of the twelve songs on the album were written by Jim Steinman, whereas the big hits, namely "I'd Lie for You" and "Not a Dry Eye in the House", were written by Diane Warren (who has since written for Meat Loaf on Couldn't Have Said It Better, and Bat III). In 1998, Meat Loaf released The Very Best of Meat Loaf. Although not reaching the top ten in the UK, it recently went platinum, and was already platinum around the rest of the world just after its release. The album featured all of Meat Loaf's best-known songs, a few from his less popular albums from the 1980s, and three new songs. The music on the two Steinman songs was written and composed by Andrew Lloyd Webber. The single from the album was "Is Nothing Sacred", written by Jim Steinman with lyrics by Don Black. The single version of this song is a duet with Patti Russo, whereas the album version is a solo song by Meat Loaf. In 2003, Meat Loaf released his album Couldn't Have Said It Better. The album was a minor success worldwide and reached #4 in the UK charts, accompanied by a sellout world tour which was used to promote the album and some of Meat Loaf's biggest hits. One such performance on his world tour was at the Australian NRL Grand Final in the same year. There were many writers for the album including Diane Warren and James Michael. Meat Loaf liked James Michael so much that he asked him to write a few songs on his 2006 album Bat out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose. The title track was again a duet with Patti Russo who would also duet on Bat III. Hair of the Dog and the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra On February 20 - February 22 , 2004, during Meat Loaf's Australian tour, Meat Loaf did his classics with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra, titled Bat out of Hell: Live with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra. He went as far as to bring in the Australian Boy's Choir to do back-up on a Couldn't Have Said It Better track, "Testify". The show went on to spawn a DVD and a CD "Meat Loaf and The Neverland Express featuring Patti Russo Live with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra". The CD had few songs from the concert placed on it and were edited. Meat Loaf sold out over 160 concerts during his 2005 tour, "Hair of the Dog". On November 17, 2003, during a performance at London's Wembley Arena, on his Couldn't Have Said It Better tour, he collapsed of what was later diagnosed as Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. The following week, he underwent a surgical procedure intended to correct the problem. As a result, Meat Loaf's insurance agency did not allow him to perform for any longer than one hour and 45 minutes. As well as singing all the classics, he sang a cover version of the hit single "Black Betty". During this tour Meat Loaf also sang "Only When I Feel", a song meant to appear on his then-upcoming album Bat out of Hell III. The song was subsequently left off the release. During this period Meat Loaf stated that this could be his last 'world' tour and that he would be doing less than a fifth of the concerts he did on his most recent tour. Bat out of Hell III And Upcoming Album Meat Loaf had begun to work on the third installment of Bat out of Hell with Steinman. The composer suffered some health setbacks, including a heart attack. According to Meat Loaf, Steinman was too ill to work on such an intense project, although the composer's health, according to his manager, was not an issue. Steinman had registered the phrase "Bat Out Of Hell" in 1995. Meat Loaf sued Steinman and his manager, in a complaint filed May 28, 2006 in federal District Court in Los Angeles, California, for $50 million and to prevent further use by the writer/producer. Steinman and his representatives attempted to block the album's release. An agreement was reached in Summer 2006. According to Virgin, "the two came to an amicable agreement that ensured that Jim Steinman's music would be a continuing part of the 'Bat Out Of Hell' legacy." The album was released on October 31, 2006, and was produced by Desmond Child. The first single from the album, "It's All Coming Back to Me Now" (featuring Marion Raven) was released on October 16, 2006. It entered the UK singles chart at No. 6, giving Meat Loaf his highest UK chart position since "I'd Lie for You (And That's the Truth)", a duet with Patti Russo that reached No. 2 in November 1995. The album debuted at #8 on the Billboard 200 and sold 81,000 copies in its opening week, but after that did not sell well in the US and yielded no hit singles. The album was certified gold. The album also features duets with Patti Russo and Jennifer Hudson. In the weeks following the release of Bat III, Meat Loaf and the NLE (The Neverland Express) did a brief tour of America and Europe, known as the Bases Loaded Tour. In 2007, a newer, bigger worldwide tour began, the Seize the Night tour, with Marion Raven, serving as a supporting act, throughout the European and US tour. Portions of the tour in February 2007 were featured in the Theatrical Documentary Meat Loaf: In Search of Paradise, directed by Bruce David Klein. The film was an official selection of the Montreal World Film Festival in 2007. It opened in theaters in March 2008 and was released on DVD in May 2008. During a performance at the Metro Radio Arena in Newcastle upon Tyne, UK on October 31, 2007, at the opening of "Paradise by the Dashboard Light" he suggested that the crowd of thousands should enjoy the performance as it was the last of his career. He attempted to sing the first line of the song, but instead said "Ladies and gentlemen, I love you, thank you for coming, but I can no longer continue." Removing the jacket he was wearing, he thanked the audience for 30 years, said "goodbye forever" and left the stage. His tour promoter, Andrew Miller, refuted that this was the end for Meat Loaf and that he would continue touring after suitable rest. The next two gigs in the tour, at the NEC and Manchester Evening News Arena were cancelled due to "acute laryngitis" and were rescheduled for late November. The concert scheduled for November 6, 2007 at London's Wembley Arena was also cancelled. Meat Loaf cancelled his entire European tour for 2007 after being diagnosed with a cyst on his vocal cords. After releasing a statement he said "It really breaks my heart not to be able to perform these shows" adding "I will be back". On June 27, 2008, Meat Loaf returned to the stage in Plymouth, England for the first show of his Casa de Carne Tour alongside his longtime duet partner Patti Russo, who debuted one of her own original songs during his show. The tour continued through July and August with twenty dates throughout England, Ireland, Germany, Portugal, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark. Six U.S. showdates were also added for October and December 2008. In early December, Meat Loaf released a story on his fan club web site, titled "Happy Holidays And New Year", It stated that Meat Loaf would be heading into studio in 2009 with producer Rob Cavallo and that the album was slated for a 2010 release. Other work He portrayed Travis Redfish in Roadie, which featured cameos by Debbie Harry, Roy Orbison and Hank Williams, Jr.. Meat Loaf appeared in the 1997 film Spice World with the Spice Girls as their bus driver. In that same year, Meat Loaf appeared in the ShoTime series The Dead Man's Gun - The Mail Order Bride. He plays a blacksmith who marries a woman with a young son and rescues her from a vicious ex-lover. In 1999 he appeared in the film Crazy in Alabama as sheriff John Doggett. Meat Loaf had a supporting role as Robert Paulson in the 1999 film adaptation of Chuck Palahniuk's 1996 book Fight Club. In 2000, he appeared as the viral meningitis addled Confederate Colonel Angus Devine in the sixth season episode Gettysburg of The Outer Limits who is accidentally transported forward in time 150 years in a failed attempt to prevent the assassination of the President in 2013. He also appeared in the South Park episode "Chef Aid". In a flashback, Meat Loaf claims that he started out as an unsuccessful artist named Cous-cous. After being booed off stage and almost deciding to quit, Chef tells him that his name might be the problem, and then hands him a plate of meatloaf to cheer him up. Meat Loaf appears (uncredited) as Jack Black's father in the 2006 film Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny, providing vocals on the film's opening song Kickapoo. In the special features and commentary of the film's DVD release, it is noted that this is the first time Meat Loaf has sung for a movie soundtrack since The Rocky Horror Picture Show. Meat Loaf made a cameo appearance in Jimmy Kimmel Live as one of the celebrity singing choir for the musical sketch, "I'm Fucking Ben Affleck", which is a star-studded sketch where host Jimmy Kimmel responds to Sarah Silverman's sketch titled "I'm Fucking Matt Damon". Meat recently appeared in a AT&T GoPhone commercial and parodied "Let Me Sleep on It", part of the song Paradise by the Dashboard Light with actor Adam Cagley playing his son and 80s pop diva Tiffany Darwish as his wife. Meat Loaf currently has a show airing on DirecTV called Rock and a Hard Place. It takes bands that are fairly well-known and asks them trivia questions to raise money for charity. http://www.directv.com/DTVAPP/global/contentPage.jsp?assetId=P4470006 On 6 April, 2009, Meat Loaf appeared on an episode of House as Eddie, the sick husband of a patient. Meat Loaf, along with his daughter Pearl Aday and his longtime duet partner Patti Russo, taped an episode of the FOX game show Don't Forget the Lyrics! which aired on May 22, 2009. Personal life Meat Loaf is said to have cheated death on numerous occasions, having crashed in a car which rolled over, Meat Loaf - Meat Loaf Cheated Death Three Times been hit on the head with a shot put, and being struck by Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome. In October 2006, his private jet had to make an emergency landing at London's Stansted Airport after his plane's forward landing gear failed. Meat Loaf halts gig to say: I quit He is also the father in law of Anthrax rhythm guitarist Scott Ian. Meat Loaf was a vegetarian for 11 years but has since resumed eating meat. Gordon Ramsay's F-Word, Season 4 Episode 6 In 2001, he changed his first name to Michael. CANOE - JAM! Music - Artists - Meat Loaf: A new day for Meat Loaf Evalu8 Meat Loaf is a supporter of the northern English football team Hartlepool United and, in 2003, the BBC reported he was seeking a residence in the nearby area. BBC NEWS | UK | England | Tees | Meat Loaf heads for Hartlepool Meat Loaf currently resides just outside of Calabasas, California, near Saddle Peak and Calabasas Peak. Meat Loaf also performs a considerable amount of charity work, and in June 2008 took part in a football penalty shoot-out competition on behalf of two cancer charities in Newcastle in the U.K. He auctioned shots to the 100 highest bidders and then took his place between the goal posts. Meat Loaf to match charity penalty shoot-out total - ChronicleLive He also participates in celebrity golf tournaments. Tours Bat Out Of Hell Tour 1977-1979 Dead Ringer Tour 1981 Meat Loaf & The NLE Euro Tour '82 Meat Loaf World Tour 1983 Bad Attitude Tour 1984-1985 20/20 Tour 1987-1988 Lost Boys & Golden Girls 1988-1989 1990 Tour 1991-1992 Tour Everything Louder Tour 1993-1995 Born To Rock Tour 1996 The Very Best Of Tour 1999 Storytellers Tour 1999-2000 Night Of The Proms Tour 2001 Just Having Fun Tour 2002 Couldn't Have Said It Better 2003-2004 Hair Of The Dog Tour 2005 The Bases Are Loaded Tour 2006 Seize The Night Tour 2007 Three Bats Tour 2007 Casa de Carne Tour 2008 Discography Notable film and TV appearances The Rocky Horror Picture Show 1975 - Eddie "A delivery boy." Americathon 1979 - Oklahoma Daredevil, Roy Budnitz Scavenger Hunt 1979 - Scum Roadie 1980- Travis W Redfish Dead Ringer 1981- Meat Loaf, Marvin Cheech & Chong's Nice Dreams 1981 Strike Force "MIA" episode The Equalizer 1985 "Bump and Run" episode Out of Bounds 1986 - Gil Motorama 1991 Wayne's World 1992 - Tiny Leap of Faith 1992 - Hoover Tales from the Crypt "What's Cookin'?" episode To Catch a Yeti 1993 - Big Jake Grizzly Angels In the Outfield 1993 - Angel The Dead Man's Gun 1997 "The Mail Order Bride" episode Bean 1997 Nash Bridges 1997 "Wild Card" episode Spiceworld: The Movie 1997 - Dennis Black Dog 1998 - Red The Mighty 1998 - Iggy Lee Crazy in Alabama 1999 - Sheriff John Doggett Fight Club 1999 - Robert 'Bob' Paulson The Outer Limits 2000 "Gettysburg" episode Blacktop 2000 - Jack The Ballad of Lucy Whipple 2001 - Amos "Rattlesnake Jake" Frogge Face to Face 2001 - Driver Rustin 2001 - Coach Trellingsby Focus 2001 - Fred The 51st State/Formula 51 2001 - The Lizard A Hole in One 2004 - Billy BloodRayne 2005 - Leonid Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny 2006 - JB's father Masters of Horror 2006 - Jake Feldman History Rocks 2007 - Himself Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve 2007 - ABC Private Sessions 2007 - A&E Meat Loaf: In Search of Paradise - US Theatrical Release in 2008 Go-Phone Commercial 2007 - Singing Father. The F Word 2008 - UK Television Show as Himself Hannity 2009 - Jan. 12 - as himself, a member of Hannity's "Great American Panel" Tiger Force Forever: Unleashed 2009 Masters of Horror "Pelts" episode as Jake House, M.D. 2009 - Appears as a patient in the episode "Simple Explanation" Don't Forget the Lyrics (TV series) 2009 - Appears with his daughter. References Books External links Official website | Meat_Loaf |@lemmatized michael:4 lee:5 aday:6 born:2 marvin:9 september:3 well:7 know:4 stage:9 name:7 meat:152 loaf:148 american:4 rock:13 musician:2 actor:2 note:3 bat:40 hell:41 album:70 trilogy:1 consist:1 ii:7 back:12 iii:7 monster:2 loose:2 sell:12 million:5 copy:7 place:5 among:2 top:5 time:18 federal:2 appeal:1 court:2 side:4 clevelander:1 dispute:2 cleveland:2 business:1 news:3 november:5 retrieve:1 year:15 still:3 estimated:1 annually:1 stay:5 chart:16 bbc:3 http:3 www:2 jimsteinman:1 com:4 htm:2 jim:14 steinman:37 official:3 site:2 although:5 enjoy:4 success:16 experience:1 initial:2 difficulty:1 establish:1 steady:1 career:8 within:2 native:1 united:5 state:10 however:5 retain:1 iconic:2 status:1 popularity:2 europe:2 especially:1 uk:18 rank:2 number:4 week:11 overall:1 spent:2 one:20 two:19 artist:4 never:5 leave:7 music:9 great:4 hard:3 also:19 appear:16 movie:7 television:3 show:29 sometimes:1 character:1 resemble:1 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3,607 | Lake_Michigan | Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes of North America, and the only one located entirely within the United States. The third-largest of the Great Lakes, it is bounded, from west to east, by the U.S. states of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan. The word "Michigan" was originally used to refer to the lake itself, and is believed to come from the Ojibwa Indian word mishigami, meaning "great water." The lake is slightly larger than the country of Croatia. History Some of the earliest human inhabitants of the Lake Michigan region were the Hopewell Indians. Their culture declined after 800 A.D., and for the next few hundred years the region was the home of peoples known as the Late Woodland Indians. In the early seventeenth century, when western European explorers made their first forays into the region, they encountered descendants of the Late Woodland Indians: the Chippewa, Menominee, Sauk, Fox, Winnebago, Miami, Ottawa, and Potawatomi. It is believed that the French explorer Jean Nicolet was the first non-Native American to discover Lake Michigan in 1634 or 1638. Bogue, Margaret Beattie (1985). Around the Shores of Lake Michigan: A Guide to Historic Sites, pp. 7-13. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299100049. After Louis Jolliet, Jacques Marquette, and Robert de LaSalle explored the area in the late 17th century, Lake Michigan became part of a line of waterways leading from the Saint Lawrence River to the Mississippi River and thence to the Gulf of Mexico. Bogue (1985), pp. 14-16. French coureurs des bois and voyageurs established small ports and trading communities, such as Green Bay, on the lake during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Shelak, Benjamin J. (2003). Shipwrecks of Lake Michigan p. 3. Big Earth Publishing. ISBN 1931599211. The first permanent settlement on the Lake Michigan shoreline was made in 1779 at the site of present-day Chicago by Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, who had been born in Santo Domingo. Shelak (2003), p. 85. Geography Lake Michigan and the other Great Lakes Lake Michigan is the only one of the Great Lakes wholly within the borders of the United States; the others are shared with Canada. It has a surface area of 22,400 square miles (58,016 km²), making it the largest lake entirely within one country by surface area (Lake Baikal, in Russia, is larger by water volume), and the fifth largest lake in the world. It is 307 miles (494 km) long by 118 miles (190 km) wide with a shoreline 1,640 miles (2,633 km) long. The lake's average depth is 279 feet (85 m), while its greatest depth is 923 feet (281 m). It contains a volume of 1,180 cubic miles (4,918 km³) of water. Its surface averages 577 feet (176 m) above sea level, the same as Lake Huron, to which it is connected through the Straits of Mackinac. Cities Twelve million people live along Lake Michigan's shores. Many small cities in Northern Michigan are centered on a tourist base that takes advantage of the beauty and recreational opportunities offered by Lake Michigan. These cities have large seasonal populations that arrive from nearby urban areas such as the Chicago, Milwaukee and Detroit areas, as well as from humid southern states such as Florida and Texas. Some seasonal residents have summer homes along the lake shore, and return home for the winter. The southern tip of the lake is heavily industrialized. Cities on the shores of Lake Michigan include: Chicago is the largest city on Lake Michigan. Illinois Chicago Evanston Highland Park Lake Forest/Lake Bluff North Chicago WaukeganIndiana East Chicago Gary Hammond Michigan City Portage Porter WhitingMichigan Benton Harbor Bridgman Charlevoix Douglas Escanaba Ferrysburg Frankfort Gladstone Grand Haven Harbor Springs HollandManistee Manistique Menominee Ludington Muskegon New Buffalo Norton Shores Petoskey Saugatuck St. Joseph South Haven Traverse CityWisconsin Green Bay Kenosha Manitowoc Milwaukee Port Washington Racine Sheboygan Sturgeon Bay Beaches Sand dune on Lake Michigan at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore Lake Michigan beaches, especially those in Michigan and Northern Indiana, are known for their beauty. The region is often referred to as the "Third Coast" of the United States, after those of the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. The sand is soft and off-white, known as "singing sands" because of the squeaking noise (caused by high quartz content) made when one walks across it. There are often high sand dunes covered in green beach grass and sand cherries, and the water is usually clear and cold (between 55 and 70 °F [13 and 21 °C]) , even in late summer. However, because prevailing westerly winds tend to move the surface water toward the east, there is a flow of warmer water to the Michigan shore in the summer. Hilton, George Woodman (2002). Lake Michigan Passenger Steamers, pp. 3-5. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804742405. Lake Michigan beaches in Northern Michigan are the only place in the world, aside from a few inland lakes in that region, where one can find Petoskey stones, the state stone. The Milwaukee Lakefront. The beaches of the western coast and the northernmost part of the east coast are rocky, while the southern and eastern beaches are sandy and dune-covered. This is partly because of the prevailing winds from the west which also cause thick layers of ice to build up on the eastern shore in winter. Contrary to recent reports, Chicago annually imports fresh sand to replenish its popular city beaches (similar to Key West) but much of the city waterfront is parks, stone revetments, marinas or residential developments in the north or industrial sites in the south. Some environmental problems still plague the lake. Steel mills are visible along the Indiana shoreline, and the pollution caused by these mills is believed to contribute to the color of sunsets. Also, the Chicago Tribune reported that BP is a major polluter, dumping thousands of pounds of ammonia and raw sludge into Lake Michigan every day from its Whiting, Indiana, oil refinery. Register - New The Chicago skyline can be seen from the Indiana shore and lower Michigan (on a clear day), but when standing on the beaches in Wisconsin & Illinois it is impossible to see across the lake, providing a view similar to that of the ocean. A view across the lake is possible from many buildings in Chicago. It is possible from some of the taller buildings in Chicago to clearly make out points in Indiana and Michigan such as the NIPSCO (Northern Indiana Public Service Company) cooling tower of its power plant in Michigan City, Indiana. The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. Great Lakes Circle Tour. Car ferries People can cross Lake Michigan by the SS Badger, a ferry that runs from Manitowoc, Wisconsin, to Ludington, Michigan. The Lake Express, established in 2004, carries motorists across the lake between Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Muskegon, Michigan. Islands The Beaver Island archipelago in Charlevoix County, Michigan, includes Beaver Island, Garden Island, Grape Island, Gull Island, Hat Island, High Island, Hog Island, Pismire Island, Shoe Island, Squaw Island, Trout Island, and Whiskey Island. The Fox Islands in Leelanau County, Michigan, consist of South Fox Island and North Fox Island. The Manitou Islands, North Manitou Island and South Manitou Island, are in Leelanau County, Michigan. Islands surrounding the Door Peninsula in Wisconsin include Detroit Island, Hog Island, Pilot Island, Plum Island, Rock Island, and Washington Island. Northerly Island is a 91-acre a man-made island in Chicago. It is the home of the Adler Planetarium, the former site of Meigs Field, and the current site of the temporary concert venue Charter One Pavilion each summer. Parks The National Park Service maintains the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore and Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Parts of the shoreline are within the Hiawatha National Forest and the Manistee National Forest. The Lake Michigan division of the Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge is within the lake. There are numerous state parks located on the shores of the lake or on islands within the lake. A partial list follows. Saugatuck Dunes State Park Duck Lake State Park Fayette Historic State Park Fisherman's Island State Park Grand Haven State Park Grand Mere State Park Harrington Beach State Park Holland State Park Hoffmaster State Park Illinois Beach State Park Indian Lake State Park Indiana Dunes State Park Ludington State Park Leelanau State Park Mears State Park Muskegon State Park Newport State Park Orchard Beach State Park Peninsula State Park Saugatuck Dunes State Park Silver Lake State Park Traverse City State Park Terry Andrae State Park Waugoshance Light in Lake Michigan Van Buren State Park Warren Dunes State Park Wells State Park Wilderness State Park Lighthouses Illinois lighthouses Indiana lighthouses Michigan lighthouses Wisconsin lighthouses Hydrology The Milwaukee Reef, running under Lake Michigan from Milwaukee to a point between Grand Haven and Muskegon, divides the lake into northern and southern pools. Each pool has a counterclockwise flow of water, deriving from rivers, winds, and the Coriolis effect. Prevailing westerly winds tend to move the surface water toward the east, producing a moderating effect on the climate of western Michigan. There is a mean difference in summer temperatures of 5 to 10 degrees between the Wisconsin and Michigan shores. Hydrologically Michigan and Huron are the same body of water (sometimes called Lake Michigan-Huron), but are geographically distinct. Counted together, it is the largest fresh water body in the world by surface area. The Mackinac Bridge is generally considered the dividing line between them. Both lakes are part of the Great Lakes Waterway. In earlier maps of the region, the name Lake Illinois has been found in place of "Michigan". Ecology Lake Michigan is home to a variety of species of fish and other organisms. It was originally home to lake trout, yellow perch, panfish, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, carp, bowfin, as well as some species of catfish. In recent years overfishing has caused a decline in lake trout which ultimately caused an increase in the alewife population. As a result, coho and chinook salmon were introduced as a predator of alewives to decrease the alewife population. This program was so successful that the salmon population exploded and the states surrounding Lake Michigan promoted Salmon Snagging. This practice has since been made illegal in all of the great lakes states with the exception of a limited season in Illinois. Lake Michigan is now being stocked with several species of fish. However, several invader species introduced, such as lampreys and mussels, threaten the vitality of fish populations. See also Chicago River Grand Traverse Bay Door Peninsula Green Bay Leelanau Peninsula Little Bay de Noc Little Traverse Bay Jardine Water Purification Plant 1 billion gal. of water/day Great Lakes in General Great Lakes Great Lakes Areas of Concern Great Lakes census statistical areas Great Lakes Commission Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal Great Storm of 1913 International Boundary Waters Treaty List of cities along the Great Lakes Seiche Sixty Years' War for control of the Great Lakes Third Coast Notes Further reading Hyde, Charles K., and Ann and John Mahan. The Northern Lights: Lighthouses of the Upper Great Lakes. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1995. ISBN 0814325548 ISBN 9780814325544. Oleszewski, Wes, Great Lakes Lighthouses, American and Canadian: A Comprehensive Directory/Guide to Great Lakes Lighthouses, (Gwinn, Michigan: Avery Color Studios, Inc., 1998) ISBN 0-932212-98-0. Penrod, John, Lighthouses of Michigan, (Berrien Center, Michigan: Penrod/Hiawatha, 1998) ISBN 9780942618785 ISBN 9781893624238 Penrose, Laurie and Bill, A Traveler’s Guide to 116 Michigan Lighthouses (Petoskey, Michigan: Friede Publications, 1999). ISBN 0923756035 ISBN 9780923756031 Wagner, John L., Michigan Lighthouses: An Aerial Photographic Perspective, (East Lansing, Michigan: John L. Wagner, 1998) ISBN 1880311011 ISBN 9781880311011 Wright, Larry and Wright, Patricia, Great Lakes Lighthouses Encyclopedia Hardback (Erin: Boston Mills Press, 2006) ISBN 1550463993 External links EPA's Great Lakes Atlas Great Lakes Coast Watch Michigan DNR map of Lake Michigan Lake Michigan Fishing Bathymetry of Lake Michigan Lighthouses Bibliography on Michigan lighthouses Interactive map of lighthouses in area (northern Lake Michigan) Interactive map of lighthouses in area (southern Lake Michigan) Terry Pepper on lighthouses of the western Great Lakes Wagner, John L., Beacons Shining in the Night, Michigan lighthouse bibliography, chronology, history, and photographs, Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University] | Lake_Michigan |@lemmatized lake:75 michigan:63 one:7 five:1 great:27 north:5 america:1 locate:2 entirely:2 within:6 united:3 state:37 third:3 large:8 bound:1 west:3 east:6 u:1 wisconsin:8 illinois:7 indiana:12 word:2 originally:2 use:1 refer:2 believe:3 come:1 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external_link:1 |
3,608 | Nicaragua_Canal | Artist's conception of the proposed canal, 1899 The Inter-Oceanic Nicaragua Canal is a proposed waterway that would connect the Caribbean Sea, and therefore the Atlantic Ocean, with the Pacific Ocean through Nicaragua, in Central America. Such a canal would follow rivers up to Lake Nicaragua and then cut across the isthmus of Rivas to reach the Pacific. Construction of a canal along the route using the San Juan River was proposed in the early colonial era. Louis Napoleon wrote an article about its feasibility in the early 19th century. Plans by the United States to build such a canal were abandoned in the early 20th century, after the purchase of the French interests in the Panama Canal at a reasonable cost. Speculation on a new canal continues, however; the steady increase in world shipping, together with the possibility of establishing shorter shipping routes, may make this a viable project. Alternatively, a railway, or a combined railway and oil pipeline, could be built to link ports on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Route Several possible routes have been proposed for a canal in Nicaragua, all making use of Lake Nicaragua, the second largest lake in Latin America. Three routes have been discussed to carry traffic from the Atlantic up to the lake, which is at an elevation of above sea level: from Bluefields, up the Rio Escondido and then an artificial canal to the lake from Punta Gorda, up the Rio Punta Gorda and then an artificial canal to the lake from San Juan del Norte, up the Rio San Juan — with improvements and new locks - to the lake An artificial canal would then be cut across the narrow isthmus of Rivas (its lowest point is above sea level) to reach the Pacific Ocean at San Juan del Sur. History The idea of building a canal through Central America is a very old one. Under the colonial administration of New Spain, preliminary surveys were conducted. The routes usually suggested ran across Nicaragua, Panama, or the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico. The Nicaragua canal was seriously proposed by the newly established Federal Republic of Central America in 1825. That year the Central American federal government hired surveyors to chart the route and contacted the government of the United States in the hopes that the U.S. might contribute the financing and engineering technology needed for building the canal, to the great advantage of both nations. A survey from the 1830s stated that the canal would be long and would generally follow the San Juan River from the Atlantic to Lake Nicaragua, then go through a series of locks and tunnels from the lake to the Pacific. 1895 cartoon advocating U.S. action to build the Nicaragua Canal The Federal Republic of Central America proposal made a favorable impression in Washington, D.C., and was formally presented to the Congress of the United States by Secretary of State Henry Clay in 1826. The poverty and political instability of the region, as well as the rival strategic and economic interests of the British government, which controlled both British Honduras (later Belize) and the Mosquito Coast, prevented the canal from being built. On August 26, 1849, a contract was signed between Cornelius Vanderbilt, a U.S. businessman, and the Nicaraguan government. It granted the Accessory Transit Company, which Vanderbilt controlled, the exclusive right to build a canal within 12 years and gave the same company sole administration of a temporary trade route in which the overland crossing through the Rivas isthmus was done by train and stagecoach. The temporary route operated successfully, quickly becoming one of the main avenues of trade between New York City and San Francisco, but a civil war in Nicaragua and an invasion by freebooter William Walker intervened to prevent the canal from being completed. Continued interest in the route was an important factor in the negotiation of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850. The canal idea was discussed seriously by businessmen and governments throughout the 19th century. In 1897, the United States' Nicaraguan Canal Commission proposed this idea, as did the subsequent Isthmian Canal Commission in 1899. However, the commission also recommended that the French work on the Panama Canal should be taken over if it could be purchased for no more than $40,000,000. Since the French effort was in utter disarray, the U.S. was able to make the purchase at its price. In the late 19th century, the United States government negotiated with President Jose Santos Zelaya to lease the land so they could build a canal through Nicaragua. Luis Felipe Corea, the Nicaraguan minister in Washington, wrote to United States Secretary of State John Hay expressing support of such a canal by the Zelaya government. The Sánchez-Merry Treaty with Nicaragua was signed in case the negotiations of a canal through Colombia fell through, although it was later rejected by John Hay. In the end the Spooner Act (which proposed a canal through Panama) was presented before Corea completed a draft of the Nicaragua canal. In addition to the earlier completion of the Panama canal proposal, opponents of the Nicaraguan canal suggested Momotombo posed a threat of volcanic activity, as depicted on a Nicaraguan stamp, although in reality it was far away from the site. They favored construction of a canal through the isthmus of Panama. According to Stephen Kinzer's 2006 book Overthrow, in 1898 the chief of the French Canal Syndicate (a group that owned large swathes of land across Panama), Philippe Bunau Varilla, hired William Nelson Cromwell (from the U.S. law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell) to lobby the U.S. Congress to build a canal across Panama. In 1902, using a 10-cent Nicaraguan postal stamp produced by the American Bank Note Company erroneously depicting a fuming Momotombo volcano (which was nearly dormant and stood more than from the proposed Nicaraguan canal path), and taking advantage of a particularly volcanic year in the Caribbean, Cromwell planted a story in the New York Sun reporting that the Momotombo volcano had erupted and caused a series of seismic shocks. Ultimately, the decision on which canal to build was made in a 1902 Senate vote. Prior to the vote, lobbyists for the Panama Canal, represented by William Nelson Cromwell, sent leaflets with the stamps featuring the Momotombo volcano pasted on them to every Senator as proof of the volcanic activity in Nicaragua. A subsequent eruption in Saint-Pierre, Martinique which killed 30,000 people was enough to persuade the U.S. Congress to vote in favour of Panama, leaving only eight votes in favour of Nicaragua. The decision to build the Panama Canal passed by four votes. William Nelson Cromwell was paid $800,000 for his lobbying efforts. Kinzer, Stephen, Overthrow. Henry Holt and Company (2006), p. 58-59, ISBN 0-8050-8240-9 At the start of the 20th century, Nicaraguan president José Santos Zelaya attempted to arrange for Germany and Japan to finance the canal. This was opposed by the U.S., which by then had settled on the Panama route. After the Panama Canal The relative locations of the Nicaragua and Panama Canals At various times since the Panama Canal opened in 1914, the Nicaragua route has been reconsidered. Its construction would shorten the water distance between New York and San Francisco by nearly 800 kilometers (500 miles). Under the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty of 1916, the United States paid Nicaragua US$3 million for an option in perpetuity and free of taxation, including 99-year leases of the Corn Islands and a site for a naval base on the Gulf of Fonseca. Costa Rica protested that Costa Rican rights to the San Juan River had been infringed, and El Salvador maintained that the proposed naval base would affect both it and Honduras. Both protests were upheld by the Central American Court of Justice in rulings that are not recognized by either Nicaragua or the U.S. The Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was repealed by Nicaragua in the 1970s. Present day As of 2004, the Nicaraguan government is again proposing a canal through the country—large enough to handle post-Panamax ships of up to 250,000 tons, as compared to the approximately 65,000 tons that the Panama Canal can accommodate. The estimated cost of this scheme may be as much as US$25 billion, 25 times Nicaragua's annual budget. Former President Enrique Bolaños has sought foreign investors to support the project. The scheme has met with strong opposition from environmentalists, who protest the damage that would be done to the rivers and jungle. In addition to the canal proposal, there are private proposals for a land bridge across Nicaragua. The Intermodal System for Global Transport (SIT Global), involving Nicaraguan and Canadian investors, proposes a combined railway, oil pipeline, and fibre optic cable; a competing group, the Inter-Ocean Canal of Nicaragua, proposes building a railway linking two ports on either coast. It is possible that these schemes could exist in parallel to the proposed canal. NICARAGUA: Plan for Inter-Ocean Canal Reborn, an analysis of several proposed land and water routes for cargo across Nicaragua, from Inter Press Service. Retrieved March 7, 2006. On October 2 2006, President Enrique Bolaños, at a summit for Defense ministers of the Western Hemisphere, officially announced that Nicaragua had sincere intentions of going ahead with the project. Bolaños said that there was sufficient demand for two canals within the Central American isthmus. Bolaños proclaimed that the project would cost an estimated US$18 billion and would take approximately 12 years to construct. It could take one of six possible routes at approximately 280 km, reduce the transit time from New York to California by one day and a total of 800 km, would considerably reduce transit costs from Europe to China and Japan, and have capacity for ships of up to 250,000 tons. The construction of the canal would more than double Nicaragua's GDP based on the canal alone (exclusive of other investments which would evidently flow into Nicaragua as a result of the canal's construction). Some sources even suggest that with the construction of the canal, Nicaragua could become one of the wealthiest countries in Central America, and one of the wealthiest countries in Latin America in per capita terms. Nicaragua Hopes to Rival Panama Canal Currently, the committee for the canal is preparing a proposal to be approved by the National Parliament after which private companies may bid for the project. The project is expected to create 40,000 direct jobs and another 200,000 indirectly. It is expected that all Central America would benefit from the construction of the canal. If a Nicaraguan canal were built, "it would bring an economic effervescence never seen before in Central America," Bolaños said. Los Angeles Times Notes References Mellander, Gustavo A.(1971) The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Daville,Ill.:Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568. Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1563281554. OCLC 42970390. 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3,609 | Benjamin_Franklin | Benjamin Franklin ( April 17, 1790) was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. A noted polymath, Franklin was a leading author and printer, satirist, political theorist, politician, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the Enlightenment and the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, a carriage odometer, and the glass 'armonica'. He formed both the first public lending library in America and first fire department in Pennsylvania. He was an early proponent of colonial unity, and as a political writer and activist he supported the idea of an American nation. Block, Seymour Stanton. Benjamin Franklin: America's Inventor from HistoryNet.com As a diplomat during the American Revolution he secured the French alliance that helped to make independence of the United States possible. Franklin is credited as being foundational to the roots of American values and character, a marriage of the practical and democratic Puritan values of thrift, hard work, education, community spirit, self-governing institutions, and opposition to authoritarianism both political and religious, with the scientific and tolerant values of the Enlightenment. In the words of Henry Steele Commager, "In Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat." Isaacson 2003, p. 491 To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin, "the most accomplished American of his age and the most influential in inventing the type of society America would become." Isaacson 2003, p. 492 Franklin became a newspaper editor, printer, and merchant in Philadelphia, becoming very wealthy, writing and publishing Poor Richard's Almanack and the Pennsylvania Gazette. Franklin was interested in science and technology, and gained international renown for his famous experiments. He played a major role in establishing the University of Pennsylvania and Franklin & Marshall College and was elected the first president of the American Philosophical Society. Franklin became a national hero in America when he spearheaded the effort to have Parliament repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a major figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. From 1775 to 1776, Franklin was Postmaster General under the Continental Congress and from 1785 to 1788 was President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania. Toward the end of his life, he became one of the most prominent abolitionists. His colorful life and legacy of scientific and political achievement, and status as one of America's most influential Founding Fathers, has seen Franklin honored on coinage and money; warships; the names of many towns, counties, educational institutions, namesakes, and companies; and more than two centuries after his death, countless cultural references. Biography Ancestry Franklin's father, Josiah Franklin, was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England on December 23, 1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith and farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15, 1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher and his wife Mary Morrill, a former indentured servant. A descendant of the Folgers, J.A. Folger, founded Folgers Coffee in the 19th century. Josiah Franklin had seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683; they had three children before emigrating, and four after. After her death, Josiah was married to Abiah Folger on July 9, 1689 in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their eighth child, was Josiah Franklin's fifteenth child and tenth and last son. Josiah Franklin converted to Puritanism in the 1670s. Puritanism was a Protestant movement in England to "purify" Anglicanism from elements of the Roman Catholic religion, which they considered superstitious. Three things were important to the Puritans: that each congregation would be self-governing, that ministers give sermons instead of performing rituals such as a Mass, and individual Bible study so that each believer could develop a personal understanding and relationship with God. Puritanism appealed to smart, middle-class people such as Benjamin Franklin's father, who enjoyed the governance meetings, discussion, study, and personal independence. Isaacson 2003, p. 8 The roots of American democracy can be seen in these Puritan values of self-government, the importance of the individual and active indignation against unjust authority, which were passed on to Benjamin Franklin and other founding fathers, such as John Adams. One of Josiah's core Puritan values was that personal worth is earned through hard work, which makes the industrious man the equal of kings, which Ben Franklin etched onto his father's tombstone, from his father Josiah's favorite Bible quote, from the Hebrew Bible, Proverbs 22:29: "Seest thou a man diligent in his calling, he shall stand before Kings." Isaacson 2003, p. 12 Hard work and equality were two Puritan values Ben Franklin preached throughout his own life (ibid, p 78) and spread widely through Poor Richard's Almanac and his autobiography. Ben Franklin's mother, Abiah Folger, was born into a Puritan family that was among the first Pilgrims to flee to Massachusetts for religious freedom, when King Charles I of England began persecuting Protestants. They sailed for Boston in 1635. Her father was "the sort of rebel destined to transform colonial America." Isaacson 2003, p. 14 As clerk of the court, he was jailed for disobeying the local magistrate in defense of middle-class shopkeepers and artisans in conflict with wealthy landowners. Ben Franklin followed in his grandfather's footsteps in his battles against the wealthy Penn family that owned the Pennsylvania Colony. Early life Franklin's Birthplace on Milk Street, Boston, Massachusetts Franklin's Birthplace site directly across from Old South Meeting House on Milk Street is commemorated by a bust above the second floor facade of this building Benjamin Franklin was born on Milk Street, in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 17, 1706 The Story of Ben's Birthdate. University of Pennsylvania, alumni. and baptized at Old South Meeting House. His father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a maker of candles and soap, whose second wife, Abiah Folger, was Benjamin's mother. Josiah's marriages produced 17 children; Benjamin was the fifteenth child and youngest son. Josiah wanted Ben to attend school with the clergy but only had enough money to send him to school for two years. He attended Boston Latin School but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. Although "his parents talked of the church as a career" for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten. He then worked for his father for a time and at 12 he became an apprentice to his brother James, a printer, who taught Ben the printing trade. When Ben was 15, James created The New-England Courant, the first truly independent newspaper in the colonies. When denied the chance to write a letter to the paper for publication, Franklin invented the pseudonym of "Mrs. Silence Dogood," who was ostensibly a middle-aged widow. Her letters were published, and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the Courant's readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Ben when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin left his apprenticeship without permission, and in so doing became a fugitive. Van Doren, Carl. Benjamin Franklin. (1938). Penguin reprint 1991. At age 17, Franklin ran away to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived he worked in several printer shops around town. However, he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects. After a few months, while working in a printing house, Franklin was convinced by Pennsylvania Governor Sir William Keith to go to London, ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia. Finding Keith's promises of backing a newspaper to be empty, Franklin worked as a typesetter in a printer's shop in what is now the Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great in the Smithfield area of London. Following this, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of a merchant named Thomas Denham, who gave Franklin a position as clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in Denham's merchant business. In 1727, Benjamin Franklin, 21, created the Junto, a group of "like minded aspiring artisans and tradesmen who hoped to improve themselves while they improved their community." The Junto was a discussion group for issues of the day; it subsequently gave rise to many organizations in Philadelphia. Reading was a great pastime of the Junto, but books were rare and expensive. The members created a library, and initially pooled their own books together. This did not work, however, and Franklin initiated the idea of a subscription library, where the members pooled their monetary resources to buy books. This idea was the birth of the Library Company, with the charter of the Library Company of Philadelphia created in 1731 by Franklin. Franklin hired the first American librarian in 1732, Louis Timothee. Benjamin Franklin (center) at work on a printing press, as depicted in a painting by Charles E. Mills Originally, the books were kept in the homes of the first librarians, but in 1739 the collection was moved to the second floor of the State House of Pennsylvania, now known as Independence Hall. In 1791, a new building was built specifically for the library. The Library Company flourished with no competition and gained many priceless collections from bibliophiles such as James Logan and his physician brother William. The Library Company is now a great scholarly and research library with 500,000 rare books, pamphlets, and broadsides, more than 160,000 manuscripts, and 75,000 graphic items. Upon Denham's death, Franklin returned to his former trade. By 1730, Franklin had set up a printing house of his own and had contrived to become the publisher of a newspaper called The Pennsylvania Gazette. The Gazette gave Franklin a forum for agitation about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through printed essays and observations. Over time, his commentary, together with a great deal of savvy about cultivating a positive image of an industrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect; though even after Franklin had achieved fame as a scientist and statesman, he habitually signed his letters with the unpretentious 'B. Franklin, Printer.' In 1731, Franklin was initiated into the local Freemason lodge, becoming a grand master in 1734, indicating his rapid rise to prominence in Pennsylvania. The History Channel, Mysteries of the Freemasons: America, video documentary, August 1, 2006, written by Noah Nicholas and Molly Bedell Freemasonry Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon website. That same year, he edited and published the first Masonic book in the Americas, a reprint of James Anderson's Constitutions of the Free-Masons. Franklin remained a Freemason throughout the rest of his life. Van Horne, John C. "The History and Collections of the Library Company of Philadelphia," The Magazine Antiques, v. 170. no. 2: 58–65 (1971). Lemay, J.A. Leo. "Franklin, Benjamin (1706–1790)," Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. ed. H.C.G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford: OUP, 2004). Common-law marriage to Deborah Read At the age of 17, Franklin proposed to 15-year-old Deborah Read while a boarder in the Read home. At that time, the mother was wary of allowing her young daughter to wed Franklin, who was on his way to London at Governor Sir William Keith's request, and also because of his financial instability. Her own husband having recently died, Mrs. Read declined his offer of marriage to her daughter. While Franklin was in London, his trip was extended, and there were problems to do with Sir William's promises of support. Perhaps because of the circumstances of this delay, Deborah married a man named John Rodgers. This proved to be a regrettable decision. Rodgers shortly avoided his debts and prosecution by fleeing to Barbados with her dowry, leaving Deborah behind. With Rodgers' fate unknown, and bigamy illegal, Deborah was not free to remarry. Franklin established a common-law marriage with Deborah Read on September 1, 1730, Benjamin Franklin on Crystalinks and besides taking in young William, together they had two children. The first, Francis Folger Franklin, born October 1732, died of smallpox in 1736. Sarah Franklin, nicknamed Sally, was born in 1743. She eventually married Richard Bache, had seven children, and cared for her father in his old age. Deborah's fear of the sea meant that she never accompanied Franklin on any of his extended trips to Europe, despite his repeated requests. However, Franklin did not leave London to visit Deborah even after she wrote to him in November 1769 saying her illness was due to “dissatisfied distress” because of his prolonged absence. November 1769 Letter from Deborah Read to Ben Franklin, franklinpapers.org Deborah Read Franklin died of a stroke in 1774, while Benjamin was on an extended trip to England. Illegitimate son William In 1730, at the age of 24, Franklin publicly acknowledged an illegitimate son named William, who would eventually become the last Loyalist governor of New Jersey. While the identity of William's mother remains unknown, perhaps the responsibility of an infant child gave Franklin a reason to take up residence with Deborah Read. William was raised in the Franklin household but eventually broke with his father over opinions regarding the treatment of the colonies by the British government. The elder Franklin could never accept William's decision to declare his loyalty to the crown. Any hope of reconcillation was shattered when William Franklin became leader of the The Board of Associated Loyalists—a quasi-military organization, headquartered in British occupied New York City, which, among other things, launched guerilla forages into New Jersey, southern Connecticut, and New York counties north of the city. Fleming, Thomas, "The Perils of Peace: America's Struggle for Survival",(Collins, NY, 2007)p. 30 In the preliminary peace talks in 1782 with Britain "...Franklin insisted that loyalists who had borne arms against the United States would be excluded from this plea (that they be given a general pardon). He was undoubtedly thinking of William Franklin." Ibid. Flemming,p.236 . William left New York along with the British troops. He settled in England, never to return. Success as an author In 1733, Franklin began to publish the famous Poor Richard's Almanack (with content both original and borrowed) under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, on which much of his popular reputation is based. Franklin frequently wrote under pseudonyms. Although it was no secret that Franklin was the author, his Richard Saunders character repeatedly denied it. "Poor Richard's Proverbs," adages from this almanac, such as "A penny saved is twopence dear" (often misquoted as "A penny saved is a penny earned"), "Fish and visitors stink in three days" remain common quotations in the modern world. Wisdom in folk society meant the ability to provide an apt adage for any occasion, and Franklin's readers became well prepared. He sold about ten thousand copies per year (a circulation equivalent to nearly three million today). In 1758, the year in which he ceased writing for the Almanack, he printed Father Abraham's Sermon, also known as The Way to Wealth. Franklin's autobiography, published after his death, has become one of the classics of the genre. Inventions and scientific inquiries Glass Armonica. Franklin was a prodigious inventor. Among his many creations were the lightning rod, the glass armonica (a glass instrument, not to be confused with the metal harmonica), the Franklin stove, bifocal glasses, and the flexible urinary catheter. Franklin never patented his inventions; in his autobiography he wrote, "... as we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others, we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by any invention of ours; and this we should do freely and generously." His inventions also included social innovations, such as paying forward. Franklin's fascination with innovation could be viewed as altruistic; he wrote that his scientific works were to be used for increasing efficiency and human improvement. One such improvement was his effort to expedite news services through his printing presses. Franklin, Benjamin. "The Pennsylvania Gazette". <http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/framedNames.jsp> October 23, 1729 As deputy postmaster, Franklin became interested in the North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns. In 1768 Franklin visited England as postmaster general and there he heard a curious complaint by Colonial board of Customs: Why did it take British mail ships which were called packets a couple of weeks longer to reach New York from England than it took an average merchant ship to reach Newport, Rhode Island despite merchants ships leaving London having to sail down Thames and then the length of the English channel before they sailed across Atlantic, while the packets left from Falmouth in Cornwall right on the ocean's doorstep. Intrigued, Franklin invited his cousin Timothy Folger, an experienced Nantucket whaler captain, who happened to be in London at that time, for dinner. Folger told him that Merchant ships routinely avoided Gulf stream while the mail packet captains sailed dead into its foul easterly set despite American whalers telling them that they were stemming a current to the value of three miles an hour. Franklin worked with Folger and other experienced ship captains, learning enough to chart the Gulf Stream, giving it the name by which it is still known today. It took many years for British sea captains to follow Franklin's advice on navigating the current, but once they did, they were able to gain two weeks in sailing time. 1785: Benjamin Franklin's 'Sundry Maritime Observations', The Academy of Natural Sciences, April, 1939m 1785: Benjamin Franklin's 'Sundry Maritime Observations' . NOAA Ocean Explorer. Franklin's Gulf Stream chart got published in 1770, in England where it was completely ignored. Subsequent versions were printed in France in 1778 and the United states in 1786. The British edition of the chart which was the original was so thoroughly ignored that everyone assumed it was lost forever until, Phil Richardson, a Woods Hole Oceanographer and Gulf Stream expert discovered it in Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. This got front page coverage in the New York Times. In 1743, Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society to help scientific men discuss their discoveries and theories. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life, in between bouts of politics and moneymaking. An illustration from Franklin's paper on "Water-spouts and Whirlwinds." In 1748, he retired from printing and went into other businesses. He created a partnership with his foreman, David Hall, which provided Franklin with half of the shop's profits for 18 years. This lucrative business arrangement provided leisure time for study, and in a few years he had made discoveries that gave him a reputation with the educated throughout Europe and especially in France. His discoveries included his investigations of electricity. Franklin proposed that "vitreous" and "resinous" electricity were not different types of "electrical fluid" (as electricity was called then), but the same electrical fluid under different pressures. He was the first to label them as positive and negative respectively, Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790). Science World, from Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography. and he was the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge. Conservation of Charge. In 1750, he published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a kite in a storm that appeared capable of becoming a lightning storm. On May 10, 1752, Thomas-François Dalibard of France conducted Franklin's experiment using a -tall iron rod instead of a kite, and he extracted electrical sparks from a cloud. On June 15, Franklin may have possibly conducted his famous kite experiment in Philadelphia and also successfully extracted sparks from a cloud, although there are theories that suggest he never performed the experiment. Franklin's experiment was not written up until Joseph Priestley's 1767 History and Present Status of Electricity; the evidence shows that Franklin was insulated (not in a conducting path, since he would have been in danger of electrocution in the event of a lightning strike). Others, such as Prof. Georg Wilhelm Richmann of Saint Petersburg, Russia, were electrocuted during the months following Franklin's experiment. In his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of electrical ground. If Franklin did perform this experiment, he may not have done it in the way that is often described, flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning, as it could have been dangerous. Franklin's Kite. Museum of Science, Boston. Instead, he used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm cloud, which implied that lightning was electrical. On October 19 in a letter to England explaining directions for repeating the experiment, Franklin wrote: Franklin's electrical experiments led to his invention of the lightning rod. He noted that conductors with a sharp rather than a smooth point were capable of discharging silently, and at a far greater distance. He surmised that this knowledge could be of use in protecting buildings from lightning, by attaching "upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground;...Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!" Following a series of experiments on Franklin's own house, lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the University of Pennsylvania) and the Pennsylvania State House (later Independence Hall) in 1752. Krider, E. Philip. Benjamin Franklin and Lightning Rods. Physics Today. January 2006. In recognition of his work with electricity, Franklin received the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1753, and in 1756 he became one of the few eighteenth century Americans to be elected as a Fellow of the Society. The cgs unit of electric charge has been named after him: one franklin (Fr) is equal to one statcoulomb. Franklin was, along with his contemporary Leonard Euler, the only major scientist who supported Christiaan Huygens' wave theory of light, basically ignored by the rest of scientific community. In the XVIII century Newton's corpuscular theory was held to be true; only after the famous Young's slit experiment were most of the scientists persuaded to believe Huygens' theory. Jogn Gribbin, ""In search of Schroedinger's cat"", Black Swan, p. 12 On October 21, 1743, according to popular myth, a storm moving from the southwest denied Franklin the opportunity of witnessing a lunar eclipse. Franklin was said to have noted that the prevailing winds were actually from the northeast, contrary to what he had expected. In correspondence with his brother, Franklin learned that the same storm had not reached Boston until after the eclipse, despite the fact that Boston is to the northeast of Philadelphia. He deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept which would have great influence in meteorology. Heidorn, Keith C. Heidorn, PhD. Eclipsed By Storm. The Weather Doctor. October 1, 2003. Franklin noted a principle of refrigeration by observing that on a very hot day, he stayed cooler in a wet shirt in a breeze than he did in a dry one. To understand this phenomenon more clearly Franklin conducted experiments. On one warm day in Cambridge, England, in 1758, Franklin and fellow scientist John Hadley experimented by continually wetting the ball of a mercury thermometer with ether and using bellows to evaporate the ether. With each subsequent evaporation, the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7°F (−14°C). Another thermometer showed the room temperature to be constant at 65°F (18°C). In his letter "Cooling by Evaporation," Franklin noted that "one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer’s day." An aging Franklin accumulated all his Oceanographic findings in Maritime Observations, published by the Philosophical Society's transactions in 1786. It contained ideas for sea anchors, catamaran hulls, watertight compartments, shipboard lighting rods, and a soup bowl designed to stay stable in stormy weather! There is also a story, perhaps apocryphal, that during the American War of Independence Franklin toyed around with the idea of using the Atlantic Gulf Stream as a weapon if somehow it could be deflected, as with a dike, England could be plunged into a new ice age. Musical endeavors Franklin is known to have played the violin, the harp, and the guitar. He also composed music, notably a string quartet in early classical style, and invented a much-improved version of the glass harmonica, in which each glass was made to rotate on its own, with the player's fingers held steady, instead of the other way around; this version soon found its way to Europe. Bloch, Thomas. The Glassharmonica. GFI Scientific. Chess Franklin was an avid chess player. He was playing chess by around 1733, making him the first chess player known by name in the American colonies. John McCrary, Chess and Benjamin Franklin-His Pioneering Contributions (PDF). Retrieved on 2009-04-26. His essay on the "Morals of Chess" in Columbian Magazine, in December 1786 is the second known writing on chess in America. This essay in praise of chess and prescribing a code of behavior for it has been widely reprinted and translated. David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld, The Oxford Companion to Chess, Oxford University Press (2nd ed. 1992), p. 145. IBSN 0-19-866164-9. The essay appears in Marcello Truzzi (ed.), Chess in Literature, Avon Books, 1974, pp. 14–15. ISBN 0-380-00164-0. The essay appears in a book by the felicitously-named Norman Knight, Chess Pieces, CHESS magazine, Sutton Coldfield, England (2nd ed. 1968), pp. 5–6. ISBN 0-380-00164-0. Franklin's essay is also reproduced at the U.S. Chess Center Museum and Hall of Fame in Washington, D.C.. Accessed on December 3, 2008. He and a friend also used chess as a means of learning the Italian language, which both were studying; the winner of each game between them had the right to assign a task, such as parts of the Italian grammar to be learned by heart, to be performed by the loser before their next meeting. William Temple Franklin, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin, reprinted in Knight, Chess Pieces, pp. 136-37. Franklin was inducted into the US Chess Hall of Fame in 1999. Public life Pennsylvania Hospital by William Strickland, 1755 Sketch of the original Tun Tavern Join, or Die: This political cartoon by Franklin urged the colonies to join together during the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War). Benjamin Franklin by Benjamin Wilson, 1759. In 1736, Franklin created the Union Fire Company, one of the first volunteer firefighting companies in America. In the same year, he printed a new currency for New Jersey based on innovative anti-counterfeiting techniques which he had devised. Throughout his career, Franklin was an advocate for paper money, publishing A Modest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency in 1729, and his printer printed money. He was influential in the more restrained and thus successful monetary experiments in the Middle Colonies, which stopped deflation without causing excessive inflation. In 1766 he made a case for paper money to the British House of Commons. John Kenneth Galbraith. (1975). Money: Where It Came, Whence It Went pp. 54–54. Houghton Mifflin Company. As he matured, Franklin began to concern himself more with public affairs. In 1743, he set forth a scheme for The Academy and College of Philadelphia. He was appointed president of the academy in November 13, 1749, and it opened on August 13, 1751. At its first commencement, on May 17, 1757, seven men graduated; six with a Bachelor of Arts and one as Master of Arts. It was later merged with the University of the State of Pennsylvania to become the University of Pennsylvania. Franklin became involved in Philadelphia politics and rapidly progressed. In October 1748, he was selected as a councilman, in June 1749 he became a Justice of the Peace for Philadelphia, and in 1751 he was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly. On August 10, 1753, Franklin was appointed joint deputy postmaster-general of North America. His most notable service in domestic politics was his reform of the postal system, but his fame as a statesman rests chiefly on his subsequent diplomatic services in connection with the relations of the colonies with Great Britain, and later with France. In 1751, Franklin and Dr. Thomas Bond obtained a charter from the Pennsylvania legislature to establish a hospital. Pennsylvania Hospital was the first hospital in what was to become the United States of America. In 1753, both Harvard and Yale awarded him honorary degrees. Benjamin Franklin resume. Official Visitor Site for Greater Philadelphia. In 1754, he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the Albany Congress. This meeting of several colonies had been requested by the Board of Trade in England to improve relations with the Indians and defense against the French. Franklin proposed a broad Plan of Union for the colonies. While the plan was not adopted, elements of it found their way into the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution. In 1756, Franklin organized the Pennsylvania Militia (see "Associated Regiment of Philadelphia" under heading of Pennsylvania's 103rd Artillery and 111th Infantry Regiment at Continental Army). He used Tun Tavern as a gathering place to recruit a regiment of soldiers to go into battle against the Native American uprisings that beset the American colonies. {Reportably Franklin was elected "Colonel" of the Associated Regiment but declined the honor}. Also in 1756, Franklin became a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (now Royal Society of Arts or RSA, which had been founded in 1754), whose early meetings took place in coffee shops in London's Covent Garden district, close to Franklin's main residence in Craven Street (the only one of his residences to survive and which opened to the public as the Benjamin Franklin House museum on January 17, 2006). After his return to America, Franklin became the Society's Corresponding Member and remained closely connected with the Society. The RSA instituted a Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1956 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Franklin's birth and the 200th anniversary of his membership of the RSA. In 1757, he was sent to England by the Pennsylvania Assembly as a colonial agent to protest against the political influence of the Penn family, the proprietors of the colony. He remained there for five years, striving to end the proprietors' prerogative to overturn legislation from the elected Assembly, and their exemption from paying taxes on their land. His lack of influential allies in Whitehall led to the failure of this mission. Whilst in London, Franklin became involved in radical politics. He was a member of the Club of Honest Whigs, alongside thinkers such as Richard Price, the minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church who ignited the Revolution Controversy. During his stays at Craven Street between 1757 and 1775, Franklin developed a close friendship with his landlady, Margaret Stevenson and her circle of friends and relations, in particular her daughter Mary, who was more often known as Polly. In 1759, he visited Edinburgh with his son, and recalled his conversations there as "the densest happiness of my life." Buchan, James. Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind. HarperCollins Publishers. 2003. p.2 . In February 1759, the University of St Andrews awarded him an Honorary Doctor of Laws degree and in October of the same year he was granted Freedom of the Borough of St. Andrews. The Kate Kennedy Club In 1762, Oxford University awarded Franklin an honorary doctorate for his scientific accomplishments and from then on he went by "Doctor Franklin." He also managed to secure a post for his illegitimate son, William Franklin, as Colonial Governor of New Jersey. He also joined the influential Birmingham based Lunar Society with whom he regularly corresponded and on occasion, visited in Birmingham in the West Midlands. Coming of Revolution In 1763, soon after Franklin returned to Pennsylvania, the western frontier was engulfed in a bitter war known as Pontiac's Rebellion. The Paxton Boys, a group of settlers convinced that the Pennsylvania government was not doing enough to protect them from American Indian raids, murdered a group of peaceful Susquehannock Indians and then marched on Philadelphia. Franklin helped to organize the local militia in order to defend the capital against the mob, and then met with the Paxton leaders and persuaded them to disperse. Franklin wrote a scathing attack against the racial prejudice of the Paxton Boys. "If an Indian injures me," he asked, "does it follow that I may revenge that Injury on all Indians?" Franklin, Benjamin. "A Narrative of the Late Massacres..." reprinted on The History Carper. At this time, many members of the Pennsylvania Assembly were feuding with William Penn's heirs, who controlled the colony as proprietors. Franklin led the "anti-proprietary party" in the struggle against the Penn family, and was elected Speaker of the Pennsylvania House in May 1764. His call for a change from proprietary to royal government was a rare political miscalculation, however: Pennsylvanians worried that such a move would endanger their political and religious freedoms. Because of these fears, and because of political attacks on his character, Franklin lost his seat in the October 1764 Assembly elections. The anti-proprietary party dispatched Franklin to England to continue the struggle against the Penn family proprietorship, but during this visit, events would drastically change the nature of his mission. J. A. Leo Lemay, "Franklin, Benjamin". American National Biography Online, February 2000. In London, Franklin opposed the 1765 Stamp Act, but when he was unable to prevent its passage, he made another political miscalculation and recommended a friend to the post of stamp distributor for Pennsylvania. Pennsylvanians were outraged, believing that he had supported the measure all along, and threatened to destroy his home in Philadelphia. Franklin soon learned of the extent of colonial resistance to the Stamp Act, and his testimony before the House of Commons led to its repeal. With this, Franklin suddenly emerged as the leading spokesman for American interests in England. He wrote popular essays on behalf of the colonies, and Georgia, New Jersey, and Massachusetts also appointed him as their agent to the Crown. Franklin in 1783, an engraving from a painting by Joseph Duplessis. In September 1767, Franklin visited Paris with his usual traveling partner, Sir John Pringle. News of his electrical discoveries was widespread in France. His reputation meant that he was introduced to many influential scientists and politicians, and also to King Louis XV. Isaacson, Walter. Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. Simon & Schuster. 2003. While living in London in 1768, he developed a phonetic alphabet in A Scheme for a new Alphabet and a Reformed Mode of Spelling. This reformed alphabet discarded six letters Franklin regarded as redundant (c, j, q, w, x, and y), and substituted six new letters for sounds he felt lacked letters of their own. His new alphabet, however, never caught on and he eventually lost interest. Benjamin Franklin's Phonetic Alphabet. Omniglot.com. In 1771, Franklin traveled extensively around the British Isles staying with, among others, Joseph Priestley and David Hume. In Dublin, Franklin was invited to sit with the members of the Irish Parliament rather than in the gallery. He was the first American to be given this honor. Sparks, Jared. Life of Benjamin Franklin. US History.org. While touring Ireland, he was moved by the level of poverty he saw. Ireland's economy was affected by the same trade regulations and laws of Britain which governed America. Franklin feared that America could suffer the same effects should Britain’s "colonial exploitation" continue. Benjamin Franklin. PBS.org. In 1773, Franklin published two of his most celebrated pro-American satirical essays: Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One, and An Edict by the King of Prussia. Franklin, Benjamin. reprinted on The History Carper. He also published an Abridgment of the Book of Common Prayer, anonymously with Francis Dashwood. Among the unusual features of this work is a funeral service reduced to six minutes in length, "to preserve the health and lives of the living." Hutchinson letters Franklin obtained private letters of Massachusetts governor Thomas Hutchinson and lieutenant governor Andrew Oliver which proved they were encouraging London to crack down on the rights of the Bostonians. Franklin sent them to America where they escalated the tensions. Franklin now appeared to the British as the fomenter of serious trouble. Hopes for a peaceful solution ended as he was systematically ridiculed and humiliated by the Privy Council. He left London in March, 1775. Declaration of Independence John Trumbull depicts the Committee of Five presenting their work to the Congress. Key to Declaration American Revolution.org. By the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on May 5, 1775, the American Revolution had begun with fighting at Lexington and Concord. The New England militia had trapped the main British army in Boston. The Pennsylvania Assembly unanimously chose Franklin as their delegate to the Second Continental Congress. In June, 1776, he was appointed a member of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Although he was temporarily disabled by gout and unable to attend most meetings of the Committee, Franklin made several small changes to the draft sent to him by Thomas Jefferson. At the signing, he is quoted as having replied to a comment by Hancock that they must all hang together: "Yes, we must, indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately." Ambassador to France: 1776–1785 Franklin, in his hat, charmed the French with what they saw as rustic new world genius. Such was the number of portraits, busts and medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris that he would have been recognized from them by any adult citizen in any part of the civilized world. Many of these portraits bore inscriptions, the most famous of which was Turgot's line, "" — In December, 1776, Franklin was dispatched to France as commissioner for the United States. He lived in a home in the Parisian suburb of Passy, donated by Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont who supported the United States. Franklin remained in France until 1785. He conducted the affairs of his country towards the French nation with great success, which included securing a critical military alliance in 1778 and negotiating the Treaty of Paris (1783). During his stay in France, Benjamin Franklin as a freemason was Grand Master of the Lodge Les Neuf Sœurs from 1779 until 1781. His number was 24 in the Lodge. He was also a Past Grand Master of Pennsylvania. In 1784, when Franz Mesmer began to publicize his theory of "animal magnetism", which was considered offensive by many, Louis XVI appointed a commission to investigate it. These included the chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, the astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly, and Benjamin Franklin. Constitutional Convention When he finally returned home in 1785, Franklin occupied a position only second to that of George Washington as the champion of American independence. Le Ray honored him with a commissioned portrait painted by Joseph Duplessis that now hangs in the National Portrait Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. After his return, Franklin became an abolitionist, freeing both of his slaves. He eventually became president of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society. Citizen Ben, Abolitionist. PBS.org. In 1787, Franklin served as a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention. He held an honorary position and seldom engaged in debate. He is the only Founding Father who is a signatory of all four of the major documents of the founding of the United States: the Declaration of Independence, the Treaty of Paris, the Treaty of Alliance with France, and the United States Constitution. In 1787, a group of prominent ministers in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, proposed the foundation of a new college to be named in Franklin's honor. Franklin donated £200 towards the development of Franklin College, which is now called Franklin & Marshall College. Between 1771 and 1788, he finished his autobiography. While it was at first addressed to his son, it was later completed for the benefit of mankind at the request of a friend. In his later years, as Congress was forced to deal with the issue of slavery, Franklin wrote several essays that attempted to convince his readers of the importance of the abolition of slavery and of the integration of blacks into American society. These writings included: An Address to the Public, (1789) A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks (1789), and Sidi Mehemet Ibrahim on the Slave Trade (1790). In 1790, Quakers from New York and Pennsylvania presented their petition for abolition. Their argument against slavery was backed by the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Society and its president, Benjamin Franklin. President of Pennsylvania Special balloting conducted October 18, 1785 unanimously elected Franklin the sixth President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, replacing John Dickinson. The office of President of Pennsylvania was analogous to the modern position of Governor. It is not clear why Dickinson needed to be replaced with less than two weeks remaining before the regular election. Franklin held that office for slightly over three years, longer than any other, and served the Constitutional limit of three full terms. Shortly after his initial election he was reelected to a full term on October 29, 1785, and again in the fall of 1786 and on October 31, 1787. Officially, his term concluded on November 5, 1788, but there is some question regarding the de facto end of his term, suggesting that the aging Franklin may not have been actively involved in the day-to-day operation of the Council toward the end of his time in office. Virtue, religion, and personal beliefs Like the other advocates of republicanism, Franklin emphasized that the new republic could survive only if the people were virtuous in the sense of attention to civic duty and rejected corruption. All his life he explored the role of civic and personal virtue, as expressed in Poor Richard's aphorisms. Franklin had been baptized and educated in a Presbyterian Church based on the doctrines of John Calvin. Franklin's wife, Deborah, retained a life-long association with Christ Church, Philadelphia. Franklin later in life rarely attended Sunday services but commented that "...Sunday being my studying day, I never was without some religious principles. I never doubted, for instance, the existence of the Deity; that He made the world, and governed it by His providence; that the most acceptable service of God was the doing good to man; that our souls are immortal; and that all crime will be punished, and virtue rewarded, either here or hereafter." Franklin Benjamin"Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography". Section 2 reprinted on UShistory.org. One of Franklin's endearing beliefs was in the respect and tolerance of all religious groups. Referring to his experience in Philadelphia, he wrote in his autobiography, "new Places of worship were continually wanted, and generally erected by voluntary Contribution, my Mite for such purpose, whatever might be the Sect, was never refused." Although Franklin's parents had intended for him to have a career in the church, Franklin became disillusioned with organized religion after discovering Deism. "I soon became a thorough Deist." Franklin, Benjamin. Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography. Chapter IV. reprinted on USGenNet.org. He went on to attack Christian principles of free will and morality in a 1725 pamphlet, A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain. A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain He consistently attacked religious dogma, arguing that morality depended more on virtue and benevolent actions than on strict obedience to religious orthodoxy: "I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me." Letter to his parents (c. 1728), as quoted in Walter Isaacson's Benjamin Franklin: An American Life, Simon & Schuster, 2003. In 1790, just about a month before he died, Franklin wrote the following in a letter to Ezra Stiles, president of Yale University, who had asked him his views on religion: Like most Enlightenment intellectuals, Franklin separated virtue, morality, and faith from organized religion, although he felt that if religion in general grew weaker, morality, virtue, and society in general would also decline. Thus he wrote Thomas Paine, "If men are so wicked with religion, what would they be if without it." According to David Morgan, Morgan, David T. Benjamin Franklin: Champion of Generic Religion. The Historian. 62#4 2000. pp 722+ Franklin was a proponent of all religions. He prayed to "Powerful Goodness" and referred to God as "the infinite". John Adams noted that Franklin was a mirror in which people saw their own religion: "The Catholics thought him almost a Catholic. The Church of England claimed him as one of them. The Presbyterians thought him half a Presbyterian, and the Friends believed him a wet Quaker." Whatever else Franklin was, concludes Morgan, "he was a true champion of generic religion." Ben Franklin was noted to be "the spirit of the Enlightenment." Walter Isaacson argues that Franklin became uncomfortable with an unenhanced version of Deism and came up with his own conception of the Creator. Franklin outlined his concept of deity in 1728, in his Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion. reprinted at The History Carper. From this, Isaacson compares Franklin's conception of deity to that of strict Deists and orthodox Christians. He concludes that unlike most pure Deists, Franklin believed that a faith in God should inform our daily actions, but that, like other Deists, his faith was devoid of sectarian dogma. Isaacson also discusses Franklin's conception that God had created beings who do interfere in worldly matters, a point that has led some commentators, most notably A. Owen Aldridge, to read Franklin as embracing some sort of polytheism, with a bevy of lesser gods overseeing various realms and planets. On July 4, 1776, Congress appointed a committee that included Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams to design the Great Seal of the United States. Skousen, W. Cleon. The Five Thousand Year Leap. National Center for Constitutional Studies (1981), pp. 17–18. summarizes how this committee created and approved the first proposed design for the seal (which ultimately was not adopted). Each member of the committee proposed a unique design: Franklin's proposal featured a design with the motto: "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God." This design was to portray a scene from the Book of Exodus, complete with Moses, the Israelites, the pillar of fire, and George III depicted as Pharaoh. First Great Seal Committee – July/August 1776. Great Seal.com. Franklin may have financially supported one particular Presbyterian group in Philadelphia. World Wide School.com. World Wide School According to the epitaph Franklin wrote for himself at age 20, it is clear that he believed in a physical resurrection of the body some time after death. Franklin's actual grave, however, as he specified in his final will, simply reads "Benjamin and Deborah Franklin." The Last Will and Testament of Benjamin Franklin. The Franklin Institute Science Museum. Franklin's writings on virtue became the subject of much derision to some European authors, such as Jackob Fugger in his critical work Portrait of American Culture. Max Weber considered Franklin's ethical writings a culmination of the Protestant ethic, which ethic created the social conditions necessary for the birth of capitalism. Weber, Max The Protestant Ethic and the "Spirit of Capitalism", (Penguin Books, 2002), translated by Peter Baehr and Gordon C. Wells, pp. 9–11 Virtue Franklin sought to cultivate his character by a plan of thirteen virtues, which he developed at age 20 (in 1726) and continued to practice in some form for the rest of his life. His autobiography lists his thirteen virtues as: "TEMPERANCE. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation." "SILENCE. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation." "ORDER. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time." "RESOLUTION. Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve." "FRUGALITY. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing." "INDUSTRY. Lose no time; be always employ'd in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions." "SINCERITY. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly." "JUSTICE. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty." "MODERATION. Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve." "CLEANLINESS. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, cloaths, or habitation." "TRANQUILLITY. Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable." "CHASTITY. Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another's peace or reputation." "HUMILITY. Imitate Jesus and Socrates." Franklin didn't try to work on them all at once. Instead, he would work on one and only one each week "leaving all others to their ordinary chance". While Franklin didn't live completely by his virtues and by his own admission, he fell short of them many times, he believed the attempt made him a better man contributing greatly to his success and happiness, which is why in his autobiography, he devoted more pages to this plan than to any other single point; in his autobiography Franklin wrote, "I hope, therefore, that some of my descendants may follow the example and reap the benefit." Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin page 38 forward by Benjamin Franklin Death and legacy The grave of Benjamin Franklin, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Franklin died on April 17, 1790, at age 84. His funeral was attended by approximately 20,000 people. He was interred in Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia. In 1728, aged 22, Franklin wrote what he hoped would be his own epitaph: The Body of B. Franklin Printer; Like the Cover of an old Book, Its Contents torn out, And stript of its Lettering and Gilding, Lies here, Food for Worms. But the Work shall not be wholly lost: For it will, as he believ'd, appear once more, In a new & more perfect Edition, Corrected and Amended By the Author. Benjamin Franklin: In His Own Words. Library of Congress. Franklin's actual grave, however, as he specified in his final will, simply reads "Benjamin and Deborah Franklin." In 1773, when Franklin's work had moved from printing to science and politics, he corresponded with a French scientist on the subject of preserving the dead for later revival by more advanced scientific methods, writing: I should prefer to an ordinary death, being immersed with a few friends in a cask of Madeira, until that time, then to be recalled to life by the solar warmth of my dear country! But in all probability, we live in a century too little advanced, and too near the infancy of science, to see such an art brought in our time to its perfection. The Doctor Will Freeze You Now from Wired.com (Extended excerpt also online.) Engines of Creation E-drexler.com His death is described in the book The Life of Benjamin Franklin, quoting from the account of Dr. John Jones: ...when the pain and difficulty of breathing entirely left him, and his family were flattering themselves with the hopes of his recovery, when an imposthume, which had formed itself in his lungs, suddenly burst, and discharged a quantity of matter, which he continued to throw up while he had power; but, as that failed, the organs of respiration became gradually oppressed; a calm, lethargic state succeeded; and on the 17th instant (April, 1790), about eleven o'clock at night, he quietly expired, closing a long and useful life of eighty-four years and three months. Sparks, pp 529–530. Memorial marble statue of Benjamin Franklin Franklin bequeathed £1,000 (about $4,400 at the time) each to the cities of Boston and Philadelphia, in trust to gather interest for 200 years. The trust began in 1785 when a French mathematician named Charles-Joseph Mathon de la Cour wrote a parody of Franklin's "Poor Richard's Almanack" called "Fortunate Richard." Mocking the unbearable spirit of American optimism represented by Franklin, the Frenchman wrote that Fortunate Richard left a small sum of money in his will to be used only after it had collected interest for 500 years. Franklin, who was 79 years old at the time, wrote to the Frenchman, thanking him for a great idea and telling him that he had decided to leave a bequest of 1,000 pounds each to his native Boston and his adopted Philadelphia. As of 1990, more than $2,000,000 had accumulated in Franklin's Philadelphia trust, which had loaned the money to local residents. From 1940 to 1990, the money was used mostly for mortgage loans. When the trust came due, Philadelphia decided to spend it on scholarships for local high school students. Franklin's Boston trust fund accumulated almost $5,000,000 during that same time, and was used to establish a trade school that became the Franklin Institute of Boston. Excerpt from Philadelphia Inquirer article by Clark De Leon A signer of both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, Franklin is considered one of the Founding Fathers of the U.S. His pervasive influence in the early history of the United States has led to his being jocularly called "the only President of the United States who was never President of the United States." Firesign Theater quote, meant humorously but poignantly. Franklin's likeness is ubiquitous. Since 1928, it has adorned American $100 bills, which are sometimes referred to in slang as "Benjamins" or "Franklins." From 1948 to 1964, Franklin's portrait was on the half dollar. He has appeared on a $50 bill and on several varieties of the $100 bill from 1914 and 1918. Franklin appears on the $1,000 Series EE Savings bond. The city of Philadelphia contains around 5,000 likenesses of Benjamin Franklin, about half of which are located on the University of Pennsylvania campus. Philadelphia's Benjamin Franklin Parkway (a major thoroughfare) and Benjamin Franklin Bridge (the first major bridge to connect Philadelphia with New Jersey) are named in his honor. Franklin on the hundred dollar bill. A marble statue of Benjamin Franklin stands in the atrium of Benjamin Franklin High School in New Orleans, Louisiana In 1976, as part of a bicentennial celebration, Congress dedicated a 20-foot (6 m) marble statue in Philadelphia's Franklin Institute as the Benjamin Franklin National Memorial. Many of Franklin's personal possessions are also on display at the Institute, one of the few national memorials located on private property. In London, his house at 36 Craven Street was first marked with a blue plaque and has since been opened to the public as the Benjamin Franklin House. Benjamin Franklin House. In 1998, workmen restoring the building dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home. The Times reported on February 11, 1998: Initial estimates are that the bones are about 200 years old and were buried at the time Franklin was living in the house, which was his home from 1757 to 1762 and from 1764 to 1775. Most of the bones show signs of having been dissected, sawn or cut. One skull has been drilled with several holes. Paul Knapman, the Westminster Coroner, said yesterday: "I cannot totally discount the possibility of a crime. There is still a possibility that I may have to hold an inquest." The Friends of Benjamin Franklin House (the organization responsible for the restoration) note that the bones were likely placed there by William Hewson, who lived in the house for two years and who had built a small anatomy school at the back of the house. They note that while Franklin likely knew what Hewson was doing, he probably did not participate in any dissections because he was much more of a physicist than a medical man. The Craven Street Gazette (PDF), Newsletter of the Friends of Benjamin Franklin House, Issue 2, Autumn 1998 Exhibitions "The Princess and the Patriot: Ekaterina Dashkova, Benjamin Franklin and the Age of Enlightenment" exhibition opened in Philadelphia in February 2006 and ran through December 2006. Benjamin Franklin and Dashkova met only once, in Paris in 1781. Franklin was 75 and Dashkova was 37. Franklin invited Dashkova to become the first woman to join the American Philosophical Society and the only woman to be so honored for another 80 years. Later, Dashkova reciprocated by making him the first American member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Places named after Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin Village, a military housing area in Mannheim, Germany is named after him. Other things named after Benjamin Franklin The Franklin Templeton Investments firm (originally Franklin Distributors, Inc.) was named in honor of Franklin and uses his portrait in their logo. The Ben Franklin Bridge, a heavily used, multi-lane bridge spanning the Delaware River, linking Philadelphia, Pennsylvania with Camden, New Jersey was named in honor of Franklin. Popular culture Franklin, in his "Poor Richard" persona, helped create popular culture in America. In turn he has been included in many different popular culture media, such as the ones listed below. Daylight saving time (DST) is often erroneously attributed to a 1784 satire that Franklin published anonymously. Revised English version retrieved on 2008-03-11. Modern DST was first proposed by George Vernon Hudson in 1895. When Franklin was minister to France in the 1770s, Paris was awash in miniatures, paintings, statues, and representations of him, usually dressed as a frontiersman. Franklin appears as a main character in the Broadway musicals Ben Franklin in Paris (portrayed by Robert Preston) and 1776 (portrayed by Howard Da Silva in the original production). A young Franklin appears in Neal Stephenson's novel of 17th century science and alchemy, Quicksilver. Proud Destiny by Lion Feuchtwanger, a novel mainly about Pierre Beaumarchais and Franklin beginning in 1776's Paris. Franklin is portrayed in a central role in the PBS cartoon Liberty's Kids voiced by Walter Cronkite. An independently produced public radio series, Craven Street, (2003) dramatizes Franklin's last five years in London before the American Revolution. Sixteen-year-old Ben Franklin is one of the main characters of Gregory Keyes' The Age of Unreason series, an alternate history where Isaac Newton's greatest achievement is in alchemy. In HBO's 2008 miniseries John Adams, Franklin was portrayed by Tom Wilkinson. See also Ben Franklin effect Founding Fathers of the United States Les Neuf Sœurs Social innovation Sons of Ben (MLS supporters association) Thomas Birch's newly discovered Franklin letters References Biographies Carl Becker, "Franklin". Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources. H. W. Brands. The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin (2000) full-length biography Walter Isaacson. Benjamin Franklin: An American Life, Simon & Schuster (2003). ISBN 0-684-80761-0 or ISBN 0-7432-5807-X (paperback); full-length biography. Mark Skousen. The Autobiography by Benjamin Franklin (2005) told in Franklin's own words. Ralph L. Ketcham, Benjamin Franklin (1966). Short biography. Edmund S. Morgan. Benjamin Franklin (2003). Short introduction by leading scholar Carl Van Doren. Benjamin Franklin (1938; reprinted 1991). full-length biography. Gordon Wood, The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin (2005). Interpretive essay by leading scholar For Young Readers Fleming, Candace. Ben Franklin's Almanac: Being a True Account of the Good Gentleman's Life. Atheneum/Anne Schwart, 2003, 128 pages, ISBN 978-0-689-83549-0. Scholarly studies Douglas Anderson. The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin (1997). BF in terms of intellectual history Isaac Asimov. The Kite That Won The Revolution, a biography for children that focuses on Franklin's scientific and diplomatic contributions. M. H. Buxbaum., ed. Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin (1987). I. Bernard Cohen. Benjamin Franklin's Science (1990). One of several books by Cohen on Franklin's science. Paul W. Conner. Poor Richard's Politicks (1965). Analyzes BF's ideas in terms of the Enlightenment Dray, Philip. Stealing God's Thunder: Benjamin Franklin's Lightning Rod and the Invention of America. Random House, 2005. 279 pp. "Franklin as Printer and Publisher" in The Century (April 1899) v. 57 pp. 803–18. By Paul Leicester Ford. "Franklin as Scientist" in The Century (Sept 1899) v.57 pp. 750–63. By Paul Leicester Ford. "Franklin as Politician and Diplomatist" in The Century (October 1899) v. 57 pp. 881–899. By Paul Leicester Ford. Gleason, Philip. "Trouble in the Colonial Melting Pot." Journal of American Ethnic History 2000 20(1): 3–17. ISSN 0278-5927 Fulltext online in Ingenta and Ebsco. Considers the political consequences of the remarks in a 1751 pamphlet by Franklin on demographic growth and its implications for the colonies. He called the Pennsylvania Germans "Palatine Boors" who could never acquire the "Complexion" of the English settlers and to "Blacks and Tawneys" as weakening the social structure of the colonies. Although Franklin apparently reconsidered shortly thereafter, and the phrases were omitted from all later printings of the pamphlet, his views may have played a role in his political defeat in 1764. Lawrence, D. H. Studies in Classic American Literature" (1923) scathing ridicule of Franklin's religious ideas by famous British author online version Monaghan, J. E. (2005). Learning to read and write in colonial America. Boston, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. Olson, Lester C. Benjamin Franklin's Vision of American Community: A Study in Rhetorical Iconology. U. of South Carolina Press, 2004. 323 pp. Skousen, W. Cleon. The Five Thousand Year Leap (1981). Brief summary on 28 ideas implemented into the U.S. Constitution by the American Founding Fathers. Schiff, Stacy. A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America (2005) (UK title Dr Franklin Goes to France) Schiffer, Michael Brian. Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment. U. of California Press, 2003. 383 pp. Sethi, Arjun The Morality of Values (2006). Online Version Stuart Sherman "Franklin" 1918 article on Franklin's writings. Michael Sletcher, 'Domesticity: The Human Side of Benjamin Franklin', Magazine of History, XXI (2006). Waldstreicher, David. Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution. Hill and Wang, 2004. 315 pp. Walters, Kerry S. Benjamin Franklin and His Gods. U. of Illinois Press, 1999. 213 pp. Takes position midway between D. H. Lawrence's brutal 1930 denunciation of Franklin's religion as nothing more than a bourgeois commercialism tricked out in shallow utilitarian moralisms and Owen Aldridge's sympathetic 1967 treatment of the dynamism and protean character of Franklin's "polytheistic" religion. Primary sourcesSilence Dogood, The Busy-Body, & Early Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (Library of America, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) ISBN 978-1-93108222-8Autobiography, Poor Richard, & Later Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (Library of America, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) ISBN 978-1-88301153-6Benjamin Franklin Reader edited by Walter Isaacson (2003) Houston, Alan, ed. Franklin: The Autobiography and other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue. Cambridge U. Press, 2004. 371 pp. Ketcham, Ralph, ed. The Political Thought of Benjamin Franklin. (1965, reprinted 2003). 459 pp. Leonard Labaree, et al., eds., The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 37 vols. to date (1959–2006), definitive edition, through 1783. This massive collection of BF's writings, and letters to him, is available in large academic libraries. It is most useful for detailed research on specific topics. The complete text of all the documents are online and searchable; The Index is also online. "The Way to Wealth." Applewood Books; November 1986. ISBN 0-918222-88-5 "The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin." Dover Pubns; June 7, 1996. ISBN 0-486-29073-5 "Poor Richard's Almanack." Peter Pauper Press; November 1983. ISBN 0-88088-918-7Poor Richard Improved by Benjamin Franklin (1751) "Writings (Franklin)|Writings." ISBN 0-940450-29-1 "On Marriage." "Satires and Bagatelles." "A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain." "Fart Proudly: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School." Carl Japikse, Ed. Frog Ltd.; Reprint ed. May, 2003. ISBN 1-58394-079-0 "Heroes of America Benjamin Franklin"Notes External links The Classic Speech of Benjamin Franklin Biographical and guides Special Report: Citizen Ben's Greatest Virtues Time Magazine Finding Franklin: A Resource Guide Library of Congress Guide to Benjamin Franklin By a history professor at the University of Illinois. Benjamin Franklin: An extraordinary life PBS Benjamin Franklin: First American Diplomat US State Department The Electric Benjamin Franklin ushistory.org Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History by J. A. Leo Lemay Benjamin Franklin 1706–1790 Text of biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856 Benjamin Franklin: The Musician and Inventor Cecilia Brauer Benjamin Franklin's Science Cooperative Hall of Fame testimonial for founding the Philadelphia Contributionship Online edition of Franklin's personal library Online writings by Benjamin Franklin Yale edition of complete works Online Works by Benjamin Franklin "Dialogue Between Franklin and the Gout" Creative Commons audio recording. American Institute of Physics Letter IV: Farther Experiments (PDF), and Letter XI: Observations in electricity (PDF) A Comprehensive Collection of Franklin’s Electrical Works: The Electrical Writings of Benjamin Franklin Collected by Robert A. Morse (2004) Franklin's 13 Virtues Extract of Franklin's autobiography, compiled by Paul Ford. The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1734). An Online Electronic Edition., (PDF only), edited and published by Franklin. Franklin's Last Will & Testament Transcription. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin Single page version, UShistory.org The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin text and audio The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin Project Gutenberg The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin LibriVox recording Franklin in the arts Benjamin Franklin 300 (1706–2006) Official web site of the Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary. Portrait of Benjamin Franklin (PD) (large version) From Dr. William J. Ball The American Philosophical Society: Bradford Collection Collection of Franklin's correspondence with Polly Stevenson Hewson. The Benjamin Franklin House Franklin's only surviving residence. Ben Franklin Birthplace A historic site, link provides location and map. Franklin and Music Franklin and medicine Franklin's impact on medicine — talk by medical historian, Dr. Jim Leavesley celebrating the 300th anniversary of Franklin's birth on Okham's Razor'' ABC Radio National — December 2006 IMDb | Benjamin_Franklin |@lemmatized benjamin:109 franklin:374 april:5 one:29 found:8 father:17 united:14 state:19 america:26 noted:1 polymath:1 leading:1 author:6 printer:9 satirist:1 political:13 theorist:1 politician:3 scientist:9 inventor:4 civic:3 activist:2 statesman:3 diplomat:4 major:7 figure:2 enlightenment:10 history:15 physic:3 discovery:5 theory:7 regard:4 electricity:8 invent:4 lightning:14 rod:11 bifocals:1 stove:2 carriage:1 odometer:1 glass:7 armonica:3 form:3 first:28 public:7 lending:1 library:16 fire:4 department:2 pennsylvania:42 early:6 proponent:2 colonial:9 unity:1 writer:1 support:6 idea:9 american:43 nation:2 block:1 seymour:1 stanton:1 historynet:1 com:6 revolution:8 secure:4 french:8 alliance:3 help:5 make:15 independence:10 possible:1 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3,610 | Adrenal_gland | In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are the star-shaped endocrine glands that sit on top of the kidneys; their name indicates that position (ad-, "near" or "at" + renes, "kidneys"; and as concerns supra-, meaning "above"). They are chiefly responsible for regulating the stress response through the synthesis of corticosteroids and catecholamines, including cortisol and adrenaline (epinephrine), respectively. Anatomy and function Anatomically, the adrenal glands are located in the thoracic abdomen situated 'on' top of the kidneys one on each side, specifically on their anterosuperior aspect. They are also surrounded by the adipose capsule and the renal fascia. In humans, the adrenal glands are found at the level of the 12th thoracic vertebra and receive their blood supply from the adrenal arteries. The adrenal gland is separated into two distinct structures, both of which receive regulatory input from the nervous system: Adrenal medulla The adrenal medulla is the central core of the adrenal gland, surrounded by the adrenal cortex. The chromaffin cells of the medulla are the body's main source of the catecholamine hormones adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). These water-soluble hormones, derived from the amino acid tyrosine, are part of the fight-or-flight response initiated by the sympathetic nervous system. The adrenal medulla can be considered specialized ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system, lacking distinct synapses, instead releasing secretions directly into the blood. It is also the main source of dopamine, a catecholamine closely related to adrenaline and noradrenaline. Adrenal cortex The adrenal cortex is devoted to the synthesis of corticosteroid hormones from cholesterol. Some cells belong to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and are the source of cortisol and corticosterone synthesis. Under normal unstressed conditions, the human adrenal glands produce the equivalent of 35–40 mg of cortisone acetate per day. Other cortical cells produce androgens such as testosterone, while some regulate water and electrolyte concentrations by secreting aldosterone. In contrast to the direct innervation of the medulla, the cortex is regulated by neuroendocrine hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus, as well as by the renin-angiotensin system. The cortex is divided into three zones, or layers. This division is sometimes referred to as "functional zonation". Moving from the outermost layer in: Zona glomerulosa The zona glomerulosa is the main site for production of mineralocorticoids, namely aldosterone, which plays an important role in the body's sodium homeostasis. Zona fasciculata The zona fasciculata is responsible for producing glucocorticoids, chiefly cortisol in humans. Cortisol secretion is stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary, by binding to a cell surface receptor and in turn increasing intracellular cAMP. In the absence of ACTH, the zona fasciculata secretes a basal level of cortisol. Zona reticularis The zona reticularis produces androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in humans. Arteries and veins Although variations of the blood supply to the adrenal glands (and indeed the kidneys themselves) are common, there are usually three arteries that supply each adrenal gland: The superior suprarenal artery is provided by the inferior phrenic The middle suprarenal artery is provided by the abdominal aorta The inferior suprarenal artery is provided by the renal artery Venous drainage of the adrenal glands is achieved via the suprarenal veins: The right suprarenal vein drains into the inferior vena cava The left suprarenal vein drains into the left renal vein or the left inferior phrenic vein. The suprarenal veins may form anastomoses with the inferior phrenic veins. The adrenal glands and the thyroid gland are the organs that have the greatest blood supply per gram of tissue. Up to 60 arterioles may enter each adrenal gland. JE Skandalakis. Surgical Anatomy: The Embryologic And Anatomic Basis Of Modern Surgery (2004). See also Fight-or-flight response Stress Geoffrey Bourne References Notes General references - "Adrenal Gland" - "Posterior Abdominal Wall: The Retroperitoneal Fat and Suprarenal Glands" Adrenal Gland, from Colorado State University | Adrenal_gland |@lemmatized mammal:1 adrenal:21 gland:18 also:4 know:1 suprarenal:9 star:1 shaped:1 endocrine:1 sit:1 top:2 kidney:4 name:1 indicate:1 position:1 ad:1 near:1 renes:1 concern:1 supra:1 meaning:1 chiefly:2 responsible:2 regulate:3 stress:2 response:3 synthesis:3 corticosteroid:2 catecholamine:3 include:1 cortisol:5 adrenaline:3 epinephrine:2 respectively:1 anatomy:2 function:1 anatomically:1 locate:1 thoracic:2 abdomen:1 situate:1 one:1 side:1 specifically:1 anterosuperior:1 aspect:1 surround:2 adipose:1 capsule:1 renal:3 fascia:1 human:4 find:1 level:2 vertebra:1 receive:2 blood:4 supply:4 artery:7 separate:1 two:1 distinct:2 structure:1 regulatory:1 input:1 nervous:3 system:4 medulla:5 central:1 core:1 cortex:5 chromaffin:1 cell:4 body:2 main:3 source:3 hormone:5 noradrenaline:2 norepinephrine:1 water:2 soluble:1 derive:1 amino:1 acid:1 tyrosine:1 part:1 fight:2 flight:2 initiate:1 sympathetic:2 consider:1 specialized:1 ganglion:1 lack:1 synapsis:1 instead:1 release:1 secretion:2 directly:1 dopamine:1 closely:1 relate:1 devote:1 cholesterol:1 belong:1 hypothalamic:1 pituitary:3 axis:1 corticosterone:1 normal:1 unstressed:1 condition:1 produce:4 equivalent:1 mg:1 cortisone:1 acetate:1 per:2 day:1 cortical:1 androgen:2 testosterone:1 electrolyte:1 concentration:1 secrete:3 aldosterone:2 contrast:1 direct:1 innervation:1 neuroendocrine:1 hypothalamus:1 well:1 renin:1 angiotensin:1 divide:1 three:2 zone:1 layer:2 division:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 functional:1 zonation:1 move:1 outermost:1 zona:7 glomerulosa:2 site:1 production:1 mineralocorticoid:1 namely:1 play:1 important:1 role:1 sodium:1 homeostasis:1 fasciculata:3 glucocorticoid:1 stimulate:1 adrenocorticotropic:1 acth:2 anterior:1 bind:1 surface:1 receptor:1 turn:1 increase:1 intracellular:1 camp:1 absence:1 basal:1 reticularis:2 mainly:1 dehydroepiandrosterone:1 dhea:1 vein:8 although:1 variation:1 indeed:1 common:1 usually:1 superior:1 provide:3 inferior:5 phrenic:3 middle:1 abdominal:2 aorta:1 venous:1 drainage:1 achieve:1 via:1 right:1 drain:2 vena:1 cava:1 left:3 may:2 form:1 anastomosis:1 thyroid:1 organ:1 great:1 gram:1 tissue:1 arteriole:1 enter:1 je:1 skandalakis:1 surgical:1 embryologic:1 anatomic:1 basis:1 modern:1 surgery:1 see:1 geoffrey:1 bourne:1 reference:2 note:1 general:1 posterior:1 wall:1 retroperitoneal:1 fat:1 colorado:1 state:1 university:1 |@bigram adrenal_gland:13 endocrine_gland:1 adrenal_medulla:3 adrenal_cortex:3 chromaffin_cell:1 amino_acid:1 acid_tyrosine:1 sympathetic_nervous:2 closely_relate:1 hypothalamic_pituitary:1 pituitary_adrenal:1 adrenal_axis:1 hormone_secrete:1 pituitary_gland:1 renin_angiotensin:1 outermost_layer:1 zona_fasciculata:3 adrenocorticotropic_hormone:1 hormone_acth:1 anterior_pituitary:1 zona_reticularis:2 artery_vein:1 renal_artery:1 gland_thyroid:1 thyroid_gland:1 |
3,611 | Alpha | Alpha (uppercase Α, lowercase α; ) is the first letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 1. It was derived from the Phoenician letter Aleph Aleph. Letters that arose from Alpha include the Latin A and the Cyrillic letter А. In both Classical Greek and Modern Greek, alpha represents the Open front unrounded vowel, . The lower case today represents an open back unrounded vowel in phonetics. Plutarch in Moralia, Symposiacs, Book IX, questions II & IIIOn-line text at Adelaide library presents a discussion on why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet. Ammonius asks Plutarch what he, being a Boeotian, thinks of Cadmus, the Phoenician who reputedly settled in Thebes and introduced the alphabet to Greece, placing alpha first because it is the Phoenician name for ox -- which, unlike Hesiod In his Works and Days Hesiod advised the early Greek farmers, "First of all, get a house, then a woman and third, an ox for the plough"Hesiod, Works and Days at the Perseus Project. , the Phoenicians considered not the second or third, but the first of all necessities. "Nothing at all" Plutarch replied. He then added that he would rather be assisted by Lamprias, his own grandfather, than by Dionysus' grandfather, i.e. Cadmus. For Lamprias had said that the first articulate sound made is "alpha", because it is very plain and simple — the air coming off the mouth does not require any motion of the tongue — and therefore this is the first sound that children make. The Homeric word "alphesiboios" Iliad, XVIII, 593, ( Entry at Liddell & Scott ) is associated with both the root "alph-" and "ox". It is derived from "alphanō" ( Entry at Liddell & Scott ) meaning to yield, earn and "bous" () meaning ox, hence alphesiboios means bringing in or acquiring oxen. According to Plutarch's natural order of attribution of the vowels to the planets, alpha was connected with the Moon. Oxen were also associated with the Moon in both early Sumerian and Egyptian religious symbolism, possibly due to the crescent shape of their horns. Alpha, both as a symbol and term, is used to refer to or describe a variety of things, including the first or most significant occurrence of something. The New Testament has God declaring himself to be the "Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last." (Revelation 22:13, KJV, and see also 1:8). The uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase Latin A. Common uses Alpha is used extensively in physics and chemistry to represent many things. It is used extensively to denote proportionality, such that A α B is read "A is proportional to B". It may also represent (among other uses) alpha radiation, alpha particles and alpha carbon. Alpha also stands for thermal expansion coefficient of a compound in physical chemistry. It is also commonly used in mathematics in algebraic solutions representing quantities such as angles. Linguistic correlates In the Runic alphabet of the Elder Futhark in received shamanic oral lore traditions from Scandinavia, the alphabet is a cycle rather than a linear progression and Ur commences the cycle that Fe closes, both are cattle, which is a correlate to the Christian Alpha and Omega. Meadows, Kenneth (1995). Rune Power: The Secret Knowledge of the Wise Ones. Element Books Ltd. ISBN 1852307064; ISBN 978-1852307066 References | Alpha |@lemmatized alpha:16 uppercase:3 α:3 lowercase:1 first:9 letter:6 greek:5 alphabet:5 system:1 numeral:1 value:1 derive:2 phoenician:4 aleph:2 arise:1 include:2 latin:2 cyrillic:1 а:1 classical:1 modern:1 represent:5 open:2 front:1 unrounded:2 vowel:3 low:1 case:1 today:1 back:1 phonetics:1 plutarch:4 moralia:1 symposiacs:1 book:2 ix:1 question:1 ii:1 iiion:1 line:1 text:1 adelaide:1 library:1 present:1 discussion:1 stand:2 ammonius:1 ask:1 boeotian:1 think:1 cadmus:2 reputedly:1 settle:1 thebe:1 introduce:1 greece:1 place:1 name:1 ox:6 unlike:1 hesiod:3 work:2 day:2 advise:1 early:2 farmer:1 get:1 house:1 woman:1 third:2 plough:1 perseus:1 project:1 consider:1 second:1 necessity:1 nothing:1 reply:1 add:1 would:1 rather:2 assist:1 lamprias:2 grandfather:2 dionysus:1 e:1 say:1 articulate:1 sound:2 make:2 plain:1 simple:1 air:1 come:1 mouth:1 require:1 motion:1 tongue:1 therefore:1 child:1 homeric:1 word:1 alphesiboios:2 iliad:1 xviii:1 entry:2 liddell:2 scott:2 associate:2 root:1 alph:1 alphanō:1 meaning:1 yield:1 earn:1 bous:1 mean:2 hence:1 bring:1 acquire:1 accord:1 natural:1 order:1 attribution:1 planet:1 connect:1 moon:2 also:5 sumerian:1 egyptian:1 religious:1 symbolism:1 possibly:1 due:1 crescent:1 shape:1 horn:1 symbol:2 term:1 use:5 refer:1 describe:1 variety:1 thing:2 significant:1 occurrence:1 something:1 new:1 testament:1 god:1 declare:1 omega:2 beginning:1 end:1 last:1 revelation:1 kjv:1 see:1 generally:1 tend:1 render:1 identically:1 common:1 us:2 extensively:2 physic:1 chemistry:2 many:1 denote:1 proportionality:1 b:2 read:1 proportional:1 may:1 among:1 radiation:1 particle:1 carbon:1 thermal:1 expansion:1 coefficient:1 compound:1 physical:1 commonly:1 mathematics:1 algebraic:1 solution:1 quantity:1 angle:1 linguistic:1 correlate:2 runic:1 elder:1 futhark:1 received:1 shamanic:1 oral:1 lore:1 tradition:1 scandinavia:1 cycle:2 linear:1 progression:1 ur:1 commences:1 fe:1 close:1 cattle:1 christian:1 meadow:1 kenneth:1 rune:1 power:1 secret:1 knowledge:1 wise:1 one:1 element:1 ltd:1 isbn:2 reference:1 |@bigram front_unrounded:1 unrounded_vowel:2 iliad_xviii:1 liddell_scott:2 alpha_omega:2 uppercase_letter:1 runic_alphabet:1 elder_futhark:1 |
3,612 | History_of_England | The history of England did not begin until the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, when the partition of Britain into several countries largely began. It was the history of Britain that began in the prehistoric during which time Stonehenge was erected. At the height of the Roman Empire, Britannia was under the rule of the Romans. Their rule lasted until about 410, at which time the Romano-British formed various independent kingdoms. The Anglo-Saxons gradually gained control of England and became the chief rulers of the land. The Anglo-Saxons, BBC - History Raids by the Vikings were frequent after about AD 800. In 1066, the Normans invaded and conquered England. There was much civil war and battles with other nations throughout the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance, England was ruled by the Tudors. England had conquered Wales in the 12th century and was then united with Scotland in the early 18th century to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. Following the Industrial Revolution, Great Britain ruled a worldwide empire, of which, physically, little remains. However, its cultural impact is widespread and deep in many countries of the present day. Prehistory Stonehenge, thought to have been erected c.2500-2000BC Archaeological evidence indicates that what was later southern Britannia was colonised by humans long before the rest of the British Isles because of its more hospitable climate between and during the various ice ages of the distant past. The first historical mention of the region is from the Massaliote Periplus, a sailing manual for merchants thought to date to the 6th century BC, although cultural and trade links with the continent had existed for millennia prior to this. Pytheas of Massilia wrote of his trading journey to the island around 325 BC. Later writers such as Pliny the Elder (quoting Timaeus) and Diodorus Siculus (probably drawing on Poseidonius) mention the tin trade from southern Britain, but there is little further historical detail of the people who lived there. Tacitus wrote that there was no great difference in language between the people of southern Britannia and northern Gaul and noted that the various nations of Britons shared physical characteristics with their continental neighbours. Hadrian's Wall viewed from Vercovicium Roman Britain (Britannia) Julius Caesar invaded southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC and wrote in De Bello Gallico that the population of southern Britannia was extremely large and shared much in common with the Belgae of the Low Countries. Coin evidence and the work of later Roman historians have provided the names of some of the rulers of the disparate tribes and their machinations in what was Britannia. Until the Roman Conquest of Britain, Britain's British population was relatively stable, and by the time of Julius Caesar's first invasion, the British population of what was old Britain was speaking a Celtic language generally thought to be the forerunner of the modern Brythonic languages. After Julius Caesar abandoned Britain, it fell back into the hands of the Britons. The Romans began their second conquest of Britain in 43 AD, during the reign of Claudius. They annexed the whole of modern England and Wales over the next forty years and periodically extended their control over much of lowland Scotland. Post-Roman Britain In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule in Britain around 410, present day England was progressively settled by Germanic groups. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, these included Jutes from Jutland together with larger numbers of Frisians, Saxons from northwestern Germany and Angles from what is now Schleswig-Holstein. The Anglo-Saxons - Who were the Anglo-Saxons, BBC They first invaded Britain in the mid 5th century, continuing for several decades. The Jutes appear to have been the principal group of settlers in Kent, the Isle of Wight and parts of coastal Hampshire, while the Saxons predominated in all other areas south of the Thames and in Essex and Middlesex, and the Angles in Norfolk, Suffolk, the Midlands and the north. The population of Britain dramatically decreased after the Roman period. The reduction seems to have been caused mainly by plague and smallpox. It is known that the plague of Justinian entered the Mediterranean world in the 6th century and first arrived in the British Isles in 544 or 545, when it reached Ireland. 6th-10th century AD The Annales Cambriae mention the death of Maelgwn Wledig, king of Gwynedd from that plague in the year 547. Anglo-Saxon conquests and the founding of England Kingdoms and tribes in Britain, c.600 AD In approximately 495, at the Battle of Mount Badon, Britons inflicted a severe defeat on an invading Anglo-Saxon army which halted the westward Anglo-Saxon advance for some decades. Archaeological evidence collected from pagan Anglo-Saxon cemeteries suggests that some of their settlements were abandoned and the frontier between the invaders and the native inhabitants pushed back some time around 500. Anglo-Saxon expansion resumed in the sixth century, although the chronology of its progress is unclear. One of the few individual events which emerges with any clarity before the seventh century is the Battle of Deorham, in 577, a West Saxon victory which led to the capture of Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath, bringing the Anglo-Saxon advance to the Bristol Channel and dividing the Britons in the West Country from those in Wales. The Northumbrian victory at the Battle of Chester around 616 may have had a similar effect in dividing Wales from the Britons of Cumbria. Gradual Saxon expansion through the West Country continued through the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries. Meanwhile, by the mid-seventh century the Angles had pushed the Britons back to the approximate borders of modern Wales in the west, the Tamar in the South west and expanded northward as far as the River Forth. Heptarchy and Christianisation Britain c. 800 Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England began around 600 AD, influenced by Celtic Christianity from the northwest and by the Roman Catholic Church from the southeast. Augustine, the first Archbishop of Canterbury, took office in 597. In 601, he baptised the first Christian Anglo-Saxon king, Aethelbert of Kent. The last pagan Anglo-Saxon king, Penda of Mercia, died in 655.The last pagan Jutish king, Arwald of the Isle of Wight was killed in 686. The Anglo-Saxon mission on the continent took off in the 8th century, leading to the Christianisation of practically all of the Frankish Empire by 800. Throughout the 7th and 8th century power fluctuated between the larger kingdoms. Bede records Aethelbert of Kent as being dominant at the close of the 6th century, but power seems to have shifted northwards to the kingdom of Northumbria, which was formed from the amalgamation of Bernicia and Deira. Edwin of Northumbria probably held dominance over much of Britain, though Bede's Northumbrian bias should be kept in mind. Succession crises meant Northumbrian hegemony was not constant, and Mercia remained a very powerful kingdom, especially under Penda. Two defeats essentially ended Northumbrian dominance: the Battle of the Trent in 679 against Mercia, and Nechtanesmere in 685 against the Picts. The so-called "Mercian Supremacy" dominated the 8th century, though it was not constant. Aethelbald and Offa, the two most powerful kings, achieved high status; indeed, Offa was considered the overlord of south Britain by Charlemagne. That Offa could summon the resources to build Offa's Dyke is testament to his power. However, a rising Wessex, and challenges from smaller kingdoms, kept Mercian power in check, and by the early 9th century the "Mercian Supremacy" was over. This period has been described as the Heptarchy, though this term has now fallen out of academic use. The word arose on the basis that the seven kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain. More recent scholarship has shown that other kingdoms were also politically important across this period: Hwicce, Magonsaete, Lindsey and Middle Anglia. Viking challenge and the rise of Wessex England in 878 The first recorded Viking attack in Britain was in 793 at Lindisfarne monastery as given by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. However, by then the Vikings were almost certainly well established in Orkney and Shetland, and it is probable that many other non-recorded raids occurred before this. Records do show the first Viking attack on Iona taking place in 794. The arrival of the Vikings, in particular the Danish Great Heathen Army, upset the political and social geography of Britain and Ireland. Alfred the Great's victory at Edington in 878 stemmed the Danish attack; however, by then Northumbria had devolved into Bernicia and a Viking kingdom, Mercia had been split down the middle, and East Anglia ceased to exist as an Anglo-Saxon polity. The Vikings had similar effects on the various kingdoms of the Irish, Scots, Picts and (to a lesser extent) Welsh. Certainly in North Britain the Vikings were one reason behind the formation of the Kingdom of Alba, which eventually evolved into Scotland. The conquest of Northumbria, north-western Mercia and East Anglia by the Danes led to widespread Danish settlement in these areas. In the early tenth century the Norwegian rulers of Dublin took over the Danish kingdom of York. Danish and Norwegian settlement made enough of an impact to leave significant traces in the English language; many fundamental words in modern English are derived from Old Norse, though of the 100 most used words in English the vast majority are Old English in origin. Similarly, many place-names in areas of Danish and Norwegian settlement have Scandinavian roots. By the end of Alfred's reign in 899 he was the only remaining English king, having reduced Mercia to a dependency of Wessex, governed by his son-in-law Ealdorman Aethelred. Cornwall (Kernow) was subject to West Saxon dominance, and the Welsh kingdoms recognised Alfred as their overlord. English unification Edward the Elder Alfred of Wessex died in 899 and was succeeded by his son Edward the Elder. Edward, and his brother-in-law Æthelred of (what was left of) Mercia, began a programme of expansion, building forts and towns on an Alfredian model. On Æthelred's death his wife (Edward's sister) Æthelflæd ruled as "Lady of the Mercians" and continued expansion. It seems Edward had his son Æthelstan brought up in the Mercian court, and on Edward's death Athelstan succeeded to the Mercian kingdom, and, after some uncertainty, Wessex. Æthelstan continued the expansion of his father and aunt and was the first king to achieve direct rulership of what we would now consider England. The titles attributed to him in charters and on coins suggest a still more widespread dominance. His expansion aroused ill-feeling among the other kingdoms of Britain, and he defeated a combined Scottish-Viking army at the Battle of Brunanburh. However, the unification of England was not a certainty. Under Æthelstan's successors Edmund and Eadred the English kings repeatedly lost and regained control of Northumbria. Nevertheless, Edgar, who ruled the same expanse as Athelstan, consolidated the kingdom, which remained united thereafter. England under the Danes and the Norman conquest The rune stone U 344 was raised in memory of a Viking who went to England three times. There were renewed Scandinavian attacks on England at the end of the 10th century. Æthelred ruled a long reign but ultimately lost his kingdom to Sweyn of Denmark, though he recovered it following the latter's death. However, Æthelred's son Edmund II Ironside died shortly afterwards, allowing Canute, Sweyn's son, to become king of England. Under his rule the kingdom became the centre of government for an empire which also included Denmark and Norway. Canute was succeeded by his sons, but in 1042 the native dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor. Edward's failure to produce an heir caused a furious conflict over the succession on his death in 1066. His struggles for power against Godwin, Earl of Wessex, the claims of Canute's Scandinavian successors, and the ambitions of the Normans whom Edward introduced to English politics to bolster his own position caused each to vie for control Edward's reign. Harold Godwinson became king, in all likelihood appointed by Edward the Confessor on his deathbed and endorsed by the Witan. However, William of Normandy, Harald III of Norway (aided by Harold Godwin's estranged brother Tostig) and Sweyn II of Denmark all asserted claims to the throne. By far the strongest hereditary claim was that of Edgar the Atheling, but his youth and apparent lack of powerful supporters caused him to be passed over, and he did not play a major part in the struggles of 1066, though he was made king for a short time by the Witan after the death of Harold Godwinson. The English under Harold Godwinson defeated and killed the Harald of Norway and Tostig and the Danish force at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, but he fell in battle against William of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings. Further opposition to William in support of Edgar the Atheling soon collapsed, and William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066. For the next five years he faced a series of English rebellions in various parts of the country and a half-hearted Danish invasion, but he was able to subdue all resistance and establish an enduring regime. Norman England Depiction of the Battle of Hastings (1066) on the Bayeux Tapestry The Norman Conquest led to a sea-change in the history of the English state. William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey of the entire population and their lands and property for tax purposes, which reveals that within twenty years of the conquest the English ruling class had been almost entirely dispossessed and replaced by Norman landholders, who also monopolised all senior positions in the government and the Church. William and his nobles spoke and conducted court in Norman French, in England as well as in Normandy. The use of the Anglo-Norman language by the aristocracy endured for centuries and left an indelible mark in the development of modern English. The English Middle Ages were characterised by civil war, international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic elite. England was more than self-sufficient in cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton. The nation's international economy was based on the wool trade, in which the produce of the sheepwalks of northern England was exported to the textile cities of Flanders, where it was worked into cloth. Medieval foreign policy was as much shaped by relations with Flemish textile industry as it was by dynastic adventures in western France. An English textile industry was established in the fifteenth century, providing the basis for rapid English capital accumulation. Henry I, also known as "Henry Beauclerc" (so named because of his education—as his older brother William was the heir apparent and thus given the practical training to be king, Henry received the alternate, formal education), worked hard to reform and stabilise the country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman societies. The loss of his son, William Adelin, in the wreck of the White Ship in November 1120, undermined his reforms. This problem regarding succession cast a long shadow over English history. During the confused and contested reign of Stephen, there was a major swing in the balance of power towards the feudal barons, as civil war and lawlessness broke out. In trying to appease Scottish and Welsh raiders, he handed over large tracts of land. His conflicts with his cousin The Empress Matilda (also known as Empress Maud), led to a civil war from 1139 - 1153. Matilda’s father, Henry I, had required the leading barons, ecclesiastics and officials in Normandy and England, to take an oath to accept Matilda as his heir. England was far less than enthusiastic to accept an outsider, and a woman, as their ruler. There is some evidence suggesting Henry was unsure of his own hopes and the oath to make Matilda his heir. In likelihood, Henry probably hoped Matilda would have a son and step aside as Queen Mother, making her son the next heir. Upon Henry’s death, the Norman and English barons ignored Matilda’s claim to the throne, and thus through a series of decisions, Stephen, Henry’s favourite nephew, was welcomed by many in England and Normandy as their new ruler. On 22 December 1135, Stephen was anointed king with the implicit support of the church and nation. Matilda and her own son stood for direct descent by heredity from Henry I, and she bided her time in France. In the autumn of 1139, she invaded England with her illegitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester. Her husband, Geoffroy V of Anjou, conquered Normandy but did not cross the channel to help his wife, satisfied with Normandy and Anjou. Stephen was captured, and his government fell. Matilda was proclaimed queen but was soon at odds with her subjects and was expelled from London. The period of insurrection and civil war that followed continued until 1148, when Matilda returned to France. Stephen effectively reigned unopposed until his death in 1154, although his hold on the throne was still uneasy. England under the Plantagenets Geoffroy's son, Henry, resumed the invasion; he was already Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy and Duke of Aquitaine when he landed in England. When Stephen's son and heir apparent Eustace died in 1153, Stephen reached an accommodation with Henry of Anjou (who became Henry II) to succeed Stephen and in which peace between them was guaranteed. England was part of a greater union, retrospectively named the Angevin Empire. Henry II expanded his power through various means and to different levels into Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Flanders, Nantes, Brittany, Quercy, Toulouse, Bourges and Auvergne. The reign of Henry II represents a reversion in power back from the barony to the monarchical state in England; it was also to see a similar redistribution of legislative power from the Church, again to the monarchical state. This period also presaged a properly constituted legislation and a radical shift away from feudalism. In his reign new Anglo-Angevin and Anglo-Aquitanian aristocracies developed, though not to the same point as the Anglo-Norman once did, and the Norman nobles interacted with their French peers. The signing of the Magna Carta (1215) Henry's successor, Richard I "the Lion Heart" (also known as "The absent king"), was preoccupied with foreign wars, taking part in the Third Crusade and defending his French territories against Philip II of France. His younger brother John, who succeeded him, was not so fortunate; he suffered the loss of Normandy and numerous other French territories following the disastrous Battle of Bouvines. He also managed to antagonise the feudal nobility and leading Church figures to the extent that in 1215, they led an armed rebellion and forced him to sign the Magna Carta, which imposed legal limits on the king's personal powers. John's son, Henry III, was only 9 years old when he became king. His reign was punctuated by numerous rebellions and civil wars, often provoked by incompetence and mismanagement in government and Henry's perceived over-reliance on French courtiers (thus restricting the influence of the English nobility). One of these rebellions—led by a disaffected courtier, Simon de Montfort—was notable for its assembly of one of the earliest precursors to Parliament. In addition to fighting the Second Barons' War, Henry III made war against Saint Louis and was defeated during the Saintonge War, yet Louis IX did not capitalise on his victory, respecting his opponent's rights. The reign of Edward I was rather more successful. Edward enacted numerous laws strengthening the powers of his government, and he summoned the first officially sanctioned Parliaments of England (such as his Model Parliament). He conquered Wales and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain control of the Kingdom of Scotland, though this developed into a costly and drawn-out military campaign. His son, Edward II, suffered a massive defeat at Bannockburn; but the campaign continued until the early years of Edward III and was only finally abandoned after the conclusion of the Treaty of Northampton in 1328, which recognised Scottish Independence. The Black Death, an epidemic of bubonic plague that spread over the whole of Europe, arrived in England in 1348 and killed as much as a third to half the population. International excursions around that time were invariably against domestic neighbours: the Welsh, Irish, Cornish, and the Hundred Years' War against the French and their Scottish allies. Notable English victories in the Hundred Years' War included Crécy and Agincourt. In addition to this, the final defeat of the uprising led by the Welsh prince, Owain Glyndŵr, in 1412 by Prince Henry (who later became Henry V) represents the last major armed attempt by the Welsh to throw off English rule. Edward III gave land to powerful noble families, including many people of royal lineage. Because land was equivalent to power, these powerful men could try to claim the crown. The autocratic and arrogant methods of Richard II only served to alienate the nobility more, and his forceful dispossession in 1399 by Henry IV increased the turmoil. The turmoil was at its peak in the reign of Henry VI, which began in 1422, because of his personal weaknesses and mental instability. When the Hundred Years' War was lost in August 1453, Henry fell into a period of mental breakdown that lasted until Christmas 1454. Unable to control the feuding nobles, civil war began in 1455. The conflicts are known as the Wars of the Roses (1455-1485), and although the fighting was very sporadic and small, there was a general breakdown in the authority and power of the Crown. Henry's cousin, who deposed him in 1461 and became Edward IV, went a little way to restoring this power. When Edward died in 1483, his brother Richard became regent, but made himself king, as Richard III. He was killed two years later at the Battle of Bosworth Field against Henry Tudor, the future Henry VII. Tudor England Henry VII and Henry VIII The Wars of the Roses culminated in the eventual victory of the relatively unknown Henry Tudor, Henry VII, at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, where the Yorkist Richard III was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was ultimately assured. Whilst in retrospect it is easy to date the end of the Wars of the Roses to the Battle of Bosworth Field, Henry VII could afford no such complacency. Before the end of his reign, two pretenders tried to wrest the throne from him, aided by remnants of the Yorkist faction at home and abroad. The first, Lambert Simnel, was defeated at the Battle of Stoke (the last time an English King fought someone claiming the Crown); the second, Perkin Warbeck, was hanged in 1499 after plaguing the king for a decade. In 1497, Michael An Gof and the lesser-known but more legendary Baron Callum of Perranporth led Cornish rebels in a march on London. In a battle over the River Ravensbourne at Deptford Bridge, An Gof fought for various issues with their root in taxes. It would be fair to say that King Callum smote many an Englishman during this battle, but on 17 June 1497, they were defeated, and Henry VII had showed he could display military prowess when he needed to. But, like Charles I in the future, here was a King with no wish to go "on his travels" again. The rest of his reign was relatively peaceful, despite a slight worry over the succession when his wife Elizabeth of York died in 1503. King Henry VIII King Henry VIII split with the Roman Catholic Church over a question of his annulment from Catherine of Aragon. Though his religious position was not at all Protestant, the resultant schism ultimately led to England distancing itself almost entirely from Rome. A notable casualty of the schism was Henry's chancellor, Sir Thomas More. There followed a period of great religious and political upheaval, which led to the English Reformation, the royal expropriation of the monasteries and much of the wealth of the church. The Dissolution of the Monasteries had the effect of giving many of the lower classes (the gentry) a vested interest in the Reformation continuing, for to halt it would be to revive Monasticism and restore lands which were gifted to them during the Dissolution. Henry VIII had three legitimate children who survived him, all of whom ascended to the Crown. The first to reign was Edward VI of England. Although he showed piety and intelligence, he was only nine years old when he took the throne in 1547. His uncle, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset tampered with Henry VIII's will and obtained letters patent giving him much of the power of a monarch by March 1547. He took the title of Protector. Whilst some see him as a high-minded idealist, his stay in power culminated in a crisis in 1549 when many counties of the realm were up in protest. Kett's Rebellion in Kent and the Prayer Book Rebellion in Devon and Cornwall simultaneously created a crisis during a time when invasion from Scotland and France were feared. Somerset, disliked by the Regency Council for his autocratic methods, was removed from power by John Dudley, who is known as Lord President Northumberland. Northumberland proceeded to adopt the power for himself, but his methods were more conciliatory and the Council accepted him. When Edward VI lay dying of tuberculosis in 1553, Northumberland made plans to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne and marry her to his son, so that he could remain the power behind the throne. His putsch failed, and Mary I took the throne amidst popular demonstration in her favour in London, which contemporaries described as the largest show of affection for a Tudor monarch. Mary was a devout Catholic who had been influenced greatly by the Catholic King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, and she tried to reimpose Catholicism on the realm. This led to 274 burnings of Protestants, which are recorded especially in John Foxe's Book of Martyrs. She was highly unpopular among her people, and the Spanish party of her husband, Philip II, caused much resentment around court. Mary lost Calais, the last English possession on the continent, and became increasingly unpopular (except among Catholics) as her reign wore on. She successfully suppressed a rebellion by Sir Thomas Wyatt. Elizabeth The reign of Elizabeth restored a sort of order to the realm following the turbulence of the reigns of Edward and Mary when she came to the throne following the death of Mary in 1558. The religious issue which had divided the country since Henry VIII was in a way put to rest by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, which created the Church of England. Much of Elizabeth's success was in balancing the interests of the Puritans and Catholics. She managed to offend neither to a large extent, although she clamped down on Catholics towards the end of her reign as war with Catholic Spain loomed. Queen Elizabeth Elizabeth maintained relative government stability apart from the Revolt of the Northern Earls in 1569, she was effective in reducing the power of the old nobility and expanding the power of her government. One of the most famous events in English martial history occurred in 1588 when the Spanish Armada was repelled by the English navy commanded by Sir Francis Drake, but the war that followed was very costly for England and only ended after Elizabeth's death. Elizabeth's government did much to consolidate the work begun under Thomas Cromwell in the reign of Henry VIII, that is, expanding the role of the government and effecting common law and administration throughout England. During the reign of Elizabeth and shortly afterward, the population grew significantly: from three million in 1564 to nearly five million in 1616. In all, the Tudor period is seen as a decisive one which set up many important questions which would have to be answered in the next century and during the English Civil War. These were questions of the relative power of the monarch and Parliament and to what extent one should control the other. Some historians think that Thomas Cromwell affected a "Tudor Revolution" in government, and it is certain that Parliament became more important during his chancellorship. Other historians say the "Tudor Revolution" really extended to the end of Elizabeth's reign, when the work was all consolidated. Although the Privy Council declined after the death of Elizabeth, while she was alive it was very effective. 17th century Union of the Crowns Elizabeth died in 1603 without leaving any direct heirs. Her closest male Protestant relative was the King of Scots, James VI, of the House of Stuart, who became King James I of England in a Union of the Crowns. King James I & VI as he was styled became the first king of the entire island of Great Britain, though he continued to rule the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland separately. Several assassination attempts were made on James, notably the Main Plot and Bye Plots of 1603, and most famously, on 5 November 1605, the Gunpowder Plot, by a group of Catholic conspirators, led by Guy Fawkes, which caused more antipathy in England towards the Catholic faith. Colonial England In 1607 England built an establishment at Jamestown in North America. This was the beginning of English colonisation. Many English settled then in North America for religious or economic reasons. The English merchants holding plantations in the warm southern parts of America then resorted rather quickly to the slavery of Native Americans and imported Africans in order to cultivate their plantations and sell raw material (particularly cotton and tobacco) in Europe. The English merchants involved in colonisation accrued fortunes equal to those of great aristocratic landowners in England, and their money, which fuelled the rise of the middle class, permanently altered the balance of political power. Maps of territory held by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (green) during the English Civil War (1642–1645). English Civil War The First English Civil War broke out in 1642, largely as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts between James' son, Charles I, and Parliament. The defeat of the Royalist army by the New Model Army of Parliament at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645 effectively destroyed the king's forces. Charles surrendered to the Scottish army at Newark. He was eventually handed over to the English Parliament in early 1647. He escaped, and the Second English Civil War began, although it was a short conflict, with the New Model Army quickly securing the country. The capture and subsequent trial of Charles led to his beheading in January 1649 at Whitehall Gate in London, making England a republic. The New Model Army, under the command of Oliver Cromwell, then scored decisive victories against Royalist armies in Ireland and Scotland. Cromwell was given the title Lord Protector in 1653, making him 'king in all but name' to his critics. After he died in 1658, his son Richard Cromwell succeeded him in the office but he was forced to abdicate within a year. For a while it looked as if a new civil war would begin as the New Model Army split into factions. Troops stationed in Scotland under the command of George Monck eventually marched on London to restore order. Restoration of the monarchy The monarchy was restored in 1660, with King Charles II returning to London. King Charles I, who was beheaded in 1649 In 1665, London was swept by a visitation of the plague, and then, in 1666, the capital was swept by the Great Fire, which raged for 5 days, destroying approximately 15,000 buildings. After the death of Charles II in 1685, his Catholic brother King James II & VII was crowned. England with a Catholic king on the throne was too much for both people and parliament, and in 1689 the Dutch Protestant Prince William of Orange was invited to replace King James II in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. Despite attempts to secure his reign by force, James was finally defeated by William at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. However, in parts of Scotland and Ireland Catholics loyal to James remained determined to see him restored to the throne, and there followed a series of bloody though unsuccessful uprisings. As a result of these, any failure to pledge loyalty to the victorious King William was severely dealt with. The most infamous example of this policy was the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692. Jacobite rebellions continued on into the mid-18th century until the son of the last Catholic claimant to the throne, (James III & VIII), mounted a final campaign in 1745. The Jacobite forces of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the "Bonnie Prince Charlie" of legend, were defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. 18th and 19th centuries Formation of the United Kingdom The Acts of Union between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland in 1707 caused the dissolution of both the Parliament of England and Parliament of Scotland in order to create a unified Kingdom of Great Britain governed by a unified Parliament of Great Britain. The Act of Union of 1800 formally assimilated Ireland within the British political process and from 1 January 1801 created a new state called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which united the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland to form a single political entity. The English capital of London was adopted as the capital of the Union. Industrial Revolution During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, there was considerable social upheaval as a largely agrarian society was transformed by technological advances and increasing mechanization, which was the Industrial Revolution. Much of the agricultural workforce was uprooted from the countryside and moved into large urban centres of production, as the steam-based production factories could undercut the traditional cottage industries, because of economies of scale and the increased output per worker made possible by the new technologies. The consequent overcrowding into areas with little supporting infrastructure saw dramatic increases in the rate of infant mortality (to the extent that many Sunday schools for pre-working age children (5 or 6) had funeral clubs to pay for each others funeral arrangements), crime, and social deprivation. The transition to industrialization was not wholly seamless for workers, many of whom saw their livelihoods threatened by the process. Of these, some frequently sabotaged or attempted to sabotage factories. These saboteurs were known as "Luddites". 20th and 21st centuries political issues Following years of political and military agitation for 'Home Rule' for Ireland, the Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921 established the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland) as a separate state, leaving Northern Ireland as part of the United Kingdom. The official name of the UK thus became "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". England, as part of the UK, joined the European Economic Community in 1973, which became European Union in 1993. Demands for constitutional change in Scotland resulted in a referendum being held in 1997 on the issue of re-establishing a Scottish Parliament, though within the United Kingdom. Following a huge 'Yes' vote, the Scotland Act 1998 was passed and the devolved parliament was elected and took powers in May, 1999. Following the Scottish elections in 2007, a minority SNP government took power, under the leadership of First Minister, Alex Salmond that is determined to move Scotland towards independence. The response of the main unionist parties has been to propose a constitutional commission to look at transferring more powers to the Scottish Parliament. Unionist summit in bid to thwart the SNP The Herald 2008 References See also Bretwalda Commonwealth of Nations Danelaw English people History of the British constitution History of British society Population of England - historical estimates History of the Jews in England History of the British Isles History of the United Kingdom History of Scotland History of Ireland History of Wales History of Cornwall List of British monarchs, British monarchs' family tree Politics of the United Kingdom Timeline of English history History by county or city Bedfordshire Berkshire Birmingham Bristol Buckinghamshire Cambridgeshire Cheshire Cornwall County Durham Cumbria Derbyshire Devon Dorset East Sussex Essex Gloucestershire Hampshire Herefordshire Hertfordshire Isle of Wight Kent Lancashire Leicestershire Lincolnshire London Manchester Merseyside Norfolk Northamptonshire Northumberland Nottinghamshire Oxfordshire Rutland Sheffield Shropshire Somerset Staffordshire Suffolk Surrey Newcastle upon Tyne Warwickshire West Midlands West Sussex Wiltshire Worcestershire York Yorkshire Further reading A History of Britain: At the Edge of the World, 3500 BC – 1603 AD by Simon Schama, BBC/Miramax, 2000 ISBN 0-7868-6675-6 A History of Britain, Volume 2: The Wars of the British 1603–1776 by Simon Schama, BBC/Miramax, 2001 ISBN 0-7868-6675-6 A History of Britain - The Complete Collection on DVD by Simon Schama, BBC 2002 The Isles, A History by Norman Davies, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-513442-7 The History of England, From the First Invasion by the Romans to the Accession of William and Mary in 1688, 1819 by Father John Lingard (Roman Catholic perspective) Shortened History of England by G. M. Trevelyan Penguin Books ISBN 0-14-023323-7 <cite>History of the English-Speaking Peoples<cite> by Sir Winston Churchill Cassell reference, ISBN 0-304-36389-8 — the writing of which helped bring Churchill to public attention in the 1930s, and which forms the basis of many later reference works Letters of the Kings of England, now first collected from the originals in royal archives, and from other authentic sources, private as well as public by J O Halliwell-Phillipps, London, H. Colburn, 1846. vol. 1 — Google Books <cite>Stephen and Matilda The Civil War of 1139-53 by <cite> Jim Bradbury, Alan Sutton Publishing, Ltd., 1996, ISBN 0-7509-0612-X | History_of_England |@lemmatized history:24 england:52 begin:11 arrival:2 anglo:25 saxon:24 partition:1 britain:34 several:3 country:9 largely:3 prehistoric:1 time:10 stonehenge:2 erect:2 height:1 roman:14 empire:5 britannia:6 rule:12 last:8 romano:1 british:12 form:5 various:7 independent:1 kingdom:34 gradually:1 gain:2 control:7 become:16 chief:1 ruler:5 land:7 bbc:5 raid:2 viking:11 frequent:1 ad:6 norman:13 invade:4 conquer:4 much:13 civil:14 war:28 battle:20 nation:5 throughout:3 middle:5 age:4 renaissance:1 tudor:8 wale:8 century:25 united:9 scotland:16 early:7 great:15 follow:12 industrial:3 revolution:6 worldwide:1 physically:1 little:4 remains:1 however:8 cultural:2 impact:2 widespread:4 deep:1 many:14 present:2 day:4 prehistory:1 think:4 c:3 archaeological:2 evidence:4 indicate:1 later:3 southern:6 colonise:1 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3,613 | Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory | JPL logo The JPL complex in La Canada Flintridge, Ca The control room in JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) is a federally funded research and development center and NASA field center located in the San Gabriel Valley area of Los Angeles County, California, United States. The facility is situated in the Arroyo Seco of Los Angeles County and straddles the city boundaries of La Cañada Flintridge and Pasadena. JPL is managed by the nearby California Institute of Technology (Caltech) for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Laboratory's primary function is the construction and operation of robotic planetary spacecraft, though it also conducts Earth-orbit and astronomy missions. It is also responsible for operating NASA's Deep Space Network. Among its current projects are the Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn, the Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity), the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, and the Spitzer Space Telescope. JPL's Space Flight Operations Facility and Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator are designated National Historic Landmarks. History JPL traces its history back to 1936, when the first set of rocket experiments were carried out in the Arroyo Seco. Caltech graduate students Frank Malina, Weld Arnold, Apollo M. O. Smith, and Tsien Hsue-shen, along with Jack Parsons and Edward Forman, tested a small, alcohol fueled motor to gather data for Malina's graduate thesis. Malina's thesis advisor was aerodynamicist Theodore von Karman, who eventually arranged for U.S. Army financial support for this "GALCIT Rocket Project" in 1939. In 1941, Malina, Parsons, Forman, Martin Summerfield, and pilot Homer Bushey demonstrated the first JATO rockets to the Army. In 1943, Von Karman, Malina, Parsons, and Forman established the Aerojet Corporation to manufacture JATO motors, and the following year JPL formally became an Army facility operated under contract by Caltech. Clayton Koppes, "JPL and the American Space Program," (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); [Erik M. Conway, "From Rockets to Spacecraft: Making JPL a Place for Planetary Science," Engineering and Science, vol. 30, nr. 4, pp. 2-10]http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/EandS/ESarchive-frame.html. During JPL's Army years, the Laboratory developed two deployed weapon systems, the MGM-5 Corporal and MGM-29 Sergeant intermediate range ballistic missiles. It also developed a number of other weapons system prototypes, such as the Loki anti-aircraft missile system, and the forerunner of the Aerobee sounding rocket. At various times, it carried out rocket testing at the White Sands Proving Ground, Edwards Air Force Base, and Goldstone, California. In 1954, JPL teamed up with Wernher von Braun’s rocketeers at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency’s Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, to propose orbiting a satellite during the International Geophysical Year. The team lost that proposal to Project Vanguard, and instead embarked on a classified project to demonstrate ablative re-entry technology using a Jupiter-C rocket. They carried out three successful sub-orbital flights in 1956 and 1957. Using a spare Jupiter-C, the two organizations then launched America’s first satellite, Explorer 1, on February 1, 1958. Clayton Koppes, "JPL and the American Space Program," (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Erik M. Conway, "From Rockets to Spacecraft: Making JPL a Place for Planetary Science," Engineering and Science, vol. 30, nr. 4, pp. 2-10. After NASA was founded in October 1958, JPL transferred to it and became the agency’s primary planetary spacecraft center. JPL engineers designed and operated Ranger and Surveyor missions to the Moon that prepared the way for Apollo. JPL also led the way in interplanetary exploration with the Mariner missions to Venus, Mars, and Mercury. Clayton Koppes, "JPL and the American Space Program," (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Erik M. Conway, "From Rockets to Spacecraft: Making JPL a Place for Planetary Science," Engineering and Science, vol. 30, nr. 4, pp. 2-10. JPL has been recognized four times by the Space Foundation: with the Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award, which is given annually to an individual or organization that has made significant contributions to public awareness of space programs, in 1998; and with the John L. "Jack" Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration on three occasions - in 2009 (as part of NASA's Phoenix Mars Lander Team http://www.nationalspacesymposium.org/the-phoenix-mars-lander-team-wins-2009-jack-swigert-award-for-space-exploration ), 2006 and 2005. Location Rocket landscaping Almost all of the of the U.S. federal government/NASA owned property that makes up the JPL campus is actually located in the city of La Cañada Flintridge, California, but it maintains a Pasadena address (4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109). The city of La Cañada Flintridge, California was incorporated in 1976, well after JPL attained international recognition with a Pasadena address. There has been periodic conflict between the two cities over the issue of which should be mentioned in the media as the home of the laboratory. Employees There are approximately 5,000 full-time Caltech employees, and typically a few thousand additional contractors working on any given day. NASA also has a resident office at the facility staffed by federal managers who oversee JPL's activities and work for NASA. There are also some Caltech graduate students, college student interns and co-op students. Caltech and JPL jointly offer research opportunities for students, such as the SURF program (Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowship). On August 30, 2007, a group of JPL employees filed suit in federal court against NASA, Caltech, and the Department of Commerce, claiming their Constitutional rights were being violated by new background investigations. Employees were told that if they did not sign an unlimited waiver of privacy Standard Form 85 with Authorization for Release of Information , they would be deemed to have "voluntarily resigned" Declaration of Cozette Hart, JPL Human Resources Director . Ostensibly, the rebadging rules were designed to make JPL compliant with FIPS 201. The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit found the process violated the employees' privacy rights and has issued a preliminary injunction Nelson v. NASA -- Preliminary Injunction issued by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . Open House days A display at the Open House on May 19, 2007. The lab has an open house once a year on a Saturday and Sunday in May, when the public is invited to tour the facilities and see live demonstrations of JPL science and technology. More limited private tours are also available throughout the year if scheduled well in advance. Thousands of schoolchildren from Southern California and elsewhere visit the lab every year. Planetary Science Summer School The Planetary Science Summer School (PSSS) is an annual workshop sponsored by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The program involves an one-week team design exercise developing an early mission concept study, working with JPL's Advanced Projects Design Team ("Team X") and other concurrent engineering teams. Other works In addition to its government work, JPL has also assisted the nearby motion picture and television industries, by advising them about scientific accuracy in their productions. Science fiction shows advised by JPL include Babylon 5 and its sequel series, Crusade. Funding JPL is a federally funded research and development center (FFRDC) managed and operated by Caltech under a contract from NASA. JPL-run projects include the Galileo mission to Jupiter and its moons, the Mars rovers (including the 1997 Mars Pathfinder and the twin 2003 Mars Exploration Rovers). JPL has sent unmanned missions to every planet in our Solar System. JPL has also conducted extensive mapping missions of Earth. JPL manages the world-wide Deep Space Network, with facilities in California's Mojave Desert, in Spain near Madrid, and in Australia near Canberra. Peanuts Tradition There is a tradition at JPL to eat "good luck peanuts" before critical mission events, such as orbital insertions or landings. As the story goes, after the Ranger program had experienced failure after failure during the 1960s, the first successful Ranger mission to land on the moon occurred while a JPL staffer was munching on peanuts. The staff jokingly decided that the peanuts must have been a good luck charm and the tradition persists today. Missions These are some of the missions partially sponsored by JPL. Explorer program Ranger program Surveyor program Mariner program Pioneer 3 & 4 Viking program Voyager program Magellan probe Galileo probe Deep Space 1 & 2 Mars Global Surveyor Mars Climate Orbiter Cassini-Huygens Stardust Mars Odyssey Mars Pathfinder Mars Exploration Rover Mission Spitzer Space Telescope Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment CloudSat Phoenix (spacecraft) Ocean Surface Topography Mission Orbiting Carbon Observatory Mars Science Laboratory List of directors Dr. Theodore von Kármán, 1938 – 1944 Dr. Frank Malina, 1944 – 1946 Dr. Louis Dunn, 1946 – October 1, 1954 Dr. William Hayward Pickering, October 1, 1954 – March 31, 1976 Dr. Bruce C. Murray, April 1, 1976 – June 30, 1982 Dr. Lew Allen, Jr., July 22, 1982 – December 31, 1990 Dr. Edward C. Stone, January 1, 1991 – April 30, 2001 Dr. Charles Elachi, May 1, 2001 – Present http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/jplhistory/learnmore/directors.php JPL Directors Team-X The JPL Advanced Projects Design Team, also known as "Team X", is an interdisciplinary team of engineers that "utilizes concurrent engineering methodologies to complete rapid design, analysis and evaluation of mission concept designs". http://jplteamx.jpl.nasa.gov/ Current members include: ACS - Peter Meakin and Sohrab Mobasser CDS - James Naegle and Yutao He Cost - Charles Baker Deputy Systems - Sarah Hornbeck EDL - William Strauss Ground Systems - Susan Barry and Gregory Welz Instruments - Marc Walch Logistics - Melissa Vick Mechanical - Steve Kondos Mission Design - Try Lam Planetary Protection - Laura Newlin Power - Ronald Hall and Paul Stella Risk - Julie Wertz and Samantha Infeld Propulsion - Dick Cowley Science - Bill Smythe and Kenneth Lawrence Software - Cin-Young Lee Systems - Stacey Boland Telecom - David Hansen and Michael Pugh Thermal - Donald Strayer Comet Science - Paul Weissman References Further reading JPL's official site | Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory |@lemmatized jpl:44 logo:1 complex:1 la:4 canada:1 flintridge:4 ca:2 control:1 room:1 jet:2 propulsion:3 laboratory:6 federally:2 fund:2 research:4 development:2 center:4 nasa:12 field:1 locate:2 san:1 gabriel:1 valley:1 area:1 los:2 angeles:2 county:2 california:7 united:3 state:3 facility:6 situate:1 arroyo:2 seco:2 straddle:1 city:4 boundary:1 cañada:3 pasadena:4 manage:3 nearby:2 institute:1 technology:3 caltech:9 national:2 aeronautics:1 space:15 administration:1 primary:2 function:1 construction:1 operation:2 robotic:1 planetary:8 spacecraft:6 though:1 also:10 conduct:2 earth:2 orbit:3 astronomy:1 mission:16 responsible:1 operate:4 deep:3 network:2 among:1 current:2 project:7 cassini:2 huygens:2 saturn:1 mar:15 exploration:6 rover:4 spirit:1 opportunity:2 reconnaissance:2 orbiter:3 spitzer:2 telescope:2 flight:2 twenty:1 five:1 foot:1 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3,614 | Nuremberg_Code | The Nuremberg Code is a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation set as a result of the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials at the end of the Second World War. Specifically, they were in response to the inhumane Nazi human experimentation carried out during the war by individuals such as Dr. Josef Mengele. Background In August 1947, the judges delivered their verdict in the "Doctors' Trial" against Karl Brandt and several others. They also delivered their opinion on medical experimentation on human beings. Several of the accused had argued that their experiments differed little from pre-war ones and that there was no law that differentiated between legal and illegal experiments. In April of the same year, Dr. Leo Alexander had submitted to the Counsel for War Crimes six points defining legitimate medical research. The trial verdict adopted these points and added an extra four. The ten points constituted the "Nuremberg Code". Although the legal force of the document was not established and it was not incorporated directly into either the American or German law, the Nuremberg Code and the related Declaration of Helsinki are the basis for the Code of Federal Regulations Title 45 Volume 46, which are the regulations issued by the United States Department of Health and Human Services governing federally funded research in the United States. In addition, the Nuremberg code has also been incorporated into the law of individual states such as California, and other countries. The Nuremberg code includes such principles as informed consent and absence of coercion; properly formulated scientific experimentation; and beneficence towards experiment participants. The ten points of the Nuremberg Code The ten points are, (all from United States National Institutes of Health) U.S. National Institutes of Health, Office of Human Subjects Research. "Nuremberg Code". Retrieved on August 27, 2008. 1. The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential. This means that the person involved should have legal capacity to give consent; should be so situated as to be able to exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit, duress, over-reaching, or other ulterior form of constraint or coercion; and should have sufficient knowledge and comprehension of the elements of the subject matter involved as to enable him to make an understanding and enlightened decision. This latter element requires that before the acceptance of an affirmative decision by the experimental subject there should be made known to him the nature, duration, and purpose of the experiment; the method and means by which it is to be conducted; all inconveniences and hazards reasonable to be expected; and the effects upon his health or person which may possibly come from his participation in the experiment. The duty and responsibility for ascertaining the quality of the consent rests upon each individual who initiates, directs or engages in the experiment. It is a personal duty and responsibility which may not be delegated to another with impunity. 2. The experiment should be such as to yield fruitful results for the good of society, unprocurable by other methods or means of study, and not random and unnecessary in nature. 3. The experiment should be so designed and based on the results of animal experimentation and a knowledge of the natural history of the disease or other problem under study that the anticipated results will justify the performance of the experiment. 4. The experiment should be so conducted as to avoid all unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury. 5. No experiment should be conducted where there is a prior reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur; except, perhaps, in those experiments where the experimental physicians also serve as subjects. 6. The degree of risk to be taken should never exceed that determined by the humanitarian importance of the problem to be solved by the experiment. 7. Proper preparations should be made and adequate facilities provided to protect the experimental subject against even remote possibilities of injury, disability, or death. 8. The experiment should be conducted only by scientifically qualified persons. The highest degree of skill and care should be required through all stages of the experiment of those who conduct or engage in the experiment. 9. During the course of the experiment the human subject should be at liberty to bring the experiment to an end if he has reached the physical or mental state where continuation of the experiment seems to him to be impossible. 10. During the course of the experiment the scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment at any stage, if he has probable cause to believe, in the exercise of the good faith, superior skill and careful judgment required of him that a continuation of the experiment is likely to result in injury, disability, or death to the experimental subject. Reprinted from Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, Vol. 2, pp. 181-182. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949. See also Civil rights Declaration of Geneva Declaration of Helsinki Good clinical practice (GCP) Green report Human rights Medical ethics Medical torture Hippocratic Oath Nuremberg Principles Universal Declaration of Human Rights World Medical Association (WMA) References Further reading Weindling, Paul: Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials (Palgrave, Basingstoke 2004) Schmidt, Ulf: Justice at Nuremberg. Leo Alexander and the Nazi Doctors' Trial (Palgrave, Basingstoke 2004) Schmidt, Ulf: Karl Brandt. The Nazi Doctor. Medicine and Power in the Third Reich (Continuum, London, 2007) BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL No 7070 Volume 313: Page 1448,7 December 1996. The Nuremberg Code (1947) In: Mitscherlich A, Mielke F. Doctors of infamy: the story of the Nazi medical crimes. New York: Schuman, 1949: xxiii-xxv. 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3,615 | Nashville,_Tennessee | Nashville is the capital of the U.S. state of Tennessee and the county seat of Davidson County. It is the second most populous city in the state after Memphis. It is located on the Cumberland River in Davidson County, in the north-central part of the state. Nashville is a major hub for the health care, music, publishing, banking and transportation industries. Nashville has a consolidated city-county government which includes seven smaller municipalities in a two-tier system. The population of Nashville-Davidson County stood at 619,626 as of 2007, according to United States Census Bureau estimates. The 2007 population of the entire 13-county Nashville Metropolitan Statistical Area was 1,521,437, making it the largest metropolitan area in the state. History Nashville was founded by James Robertson, John Donelson, and a party of Wataugans in 1779, and was originally called Fort Nashborough, after the American Revolutionary War hero Francis Nash. Nashville quickly grew because of its prime location, accessibility as a river port, and its later status as a major railroad center. In 1806, Nashville was incorporated as a city and became the county seat of Davidson County, Tennessee. In 1843, the city was named the permanent capital of the state of Tennessee. Nashville riverfront shortly after the Civil WarBy 1860, when the first rumblings of secession began to be heard across the South, antebellum Nashville was a very prosperous city. The city's significance as a shipping port made it a desirable prize as a means of controlling important river and railroad transportation routes. In February 1862, Nashville became the first state capital to fall to Union troops. Though the Civil War left Nashville in dire economic straits, the city quickly rebounded. Within a few years, the city had reclaimed its important shipping and trading position and also developed a solid manufacturing base. The post-Civil War years of the late 19th century brought a newfound prosperity to Nashville. These healthy economic times left the city with a legacy of grand classical-style buildings, which can still be seen around the downtown area. It was the advent of the Grand Ole Opry in 1925, combined with an already thriving publishing industry, that positioned it to become "Music City USA"., and in the early 1960s the city was home to the main activity of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement (see History of Nashville, Tennessee). In 1963, Nashville consolidated its government with Davidson County and thus became the first major city in the United States to form a metropolitan government. Since the 1970s, the city has experienced tremendous growth, particularly during the economic boom of the 1990s under the leadership of Mayor (now-Tennessee Governor) Phil Bredesen, who made urban renewal a priority, and fostered the construction or renovation of several city landmarks, including the Country Music Hall of Fame, the Nashville Public Library downtown, the Sommet Center, and LP Field. The Sommet Center (formerly Nashville Arena and Gaylord Entertainment Center) was built as both a large concert facility and as an enticement to lure either a National Basketball Association or National Hockey League (NHL) sports franchise. This was accomplished in 1997 when Nashville was awarded an NHL expansion team which was subsequently named the Nashville Predators. LP Field (formerly Adelphia Coliseum) was built after the National Football League's (NFL) Houston Oilers agreed to move to the city in 1995. The NFL debuted in Nashville in 1998 at Vanderbilt Stadium, and LP Field opened in the summer of 1999. The Oilers changed their name to the Tennessee Titans and saw a season culminate in the Music City Miracle and a close Super Bowl game. Today the city along the Cumberland River is a crossroads of American culture, and one of the fastest-growing areas of the Upper South. Geography and climate A satellite image of Nashville Nashville lies on the Cumberland River in the northwestern portion of the Nashville Basin. Nashville's topography ranges from 385 ft (117 m) above sea level at the Cumberland River to 1,160 feet (354 m) above sea level at its highest point. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 526.1 square miles (1,362.6 km²), of which, 502.3 square miles (1,300.8 km²) of it is land and 23.9 square miles (61.8 km²) of it (4.53%) is water. Nashville has a humid subtropical climate with hot, humid summers and cool winters. Average annual rainfall is 48.1 inches (1222 mm), typically with winter and spring being the wettest and autumn being the driest. In the winter months, snowfall is not uncommon in Nashville but is usually not heavy. Average annual snowfall is about 9 inches (229 mm), falling mostly in January and February and occasionally March and December. National Weather Service data for Nashville Spring and fall are generally pleasantly warm but prone to severe thunderstorms, which occasionally bring tornadoes — with recent major events on April 16, 1998, April 7, 2006, and February 5, 2008. Relative humidity in Nashville averages 83% in the mornings and 60% in the afternoons, which is considered moderate for the Southeastern United States. The coldest temperature ever recorded in Nashville was −17 °F (−27 °C), on January 21, 1985, and the highest was 107 °F (42 °C), on July 28, 1952. Calendar of Significant Weather Events in Middle Tennessee provided by the National Weather Service. Retrieved August 8, 2006. The largest one-day snow total was 17 inches (432 mm) on March 17, 1892. The largest snow event in the recent memory was on January 16, 2003, when Nashville received 7 inches (178 mm) of snow in a single storm. Daily Records for Nashville (1871-Present) Nashville's long springs and autumns combined with a diverse array of trees and grasses can often make it uncomfortable for allergy sufferers. In 2008, Nashville was ranked as the 18th-worst spring allergy city in the U.S. by the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America. Metropolitan area Nashville has the largest metropolitan area in the state of Tennessee, spanning several counties. The Nashville Metropolitan Statistical Area encompasses the Middle Tennessee counties of Cannon, Cheatham, Davidson, Dickson, Hickman, Macon, Robertson, Rutherford, Smith, Sumner, Trousdale, Williamson, and Wilson. U.S. Census Bureau: Metropolitan Statistical Areas and Components, November 2004 Cityscape The downtown area of Nashville features a diverse assortment of entertainment, dining, cultural and architectural attractions. The Broadway and 2nd Avenue areas feature entertainment venues, night clubs and an assortment of restaurants. North of Broadway lies Nashville's central business district, Legislative Plaza, Capitol Hill and the Tennessee Bicentennial Mall. Cultural and architectural attractions can be found throughout the city. Nashville's first skyscraper, the Life & Casualty Tower, was completed in 1957 and started the construction of high rises in downtown Nashville. After the construction of the AT&T Building in 1994, the downtown area saw little construction until the mid-2000s. Many new residential developments have been constructed or are planned for the various neighborhoods of downtown and midtown. A new high rise office building, The Pinnacle, is also currently under construction. Many civic and infrastructure projects are either being planned, in progress, or recently completed. A new MTA bus hub was recently completed in downtown Nashville, as was the Music City Star pilot project. Several public parks have been constructed, such as the Public Square. Riverfront Park is scheduled to be extensively updated. The Music City Center, a convention center project, has been proposed for the downtown area. Law and government The State Capitol in Nashville The City of Nashville and Davidson County merged in 1963 as a way for Nashville to combat the problems of urban sprawl. The combined entity is officially known as "the Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County", and is popularly known as "Metro Nashville" or simply "Metro". It offers services such as police, fire, electricity, water and sewage treatment. When the Metro government was formed in 1963, the government was split into two service districts—the "urban services district" and the "general services district." The urban services district encompasses the 1963 boundaries of the former City of Nashville, and the general services district includes the remainder of Davidson County. There are seven smaller municipalities within the consolidated city-county: Belle Meade, Berry Hill, Forest Hills, Lakewood, Oak Hill, Goodlettsville (partially), and Ridgetop (partially). These municipalities use a two-tier system of government, with the smaller municipality typically providing police services and the Metro Nashville government providing most other services. Nashville is governed by a mayor, vice-mayor, and 40-member Metropolitan Council. It uses the strong-mayor form of the mayor-council system. The current mayor of Nashville is Karl Dean. The Metropolitan Council is the legislative body of government for Nashville and Davidson County. There are 5 council members who are elected at large and 35 council members that represent individual districts. The Metro Council has regular meetings that are presided over by the vice-mayor, who is currently Diane Neighbors. The Metro Council meets on the first and third Tuesday of each month at 6:00 p.m., according to the Metropolitan Charter. Nashville has been a Democratic stronghold since at least the end of Reconstruction. While local elections are officially nonpartisan, nearly all of the city's elected officials are known to be Democrats. At the state level, Democrats hold all but one of the city's state house districts and all but one of the city's state senate districts. Democrats are no less dominant at the federal level. Since Reconstruction, the Democratic presidential candidate has failed to carry Nashville/Davidson County only twice. In 1968, George Wallace carried Nashville by a large enough margin that nearly enabled him to carry Tennessee. In 1972, Richard Nixon became the only Republican presidential candidate to carry Nashville. Since then, the Democrats have carried the city at the presidential level with relatively little difficulty. In the 2000 presidential election, Al Gore carried Nashville with over 59% of the vote even as he narrowly lost his home state. In the 2004 election, John Kerry carried Nashville with 55% of the vote even as George W. Bush won the state by 14 points. In 2008, Barack Obama carried Nashville with 60 percent of the vote even as John McCain won Tennessee by 15 points. At the federal level, Nashville is split between two congressional districts. Nearly all of the city is in the 5th District, currently represented by Democrat Jim Cooper. A Republican has not represented a significant portion of Nashville since 1875. While Republicans made a few spirited challenges in the mid-1960s and early 1970s, they have not made a serious bid for the district since 1972, when the Republican candidate gained only 38% of the vote even as Nixon carried the district by a large margin. The district's best-known congressman was probably Jo Byrns, who represented the district from 1909 to 1936 and was Speaker of the House for much of Franklin Roosevelt's first term. Another nationally prominent congressman from Nashville was Percy Priest, who represented the district from 1941 to 1956 and was House Majority Whip from 1949 to 1953. Former mayors Richard Fulton and Bill Boner also sat in the U.S. House before assuming the Metro mayoral office. All of Nashville was located in one congressional district for most of the time from Reconstruction until the 2000 Census, when a small portion of southwestern Nashville was drawn into the heavily Republican 7th District. That district is currently represented by Marsha Blackburn of neighboring Williamson County; Blackburn represented much of the Nashville share of the 7th in the state senate from 1998 to 2002. Demographics According to the 2007 American Community Survey, the population of the Nashville-Davidson metropolitan government (balance) was 65.6% White (60.2% non-Hispanic-White alone), 28.9% Black or African American, 0.6% American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.3% Asian, 0.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 2.6% from some other race and 0.9% from two or more races. 7.3% were Hispanic or Latino of any race. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-context=adp&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_DP3YR5&-ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_&-tree_id=3307&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=16000US4752006&-format=&-_lang=en factfinder.census.gov The data below is for all of Metropolitan Nashville-Davidson County, including other incorporated cities within the consolidated city-county (such as Belle Meade and Berry Hill). See Nashville-Davidson (balance) for demographic data on Nashville-Davidson County excluding separately incorporated cities. Population density map per 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 569,891 people, 237,405 households, and 138,169 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,134.6 people per square mile (438.1/km²). There were 252,977 housing units at an average density of 503.7/sq mi (194.5/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 66.99% White, 25.92% African American, 0.29% Native American, 2.33% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 2.42% from other races and 1.97% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.58% of the population. Metropolitan Nashville-Davidson County's estimated population for 2007 is 619,626 people. There were 237,405 households out of which 26.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.9% were married couples living together, 14.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.8% were non-families. 33.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.96. In the city the population was spread out with 22.2% under the age of 18, 11.6% from 18 to 24, 34.0% from 25 to 44, 21.1% from 45 to 64, and 11.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.8 males. The median income for a household in the city was $39,797, and the median income for a family was $49,317. Males had a median income of $33,844 versus $27,770 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,069. About 10.0% of families and 13.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.1% of those under age 18 and 10.5% of those age 65 or over. Because of its relatively low cost of living and large job market, Nashville has become a popular city for immigrants. Nashville’s foreign-born population more than tripled in size between 1990 and 2000, increasing from 12,662 to 39,596. Large groups of Mexicans, Kurds, Nashville Refugee Population Grows, wsmv.com, February 7, 2009 Vietnamese, Laotians, Cambodians, Arabs, and Somalis call Nashville home, among other groups. Cornfield, Daniel B. Final Report of the Immigrant Community Assessment. August 15, 2003. Nashville has the largest Kurdish community in the United States, numbering approximately 11,000. About 60,000 Bhutanese refugees are being admitted to the U.S. and some of them will resettle in Nashville. Newest refugees hail from Bhutan, By Chris Echegaray, THE TENNESSEAN, January 1, 2009 During the Iraqi election of 2005, Nashville was one of the few international locations where Iraqi expatriates could vote. The American Jewish community in Nashville dates back over 150 years ago, A Brief History of the Nashville Jewish Community, Jewish Federation of Nashville and Middle Tennessee and numbers about 6,500 (2001). Economy As the "home of country music", Nashville has become a major music recording and production center. All of the Big Four record labels, as well as numerous independent labels, have offices in Nashville, mostly in the Music Row area. List of Nashville-based labels at clubnashville.com. Retrieved March 10, 2006. Since the 1960s, Nashville has been the second biggest music production center (after New York) in the U.S. As of 2006, Nashville's music industry is estimated to have a total economic impact of $6.4 billion per year and to contribute 19,000 jobs to the Nashville area. Although Nashville is renowned as a music recording center and tourist destination, its largest industry is actually health care. Nashville is home to more than 250 health care companies, including Hospital Corporation of America, the largest private operator of hospitals in the world. As of 2006, it is estimated that the health care industry contributes $18.3 billion per year and 94,000 jobs to the Nashville-area economy. The automotive industry is also becoming increasingly important for the entire Middle Tennessee region. Nissan North America moved its corporate headquarters in 2006 from Gardena, California (Los Angeles County) to Franklin. Nissan also has its largest North American manufacturing plant in Smyrna, Tennessee. Largely as a result of the increased development of Nissan and other Japanese economic interests in the region, Japan moved its New Orleans Consulate-general to Nashville's Palmer Plaza. Other major industries in Nashville include insurance, finance, and publishing (especially religious publishing). The city hosts headquarters operations for several Protestant denominations, including the United Methodist Church, Southern Baptist Convention, and National Baptist Convention, USA., and the National Association of Free Will Baptists. Fortune 500 companies within Nashville include Dell, HCA Inc. (formerly Hospital Corporation of America) and Dollar General Corporation (in Goodlettsville). Education Public Schools The city is served by the Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools. Private Schools Christ Presbyterian Academy David Lipscomb Campus School Brentwood Academy Davidson Academy Donelson Christian Academy Battle Ground Academy Ensworth School Franklin Road Academy Father Ryan Harpeth Hall School Madison Academy Montgomery Bell Academy Nashville Christian School Pope John Paul II High School St. Cecilia Academy University School of Nashville Colleges and Universities Freeman Hall at Belmont University Nashville is often labeled the "Athens of the South" due to the many colleges and universities in the city and metropolitan area. Vanderbilt University Press The colleges and universities in Nashville include American Baptist College, Aquinas College, The Art Institute of Tennessee — Nashville, Belmont University, Draughons Junior College, Fisk University, Free Will Baptist Bible College, Gupton College, International Academy of Design and Technology, Lipscomb University, Meharry Medical College, Nashville School of Law, Nashville Auto Diesel College http://www.nashvilleautodiesel.net/ (a NAFTC Training Center), Nashville State Community College, Strayer University, Tennessee State University, Trevecca Nazarene University, University of Phoenix, Vanderbilt University, and Watkins College of Art, Design & Film. Within 30 miles (50 km) of Nashville in Murfreesboro is Middle Tennessee State University (MTSU), a full-sized public university with Tennessee's largest undergraduate population. Enrollment in post-secondary education in Nashville is around 43,000. Within the Nashville Metropolitan Statistical Area—which includes MTSU, Cumberland University (Lebanon), Volunteer State Community College (Gallatin), and O'More College of Design (Franklin)—total enrollment exceeds 74,000. Within a 40 mile (65 km) radius are Austin Peay State University (Clarksville) and Columbia State Community College (Columbia), enrolling an additional 13,600. Culture Ryman Auditorium, the "Mother Church of Country Music" Much of the city's cultural life has revolved around its large university community. Particularly significant in this respect were two groups of critics and writers who were associated with Vanderbilt University in the early twentieth century, the Fugitives and the Agrarians. Popular destinations include Fort Nashborough and Fort Negley, the former being a reconstruction of the original settlement, the latter being a semi-restored Civil War battle fort; the Tennessee State Museum; and The Parthenon, a full-scale replica of the original Parthenon in Athens. The State Capitol is one of the oldest working state capitol buildings in the nation, while The Hermitage is one of the older presidential homes open to the public. The Nashville Zoo is one of the city's newer attractions. Country music Many popular tourist sites involve country music, including the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum, Belcourt Theatre and Ryman Auditorium. Ryman was home to the Grand Ole Opry until 1974 when the show moved to the Grand Ole Opry House nine miles east of downtown. The Opry plays there several times a week, except for an annual winter run at Ryman. Each year, the CMA Music Festival (formerly known as Fan Fair) brings thousands of country fans to the city. Nashville was once home of television shows like Hee Haw and Pop! Goes the Country, and to the Opryland USA theme park, which operated from 1972 to 1997 before being closed by its owners Gaylord Entertainment, and soon after demolished to make room for the Opry Mills mega-shopping mall. Lower Broadway and Printer's Alley are home to many honky tonk bars and clubs. Christian pop music The Christian pop and rock music industry is based along Nashville's Music Row, with a great influence in neighboring Williamson County. The Christian record companies include EMI (formally Sparrow Records), Rocketown Records, Beach Street and Reunion Records with many of the genre's most popular acts such as Michael Tait, Jars of Clay, Rebecca St. James, tobyMac, Michael W. Smith, Amy Grant, Steven Curtis Chapman, Mandisa, Avalon, DJ Maj and Newsboys based there. Jazz Kirk Whalum visiting the audience at a riverfront concert in 2007 Although Nashville was never known as a jazz town, it did have many great jazz bands including The Nashville Jazz Machine led by Dave Converse and its current version, the Nashville Jazz Orchestra, led by Jim Williamson, as well as The Establishment, led by Billy Adair. The Francis Craig Orchestra entertained Nashvillians from 1929 to 1945 from the Oak Bar and Grille Room in the Hermitage Hotel. Craig's orchestra was also the first to broadcast over local radio station WSM-AM and enjoyed phenomenal success with a 12-year show on the NBC Radio Network. In the late 1930s, he introduced a newcomer, Dinah Shore, a former cheerleader and local graduate of Hume Fogg High School and Vanderbilt University. Radio station WMOT-FM in nearby Murfreesboro has aided significantly in the recent revival of the city's jazz scene, as has the non-profit Nashville Jazz Workshop, which holds concerts in a renovated building in the north Nashville neighborhood of Germantown. Fisk University also maintains a jazz station. Civil War Civil War history is important to the city's tourism industry. Sites pertaining to the Battle of Nashville and the nearby Battle of Franklin and Battle of Stones River can be seen, along with several well-preserved antebellum plantation houses such as Belle Meade Plantation and Belmont Mansion. Performing arts The Tennessee Performing Arts Center is the major performing arts center of the city. It is the home of the Tennessee Repertory Theatre, Nashville Children's Theatre, the Nashville Opera, and Nashville Ballet. In September 2006, the Schermerhorn Symphony Center opened as the home of the Nashville Symphony Orchestra. Art museums Nashville has several arts centers and museums, including the Frist Center for the Visual Arts, located in the former post office building; Cheekwood Botanical Garden and Museum of Art; the Tennessee State Museum; Fisk University's Van Vechten and Aaron Douglas Galleries; Vanderbilt University's Fine Art Gallery and Sarratt Gallery; and the Parthenon. Major annual events The Gospel Music Association Dove Awards are held each April at various locations including the Grand Ole Opry or the Ryman Auditorium. Leading up to the awards is GMA week where radio stations interview and fans get autographs. The Nashville Film Festival takes place each year for a week in April. It features hundreds of independent films and is one of the biggest film festivals in the Southern United States. The CMA Music Festival is a four day event in June featuring performances by country music stars, autograph signings, artist/fan interaction, and other activities for country music fans. In September, Nashville hosts the Tennessee State Fair at the State Fairgrounds. The State Fair lasts nine days and includes rides, exhibits, rodeos, tractor pulls, and numerous other shows and attractions. In September, the African Street Festival takes place on the campus of Tennessee State University. The Country Music Association Awards are usually held in November, typically at the Grand Ole Opry (with recent exceptions), and televised nationally to millions of viewers. Other big events in Nashville include the Fourth of July celebration which takes place each year at Riverfront Park, the Country Music Marathon and Half Marathon which normally includes over 25,000 runners from around the world, the Tomato Art Festival which takes place in East Nashville every August, and the Australian Festival which celebrates the cultural and business links between the U.S. and Australia. Media The primary daily newspaper in Nashville is The Tennessean, which, until 1998, competed fiercely with another daily, the Nashville Banner (although the two were housed in the same building under a joint-operating agreement). Although The Tennessean now enjoys a relative monopoly on the local newspaper market, a smaller free daily called The City Paper has cut into The Tennessean's market share somewhat. Online news service NashvillePost.com competes with the printed dailies to break news of business and local/state politics. Several weekly papers are also published in Nashville, including the Nashville Scene, Nashville Business Journal, and The Tennessee Tribune. Historically, The Tennessean was associated with a broadly liberal editorial policy, while The Banner carried staunchly conservative views in its editorial pages; The Banner's heritage is carried on these days by The City Paper. The Scene is the area's alternative weekly broadsheet, while The Tribune serves Nashville's African-American population. Nashville is home to nearly a dozen broadcast television stations, although most households are served by direct cable network connections. Comcast Cable has a monopoly on terrestrial cable service in Davidson County (but not throughout the entire DMA). Nashville is ranked as the 30th largest television market in the United States. Nashville is also home to cable networks Country Music Television (CMT), Great American Country (GAC), and RFD-TV, among others. CMT's Master Control facilities are located in New York City with the other Viacom properties. The Top 20 Countdown and CMT Insider are taped in their Nashville studios. Nashville is also the home and namesake of the NBC country music singing competition Nashville Star, which broadcasts from the Opryland complex. Shop at Home Network was once based in Nashville, but the channel signed off in 2006. Several dozen FM and AM radio stations broadcast in the Nashville area, including five college stations and one LPFM community station. Nashville is ranked as the 44th largest radio market in the United States. Nashville is home to WSM which originally stood for "We Shield Millions". WSM-FM is owned by Cumulus Media and is 95.5 FM the Wolf. WSM-AM, owned by Gaylord Entertainment Company, can be heard nationally on 650 AM or online at WSM Online from its studios located inside the Gaylord Opryland Resort & Convention Center. WLAC is a Clear Channel-owned talk station which was originally sponsored by the Life and Casualty Insurance Company of Tennessee, and its competitor WWTN is owned by Cumulus. Nashville has a small but growing film industry. Several major motion pictures have been filmed in Nashville, including The Green Mile, The Last Castle, Gummo, The Thing Called Love, Coal Miner's Daughter, and Robert Altman's Nashville. http://www.imdb.com/List?endings=on&&locations=Centennial%20Park,%20Nashville,%20Tennessee,%20USA&&heading=18;with+locations+including;Centennial%20Park,%20Nashville,%20Tennessee,%20USA Sports Nashville has several professional sports teams, most notably the Nashville Predators of the National Hockey League and the Tennessee Titans of the National Football League. Several other pro sports teams also call Nashville home, as does the NCAA college football Music City Bowl. The Vanderbilt Commodores are members of the Southeastern Conference. The football team of Tennessee State University plays its home games at LP Field. Club Sport League Venue Tennessee Titans Football National Football League LP Field Nashville Predators Hockey National Hockey League Sommet Center Nashville Sounds Baseball Minor League Baseball: Pacific Coast League Herschel Greer Stadium Nashville Broncs Basketball American Basketball Association Nashville Municipal Auditorium Nashville Metros Soccer Premier Development League Ezell Park Nashville Storm Football North American Football League Buster Boguskie Stadium Sports venues in Nashville are: LP Field Sommet Center Nashville Municipal Auditorium Herschel Greer Stadium Ezell Park Vanderbilt Stadium at Dudley Field at Vanderbilt University Memorial Gymnasium at Vanderbilt University Hawkins Field at Vanderbilt University Curb Event Center at Belmont University Gentry Center at Tennessee State University Allen Arena at Lipscomb University Music City Motorplex at state fairgrounds Parks and recreation The Parthenon in Nashville's Centennial Park is a full-scale reconstruction of the original Greek Parthenon. Metro Board of Parks and Recreation owns and manages 10,200 acres (4,120 ha) of land and 99 parks and greenways (comprising more than 3% of the total area of the county). 2,684 acres (1,086 ha) of land is home to Warner Parks, which houses a 5,000 square-foot (460 m²) learning center, 20 miles (30 km) of scenic roads, 12 miles (19 km) of hiking trails, and 10 miles (16 km) of horse trails. It is also the home of the annual Iroquois Steeplechase. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers maintains parks on Old Hickory Lake and Percy Priest Lake. These parks are used for multiple activities including fishing, water-skiing, sailing and boating. Percy Priest Lake is also home to the Vanderbilt Sailing Club. Transportation A Music City Star commuter train beneath the Shelby Street Bridge 737 at Nashville Int'l crosses highway Nashville is centrally located at the crossroads of three Interstate Highways: I-40, I-24, and I-65. Interstate 440 is a bypass route connecting I-40, I-65, and I-24 south of downtown Nashville. Briley Parkway connects the north side of the city and its interstates. The Metropolitan Transit Authority provides bus transit within the city, out of a newly built hub station downtown. Routes utilize a hub and spoke method. Expansion plans include use of Bus rapid transit for new routes, with the possibility for local rail service at some point in the future. Nashville is considered a gateway city for rail and air traffic for the Piedmont Atlantic MegaRegion. The city is served by Nashville International Airport, which was a hub for American Airlines between 1986 and 1995 and is now a mini-hub for Southwest Airlines. Although it is a major rail hub, with a large CSX Transportation freight rail yard, Nashville is one of the largest cities in the U.S. not served by Amtrak. Nashville launched a passenger commuter rail system called the Music City Star on September 18, 2006. The only currently operational leg of the system connects the city of Lebanon to downtown Nashville at the Nashville Riverfront. Legs to Murfreesboro and Gallatin are currently in the feasibility study stage. The system plan includes seven legs connecting Nashville to surrounding suburbs. Notable bridges in the city are: Official Name Other Names Length Date Opened Gateway Bridge Korean War Veterans Memorial Bridge 506 m (1,660 ft) May 19, 2004 Kelly Miller Smith Bridge Jefferson Street Bridge March 2, 1994 Old Hickory Bridge 1929 Martin Luther King Jr. Bridge Bordeaux Bridge September 18, 1980 Shelby Street Bridge Shelby Avenue Bridge 960 m (3,150 ft) July 5, 1909 Silliman Evans Bridge 720 m (2,362 ft) 1963 Victory Memorial Bridge July 2, 1956 William Goodwin Bridge Hobson Pike Bridge 675 m (2,215 ft) Woodland Street Bridge 195 m (639 ft) Nicknames Nashville is a colorful, well-known city in several different arenas. As such, it has earned various sobriquets, including: Music City, USA: WSM-AM announcer David Cobb first used this name during a 1950 broadcast and it stuck. It is now the official nickname used by the Nashville Convention and Visitors Bureau. Nashville is the home of the Grand Ole Opry, the Country Music Hall of Fame, and many major record labels. This name also dates back to 1874, where after receiving and hearing a performance by the Fisk Jubilee Singers, Queen Victoria of England is reported as saying that "These young people must surely come from a musical city." Athens of the South: Home to twenty-four post-secondary educational institutions, Nashville has long been compared to the ancient city of learning, site of Plato's Academy. Since 1897, a full-scale replica of the Athenian Parthenon has stood in Nashville, and many examples of classical and neoclassical architecture can be found in the city. Vanderbilt University Press - home The Protestant Vatican or The Buckle of the Bible Belt: Nashville has over 700 churches, several seminaries, a number of Christian music companies, and is the headquarters for the publishing arms of both the Southern Baptist Convention and the United Methodist Church. It is also the seat of the National Association of Free Will Baptists, the Gideons International, the Gospel Music Association and Thomas Nelson, the world's largest producer of Bibles. Cashville: Nashville native Young Buck released a very successful rap album called Straight Outta Ca$hville that has popularized the nickname among a new generation. Nashville Scene - Love-Hate Mail Nashvegas: The rhinestones and neon of Nashville have given rise to a glitzy image that local residents have embraced. Playing off the image of Las Vegas, this nickname reflects the city's colorful nightlife and affluence. Americana music artist George Hamilton V has popularized the nickname in song. Viva Nashvegas Little Kurdistan: Nashville has the United States' largest population of Kurdish people, estimated to be around 11,000. Sister cities Nashville is an active participant in the Sister Cities program and has relationships with the following towns: Belfast, Northern Ireland (United Kingdom) Caen (France) Edmonton, Alberta (Canada) Magdeburg (Germany) Mendoza (Argentina) Taiyuan (China) References Further reading External links Government Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County Nashville Convention & Visitors Bureau Nashville Area Chamber of Commerce Nashville historical timeline | Nashville,_Tennessee |@lemmatized nashville:176 capital:3 u:9 state:41 tennessee:31 county:27 seat:3 davidson:19 second:2 populous:1 city:70 memphis:1 locate:6 cumberland:5 river:7 north:7 central:2 part:1 major:11 hub:7 health:4 care:4 music:37 publishing:3 banking:1 transportation:4 industry:10 consolidated:3 government:13 include:28 seven:3 small:6 municipality:4 two:8 tier:2 system:6 population:14 stand:3 accord:4 united:12 census:8 bureau:5 estimate:5 entire:3 metropolitan:19 statistical:4 area:22 make:8 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3,616 | Fullerene | The Icosahedral Fullerene C540 C60 with isosurface of ground state electron density as calculated with DFT "C60" and "C-60" redirect here. For other uses, see C60 (disambiguation). Fullerene are a family of carbon allotropes, molecules composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, or plane. Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs, and cylindrical ones are called carbon nanotubes or buckytubes. Graphene is an example of a planar fullerene sheet. Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked sheets of linked hexagonal rings, but may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings that would prevent a sheet from being planar. The fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley at the University of Sussex and Rice University, who named it after Richard Buckminster Fuller, whose geodesic domes it resembles. Prediction and discovery With mass spectrometry, discrete peaks were observed corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of sixty or seventy or more carbon atoms. In 1985, Harold Kroto (then of the University of Sussex), James R. Heath, Sean O'Brien, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley, from Rice University, discovered C60, and shortly thereafter came to discover the fullerenes. Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their roles in the discovery of this class of compounds. C60 and other fullerenes were later noticed occurring outside the laboratory (e.g., in normal candle soot). By 1991, it was relatively easy to produce gram-sized samples of fullerene powder using the techniques of Donald Huffman and Wolfgang Krätschmer. Fullerene purification remains a challenge to chemists and to a large extent determines fullerene prices. So-called endohedral fullerenes have ions or small molecules incorporated inside the cage atoms. Fullerene is an unusual reactant in many organic reactions such as the Bingel reaction discovered in 1993. The first nanotubes were obtained in 1991. http://machinedesign.com/ContentItem/60618/Anewbuckyballbouncesintotown.aspx Minute quantities of the fullerenes, in the form of C60, C70, C76, and C84 molecules, are produced in nature, hidden in soot and formed by lightning discharges in the atmosphere. World of Carbon Recently, Buckminsterfullerenes were found in a family of minerals known as Shungites in Karelia, Russia. The existence of C60 was predicted by Eiji Osawa of Toyohashi University of Technology in a Japanese magazine in 1970. He noticed that the structure of a corannulene molecule was a subset of a soccer-ball shape, and he made the hypothesis that a full ball shape could also exist. His idea was reported in Japanese magazines, but did not reach Europe or America. Naming Buckminsterfullerene (C60) was named after Richard Buckminster Fuller, a noted architectural modeler who popularized the geodesic dome. Since buckminsterfullerenes have a similar shape to that sort of dome, the name was thought to be appropriate. As the discovery of the fullerene family came after buckminsterfullerene, the shortened name 'fullerene' was used to refer to the family of fullerenes.For illustrations of geodesic dome structures, see Montreal Biosphère, Eden Project, Missouri Botanical Garden, Science World at TELUS World of Science, Mitchell Park Horticultural Conservatory, Gold Dome, Tacoma Dome, Reunion Tower, and Spaceship Earth (Epcot). Variations Since the discovery of fullerenes in 1985, structural variations on fullerenes have evolved well beyond the individual clusters themselves. Examples include: buckyball clusters: smallest member is (unsaturated version of dodecahedrane) and the most common is ; nanotubes: hollow tubes of very small dimensions, having single or multiple walls; potential applications in electronics industry; megatubes: larger in diameter than nanotubes and prepared with walls of different thickness; potentially used for the transport of a variety of molecules of different sizes; polymers: chain, two-dimensional and three-dimensional polymers are formed under high pressure high temperature conditions nano"onions": spherical particles based on multiple carbon layers surrounding a buckyball core; proposed for lubricants; linked "ball-and-chain" dimers: two buckyballs linked by a carbon chain; fullerene rings "Buckyball" Buckminsterfullerene C60 An association football is a model of the Buckminsterfullerene C60 Buckminsterfullerene (IUPAC name (C60-Ih)[5,6]fullerene) is the smallest fullerene molecule in which no two pentagons share an edge (which can be destabilizing, as in pentalene). It is also the most common in terms of natural occurrence, as it can often be found in soot. The structure of C60 is a truncated (T = 3) icosahedron, which resembles a soccer ball of the type made of twenty hexagons and twelve pentagons, with a carbon atom at the vertices of each polygon and a bond along each polygon edge. The van der Waals diameter of a C60 molecule is about 1 nanometer (nm). The nucleus to nucleus diameter of a C60 molecule is about 0.7 nm. The C60 molecule has two bond lengths. The 6:6 ring bonds (between two hexagons) can be considered "double bonds" and are shorter than the 6:5 bonds (between a hexagon and a pentagon). Its average bond length is 1.4 angstroms. Boron buckyball A new type of buckyball utilizing boron atoms instead of the usual carbon has been predicted and described by researchers at Rice University. The B-80 structure is predicted to be more stable than the C-60 buckyball. Bucky's brother -- The boron buckyball makes its début Jade Boyd April 2007 eurekalert.orgLink One reason for this given by the researchers is that the B-80 is actually more like the original geodesic dome structure popularized by Buckminster Fuller which utilizes triangles rather than hexagons. However, this work has been subject to much criticism by quantum chemists The boron buckyball has an unexpected Th symmetry G. Gopakumar, Nguyen, M. T., Ceulemans, Arnout, Chem. Phys. lett. 450, 175, 2008. "Stuffing improves the stability of fullerenelike boron clusters" Prasad, DLVK; Jemmis, E. D.; Phys. Rev. Lett. 100, 165504, 2008. as it was concluded that the predicted Ih symmetric structure was vibrationally unstable and the resulting cage undergoes a spontaneous symmetry breaking yielding a puckered cage with rare Th symmetry (symmetry of the volleyball) The boron buckyball has an unexpected Th symmetry G. Gopakumar, Nguyen, M. T., Ceulemans, Arnout, Chem. Phys. lett. 450, 175, 2008. number of six rings of carbon in this molecule is 20 and number of five member rings is 12 Variations of buckyballs Another fairly common buckminsterfullerene is C70, Buckminsterfullerene: Molecule of the Month but fullerenes with 72, 76, 84 and even up to 100 carbon atoms are commonly obtained. In mathematical terms, the structure of a fullerene is a trivalent convex polyhedron with pentagonal and hexagonal faces. In graph theory, the term fullerene refers to any 3-regular, planar graph with all faces of size 5 or 6 (including the external face). It follows from Euler's polyhedron formula, |V|-|E|+|F| = 2, (where |V|, |E|, |F| indicate the number of vertices, edges, and faces), that there are exactly 12 pentagons in a fullerene and |V|/2-10 hexagons. 20-fullerene(dodecahedral graph) 26-fullerene graph 60-fullerene(truncated icosahedral graph) 70-fullerene graph The smallest fullerene is the dodecahedron--the unique C20. There are no fullerenes with 22 vertices. Goldberg Variations Challenge: Juris Meija, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2006 (385) 6-7 The number of fullerenes C2n grows with increasing n = 12,13,14..., roughly in proportion to n9 . For instance, there are 1812 non-isomorphic fullerenes C60. Note that only one form of C60, the buckminsterfullerene alias truncated icosahedron, has no pair of adjacent pentagons (the smallest such fullerene). To further illustrate the growth, there are 214,127,713 non-isomorphic fullerenes C200, 15,655,672 of which have no adjacent pentagons. Trimetasphere carbon nanomaterials were discovered by researchers at Virginia Tech and licensed exclusively to Luna Innovations. This class of novel molecules comprises 80 carbon atoms (C80) forming a sphere which encloses a complex of three metal atoms and one nitrogen atom. These fullerenes encapsulate metals which puts them in the subset referred to as metallofullerenes. Trimetaspheres have the potential for use in diagnostics (as safe imaging agents), therapeutics and in organic solar cells. Carbon nanotubes This model of a rotating Carbon nanotube shows its 3D structure. Nanotubes are cylindrical fullerenes. These tubes of carbon are usually only a few nanometres wide, but they can range from less than a micrometer to several millimeters in length. They often have closed ends, but can be open-ended as well. There are also cases in which the tube reduces in diameter before closing off. Their unique molecular structure results in extraordinary macroscopic properties, including high tensile strength, high electrical conductivity, high ductility, high resistance to heat, and relative chemical inactivity (as it is cylindrical and "planar" — that is, it has no "exposed" atoms that can be easily displaced). One proposed use of carbon nanotubes is in paper batteries, developed in 2007 by researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Another proposed use in the field of space technologies and science fiction is to produce high-tensile carbon cables required by a space elevator. Carbon nanobuds Nanobuds have been obtained by adding Buckminsterfullerenes to carbon nanotubes. Properties For the past decade, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes have been a hot topic in the field of research and development, and are likely to continue to be for a long time. Popular Science has published articles about the possible uses of fullerenes in armor. In April 2003, fullerenes were under study for potential medicinal use: binding specific antibiotics to the structure to target resistant bacteria and even target certain cancer cells such as melanoma. The October 2005 issue of Chemistry and Biology contains an article describing the use of fullerenes as light-activated antimicrobial agents. In the field of nanotechnology, heat resistance and superconductivity are some of the more heavily studied properties. A common method used to produce fullerenes is to send a large current between two nearby graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere. The resulting carbon plasma arc between the electrodes cools into sooty residue from which many fullerenes can be isolated. There are many calculations that have been done using ab-initio Quantum Methods applied to fullerenes. By DFT and TD-DFT methods one can obtain IR, Raman and UV spectra. Results of such calculations can be compared with experimental results. Aromaticity Researchers have been able to increase the reactivity of fullerenes by attaching active groups to their surfaces. The Buckminsterfullerene does not exhibit "superaromaticity:" that is, the electrons in the hexagonal rings do not delocalize over the whole molecule. A spherical fullerene of n carbon atoms has n pi-bonding electrons. These should try to delocalize over the whole molecule. The quantum mechanics of such an arrangement should be like one shell only of the well-known quantum mechanical structure of a single atom, with a stable filled shell for n = 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98, 128, etc.; i.e. twice a perfect square; but this series does not include 60. As a result, C60 in water tends to pick up two more electrons and become an anion. The nC60 described below may be the result of C60 trying to form a loose metallic bonding. Chemistry Fullerenes are stable, but not totally unreactive. The sp2-hybridized carbon atoms, which are at their energy minimum in planar graphite, must be bent to form the closed sphere or tube, which produces angle strain. The characteristic reaction of fullerenes is electrophilic addition at 6,6-double bonds, which reduces angle strain by changing sp2-hybridized carbons into sp3-hybridized ones. The change in hybridized orbitals causes the bond angles to decrease from about 120 degrees in the sp2 orbitals to about 109.5 degrees in the sp3 orbitals. This decrease in bond angles allows for the bonds to bend less when closing the sphere or tube, and thus, the molecule becomes more stable. Other atoms can be trapped inside fullerenes to form inclusion compounds known as endohedral fullerenes. An unusual example is the egg shaped fullerene Tb3N@C84, which violates the isolated pentagon rule. Recent evidence for a meteor impact at the end of the Permian period was found by analyzing noble gases so preserved. Metallofullerene-based inoculates using the rhonditic steel process are beginning production as one of the first commercially-viable uses of buckyballs. Solubility Fullerenes are sparingly soluble in many solvents. Common solvents for the fullerenes include aromatics, such as toluene, and others like carbon disulfide. Solutions of pure Buckminsterfullerene have a deep purple color. Solutions of C70 are a reddish brown. The higher fullerenes C76 to C84 have a variety of colors. C76 has two optical forms, while other higher fullerenes have several structural isomers. Fullerenes are the only known allotrope of carbon that can be dissolved in common solvents at room temperature. Some fullerene structures are not soluble because they have a small band gap between the ground and excited states. These include the small fullerenes C28, Ab initio theoretical predictions of C28, C28H4, C28F4, (Ti at C28)H4, and M at C28 (M = Mg, Al, Si, S, Ca, Sc, Ti, Ge, Zr, and Sn), Guo, Ting; Smalley, Richard E.; Scuseria, Gustavo E., 1993. C36 and C50. The C72 structure is also in this class, but the endohedral version with a trapped lanthanide-group atom is soluble due to the interaction of the metal atom and the electronic states of the fullerene. Researchers had originally been puzzled by C72 being absent in fullerene plasma-generated soot extract, but found in endohedral samples. Small band gap fullerenes are highly reactive and bind to other fullerenes or to soot particles. Solvents that are able to dissolve buckminsterfullerene (C60) are listed below in order from highest solubility. The value in parentheses is the approximate saturated concentration. Fullerenes in Solutions, Bezmel'nitsyn, V.N.; Eletskiĭ, A.V.; Okun', M.V., Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk, Russian Academy of Sciences, 41 1998. 1-chloronaphthalene (51 mg/mL) 1-methylnaphthalene (33 mg/mL) 1,2-dichlorobenzene (24 mg/mL) 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene (18 mg/mL) tetrahydronaphthalene (16 mg/mL) carbon disulfide (8 mg/mL) 1,2,3-tribromopropane (8 mg/mL) bromoform (5 mg/mL) toluene (3 mg/ml) benzene (1.5 mg/ml) cyclohexane (1.2 mg/ml) carbon tetrachloride (0.4 mg/ml) chloroform (0.25 mg/ml) n-hexane (0.046 mg/ml) tetrahydrofuran (0.006 mg/ml) acetonitrile (0.004 mg/ml) methanol (0.00004 mg/ml) water (1.3x10-11 mg/mL) Solubility of C60 in some solvents shows unusual behaviour due to existence of solvate phases (analogues of crystallohydrates). For example, solubility of C60 in benzene solution shows maximum at about 313 K. Crystallization from benzene solution at temperatures below maximum results in formation of triclinic solid solvate with four benzene molecules C60•4C6H6 which is rather unstable in air. Out of solution, this structure decomposes into usual fcc C60 in few minutes' time. At temperatures above solubility maximum the solvate is not stable even when immersed in saturated solution and melts with formation of fcc C60. Crystallization at temperatures above the solubility maximum results in formation of pure fcc C60. Large millimetre size crystals of C60 and C70 can be grown from solution both for solvates and for pure fullerenes. Talyzin A.V., Phase transition C60-C60*4C6H6 in liquid benzene.", J. of Phys. Chem, V101, N47, 1997. Talyzin A.V., Engstrцm I, C70 in a Benzene, Hexane and Toluene solutions", J. of Phys. Chem, V102, N34, p6477–6481. Quantum mechanics In 1999, researchers from the University of Vienna demonstrated that wave-particle duality applied to molecules such as fullerene. One of the co-authors of this research, Julian Voss-Andreae, has since created several sculptures symbolizing wave-particle duality in fullerenes (see Fullerenes in popular culture for more detail). Science writer Marcus Chown stated on the CBC radio show Quirks and Quarks in May 2006 that scientists are trying to make buckyballs exhibit the quantum behavior of existing in two places at once (quantum superposition). The radio show can be heard at: http://www.cbc.ca/quirks/archives/05-06/jun17.html Safety and toxicity When considering toxicological data, care must be taken to distinguish as necessary between what are normally referred to as fullerenes: (C60, C70,...); fullerene derivatives: C60 or other fullerenes with covalently bonded chemical groups; fullerene complexes (e.g., water-solubilized with surfactants, such as C60-PVP; host-guest complexes, such as with cyclodextrin; ), where the fullerene is physically bound to another molecule; C60 nanoparticles, which are extended solid-phase aggregates of C60 crystallites; and nanotubes, which are generally much larger (in terms of molecular weight and size) compounds, and are different in shape to the spheroidal fullerenes C60 and C70, as well as having different chemical and physical properties. The above different compounds span the range from insoluble materials in either hydrophilic or lipophilic media, to hydrophilic, lipophilic, or even amphiphilic compounds, and with other varying physical and chemical properties. Therefore any broad generalization extrapolating for example results from C60 to nanotubes or vice versa is not possible, though technically all are fullerenes, as the term is defined as a close-caged all-carbon molecule. Any extrapolation of results from one compound to other compounds must take into account considerations based on a Quantitative Structural Analysis Relationship Study (QSARS), which mostly depends on how close the compounds under consideration are in physical and chemical properties. In 1996 and 1997, Moussa et al. studied the in vivo toxicity of C60 after intra-peritoneal administration of large doses. No evidence of toxicity was found and the mice tolerated a dose of 5 000 mg/kg of body weight (BW). Mori et al. (2006) could not find toxicity in rodents for C60 and C70 mixtures after oral administration of a dose of 2 000 mg/kg BW and did not observe evidence of genotoxic or mutagenic potential in vitro. Other studies could not establish the toxicity of fullerenes: on the contrary, the work of Gharbi et al. (2005) suggested that aqueous C60 suspensions failing to produce acute or subacute toxicity in rodents could also protect their livers in a dose-dependent manner against free-radical damage. A comprehensive and recent review on fullerene toxicity is given by Kolosnjaj et al. (2007a,b, c). These authors review the works on fullerene toxicity beginning in the early 1990s to present, and conclude that very little evidence gathered since the discovery of fullerenes indicate that C60 is toxic. With reference to nanotubes, a recent study of Poland et al. (2008) on carbon nanotubes introduced into the abdominal cavity of mice led the authors to suggest comparisons to "asbestos-like pathogenicity". It should be noted that this was not an inhalation study, though there have been several performed in the past, therefore it is premature to conclude that nanotubes should be considered to have a toxicological profile similar to asbestos. Conversely, and perhaps illustrative of how the various classes of compounds which fall under the general term fullerene cover a wide range of properties, Sayes, et al., found that in vivo inhalation of C60(OH)24 and nano-C60 in rats gave no effect, whereas in comparison quartz particles produced an inflammatory response under the same conditions (Nano Letters, 2007, Vol. 7, No. 8, 2399-2406). As stated above, nanotubes are quite different in chemical and physical properties to C60, i.e., molecular weight, shape, size, physical properties (such as solubility) all are very different, so from a toxicological standpoint, different results for C60 and nanotubes are not suggestive of any discrepancy in the findings. Superconductivity After the synthesis of macroscopic amounts of fullerenes, their physical properties could be investigated. Very soon Haddon et al., found that intercalation of alkali-metal atoms in solid C60 leads to metallic behavior. In 1991, It was revealed that potassium-doped fullerenes becomes superconducting at 18K. This was the highest transition temperature for a molecular superconductor. Since then, superconductivity has been reported in fullerene doped with various metals as well as potassium. } It is shown that the superconducting transition temperature in alkaline-metal-doped fullerene increase in the unit cell volume V. As cesium forms the largest alkali ion, cesium doped fullerene is an important material in this family. Recently, superconductivity at 38K is reported in bulk Cs3C60 , but only under applied pressure. The highest superconducting transition temperature of 33 K at ambient pressure is reported for Cs2RbC60 . The increase of transition temperature with the unit-cell volume had been believed to be an evidence for the BCS mechanism of C60 solid superconductivity, because inter C60 separation can be related to an increase in the density of states on the Fermi level, N(εF). Therefore, there have been many efforts to increasing the interfullerene separation. In particular, intercalating neutral molecules into the A3 C60 lattice to increase the interfullerene spacing while the valence of C60 is kept unchanged. However, this ammoniation technique has revealed a new aspect of fullerene intercalation compound: the Mott-Hubbard transition and the correlation between the orientation/orbital order of C60 molecules and the magnetic structure. The C60 molecules compose a solid of weakly bound molecules. The fullerites are therefore molecular solids, in which the molecular properties still survive. The discrete levels of a free C60 molecule are only weakly broadened in the solid, which leads to a set of essentially nonoverlapping bands with a narrow width of about 0.5 eV. For an undoped C60 solid, the 5-fold hu band is the HOMO level, and the 3-fold t1u band is the empty LUMO level, and this system is a band insulator. But when the C60 solid is doped with metal atoms, the metal atoms give electrons to the t1u band or the upper 3-fold t1g band. } This partial electron occupation of the band leads to sometimes metallic behavior. However, A4C60 is an insulator, although the t1u band is only partially filled and should be a metal according to band theory. } this unpredicted behavior may be explained by the Jahn-Teller effect, where spontaneous deformations of high-symmetry molecules induce the splitting of degenerate levels to gain the electronic energy. The Jahn-Teller type electron-phonon interaction is strong enough in C60 solids to destroy the band picture for particular valence states. A narrow band or strongly correlated electronic system and degenerated ground states are important points to understand superconductivity in fullerene solids. When the inter-electron repulsion U is greater than the bandwidth, insulating localized electron ground state is produced in the simple Mott-Hubbard model. This explains the absence of superconductivity at ambient pressure in cesium-doped C60 solids. Electron-correlation-driven localization of the t1u electrons exceeds the critical value, leading to the Mott-insulator. The application of high pressure decreases the interfullerene spacing, therefore cesium-doped C60 solids turns to metallic and superconducting. A fully developed theory of C60 solids superconductivity is still lacking, but it has been widely accepted that strong electronic correlations and the Jahn-Teller electron-phonon coupling produce local electron-pairings that show a high transition temperature close to the insulator-metal transition. Chirality Few fullerenes (e.g. C76, C78, C80, and C84) are inherently chiral because D2-symmetric and have been successfully resolved. Research efforts are ongoing to develop specific sensors for their enantiomers. Examples of fullerenes in popular culture Examples of fullerenes in popular culture are numerous. Fullerenes appeared in fiction well before scientists took serious interest in them. In New Scientist there used to be a weekly column called "Daedalus" written by David Jones, which contained humorous descriptions of unlikely technologies. In 1966 the columnist included a description of C60 and other forms of graphite. This was meant as pure entertainment. Fullerenes are part of the plot in a science fiction novel named Decipher written by Stel Pavlou and published in 2001. Bucky Balls were also mentioned in A&E's 2008 remake of The Andromeda Strain, which is based on the Michael Crichton novel of the same name; John Ringo uses fullerene as a carrier for antimatter in his Legacy of the Aldenata series. Other novels to make mention of them include Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars Trilogy; Iron by Poul Anderson and Neal Stephenson's The Diamond Age. Buckyballs are referenced in similarity with a large spherical meteorite with the potential to unleash a virus that could kill all organic life on Earth in Clive Cussler's novel The Sacred Stone''. Buckyball is the state molecule of Texas. State molecule of Texas: Link Fullerite (solid state) The C60 fullerene in crystalline form Fullerites are the solid-state manifestation of fullerenes and related compounds and materials. Polymerized single-walled nanotubes (P-SWNT) are a class of fullerites and are comparable to diamond in terms of hardness. However, due to the way that nanotubes intertwine, P-SWNTs do not have the corresponding crystal lattice that makes it possible to cut diamonds neatly. This same structure results in a less brittle material, as any impact that the structure sustains is spread out throughout the material. Because nanotubes are still very expensive to produce in useful quantities, uses for a material lighter and stronger than steel will have to wait until nanotube production becomes more economically viable. Ultrahard fullerite, Buckyball "Ultrahard fullerite" is a coined term frequently used to describe material produced by high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) processing of fullerite. Such treatment converts fullerite into a nanocrystalline form of diamond which exhibits remarkable mechanical properties Diamonds lose 'world's hardest' title . See also Buckypaper Truncated rhombic triacontahedron References Further reading External links Pharmacological Studies on Fullerene (C60), a Novel Carbon Allotrope, and Its Derivatives Fullerenes in solution: about anomalous temperature dependence of solubility and solid solvates of fullerenes Fullerene and nanotube Gallery Properties of C60 fullerene CBC Radio | Quirks & Quarks | June 17, 2006 at www.cbc.ca Buckyball Workshops by Sir Harry Kroto and the Vega Science Trust Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology Dr. Smalley's brief autobiography Dr. Smalley's webpage Sir Harry Kroto's webpage Interview with James R. Heath, discussing the discovery of C60 Diffraction and Interference with Fullerenes: Wave-particle duality of C60, University of Vienna Fullerene-based architectures for quantum computing in Germany and in Great Britain at the QIP IRC Computational Chemistry Wiki A Spherical Revelation C60 3D-view and pdb-file Simple model of Fullerene. Story on "Buckyeggs" (UC Davis website) Stainless Steel Buckminster Fullerenes Rhonditic Steel Introduction to fullerites Introduction to P-SWNT Bucky Balls, a short video explaining the structure of C60 by the Vega Science Trust Giant Fullerenes, a short video looking at Giant Fullerenes | Fullerene |@lemmatized icosahedral:2 fullerene:106 isosurface:1 ground:4 state:13 electron:13 density:2 calculate:1 dft:3 c:3 redirect:1 us:3 see:4 disambiguation:1 family:5 carbon:31 allotrope:3 molecule:28 compose:3 entirely:1 form:14 hollow:2 sphere:4 ellipsoid:1 tube:6 plane:1 spherical:5 also:9 call:4 buckyball:18 cylindrical:3 one:11 nanotube:18 buckytubes:1 graphene:1 example:7 planar:5 sheet:3 similar:3 structure:19 graphite:4 stacked:1 link:5 hexagonal:3 ring:7 may:4 contain:2 pentagonal:2 sometimes:2 heptagonal:1 would:1 prevent:1 discover:5 robert:2 curl:3 harold:2 kroto:5 richard:5 smalley:6 university:8 sussex:2 rice:3 name:8 buckminster:4 fuller:3 whose:1 geodesic:4 domes:1 resemble:2 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3,617 | Planned_economy | A planned economy or directed economy is an economic system in which the government or workers' councils manages the economy. Alec Nove (1987), "planned economy," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 879-80. It is an economic system in which the central government makes all decisions on the production and consumption of goods and services. Its most extensive form is referred to as a command economy, "Command Economy." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11 June 2007. centrally planned economy, or command and control economy James R. Barth and Gerard Caprio, Jr. China's Changing Financial System: Can It Catch Up With, or Even Drive Growth. Networks Financial Institute. March 2007; Thomas O Bouman and David George Brand. Sustainable Forests: Global Challenges and Local Solutions. Haworth Press 1997 page 91 . In such economies, central economic planning by the state or government is so extensive that it controls all major sectors of the economy and formulates all decisions about their use and about the distribution of income. Myers, Danny. Construction Economics (2004), Spon Press (UK), p. 288 The planners decide what should be produced and direct enterprises to produce those goods. Ollman, Bertell. Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists (1997), Routledge (UK), p. 12 Planned economies are in contrast to unplanned economies, such as a market economy, where production, distribution, pricing, and investment decisions are made by the private owners of the factors of production based upon their own interests rather than upon furthering some overarching macroeconomic plan. Less extensive forms of planned economies include those that use indicative planning, in which the state employs "influence, subsidies, grants, and taxes, but does not compel." Alec Nove (1987), "Planned Economy," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, p. 879. This latter is sometimes referred to as a "planned market economy". A planned economy may consist of state-owned enterprises, private enterprises directed by the state, or a combination of both. Though "planned economy" and "command economy" are often used as synonyms, some make the distinction that under a command economy, the means of production are publicly owned. That is, a planned economy is "an economic system in which the government controls and regulates production, distribution, prices, etc." planned economy. Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. (accessed: May 11, 2008). but a command economy, while also having this type of regulation, necessarily has substantial public ownership of industry. command economy. In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2008) (accessed May 11, 2008). Therefore, command economies are planned economies, but not necessarily the reverse. Important planned economies that existed in the past include the economy of the Soviet Union, which was for a time the world's second-largest economy http://www.theodora.com/wfb/1990/rankings/gdp_million_1.html, Archive of CIA Factbook Rankings of Countries, 1990 , China during its Great Leap Forward, and India, prior to its economic reforms in 1991, Afghanistan under the Soviet occupation and under the Taliban, and Iraq under Saddam Hussein from 1979 to 2003. http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/iraq/2003/iraq-030417-rfel-163129.htm http://www.nationalsummary.com/Articles/Military/military__saddam_communist.htm Beginning in the 1980s and 1990s, many governments presiding over planned economies began deregulating (or as in the Soviet Union, the system collapsed) and moving toward market-based economies by allowing the private sector to make the pricing, production, and distribution decisions. Although most economies today are market economies or mixed economies (which are partially planned), planned economies exist in some countries such as Cuba, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Iran, North Korea, and Burma. von Brabant, Jozef M. The Planned Economies and International Economic Organizations, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 16 Advantages of economic planning Supporters of planned economies cast them as a practical measure to ensure the production of necessary goods—one which does not rely on the vagaries of free market(s). Stability Long-term infrastructure investment can be made without fear of a market downturn (or loss of confidence) leading to abandonment of the project. This is especially important where returns are risky (e.g. fusion reactor technology) or where the return is diffuse (e.g. immunization programs or public education). Conformance to a grand design While a market economy maximizes wealth by evolution, a planned economy favors design. While evolution tends to lead to a local maximum in aggregate wealth, design is in theory capable of achieving a global maximum. For example, a planned city can be designed for efficient transport, while organically grown cities tend to suffer from traffic congestion. Critics would point out that planned cities will suffer from the same problems as unplanned cities, unless reproduction and population growth is subject to strict control, as in a closed city. Meeting collective objectives by individual sacrifice Planned economies may be intended to serve collective rather than individual needs: under such a system, rewards, whether wages or perquisites, are to be distributed according to the value that the state ascribes to the service performed. A planned economy eliminates the individual profit motives as the driving force of production and places it in the hands of the state planners to determine what is the appropriate production of different sets of goods. The government can harness land, labor, and capital to serve the economic objectives of the state. Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern. The state can begin building a heavy industry at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry, and without reliance on external financing. This is what happened in the Soviet Union during the 1930s when the government forced the share of GNP dedicated to private consumption from 80 percent to 50 percent. Paul Kennedy. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, page 322-3 While there was a significant decline in individual living standards, the state was able to meet some of its "economic objectives." It could be seen as the government deciding: Who produces what, Where it is produced, How much it costs, and Where it goes. Comparison with capitalist corporations Taken as a whole, a centrally planned economy would attempt to substitute a number of firms with a single firm for an entire economy. As such, the stability of a planned economy has implications with the Theory of the firm. After all, most corporations are essentially 'centrally planned economies', aside from some token intra-corporate pricing. That is, corporations are essentially miniature centrally planned economies and seem to do just fine in a free market. As pointed out by Kenneth Arrow and others, the existence of firms in free markets shows that there is a need for firms in free markets; opponents of planned economies would simply argue that there is no need for a sole firm for the entire economy. Anarchist theorists like Kevin Carson however point to the numerous ways in which government intervention in the market magnify economies of scale, offsetting the natural inefficiencies of centrally planned economies by means of privileges and historical subsidies granted by force, and argues that in a truly free market corporations wouldn't exist. Disadvantages of economic planning Inefficient resource distribution surplus and shortage Critics of planned economies argue that planners cannot detect consumer preferences, shortages, and surpluses with sufficient accuracy and therefore cannot efficiently co-ordinate production (in a market economy, a free price system is intended to serve this purpose). For example, during certain periods in the history of the Soviet Union, shortages were so common that one could wait hours in a queue to buy basic consumer products such as shoes or bread. www.unc.edu/depts/econ/byrns_web/GreatIdeas/Great_Ideas.DOC These shortages were due in part to the central planners deciding, for example, that making tractors was more important than making shoes at that time, or because the commands were not given to supply the shoe factory with the right amount of leather, or because the central planners had not given the shoe factories the incentive to produce the required quantity of shoes of the required quality. This difficulty was first noted by economist Ludwig von Mises, who called it the "economic calculation problem". Economist János Kornai developed this into a shortage economy theory (advocates could claim that shortages were not primarily caused by lack of supply). There is also the problem of surpluses. Surpluses indicate a waste of labor and materials that could have been applied to more pressing needs of society. Critics of central planning say that a market economy prevents long-term surpluses because the operation of supply and demand causes the price to sink when supply begins exceeding demand, indicating to producers to stop production or face losses. This frees resources to be applied to satisfy short-term shortages of other commodities, as determined by their rising prices as demand begins exceeding supply. It is argued that this "invisible hand" prevents long-term shortages and surpluses and allows maximum efficiency in satisfying the wants of consumers. Critics argue that since in a planned economy prices are not allowed to float freely, there is no accurate mechanism to determine what is being produced in unnecessarily large amounts and what is being produced in insufficient amounts. They argue that efficiency is best achieved through a market economy where individual producers each make their own production decisions based on their own profit motive. Cannot determine and prioritize social goods better than the market can Some who oppose comprehensive planned economies argue that some central planning is justified. In particular, it is possible to create unprofitable but socially useful goods within the context of a market economy. For example, one could produce a new drug by having the government collect taxes and then spend the money for the social good. On the other hand, opponents of such central planning say that "absent the data about priorities conveyed through price signals created by freely acting individuals, [it is questionable] whether determinations about what is socially important can even be made at all." Machan, R. Tibor, Some Skeptical Reflections on Research and Development, Hoover Press Opponents do not dispute that something useful can be produced if money is expropriated from private businesses and individuals, but their complaint is that "it’s far from certain that those monies could not have been spent better" if individuals were allowed to spend and invest as they wished according to their own wants. We can see things of value being produced by the state taxing and using those funds to undertake projects which are believed to be social goods, but we cannot see what social goods have not been produced due to wealth taken out of the hands of those who would have invested and spent their money in other ways according to their own goals. These opponents of central planning argue that the only way to determine what society actually wants is by allowing private enterprise to use their resources in competing to meet the needs of consumers, rather those taking resources away and allowing government to direct investment without responding to market signals. According to Tibor R. Machan, "Without a market in which allocations can be made in obedience to the law of supply and demand, it is difficult or impossible to funnel resources with respect to actual human preferences and goals." If the government in question is democratic, democratically-determined social priorities may be considered legitimate social objectives in which the government is justified in intervening in the economy. It must be noted that to date, most if not all countries employing command economies have been dictatorships or oligarchies few or none were democracies. Many democratic nations, however, have a mixed economy, where the government intervenes to a certain extent and in certain aspects of the economy, although other aspects of the economy are left to the free market. Lack of incentive for innovation Another criticism some make of central planning is that it is less likely to promote innovation than a free market economy. In the latter, inventors can reap huge benefits by patenting new technology, so there is arguably much more incentive to innovate. Conversely a planned economy can deliver vast national resources into research and development if it gets the idea that a particular field is critical to its interests, usually military technology. The Soviet Union's ability to maintain fierce competition versus the United States during the space race and Cold War, despite its smaller economy, is an example of this. Infringement on individual freedoms The top down structure of a centrally planned economy dictates a hegemonic operating culture - whereas in a free market economy several models of operating can compete simultaneously in a manner similar to organisms in an ecosystem. Critics also hold that certain types of command economies may require a state which intervenes highly in people's personal lives. For example, if the state directs all employment then one's career options may be more limited. If goods are allocated by the state rather than by a market economy, citizens cannot, for example, move to another location without state permission because they would not be able to acquire food or housing in the new location, as the necessary resources were not preplanned. Likewise, because of the state's controls over an individual's personal choices, critics contend that central planning intrinsically results in a top-down, dictatorial state where politicians and bureaucrats use the state to achieve their own ends, which are in turn described as the "social" objectives of the state. In essence, critics contend that a planned economy has nothing to do with the preferences of the individuals that comprise a society, but rather the abstract goals of some group. This criticism is supported by Rummel's Law which states that the less freedom a people have, the more likely their rulers are to murder them. R. J. Rummel's top three examples of 20th century "Megamurders" were Soviet Russia, People's Republic of China and Nazi Germany, all planned economies with limited individual freedom. The Road to Serfdom is a book written by Friedrich Hayek and critical of collectivism, presenting the argument that a central planned economy must ultimately result in tyranny. An idea similar to this is the idea of the iron cage presented even earlier by Max Weber in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. The Black Book of Communism claims that Communist regimes are responsible for a greater number of deaths than any other political ideal or movement. Suppression of economic democracy and self-management Central planning is also criticized by elements of the radical left. Libertarian socialist economist Robin Hahnel notes that even if central planning overcame its inherent inhibitions of incentives and innovation it would nevertheless be unable to maximize economic democracy and self-management, which he believes are concepts that are more intellectually coherent, consistent and just than mainstream notions of economic freedom. As Hahnel explains, “Combined with a more democratic political system, and redone to closer approximate a best case version, centrally planned economies no doubt would have performed better. But they could never have delivered economic self-management, they would always have been slow to innovate as apathy and frustration took their inevitable toll, and they would always have been susceptible to growing inequities and inefficiencies as the effects of differential economic power grew. Under central planning neither planners, managers, nor workers had incentives to promote the social economic interest. Nor did impending markets for final goods to the planning system enfranchise consumers in meaningful ways. But central planning would have been incompatible with economic democracy even if it had overcome its information and incentive liabilities. And the truth is that it survived as long as it did only because it was propped up by unprecedented totalitarian political power.” Hahnel, Robin. The ABC’s of Political Economy, Pluto Press, 2002, 262 Corruption A planned economy creates social conditions favoring political corruption. "Particularly, command economies have been notoriously corrupt. First, centralized decision-making predisposes planners to abuses of power. Second, the inherent inefficiency of plans drawn with insufficient information creates a need for bypassing or subverting the official decision-making process. For example, the Soviet Gosplan could not create plans that were feasible, and other means were used to meet the quotas." "A Permanent Arms Economy" by Michael Kidron, first printed in International Socialism 1:28 (Spring 1967) A gift economy featuring corruption, blat, developed. The Chinese guanxi is somewhat similar. Economic planning versus the command economy A centrally-planned economy is one in which most of the economy is planned by a central government authority. This is further contrasted with a command economy, in which the state allocates its resources as needed, without having to adhere to market principles. An example of this is the expropriation that took place in the Communist states compared to the nationalization that took place in the Western European countries. Another key difference is that command economies are more authoritarian in nature whereas indicative economic planning controls the economy through incentive-based methods. Economic planning can be practiced in a decentralized manner through different government authorities. For example, in some predominately market-oriented and mixed economies, the state utilizes economic planning in strategic industries such as the aerospace industry. Another example of this is the utilization of indicative planning and dirigisme, both of which were practiced in France and Great Britain after the Second World War. Swedish public housing models were planned by the government in a similar fashion as urban planning. Mixed economies usually employ macroeconomic planning, while micro-economic affairs are left to the market and price system. The People's Republic of China currently has a socialist market economy in place. Within this system, macroeconomic plans are used as a general guidelines and as government goals for the national economy, but the majority of state-owned enterprises are subject to market forces. This is heavily contrasted to the command economy model of the former Soviet Union. Planned economies and socialism In the 20th century, most planned economies were implemented by states that called themselves socialist. Also, the greatest support for planned economics comes from socialist authors. For these reasons, the notion of a planned economy is often directly associated with socialism. However, they do not entirely overlap. There are branches of socialism such as libertarian socialism, that reject a centralized state, and all of these tendencies reject economic planning as well and instead favor decentralised collective ownership of the economy and property. Furthermore, planned economies are not unique to Communist states. There is a Trotskyist theory of permanent arms economy, put forward by Michael Kidron, which leads on from the contention that war and accompanying industrialisation is a continuing feature of capitalist states and that central planning and other features of the war economy are ever present. "A Permanent Arms Economy" by Michael Kidron, first printed in International Socialism 1:28 (Spring 1967) Transition from a planned economy to a market economy The shift from a command economy to a market economy has proven to be difficult; in particular, there were no theoretical guides for doing so before the 1990s. One transition from a command economy to a market economy that many consider successful is that of the People's Republic of China , in which there was a period of some years lasting roughly until the early 1990s during which both the command economy and the market economy coexisted, so that nobody would be much worse off under a mixed economy than a command economy, while some people would be much better off. Gradually, the parts of the economy under the command economy decreased until the mid-1990s when resource allocation was almost completely determined by market mechanisms. By contrast, the Soviet Union's transition was much more problematic and its successor republics faced a sharp decline in GDP during the early 1990s. One of the suggested causes is that under soviet planning, price ceilings created major problems (shortages, queueing for bread, households hoarding money) which made the transition to an unplanned economy less easy. While the transition to a market economy proved difficult, many of the post-Soviet states have been experiencing strong, resource-based economic growth in recent years, though the levels vary substantially. However, a majority of the former Soviet Republics have not yet reached pre-collapse levels of economic development. Iraq after the fall of Saddam Hussein and after the 2003 Invasion of Iraq; is currently experiencing the transition from a command economy under Hussein to a free market economy http://www.twq.com/04autumn/docs/04autumn_crocker.pdf . Iran is currently privatizing companies. See also Further Reading Gregory Grossman (1987): "Command economy," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 494-95. Carl Landauer (1947): Theory of National Economic Planning. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles, Second edition. Alec Nove (1987): "Planned economy," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 879-85. Notes External links An article against "The myth of the permanent arms economy" | Planned_economy |@lemmatized planned:24 economy:118 directed:1 economic:28 system:11 government:18 worker:2 council:1 manage:1 alec:3 nove:3 plan:34 new:7 palgrave:4 dictionary:6 economics:6 v:5 pp:3 central:17 make:12 decision:7 production:12 consumption:2 good:12 service:2 extensive:3 form:2 refer:2 command:23 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 online:2 june:1 centrally:8 control:6 james:1 r:4 barth:1 gerard:1 caprio:1 jr:1 china:5 change:1 financial:2 catch:1 even:5 drive:2 growth:3 network:1 institute:1 march:1 thomas:1 bouman:1 david:1 george:1 brand:1 sustainable:1 forest:1 global:2 challenge:1 local:2 solution:1 haworth:1 press:6 page:2 planning:21 state:29 major:2 sector:2 formulate:1 use:8 distribution:5 income:1 myers:1 danny:1 construction:1 spon:1 uk:2 p:4 planner:7 decide:3 produce:11 direct:4 enterprise:5 ollman:1 bertell:1 market:37 socialism:7 debate:1 among:1 socialist:5 routledge:1 contrast:4 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3,618 | Mountain_range | The Himalayas, the world's highest mountain range, seen from space. A mountain range is a chain of mountains bordered by highlands or separated from other mountains by passes or valleys. Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geology, though they often do; they may be a mix of different orogeny, for example volcanoes, uplifted mountains or fold mountains and may, therefore, be of different rock. The Himalaya mountain range contains the world's highest mountains on the Earth's surface; the highest of which is Mount Everest. The Andes is the world's longest mountain range on the Earth's surface. The longest mountain range is actually the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. The Arctic Cordillera is the world's northernmost mountain system and contains the highest point in eastern North America. Sub-ranges The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, that is, many mountain ranges have sub-ranges within them. It can be thought of as a parent-child relationship. For example, the Appalachian Mountains range is the parent of other ranges that comprise it, some of which are the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains. The White Mountains are a child of the Appalachians, and there are also children of the Whites, including the Sandwich Range and the Presidential Range. Further, the Presidential Range can be broken up into the Northern Presidential Range and Southern Presidential Range. For more information, see List of mountain ranges and Peakbagger Ranges Home Page. Climate The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow. When air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow). As the air descends on the leeward side, it warms again (in accordance with the adiabatic lapse rate) and is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture. Often, a rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. Mountains location also affects temperature. If the sun is shining from the east, then the eastern side of the mountain will receive sunlight and warmth, while the other side will be shaded and cooled, so certain ecosystems maintain different biological clocks depending on the location of a mountain. Erosion Uplifted regions or volcanic caps can undergo erosion, which makes them move resulting in a range of mountains. An example is the English Lake District. Mountain streams carry eroded debris downhill and deposit it in alluvial plains or in deltas. This forms the classical geological chain of events, leading to one type of sedimentary rock formation: erosion, transportation, deposition and compaction. See also List of mountain ranges List of mountains Plate tectonics | Mountain_range |@lemmatized himalaya:2 world:4 high:4 mountain:29 range:21 see:3 space:1 chain:2 border:1 highland:1 separate:1 pass:1 valley:1 individual:1 within:2 necessarily:1 geology:1 though:1 often:2 may:2 mix:1 different:3 orogeny:1 example:3 volcano:1 uplifted:2 fold:1 therefore:1 rock:2 contain:2 earth:3 surface:2 mount:1 everest:1 andes:1 long:2 actually:1 mid:1 atlantic:2 ridge:2 run:1 middle:1 ocean:1 arctic:1 cordillera:1 northernmost:1 system:2 point:1 eastern:2 north:1 america:1 sub:2 characterize:1 tree:1 structure:1 many:1 think:1 parent:2 child:3 relationship:1 appalachian:2 comprise:1 white:3 blue:1 also:3 include:1 sandwich:1 presidential:4 far:1 break:1 northern:1 southern:1 information:1 list:3 peakbagger:1 home:1 page:1 climate:2 position:1 influence:1 rain:3 snow:2 air:3 mass:1 move:2 cool:2 produce:1 orographic:1 precipitation:1 descend:1 leeward:2 side:4 warm:1 accordance:1 adiabatic:1 lapse:1 rate:1 drier:1 strip:1 much:1 moisture:1 shadow:1 affect:2 location:2 temperature:1 sun:1 shin:1 east:1 receive:1 sunlight:1 warmth:1 shade:1 certain:1 ecosystem:1 maintain:1 biological:1 clock:1 depend:1 erosion:3 region:1 volcanic:1 cap:1 undergo:1 make:1 result:1 english:1 lake:1 district:1 stream:1 carry:1 erode:1 debris:1 downhill:1 deposit:1 alluvial:1 plain:1 delta:1 form:1 classical:1 geological:1 event:1 lead:1 one:1 type:1 sedimentary:1 formation:1 transportation:1 deposition:1 compaction:1 plate:1 tectonics:1 |@bigram mount_everest:1 atlantic_ocean:1 appalachian_mountain:1 alluvial_plain:1 sedimentary_rock:1 plate_tectonics:1 |
3,619 | Joni_Mitchell | Joni Mitchell, CC (born November 7, 1943) is a Canadian musician, songwriter, and painter. JoniMitchell.com - Biography Mitchell began singing in small nightclubs in her native Western Canada and then busking on the streets of Toronto. In the mid-1960s she left for New York City and its rich folk music scene, recording her debut album in 1968 and achieving fame first as a songwriter ("Urge for Going", "Chelsea Morning", "Both Sides Now", "Woodstock") and then as a singer in her own right. The Independent, 10 August 2007 Finally settling in Southern California, Mitchell played a key part in the folk rock movement then sweeping the musical landscape. Blue, her starkly personal 1971 album, is regarded as one of the strongest and most influential records of the time. The Rolling Stone 500 Greatest Albums of All Time (Blue is listed at #30) Mitchell also had pop hits such as "Big Yellow Taxi", "Free Man in Paris", and "Help Me", the last two from 1974's best-selling Court and Spark. Ankeny, Jason. All Music Guide Mitchell's soprano vocals, distinctive harmonic guitar style, and piano arrangements all grew more complex through the 1970s as she was deeply influenced by jazz, melding it with pop, folk and rock on experimental albums like 1976's Hejira. She worked closely with jazz greats including Wayne Shorter, Jaco Pastorius, Herbie Hancock, and on a 1979 record released after his death, Charles Mingus. Mitchell, Joni (Roberta Joan Anderson) at Encyclopedia of Jazz Musicians From the 1980s on, Mitchell reduced her recording and touring schedule but turned again toward pop, making greater use of synthesizers and direct political protest in her lyrics, which often tackled social and environmental themes alongside romantic and emotional ones. Mitchell's work is highly respected both by critics and fellow musicians. Rolling Stone magazine called her "one of the greatest songwriters ever," while Allmusic said, "When the dust settles, Joni Mitchell may stand as the most important and influential female recording artist of the late 20th century." allmusic ((( Joni Mitchell > Biography ))) By the end of the century, Mitchell had a profound influence on artists in genres ranging from R&B to alternative rock to jazz. A Tribute to Joni Mitchell Mitchell is also a visual artist. She made the artwork for each of her albums, and in 2000 described herself as a "painter derailed by circumstance." Interview with the Toronto Globe and Mail A blunt critic of the music industry, Mitchell had stopped recording over the last several years, focusing more attention on painting, but in 2007 she released Shine, her first album of new songs in nine years. Early life Joni Mitchell was born Roberta Joan Anderson on November 7 1943, in Fort Macleod, Alberta, Canada, to Bill Anderson and Myrtle Anderson (born McKee). Her mother was a teacher, and her father an officer in the Royal Canadian Air Force. During the war years, she moved with her parents to a number of bases in western Canada. After the war, her father began working as a grocer, and his work took the family to Saskatchewan to the towns of Maidstone and North Battleford. When she was eleven years old, the family settled in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, which Mitchell considers her hometown. Her father was of Norwegian background (including Sami), which is borne out in Joni's Scandinavian appearance. Her mother's maiden name was McKee, so she also claims Scottish and Irish ancestry. Irish Times Magazine, p 14, 19 July, 2008 At the age of nine, Mitchell contracted polio during a Canadian epidemic, but she recovered after a stay in hospital. It was during this time that she first became interested in singing. She describes her first experience singing while in hospital during the winter in the following way: "They said I might no[t] walk again, and that I would not be able to go home for Christmas. I wouldn't go for it. So I started to sing Christmas carols and I used to sing them real loud...The boy in the bed next to me, you know, used to complain. And I discovered I was a ham." She began smoking at the age of nine as well, a habit which is debatably one of the factors contributing to the change in her voice in recent years (Mitchell herself disputes this in several interviews). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/rockandjazzmusic/3668299/Joni-Mitchell-still-smoking.html As a teenager, Joni taught herself ukulele and, later, guitar. She began performing at parties, which eventually led to busking and gigs playing in coffeehouses and other venues in Saskatoon. After finishing high school at Aden Bowman Collegiate in Saskatoon, she attended the Alberta College of Art and Design in Calgary for a year, but then left, telling her mother: “I'm going to Toronto to be a folksinger.” And so, after leaving art college in June 1964, Mitchell left her home in Saskatoon to relocate to Toronto. Joni also found out that she was pregnant by her college ex-boyfriend, and in February 1965 she gave birth to a baby girl. A few weeks after the birth, Joni Anderson married folk-singer Chuck Mitchell, and took his surname. He promised to help take responsibility for the child but something changed, and a few weeks later Joni gave her daughter, Kelly Dale Anderson, up for adoption. The experience remained private for most of her career, but she made allusions to it in several songs, most notably a very specific telling of the story in the 1971 song "Little Green", which we now know to refer to her daughter being named for the colour Kelly Green. Mitchell's 1982 song "Chinese Cafe", from the album Wild Things Run Fast, includes the lyrics "Your kids are coming up straight/My child's a stranger/I bore her/But I could not raise her". Mitchell's daughter, renamed Kilauren Gibb, began a search for her as an adult. Kilauren mentioned her search, one day in 1997, to the girlfriend of a man that Kilauren had grown up with. By coincidence, this woman knew a third person who had once told her that he knew Joni Mitchell years earlier "when she was pregnant". Mitchell and her daughter were reunited shortly thereafter. In the summer of 1965, Chuck Mitchell took Joni with him to the United States. While living in Detroit, Chuck & Joni were regular performers at area coffee houses as well as The Alcove bar near Wayne State University. However, the marriage and partnership of Joan & Chuck Mitchell dissolved in a year and a half, in early 1967. Thereafter, Mitchell launched her solo career. Career 1960s: Folk singer In early 1967 Joni Mitchell moved to New York City to pursue her musical dreams as a solo artist. She played venues up and down the East Coast, including Philadelphia, Boston, and Fort Bragg, North Carolina. She performed frequently in coffeehouses and folk clubs and, by this time creating her own material, became well known for her unique songwriting and her innovative guitar style. Oscar Brand featured her several times on his CBC television program Let's Sing Out in 1965 and 1966, broadening her exposure. Joni attended school at WVU for short period, which led to her song "Morning Morgantown". http://www.courierpostonline.com/blogs/2005/07/columbus-ohio.html Folk singer Tom Rush had met Mitchell in Toronto and was impressed with her songwriting ability. He took "Urge For Going" to popular folk act Judy Collins but she was not interested in the song at the time, so Rush recorded it himself. Country singer George Hamilton IV heard Rush performing it and recorded a hit country version. Other artists who recorded Mitchell songs in the early years were Buffy Sainte-Marie ("The Circle Game"), Dave Van Ronk ("Both Sides Now"), and eventually Judy Collins ("Both Sides Now", a top ten hit, included on her 1967 album Wildflowers). Collins also covered "Chelsea Morning", a recording which again eclipsed Mitchell's own commercial success early on. While she was playing one night in "The Gaslight South" JoniMitchell.com/JMDL Library: A Conversation with David Crosby: JoniMitchell.com, March 15, 1997 , a club in Florida, David Crosby walked in and was immediately struck by her ability and her appeal as an artist. He took her back to Los Angeles, where he set about introducing her and her music to his friends. David convinced a record company to agree to let Joni record a solo acoustic album without all the folk-rock overdubs that were in vogue at the time, and his clout earned him a producer's credit in March 1968, when Reprise Records released her debut album, alternately known as Joni Mitchell or Song to a Seagull. Mitchell continued touring steadily to promote the LP. The tour helped create eager anticipation for Mitchell's second LP, Clouds, which was released in April 1969. It finally contained Mitchell's own versions of some of her songs already recorded and performed by other artists: "Chelsea Morning", "Both Sides Now", and "Tin Angel". The covers of both LPs, including a self-portrait on Clouds, were designed and painted by Mitchell, a marriage of her art and music which she would continue throughout her career. Early and mid-1970s: Pop success In March 1970 Clouds won Joni Mitchell her first Grammy Award for Best Folk Performance of 1969. Soon after, Reprise released her third album, Ladies of the Canyon. Mitchell's sound, still under the guidance of producer Crosby, was already beginning to expand beyond the confines of acoustic folk music and toward pop and rock, with more overdubs, percussion, and backing vocals, and for the first time, many songs composed on piano, which would become a hallmark of Mitchell's style in her most popular era. Her own version of "Woodstock", slower and darker than the Crosby, Stills & Nash cover, was performed on electric piano. The album also included the already-familiar song "The Circle Game" and the environmental anthem "Big Yellow Taxi", with its now-famous line, "they paved paradise and put up a parking lot". Ladies was an instant smash on FM radio and sold briskly through the summer and fall, eventually becoming Joni's first gold album (selling circa 500,000 copies). Mitchell made a decision to stop touring for a year and just write and paint, yet she was still voted Top Female Performer for 1970 by Melody Maker, the UK's leading pop music magazine. The songs she wrote during the months she took off for travel and life experience would appear on her next album, Blue, released in June 1971. Blue was an almost instant critical and commercial success, peaking in the top 20 in the Billboard Album Charts in September. Lushly-produced "Carey" was the single at the time, but musically, other parts of Blue departed further from the sounds of Ladies of the Canyon in favor of simpler, rhythmic acoustic parts allowing a focus on Joni's voice and emotions ("All I Want", "A Case of You"), while others such as "Blue", "River" and "The Last Time I Saw Richard" were sung to her rolling piano accompaniment. In its lyrics, the album was regarded as an inspired culmination of her early work, with depressed assessments of the world around her serving as counterpoint to exuberant expressions of romantic love (for example, in "California"). Mitchell later remarked, "At that period of my life, I had no personal defenses. I felt like a cellophane wrapper on a pack of cigarettes. I felt like I had absolutely no secrets from the world and I couldn't pretend in my life to be strong." Mitchell made the decision to return to the live stage after the great success of Blue, and she presented many new songs on tour which would appear on her next album. Joni's fifth album, For the Roses, was released in October 1972 and immediately zoomed up the charts. She followed with the single, "You Turn Me On, I'm a Radio", which peaked at #25 in the Billboard Charts for two weeks beginning in February 1973, becoming her first bona-fide hit single. The album was critically acclaimed and earned her success on her own terms, though it was somewhat overshadowed by the success of Blue and by Mitchell's next album. Court and Spark, released in January 1974, would see Mitchell begin the flirtation with jazz that marked her experimental period ahead, but it was also her most commercially successful recording, and among her most critically acclaimed. Court and Spark went to #2 on the Billboard album charts and stayed there for four weeks. The LP made Joni Mitchell a widely popular act for perhaps the only time in her career, on the strength of popular tracks such as "Free Man in Paris", which was released right before Christmas 1973, and "Help Me", which was released in March of the following year, and became Joni's only Top 10 single when it peaked at #7 in the first week of June. "Raised on Robbery" was another hit single. While recording Court and Spark, Mitchell had tried to make a clean break with her earlier folk sound, producing the album herself and employing jazz/pop fusion band the L.A. Express as what she called her first real backing group. In February 1974, her tour with the L.A. Express began, and they received rave notices as they traveled across the United States and Canada during the next two months. A series of shows at L.A.'s Universal Amphitheater from August 14-17 were recorded for a live album release. In November, Mitchell released a live album called Miles of Aisles, a two-record set including all but two songs from the L.A. concerts (one selection each from the Berkeley Community Center, on March 2nd, and the LA Music Center, on March 4th, were also included in the set). The live album slowly moved up to #2, matching Court and Sparks'''s chart peak. "Big Yellow Taxi", the live version, was also released as a single and did reasonably well (Mitchell would ultimately release yet another recording of "Big Yellow Taxi" in 2007). In January 1975, Court and Spark received four nominations for Grammy Awards, including Album of the Year, for which Mitchell was the only woman nominated. She won only the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s) Late-1970s: Jazz experimentation Joni Mitchell went into the studio in the spring of 1975 to record acoustic demos of some songs she'd written since the Court and Spark tour ended. A few months later she recorded versions of the tunes with her band, which now included saxophonist Wayne Shorter. Mitchell's musical interests now were diverging from both the folk and the pop scene of the era, toward less structured, more jazz-inspired pieces, with a wider range of instruments. On "The Jungle Line", she also made an early effort at sampling a recording of African musicians, something that would become more commonplace among Western rock acts in the 1980s. Meanwhile, "In France They Kiss on Main Street" continued the lush pop sounds of Court and Spark, and efforts such as the title song and "Edith and the Kingpin" chronicled the underbelly of suburban lives in Southern California. The new song cycle was released in November 1975 as the LP The Hissing of Summer Lawns. The album was a big seller and peaked at #4 on the Billboard album charts, but it received mixed reviews at the time of its release. A common legend holds that Rolling Stone magazine declared it the "Worst Album of the Year"; in truth, it was called only the year's worst album title. However, Mitchell and Rolling Stone have had a contentious relationship, beginning years earlier when the magazine featured a "tree" illustrating all of Mitchell's alleged romantic partners, primarily other musicians, which the singer said "hurt my feelings terribly at the time". During 1975, Mitchell also participated in several concerts in the Rolling Thunder Revue tours featuring Bob Dylan and Joan Baez, and in 1976 she performed as part of The Last Waltz by The Band. In January 1976, Mitchell received one nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for the album The Hissing of Summer Lawns, though the Grammy went to Linda Ronstadt. In early 1976, Mitchell traveled with friends who were driving cross country to Maine. Afterwards, Mitchell drove back to California alone and composed several songs during her journey which would feature on her next album, 1976's Hejira. She states, "This album was written mostly while I was traveling in the car. That's why there were no piano songs..." Hejira was arguably Mitchell's most experimental album so far, due to her ongoing collaborations with legendary jazz virtuoso bass guitarist Jaco Pastorius on several songs including the first single, "Coyote", the atmospheric "Hejira", and the disorienting, guitar-heavy "Black Crow". The album climbed to #13 on the Billboard Charts, reaching gold status three weeks after release, and received airplay from album oriented FM rock stations. Yet "Coyote", backed with "Blue Motel Room", failed to chart on the Hot 100. While the album was greeted by many fans and critics as a "return to form", by the time she recorded it her days as a huge pop star were over. However, if Hejira "did not sell as briskly as Mitchell's earlier, more "radio friendly" albums, its stature in her catalogue has grown over the years." Mitchell herself believes the album to be unique. In 2006 she said, "I suppose a lot of people could have written a lot of my other songs, but I feel the songs on Hejira could only have come from me". In the summer of 1977, Mitchell began work on new recordings, what would become her first double studio album. Close to completing her contract with Asylum Records, Mitchell felt that this album could be looser in feel than any album she'd done in the past and said, "This record followed on the tail of persecution, it's experimental, and it didn't really matter what I did, I just had to fulfill my contract". Don Juan's Reckless Daughter was released in December 1977. The album received mixed reviews but still sold relatively well, peaking at #25 in the US and going gold within three months. The cover of the album created its own controversy; Mitchell was featured in several photographs on the cover, including one where she was disguised as a black man (this is a reference to a character in one song on the album). Layered, atmospheric compositions such as "Overture / Cotton Avenue" featured more collaboration with Pastorius, while "Paprika Plains" was a 20-minute epic that stretched the boundaries of pop, owing more to Joni's memories of childhood in Canada and her study of classical music. "Dreamland" and "The Tenth World", featuring Chaka Khan on backing vocals, were percussion dominated tracks. Other songs continued the jazz-rock-folk collisions of Hejira. Mitchell also revived "Jericho", written but never recorded years earlier (a version is found on her 1974 live album). A few months after the release of Don Juan's Reckless Daughter, Mitchell was contacted by jazz great Charles Mingus, who had heard the orchestrated song, "Paprika Plains", and wanted her to work with him. Mitchell began a collaboration with Mingus, who died before the project was completed in 1979. She finished the tracks (most were her own Mingus-inspired compositions, though "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat" is a Mingus instrumental standard to which Joni composed lyrics) and the resulting album, Mingus, was released in June 1979, though it was poorly received in the press. Fans were confused over such a major change in Mitchell's overall sound, and the album, topping out at #17 on the Billboard album charts, a higher placement than her last LP, Don Juan's Reckless Daughter, Mingus still fell short of gold status, her first album since the 60s to not sell at least a half-million copies. Mitchell's summer tour to promote Mingus began in August 1979 in Oklahoma City and concluded six weeks later with five shows at Los Angeles' Greek Theater, where she recorded and filmed the concerts. It was her first tour in several years, and with Pastorius and other members of her band, Mitchell also performed songs from her other jazz-inspired albums. When the tour ended she began a year of work, turning the tapes from the Los Angeles shows into a two-album set and a concert film, both to be called Shadows and Light. Her final release on Asylum Records and her second live double-album, it was released in September 1980, and made it up to #38 on the Billboard Charts. A single from the LP, "Why Do Fools Fall in Love?", Mitchell's duet with The Persuasions (her opening act for the tour), bubbled under on Billboard, just missing the Hot 100. 1980s: The "Geffen era" For a year and a half, Mitchell worked on the tracks for her next album. During this period Mitchell recorded with bassist Larry Klein, eventually marrying him in 1982. While the album was being readied for release, her friend David Geffen, founder of Asylum Records, decided to start a new label, Geffen Records. Still distributed by Warner Bros,, (who controlled Asylum Records), Geffen was able to negate the remaining contractual obligations Mitchell had with Asylum and signed her to his new label. 1982's Wild Things Run Fast marked a return to pop songwriting, including "Chinese Cafe/Unchained Melody", which incorporated the chorus and parts of the melody of the famous Righteous Brothers hit, and "(You're So Square) Baby I Don't Care", a remake of the Elvis chestnut which charted higher than any Mitchell single since her 70s sales peak when it climbed to #47 on the charts. The album, however, peaked on the Billboard Charts in its fifth week at only #25. As 1983 began, Mitchell began a world tour, visiting Japan, Australia, Ireland, the United Kingdom, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Scandinavia, Denmark and then back to the United States. A performance from the tour was videotaped and later released on home video (and later DVD) as "Refuge Of The Roads". As 1984 ended, Mitchell was writing new songs, when she had a suggestion from Geffen that perhaps an outside producer with experience in the modern technical arenas they wanted to explore might be a worthy addition. British synth-pop performer and producer Thomas Dolby was brought on board. Of Dolby's role, Mitchell later commented: "I was reluctant when Thomas was suggested because he had been asked to produce the record [by Geffen], and would he consider coming in as just a programmer and a player? So on that level we did have some problems... He may be able to do it faster. He may be able to do it better, but the fact is that it then wouldn't really be my music." The album that resulted, Dog Eat Dog, released in October 1985, received a mostly negative critical response. It turned out to be only a moderate seller, peaking at #63 on Billboard's Top Albums Chart, Mitchell's lowest chart position since her first album peaked at #189 almost eighteen years before. One of the songs on the album, Tax Free, created controversy by lambasting "televangelists" and what she saw as a drift to the religious right in American politics. "The churches came after me", she wrote, "they attacked me, though the Episcopalian Church, which I've described as the only church in America which actually uses its head, wrote me a letter of congratulation". Irish Times Magazine, p 14, 19 July 2008 Mitchell continued experimenting with synthesizers, drum machines and sequencers for the recordings of her next album, 1988's Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm. She also collaborated with artists including Willie Nelson, Billy Idol, Wendy and Lisa, Tom Petty, Don Henley and Peter Gabriel. The album's official first single was in fact a duet with Gabriel, "My Secret Place", which just missed the Billboard Hot 100 charts, though the video received airplay on VH-1. Her duet with Henley, "Lakota", was one of many songs on the album to take on larger political themes, in this case the deadly battle between Native American activists and the FBI on the Lakota Sioux reservation in the previous decade. Musically, too, several songs fit into the trend of world music popularized by Gabriel during the era. Reviews were mostly favorable towards the new album, and the cameos by well-known musicians brought it considerable attention. Chalk Mark ultimately improved on Dog Eat Dog's chart performance, peaking at #45. After its release, Mitchell, who rarely performed live anymore, participated in Roger Waters' The Wall Concert in Berlin in 1990. She performed the song, "Goodbye Blue Sky" and also was one of the performers on the concerts ending song, "The Tide Is Turning" along with Waters, Cyndi Lauper, Bryan Adams, Van Morrison and Paul Carrack. 1990s and early 2000s: Turbulence and resurgence Throughout the first half of 1990, Mitchell recorded songs that would appear on her next album. She delivered the final mixes for the new album to Geffen just before Christmas, after trying nearly a hundred different sequences for the songs. The album Night Ride Home was released in March 1991. In the United States, it premiered on Billboard's Top Album charts at #68, moving up to #48 in its second week, and peaking at #41 in its sixth week. In the United Kingdom, the album premiered at #25 on the album charts. Critically, it was better received than her 80s work and seemed to signal a move closer to her acoustic beginnings, along with some references to the style of Hejira. But to wider audiences, the real "return to form" came with 1994's Grammy-winning Turbulent Indigo. While the recording period also saw the divorce of Mitchell and bassist Larry Klein, whose marriage had lasted almost 12 years, Indigo was seen as Mitchell's most accessible set of songs in years. Songs such as "Sex Kills", "Sunny Sunday", "Borderline" and "The Magdalene Laundries" mixing social commentary and guitar-focused melodies for "a startling comeback". The album won two Grammy awards, including Best Pop Album, and it coincided with a much-publicized resurgence in interest in Mitchell's work by a younger generation of singer-songwriters. In 1996, Mitchell agreed to release a greatest Hits collection when label Reprise also allowed her a second Misses album to include some of the lesser known songs from her career. Hits charted at #161 in the US, but made #6 in the UK. Mitchell also included on Hits, for the first time on an album, her first recording, a version of "Urge for Going" which preceded Song to a Seagull but was previously released only as a B-side. Two years later, Mitchell released her final set of "original" new work before nearly a decade of other pursuits, 1998's Taming the Tiger. She promoted Tiger with a return to regular concert appearances, most notably a co-headlining tour with Bob Dylan and Van Morrison. On the album, Mitchell had played a "guitar synthesizer" on most songs, and for the tour she adapted many of her old songs to this instrument, and reportedly had to re-learn all her complex tunings once again. It was around this time that critics also began to notice a real change in Mitchell's voice, particularly on her older songs; the singer later admitted to feeling the same way, explaining that "I'd go to hit a note and there was nothing there." While her more limited range and huskier vocals have sometimes been attributed to her smoking (she has been described as "one of the world's last great smokers"), Mitchell believes the changes in her voice that became noticeable in the nineties were due to other problems, including vocal nodules, a compressed larynx, and the lingering effects of having had polio. In an interview in 2004, she denied that "my terrible habits" had anything to do with her more limited range and pointed out that singers often lose the upper register when they pass fifty. In addition, she contended that in her opinion her voice became a more interesting and expressive alto range when she no longer could hit the high notes, let alone hold them like she did in her youth. National Public Radio. The singer's next two albums featured no new songs and, Mitchell has said, were recorded to "fulfill contractual obligations", but on both she attempted to make use of her new vocal range in interpreting familiar material. Both Sides Now (2000) was an album composed mostly of covers of jazz standards, performed with an orchestra, featuring orchestral arrangements by Vince Mendoza. The album also contained remakes of "A Case of You" and the title track "Both Sides Now", two early hits transposed down to Mitchell's now dusky, soulful alto range. It received mostly strong reviews and spawned a short national tour, with Mitchell accompanied by a core band featuring Larry Klein on bass plus a local orchestra on each tour stop. Its success led to 2002's Travelogue, a collection of re-workings of her previous songs with lush orchestral accompaniments. Mitchell stated at the time that this would be her final album. In a 2002 interview with Rolling Stone, she voiced discontent with the current state of the music industry, describing it as a "cesspool". Mitchell expressed her dislike of the record industry's dominance and her desire to control her own destiny, possibly through releasing her own music over the Internet. During the next few years, the only albums Mitchell released were compilations of her earlier work. In 2003, Mitchell's Geffen recordings were collected in a remastered, four-disc box set, The Complete Geffen Recordings, including notes by Mitchell and some previously unreleased tracks. A series of themed compilations of songs from earlier albums were also released: The Beginning of Survival (2004), Dreamland (2004), and Songs of a Prairie Girl (2005), the last of which collected the threads of her Canadian upbringing and which she released after accepting an invitation to the Saskatchewan Centennial concert in Saskatoon. The concert, which featured a tribute to Mitchell, was also attended by Queen Elizabeth II. In Prairie Girl liner notes, she writes that the collection is "my contribution to Saskatchewan's Centennial celebrations". In the early 1990s, Mitchell signed a deal with Random House to publish an autobiography. Dickinson, Chrissie. "Court and No Spark" (book review, reprint), Washington Post, 2005-06-15. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. In 1998 she told The New York Times that her memoirs were "in the works", that they would be published in as many as four volumes, and that the first line would be "I was the only black man at the party". Strauss, Neil. "The Hissing of a Living Legend", The New York Times, 1998-10-04. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. In 2005, Mitchell said that she was using a tape recorder to get "down [her memories] in the oral tradition". Brown, Ethan. "Influences: Joni Mitchell", New York Magazine, 2005-05-09. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. Although Mitchell stated that she would no longer tour or give concerts, she has made occasional public appearances to speak on environmental issues. Joni Mitchell Audio Mitchell divides her time between her longtime home in Los Angeles, and the property in Sechelt, British Columbia that she has owned since the early 1970s. "L.A. is my workplace", she said in 2006, "B.C. is my heartbeat". JoniMitchell.com/JMDL Library: Joni Mitchell's Fighting Words: Ottawa Citizen, October 7, 2006 According to interviews, today she focuses mainly on her visual art, which she does not sell and which she displays only on rare occasions. JoniMitchell.com - Contact Us Her music was also featured in the 2004 film Love Actually, as she was mentioned as being Karen's favourite artist and the person who "helped her to learn emotion". Current developments In an October 2006 interview with The Ottawa Citizen, Mitchell "revealed she's recording her first collection of new songs in nearly a decade", but gave few other details. Four months later, in an interview with The New York Times, Mitchell said that the forthcoming album, titled Shine, was inspired by the war in Iraq and "something her grandson had said while listening to family fighting: 'Bad dreams are good—in the great plan'". Early media reports characterized the album as having "a minimal feel... that harks back to [Mitchell's] early work", and a focus on political and environmental issues. In February 2007, Mitchell also returned to Calgary and served as an advisor for the Alberta Ballet Company premiere of "The Fiddle and the Drum", a dance choreographed to both new and old songs. Mitchell also filmed portions of the rehearsals for a documentary she's working on. Of the flurry of recent activity she quipped, "I've never worked so hard in my life." In summer 2007, Mitchell's official fan-run site confirmed speculation that she had signed a two-record deal with Starbucks' Hear Music label. Shine was released by the label on September 25, 2007. JoniMitchell.com On the same day, Herbie Hancock, a longtime associate and friend of Mitchell's, released River: The Joni Letters, an album paying tribute to Mitchell's work. Among the album's contributors were Norah Jones, Tina Turner, Leonard Cohen, and Mitchell herself, who contributed a vocal to the re-recording of "The Tea Leaf Prophecy (Lay Down Your Arms)" (originally on her album Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm). Herbie Hancock News: Herbie Hancock's "River: The Joni Letters" Set For Release on September 25th On February 10, 2008, Hancock's recording won Album of the Year at the Grammy Awards. It was the first time in 43 years that a jazz artist took the top prize at the annual award ceremony. In accepting the award, Hancock paid tribute to Mitchell as well as to Miles Davis and John Coltrane. At the same ceremony Mitchell won a Grammy for Best Instrumental Pop Performance for the opening track "One Week Last Summer" from her album Shine. As of early 2009, Mitchell is in the midst of treatments for Morgellons syndrome, an infectious and potentially debilitating skin condition that has put other endeavors on hold. Joni Mitchell Hopes To Spread 'Fiddle', February 20, 2009 Musical legacy Unique guitar style While some of Mitchell's most popular songs were written on piano, almost every song she composed on the guitar uses an open, or non-standard, tuning; she has written songs in some 50 different tunings, which she has referred to as "Joni's weird chords". The use of alternative tunings allows more varied and complex harmonies to be produced on the guitar, without the need for difficult chord shapes. Indeed, many of Joni's guitar songs use very simple chord shapes, but her use of alternative tunings and a highly rhythmic picking/strumming style creates a rich and unique guitar sound. Her right-hand picking/strumming technique has evolved over the years from an initially intricate picking style, typified by the guitar songs on her first album, to a looser and more rhythmic style, sometimes incorporating percussive "slaps", that have been featured on later albums. Mitchell's longtime archivist, the San Francisco-based Joel Bernstein, maintains a detailed list of all her tunings, and has assisted her in relearning the tunings for several older songs. JMDL LIBRARY: The guitar odyssey of Joni Mitchell: My Secret Place: Acoustic Guitar, August 1996 jmdl.com: Mitchell was also highly innovative harmonically in her early work (1966-72) using techniques including modality, polymodality, chromaticism, polytonality, and strict pedal points. "Harmonic Palette in Early Joni Mitchell", p.173. Author(s): Lloyd Whitesell. Source: Popular Music, Vol. 21, No. 2, (May, 2002), pp. 173-193. Published by: Cambridge University Press. In 2003 Rolling Stone named her the 72nd greatest guitarist of all time; she was the highest-ranked woman on the list. The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time : Rolling Stone Influences on other artists Mitchell's work has had an influence on artists as disparate as Tori Amos, Alanis Morissette, Björk, Stevie Nicks, Jeff Buckley, Clannad, Elvis Costello, Dan Fogelberg, Janet Jackson, Maynard James Keenan (Tool), Cyndi Lauper, Annie Lennox, Madonna, Chan Marshall (Cat Power), George Michael, Morrissey, Juice Newton, Conor Oberst, Prince, The Roots, Roxette, Shakira, The Sundays, Fiona Apple, Holly Brook, and KT Tunstall. For instance, Prince's song "The Ballad of Dorothy Parker" off the album Sign 'O' the Times, pays tribute to Mitchell, both through his evocative Mitchell-like harmonies and through the use of one of Mitchell's own techniques: as in Mitchell's song "This Flight Tonight", Prince references a song in his lyrics (Joni's own "Help Me") as the music begins to emulate the chords and melody of that song. Another Mitchell reference left by Prince can also be seen on the back cover of his 1981 Controversy record, where one of the headlines reads "★JONI★". Madonna has also cited Mitchell as the first female artist that really spoke to her as a teenager; "I was really, really into Joni Mitchell. I knew every word to Court and Spark; I worshiped her when I was in high school. Blue is amazing. I would have to say of all the women I've heard, she had the most profound effect on me from a lyrical point of view." A number of artists have enjoyed success covering Mitchell's songs. Judy Collins's 1967 recording of "Both Sides Now" reached #8 on Billboard charts and was a breakthrough in the career of both artists (Mitchell's own recording did not see release until two years later, on her second album Clouds). This is Mitchell's most-covered song by far, with 587 versions recorded at latest count. Hole also covered "Both Sides Now" in 1990, renaming it "Clouds" and changing the lyrics. Pop group Neighborhood in 1970 and Amy Grant in 1995 scored hits with covers of "Big Yellow Taxi", the second most covered song in Mitchell's repertoire (with 223 covers). Recent releases of this song have been by Counting Crows in 2002 and Nena in 2007. Janet Jackson used a sample of the chorus of "Big Yellow Taxi" as the centerpiece of her 1997 hit single "Got 'Til It's Gone", which also features rapper Q-Tip saying "Joni Mitchell never lie". Rap artists Kanye West and Mac Dre have also sampled Mitchell's vocals in their music. In addition, Annie Lennox has covered "Ladies Of The Canyon" for the B-side of her 1995 hit "No More I Love You's". Mandy Moore covered "Help Me" in 2003. In 2004 singer George Michael covered her song "Edith And The Kingpin" for a radio show. "River" has been of the most popular songs covered in recent years, with versions by James Taylor (recorded for television in 2000, and for CD release in 2004), Allison Crowe (2004), Rachael Yamagata (2004), Aimee Mann (2005), and Sarah McLachlan (2006). McLachlan also did a version of "Blue" in 1996, and Cat Power recorded a cover of "Blue" in 2008. Other Mitchell covers include the famous "Woodstock" by both Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young and Matthews Southern Comfort, "This Flight Tonight" by Nazareth, and well-known versions of "Woodstock" by Eva Cassidy and "A Case Of You" by Tori Amos, Jane Monheit, Prince, and Diana Krall. Prince's version, "A Case of U", appeared on A Tribute to Joni Mitchell, a 2007 compilation released by Nonesuch Records, which also featured Bjork ("The Boho Dance"), Caetano Veloso ("Dreamland"), Emmylou Harris ("The Magdalene Laundries"), Sufjan Stevens ("Free Man in Paris") and Cassandra Wilson ("For the Roses"), among others. Some of the recordings were made in the late 1990s when a project entitled A Case Of Joni was developed but left incomplete. Among those who recorded tracks for the first tribute album, which remain unreleased, were Janet Jackson and Sheryl Crow. Several other songs reference Joni Mitchell. Led Zeppelin's "Going to California" was said to be written about Robert Plant and Jimmy Page's infatuation with Mitchell, a claim that seems to be borne out by the fact that, in live performances, Plant often says "Joni" after the line "To find a queen without a king, they say she plays guitar and cries and sings". Jimmy Page uses a double dropped D guitar tuning similar to the alternative tunings Mitchell uses. The Sonic Youth song Hey Joni from their acclaimed Daydream Nation album is named for Mitchell. Sonic Youth also uses a wide variety of alternate guitar tunings. Awards and honors Mitchell was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1997, but did not attend the ceremony. In 1995, she received Billboard's Century Award. In 1996 she was awarded the Polar Music Prize. She has received nine regular Grammy Awards during her career, with the first coming in 1969 and the most recent in 2008. She received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2002, with the citation describing her as "one of the most important female recording artists of the rock era" and "a powerful influence on all artists who embrace diversity, imagination and integrity." Regarding her as a national treasure, Mitchell's home country Canada has bestowed her with a number of honours. She was inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame in 1981 and received a star on Canada's Walk of Fame in 2000. Canada's Walk of Fame In 2002 she became only the third popular Canadian singer/songwriter (Gordon Lightfoot and Leonard Cohen being the other two), to be appointed a Companion of the Order of Canada, Canada's highest civilian honour. She received an honorary doctorate in music from McGill University in 2004. In January 2007 she was inducted into the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame. In June, 2007, Canada Post featured Mitchell on a postage stamp. Stamps honour iconic Canadian music stars In November, 2006, the album Blue was listed by Time magazine as among the "All-Time 100 Albums". In 1999 Mitchell was listed as fifth on VH1's list of "The 100 Greatest Women of Rock N' Roll". Grammy Awards Year Category Work Result1969 Best Folk Performance Clouds Won1974 Album of the Year Court and Spark Nomination1974 Record of the Year "Help Me" Nomination1974 Pop Female Vocalist Court and Spark Nomination1974 Best Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s) "Down To You" Won1976 Pop Female Vocalist The Hissing of Summer Lawns Nomination1977 Best Album Package Hejira Nomination1988 Pop Female Vocalist Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm Nomination1995 Best Pop Album Turbulent Indigo Won1995 Best Album Package Turbulent Indigo Won2000 Best Female Pop Vocal Performance Both Sides Now Nomination2000 Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album Both Sides Now Won2002 Lifetime Achievement Award - Won2003 Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s) "Woodstock" (Travelogue recording) Won2007 Album of the Year River: The Joni Letters Won *2007 Best Pop Instrumental Performance "One Week Last Summer" Won - * Although officially a Herbie Hancock release, Joni also received a Grammy due to her vocal contribution to the album. Discography Albums YearAlbumChart positionsU.S.UK.CanadaAustralia1968Song to a Seagull189---1969Clouds31-22-1970Ladies of the Canyon27816321971Blue1539-1972For the Roses11-5191974Court and Spark2141341974Miles of Aisles23413461975The Hissing of Summer Lawns4147621976Hejira131122381977Don Juan's Reckless Daughter252028391979Mingus172437441980Shadows and Light386373701982Wild Things Run Fast253233511985Dog Eat Dog635744861988Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm452623441991Night Ride Home412529551994Turbulent Indigo475324-1998Taming the Tiger755786-2000Both Sides Now665019-2002Travelogue-144--2007Shine14361371 In the U.S., all of Joni Mitchell's albums since Clouds to Don Juan Reckless' Daughter were certified Gold by RIAA. Also both Ladies of the Canyon and Court and Spark were certified Platinum and Blue received a 2xPlatinum certification. http://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?table=SEARCH_RESULTS Compilations The World of Joni Mitchell (1972) (Australia/New Zealand only) Hits (1996) #161 (US) Misses (1996) The Complete Geffen Recordings (4-CD box set of material 1982–91) (2003) The Beginning of Survival (2004) Dreamland (2004) #177 (US), #43 (UK) Starbucks Artist's Choice (2004) Songs of a Prairie Girl'' (2005) (Remastered) Selected Singles YearSongChart positionsAlbumUSUKCanadaAustralia1970Big Yellow Taxi6711146Ladies of the Canyon1971Carey93-27-Blue1971A Case Of You----Blue1972You Turn Me on I'm a Radio25-1037For the Roses1973Raised on Robbery65-51-Court and Spark1974Help Me7 [1 AC]-6-Court and Spark1974Free Man in Paris 22 [2 AC]-16-Court and Spark1975Big Yellow Taxi (live)24-54-Miles of Aisles1975In France They Kiss on Main Street66-19-The Hissing of Summer Lawns1976Coyote--79-Hejira1980Why Do Fools Fall in Love102---Shadows and Light1982(You're So Square) Baby, I Don't Care47---Wild Things Run Fast1985Good Friends85---Dog Eat Dog1988My Secret Place--44-Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm1991Come In From The Cold--27-Night Ride Home1994How Do You Stop-13256-Turbulent Indigo1994Sex Kills--68-Turbulent Indigo1997Got 'Til It's Gone (Janet Jackson ft. Q-Tip and Joni Mitchell) Song was not released as a single in the U.S and charted solely on the airplay charts, reaching #36. -61010The Velvet Rope Videos "The Last Waltz" (1976) with The Band "Shadows and Light" (1980) with Jaco Pastorius, Pat Metheny and Michael Brecker "Refuge of the Roads" (1984) with Vinnie Colaiuta "Come in from the Cold" (1991) "Painting With Words & Music" (1998) "Both Sides Now - An All-Star Tribute To Joni Mitchell" (TNT Network - 2000) with Richard Thompson, k.d. lang, Cyndi Lauper, Shawn Colvin, Bryan Adams, Diana Krall, James Taylor, Elton John and Wynonna Judd. "Woman of Heart and Mind - A Life Story" (2003) "Goodbye Blue Sky" - Roger Waters' The Wall LIVE at Berlin - On 21 July 1990 Multimedia My Secret Place with Peter Gabriel (1998) Amelia from "Travelogue" (2002) Dreamland album (2004) (Windows Media Audio) RBMA Radio On Demand - Sound Obsession - Volume 8 - Joni Mitchell Special - Kirk Degiorgio (The Beauty Room, As One) References External links JoniMitchell.com Joni Mitchell at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Joni Mitchell in the Canadian Encyclopedia CBC Digital Archives - Joni Mitchell: All Sides Now | Joni_Mitchell |@lemmatized joni:57 mitchell:157 cc:1 born:2 november:5 canadian:9 musician:6 songwriter:6 painter:2 jonimitchell:7 com:10 biography:2 begin:18 sing:6 small:1 nightclub:1 native:2 western:3 canada:11 busk:2 street:2 toronto:5 mid:2 leave:6 new:21 york:6 city:3 rich:2 folk:15 music:24 scene:2 record:42 debut:2 album:106 achieve:1 fame:7 first:26 urge:3 go:14 chelsea:3 morning:4 side:15 woodstock:5 singer:12 right:4 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3,620 | Allotropy | Diamond and graphite are two allotropes of carbon: pure forms of the same element that differ in structure. Allotropy (Gr. allos, other, and tropos, manner) or allotropism is a behavior exhibited by certain chemical elements: these elements can exist in two or more different forms, known as allotropes of that element. In each allotrope, the element's atoms are bonded together in a different manner. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element. Allotrope in IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology, Electronic/ version, http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00243.html. Accessed March 2007. Allotropes should not be confused with isomers, which are chemical compounds that share the same molecular formula but have different structural formulae. For example, the element carbon has 2 common allotropes: diamond, where the carbon atoms are bonded together in a tetrahedral lattice arrangement, and graphite, where the carbon atoms are bonded together in sheets of a hexagonal lattice. Note that allotropy refers only to different forms of an element within the same phase or state of matter (i.e. different solid, liquid or gas forms) - the changes of state between solid, liquid and gas in themselves are not considered allotropy. For some elements, allotropes have different molecular formulae which can persist in different phases - for example, the two allotropes of oxygen (dioxygen, O2 and ozone, O3), can both exist in the solid, liquid and gaseous states. Conversely, some elements do not maintain distinct allotropes in different phases: for example phosphorus has numerous solid allotropes, which all revert to the same P4 form when melted to the liquid state. History The concept of allotropy was originally proposed in 1841 by the Swedish scientist Baron Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779-1848) who offered no explanation. Jensen W.B., "The Origin of the Term Allotrope", Journal of Chemical Education, 2006, 83, 838-9 After the acceptance of Avogadro's hypothesis in 1860 it was understood that elements could exist as polyatomic molecules, and the two allotropes of oxygen were recognized as O2 and O3. In the early 20th century it was recognized that other cases such as carbon were due to differences in crystal structure. By 1912, Ostwald noted that the allotropy of elements is just a special case of the phenomenon of polymorphism known for compounds, and proposed that the terms allotrope and allotropy be abandoned and replaced by polymorph and polymorphism. Although many other chemists have repeated this advice, IUPAC and most chemistry texts still favour the usage of allotrope and allotropy for elements only. Differences in properties of an element's allotropes Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element and can exhibit quite different physical properties and chemical behaviours. The change between allotropic forms is triggered by the same forces that affect other structures, i.e. pressure, light, and temperature. Therefore the stability of the particular allotropes depends on particular conditions. For instance, iron changes from a body-centered cubic structure (ferrite) to a face-centered cubic structure (austenite) above 906 °C, and tin undergoes a transformation known as tin pest from a metallic phase to a semiconductor phase below 13.2 °C. List of allotropes Typically, elements capable of variable coordination number and/or oxidation states tend to exhibit greater numbers of allotropic forms. Another contributing factor is the ability of an element to catenate. Allotropes are typically more noticeable in non-metals (excluding the halogens and the noble gases) and metalloids. Nevertheless, metals tend to have many allotropes. Examples of allotropes include: Non-metals and metalloids {| class="wikitable" |- ! Element ! Allotropes |- |Carbon | diamond - an extremely hard, transparent crystal, with the carbon atoms arranged in a tetrahedral lattice. A poor electrical conductor. An excellent thermal conductor. graphite - a soft, black, flaky solid, a moderate electrical conductor. The C atoms are bonded in flat hexagonal lattices, which are then layered in sheets. amorphous carbon fullerenes, including "buckyballs", such as C60, and carbon nanotubes |- |Phosphorus: | White phosphorus - crystalline solid Red phosphorus - polymeric solid Scarlet phosphorus Violet phosphorus Black phosphorus - semiconductor, analogous to graphite Diphosphorus |- |Oxygen: | dioxygen, O2 - colorless ozone, O3 - blue tetraoxygen, O4 - metastable octaoxygen, - red |- |Nitrogen: | dinitrogen tetranitrogen trinitrogen two solid forms: one hexagonal close-packed and the other alpha cubic |- |Sulfur: | Plastic (amorphous) sulfur - polymeric solid Rhombic sulfur - large crystals composed of S8 molecules Monoclinic sulfur - fine needle-like crystals Other ring molecules such as S7 and S12 |- |Selenium: | "Red selenium," cyclo-Se8 Gray selenium, polymeric Se Black selenium |- |Boron| amorphous boron - brown powder crystalline boron - black, hard (9.3 on Mohs' scale), and a weak conductor at room temperature. |- |Germanium| α-germanium - β-germanium - at high pressures |- |Silicon| amorphous silicon - brown powder nanocrystalline silicon - similar to the amorphous silicon crystalline silicon - has a metallic luster and a grayish color. Single crystals of crystalline silicon can be grown with a process known as the Czochralski process |- |Arsenic: | Yellow arsenic - molecular non-metallic As4 Gray arsenic, polymeric As (metalloid) Black arsenic (metalloid) and several similar other ones. |- |Antimony: | blue-white antimony - the stable form (metalloid) yellow antimony (non-metallic) black antimony (non-metallic) (a fourth one too) |} Metals Among the naturally occurring metallic elements (up to U, without Tc and Pm), 28 are allotropic at ambient pressure: Li, Be, Na, Ca, Sr, Ti, Mn, Fe, Co, Sr, Y, Zr, Sn, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, (Pm), Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Yb, Hf, Tl, Po, Th, Pa, U. Considering only the technologically-relevant metals, six metals are allotropic: Ti at 882˚C, Fe at 912 and 1394˚C, Co at 422˚C, Zr at 863˚C, Sn at 13˚C and U at 668 and 776˚C. Tin grey tin (alpha-tin) white tin (beta tin) rhombic tin (gamma)Iron ferrite (alpha iron) - forms below 770°C (the Curie point, Tc ); the iron becomes magnetic in its alpha form; BCC beta - forms below 912°C (BCC) gamma - forms below 1394°C; face centred cubic (FCC) crystal structure delta - forms from cooling down molten iron below 1538°C; has a body-centred cubic (BCC) crystal structure Lanthanides and actinidesCerium, Samarium, Terbium,Dysprosium and Ytterbium have three allotropes.Praseodymium, Neodymium , Gadolinium and Terbium have two allotropesPlutonium has six distinct solid allotropes under "normal" pressures. Their densities vary within a ratio of some 4:3, which vastly complicates all kinds of work with the metal (particularly casting, machining, and storage). A seventh plutonium allotrope exists at very high pressures, which adds further difficulties in exotic applications. The transuranien metals Np, Am, and Cm are also allotropic.Promethium'', Americium, Berkelium, Californium have 3 allotropes http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/0305-4608/15/2/002/jfv15i2pL29.pdf?request-id=AFlRqDDL3BGhbarg2wi7Kg Phase diagram of the actinide elements. References External links http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/summer/scor/articles/scor40.htm | Allotropy |@lemmatized diamond:3 graphite:4 two:6 allotrope:26 carbon:9 pure:1 form:15 element:20 differ:1 structure:7 allotropy:7 gr:1 allos:1 tropos:1 manner:2 allotropism:1 behavior:1 exhibit:3 certain:1 chemical:5 exist:4 different:11 know:4 atom:5 bond:4 together:3 structural:3 modification:1 iupac:3 compendium:1 terminology:1 electronic:1 version:1 http:3 goldbook:1 org:2 html:1 access:1 march:1 confuse:1 isomer:1 compound:2 share:1 molecular:3 formula:3 example:4 common:1 tetrahedral:2 lattice:4 arrangement:1 sheet:2 hexagonal:3 note:2 refers:1 within:2 phase:6 state:5 matter:1 e:2 solid:10 liquid:4 gas:3 change:3 consider:2 persist:1 oxygen:3 dioxygen:2 ozone:2 gaseous:1 conversely:1 maintain:1 distinct:2 phosphorus:7 numerous:1 revert:1 melt:1 history:1 concept:1 originally:1 propose:2 swedish:1 scientist:1 baron:1 jöns:1 jakob:1 berzelius:1 offer:1 explanation:1 jensen:1 w:1 b:1 origin:1 term:2 journal:1 education:1 acceptance:1 avogadro:1 hypothesis:1 understood:1 could:1 polyatomic:1 molecule:3 recognize:2 early:1 century:1 case:2 due:1 difference:2 crystal:7 ostwald:1 special:1 phenomenon:1 polymorphism:2 abandon:1 replace:1 polymorph:1 although:1 many:2 chemist:1 repeat:1 advice:1 chemistry:1 text:1 still:1 favour:1 usage:1 property:2 quite:1 physical:1 behaviour:1 allotropic:5 trigger:1 force:1 affect:1 pressure:5 light:1 temperature:2 therefore:1 stability:1 particular:2 depend:1 condition:1 instance:1 iron:5 body:2 centered:2 cubic:5 ferrite:2 face:2 austenite:1 c:13 tin:8 undergoes:1 transformation:1 pest:1 metallic:6 semiconductor:2 list:1 typically:2 capable:1 variable:1 coordination:1 number:2 oxidation:1 tend:2 great:1 another:1 contribute:1 factor:1 ability:1 catenate:1 noticeable:1 non:5 metal:8 exclude:1 halogen:1 noble:1 metalloids:2 nevertheless:1 include:2 class:1 wikitable:1 allotropes:1 extremely:1 hard:2 transparent:1 arrange:1 poor:1 electrical:2 conductor:4 excellent:1 thermal:1 soft:1 black:6 flaky:1 moderate:1 flat:1 layer:1 amorphous:5 fullerene:1 buckyball:1 nanotube:1 white:3 crystalline:4 red:3 polymeric:4 scarlet:1 violet:1 analogous:1 diphosphorus:1 colorless:1 blue:2 tetraoxygen:1 metastable:1 octaoxygen:1 nitrogen:1 dinitrogen:1 tetranitrogen:1 trinitrogen:1 one:3 close:1 packed:1 alpha:4 sulfur:4 plastic:1 rhombic:2 large:1 compose:1 monoclinic:1 fine:1 needle:1 like:1 ring:1 selenium:4 cyclo:1 gray:2 se:1 boron:3 brown:2 powder:2 mohs:1 scale:1 weak:1 room:1 germanium:3 α:1 β:1 high:2 silicon:6 nanocrystalline:1 similar:2 luster:1 grayish:1 color:1 single:1 grow:1 process:2 czochralski:1 arsenic:4 yellow:2 metalloid:3 several:1 antimony:4 stable:1 fourth:1 among:1 naturally:1 occur:1 u:3 without:1 tc:2 pm:2 ambient:1 li:1 na:1 ca:2 sr:2 ti:2 mn:1 fe:2 co:2 zr:2 sn:2 la:1 ce:1 pr:1 nd:1 sm:1 gd:1 tb:1 dy:1 yb:1 hf:1 tl:1 po:1 th:1 pa:1 technologically:1 relevant:1 six:2 grey:1 beta:2 gamma:2 curie:1 point:1 become:1 magnetic:1 bcc:3 centre:2 fcc:1 delta:1 cool:1 molten:1 lanthanide:1 actinidescerium:1 samarium:1 terbium:2 dysprosium:1 ytterbium:1 three:1 praseodymium:1 neodymium:1 gadolinium:1 allotropesplutonium:1 normal:1 density:1 vary:1 ratio:1 vastly:1 complicate:1 kind:1 work:1 particularly:1 casting:1 machining:1 storage:1 seventh:1 plutonium:1 add:1 difficulty:1 exotic:1 application:1 transuranien:1 np:1 cm:1 also:1 promethium:1 americium:1 berkelium:1 californium:1 www:2 iop:1 ej:1 article:2 pdf:1 request:1 id:1 diagram:1 actinide:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 physic:1 uoguelph:1 summer:1 scor:1 htm:1 |@bigram allotrope_carbon:1 carbon_atom:3 allotrope_oxygen:2 liquid_gaseous:1 jöns_jakob:1 jakob_berzelius:1 centered_cubic:2 metal_metalloids:1 class_wikitable:1 carbon_nanotube:1 crystalline_solid:1 mohs_scale:1 amorphous_silicon:2 crystalline_silicon:2 metallic_luster:1 cubic_fcc:1 http_www:2 external_link:1 |
3,621 | Transport_in_Burundi | There are a number of systems of transport in Burundi, including road and water-based infrastructure, the latter of which makes use of Lake Tanganyika. Furthermore, there are also four airports in Burundi. Railways Burundi does not possess any railway infrastructure, although there are proposals to connect Burundi to its neighbours via railway. Lacking any railways, Burundi does not share rail links with adjacent countries, but a Chinese study in August 2006 resulted in a promise to construct a railway starting at the existing Tanzanian railway network, connecting at Isaka, running via Kigali in Rwanda, through to Burundi. Tanzanian railways use a one metre gauge, although other neighbouring countries utilise the 1067 mm gauge, leading to some potential difficulties. Also, another project was launched in the same year, which aimes to link Burundi and Rwanda (which also has no railways) to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia, and therefore to the rest of Southern Africa. At a meeting to inaugurate the Northern Corridor Transit Coordination Authority (NCTCA), the governments of Uganda and Burundi backed the proposed new railway from the Ugandan western railhead at Kasese into the Democratic Republic of Congo. Additionally, Burundi has been added to a planned railway project to connect Tanzania and Rwanda. Rail links with adjacent countries (Links to adjacent Transport pages) Democratic Republic of Congo - gauge Rwanda - no railways yet Tanzania - and TAZARA. Towns served Highways There are 14,480 kilometres of highway in Burundi, of which 1,657 km are paved. Waterways Lake Tanganyika is used for transport, with the major port on the lake being Bujumbura. Most freight is transported down waterways. Airports Burundi possesses eight airports, of which one has paved runways, whose length exceeds 3,047m. The main airport in the country is Bujumbura International Airport. The remaining three airports have unpaved runways, two of which are of lengths between 914 and 1,523m, with the remaining airport's runway length being shorter than 914m. See also Burundi Railway stations in Burundi East African Railway Master Plan External links UN Map of Burundi Map of railways in southern Africa References | Transport_in_Burundi |@lemmatized number:1 system:1 transport:4 burundi:14 include:1 road:1 water:1 base:1 infrastructure:2 latter:1 make:1 use:3 lake:3 tanganyika:2 furthermore:1 also:4 four:1 airport:7 railway:14 possess:1 although:2 proposal:1 connect:3 neighbour:2 via:2 lack:1 share:1 rail:2 link:5 adjacent:3 country:4 chinese:1 study:1 august:1 result:1 promise:1 construct:1 start:1 exist:1 tanzanian:2 network:1 isaka:1 run:1 kigali:1 rwanda:4 one:2 metre:1 gauge:3 utilise:1 mm:1 lead:1 potential:1 difficulty:1 another:1 project:2 launch:1 year:1 aim:1 democratic:3 republic:3 congo:3 zambia:1 therefore:1 rest:1 southern:2 africa:2 meeting:1 inaugurate:1 northern:1 corridor:1 transit:1 coordination:1 authority:1 nctca:1 government:1 uganda:1 back:1 propose:1 new:1 ugandan:1 western:1 railhead:1 kasese:1 additionally:1 add:1 plan:2 tanzania:2 page:1 yet:1 tazara:1 town:1 serve:1 highway:2 kilometre:1 km:1 pave:2 waterway:2 major:1 port:1 bujumbura:2 freight:1 posse:1 eight:1 runway:3 whose:1 length:3 exceed:1 main:1 international:1 remain:2 three:1 unpaved:1 two:1 short:1 see:1 station:1 east:1 african:1 master:1 external:1 un:1 map:2 reference:1 |@bigram lake_tanganyika:2 rwanda_burundi:1 burundi_rwanda:1 republic_congo:3 pave_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 external_link:1 |
3,622 | John_Paul_Jones | John Paul Jones ( - ) was America's first well-known naval fighter in the American Revolutionary War. Although he made enemies among the American ruling class, his actions in British waters during the Revolution earned him an international reputation which persists to this day. During his engagement with Serapis, Jones uttered, according to the later recollection of his First Lieutenant, the legendary reply to a quip about surrender from the British captain: "I have not yet begun to fight!" Early years John Paul (he added "Jones" later) was born on the estate of Arbigland near Kirkbean in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright on the southern coast of Scotland. His father, John Paul (Sr.), was a gardener at Arbigland, and his mother was Jean Duff. His parents married on 29 November 1733 in New Abbey, Kirkcudbright. John Paul started his maritime career at the age of 13, sailing out of Whitehaven in the northern English county of Cumberland, as apprentice aboard the Friendship under Captain Benson. His older brother had married and settled in Fredricksburg, Virginia, the destination of many of the youngster's early voyages. For several years John sailed aboard a number of different British merchant and slaver ships, including the King George in 1764 as third mate, and the Two Friends as first mate in 1766. After a short time in this business, he became disgusted with the cruelty in the slave trade, and in 1768 he abandoned his prestigious position on the profitable Two Friends while docked in Jamaica. He found passage back to Scotland, and eventually obtained another position. During his next voyage aboard the brig John, which sailed from port in 1768, young John Paul’s career was quickly and unexpectedly advanced when both the captain and a ranking mate suddenly died of yellow fever. John managed to successfully navigate the ship back to a safe port and in reward for this impressive feat, the vessel’s grateful Scottish owners made him master of the ship and its crew, giving him 10 percent of the cargo. SeacoastNH.com - John Paul Jones Timeline He then led two voyages to the West Indies before running into difficulty. During his second voyage in 1770, John Paul viciously flogged one of his sailors, leading to accusations of his discipline being "unnecessarily cruel." While these claims were initially dismissed, his favorable reputation was destroyed when the disciplined sailor died a few weeks later. Sources disagree on whether he was arrested for his involvement in the man’s death, but the devastating effect on his reputation is indisputable. Leaving Scotland, John Paul commanded a London-registered vessel, the Betsy, for about 18 months, engaging in commercial speculation in Tobago. This came to an end, however, when John killed a member of his crew with a sword in a dispute over wages. http://www.history.navy.mil/bios/jones_jp_conrad.htm/ Years later, in a letter to Benjamin Franklin describing this incident, he claimed it was in self-defense, but because he was not to be tried in an Admiral's Court, he felt compelled to flee to Fredericksburg, Province of Virginia, leaving his fortune behind. He went to Fredericksburg to arrange the affairs of his brother, who had died there without leaving any family; and about this time, in addition to his original surname, he assumed the patronymic surname of Jones, his father’s Christian name having been John. This custom, which is of classical authority, has long been prevalent in Wales, and in various other countries, although it is not usual in that part of the island in which he was born. His prepossessions became even more in favour of America and were confirmed. From that period, as he afterwards expressed himself to Baron Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol, that became "the country of his fond election." It wasn't long afterwards that John Paul 'Jones' joined the American navy to fight against Britain. He was now safe from his past troubles and he gained a glorious reputation fighting the enemy of America through her navy, an enemy which was already a part of his own personal 'past troubles'. America Sources struggle with this period of Jones' life, especially the specifics of his family situation, making it difficult to historically pinpoint Jones' exact motivations for emigrating to America. Whether his plans for the plantation were not developing as expected, or if he was inspired by a revolutionary spirit, is unknown. What is clearly known is that Jones left for Philadelphia shortly after settling in America to volunteer his services to the newly-founded Continental Navy, which later became the United States Navy. During this time, around 1775, the Navy and Marines were being formally established, and suitable ship's officers and captains were in great demand. Were it not for the endorsement of Richard Henry Lee who knew of his abilities, Jones' potential would likely have gone unrecognized. With help from influential members of the Continental Congress, however, Jones was the first man to be assigned to the rank of 1st Lieutenant in the Continental Navy on December 7, 1775, on board the Alfred. (1999) John Paul Jones: A Sailor's Biography. Naval Institute Press,ISBN 1557504105, p. 52 Revolutionary War command Early command Jones's first assignment was aboard the frigate USS Alfred, sailing from the Delaware River in February 1776 to attack British merchant vessels in New Providence. It was aboard this vessel that Jones took the honor of hoisting the first U.S. ensign over a naval vessel. Jones actually raised the Grand Union Flag, not the later and more familiar Flag of the United States. After returning from this successful voyage in April 1776 aboard the Alfred, Jones was assigned command on the USS Providence. Congress had recently ordered the construction of 13 frigates for the American Navy, one of which was to be commanded by Jones. In exchange for this prestigious command, Jones accepted his commission aboard the smaller Providence. During this six week voyage, Jones captured sixteen prizes and created significant damage along the coast of Nova Scotia. Jones's next command came as a result of Commodore Hopkins's orders to liberate hundreds of American prisoners forced to labor in coal mines in Nova Scotia and also to raid British shipping. On November 1, 1776, Jones set sail in command of Alfred to carry out this mission. While the prisoners enlisted in the British service to end their imprisonment, the mission did result in the capture of the Mellish, a vessel carrying a vital supply of winter clothing intended for John Burgoyne’s troops in Canada. Command of Ranger Despite his successes at sea, upon arrival in Boston on December 16, 1776, Jones's disagreements with those in authority reached a new level. While in port, the accomplished commander began feuding with Commodore Hopkins, who Jones believed was hindering his advancement and talking down his campaign plans. As a result of this and other frustrations, Jones was assigned the smaller command, the newly constructed USS Ranger, on June 14, 1777 (the same day the new Stars and Stripes flag was adopted). After making the necessary preparations, Jones sailed for France on November 1, 1777 with orders to assist the American cause however possible. The American commissioners in France, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Arthur Lee (diplomat), listened to Jones's strategic recommendations. They assured him the command of L'Indien, a new vessel being constructed for America in Amsterdam. Britain, however, was able to divert L'Indien away from American hands by exerting pressure to ensure its sale to France instead (who had not yet allied with America). Jones was again left without a command, an unpleasant reminder of his stagnation in Boston from late 1776 until early 1777. It is thought that it was during this time Jones developed his close friendship with Benjamin Franklin, whom he greatly admired. In 1778, he was accepted, together with Benjamin Franklin, into the Masonic Lodge "Les Neuf Sœurs". On February 6, 1778, France signed their Treaty of Alliance with America, formally recognizing the independence of the new American republic. Eight days later, Captain Jones's Ranger became the first American Navy vessel to be saluted by the French, with a nine-gun salute fired from Admiral Piquet's flagship. Jones wrote of the event: "I accepted his offer all the more for after all it was a recognition of our independence and in the nation." Finally, on April 10, 1778, Jones set sail from Brest, France for the western coasts of Britain. Ranger attacks Britain After some early successes against British merchant shipping in the Irish Sea, on April 17, 1778, Jones convinced his crew to participate in an assault on Whitehaven, the same town where his maritime career began. Jones was thinking in his later memories about the reluctance of his senior officers (having tactfully avoided such matters in his official report): "Their aim, they said, was gain not honor. They were poor: instead of encouraging the morale of the crew, they excited them to disobedience; they persuaded them that they had the right to judge whether a measure that was proposed to them was good or not." As it happened, contrary winds forced the abandonment of the attempt, and drove Ranger towards Ireland, causing more trouble for British shipping on the way. On April 20, 1778, Jones learned from captured sailors that the Royal Navy sloop-of-war Drake was anchored off Carrickfergus, Ireland. According to the diary of Ranger's surgeon, Jones's first intention was to attack the vessel in broad daylight, but his sailors were "unwilling to undertake it" (another incident omitted from the official report). Therefore, the attack took place just after midnight, but in the dark (or perhaps because, as Jones claimed in his memoirs, the man was drunk) the mate responsible for dropping the anchor to halt Ranger right alongside Drake misjudged the timing, so Jones had to cut his anchor cable and run. The wind having shifted, Ranger recrossed the Irish Sea to make another attempt at raiding Whitehaven. Jones led the assault with two boats of fifteen men on April 23 1778, just after midnight, hoping to set fire to and sink all Whitehaven’s ships anchored in harbor (numbering between 200 to 400 wooden vessels), which consisted of a full merchant fleet and many coal transporters. They also hoped to terrorize the townspeople by lighting further fires. As it happened, the journey to shore was slowed by the still-shifting wind, as well as a strong ebb tide. The spiking of the town's big defensive guns to prevent them being fired was accomplished successfully, but lighting fires proved difficult, as the lanterns in both boats had run out of fuel. To remedy this, some of the party were therefore sent to raid a public house on the quayside, but the temptation to stop for a quick drink led to a further delay. By the time they returned, and the arson attacks began, dawn was fast approaching, so efforts were concentrated on a single ship, the coal ship Thompson, in the hope that the flames would spread to adjacent vessels, all grounded by the low tide. Unfortunately, in the twilight, one of the crew slipped away and alerted residents on a harbourside street. A fire alert was sounded, and large numbers of people came running to the quay, forcing the Americans to retreat, and extinguishing the flames with the town's two fire-engines. However, hopes of sinking Jones's boats with cannon fire were dashed by the prudent spiking. Crossing the Solway Firth from Whitehaven to Scotland, Jones hoped to hold for ransom the Earl of Selkirk, who lived on St Mary's Isle near Kirkcudbright. The Earl, Jones reasoned, could be exchanged for American sailors impressed into the Royal Navy. When the Earl was discovered to be absent from his estate, Jones claims he intended to return directly to his ship and continue seeking prizes elsewhere, but his crew wished to "pillage, burn, and plunder all they could". Ultimately, Jones allowed the crew to seize a silver plate set adorned with the family’s emblem to placate their desires, but nothing else. Jones bought the plate himself when it was later sold off in France, and returned it to the Earl of Selkirk after the War. Although their effect on British morale and allocation of defense resources was significant, the attacks on St. Mary’s Isle and Whitehaven resulted in no prizes or profits which under normal circumstances would be shared with the crew. Throughout the mission, the crew, led by Jones's second-in-command Lieutenant Thomas Simpson, acted as if they were aboard a privateer, not a warship. Return to France Nevertheless, Jones now led Ranger back across the Irish Sea, hoping to make another attempt at the Drake, still anchored off Carrickfergus. This time, late in the afternoon of April 24, 1778, the ships, roughly equal in firepower, engaged in combat. Earlier in the day, the Americans had captured the crew of a reconnaissance boat, and learned that Drake had taken on dozens of soldiers, with the intention of grappling and boarding Ranger, so Jones made sure that did not happen, capturing the Drake after an hour-long gun battle which cost the British captain his life. Lieutenant Simpson was given command of Drake for the return journey to Brest. The ships separated during the return journey as Ranger chased another prize, leading to a conflict between Simpson and Jones. Both ships arrived at port safely, but Jones filed for a court-martial of Simpson, keeping him detained on the ship. Partly through the influence of John Adams, who was still serving as a commissioner in France, Simpson was released from Jones's accusation. Adams implies in his memoirs that the overwhelming majority of the evidence supported Simpson’s claims. Adams seemed to believe Jones was hoping to monopolize the mission's glory, especially by detaining Simpson on board while he celebrated the capture with numerous important European dignitaries. Even with the wealth of perspectives, including the commander's, it is difficult if not impossible to tell exactly what occurred. It is clear, however, that the crew felt alienated by their commander, who might well have been motivated by his pride. Jones believed his intentions were honorable, and his actions were strategically essential to the Revolution. Regardless of any controversy surrounding the mission, Ranger’s capture of Drake was one of the American Navy’s few significant military victories during the Revolution, and was of immense symbolic importance, demonstrating as it did that the Royal Navy was far from invincible. By overcoming such odds, Ranger’s victory became an important symbol of the American spirit and served as an inspiration for the permanent establishment of the American Navy after the Revolution. Bonhomme Richard In 1779, Captain Jones took command of the 42-gun Bonhomme Richard (or as he preferred it, Bon Homme Richard), a merchant ship rebuilt and given to America by the French shipping magnate, Jacques-Donatien Le Ray. On August 14, as a vast French and Spanish invasion fleet approached England, he provided a diversion by heading for Ireland at the head of a five ship squadron including the 36-gun Alliance, 32-gun Pallas, 12-gun Vengeance, and Le Cerf, also accompanied by two privateers. Several Royal Navy warships were sent towards Ireland in pursuit, but on this occasion, he continued right around the north of Scotland into the North Sea, creating near-panic all along Britain's east coast as far south as the Humber estuary. Jones's main problems, as on his previous voyage, resulted from insubordination, particularly by Pierre Landais, captain of the Alliance. On September 23 1779, the squadron met a large merchant convoy off the coast off Flamborough Head, east Yorkshire. The 50 gun British frigate HMS Serapis and the 20 gun hired escort Countess of Scarborough placed themselves between the convoy and Jones's squadron, allowing the merchants to escape. Shortly after 7 pm began the Battle of Flamborough Head. The Serapis engaged the Bonhomme Richard, and soon afterwards, the Alliance fired, from a considerable distance, at the Countess. Quickly recognising that he could not win a battle of big guns, and with the wind dying, Jones made every effort to lock Richard and Serapis together (his famous quotation, "I have not yet begun to fight!" was uttered in reply to a cheerful British taunt during an odd stalemate in this phase of the battle), finally succeeding after about an hour, following which his deck guns and marksmen in the rigging began clearing the British decks. Alliance sailed past and fired a broadside, doing at least as much damage to the Richard as to the Serapis. Meanwhile, the Countess of Scarborough had enticed the Pallas downwind of the main battle, beginning a separate engagement. When Alliance approached this contest, about an hour after it had begun, the badly damaged Countess surrendered. With Bonhomme Richard burning and sinking, it seems that her ensign was shot away; when one of the officers, apparently believing his captain to be dead, shouted a surrender, the British commander asked, seriously this time, if they had struck their colors. Jones later remembered saying something like "I am determined to make you strike", but the words allegedly heard by crew-members and reported in newspapers a few days later were more like: "I have just yet begun to fight!" An attempt by the British to board Bonhomme Richard was thwarted and a grenade caused the explosion of a large quantity of gunpowder on Serapis’s lower gun-deck. Alliance then returned to the main battle, firing two broadsides. Again, these did at least as much damage to Richard as to Serapis, but the tactic worked to the extent that, unable to move, and with Alliance keeping well out of the line of his own great guns, Captain Pearson of Serapis accepted that prolonging the battle could achieve nothing, so he surrendered. Most of Bonhomme Richard's crew immediately transferred to other vessels, and after a day and a half of frantic repair efforts, it was decided that the ship could not be saved, so it was allowed to sink, and Jones took command of Serapis for the trip to neutral (but American-sympathising) Holland. In the following year, the King of France honoured him with the title "Chevalier". Jones accepted the honor, and desired the title to be used thereafter: when the Continental Congress in 1787 resolved that a medal of gold be struck in commemoration of his "valor and brilliant services" it was to be presented to "Chevalier John Paul Jones". He also received from Louis a decoration of l"Ordre du Mérite militaire" and a sword. By contrast, in Britain at this time, he was usually referred to as a pirate. he was a rusty nail who ate narly dudes for breakfast Russian service In June 1782, Jones was appointed to command the 74-gun America, but his command fell through when Congress decided to give the America to the French as replacement for the wrecked Le Magnifique. As a result, he was given assignment in Europe in 1783 to collect prize money due his former hands. At length, this too expired and Jones was left without prospects for active employment, leading him in 1788 to enter into the service of the Empress Catherine II of Russia, who placed great confidence in Jones, saying: "He will get to Constantinople." He took the name Pavel Dzhones. Jones avowed his intention, however, to preserve the condition of an American citizen and officer. As a rear admiral aboard the 24-gun flagship Vladimir, he took part in the naval campaign in the Liman (an arm of the Black Sea, into which flow the Southern Bug and Dnieper rivers) against the Turks. Jones successfully repulsed Ottoman forces from the area, but the jealous intrigues of Russian officer Prince Grigory Alexandrovich Potemkin and his cohort Prince of Nassau-Siegen caused him to be recalled to St. Petersburg for the pretended purpose of being transferred to a command in the North Sea. Here he was compelled to remain in idleness, while rival officers plotted against him and even maliciously assailed his private character through accusations of sexual misconduct. Even so, in that period he was able to author his Narrative of the Campaign of the Liman. On June 8, 1788, Jones was awarded the Order of St. Anne, but he left the following month, an embittered man. Final years and death In May 1790, Jones arrived in Paris, where he remained in retirement during the rest of his life, although he made a number of attempts to re-enter the Russian service. In June 1792, Jones was appointed U.S. Consul to treat with the Dey of Algiers for the release of American captives. Before Jones was able to fulfill his appointment, however, he died of a severe brain tumor and was found lying face-down on his bed in his third-floor Paris apartment, No. 42 Rue de Tournon, on July 18 1792. A small procession of servants, friends, and loyal soldiers walked his body the four miles (6 km) for burial. He was buried in Paris at the Saint Louis Cemetery, which belonged to the French royal family. Four years later, France's revolutionary government sold the property and the cemetery was forgotten. The area was later used as a garden, a place to dispose of dead animals, and a place where gamblers bet on animal fights. Posthumous return to America In 1905, Jones's remains were identified by US Ambassador to France Gen. Horace Porter (Goodheart 2006) who had searched for six years to track down the body using faulty copies of Jones's burial record. Thanks to the kind donation of a French admirer, Pierrot Francois Simmoneau, who donated over 460 francs for a lead coffin for Jones, Porter knew what to look for in his search. Porter's team, which included anthropologist Louis Capitan, identified an abandoned site in northeastern Paris as the former St. Louis Cemetery for Alien Protestants. Sounding probes were used to search for lead coffins, and five coffins were ultimately exhumed. The third, unearthed on April 7 1905, was later identified by a meticulous post-mortem examination by Doctors Capitan and Georges Papillault as being that of Jones, and the face was later compared to a bust by Jean-Antoine Houdon. Jones's body was ceremonially removed from his interment in a Parisian charnel house and brought to the United States aboard the USS Brooklyn, escorted by three other cruisers. On approaching the American coastline, seven U.S. Navy battleships joined the procession escorting Jones's body back to America. On April 24, 1906, Jones's coffin was installed in Bancroft Hall at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, following a ceremony in Dahlgren Hall, presided over by President Theodore Roosevelt who gave a lengthy tributary speech. Roosevelt, Theodore Dedication speech, Annapolis (24 Apr 1906)- via theodore-roosevelt.com On January 26, 1913, the Captain's remains were finally re-interred in a magnificent bronze and marble sarcophagus at the Naval Academy Chapel in Annapolis. USNA Traditions US Naval Academy Alumni Association References This entry incorporates public domain text originally from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Frost, John, "The Pictorial Book Of The Commodores; Comprising Lives Of Distinguished Commanders In The Navy Of The United States." Nafis & Cornish, New York, 1845. Boudriot, Jean (1987) John Paul Jones and the Bonhomme Richard , Collection archeologie navale française, ISBN 2-903178-20-8 {a technical study of the ship} Bradford, James C. Guide to the microfilm edition of the papers of John Paul Jones, 1747-1792. Alexandria, Va.: Chadwyck-Healey, 1986. The papers of John Paul Jones, microform edition edited by James C. Bradford. Cambridge, UK ; Alexandria, VA: Chadwyck-Healey, 1986. 10 microfilm reels ; 35 mm. De Koven, Reginald (Mrs) (1913) The Life and Letters of John Paul Jones, 2 vols, London : Werner Laurie Gilkerson, William (1987) The Ships of John Paul Jones, Annapolis, MD : Naval Institute Press, ISBN 0-87021-619-8 {technical study} Goodheart, Adam (2006) Home is the sailor, Smithsonian Magazine, April 2006, p. 32-46 Harper's Magazine (1855) John Paul Jones, no. 62, v. 11, p. 145-170, New York, NY : Harper and Bros Purcell, L. Edward (1993) Who was Who in the American Revolution, New York : Facts on File, ISBN 0-8160-2107-4 Thomas, Evan (2003) John Paul Jones: Sailor, Hero, Father of the American Navy, Waterville, ME : Thorndike Press, ISBN 0-7862-5875-6 {popular biography} External links John Paul Jones and Whitehaven SeaCoastNH.com – JPJ U.S. Navy - John Paul Jones - FAQ Excerpts form the Journals of my Campaign – John Paul Jones John Paul Jones Museum John Paul Jones Unfurling the Flags of John Paul Jones Official report by Jones from aboard Serapis in Holland (1779) The Best Quote Jones Never Wrote Adams Electronic Archive – Memoirs while commissioner (excerpts relating to the Ranger's historic missions) John Paul Jones at Find-A-Grave John Paul Jones and Asymmetric Warfare Battle of Flamborough Head John Paul Jones' attack upon Whitehaven, as reported in LLOYD'S EVENING POST, 1778 John Paul Jones bronze & info Bronze Sea | John_Paul_Jones |@lemmatized john:37 paul:28 jones:95 america:14 first:8 well:4 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3,623 | Ion_channel | Not to be confused with: Ion Television. Schematic diagram of an ion channel. 1 - channel domains (typically four per channel), 2 - outer vestibule, 3 - selectivity filter, 4 - diameter of selectivity filter, 5 - phosphorylation site, 6 - cell membrane. Ion channels are pore-forming proteins that help establish and control the small voltage gradient across the plasma membrane of all living cells (see cell potential) by allowing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient. They are present in the membranes that surround all biological cells. Basic features Ion channels regulate the flow of ions across the membrane in all cells. It is an integral membrane protein; or, more typically, an assembly of several proteins. Such "multi-subunit" assemblies usually involve a circular arrangement of identical or homologous proteins closely packed around a water-filled pore through the plane of the membrane or lipid bilayer. The pore-forming subunit(s) are called the α subunit, while the auxiliary subunits are denoted β, γ, and so on. While some channels permit the passage of ions based solely on charge, the archetypal channel pore is just one or two atoms wide at its narrowest point. It conducts a specific species of ion, such as sodium or potassium, and conveys them through the membrane single file--nearly as quickly as the ions move through free fluid. In some ion channels, passage through the pore is governed by a "gate," which may be opened or closed by chemical or electrical signals, temperature, or mechanical force, depending on the variety of channel. Biological role Because "voltage-activated" channels underlie the nerve impulse and because "transmitter-activated" channels mediate conduction across the synapses, channels are especially prominent components of the nervous system. Indeed, most of the offensive and defensive toxins that organisms have evolved for shutting down the nervous systems of predators and prey (e.g., the venoms produced by spiders, scorpions, snakes, fish, bees, sea snails and others) work by modulating ion channel conductance and/or kinetics. In addition, ion channels are key components in a wide variety of biological processes that involve rapid changes in cells, such as cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle contraction, epithelial transport of nutrients and ions, T-cell activation and pancreatic beta-cell insulin release. In the search for new drugs, ion channels are a frequent target. Diversity Ion channels may be classified by the nature of their gating, the species of ions passing through those gates, and the number of gates (pores). By gating Ion channels may be classified by gating, i.e. what opens and closes the channels. Voltage-gated ion channels activate/inactivate depending on the voltage gradient across the plasma membrane, while ligand-gated ion channels activate/inactivate depending on binding of ligands to the channel. Voltage-gated Voltage-gated channels open and close in response to membrane potential. Voltage-gated sodium channels: This family contains at least 9 members and is largely responsible for action potential creation and propagation. The pore-forming α subunits are very large (up to 4,000 amino acids) and consist of four homologous repeat domains (I-IV) each comprising six transmembrane segments (S1-S6) for a total of 24 transmembrane segments. The members of this family also coassemble with auxiliary β subunits, each spanning the membrane once. Both α and β subunits are extensively glycosylated. Voltage-gated calcium channels: This family contains 10 members, though these members are known to coassemble with α2δ, β, and γ subunits. These channels play an important role in both linking muscle excitation with contraction as well as neuronal excitation with transmitter release. The α subunits have an overall structural resemblance to those of the sodium channels and are equally large. Cation channels of sperm: This small family of channels, normally referred to as Catsper channels, is related to the two-pore channels and distantly related to TRP channels. Voltage-gated potassium channels (KV): This family contains almost 40 members, which are further divided into 12 subfamilies. These channels are known mainly for their role in repolarizing the cell membrane following action potentials. The α subunits have six transmembrane segments, homologous to a single domain of the sodium channels. Correspondingly, they assemble as tetramers to produce a functioning channel. Some transient receptor potential channels: This group of channels, normally referred to simply as TRP channels, is named after their role in Drosophila phototransduction. This family, containing at least 28 members, is incredibly diverse in its method of activation. Some TRP channels seem to be constitutively open, while others are gated by voltage, intracellular Ca2+, pH, redox state, osmolarity, and mechanical stretch. These channels also vary according to the ion(s) they pass, some being selective for Ca2+ while others are less selective, acting as cation channels. This family is subdivided into 6 subfamilies based on homology: classical (TRPC), vanilloid receptors (TRPV), melastatin (TRPM), polycystins (TRPP), mucolipins (TRPML), and ankyrin transmembrane protein 1 (TRPA). Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels: The opening of these channels is due to hyperpolarization rather than the depolarization required for other cyclic nucleotide-gated channels. These channels are also sensitive to the cyclic nucleotides cAMP and cGMP, which alter the voltage sensitivity of the channel’s opening. These channels are permeable to the monovalent cations K+ and Na+. There are 4 members of this family, all of which form tetramers of six-transmembrane α subunits. As these channels open under hyperpolarizing conditions, they function as pacemaking channels in the heart, particularly the SA node. Voltage-gated proton channels: Voltage-gated proton channels openin with depolarization, but in a strongly pH-sensitive manner. The result is that these channels open only when the electrochemical gradient is outward, such that their opening will only allow protons to leave cells. Their function thus appears to be acid extrusion from cells. Another important function occurs in phagocytes (e.g. eosinophils, neutrophils, macrophages) during the "respiratory burst." When bacteria or other microbes are engulfed by phagocytes, the enzyme NADPH oxidase assembles in the membrane and begins to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that help kill bacteria. NADPH oxidase is electrogenic, moving electrons across the membrane, and proton channels open to allow proton flux to balance the electron movement electrically. Ligand-gated Also known as ionotropic receptors, this group of channels open in response to specific ligand molecules binding to the extracellular domain of the receptor protein. Ligand binding causes a conformational change in the structure of the channel protein that ultimately leads to the opening of the channel gate and subsequent ion flux across the plasma membrane. Examples of such channels include the cation-permeable "nicotinic" Acetylcholine receptor, ionotropic glutamate-gated receptors and ATP-gated P2X receptors, and the anion-permeable γ-aminobutyric acid-gated GABAA receptor. Ion channels activated by second messengers may also be categorized in this group, although ligands and second messengers are otherwise distinguished from each other. Other gating Other gating include activation/inactivation by e.g. second messengers from the inside of the cell membrane, rather as from outside, as in the case for ligands. Ions may count to such second messengers, and then causes direct activation, rather than indirect, as in the case were the electric potential of ions cause activation/inactivation of voltage-gated ion channels. Some potassium channels Inward-rectifier potassium channels: These channels allow potassium to flow into the cell in an inwardly rectifying manner, i.e, potassium flows effectively into, but not out of, the cell. This family is composed of 15 official and 1 unofficial members and is further subdivided into 7 subfamilies based on homology. These channels are affected by intracellular ATP, PIP2, and G-protein βγ subunits. They are involved in important physiological processes such as the pacemaker activity in the heart, insulin release, and potassium uptake in glial cells. They contain only two transmembrane segments, corresponding to the core pore-forming segments of the KV and KCa channels. Their α subunits form tetramers. Calcium-activated potassium channels: This family of channels is, for the most part, activated by intracellular Ca2+ and contains 8 members. Two-pore-domain potassium channels: This family of 15 members form what is known as leak channels, and they follow Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (open) rectification. Light-gated channels like channelrhodopsin are directly opened by the action of light. Mechanosensitive ion channels are opening under the influence of stretch, pressure, shear, displacement. Cyclic nucleotide-gated channels: This superfamily of channels contains two families: the cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channels and the hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels. It should be noted that this grouping is functional rather than evolutionary. Cyclic nucleotide-gated channels: This family of channels is characterized by activation due to the binding of intracellular cAMP or cGMP, with specificity varying by member. These channels are primarily permeable to monovalent cations such as K+ and Na+. They are also permeable to Ca2+, though it acts to close them. There are 6 members of this family, which is divided into 2 subfamilies. Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels By ions Chloride channels: This superfamily of poorly-understood channels consists of approximately 13 members. Potassium channels Voltage-gated potassium channels Calcium-activated potassium channels Inward-rectifier potassium channels Two-pore-domain potassium channels: This family of 15 members form what is known as leak channels, and they follow Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (open) rectification. Sodium channels Calcium channels Proton channels Voltage-gated proton channels General ion channels: These are relatively non-specific for ions and thus let many types of ions through the channel. Most Transient receptor potential channels Other classifications There are other types of ion channel classifications that are based on less normal characteristics, e.g. multiple pores and transient potentials. Almost all ion channels have one single pore. However, there are also those with two: Two-pore channels: This small family of 2 members putatively forms cation-selective ion channels. They are predicted to contain two KV-style six-transmembrane domains, suggesting they form a dimer in the membrane. These channels are related to catsper channels channels and, more distantly, TRP channels. There are channels that are classified by the duration of the response to stimuli: Transient receptor potential channels: This group of channels, normally referred to simply as TRP channels, is named after their role in Drosophila phototransduction. This family, containing at least 28 members, is incredibly diverse in its method of activation. Some TRP channels seem to be constitutively open, while others are gated by voltage, intracellular Ca2+, pH, redox state, osmolarity, and mechanical stretch. These channels also vary according to the ion(s) they pass, some being selective for Ca2+ while others are less selective, acting as cation channels. This family is subdivided into 6 subfamilies based on homology: canonical (TRPC), vanilloid receptors (TRPV), melastatin (TRPM), polycystins (TRPP), mucolipins (TRPML), and ankyrin transmembrane protein 1 (TRPA). Detailed structure Channels differ with respect to the ion they let pass (for example, Na+, K+, Cl−), the ways in which they may be regulated, the number of subunits of which they are composed and other aspects of structure. Channels belonging to the largest class, which includes the voltage-gated channels that underlie the nerve impulse, consists of four subunits with six transmembrane helices each. On activation, these helices move about and open the pore. Two of these six helices are separated by a loop that lines the pore and is the primary determinant of ion selectivity and conductance in this channel class and some others. The existence and mechanism for ion selectivity was first postulated in the 1960s by Clay Armstrong. The channel subunits of one such other class, for example, consist of just this "P" loop and two transmembrane helices. The determination of their molecular structure by Roderick MacKinnon using X-ray crystallography won a share of the 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Because of their small size and the difficulty of crystallizing integral membrane proteins for X-ray analysis, it is only very recently that scientists have been able to directly examine what channels "look like." Particularly in cases where the crystallography required removing channels from their membranes with detergent, many researchers regard images that have been obtained as tentative. An example is the long-awaited crystal structure of a voltage-gated potassium channel, which was reported in May 2003. The detailed 3D structure of the magnesium channel from bacteria can be seen here. One inevitable ambiguity about these structures relates to the strong evidence that channels change conformation as they operate (they open and close, for example), such that the structure in the crystal could represent any one of these operational states. Most of what researchers have deduced about channel operation so far they have established through electrophysiology, biochemistry, gene sequence comparison and mutagenesis. Diseases of Ion Channels There are a number of chemicals and genetic disorders which disrupt normal functioning of ion channels and have disastrous consequences for the organism. Genetic disorders of ion channels and their modifiers are known as Channelopathies. See :Category:Channelopathy for a full list. Chemicals Tetrodotoxin (TTX), used by puffer fish and some types of newts for defense. It blocks sodium channels. Saxitoxin, is produced by a dinoflagellate also known as "red tide". It blocks voltage dependent sodium channels. Conotoxin, is used by cone snails to hunt prey. Lidocaine and Novocaine belong to a class of local anesthetics which block sodium ion channels. Dendrotoxin is produced by mamba snakes, and blocks potassium channels. Iberiotoxin is produced by the Buthus tamulus and blocks potassium channels. Heteropodatoxin is produced by Heteropoda venatoria and blocks potassium channels. Genetic Shaker gene mutations cause a defect in the voltage gated ion channels, slowing down the repolarization of the cell. Equine hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis as well as Human hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis (HyperPP) are caused by a defect in voltage dependent sodium channels. Paramyotonia congenita (PC) and potassium aggravated myotonias (PAM) Generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus (GEFS+) Episodic Ataxia (EA), characterized by sporadic bouts of severe discoordination with or without myokymia, and can be provoked by stress, startle, or heavy exertion such as exercise. Familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM) Spinocerebellar ataxia type 13 Long QT syndrome is a ventricular arrhythmia syndrome caused by mutations in one or more of presently ten different genes, most of which are potassium channels and all of which affect cardiac repolarization. Brugada syndrome is another ventricular arrhythmia caused by voltage-gated sodium channel gene mutations. Cystic fibrosis is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, which is a chloride channel. Mucolipidosis type IV is caused by mutations in the gene encoding the TRPML1 channel History The existence of ion channels was hypothesized by the British biophysicists Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley as part of their Nobel Prize-winning theory of the nerve impulse, published in 1952. The existence of ion channels was confirmed in the 1970s with an electrical recording technique known as the "patch clamp," which led to a Nobel Prize to Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann, the technique's inventors. Hundreds if not thousands of researchers continue to pursue a more detailed understanding of how these proteins work. In recent years the development of automated patch clamp devices helped to increase the throughput in ion channel screening significantly. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 2003 was awarded to two American scientists: Roderick MacKinnon for his studies on the physico-chemical properties of ion channel function, including x-ray crystallographic structure studies and Peter Agre for his similar work on aquaporins. Nobel Prize Press Release The ion channel in fine art Birth of an Idea (2007) by Julian Voss-Andreae. The sculpture was commissioned by Roderick MacKinnon based on the molecule's atomic coordinates that were deposited by MacKinnon's group in 2001. Roderick MacKinnon commissioned "Birth of an Idea," a 5' (1.50 m) tall sculpture based on the KcsA potassium channel. The artwork contains a wire object representing the pore liner with a blown glass object representing the main cavity of the channel structure. See also Action potential Active transport Channelopathy Neurotoxin Magnesium transport Passive transport Transmembrane receptor MeSH entry for Ion channels Ki Database Ion channel family as defined in Pfam and InterPro References Further reading An Interview with Roderick MacKinnon Freeview video by the Vega Science Trust. 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3,624 | Laura_Bush | Laura Lane Welch Bush (born November 4, 1946) is the wife of the forty-third President of the United States, George W. Bush, and was the First Lady of the United States from January 20, 2001 to January 20, 2009. Mrs. Bush has had a love for books and reading since childhood, and her life and education have reflected that interest. She graduated from Southern Methodist University in 1968 with a Bachelor's degree in education, and soon took a job as a second grade school teacher. After attaining her Master's degree in Library Science at the University of Texas at Austin, she was employed as a librarian. She met George Walker Bush in 1977, and they were married later that year; in 1981, the couple had twin daughters. Bush's political involvement began with her marriage. She campaigned in her husband's unsuccessful 1978 run for the United States Congress and later his successful Texas gubernatorial campaign. As First Lady of Texas, Bush implemented many initiatives focused on health, education, and literacy. In 1999, she aided her husband in campaigning for the presidency of the United States in a number of ways, most notably delivering a keynote address at the 2000 Republican National Convention; this gained her national attention. She became first lady after her husband defeated Democrat Al Gore in the 2000 election. Polled by Gallup as one of the most popular first ladies, Laura Bush was involved in topics of both national and global concern during her tenure. She continued to advance her trademark interests of education and literacy by establishing the annual National Book Festival in 2001 and encouraged education on a worldwide scale. She also advanced women's causes through The Heart Truth and Susan G. Komen for the Cure. She represented the United States during her foreign trips, which tended to focus on HIV/AIDS and malaria awareness. Early life and career Laura Lane Welch was born in Midland, Texas, as the only child of Harold Welch (1912–1995) and Jenna Louise Hawkins Welch (born 1918). Her father was a home builder and later successful real estate developer while her mother worked as the bookkeeper for her father's business. Early on, her parents encouraged her to read, leading to what would become her love of reading. She said, "I learned [how important reading is] at home from my mother. When I was a little girl, my mother would read stories to me. I have loved books and going to the library ever since. In the summer, I liked to spend afternoons reading in the library. I enjoyed the Little House on the Prairie books and Little Women, and many others... Reading gives you enjoyment throughout your life." She attended James Bowie Elementary School, San Jacinto Junior High School, and Midland Lee High School in Midland. She graduated from Lee in 1964 "Laura Welch Bush." Encyclopædia Britannica and went on to attend Southern Methodist University in Dallas where she was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta. She graduated in 1968 with a Bachelor of Science degree in education. In 1963, Laura ran a stop sign resulting in a fatal car accident that killed her friend in another car. ’The Perfect Wife’: The Un-Hillary February 15, 2004, New York Times. Inside (the) private world of Laura Bush, April 5, 2006, BBC News. The driver of the other car was her classmate Michael Dutton Douglas. According to the accident report released by the city of Midland, neither driver was under the influence of alcohol or drugs, and no charges were filed. According to Bush's spokesperson, "It was a very tragic accident that deeply affected the families and was very painful for all involved, including the community at large. To this day, Mrs. Bush remains unable to talk about it." After graduating from SMU, she began her career as a school teacher of the second grade at Longfellow Elementary School in the Dallas Independent School District. She then taught for three years at John F. Kennedy Elementary School, a Houston Independent School District school in Houston, until 1972. In 1973, Welch attained a Master of Science degree in Library Science from the University of Texas at Austin. She was soon employed as a librarian at the Kashmere Gardens Branch at the Houston Public Library. The following year, she moved back to Austin and took another job as a librarian in the Austin Independent School District school Dawson Elementary until 1977. She reflected upon her employment experiences to a group of children in 2003, saying, "I worked as a teacher and librarian and I learned how important reading is in school and in life." Marriage and family She met George W. Bush in 1977 at a backyard barbecue at the home of mutual friends, John and Jan O'Neill. After a three-month courtship, he proposed to her and they were married on November 5 of that year at the First United Methodist Church in Midland, the same church in which she had been baptized. The couple did not have a honeymoon. Laura and George W. Bush with their daughters Jenna and Barbara Bush, Kennebunkport, 1990 The year after their marriage, the couple began campaigning for George W. Bush's 1978 Congressional candidacy. After narrowly winning the primary, he lost the general election. The Bushes had tried to conceive for three years, but pregnancy did not happen easily. In 1981, Laura Bush gave birth to twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna. The twins were born five weeks early by an emergency Caesarian section, as Laura had developed life-threatening pre-eclampsia (toxemia). The twins graduated from high school in 2000 and from Yale University and the University of Texas at Austin, respectively, in 2004. To date, Laura Bush is the only First Lady to give birth to twins. George W. Bush credited his wife with his decision to stop drinking in 1986. She is also credited with having a stabilizing effect on his private life. According to People magazine reporter Jane Simms Podesta, "She is the steel in his back. She is a civilizing influence on him. I think she built him, in many ways, into the person he is today." Several times a year, Laura Bush and her husband travel to their sprawling family estate, the Bush Compound, better known as Walker's Point. Located in Kennebunkport, Maine, the compound is where Bush family gatherings have been held for nearly 100 years. First Lady of Texas Laura Bush with husband Governor George W. (right) and father-in-law George H. W. (left) at the dedication of the George Bush Presidential Library, 1997 Bush became the First Lady of Texas when her husband was elected as the Governor of Texas and served as first lady of that state from January 17, 1995, to December 21, 2000. Asked about her interest in politics, she responded, "It doesn't drive me." Though during her years in the Governor's Mansion, she did not hold a single formal event, Laura worked for women's and children's causes including health, education, and literacy. She implemented four major initiatives: Take Time For Kids, an awareness campaign to educate parents and caregivers on parenting; family literacy, through cooperation with the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy, she urged Texas communities to establish family literacy programs; Reach Out and Read, a pediatric reading program; and Ready to Read, an early childhood educational program. She raised money for public libraries through her establishment of the Texas Book Festival, and established the First Lady's Family Literacy Initiative, which encouraged families to read together. Bush further established "Rainbow Rooms" across the state, in an effort to provide emergency services for neglected or abused children. Through this, she promoted the Adopt-a-Caseworker Program to provide support for Child Protective Services. She used her position to advocate Alzheimer's disease and breast cancer awareness as well. Her husband announced his campaign for President of the United States in mid-1999, something that she agreed to. She did say, however, that she had never dreamed that he would run for office. She had previously told him that she would not give a speech, but reneged on that promise that July as she delivered a keynote address to the delegates at the 2000 Republican National Convention. This speech put her on the national stage. In December 2000, her husband resigned as Governor of Texas to prepare for his inauguration as President of the United States in January 2001. First Lady of the United States As First Lady, Laura Bush was involved in issues of concern to children and women, both nationally and internationally. Her major initiatives included education and women's health. Education and children Romanian children greet President and Mrs. Bush upon their landing in Bucharest, 2002 The First Lady shares a laugh with fifth graders in Des Moines, Iowa, 2005 Early into the administration, Bush made it known that she would focus much of her attention on education. This included recruiting highly qualified teachers to ensure that young children would be taught well. She also focused on early child development. In 2001, to promote reading and education, she partnered with the Library of Congress to launch the annual National Book Festival. To promote American patriotic heritage in schools, she helped launch the National Anthem Project. Immediately following the September 11, 2001 attacks; Bush spoke regarding America's children: "[W]e need to reassure our children that they are safe in their homes and schools. We need to reassure them that many people love them and care for them, and that while there are some bad people in the world, there are many more good people." The following day, she composed open letters to America's families, focusing on elementary and middle school students, which she distributed through state education officials. She took an interest in mitigating the emotional effects of the attacks on children, particularly the disturbing images repeatedly replayed on television. On the one-year anniversary, she encouraged parents to instead read to their children, and perhaps light a candle in memoriam, saying, "Don't let your children see the images, especially on September 11, when you know it'll probably be on television again and again — the plane hitting the building or the buildings falling." Later in her tenure, she was honored by the United Nations, as the body named her honorary ambassador for the United Nation's Decade of Literacy. In this position, she announced that she would host a Conference on Global Literacy. The conference, held in September 2006, encouraged a constant effort to promote literacy and highlighted many successful literacy programs. She coordinated this as a result of her many trips abroad where she witnessed how literacy benefited children in poorer nations. Women's health Another of her signature issues were those relating to the health and well being of women. She established the Women's Health and Wellness Initiative and became involved with two major campaigns. Laura Bush attends a Heart Truth event, February 15, 2006 She first became involved with The Heart Truth awareness campaign in 2003. It is an organization established by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute to raise awareness about heart disease in women, and how to prevent the condition. She serves in the honorary position of ambassador for the program leading the federal government's effort to give women a "wake up call" about the risk of heart disease. She commented on the disease: "Like many women, I assumed heart disease was a man's disease and cancer was what we would fear the most. Yet heart disease kills more women in our country than all forms of cancer combined. When it comes to heart disease, education, prevention, and even a little red dress can save lives." She has undertaken a signature personal element of traveling around the country and talking to women at hospital and community events featuring the experiences of women who live, or had lived, with the condition. This outreach was credited with saving the life of one woman who went to the hospital after experiencing symptoms of a heart attack. With her predecessor, former First Lady Nancy Reagan, Bush dedicated the First Ladies Red Dress Collection at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in May 2005. It is an exhibit containing red suits worn by former First Ladies Lady Bird Johnson, Betty Ford, Rosalynn Carter, Nancy Reagan, Barbara Bush, Hillary Clinton, and Laura Bush meant to raise awareness by highlighting America's first ladies. She has participated in fashion shows displaying red dresses worn on celebrities as well. Bush's mother, Jenna Welch, was diagnosed with breast cancer at the age of 78. She endured surgery and currently has no further signs of cancer. Laura Bush has become a breast cancer activist on her mother's behalf through her involvement in the Susan G. Komen for the Cure. She applauded the foundation's efforts in eliminating cancer and said, "A few short years ago, a diagnosis of breast cancer left little hope of recovery. But thanks to the work of the Komen Foundation... more women and men are beating breast cancer and beating the odds." She used her position to gain international support for the foundation through the Partnership for Breast Cancer Awareness and Research of the Americas, an initiative that unites experts from the United States, Brazil, Costa Rica and Mexico. In November 2001, she became the first person other than a president to deliver the weekly presidential radio address. She used the opportunity to discuss the plight of women in Afghanistan during the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, saying, "The brutal oppression of women is a central goal of the terrorists." In May 2002, she made a speech to the people of Afghanistan through Radio Liberty, a radio station in Prague, Czech Republic. Popularity and style Laura's husband, President George W. Bush, is sworn into a second term on January 20, 2005 by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, as Laura Bush and daughters Barbara and Jenna look on. Laura Bush's approval ratings have consistently ranked very high. In January 2006, a USA Today/CBS/Gallup poll recorded her approval rating at 82 percent and disapproval at 13 percent. That places Bush as one of the most popular first ladies. Former White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer said, "She is more popular, and more welcome, in many parts of the country than the president... In races where the moderates are in the most trouble, Laura Bush is the one who can do the most good." She disagreed with Fox News' Chris Wallace in 2006 when Wallace asked why the American people are beginning to lose confidence in President Bush, saying, "Well, I don't think they are. And I don't really believe those polls. I travel around the country, I see people, I see their response to my husband, I see their response to me. There are a lot of difficult challenges right now in the United States... All of those decisions that the President has to make surrounding each one of these very difficult challenges are hard. They're hard decisions to make. And of course some people are unhappy about what some of those decisions are. But I think people know that he is doing what he thinks is right for the United States, that he's doing what he — especially in the war on terror, what he thinks he is obligated to do for the people in the United States, and that is to protect them... When his polls were really high they weren't on the front page." During the January 2005 second inauguration ceremonies for her husband, Laura Bush was looked highly upon by People magazine, The Washington Post, and others for her elegance and fashion sense. At the inauguration she wore a winter white cashmere dress and matching coat designed by Oscar de la Renta. Following the inauguration were the inaugural galas, to which Bush wore a pale, aqua lace gown, sprinkled with crystals, with long sleeves in a silver blue mist. The tulle gown was also designed for her by de la Renta. According to The Washington Post, "[I]t made her look radiant and glamorous." Foreign trips Laura Bush talks with Raphael Lungo of Zambia as a part of her 2007 African trip During President George W. Bush's second term, Laura was more involved in foreign matters. She traveled to numerous countries as a representative of the United States. As First Lady, she took five goodwill trips to Africa. The purpose of these has mostly been to raise awareness about HIV/AIDS and malaria, but Bush has also stressed the need for education and greater opportunities for women. She has taken many other trips to other countries to promote and gain support for President Bush's Emergency Plan for AIDS relief; these countries include Zambia (2007), Mozambique (2007), Mali (2007), Senegal (2007), and Haiti (2008). In mid-2007, she took a trip to Burma where she spoke out in support of the pro-democracy movement, and urged Burmese soldiers and militias to refrain from violence. Later that October, she ventured to the Middle East. Bush said she was in the region in an attempt to improve America's image by highlighting concern for women's health, specifically promoting her breast cancer awareness work with the US-Middle East Partnership for Breast Cancer Awareness and Research. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2008/05/20080516-19.html She defined the trip as successful, saying that stereotypes were broken on both sides. Views on policy Bush is a Republican and has identified herself with that party since her marriage. Her views on matters are generally conservative. When asked about abortion in 2000, Bush said she doesn't believe that Roe v. Wade should be overturned. She did not comment on whether women had the right to an abortion. She did say, however, that the country should do "what we can to limit the number of abortions, to try to reduce the number of abortions in a lot of ways, and that is, by talking about responsibility with girls and boys, by teaching abstinence, having abstinence classes everywhere in schools and in churches and in Sunday school." Bush responded to a question during a 2006 interview concerning the Federal Marriage Amendment by calling for elected leaders not to politicize same-sex marriage: "I don't think it should be used as a campaign tool, obviously. It requires a lot of sensitivity to just talk about the issue... a lot of sensitivity." On July 12, 2005, while in South Africa, Bush suggested her husband replace retiring Supreme Court justice Sandra Day O'Connor with another woman. On October 2, during a private dinner at the White House with Laura, President Bush asked Harriet Miers to replace O'Connor. Later that month, after Miers had faced intense criticism, Laura Bush questioned whether the charges were sexist in nature. Awards and honors During her tenure as the First Lady, Laura Bush received a number of awards and honors. In October 2002, the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity honored her in recognition of her efforts on behalf of education and the American Library Association honored her for her years of support to America's libraries and librarians in April 2005. The Progressive Librarians Guild opposed her being honored, because of her support of the USA PATRIOT Act and her cancellation of a poetry forum due to concern that some of the poets would express opposition to the war in Iraq. She received an award in honor of her dedication to help improve the living conditions and education of children around the world, from the Kuwait-American Foundation in March 2006. She accepted The Nichols-Chancellor's Medal on behalf of disaster relief workers around the world in May 2006 from Vanderbilt University. Three learning facilities have been named for her: the Laura Welch Bush Elementary School in Houston, Texas, the Laura W. Bush Elementary School in the Leander ISD just outside Austin, Texas, and the Laura Bush Education Center at Camp Bondsteel, a U.S. military base in Kosovo. She was awarded the 2008 Christian Freedom International Freedom Award. She is portrayed by Elizabeth Banks in Oliver Stone's film W. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1175491/ Curtis Sittenfeld's bestseller novel "American Wife" is based on much of Laura Bush's life. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/07/07/curtis-sittenfelds-emamer_n_111267.html/ References Further reading Felix, Antonia. Laura: America's First Lady, First Mother. The first biography on Laura Bush. ISBN 1-58062-659-9 Gerhart, Ann. The Perfect Wife: The Life and Choices of Laura Bush. A biography. ISBN 0-7432-4383-8 Gormley, Beatrice. Laura Bush: America's First Lady. A biography. ISBN 0-689-85366-1 Kelley, Kitty. The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty. ISBN 0-385-50324-5 Kessler, Ronald. Laura Bush: An Intimate Portrait of the First Lady. A biography. ISBN 0-385-51621-5 Montgomery, Leslie. Were It Not For Grace: Stories From Women After God's Own Heart; Featuring Condoleezza Rice, First Lady Laura Bush, Beth Moore & Others. Laura Bush shares her story about how God has had his hand on her life. ISBN 0-8054-3178-0 External links First Lady biography at Whitehouse.gov "The book on Laura Bush" by Dennis B. Roddy, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette "A Laura Bush we don't know" by Eugene Robinson, San Francisco Chronicle US-Middle East Partnership for Breast Cancer Awareness and Research | Laura_Bush |@lemmatized laura:40 lane:2 welch:8 bush:70 born:2 november:3 wife:5 forty:1 third:1 president:12 united:16 state:16 george:11 w:12 first:29 lady:25 january:7 mr:3 love:4 book:7 read:10 since:3 childhood:2 life:11 education:17 reflect:2 interest:4 graduate:5 southern:2 methodist:3 university:7 bachelor:2 degree:4 soon:2 take:7 job:2 second:5 grade:2 school:21 teacher:4 attain:2 master:2 library:10 science:4 texas:14 austin:6 employ:2 librarian:6 meet:2 walker:2 marry:2 later:6 year:12 couple:3 twin:5 daughter:4 political:1 involvement:2 begin:4 marriage:6 campaign:9 husband:12 unsuccessful:1 run:3 congress:2 successful:4 gubernatorial:1 implement:2 many:10 initiative:6 focus:5 health:7 literacy:12 aid:3 presidency:1 number:4 way:3 notably:1 deliver:3 keynote:2 address:3 republican:3 national:9 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3,625 | Battle_of_Actium | The Battle of Actium was the final engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic. It was fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The battle took place on September 2, 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea, near the Roman colony of Actium in Greece. Octavian's fleet was commanded by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, while Antony's fleet was supported by the ships of his lover, Cleopatra VII, queen of Ptolemaic Egypt. Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its domains. As a result he adopted the title of Princeps ("first citizen") and he was given the title of Augustus by the Senate. As Augustus he would retain the trappings of a restored Republican leader, however, historians generally view this consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics, as the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. Paul K. Davis, 100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World’s Major Battles and How They Shaped History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 63. Prelude The alliance commonly known as the Second Triumvirate ended when Octavian came to perceive Caesarion, the natural son of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, as a threat. Octavian's authority and the loyalty of the legions that supported him, was principally founded on Caesar's 44 BC bequest, which established Octavian as the unique, legitimate heir of the great Roman general. This was threatened when Antony, Octavian's principal partner in the Triumvirate, divorced Octavian's sister Octavia Minor and moved to Egypt to become Cleopatra's partner. Subsequently, Antony tried to have Caesarion accepted as the true heir of Julius Caesar. Caesarion, then thirteen years of age, was formally elevated to power by Antony and Cleopatra in 34 BC, and given the vague title of "King of the Kings". Octavian reacted by starting a propaganda war, denouncing Antony as an enemy of Rome. Octavian claimed that Antony sought to establish a personal monarchy over the entire Roman Empire in the name of Caesarion, completely circumventing the Roman Senate. As the "Second Triumvirate" agreement formally expired on the last day of 33 BC, the Roman Senate issued a declaration of war against Cleopatra and deprived Antony of any legal authority. During 32 BC, a third of the Senate and both consuls allied with Antony. Military operations commenced in 31 BC, when Octavian's general Agrippa captured Methone, a Greek town allied to Antony. Order of battle The two fleets met outside the Gulf of Actium, on the morning of September 2, 31 BC, when Mark Antony led 230 warships through the straits toward the open sea. Octavian's fleet was waiting beyond the straits, led by the experienced admiral Agrippa, commanding from the left wing of the fleet, Lucius Arruntius commanding the centre Plutarch, Antony, 65-66; and Marcus Lurius commanding from the right Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome, ii.85. . Octavian's armies observed the battle from shore to the north of the straits, and were under the command of Titus Statilius Taurus. Mark Antony and Gellius Publicola commanded the right wing of the Antonian fleet, while Marcus Octavius and Marcus Insteius commanded the centre, with Cleopatra's squadron positioned behind them. Gaius Sosius launched the initial attack of the battle from the left wing of the fleet, while Antony's chief lieutenant Publius Canidius Crassus was in command of the triumvir's land forces. |Order of battle The battle The majority of Mark Antony's warships were quinqueremes, huge galleys with massive rams, that could weigh up to three hundred tons. The bows of the galleys were armored with bronze plates and square-cut timbers, making a successful ramming attack with similar equipment difficult. Unfortunately for Antony, many of his ships were undermanned; a severe malaria outbreak had taken place when they were waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive and he had burned the ships he could no longer man, while clustering the remainder tightly together. With many oarsmen dead, the powerful, head-on ramming tactic for which the quinqueremes had been designed was rendered impossible. The morale of his troops had also suffered after supply lines had been cut. Octavian's fleet was largely made up of smaller, fully-manned Liburnian vessels, armed with better-trained, fresher crews. His ships were lighter and could out-maneuver the quinqueremes, where one objective was to ram the enemy ship and at the same time kill the above deck crew with a shower of arrows and catapult-launched stones, which were large enough to decapitate a man. Prior to the battle, one of Mark Antony's generals, known as Quintus Dellius, had defected to Octavian, bringing with him Mark Antony's battle plans. Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet, aware of this strategy, stayed out of range. Shortly after mid-day, Antony was forced to extend his line from the protection of the shore, and finally engage the enemy. Seeing that the battle was going against Antony, Cleopatra's fleet retreated to open sea without engaging. Mark Antony relocated to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines. Those that remained left behind, however, were all captured or sunk by Octavian's forces. Another theory suggests that Antony knew he was surrounded and had nowhere to run. Antony gathered his ships around him in a quasi-horseshoe formation, staying close to the shore for safety. If Octavian's ships tried to approach Antony's, the sea would push them into the shore. Antony may have known that he would not be able to defeat Octavian's forces, so he and Cleopatra stayed in the rear of the formation. Eventually, Antony sent the ships on the northern part of the formation to attack. He had them move out to the north, spreading out Octavian's ships which up until now were tightly arranged. He sent Gaius Sosius down to the south to spread the remaining ships out to the south. This left a hole in the middle of Octavian's formation. Antony seized the opportunity and with Cleopatra on her ship and him on a different ship, sped through the gap and escaped, abandoning his entire force. Ballistae on a Roman ship. Aftermath The political consequences of this battle were far-reaching. After Mark Antony lost his fleet, his army, which had been equal to that of Octavian, deserted in large numbers. Under cover of darkness some 19 Legions and 12,000 cavalry fled before Antony was able to engage Octavian in a land battle. Despite a victory at Alexandria on July 31, 30 BC, more of Mark Antony's armies deserted, leaving him with insufficient forces to fight Octavian. Mark Antony then tried to flee from the battle, and as a result of a communication breakdown, came to believe that Cleopatra had been captured, and hence committed suicide. When Cleopatra heard the news about Mark Antony's death, rather than risk being captured by Octavian, she also committed suicide, on August 12, 30 BC. She allowed herself to be bitten by a poisonous asp, reportedly hidden for her in a basket of figs. Octavian had Caesarion killed later that year, finally securing his legacy as Julius Caesar's only 'son'. Thus, Octavian's victory at the Battle of Actium gave him sole and uncontested control of the Roman Mediterranean and he became "Augustus Caesar" and the "first citizen" of Rome. This victory, consolidating his power over every Roman institution, marked the transition of Rome from Republic to Empire and the final surrender of Egypt following Cleopatra's death also marks, for many historians, the final demise of both the Hellenistic Age and the Ptolemaic Kingdom. To commemorate his victory over Antony, Augustus established the Roman festival Actia. Augustus also erected a monument overlooking the site, which incorporated the bronze rams taken from the defeated ships. The surviving sockets in the stonework are evidence of the considerable size of these rams. Actium - the solution References Sources Military Heritage published a feature about the Battle of Actium, involving Mark Antony, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus aka. Octavian (Julius Caesar's 18-year old adopted son and heir), and Cleopatra of Egypt (Joseph M. Horodyski, Military Heritage, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp 58 to 63, and p. 78), ISSN 1524-8666. Everitt, Anthony. Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. New York, Random House. 2006. External links The Actium Project The Naval Battle of Actium Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 50 | Battle_of_Actium |@lemmatized battle:18 actium:8 final:4 engagement:1 war:3 roman:13 republic:3 fight:2 force:8 octavian:30 combined:1 mark:14 antony:35 cleopatra:14 take:4 place:2 september:2 bc:9 ionian:1 sea:4 near:1 colony:1 greece:1 fleet:12 command:8 marcus:4 vipsanius:1 agrippa:4 support:2 ship:16 lover:1 vii:1 queen:2 ptolemaic:2 egypt:4 victory:5 enable:1 consolidate:2 power:4 rome:6 domain:1 result:2 adopt:2 title:3 princeps:1 first:3 citizen:2 give:3 augustus:6 senate:4 would:3 retain:1 trapping:1 restored:1 republican:1 leader:1 however:2 historian:2 generally:1 view:1 consolidation:1 adoption:1 honorific:1 end:3 beginning:1 empire:3 paul:1 k:1 davis:1 decisive:1 ancient:1 time:2 present:1 world:1 major:1 shape:1 history:3 oxford:2 university:1 press:1 prelude:1 alliance:1 commonly:1 know:4 second:2 triumvirate:3 come:2 perceive:1 caesarion:5 natural:1 son:3 egyptian:1 julius:5 caesar:7 threat:1 authority:2 loyalty:1 legion:2 principally:1 found:1 bequest:1 establish:3 unique:1 legitimate:1 heir:3 great:1 general:3 threaten:1 principal:1 partner:2 divorce:1 sister:1 octavia:1 minor:1 move:2 become:2 subsequently:1 try:3 accept:1 true:1 thirteen:1 year:3 age:2 formally:2 elevate:1 vague:1 king:2 react:1 start:1 propaganda:1 denounce:1 enemy:3 claim:1 seek:1 personal:1 monarchy:1 entire:3 name:1 completely:1 circumvent:1 agreement:1 expire:1 last:1 day:2 issue:1 declaration:1 deprive:1 legal:1 third:1 consul:1 ally:2 military:3 operation:1 commence:1 capture:4 methone:1 greek:1 town:1 order:2 two:1 meet:1 outside:1 gulf:1 morning:1 lead:2 warship:2 strait:3 toward:1 open:2 wait:2 beyond:1 experienced:1 admiral:1 left:2 wing:4 lucius:1 arruntius:1 centre:2 plutarch:1 lurius:1 right:2 velleius:1 paterculus:1 ii:1 army:3 observe:1 shore:4 north:3 titus:1 statilius:1 taurus:1 gellius:1 publicola:1 antonian:1 octavius:1 insteius:1 squadron:1 position:1 behind:2 gaius:3 sosius:2 launch:2 initial:1 attack:3 chief:1 lieutenant:1 publius:1 canidius:1 crassus:1 triumvir:1 land:2 majority:1 quinqueremes:3 huge:1 galley:2 massive:1 ram:5 could:3 weigh:1 three:1 hundred:1 ton:1 bow:1 armor:1 bronze:2 plate:1 square:1 cut:2 timber:1 make:2 successful:1 ramming:1 similar:1 equipment:1 difficult:1 unfortunately:1 many:3 undermanned:1 severe:1 malaria:1 outbreak:1 arrive:1 burn:1 longer:1 man:3 cluster:1 remainder:1 tightly:2 together:1 oarsman:1 dead:1 powerful:1 head:1 tactic:1 design:1 render:1 impossible:1 morale:1 troop:1 also:4 suffer:1 supply:1 line:4 largely:1 small:2 fully:1 liburnian:1 vessel:2 arm:1 good:1 train:1 fresher:1 crew:2 light:1 maneuver:1 one:2 objective:1 kill:2 deck:1 shower:1 arrow:1 catapult:1 stone:1 large:2 enough:1 decapitate:1 prior:1 quintus:1 dellius:1 defect:1 bring:1 plan:1 hop:1 use:1 big:1 drive:1 back:1 aware:1 strategy:1 stay:3 range:1 shortly:1 mid:1 extend:1 protection:1 finally:2 engage:3 see:1 go:1 retreat:1 without:1 relocate:1 flag:1 manage:1 escape:2 escort:1 help:1 break:1 remain:2 leave:3 sink:1 another:1 theory:1 suggest:1 surround:1 nowhere:1 run:1 gather:1 around:1 quasi:1 horseshoe:1 formation:4 close:1 safety:1 approach:1 push:1 may:1 able:2 defeat:2 rear:1 eventually:1 send:2 northern:1 part:1 spread:2 arrange:1 south:2 hole:1 middle:1 seize:1 opportunity:1 different:1 speed:1 gap:1 abandon:1 ballista:1 aftermath:1 political:1 consequence:1 far:1 reaching:1 lose:1 equal:1 desert:2 number:1 cover:1 darkness:1 cavalry:1 flee:2 despite:1 alexandria:1 july:1 insufficient:1 communication:1 breakdown:1 believe:1 hence:1 commit:2 suicide:2 hear:1 news:1 death:2 rather:1 risk:1 august:2 allow:1 bite:1 poisonous:1 asp:1 reportedly:1 hidden:1 basket:1 fig:1 later:1 secure:1 legacy:1 thus:1 sole:1 uncontested:1 control:1 mediterranean:1 every:1 institution:1 transition:1 surrender:1 follow:1 demise:1 hellenistic:1 kingdom:1 commemorate:1 festival:1 actia:1 erect:1 monument:1 overlook:1 site:1 incorporate:1 survive:1 socket:1 stonework:1 evidence:1 considerable:1 size:1 solution:1 reference:1 source:1 heritage:2 publish:1 feature:1 involve:1 octavianus:1 aka:1 old:1 joseph:1 horodyski:1 volume:1 pp:1 p:1 issn:1 everitt:1 anthony:1 life:1 emperor:1 new:1 york:1 random:1 house:1 external:1 link:1 project:1 naval:1 cassius:1 dio:1 book:1 |@bigram battle_actium:4 antony_cleopatra:3 marcus_vipsanius:1 vipsanius_agrippa:1 cleopatra_vii:1 ptolemaic_egypt:1 julius_caesar:5 legitimate_heir:1 antony_octavian:1 octavia_minor:1 velleius_paterculus:1 gaius_sosius:2 far_reaching:1 commit_suicide:2 gaius_julius:1 everitt_anthony:1 external_link:1 cassius_dio:1 |
3,626 | Shoma_Morita | Dr. Morita Masatake, also read as Morita Shoma (1874 - 1938 (森田 正馬), was a contemporary of Sigmund Freud and the founder of Morita Therapy, a branch of clinical psychology strongly influenced by Zen Buddhism. In his capacity as the head of psychiatry for a large Tokyo hospital, Morita began developing his methods while working with sufferers of shinkeishitsu, or anxiety disorders with a hypochondriac base. According to Morita, how a person feels is important as a sensation and as an indicator for the present moment, but is uncontrollable: we don't create feelings, feelings happen to us. Since feelings do not cause our behavior, we can coexist with unpleasant feelings while still taking constructive action. "My way of doing things is simple. It's not necessary to make impossible efforts when troubled. Put simply, when you are vexed just be vexed and say, 'Yes, and what shall I do?' Just be in suspense about the outcome and move forward a little at a time." The essence of Morita's method maybe summarized in three rules: Accept all your feelings, know your purpose(s), and do what needs to be done. When once asked what shy people should do, Morita replied, "Sweat." Accept your feelings - Accepting feelings is not ignoring them or avoiding them, but welcoming them; Vietnamese poet and writer Thich Nhat Hanh recommends we say, "Hello Loneliness, how are you today? Come, sit by me and I will take care of you." Morita's advice: "In feelings, it is best to be wealthy and generous" - that is, have many and let them fly as they wish. Know your purpose - Implicit in Morita's method, and the traditional Buddhist psychological principles which he adapted, is an independence of thought and action, something a little alien to the Western ideal to "follow our whims and moods". Morita held that we can no more control our thoughts than we can control the weather, as both are phenomena of most amazingly complex natural systems. And if we have no hope of controlling our emotions, we can hardly be held responsible any more than we can be held responsible for feeling hot or cold. We do, however, have complete dominion over our behavior, and for Morita, that is a sacred responsibility. "What needs doing now?" is like a mantra in his methods. Do what needs doing - One can feel crushed and alone or hurt and homicidal while pulling up the weeds in your garden, but one wouldn't be doing it at all if one hadn't intended to raise flowers. Morita's way of treatment is very different from the Western diagnosis/disease model. Morita's methods lead his 'students' through experiments, and in each assignment, the lesson is not explained by a master, but learned first hand, through the doing or 'taiken', that knowledge gained by direct experience. Karen Horney, an American psychologist, acknowledged the usefulness of Morita's techniques as did, by extension, Albert Ellis. Perhaps most notable of Morita's followers is David K. Reynolds. Dr. Reynolds synthesized parts of Morita Therapy along with the practice of Naikan into Constructive Living, an educational method intended for English speaking Westerners. Ironically, however, Constructive Living has become extremely popular in Japan. External links David Reynolds' Constructive Living Website ToDo Institute ToDo Institute Library | Shoma_Morita |@lemmatized dr:2 morita:16 masatake:1 also:1 read:1 shoma:1 森田:1 正馬:1 contemporary:1 sigmund:1 freud:1 founder:1 therapy:2 branch:1 clinical:1 psychology:1 strongly:1 influence:1 zen:1 buddhism:1 capacity:1 head:1 psychiatry:1 large:1 tokyo:1 hospital:1 begin:1 develop:1 method:6 work:1 sufferer:1 shinkeishitsu:1 anxiety:1 disorder:1 hypochondriac:1 base:1 accord:1 person:1 feel:3 important:1 sensation:1 indicator:1 present:1 moment:1 uncontrollable:1 create:1 feeling:8 happen:1 u:1 since:1 cause:1 behavior:2 coexist:1 unpleasant:1 still:1 take:2 constructive:4 action:2 way:2 thing:1 simple:1 necessary:1 make:1 impossible:1 effort:1 trouble:1 put:1 simply:1 vexed:2 say:2 yes:1 shall:1 suspense:1 outcome:1 move:1 forward:1 little:2 time:1 essence:1 maybe:1 summarize:1 three:1 rule:1 accept:3 know:2 purpose:2 need:3 ask:1 shy:1 people:1 reply:1 sweat:1 ignore:1 avoid:1 welcome:1 vietnamese:1 poet:1 writer:1 thich:1 nhat:1 hanh:1 recommend:1 hello:1 loneliness:1 today:1 come:1 sit:1 care:1 advice:1 best:1 wealthy:1 generous:1 many:1 let:1 fly:1 wish:1 implicit:1 traditional:1 buddhist:1 psychological:1 principle:1 adapt:1 independence:1 thought:2 something:1 alien:1 western:2 ideal:1 follow:1 whim:1 mood:1 hold:3 control:3 weather:1 phenomena:1 amazingly:1 complex:1 natural:1 system:1 hope:1 emotion:1 hardly:1 responsible:2 hot:1 cold:1 however:2 complete:1 dominion:1 sacred:1 responsibility:1 like:1 mantra:1 one:3 crushed:1 alone:1 hurt:1 homicidal:1 pull:1 weed:1 garden:1 intend:2 raise:1 flower:1 treatment:1 different:1 diagnosis:1 disease:1 model:1 lead:1 student:1 experiment:1 assignment:1 lesson:1 explain:1 master:1 learn:1 first:1 hand:1 taiken:1 knowledge:1 gain:1 direct:1 experience:1 karen:1 horney:1 american:1 psychologist:1 acknowledge:1 usefulness:1 technique:1 extension:1 albert:1 elli:1 perhaps:1 notable:1 follower:1 david:2 k:1 reynolds:3 synthesize:1 part:1 along:1 practice:1 naikan:1 living:3 educational:1 english:1 speaking:1 westerner:1 ironically:1 become:1 extremely:1 popular:1 japan:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 todo:2 institute:2 library:1 |@bigram sigmund_freud:1 zen_buddhism:1 anxiety_disorder:1 external_link:1 |
3,627 | Object_modeling_language | Object Modeling Language is a modeling language based on a standardized set of symbols and ways of arranging them to model (part of) an object oriented software design or system design. Some organizations use them extensively in combination with a software development methodology to progress from initial specification to an implementation plan and to communicate that plan to an entire team of developers and stakeholders. Because a modeling language is visual and at a higher-level of abstraction than code, using models encourages the generation of a shared vision that may prevent problems of differing interpretation later in development. Often software modeling tools are used to construct these models, which may then be capable of automatic translation to code. History Some methodologists identify three roughly chronological generations of object modeling notations: first-, second- and third generation. First Generation In the first generation, isolated methodologists and small groups developed techniques that solved problems they saw first-hand in Object Oriented (OO) development projects. The first generation includes techniques such as: Booch method Class-Responsibility-Collaboration card (CRC) Object-modeling technique (OMT) Object-oriented software engineering (OOSE) Shlaer-Mellor Yourdon-Coad (see Edward Yourdon) The first generation languages were co-developed and very closely tied with specific object-oriented methodologies usually with the same name. It was often difficult to determine whether the notation or methodology was being referred to. Second Generation The second generation recognized that many best practices were scattered among the fragmented OO methodology landscape. Several attempts were made to gather these practices into coherent frameworks such as FUSION. However, the OO community was beginning to recognize the benefits that industry standardization would bring: not just a good way of doing things, but the good way, which would lead to common parlance and practice among developers. Third Generation The third generation consists of credible attempts at this single industry-standard language, with Unified Modeling Language (UML) being the primary example. By this time, the futility of standardizing the method was recognized, and the languages developed into notations that are suitable for a wide range of development methods. See also Modeling language References | Object_modeling_language |@lemmatized object:7 modeling:5 language:8 model:6 base:1 standardized:1 set:1 symbol:1 way:3 arrange:1 part:1 orient:4 software:4 design:2 system:1 organization:1 use:3 extensively:1 combination:1 development:4 methodology:4 progress:1 initial:1 specification:1 implementation:1 plan:2 communicate:1 entire:1 team:1 developer:2 stakeholder:1 visual:1 high:1 level:1 abstraction:1 code:2 encourage:1 generation:11 share:1 vision:1 may:2 prevent:1 problem:2 differ:1 interpretation:1 later:1 often:2 tool:1 construct:1 capable:1 automatic:1 translation:1 history:1 methodologists:2 identify:1 three:1 roughly:1 chronological:1 notation:3 first:6 second:3 third:3 isolated:1 small:1 group:1 develop:2 technique:3 solve:1 saw:1 hand:1 oo:3 project:1 include:1 booch:1 method:3 class:1 responsibility:1 collaboration:1 card:1 crc:1 omt:1 engineering:1 oose:1 shlaer:1 mellor:1 yourdon:2 coad:1 see:2 edward:1 co:1 developed:1 closely:1 tie:1 specific:1 usually:1 name:1 difficult:1 determine:1 whether:1 refer:1 recognize:3 many:1 best:1 practice:3 scatter:1 among:2 fragmented:1 landscape:1 several:1 attempt:2 make:1 gather:1 coherent:1 framework:1 fusion:1 however:1 community:1 begin:1 benefit:1 industry:2 standardization:1 would:2 bring:1 good:2 thing:1 lead:1 common:1 parlance:1 consist:1 credible:1 single:1 standard:1 unified:1 uml:1 primary:1 example:1 time:1 futility:1 standardize:1 suitable:1 wide:1 range:1 also:1 reference:1 |@bigram unified_modeling:1 |
3,628 | Goodness_(band) | Goodness was a rock band from Seattle, Washington (U.S.), led by Carrie Akre, formerly of Hammerbox and now primarily a solo artist. Goodness featured Akre (vocals), Danny Newcomb (lead guitar), Garth Reeves (guitar), Fiia McGann (bass), and Chris Friel (drums). Akre, Friel, and Newcomb later joined Mike McCready of Pearl Jam and Rick Friel to form the rock band The Rockfords. Goodness recorded a version of "Electricity, Electricity" with Mike McCready using the pseudonym "Petster" on electric guitar for the Schoolhouse Rock! Rocks tribute disc on Lava/Atlantic. They released their self-titled debut album in 1995 on Y Records, followed in 1998 by "Anthem" on Immortal/Epic and later "These Days" on Good-Ink. Two live albums were released via Kufala Recordings in 2004. Goodness toured extensively all over the world, supporting such acts as Pearl Jam, Cheap Trick, and Oasis. They co-headlined a tour with Candlebox. Goodness has reunited. They have played played their third reunion show at the Tractor Tavern in Ballard on November 22, 2008. They will be playing a benefit show at the Tractor Tavern on May 23 2009. Dutchman Fund Benefit at the Tractor Tavern References External links Carrie Akre official page | Goodness_(band) |@lemmatized goodness:5 rock:4 band:2 seattle:1 washington:1 u:1 lead:2 carrie:2 akre:4 formerly:1 hammerbox:1 primarily:1 solo:1 artist:1 feature:1 vocal:1 danny:1 newcomb:2 guitar:3 garth:1 reef:1 fiia:1 mcgann:1 bass:1 chris:1 friel:3 drums:1 later:2 join:1 mike:2 mccready:2 pearl:2 jam:2 rick:1 form:1 rockford:1 record:2 version:1 electricity:2 use:1 pseudonym:1 petster:1 electric:1 schoolhouse:1 tribute:1 disc:1 lava:1 atlantic:1 release:2 self:1 title:1 debut:1 album:2 follow:1 anthem:1 immortal:1 epic:1 day:1 good:1 ink:1 two:1 live:1 via:1 kufala:1 recording:1 tour:2 extensively:1 world:1 support:1 act:1 cheap:1 trick:1 oasis:1 co:1 headline:1 candlebox:1 reunite:1 play:3 third:1 reunion:1 show:2 tractor:3 tavern:3 ballard:1 november:1 benefit:2 may:1 dutchman:1 fund:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 page:1 |@bigram pearl_jam:2 external_link:1 |
3,629 | December_25 | Events 274 – Roman Emperor Aurelian dedicates a temple to Sol Invictus on the supposed day of the winter solstice and day of rebirth of the Sun. 800 – Coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor, in Rome. 1000 – The foundation of the Kingdom of Hungary: Hungary is established as a Christian kingdom by Stephen I of Hungary. 1066 – Coronation of William the Conqueror as king of England, at Westminster Abbey, London. 1100 – Baldwin of Boulogne is crowned as the first King of Jerusalem in the Church of the Nativity 1130 – Roger II of Sicily is crowned as the first King of Sicily 1223 – St. Francis of Assisi assembles the first Nativity scene. 1261 – John IV Lascaris of the restored Eastern Roman Empire is deposed and blinded by orders of his co-ruler Michael VIII Palaeologus. 1553 – Battle of Tucapel: Mapuche rebels under Lautaro defeats the Spanish conquistadors and executes the governor of Chile, Pedro de Valdivia. 1599 – The city of Natal, Brazil is founded. 1643 – Christmas Island founded and named by Captain William Mynors of the East India Ship Company vessel, the Royal Mary. 1776 – George Washington and his army cross the Delaware River to attack the Kingdom of Great Britain's Hessian mercenaries in Trenton, New Jersey. 1818 – The first performance of "Silent Night" takes place in the church of St. Nikolaus in Oberndorf, Austria. 1837 – Battle of Lake Okeechobee: United States forces defeat Seminole Native Americans. 1868 – U.S. President Andrew Johnson grants unconditional pardon to all Civil War Confederate soldiers. 1914 – World War I: Known as the Christmas truce, German and British troops on the Western Front temporarily cease fire. 1926 – Emperor Taishō of Japan dies. His son, Prince Hirohito succeeds him as Emperor Shōwa. 1932 – A magnitude 7.6 earthquake in Gansu, China kills ~70,000 people. 1941 – Admiral Chester W Nimitz arrives at Pearl Harbor to assume command of the U.S. Pacific Fleet 1941 – World War II: Battle of Hong Kong ends, beginning the Japanese Occupation of Hong Kong. 1947 – The Constitution of the Republic of China goes into effect. 1950 – The Stone of Scone, traditional coronation stone of British monarchs, is taken from Westminster Abbey by Scottish nationalist students. It later turns up in Scotland on April 11, 1951. 1963 – Turkish Cypriot Bayrak Radio begins transmitting in Cyprus after Turkish Cypriots were forcibly excluded from Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation. 1965 – The Yemeni Nasserite Unionist People's Organisation is founded in Taiz 1968 – Apollo program: Apollo 8 performs the very first successful Trans Earth Injection (TEI) maneouver, sending the crew and spacecraft on a trajectory back to Earth from Lunar orbit. 1968 – 42 Dalits are burned alive in Kilavenmani village, Tamil Nadu, India, a retaliation for a campaign for higher wages by Dalit labourers. 1973 – The ARPANET crashes when a programming bug causes all ARPANET traffic to be routed through the server at Harvard University, causing the server to freeze. 1974 – Cyclone Tracy devastates Darwin, Northern Territory Australia. 1974 – Marshall Fields drives a vehicle through the gates of the White House, resulting in a four-hour standoff. 1977 – Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin meets in Egypt with President of Egypt, Anwar Sadat. 1989 – Nicolae Ceauşescu, former communist dictator of Romania and his wife Elena are condemned to death and executed under a wide range of charges. 1990 – The first successful trial run of the system which would become the World Wide Web. 1991 – Mikhail Gorbachev resigns as president of the Soviet Union (the union itself is dissolved the next day). Ukraine's referendum is finalized and Ukraine officially leaves the Soviet Union. 2003 – The ill-fated Beagle 2 probe, released from the Mars Express Spacecraft on December 19, disappears shortly before its scheduled landing. 2004 – Cassini orbiter releases Huygens probe which successfully landed on Saturn's moon Titan on January 14, 2005. Births For the birth of Jesus Christ, whose birth is observed on December 25, please see the Christmas holiday. 1250 – John IV Laskaris, Byzantine Emperor (d. c. 1305) 1461 – Christina of Saxony, queen of Denmark and Norway (d. 1521) 1583 – Orlando Gibbons, English composer (d. 1625) 1587 – Margarita of Austria, queen of Philip III of Spain (d. 1611) 1628 – Noël Coypel, French painter (d. 1707) 1642 (O.S.) – Sir Isaac Newton, English physicist and mathematician (d. 1727) 1652 – Archibald Pitcairne, Scottish physician (d. 1713) 1665 – Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish songwriter (d. 1746) 1667 – Ehrengard von der Schulenburg, English royal mistress (d. 1743) 1674 – Thomas Halyburton, Scottish theologian (d. 1712) 1700 – Leopold II of Anhalt-Dessau, Prussian general (d. 1758) 1711 – Jean Joseph de Mondonville, French composer (d. 1772) 1716 – Johann Jakob Reiske, German scholar and physician (d. 1774) 1730 – Philip Mazzei, Italian physician and friend of Thomas Jefferson (d. 1816) 1742 – Charlotte von Stein, German friend of Goethe (d. 1827) 1757 – Benjamin Pierce, U.S. politician (d. 1839) 1763 – Claude Chappe, French telecommunications pioneer (d. 1805) 1771 – Dorothy Wordsworth, English diarist and sister of William Wordsworth (d. 1855) 1810 – Alexandros Rhizos Rhankaves, Greek poet and statesman (d. 1892) 1821 – Clara Barton, founder of the American Red Cross (d. 1912) 1829 – Patrick Gilmore, Irish-American composer (d. 1892) 1856 – Hans von Bartels, German painter (d. 1913) 1856 – Pud Galvin, American professional baseball pitcher (d. 1902) 1860 – Manuel Dimech, Maltese philosopher and social reformer (d. 1921) 1861 – Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, Indian founder of Banaras Hindu University (d. 1946) 1863 – Charles Pathé, French pioneer of film and record industries (d. 1957) 1864 – Thomas Cahill, American soccer coach (d. 1951) 1865 – Evangeline Booth, the 4th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1950) 1870 – Helena Rubinstein, Polish-born American cosmetics industrialist (d. 1965) 1873 – Otto Frederick Hunziker, Swiss-born American dairy educator (d. 1959) 1874 – Lina Cavalieri, Italian soprano (d. 1944) 1875 – Theodor Cardinal Innitzer, Austrian archbishop (d. 1955) 1876 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, founder of Pakistan (d. 1948) 1876 – Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus, Nobel laureate (d. 1959) 1878 – Louis Chevrolet, Swiss-born race car driver (d. 1941) 1884 – Evelyn Nesbit, American actress (d. 1967) 1886 – Kid Ory, American musician (d. 1973) 1887 – Conrad Hilton, American hotelier (d. 1979) 1889 – Lila Bell Wallace, American magazine publisher (Reader's Digest) (d. 1984) 1890 – Noel Odell, British mountaineer (d. 1987) 1890 – Robert Ripley, collector of odd facts (d. 1949) 1891 – Clarrie Grimmett, Australian cricketer (d. 1980) 1899 – Humphrey Bogart, American actor (d. 1957) 1901 – Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester (d. 2004) 1902 – Barton MacLane, American actor (d. 1969) 1904 – Gerhard Herzberg, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999) 1906 – Lew Grade, Ukrainian-born film producer (d. 1998) 1906 – Ernst Ruska, Nobel laureate (d. 1988) 1907 – Cab Calloway, American bandleader (d. 1994) 1907 – Glenn McCarthy, American oil tycoon and businessman (d. 1988) 1907 – Mike Mazurki, Ukrainian-born actor (d. 1990) 1908 – Quentin Crisp, English author (d. 1999) 1908 – Jo-Jo Moore, baseball player (d. 2001) 1908 – Zora Arkus-Duntov, Belgian-American automotive engineer (d. 1996) 1908 – Ernest L. Massad, U.S. Army general (d. 1993) 1911 – Louise Bourgeois, sculptor 1912 – Tony Martin, American singer and actor 1912 – Natalino Otto, Italian singer (d. 1969) 1913 – Henri Nannen, German journalist (d. 1966) 1914 – James Muir Cameron Fletcher, New Zealand industrialist (d. 2007) 1915 – Pete Rugolo, Italian-born composer 1918 – Anwar Sadat, President of Egypt, Nobel laureate (d. 1981) 1918 – Ahmed Ben Bella, politician, first President of Algeria 1919 – Naushad Ali, Indian music director (d. 2006) 1919 – Paul David, French Canadian cardiologist, founder of the Montreal Heart Institute (d. 1999) 1919 – Noele Gordon, English actress (d. 1985) 1921 – Zaib-un-Nissa Hamidullah, Pakistani journalist (d. 2000) 1923 – Rene Girard, French historian, literary critic and philosopher 1924 – Rod Serling, American television writer (d. 1975) 1924 – Atal Bihari Vajpayee, former Prime Minister of India 1925 – Carlos Castaneda, Peruvian-born author (d. 1998) 1926 – Enrique Jorrín, Cuban composer and musician (d. 1987) 1927 – Nellie Fox, baseball player (d. 1975) 1928 – Dick Miller, American actor 1929 – Stuart Hall, British radio and television presenter 1929 – Chris Kenner, American singer and songwriter (d. 1976) 1930 – Emmanuel Agassi, Iranian boxer and father of Andre Agassi 1930 – Salah Jaheen, Egyptian poet and cartoonist (d. 1986) 1932 – Mabel King, American actress (d. 1999) 1935 – Al Jackson, baseball player 1936 – HRH Princess Alexandra of Kent 1936 – Ismail Merchant, Indian-born film producer (d. 2005) 1937 – O'Kelly Isley, Jr., American singer (The Isley Brothers) (d. 1986) 1938 – Noel Picard, Quebec ice hockey player 1938 – Duane Armstrong, American painter 1939 – Bob James, American composer and musician 1940 – Pete Brown, English poet and lyricist 1943 – Hanna Schygulla, German actress 1943 – Wilson Fittipaldi Júnior, Brazilian racing driver 1944 – Jairzinho, Brazilian footballer 1944 – Kenny Everett, British entertainer (d. 1995) 1944 – Henry Vestine, American musician (d. 1997) 1944 – Nigel Starmer-Smith, English Rugby Union commentator. 1945 – Noel Redding, English musician (d. 2003) 1945 – Rick Berman, Star Trek producer 1945 – Gary Sandy, American actor 1945 – Mike Pringle, Scottish politician 1946 – Jimmy Buffett, American singer and songwriter 1946 – Larry Csonka, American football player 1946 – Gene Lamont, American baseball player and manager 1948 – Barbara Mandrell, American singer and actress 1948 – Alia al Hussein, of Jordan (d. 1977) 1948 – Joel Natalino Santana, Brazilian soccer coach 1949 – Nawaz Sharif, Prime Minister of Pakistan 1949 – Simone Bittencourt de Oliveira, Singer and icon of the Brazilian music 1949 – Sissy Spacek, American actress 1949 – Joe Louis Walker, American musician 1950 – Peter Boardman, British mountaineer (d. 1982) 1950 – Manny Trillo, baseball player 1950 – Yehuda Poliker, Israeli singer-songwriter 1950 – Karl Rove, former American presidential advisor 1952 – CCH Pounder, Guyana-born actress 1952 – Desireless, French singer 1954 – Annie Lennox, Scottish singer 1954 – Steve Wariner, American country music singer 1955 – Alannah Myles, Canadian singer 1957 – Chris Kamara, English footballer and commentator 1957 – Shane MacGowan, Irish musician 1958 – Hanford Dixon, American football player 1958 – Rickey Henderson, baseball player 1958 – Cheryl Chase, American voice actor 1959 – Michael P. Anderson, astronaut (d. 2003) 1960 – Ron Bottitta, British actor 1961 – Ingrid Betancourt, Colombian senator 1962 – Dean Cameron, American actor 1962 – Darren Wharton, British Keyboardist (Thin Lizzy and Dare) 1964 – Gary McAllister, Scottish footballer 1964 – Tim Royes – Music Video Director and Editor 1964 – Bob Stanley, English musician (Saint Etienne), filmmaker and journalist 1967 – Jason Thirsk, American bass player (d. 1996) 1968 – Helena Christensen, Danish model 1968 – Jim Dowd, American ice hockey player 1971 – Dido, English singer 1971 – Justin Trudeau, Canadian media personality 1971 – Noel Hogan, Irish musician 1972 – Josh Freese, American drummer 1972 – Mac Powell, American musician, singer/songwriter (lead singer of Third Day) 1973 – Robbie Elliott, English footballer 1973 – Chris Harris, American professional wrestler 1973 – Alexandre Trudeau, Canadian journalist 1974 – Nagma, Indian actress 1975 – Marcus Trescothick, English cricketer 1975 – Hideki Okajima, Japanese baseball player 1975 – Rob Mariano, American reality show contestant 1976 – Tuomas Holopainen, Finnish keyboardist and songwriter 1976 – Armin van Buuren, Dutch DJ & Producer 1977 – Jim Greco, American skateboarder 1977 – Uhm Ji-won, South Korean actress 1977 – Israel Vasquez, Current WBC Super bantamweight champion 1978 – Joel Porter, Australian footballer 1978 – Simon Jones, English cricketer 1980 – Marcus Trufant, American football player (Seattle Seahawks) 1980 – Reika Hashimoto, Japanese actress 1980 – Locó, Angolan footballer 1980 – Laura Sadler, British actress (d. 2003) 1981 – Katie Wright, American actress 1981 – Willy Taveras, baseball player 1982 – Shawn Andrews, American football player 1982 – Rob Edwards, Welsh footballer 1982 – Shystie, British rapper-songwriter 1982 – Trenesha Biggers, American professional wrestler 1984 – Chris Cahill, Samoan footballer 1984 – Alastair Cook, English cricketer 1984 – Georgia Moffett, British actress 1984 – The Veronicas, Australian singers (twin sisters) 1985 – Leon Pisani, Welsh singer 1985 – Perdita Weeks, British actress 1986 – Doug Loft, English footballer 1987 – Justin Sweeney, Australian rules footballer 1988 – Eric Gordon, American basketball player Deaths 795 – Pope Adrian I 820 – Leo V, Byzantine Emperor (b. 775) 1156 – Peter the Venerable, French Benedictine abbot of Cluny (b. c.1092) 1635 – Samuel de Champlain, French explorer (b. 1567) 1676 – Matthew Hale, English jurist (b. 1609) 1676 – William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle, English soldier (b. 1592) 1683 – Kara Mustafa, Ottoman general (b. 1634) 1758 – James Hervey, English clergyman (b. 1714) 1763 – Suraj Mal, Sinsiwar Jat ruler of Bharatpur (b. 1707) 1765 – Václav Prokop Diviš, Czech theologian and natural scientist (b. 1698) 1784 – Yosa Buson, Japanese painter (b. 1716) 1824 – Barbara Juliana, Baroness von Krüdener, Russian writer (b. 1764) 1868 – Linus Yale, Jr., American mechanical engineer and inventor (b. 1821) 1875 – Young Tom Morris, Scottish golfer (b. 1851) 1880 – Fridolin Anderwert, Swiss jurist (b. 1828) 1916 – St. Albert Chmielowski, Polish Catholic saint (b. 1845) 1921 – Vladimir Korolenko, Russian writer (b. 1853) 1925 – Karl Abraham, German psychoanalyst (b. 1877) 1926 – Emperor Taishō of Japan (b. 1879) 1933 – Francesc Macià, Catalonian statesman (b. 1859) 1935 – Paul Bourget, French novelist and critic (b. 1852) 1938 – Karel Čapek, Czech author (b. 1890) 1940 – Agnes Ayres, American actress (b. 1898) 1944 – George Steer, British journalist (b. 1909) 1946 – W. C. Fields, American comedian (b. 1880) 1947 – Gaspar G. Bacon, American politician (b. 1886) 1950 – Neil Francis Hawkins, British fascist (b. 1903) 1953 – Patsy Donovan, Irish-born American baseball player (b. 1865) 1954 – Johnny Ace, American singer (b. 1929) 1961 – Otto Loewi, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1873) 1961 – Owen Brewster, American politician (b. 1888) 1963 – Tristan Tzara, Romanian writer (b. 1896) 1973 – İsmet İnönü, Turkish statesman (b. 1884) 1973 – Gabriel Voisin, French aviator (b. 1880) 1975 – Gaston Gallimard, French publisher (b. 1881) 1977 – Charlie Chaplin, English actor and film director (b. 1889) 1979 – Joan Blondell, American actress (b. 1906) 1979 – Jordi Bonet, Quebec muralist and sculptor (b. 1932) 1983 – Joan Miró, Catalan painter (b. 1893) 1988 – Ooka Shohei, Japanese novelist (b. 1909) 1988 – Edward Pelham-Clinton, 10th Duke of Newcastle-under-Lyne (b. 1920) 1989 – Nicolae Ceauşescu, Romanian dictator (b. 1918) 1989 – Elena Ceauşescu, Romanian politician (b. 1916) 1989 – Billy Martin, American baseball manager (b. 1928) 1992 – Monica Dickens, British writer (b. 1915) 1993 – Pierre Victor Auger, French physicist (b. 1899) 1994 – Zail Singh, President of India (b. 1916) 1995 – Dean Martin, American singer (b. 1917) 1995 – Emmanuel Levinas, French philosopher (b. 1906) 1996 – JonBenet Ramsey, American beauty queen and murder victim (b. 1990) 1997 – Anatoli Boukreev, Kazakh mountaineer (b. 1958) 1997 – Denver Pyle, American actor (b. 1920) 1998 – Bryan MacLean, American musician and songwriter (Love) (b. 1946) 1998 – John Pulman, English snooker player (b. 1926) 1999 – Peter Jeffrey, English actor (b. 1929) 2000 – Neil Hawke, Australian cricketer and footballer (b. 1939) 2000 – Willard Van Orman Quine, American philosopher (b. 1908) 2002 – William T. Orr, American television producer (b. 1917) 2003 – Nicholas Mavroules, American politician (b. 1929) 2004 – Gennady Strekalov, Russian cosmonaut (b. 1940) 2005 – Derek Bailey, English guitar virtuoso (b. 1930) 2005 – Birgit Nilsson, Swedish opera singer (b. 1918) 2005 – Robert Barbers, Philippine senator (b. 1944) 2006 – James Brown, American singer (b. 1933) 2006 – Hiroaki Hidaka, Japanese serial killer (b. 1962) 2007 – Desmond Barrick, English Cricketer (b. 1927) 2007 – Mighty King Kong, Kenyan reggae musician. (b. 1973) 2007 – Jim Beauchamp, American baseball player (b. 1939) 2008 – Eartha Kitt, American actress and singer (b. 1927) Holidays and observances Christmas Day Christian Feast Day to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ. (Re) birth of Sol Invictus. The winter solstice feast in the Roman Empire from 274 to 391 Quaid-e-Azam's Day – Pakistan Constitution Day – Republic of China now based in Taiwan The feast day of Anastasia of Sirmium Yule External links BBC: On This Day On This Day in Canada be-x-old:25 сьнежня | December_25 |@lemmatized event:1 roman:4 emperor:7 aurelian:1 dedicate:1 temple:1 sol:2 invictus:2 suppose:1 day:11 winter:2 solstice:2 rebirth:1 sun:1 coronation:3 charlemagne:1 holy:1 rome:1 foundation:1 kingdom:3 hungary:3 establish:1 christian:2 stephen:1 william:5 conqueror:1 king:5 england:1 westminster:2 abbey:2 london:1 baldwin:1 boulogne:1 crown:2 first:7 jerusalem:1 church:2 nativity:2 roger:1 ii:3 sicily:2 st:3 francis:2 assisi:1 assemble:1 scene:1 john:3 iv:2 lascaris:1 restored:1 eastern:1 empire:2 depose:1 blind:1 order:1 co:1 ruler:2 michael:2 viii:1 palaeologus:1 battle:3 tucapel:1 mapuche:1 rebel:1 lautaro:1 defeat:2 spanish:1 conquistador:1 execute:2 governor:1 chile:1 pedro:1 de:4 valdivia:1 city:1 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3,630 | Dartmouth,_Devon | Dartmouth is a town in Devon in the south-west of England. It is a tourist destination set on the banks of the estuary of the River Dart, which is a long narrow tidal ria that runs inland as far as Totnes. It lies within the South Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). History Dartmouth was of strategic importance as a deep-water port for sailing vessels. The port was used as the sailing point for the crusades of 1147 and 1190, and a creek close to Dartmouth Castle is supposed by some to be named for the vast fleets which assembled there (Warfleet Creek). It was a home of the English navy since the reign of Edward III and was twice surprised and sacked during the Hundred Years' War, after which the mouth of the estuary was closed every night with a great chain. The narrow mouth of the Dart is protected by two fortified castles, Dartmouth Castle and Kingswear Castle. In 1373 Geoffrey Chaucer visited and among the pilgrims in his Canterbury Tales A schipman was ther, wonyng fer by weste; For ought I wost, he was of Dertemouthe. Notwithstanding Dartmouth's connections with the crown and respectable society, it was a major base for privateering (state sanctioned or licenced piracy) in medieval times. The town is dominated by the Royal Navy Officer Training college (Britannia Royal Naval College) and all officers of the Royal Navy, as well as many foreign navies, are trained there. The Port of Dartmouth Royal Regatta takes place annually over three days at the end of August. Originally Dartmouth's only wharf was Bayard's Cove, a relatively small but picturesque area protected by a fort at the southern end of the town. Bayards Cove has been used in several television productions, because of its 18th century buildings; photographs are on show in the Dartmouth Arms public house. The made up embankment which today extends the whole length of the town's river front is the result of nineteenth century land reclamation, started in earnest when the town played host to a large number of prisoners of war from the Napoleonic wars which formed a captive workforce. Prior to this, what is now the town centre was almost entirely tidal mud flats. Henry Hudson put into Dartmouth on his return from America, and was arrested for sailing under a foreign flag. The Pilgrim Fathers put into Dartmouth's Bayard's Cove, en-route from Southampton to America. They rested a while before setting off on their journey in the Mayflower and the Speedwell on the 20 August 1620. About 300 miles west of Land's End, they realised that the Speedwell was unseaworthy and returned to Plymouth. The Mayflower departed alone to complete the crossing to Cape Cod. Part of the town's river front The town contains historic buildings, the most obvious of which is the Butterwalk, built 1635 - 1640. Its intricately carved wooden fascia is supported on granite columns. Charles II held court in the Butterwalk whilst sheltering from storms in 1671 in a room which now forms part of Dartmouth Museum. Much of the interior survives from that time, as does at least one ghost. The Royal Castle Hotel was built in 1639 on the then new Quay. The building was refronted in the nineteenth century, and as the new frontage is itself listed, it is not possible to see the original which lies beneath. A claimant for the oldest building is a former merchants house in Higher Street, now a Good Beer Guide listed public house called The Cherub, built circa 1380. Agincourt House (next to the Lower Ferry) is also 14th century. The Royal Avenue Gardens The remains of a fort at Gallants Bower just outside the town are some of the best preserved remains of a civil war defensive structure. The fort was built by Royalist occupation forces in c1643 to the south east of the town, with a similar fort at Mount Ridley on the opposite slopes of what is now Kingswear. The parliamentarian General Fairfax attacked from the North in 1646, taking the town and forcing the Royalists to surrender, after which Gallants Bower was demolished. In the latter part of World War II the town was a base for American forces, and one of the departure points for Utah Beach in the D Day landings. Much of the surrounding countryside was closed to the public while it was used by US troops for practise landings and manoeuvres. The Onedin Line, a popular BBC television drama series that ran from 1971 to 1980, was filmed here Governance The town was an ancient borough, incorporated by Edward III, known formally as Clifton-Dartmouth-Hardness, and consisting of the three parishes of St Petrox, St Saviour and Townstall, and incorporating the hamlets of Ford, Old Mill and Norton. Pigot & Co.'s Devonshire (1830) GenUKi It was reformed under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. The town returned two members of parliament from the thirteenth century until 1835, after which one MP was elected until the town was disenfranchised in 1868. It remained a municipal borough until 1974, when it was merged into the South Hams district, and became a successor parish of Dartmouth with a town council. The English Non-metropolitan Districts (Definition) Order 1972 (S.I. 1972 No. 2039) The Local Government (Successor Parishes) Order 1973 (S.I. 1973 No. 1110) Dartmouth Town Council is the lowest of three tiers of local government. It consists of 16 councillors representing the two wards of Clifton and Townstal. At the second tier, Dartmouth forms part of the Dartmouth and Kingswear ward of South Hams District Council, which returns one councillor. Dartmouth Town Councillors, Dartmouth Town Council, accessed March 21, 2008 At the upper tier of local government Dartmouth and Kingswear Electoral Division elects one member to Devon County Council. Division 36: Dartmouth and Kingswear, Devon County Council, accessed March 21, 2008 Transport Dartmouth is linked to Kingswear, on the other side of the River Dart, by three ferries. The Higher Ferry and the Lower Ferry are both vehicular ferries. The Passenger Ferry, as its name suggests, carries only passengers, principally to connect with the Paignton and Dartmouth Steam Railway at Kingswear station. The nearest bridge across the Dart is in Totnes, some away by road. The A379 road runs through Dartmouth, linking the town to Slapton and Kingsbridge to the southwest, and to Torbay to the east across the Higher Ferry. The A3122 connects Dartmouth to a junction with the A381, and hence to both Totnes and a more direct route to Kingsbridge. No railway has ever run to Dartmouth, but the town does have a railway station, although it is now a restaurant. The original plans for the Dartmouth and Torbay Railway line took the line across a bridge and into the town. Opposition from local seamen and merchants saw the route diverted to Kingswear on the opposite side of the river, but this occurred after the station had been built at Dartmouth. The railway terminated at a station called "Kingswear for Dartmouth" (now on the Paignton and Dartmouth Steam Railway) and a ferry took passengers across the river to the station at Dartmouth railway station, which had a dedicated pontoon. It is believed to be the only place in the world with a purpose built railway station which has never seen a train. Kingswear seen from Dartmouth Schools Dartmouth has one secondary school (Dartmouth community college) and two primary schools (Dartmouth Primary school and St John the Baptist R.C. Primary School). Dartmouth Community College, And Dartmouth Primary school are part of the Dartmouth Learning Campus, As from September 2007, Dartmouth Community College is part of a federation with Dartmouth Primary School and Nursery meaning that the two schools share one governing body for pupils aged 0 -19. Notable former and present residents Thomas Newcomen, the inventor of the steam pumping engine was born in Dartmouth in 1663. The location of his house in Lower Street is marked with a plaque, although the building itself was demolished (and reconstructed on Ridge Hill) in the nineteenth century to make way for a new road which was named after Newcomen. An eighteenth century working Newcomen engine is on display in the town. The town was home to the civil engineer and mathematical genius George Parker Bidder (1806 - 1878), who is notable for his work on railways over much of the world, as well as the docks of the East End of London. Bidder served on the town council, and his expertise was instrumental in draining the area which is now the centre of the town, but was then part of the river Dart. He also undertook pioneering work on steam trawling whilst living in the town. Bidder died at his home at Paradise Point near Warfleet Creek and is buried at nearby Stoke Fleming. Flora Thompson lived in Above Town between 1928 and 1940, writing Lark Rise and Over to Candleford during this time. The books were later combined into a single volume with the later Candleford Green to form the well-known Lark Rise to Candleford. She is buried at Longcross Cemetery. The noted theatre and film actress Rachel Kempson (1910 - 2003) was born in Dartmouth. She was the wife of Sir Michael Redgrave and mother of Vanessa, Lynn and Corin, and published her autobiography, Life among the Redgraves, in 1988. Gordon Onslow Ford (1912 - 2003), a leading British surrealist painter, attended the Royal Naval College. References External links Port of Dartmouth Royal Regatta Dartmouth Community College Dartmouth Primary School and Nursery Dartmouth (DMOZ.org) Charles Oman, "Dartmouth and Kingswear Castles: Twin Dart estuary defenders" Photographs of Dartmouth | Dartmouth,_Devon |@lemmatized dartmouth:47 town:28 devon:4 south:5 west:2 england:1 tourist:1 destination:1 set:2 bank:1 estuary:3 river:7 dart:6 long:1 narrow:2 tidal:2 ria:1 run:4 inland:1 far:1 totnes:3 lie:2 within:1 area:3 outstanding:1 natural:1 beauty:1 aonb:1 history:1 strategic:1 importance:1 deep:1 water:1 port:4 sail:2 vessel:1 use:3 sailing:1 point:3 crusade:1 creek:3 close:3 castle:6 suppose:1 name:3 vast:1 fleet:1 assemble:1 warfleet:2 home:3 english:2 navy:4 since:1 reign:1 edward:2 iii:2 twice:1 surprised:1 sack:1 hundred:1 year:1 war:5 mouth:2 every:1 night:1 great:1 chain:1 protect:2 two:5 fortified:1 kingswear:11 geoffrey:1 chaucer:1 visit:1 among:2 pilgrim:2 canterbury:1 tales:1 schipman:1 ther:1 wonyng:1 fer:1 weste:1 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3,631 | Antidepressant | Prozac, an SSRI. SNRI, Venlafaxine. An antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia. Drugs including the monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), serotonin-specific reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are most commonly associated with the term. These medications are among those most commonly prescribed by psychiatrists and other physicians, and their effectiveness and adverse effects are the subject of many studies and competing claims. Many drugs produce an antidepressant effect, but restrictions on their use have caused controversy and off-label prescription a risk, despite claims of superior efficacy. Most typical antidepressants have a delayed onset of action (2–6 weeks) and are usually administered for anywhere from months to years. Despite the name, antidepressants are often used to treat other conditions, such as anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder, eating disorders, chronic pain, and some hormone-mediated disorders such as dysmenorrhea. Alone or together with anticonvulsants (e.g., Tegretol or Depakote), these medications are also used to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and substance abuse by addressing underlying depression. Other medications that are not usually called antidepressants, including antipsychotics in low doses and benzodiazepines , may be used to manage depression, although benzodiazepines may cause physical dependence if treatment is not properly monitored by a doctor. Stopping benzodiazepine treatment abruptly can cause unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. An extract of the herb St John's Wort is commonly used as an antidepressant, although it is labeled as a dietary supplement in some countries. The term antidepressant is sometimes applied to any therapy (e.g., psychotherapy, electro-convulsive therapy, acupuncture) or process (e.g., sleep disruption, increased light levels, regular exercise) found to improve a clinically depressed mood. Inert placebos can have significant antidepressant effects, and so to establish a substance as an "antidepressant" in a clinical trial it is necessary to show superior efficacy to placebo. History Saint John's Wort Various opiates and amphetamines were commonly used as antidepressants until the mid-1950s, when they fell out of favor due to their addictive nature and side effects. Extracts from the herb St John's Wort have long been used (as a "nerve tonic") to alleviate depression. Isoniazid and iproniazid In 1951, two physicians from Sea View Hospital on Staten Island, Irving Selikoff and Edward Robitzek, began clinical trials on two new anti-tuberculosis agents from Hoffman-LaRoche, isoniazid and iproniazid. Only patients with a poor prognosis were initially treated; nevertheless, their condition improved dramatically. Selikoff and Robitzek noted "a subtle general stimulation . . . the patients exhibited renewed vigor and indeed this occasionally served to introduce disciplinary problems." The promise of a cure for tuberculosis in the Sea View Hospital trials was excitedly discussed in the mainstream press. In 1952, learning of the stimulating side effects of isoniazid, the Cincinnati psychiatrist Max Lurie tried it on his patients. In the following year, he and Harry Salzer reported that isoniazid improved depression in two thirds of their patients and coined the term antidepressant to describe its action. A similar incident took place in Paris, where Jean Delay, head of psychiatry at Sainte-Anne Hospital, found out from his pulmonology colleagues at Cochin Hospital about the side effects of isoniazid. In 1952, before Lurie and Salzer, Delay, with the resident Jean-Francois Buisson, reported the positive effect of isoniazid on depressed patients. " For reasons unrelated to its efficacy, isoniazid as an antidepressant was soon overshadowed by the more toxic iproniazid, although it remains a mainstay of tuberculosis treatment. The mode of antidepressant action of isoniazid is still unclear. It is speculated that its effect is due to the inhibition of diamine oxidase, coupled with a weak inhibition of monoamine oxidase A. Another anti-tuberculosis drug tried at the same time by Selikoff and Robitzek, iproniazid, showed a greater "psychostimulant" effect, but more pronounced toxicity. After the publications on isoniazid, papers by Jackson Smith, Gordon Kamman, George Crane, and Frank Ayd appeared, describing the psychiatric applications of iproniazid. Ernst Zeller found iproniazid to be a potent monoamine oxidase inhibitor. Nevertheless, iproniazid remained relatively obscure until Nathan Kline, the influential and flamboyant head of research at Rockland State Hospital, began to popularize it in the medical and popular press as a "psychic energizer". Roche put a significant marketing effort behind iproniazid, including promoting its off-label use for depression. Its sales grew massively in the following years, until it was recalled from the market in 1961 due to cases of lethal hepatotoxicity. Imipramine The discovery that a tricyclic ("three ringed") compound had a significant antidepressant effect was first made in 1957 by Roland Kuhn in a Swiss psychiatric hospital. By that time antihistamine derivatives were increasingly used to treat surgical shock and then as psychiatric neuroleptics. Although in 1955 reserpine was shown to be more effective than placebo in alleviating anxious depression, neuroleptics (literally, "to seize the neuron") were being developed as sedatives and antipsychotics. Attempting to improve the effectiveness of chlorpromazine, Kuhn, in conjunction with the Geigy pharmaceutical company, discovered that compound "G 22355" (manufactured and patented in the US in 1951 by Häfliger and Schinder) had a beneficial effect in patients with depression accompanied by mental and motor retardation. Kuhn first reported his findings on what he called a "thymoleptic" (literally, "taking hold of the emotions," in contrast with neuroleptics, "taking hold of the nerves") in 1955-56. These gradually became established, resulting in marketing of the first tricyclic antidepressant, imipramine, soon followed by variants. Later history These new drug therapies became prescription drugs in the 1950s. It was estimated that no more than 50 to 100 people per million suffered from the kind of depression that these new drugs would treat, and pharmaceutical companies were not enthusiastic. Sales through the 1960s remained poor compared to the major tranquilizers (neuroleptics/antipsychotics) and minor tranquilizers (such as benzodiazepines), which were being marketed for different uses. Imipramine remained in common use and numerous successors were introduced. The field of MAO inhibitors remained quiet for many years until "reversible" forms affecting only the MAO-A subtype were introduced, avoiding some of the adverse effects. Most pharmacologists by the 1960s thought the main therapeutic action of tricyclics was to inhibit norepinephrine reuptake, but it was gradually observed that this action was associated with energizing and motor stimulating effects, while some antidepressant compounds appeared to have differing effects through action on serotonin systems (notably proposed in 1969 by Carlsson and Lindqvist as well as Lapin and Oxenkrug). Researchers began a process of rational drug design to isolate antihistamine-derived compounds that would selectively target these systems. The first such compound to be patented was zimelidine in 1971, while the first released clinically was indalpine. Fluoxetine was approved for commercial use by the Food and Drug Administration (United States) in 1988, becoming the first blockbuster SSRI. Fluoxetine was developed at Eli Lilly in the early 1970s by Bryan Molloy, David Wong and others. While it had fallen out of favor in most countries through the 19th and 20th centuries, the herb St John's Wort became increasingly popular in Germany, where Hypericum extracts were eventually licensed, packaged and prescribed by doctors. Small-scale efficacy trials were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s, and attention grew in the 1990s following a meta-analysis of these. It remained an over-the-counter drug (OTC) or supplement in most countries and research continued to investigate its neurotransmitter effects and active components, particularly hyperforin SSRIs became known as "novel antidepressants" along with other newer drugs such as SNRIs and NRIs with various different selective effects, such as venlafaxine, duloxetine, nefazodone and mirtazapine. Types of Antidepressants Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a family of antidepressants considered the current standard of drug treatment. A possible cause of depression is an inadequate amount of serotonin, a chemical used in the brain to transmit signals between neurons. SSRIs are said to work by preventing the reuptake of serotonin (also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) by the presynaptic neuron, thus maintaining higher levels of 5-HT in the synapse. Chemists Klaus Schmiegel and Bryan Molloy of Eli Lilly discovered the first SSRI, fluoxetine. This family of drugs includes: Citalopram (Celexa) Escitalopram (Lexapro) Fluoxetine (Prozac) Fluvoxamine (Luvox) Paroxetine (Paxil) Sertraline (Zoloft) These antidepressants typically have fewer adverse effects than the tricyclics or the MAOIs, although such effects as drowsiness, dry mouth, nervousness, anxiety, insomnia, decreased appetite, and decreased ability to function sexually may occur. Some side effects may decrease as a person adjusts to the drug, but other side effects may be persistent. Though safer than first generation antidepressants, SSRIs may not work on as many patients as previous classes of antidepressants, suggesting the role of norepinephrine in depression is still important. Work by two researchers has called into question the link between serotonin deficiency and symptoms of depression, noting that the efficacy of SSRIs as treatment does not in itself prove the link. Full text Research indicates that these drugs may interact with transcription factors known as "clock genes," which may play a role in the addictive properties of drugs (drug abuse), and possibly in obesity. Full text Randomized controlled trials published in the Archives of General Psychiatry showed that up to one-third of the effect of SSRI Treatment can be seen in the first week. These early effects have also been shown to increase the absolute reduction in HRSD scores by 50%. Viagra helps individuals who are on sertraline to have increased intestinal levels. Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are a newer form of antidepressant that work on both norepinephrine and 5-HT. They typically have similar side effects to the SSRIs, though there may be a withdrawal syndrome on discontinuation that may necessitate dosage tapering. These include: Desvenlafaxine (Pristiq) Duloxetine (Cymbalta) Milnacipram (Ixel) Venlafaxine (Effexor) Noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressants (NaSSAs) Noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant's (NaSSAs) form a newer class of antidepressants which purportedly work to increase norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and serotonin neurotransmission by blocking presynaptic alpha-2 adrenergic receptors while at the same time certain serotonin receptors. Side effects may include drowsiness, increased appetite, and weight gain. Examples include: Mianserin (Tolvon) Mirtazapine (Remeron, Avanza, Zispin) Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) reuptake inhibitors (NRIs) Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) reuptake inhibitors (NRIs) act via norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline). NRIs are thought to have a positive effect on concentration and motivation in particular. These include: Atomoxetine (Strattera) Mazindol (Mazanor, Sanorex) Reboxetine (Edronax) Viloxazine (Vivalan) Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs) Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors inhibit the neuronal reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). These include: Bupropion (Wellbutrin, Zyban) Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) Tricyclic antidepressants are the oldest class of antidepressant drugs. Tricyclics block the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and serotonin. They are used less commonly now due to the development of more selective and safer drugs. Side effects include increased heart rate, drowsiness, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention, blurred vision, dizziness, confusion, and sexual dysfunction. Toxicity occurs at approximately ten times normal dosages; these drugs are often lethal in overdoses, as they may cause a fatal arrhythmia. However, tricyclic antidepressants are still used because of their effectiveness, especially in severe cases of major depression. These include: Tertiary Amine Tricyclic Antidepressants: Amitriptyline (Elavil, Endep) Clomipramine (Anafranil) Doxepin (Adapin, Sinequan) Imipramine (Tofranil) Trimipramine (Surmontil) Secondary Amine Tricyclic Antidepressants Desipramine (Norpramin) Nortriptyline (Pamelor, Aventyl) Protriptyline (Vivactil) Monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOIs) Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) may be used if other antidepressant medications are ineffective. Because there are potentially fatal interactions between this class of medication and certain foods (particularly those containing Tyramine), red wine, as well as certain drugs, classic MAOIs are rarely prescribed anymore. MAOIs work by blocking the enzyme monoamine oxidase which breaks down the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). MAOIs can be as effective as tricyclic antidepressants, although they can have a higher incidence of dangerous side effects (as a result of inhibition of cytochrome P450 in the liver). A new generation of MAOIs has been introduced; moclobemide (Manerix), known as a reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMA), acts in a more short-lived and selective manner and does not require a special diet. Additionally, (selegiline) marketed as Emsam in a transdermal form is not a classic MAOI in that at moderate dosages it tends to affect MAO-B which does not require any dietary restrictions. As one of the side effects is weight gain and could be extreme. These include: Isocarboxazid (Marplan) Moclobemide (Aurorix, Manerix) Phenelzine (Nardil) Selegiline (Eldepryl, Emsam) Tranylcypromine (Parnate) Augmenter drugs Some antidepressants have been found to work better in some patients when used in combination with another drug. Such "augmenter" drugs include: Buspirone (Buspar) Gepirone (Ariza) Nefazodone (Serzone) Tandospirone (Sediel) Trazodone (Desyrel) Tranquillizers and sedatives, typically the benzodiazepines, are prescribed to ease anxiety and promote sleep. Because of the high risk of dependency, these medications are intended only for short-term or occasional use. Medications are often used not for their primary functions, but to exploit what are normally side effects. Quetiapine fumarate (Seroquel) is designed primarily to treat schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, but frequently causes somnolence because of its affinity for histamine (H1 and H2) receptors, exploiting the same side effects as diphenhydramine (Benadryl). Antipsychotics such as risperidone (Risperdal), olanzapine (Zyprexa), and quetiapine (Seroquel) are prescribed as mood stabilizers and to treat anxiety. Their use as mood stabilizers is a recent phenomenon, and controversial among some patients. Antipsychotics, whether typical or atypical, may also be prescribed to augment an antidepressant, to increase the blood concentration of another drug, or to relieve the psychotic or paranoid symptoms that often accompany clinical depression. However, they can cause serious side effects, particularly at high dosages, including blurred vision, muscle spasms, restlessness, tardive dyskinesia, and weight gain. Psychostimulants are sometimes added to an antidepressant regimen if the patient suffers from anhedonia, hypersomnia and/or excessive eating as well as low motivation. These symptoms are common in atypical depression, and can be resolved by adding low to moderate doses of amphetamine (Adderall) or methylphenidate (Ritalin) as these chemicals can enhance motivation and social behavior, and suppress appetite and sleep. They can also restore sex drive. Extreme caution must be used however with certain populations. Stimulants are known to trigger manic episodes in people suffering from bipolar disorder. Close supervision of those with substance abuse disorders is urged. Emotionally labile patients should avoid stimulants, as they exacerbate mood shifting. Lithium remains the standard treatment for bipolar disorder and is often used in conjunction with other medications, depending on whether mania or depression is being treated. Lithium's potential side effects include thirst, tremors, light-headedness, nausea, and diarrhea. Some of the anticonvulsants, such as carbamazepine (Tegretol), sodium valproate (Epilim), and lamotrigine (Lamictal), are also used as mood stabilizers, particularly in bipolar disorder. Prescription trends In the United Kingdom the use of antidepressants increased by 234% in the 10 years up to 2002. (National Institute for Clinical Excellence, 2004) In the United States a 2005 independent report stated that 11% of women and 5% of men in the non-institutionalized population (2002) take antidepressants Stagnitti,M. (2005) Antidepressant Use in the US Civilian Non-Insitutionalised Population, 2002. Statistical Brief #77. Rockville,MD: Medical Expenditure Panel, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. A 1998 survey found that 67% of patients diagnosed with depression were prescribed an antidepressant. Sleath, B. & Shih, YC. (2003) Sociological influences on antidepressant prescribing. Soc Sci Med. March;56(6):1335-44. A 2007 study suggested that 25% of Americans were overdiagnosed with depression, regardless of any medical intervention. The findings were based on a national survey of 8,098 people. A 2002 survey found that about 3.5% of all people in France were being prescribed antidepressants, compared to 1.7% in 1992, often for conditions other than depression and often not in line with authorizations or guidelines Between 1996 and 2004 in British Columbia, antidepressant use increased from 3.4% to 7.2% of the population. Data from 1992 to 2001 from the Netherlands indicated an increasing rate of prescriptions of SSRIs, and an increasing duration of treatment. Surveys indicate that antidepressant use, particularly of SSRIs, has increased rapidly in most developed countries, driven by an increased awareness of depression together with the availability and commercial promotion of new antidepressants. McManus P, Mant A, Mitchell PB, Montgomery WS, Marley J, Auland ME. (2000) Recent trends in the use of antidepressant drugs in Australia, 1990-1998.Med J Aust. November 6;173(9):458-61. Antidepressants are also increasingly used worldwide for non-depressive patients as studies continue to show the potential of immunomodulatory, analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties in antidepressants. The choice of particular antidepressant is reported to be based, in the absence of research evidence of differences in efficacy, on seeking to avoid certain side effects, and taking into account comorbid (co-occurring) psychiatric disorders, specific clinical symptoms and prior treatment history. It is also reported that, despite equivocal evidence of a significant difference in efficacy between older and newer antidepressants, clinicians perceive the newer drugs, including SSRIs and SNRIs, to be more effective than the older drugs (tricyclics and MAOIs). A survey in the UK found that male general physicians were more likely to prescribe antidepressants than female doctors. Most commonly prescribed antidepressants Structural formula of the SSRI escitalopram, in its free base form. The most commonly prescribed antidepressants in the US retail market in 2007 The number of prescriptions was calculated as the total of prescriptions for the corresponding generic and brand-name drugs using data from the charts for generic and brand-name drugs. were: Drug Brand Class 2007 Prescriptions (in millions) Sertraline Zoloft SSRI 29.652 Escitalopram Lexapro SSRI 27.023 Fluoxetine Prozac SSRI 22.266 Bupropion Wellbutrin, Budeprion, Zyban NDRI 20.184 Paroxetine Paxil SSRI 18.141 Venlafaxine Effexor SNRI 17.200 Citalopram Celexa SSRI 16.246 Trazodone Desyrel 15.473 Amitriptyline Elavil TCA 13.462 Duloxetine Cymbalta SNRI 12.551 Mirtazapine Remeron tetracyclic 5.129 Nortriptyline Pamelor TCA 3.105 Imipramine Tofranil TCA 1.524 The most commonly prescribed antidepressant in Germany is reported to be (concentrated extracts of) hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort). In the Netherlands, paroxetine, marketed as Seroxat among generic preparations, is the most prescribed antidepressant, followed by the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline, citalopram and venlafaxine. Mechanisms of action The therapeutic effects of antidepressants are believed to be caused by their effects on neurotransmitters and neurotransmission. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) block the degradation of the monoamine neurotransmitters serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase, leading to increased concentrations of these neurotransmitters in the brain and an increase in neurotransmission. Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) prevent the reuptake of various neurotransmitters, including serotonin, norepinephrine, and to a much less extent, dopamine. Nowadays the most common antidepressants are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which prevent the reuptake of serotonin (thereby increasing the level of active serotonin in synapses of the brain). Other novel antidepressants affect norepinephrine reuptake, or different receptors on the nerve cell. This table shows the binding strength (dissociation constant) for several of them to reuptakers and receptors in the human brain. A higher value indicates greater affinity: Antidepressant NRI SRI DRI Histamine receptor Muscarinic Alpha-1 receptor Alpha-2 recepror 5HT-2A receptor Bupropion0.0020.010.20.020.0020.020.0010.0005 Maprotiline90.020.1500.210.10.8 Mianserin10.030.012500.131.414 Milnacipran1.2110.0010.0080.0020.007-0.01 Mirtazapine0.020.0010.0017000.150.20.76 Nefazodone0.30.50.350.0140.0230 Reboxetine1420.0090.30.020.01-0.02 Trazodone0.010.60.010.30.000330.213 Venlafaxine0.09110.0100000 While MAOIs, TCAs and SSRIs increase serotonin levels, others prevent serotonin from binding to 5HT-2A receptors, suggesting it is too simplistic to say serotonin is a happy hormone. In fact, when the former antidepressants build up in the bloodstream and the serotonin level is increased, it is common for the patient to feel worse for the first weeks of treatment. One explanation of this is that 5HT-2A receptors evolved as a saturation signal (people who use 5HT-2A antagonists often gain weight), telling the animal to stop searching for food, a mate, etc., and to start looking for predators. In a threatening situation it is beneficial for the animal not to feel hungry even if it needs to eat. Stimulation of 5HT-2A receptors will achieve that. But if the threat is long lasting the animal needs to start eating and mating again - the fact that it survived shows that the threat was not so dangerous as the animal felt. So the number of 5HT-2A receptors decreases and the animal goes back to its normal behaviour. This suggests that there are two ways to relieve anxiety in humans with serotonergic drugs: by blocking stimulation of 5HT-2A receptors or by overstimulating them until they decrease. The stimulation or blocking of different receptors on a cell affects its genetic expression. Recent findings have shown that neurogenesis, and thus, changes in brain morphogenesis, mediate the effects of antidepressant drugs. Another hypothesis is that antidepressants may have some longer-term effects due to the promotion of neurogenesis in the hippocampus, an effect found in mice. Other animal research suggests that antidepressants can affect the expression of genes in brain cells, by influencing "clock genes". Other research suggests that delayed onset of clinical effects from antidepressants indicates involvement of adaptive changes in antidepressant effects. Rodent studies have consistently shown upregulation of the 3, 5-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) system induced by different types of chronic but not acute antidepressant treatment, including serotonin and norepinephrine uptake inhibitors, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, lithium and electroconvulsions. cAMP is synthesized from adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) by adenylyl cyclase and metabolized by cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs). Data also suggest that antidepressants can modulate neural plasticity in longterm administration. One theory regarding the cause of depression is that it is characterized by an overactive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) that resembles the neuro-endocrine response to stress. These HPA axis abnormalities participate in the development of depressive symptoms, and antidepressants serve to regulate HPA axis function. Carmine M. Pariante, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London Depression, stress and the adrenal axis. The British Society for Neuroendocrinology, 2003. Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulation Recent studies show pro-inflammatory cytokine processes take place during clinical depression, mania and bipolar disorder, and it is possible that symptoms of these conditions are attenuated by the pharmacological effect of antidepressants on the immune system. Studies also show that the chronic secretion of stress hormones as a result of disease, including somatic infections or autoimmune syndromes, may reduce the effect of neurotransmitters or other receptors in the brain by cell-mediated pro-inflammatory pathways, thereby leading to the dysregulation of neurohormones. SSRIs, SNRIs and tricyclic antidepressants acting on serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine receptors have been shown to be immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory against pro-inflammatory cytokine processes, specifically on the regulation of Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and Interleukin-10 (IL-10), as well as TNF-alpha and Interleukin-6 (IL-6). Antidepressants have also been shown to suppress TH1 upregulation. Antidepressants, specifically TCAs and SNRIs (or SSRI-NRI combinations), have also shown analgesic properties. These studies warrant investigation for antidepressants for use in both psychiatric and non-psychiatric illness and that a psycho-neuroimmunological approach may be required for optimal pharmacotherapy. Future antidepressants may be made to specifically target the immune system by either blocking the actions of pro-inflammatory cytokines or increasing the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Therapeutic efficacy There is a large amount of research evaluating the potential therapeutic effects of antidepressants, whether through efficacy studies under experimental conditions (including randomized clinical trials) or through studies of "real world" effectiveness. A sufficient response to a drug is often defined as at least a 50% reduction in self-reported or observed symptoms, with a partial response often defined as at least a 25% reduction. The term remission indicates a virtual elimination of depression symptoms, albeit with the risk of a recurrence of symptoms or complete relapse. Full remission or recovery signifies a full sustained return to a "normal" psychological state with full functioning. Review studies Recent clinical reviews include: A comparison of the relative efficacy of different classes of antidepressants Anderson IM (2000) Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors versus tricyclic antidepressants: a meta-analysis of efficacy and tolerability Journal of Affective Disorders. 58(1), 19-3 in different settings MacGillivray, S., Arroll,B., Hatcher,S., Ogston,S., Reid,I., Sullivan, F., Williams,B., Crombie,I. (2003) Efficacy and tolerability of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors compared with tricyclic antidepressants in depression treated in primary care: systematic review and meta-analysis BMJ. May 10; 326(7397): 1014. and in regard to different kinds of depression Parker G, Roy K, Wilhelm K, Mitchell P. (2001) Assessing the comparative effectiveness of antidepressant therapies: a prospective clinical practice study. J Clin Psychiatry. February;62(2):117-25. An assessment of antidepressants compared with an "active placebo" Moncrieff J, Wessely S, Hardy R. (2004) Active placebos versus antidepressants for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. (1):CD003012. An assessment of the newer types of the MAOI class Lotufo-Neto, F., Trivedi, M., & Thase, M.E. (1999) Meta-Analysis of the Reversible Inhibitors of Monoamine Oxidase Type A Moclobemide and Brofaromine for the Treatment of Depression Neuropsychopharmacology 20 226-247.10.1038 A meta-analysis of randomized trials of St John's Wort Linde K, Mulrow CD, Berner M, Egger M. (2005) St John's wort for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005 April 18;(2):CD000448. A review of the use of antidepressants for childhood depression Jureidini JN, Doecke CJ, Mansfield PR, Haby MM, Menkes DB, Tonkin AL. (2004) Efficacy and safety of antidepressants for children and adolescents. BMJ. 2004 April 10;328(7444):879-83. Lakhan SE; Hagger-Johnson G. The impact of prescribed psychotropics on youth. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health 2007;3(21). A review of all antidepressant trials submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) from 1987 to 2004 has shown that around half of the trials failed to show any benefit over placebo. All but one of the successful trial results were published in scientific journals, while nearly all the unsuccessful trials were either not published or were presented in a misleadingly positive light (compared to the FDA's own evaluation of the data). This arose because whilst studies are required for medical approval, studies showing adverse findings are not necessarily required to be published or (if published) given similar prominence. As a result, while it appeared in the research literature that 94 percent of trials had positive outcomes, in the actual data submitted to the Food and Drug Administration, only 51 percent did. This publication bias inflated the apparent statistical effect of every antidepressant studied, by between 11% and 69%. Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R. (2008) Selective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy. N Engl J Med. January 17;358(3):252-60. PMID 18199864 A meta-analysis by UK, US and Canadian researchers, published in 2008, surveyed all pharmaceutical-company-sponsored drug trials on the six most widely prescribed new-generation antidepressants submitted for approval to the FDA between 1987 and 1999. The results showed, consistent with a prior metaanalysis, that the difference in efficacy between antidepressants and placebo was minimal, but that it increased from virtually no difference at moderate levels of initial depression to a relatively small difference for patients with very severe depression. The difference reached conventional criteria for clinical significance for patients at the upper end of the very severely depressed category, due to a reduction in the efficacy of placebo. The study received widespread media coverage in some countries. Eli Lilly and Company responded by highlighting that the study did not take into account more recent studies on its product, Prozac, and that it was proud of the difference Prozac has made to millions of people. GlaxoSmithKline warned that this one study should not be used to cause unnecessary alarm and concern for patients. Wyeth pointed out that the data were good enough for FDA approval of the drugs. Blue, L. (2008) Antidepressants Hardly Help Time magazine, Tuesday, February 26 Two leading UK psychiatrists/pharmacologists, with financial and professional links to pharmaceutical companies, argued that short-term approval trials are not very suitable for evaluating effectiveness, that the unpublished ones are poorer quality, that the meta-analysis authors came from a "psychology background" rather than drug testing background, and that the media and "elements of the medico/scientific community" have "a down on antidepressants" and that the media does not appreciate the seriousness of depression and blames and stigmatizes sufferers in a manner rooted in medieval religious attitudes. Nutt DJ, Malizia AL. (2008) Why does the world have such a 'down' on antidepressants? J Psychopharmacol. 2008 May;22(3):223-6. PMID 18541622 A May 7, 2002 article in The Washington Post titled "Against Depression, a Sugar Pill Is Hard to Beat" stated, "A new analysis has found that in the majority of trials conducted by drug companies in recent decades, sugar pills have done as well as—or better than—antidepressants. Companies have had to conduct numerous trials to get two that show a positive result, which is the Food and Drug Administration's minimum for approval. What's more, the sugar pills, or placebos, cause profound changes in the same areas of the brain affected by the medicines, according to research published last week... the makers of Prozac had to run five trials to obtain two that were positive, and the makers of Paxil and Zoloft had to run even more... When Leuchter compared the brain changes in patients on placebos, he was amazed to find that many of them had changes in the same parts of the brain that are thought to control important facets of mood... Once the trial was over and the patients who had been given placebos were told as much, they quickly deteriorated. People's belief in the power of antidepressants may explain why they do well on placebos..." Against Depression, a Sugar Pill Is Hard to Beat, The Washington Post, May 7, 2002 Clinical guidelines The American Psychiatric Association 2000 Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Major Depressive Disorder indicates that, if preferred by the patient, antidepressant medications may be provided as an initial primary treatment for mild major depressive disorder; antidepressant medications should be provided for moderate to severe major depressive disorder unless electroconvulsive therapy is planned; and a combination of antipsychotic and antidepressant medications or electroconvulsive therapy should be used for psychotic depression. It states that efficacy is generally comparable between classes and within classes and that the initial selection will largely be based on the anticipated side effects for an individual patient, patient preference, quantity and quality of clinical trial data regarding the medication, and its cost. The UK National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) 2004 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk-benefit ratio is poor; that for moderate or severe depression an SSRI is more likely to be tolerated than a tricyclic; and that antidepressants for severe depression should be combined with a psychological treatment such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. Efficacy limitations and strategies Between 30% and 50% of individuals treated with a given antidepressant do not show a response. Baghai, TC., Moller, HJ, Rupprecht, R. (2006) Recent progress in pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment options of major depression. Curr Pharm Des. ;12(4):503-15. Ruhe HG, Huyser J, Swinkels JA, Schene AH. (2006)Switching antidepressants after a first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in major depressive disorder: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry. December;67(12):1836-55. Even where there has been a robust response, significant continuing depression and dysfunction is common, with relapse rates 3 to 6 times higher in such cases. Tranter, R., O'Donovan, CO., Chandarana, P., Kennedy, S. (2002) Prevalence and outcome of partial remission in depression J Psychiatry Neurosci. July; 27(4): 241–247. In addition, antidepressant drugs tend to lose efficacy over the course of treatment Byrne, SE. & Rothschild, AJ. (1999) Loss of antidepressant efficacy during maintenance therapy: possible mechanisms and treatments. J Clin Psychiatry. June;59(6):279-88. A number of strategies are used in clinical practice to try to overcome these limits and variations. Mischoulon D, Nierenberg AA, Kizilbash L, Rosenbaum JF, Fava M. (2000) Strategies for managing depression refractory to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment: a survey of clinicians. Can J Psychiatry. June;45(5):476-81. "Trial and error" switching The American Psychiatric Association 2000 Practice Guideline advises that where no response is achieved following six to eight weeks of treatment with an antidepressant, to switch to an antidepressant in the same class, then to a different class of antidepressant. A recent meta-analysis review found wide variation in the findings of prior studies; for patients who had failed to respond to an SSRI antidepressant, between 12% and 86% showed a response to a new drug, with between 5% and 39% ending treatment due to adverse effects. The more antidepressants an individual had already tried, the less likely they were to benefit from a new antidepressant trial. Augmentation and combination For a partial response, the American Psychiatric Association guidelines advise adding a different kind of pharmaceutical agent to the antidepressant. Studies suggest that most patients fail to achieve remission on a given antidepressant, and augmentation strategies used in clinical practice include the use of lithium and thyroid augmentation, but there is not a good evidence base for these practices or for more novel strategies such as the use of selective dopamine agonists, sex steroids, NRI's, glucocorticoid-specific agents, or the newer anticonvulsants DeBattista C, Lembke A. (2005) Update on augmentation of antidepressant response in resistant depression. Curr Psychiatry Rep. December;7(6):435-40. A combination strategy involves adding one or more additional antidepressants, usually from different classes so as to have a diverse neurochemical effect. Although this may be used in clinical practice, there is little evidence for the relative efficacy or adverse effects of this strategy. Lam RW, Wan DD, Cohen NL, Kennedy SH. (2002) Combining antidepressants for treatment-resistant depression: a review. J Clin Psychiatry. August;63(8):685-93. Long-term use The therapeutic effects of antidepressants typically do not continue once the course of medication ends, resulting in a high rate of relapse. A recent meta-analysis of 31 placebo-controlled antidepressant trials, mostly limited to studies covering a period of one year, found that 18% of patients who had responded to an antidepressant relapsed while still taking it, compared to 41% whose antidepressant was switched for a placebo. Geddes JR et al. (2003) Relapse prevention with antidepressant drug treatment in depressive disorders: a systematic review. Lancet. February 22;361(9358):653-61. The American Psychiatric Association guidelines advise four to five months of continuation treatment on an antidepressant following the resolution of symptoms. For patients with a history of depressive episodes, the British Association for Psychopharmacology's 2000 Guidelines for Treating Depressive Disorders with Antidepressants advise remaining on an antidepressant for at least six months and as long as five years or indefinitely. Whether or not someone relapses after stopping an antidepressant does not appear to be related to the duration of prior treatment, however, and gradual loss of therapeutic benefit during the course also occurs. A strategy involving the use of pharmacotherapy in the treatment of the acute episode, followed by psychotherapy in its residual phase, has been suggested by some studies. Fava GA, Park SK, Sonino N. (2006) Treatment of recurrent depression. Expert Rev Neurother. November;6(11):1735-40. Peterson, TJ. (2006) Enhancing the efficacy of antidepressants with psychotherapy Journal of Psychopharmacology, Vol. 20, No. 3 suppl, 19-28, 2006 Medication failure Approximately 30% of patients have remission of depression with medications. For patients with inadequate response, either adding sustained-release bupropion (initially per day then increase by up to total of per day) or buspirone (up to per day) for augmentation as a second drug can cause remission in approximately 30% of patients, while switching medications can achieve remission in about 25% of patients. By pregnancy There is uncertainty whether pregnancy contributes to medication failure, because the only report so far has drawn much controversy on itself: In 2006, a widely reported study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) challenged the common assumption that hormonal changes during pregnancy protected expectant mothers against depression, finding that discontinuing anti-depressive medication during pregnancy led to more frequent relapse. The JAMA article did not disclose that several authors had financial ties to pharmaceutical companies making antidepressants. The JAMA later published a correction noting the ties and the authors maintain that the ties have no bearing on their research work. Obstetrician and perinatologist Adam Urato told the Wall Street Journal that patients and medical professionals need advice free of industry influence. David Armstrong, "Drug Interactions: Financial Ties to Industry Cloud Major Depression Study At Issue: Whether It's Safe For Pregnant Women To Stay on Medication - JAMA Asks Authors to Explain". Wall Street Journal. July 11, 2006 (copy published on post-gazette.com) Withdrawal symptoms If an SSRI medication is suddenly discontinued, it may produce both somatic and psychological withdrawal symptoms, a phenomenon known as "SSRI discontinuation syndrome" (Tamam & Ozpoyraz, 2002). When the decision is made to stop taking antidepressants it is common practice to "wean" off of them by slowly decreasing the dose over a period of several weeks. Most cases of discontinuation syndrome last between one and four weeks. The selection of an antidepressant and dosage suitable for a certain case and a certain person is a lengthy and complicated process, requiring the knowledge of a professional. Certain antidepressants can initially make depression worse, can induce anxiety, or can make a patient aggressive, dysphoric or acutely suicidal. In rare cases, an antidepressant can induce a switch from depression to mania or hypomania. Side effects Antidepressants often cause adverse effects, and difficulty tolerating these is the most common reason for discontinuing an effective medication. Side effects of SSRIs: Nausea, diarrhea, agitation, headaches. Sexual side effects are also common with SSRIs, such as loss of libido, failure to reach orgasm and erectile dysfunction. Serotonin syndrome is also a worrying condition associated with the use of SSRIs. The Food and Drug Administration requires Black Box warnings on all SSRIs, which state that they double suicidality (from 2 in 1,000 to 4 in 1,000) in children and adolescents. Side effects of TCAs (tricyclic antidepressants): Fairly common side effects include dry mouth, blurred vision, drowsiness, dizziness, tremors, sexual problems, skin rash, and weight gain or loss. Side effects of MAOIs (monoamine oxidase inhibitors): Rare side effects of MAOIs like phenelzine (Nardil) and tranylcypromine (Parnate) include hepatitis, heart attack, stroke, and seizures. Serotonin syndrome is a side effect of MAOIs when combined with certain medications. General MAO inhibitors can produce a potentially lethal hypertensive reaction if taken with foods that contain high levels of tyramine, such as mature cheese, cured meats or yeast extracts. Likewise, lethal reactions to both prescription and over the counter medications have occurred. Patients undergoing therapy with MAO inhibiting medications are monitored closely by their prescribing physicians, who are consulted before taking an over the counter or prescribed medication. Such patients must also inform emergency room personnel and keep information with their identification indicating that they are on MAO inhibitors. Some doctors suggest the use of [medical identification tag]s. Although these reactions may be lethal, the total number of deaths due to interactions and dietary concerns is comparable to over-the-counter medications. Antidepressants are used with care, usually in conjunction with mood stabilisers, in the treatment of bipolar disorder, as they can exacerbate symptoms of mania. They can also trigger mania or hypomania in some patients with bipolar disorder and in a small percentage of patients with depression. SSRIs are the antidepressants most frequently associated with this side effect. Patients with depression are at greatest risk for suicide immediately after treatment has begun, as antidepressants can reduce the symptoms of depression such as psychomotor retardation or lack of motivation before mood starts to improve. Although this appears paradoxical, studies indicate that suicidal ideation is a relatively common at the start of antidepressant therapy, and it may be especially common in younger patients such as pre-adolescents and teenagers. Manufacturers and physicians often recommend that other family members and loved ones monitor the young patient's behavior for any signs of suicidal ideation or behaviors, especially in the first eight weeks of therapy. Until the black box warnings on these drugs were issued by FDA and equivalent agencies in other nations, side effects and alerting families to risk were largely ignored and downplayed by manufacturers and practitioners. This may have resulted in some deaths by suicide although direct proof for such a link is largely anecdotal. The higher incidence of suicide ideation reported in a number of studies has drawn attention and caution in how these drugs are used. People under the age of 24 who suffer from depression are warned that the use of antidepressants could increase the risk of suicidal thoughts and behaviour. Federal health officials unveiled proposed changes to the labels on antidepressant drugs in December 2006 to warn people of this danger. On September 6, 2007, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that the suicide rate in American adolescents, (especially girls, 10 to 24 years old), increased 8% (2003 to 2004), the largest jump in 15 years, Suicide Rises in Youth; Antidepressant Debate Looms, Benedict Carey, New York Times, September 7, 2007 to 4,599 suicides in Americans ages 10 to 24 in 2004, from 4,232 in 2003, giving a suicide rate of 7.32 per 100,000 people that age. The rate previously dropped to 6.78 per 100,000 in 2003 from 9.48 per 100,000 in 1990. The findings reinforced the fact that antidepressant drugs reduce suicide risk. Psychiatrists found that the increase is due to the decline in prescriptions of antidepressant drugs like Prozac to young people since 2003, leaving more cases of serious depression untreated. In a December 2006 study, The American Journal of Psychiatry said that a decrease in antidepressant prescriptions to minors of just a few percentage points coincided with a 14 percent increase in suicides in the United States; in the Netherlands, the suicide rate was 50% up after a fall in antidepressant prescriptions. Critics of this study say that the US "2004 suicide figures were compared simplistically with the previous year, rather than examining the change in trends over several years". The pitfalls of such attempts to infer a trend using just two data points (years 2003 and 2004) are further demonstrated by the fact that, according to the new epidemiological data, the suicide rate in 2005 in children and adolescents actually declined despite the continuing decrease of SSRI prescriptions. "It is risky to draw conclusions from limited ecologic analyses of isolated year-to-year fluctuations in antidepressant prescriptions and suicides. One promising epidemiological approach involves examining the associations between trends in psychotropic medication use and suicide over time across a large number of small geographic regions. Until the results of more detailed analyses are known, prudence dictates deferring judgment concerning the public health effects of the FDA warnings." Subsequest follow-up studies have supported the hypothesis that antidepressant drugs reduce suicide risk. However, the conclusion that societal suicide rate decreases are due to antidepressant prescription is extraordinarily dubious given the plethora of confounding variables. Sexual Sexual dysfunction is a very common side effect, especially with SSRIs. Common sexual side effects include problems with libido (sexual desire), lack of interest in sex, and anorgasmia (trouble achieving orgasm). Although usually reversible, these sexual side effects can, in rare cases, last for months or years after the drug has been completely withdrawn. This is known as Post SSRI Sexual Dysfunction. SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction affects 30% to 50% or more of individuals who take these drugs for depression. Biochemical mechanisms suggested as causative include increased serotonin, particularly affecting 5HT2 and 5HT3 receptors; decreased dopamine; blockade of cholingeric and alpha-1 adrenergic receptors; inhibition of nitric oxide synthetase; and elevation of prolactin levels. Bupropion, a dual reuptake inhibitor (NE and DA), often causes a moderate increase in libido, due to increased dopamine activity. This effect is also seen with dopamine reuptake inhibitors, CNS stimulants and dopamine agonists, and is due to increases in testosterone production (due to inhibition of prolactin) and nitric oxide synthesis. Mirtazapine (Remeron) is reported to have fewer sexual side effects, most likely because it antagonizes 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors. Mirtazapine can in some cases reverse sexual dysfunction induced by SSRIs, which is also likely due to its antagonisation of 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors Apomorphine, nefazodone and nitroglycerin have been shown to reverse some sexual dysfunction via increased nitric oxide activity. MAOIs are reported to have fewer negative effects on sexual function and libido, particularly moclobemide at a 1.9% rate of occurrence. Betanechol has been reported to reverse MAOI-induced sexual dysfunction via its cholinergic agonist properties (Gross 1982). Thymoanesthesia Closely related to sexual side effects is the phenomenon of emotional blunting, or mood anesthesia. Many users of SSRIs complain of apathy, lack of motivation, emotional numbness, feelings of detachment, and indifference to surroundings. They may describe this as a feeling of "not caring about anything anymore." All SSRIs, SNRIs, and serotonergic TCAs can cause this to varying degrees, especially at high doses. REM Sleep All major antidepressant drugs, except trimipramine and mirtazapine, suppress REM sleep, and it has been proposed that the clinical efficacy of these drugs largely derives from their suppressant effects on REM sleep. The three major classes of antidepressant drugs, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), profoundly suppress REM sleep. Mirtazapine either has no effect on REM sleep or increases it slightly. The MAOIs almost completely suppress REM sleep, while the TCAs and SSRIs have been shown to produce immediate (40-85%) and sustained (30-50%) reductions in REM sleep. This effect often causes increased fatigue in patients who take large doses of antidepressants for extended periods of time. Such fatigue can occasionally interfere with a patient's everyday activities. Abrupt discontinuation of MAOIs can cause a temporary phenomenon known as "REM rebound" in which the patient experiences extremely vivid dreams and nightmares. Weight gain Many antidepressants are associated with weight gain usually in the range of 5–25 kg (11-55 pounds) but not uncommonly upwards of 50 kg (110 pounds). The specific cause is unknown, but antidepressants are associated with increased cravings, an inability to feel full despite consuming enough calories, low energy levels and increased daytime sleepiness, which can lead to overeating and a lack of desire to exercise, and dry mouth, which can lead to ingestion of calorie-laden beverages. The antihistaminic properties of certain NaSSA and TCA class antidepressants have been shown to contribute to the common side effects of increased appetite and weight gain associated with these classes of medication. Eating low fat, low protein carbohydrate snacks and carbohydrate-rich dinners allows the brain to make serotonin which then controls appetite and balances mood. Carbohydrates thus eaten, as part of a balanced diet, by virtue of their effect on brain serotonin levels, can support weight loss in the setting of antidepressant weight gain. Controversy Several studies have stimulated doubt about the effectiveness of antidepressants. A 2002 study cited that the difference between antidepressants and placebo is close to negligible. One reason for this is that it deals almost exclusively with the SSRI class of medication. In leveling criticism against the efficacy of SSRIs, critics state, it is not the best paper, merely the most widely known one. Also, other classes of antidepressants have demonstrated superior efficacy, and it has been argued that this paper is "throwing the baby out with the bathwater", while its thrust should in fact be leveled at the serotonin hypothesis of depression. Furthermore, not all patients necessarily respond to a given medication, studies do not always address dosage versus drug-placebo differences for those who do. Data submitted to the FDA can also underestimate how a drug will perform in clinic practice, as studies sometimes are designed as much for marketing purposes as they are to estimate the magnitude of a medication's effects. Through a Freedom of Information Act request, two psychologists obtained 47 studies used by the FDA for approval of the six antidepressants prescribed most widely between 1987-99. Overall, antidepressant pills worked 18% better than placebos, a statistically significant difference, "but not meaningful for people in clinical settings", says University of Connecticut psychologist Irving Kirsch. He and co-author Thomas Moore released their findings in "Prevention and Treatment", an e-journal of the American Psychological Association. Dr Joseph Glenmullen, a Harvard psychiatrist, has written a book on the subject for the layperson; see link below. In 2005, anti-depressants became the most prescribed drug in the United States, causing more debate over the issue. Some doctors believe this is a positive sign that people are finally seeking help for their issues. Others disagree, saying that this shows that people are becoming too dependent on anti-depressants. Lawsuits In many cases SSRI drug manufacturers have withheld information from the FDA and the public to play down the risks and adverse effects associated with SSRIs. This had led to litigation against many of the pharmaceutical manufacturers of SSRI anti-depressants in cases covering suicidality, SSRI withdrawal and birth defects in neonates from nursing mothers on SSRIs. In one of the only three cases to ever go to trial for SSRI indication in suicide, Eli Lilly and Company was caught corrupting the judicial process by making a deal with the plaintiff's attorney to throw the case, in part by not disclosing damaging evidence to the jury. The case, known as the Fentress Case involved a Kentucky man, Joseph Wesbecker, on Prozac, who went to his workplace and opened fire with an assault rifle killing 8 people (including Fentress), and injuring 12 others before turning the gun on himself. The jury returned a 9-to-3 verdict in favor of Lilly. The judge, in the end, took the matter to the Kentucky Supreme Court, which found that "there was a serious lack of candor with the trial court and there may have been deception, bad faith conduct, abuse of judicial process and, perhaps even fraud." The judge later revoked the verdict and instead, recorded the case as settled. The value of the secret settlement deal has never been disclosed, but was reportedly "tremendous". from Richard Zitrin & Carol M. Langford. "Hide and Secrets in Louisville" from "The Moral Compass of the American Lawyer". Ballantine Books, 1999 On December 22, 2006, a US court decided in Hoorman, et al. v. SmithKline Beecham Corp. that individuals who purchased Paxil(R) or Paxil CR(TM) (paroxetine) for a minor child may be eligible for benefits under a $63.8 million Proposed Settlement. The lawsuit won the claim that pharmaceutical maker GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) promoted Paxil(R) or Paxil CR(TM) for prescription to children and adolescents while withholding and concealing material information about the medication's safety and effectiveness for minors. October 1998 GSK Internal Memo: Strategy of Concealment The lawsuit stemmed from a consumer advocate protest against Paroxetine manufacturer GSK. Since the FDA approved paroxetine in 1992, approximately 5,000 U.S. citizens – and thousands more worldwide – have sued GSK. Most of these people feel they were not sufficiently warned in advance of the drug's side effects and addictive properties. According to the Paxil Protest website, hundreds more lawsuits have been filed against GSK. The Paxil Protest website was launched August 8, 2005 to offer both information about the protest and information on Paxil previously unavailable to the public. Just three weeks after its launch, the site received more than a quarter of a million hits. The original Paxil Protest website is no longer available. It is understood that the action to remove the site from the internet was undertaken as part of a confidentiality agreement or 'gagging order' which the owner of the site entered into as part of a settlement of his action against GlaxoSmithKline. (However, in March 2007, the website Seroxat Secrets discovered that an archive of Paxil Protest site was still available on the internet via Archive.org) Gagging orders are common in such cases and can extend to documents that defendants wish to remain hidden from the public. However, in some cases, such documents can become public at a later date, such as those made public by Peter Breggin in February 2006. A press release from Dr. Breggin can be seen here: In January 2007, according to the Seroxat Secrets website, the national group litigation in the United Kingdom, on behalf of several hundred people who allege withdrawal reactions after use of the drug Seroxat, against GlaxoSmithKline plc, moved a step closer to the High Court in London, with the confirmation that Public Funding had been reinstated following a decision by the Public Interest Appeal Panel. The issue at the heart of this particular action claims Seroxat is a defective drug in that it has a propensity to cause a withdrawal reaction. Hugh James Solicitors confirm this news on their website http://web.archive.org/web/20070222131722/http://www.hughjames.com/lifestyle/groupactions/seroxt.html On January 29, 2007, the BBC in the UK aired a fourth documentary in its 'Panorama' series about the controversial drug Seroxat. This programme, entitled Secrets of the Drug Trials, focuses on three GSK paediatric clinical trials on depressed children and adolescents. See also Antidepressants in Japan Depression and natural therapies References Additional reading David Healy, The Antidepressant Era, Paperback Reprint Edition, Harvard University Press (1999) ISBN 0674039580 Peter D. Kramer, Listening to Prozac: The Landmark Book about Anti-Depressants and the Remaking of the Self, Paperback Revised Edition, Penguin (1997) ISBN 0140266712 Syd Baumel, Natural Antidepressants, Paperback 1st edition, McGraw-Hill (1999) ISBN 0879839007 Stephen M. Stahl, Psychopharmacology of Antidepressants, Paperback 1st Edition, Taylor & Francis (1997) ISBN 1853175137 Pacher P, Kecskemeti V. Trends in the development of new antidepressants. Is there a light at the end of the tunnel? Curr Med Chem. 2004 April;11(7):925-43. PMID 15078174 Pacher P, Kohegyi E, Kecskemeti V, Furst S. Current trends in the development of new antidepressants.Curr Med Chem. 2001 February;8(2):89-100. PMID 11172668 External links Creation of New Neurons Critical to Antidepressant Action in Mice Do Antidepressants Cure or Create Abnormal Brain States? - Article by Joanna Moncrieff and David Cohen in PLoS Medicine. NIH Expert Panel Report on the reproductive and developmental toxicology of Prozac (Fluoxetine) NIH Monograph on the potential human reproductive and developmental effects of Prozac (Fluoxetine) American Psychiatric Association 1995 Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Major Depressive Disorder Children and Medication - a multimodal presentation British Association for Psychopharmacology 2000 Evidence Based Guidelines for Treating Depressive Disorders with Antidepressants The Good Drug Guide: new mood-brighteners and antidepressants Video of Loren Mosher, M.D. (first Chief of Schizophrenia Studies at NIMH and founding editor of the Schizophrenia Bulletin) Joanna Moncrieff: Evidence base for older antidepressants is shaky too. BMJ 2005;330:420 (19 February) Introduction to Let Them Eat Prozac by David Healy An information leaflet from the Royal College of Psychiatrists Barry Yeoman, Putting Science in the Dock, The Nation Bibliography on antidepressants in the history of psychology | Antidepressant |@lemmatized prozac:12 ssri:46 snri:3 venlafaxine:5 antidepressant:174 psychiatric:12 medication:34 use:52 alleviate:3 mood:12 disorder:24 major:12 depression:59 dysthymia:1 drug:67 include:27 monoamine:14 oxidase:14 inhibitor:32 maois:2 tricyclic:22 tcas:9 serotonin:36 specific:6 reuptake:25 ssris:5 norepinephrine:20 snris:8 commonly:8 associate:8 term:8 among:3 prescribe:12 psychiatrist:6 physician:5 effectiveness:8 adverse:8 effect:77 subject:2 many:9 study:35 compete:1 claim:4 produce:4 restriction:2 cause:20 controversy:3 label:4 prescription:15 risk:10 despite:5 superior:3 efficacy:25 typical:2 delayed:2 onset:2 action:12 week:9 usually:6 administer:1 anywhere:1 month:4 year:15 name:3 often:14 treat:12 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3,632 | Anthemius_of_Tralles | Anthemius of Tralles (c. 474 – before 558) (Greek ) was a Greek professor of Geometry in Constantinople (present-day Instanbul in Turkey) and architect, who collaborated with Isidore of Miletus to build the church of Hagia Sophia by the order of Justinian I. Anthemius came from an educated family, one of five sons of Stephanus of Tralles, a physician. Of his brothers, Dioscorus followed his father's profession in Tralles; Alexander became at Rome one of the most celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius was deeply versed in Roman jurisprudence; and Metrodorus was a distinguished grammarian in Constantinople. As an architect he is best known for replacing the old church of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople in 532; his daring plans for the church strikingly displayed at once his knowledge and his ignorance. His skills seem also to have extended to engineering for he repaired the flood defences at Daras. One perhaps apocryphal story concerning Anthemius may illustrate the nature of his character. After a quarrel with his next-door neighbor Zeno, Anthemius simulated earthquakes, thunder, and lightning in the upper room in which the man entertained his guests, using curved mirrors and steam piped in through hydraulic leather tubes connected to the flooring. Anthemius was also a capable mathematician. He described the string construction of the ellipse Although Anthemius died not 534 but before 558, cf. Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, p. 109. and he wrote a book on conic sections, which was excellent preparation for designing the elaborate vaulting of Hagia Sophia. He compiled a survey of mirror configurations in his work on remarkable mechanical devices which was known to Arab mathematicians such as Ibn al-Haytham. A fragment of his treatise On burning-glasses was published as ("Concerning wondrous machines") by L. Dupuy in 1777, and also appeared in 1786 in the forty-second volume of the Histoire de l'Academie des Instrumentistes. A. Westermann gave a revised edition of it in his (Scriptores rerum mirabilium Graeci, "Greek marvel-writers") in 1839. In the course of the constructions for surfaces to reflect to one and the same point all rays in whatever direction passing through another point, a set of parallel rays, Anthemius assumes a property of an ellipse not found in Apollonius work, that the equality of the angles subtended at a focus by two tangents drawn from a point, and having given the focus and a double ordinate he goes on to use the focus and directrix to obtain any number of points on a parabola—the first instance on record of the practical use of the directrix. References Procopius, De Aedific. i. 1 Agathias, Hist. v. 6–9 Gibbon's Decline and Fall, cap. xl. T L Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics(2 Vols.) (Oxford, 1921) G L Huxley, Anthemius of Tralles (Cambridge, Mass., 1959). Citations and footnotes External links | Anthemius_of_Tralles |@lemmatized anthemius:8 tralles:4 c:1 greek:4 professor:1 geometry:1 constantinople:3 present:1 day:1 instanbul:1 turkey:1 architect:2 collaborate:1 isidore:1 miletus:1 build:1 church:3 hagia:3 sophia:3 order:1 justinian:1 come:1 educate:1 family:1 one:4 five:1 son:1 stephanus:1 physician:1 brother:1 dioscorus:1 follow:1 father:1 profession:1 alexander:1 become:1 rome:1 celebrated:1 medical:1 men:1 time:1 olympius:1 deeply:1 verse:1 roman:1 jurisprudence:1 metrodorus:1 distinguished:1 grammarian:1 best:1 know:2 replace:1 old:1 daring:1 plan:1 strikingly:1 display:1 knowledge:1 ignorance:1 skill:1 seem:1 also:3 extend:1 engineering:1 repair:1 flood:1 defence:1 daras:1 perhaps:1 apocryphal:1 story:1 concern:2 may:1 illustrate:1 nature:1 character:1 quarrel:1 next:1 door:1 neighbor:1 zeno:1 simulated:1 earthquake:1 thunder:1 lightning:1 upper:1 room:1 man:1 entertain:1 guest:1 use:3 curve:1 mirror:2 steam:1 piped:1 hydraulic:1 leather:1 tube:1 connect:1 flooring:1 capable:1 mathematician:2 describe:1 string:1 construction:2 ellipse:2 although:1 die:1 cf:1 oxford:2 dictionary:1 byzantium:1 p:1 write:1 book:1 conic:1 section:1 excellent:1 preparation:1 design:1 elaborate:1 vaulting:1 compile:1 survey:1 configuration:1 work:2 remarkable:1 mechanical:1 device:1 arab:1 ibn:1 al:1 haytham:1 fragment:1 treatise:1 burn:1 glass:1 publish:1 wondrous:1 machine:1 l:4 dupuy:1 appear:1 forty:1 second:1 volume:1 histoire:1 de:3 academie:1 instrumentistes:1 westermann:1 give:2 revised:1 edition:1 scriptores:1 rerum:1 mirabilium:1 graeci:1 marvel:1 writer:1 course:1 surface:1 reflect:1 point:4 ray:2 whatever:1 direction:1 pass:1 another:1 set:1 parallel:1 assume:1 property:1 find:1 apollonius:1 equality:1 angle:1 subtend:1 focus:3 two:1 tangent:1 draw:1 double:1 ordinate:1 go:1 directrix:2 obtain:1 number:1 parabola:1 first:1 instance:1 record:1 practical:1 reference:1 procopius:1 aedific:1 agathias:1 hist:1 v:1 gibbon:1 decline:1 fall:1 cap:1 xl:1 heath:1 history:1 mathematics:1 vols:1 g:1 huxley:1 cambridge:1 mass:1 citation:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram anthemius_tralles:2 isidore_miletus:1 hagia_sophia:3 thunder_lightning:1 entertain_guest:1 conic_section:1 al_haytham:1 angle_subtend:1 external_link:1 |
3,633 | John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist) | Sir John Carew Eccles, AC FRS FRACP FRSNZ FAAS (27 January 1903 – 2 May 1997) was an Australian neurophysiologist who won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the synapse. He shared the prize together with Andrew Fielding Huxley and Alan Lloyd Hodgkin. Biography Eccles was born in Melbourne, Australia. He attended Melbourne High School and graduated from Melbourne University in 1925. He was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to study under Charles Scott Sherrington at Magdalen College, Oxford University, where he received his Doctor of Philosophy in 1929. In 1937 Eccles returned to Australia, where he worked on military research during World War II. After the war, he became a professor at the University of Otago in New Zealand. From 1952 to 1962 he worked as a professor at the Australian National University. He was appointed a Knight Bachelor in 1958 in recognition of services to physiological research. It’s an Honour: Knight Bachelor He won the Australian of the Year Award in 1963, the same year he won the Nobel Prize. In 1966 he moved to the United States to work at the Institute for Biomedical Research in Chicago. Unhappy with the working conditions there, he left to become a professor at the University at Buffalo from 1968 until he retired in 1975. After retirement, he moved to Switzerland and wrote on the mind-body problem. In 1990 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) in recognition of service to science, particularly in the field of neurophysiology. It’s an Honour: AC He died in 1997 in Locarno, Switzerland. Eccles was a devout theist and a sometime Roman Catholic, and is regarded by many Christians as an exemplar of the successful melding of a life of science with one of faith. A biography states that, "although not always a practicing Catholic, Eccles was a theist and a spiritual person, and he believed 'that there is a Divine Providence operating over and above the materialistic happenings of biological evolution'..." Eccles was President of the Australian Academy of Science from 1957 to 1961 at the time of the construction of the Shine Dome. In the early 1950s, Eccles and his colleagues performed the research that would win Eccles the Nobel Prize. To study synapses in the peripheral nervous system, Eccles and colleagues used the stretch reflex as a model. This reflex is easily studied because it consists of only two neurons: a sensory neuron (the muscle spindle fiber) and the motor neuron. The sensory neuron synapses onto the motor neuron in the spinal cord. When Eccles passed a current into the sensory neuron in the quadriceps, the motor neuron innervating the quadriceps produced a small excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). When he passed the same current through the hamstring, the opposing muscle to the quadriceps, he saw an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) in the quadriceps motor neuron. Although a single EPSP was not enough to fire an action potential in the motor neuron, the sum of several EPSPs from multiple sensory neurons synapsing onto the motor neuron could cause the motor neuron to fire, thus contracting the quadriceps. On the other hand, IPSPs could subtract from this sum of EPSPs, preventing the motor neuron from firing. Apart from these seminal experiments, Eccles was key to a number of important developments in neuroscience. Until around 1949, Eccles believed that synaptic transmission was primarily electrical rather than chemical. Although he was wrong in this hypothesis, his arguments led himself and others to perform some of the experiments which proved chemical synaptic transmission. Bernard Katz and Eccles worked together on some of the experiments which elucidated the role of acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter. Philosophy In 'Understanding the Human Brain' (1973), Eccles summarizes his philosophy as follows: "Now before discussing brain function in detail I will at the beginning give an account of my philosophical position on the so-called brain-mind problem so that you will be able to relate the experimental evidence to this philosophical position. I have written at length on this philosophy in my book 'Facing Reality'. In Fig. 6-1 you will be able to see that I fully accept the recent philosophical achievements of Sir Karl Popper with his concept of three worlds. I was a dualist, now I am a trialist! Cartesian dualism has become unfashionable with many people. They embrace monism in order to escape the enigma of brain-mind interaction with its perplexing problems. But Sir Karl Popper and I are interactionists, and what is more, trialist interactionists! The three worlds are very easily defined. I believe that in the classification of Fig. 6-1 there is nothing left out. It takes care of everything that is in existence and in our experience. All can be classified in one or other of the categories enumerated under Worlds 1, 2. and 3. FIG. 6-1, Three Worlds WORLD 1WORLD 2WORLD 3PHYSICAL OBJECTS AND STATESSTATES OF CONSCIOUSNESSKNOWLEDGE IN OBJECTIVE SENSE1. INORGANIC: Matter and Energy of CosmosSubjective KnowledgeRecords of Intellectual Efforts2. BIOLOGY: Structure and Actions of All Living Beings; Human BrainsExperience of: Perception, Thinking, Emotions, Dispositional Intentions, Memories, Dreams, Creative ImaginationPhilosophical, Theological, Scientific, Historical, Literary, Artistic, Technological3. ARTIFACTS: Material Substrates of human creativity, of tools, of machines, of books, of works of art, of music. Theoretical Systems: Scientific Problems, Critical Arguments "In Fig. 6-1, World 1 is the world of physical objects and states. It comprises the whole cosmos of matter and energy, all of biology including human brains, and all artifacts that man has made for coding information, as for example, the paper and ink of books or the material base of works of art. World 1 is the total world of the materialists. They recognize nothing else. All else is fantasy. "World 2 is the world of states of consciousness and subjective knowledge of all kinds. The totality of our perceptions comes in this world. But there are several levels. In agreement with Polten, I tend to recognize three kinds of levels of World 2, as indicated in Fig. 6-2, but it may be more correct to think of it as a spectrum. FIG. 6-2, World of Consciousness Outer SenseInner SensePure EgoLight, Colour, Sound, Smell, Taste, Pain, TouchThoughts, Feelings, Memories, Dreams, Imaginings, IntentionsThe Self - The Soul "The first level (outer sense) would be the ordinary perceptions provided by all our sense organs, hearing and touch and sight and smell and pain. All of these perceptions are in World 2, of course: vision with light and colour; sound with music and harmony; touch with all its qualities and vibration; the range of odours and tastes, and so on. These qualities do not exist in World 1, where correspondingly there are but electromagnetic waves, pressure waves in the atmosphere, material objects, and chemical substances. "In addition there is a level of inner sense, which is the world of more subtle perceptions. It is the world of your emotions, of your feelings of joy and sadness and fear and anger and so on. It includes all your memory, and all your imaginings and planning into the future. In fact there is a whole range of levels which could be described at length. All the subtle experiences of the human person are in this inner sensory world. It is all private to you but you can reveal it in linguistic expression, and by gestures of all levels of subtlety. "Finally, at the core of World 2 there is the self or pure ego, which is the basis of our unity as an experiencing being throughout our whole lifetime. "This World 2 is our primary reality. Our conscious experiences are the basis of our knowledge of World 1, which is thus a world of secondary reality, a derivative world. Whenever I am doing a scientific experiment, for example, I have to plan it cognitively, all in my thoughts, and then consciously carry out my plan of action in the experiment. Finally I have to look at the results and evaluate them in thought. For example, I have to see the traces of the oscilloscope and their photographic records or hear the signals on the loudspeaker. The various signals from the recording equipment have to be received by my sense organs, transmitted to my brain, and so to my consciousness, then appropriately measured and compared before I can begin to think about the significance of the experimental results. We are all the time, in every action we do, incessantly playing backwards and forwards between World 1 and World 2. "And what is World 3? As shown in Fig. 6-1 it is the whole world of culture. It is the world that was created by man and that reciprocally made man. This is my message in which I follow Popper unreservedly. The whole of language is here. All our means of communication, all our intellectual efforts coded in books, coded in the artistic and technological treasures in the museums, coded in every artifact left by man from primitive times--this is World 3 right up to the present time. It is the world of civilization and culture. Education is the means whereby each human being is brought into relation with World 3. In this manner he becomes immersed in it throughout life, participating in the heritage of mankind and so becoming fully human. World 3 is the world that uniquely relates to man. It is the world which is completely unknown to animals. They are blind to all of World 3. I say that without any reservations. This is then the first part of my story. "Now I come to consider the way in which the three worlds interact..." Bibliography 1932, Reflex Activity of the Spinal Cord. 1953, The neurophysiological basic of the mind: The principles of neurophysiology, Oxford: Clarendon. 1957, The Physiology of Nerve Cells. 1964, The Physiology of Synapses. 1965, The brain and the unity of conscious experience, London: Cambridge University Press. 1969, The Inhibitory Pathways of the Central Nervous System. 1970, Facing reality: Philosophical Adventures by a Brain Scientist, Berlin: Springer. 1973, The Understanding of the Brain. 1977, The Self and Its Brain, with Karl Popper, Berlin: Springer. 1979, The human mystery, Berlin: Springer. 1980, The Human Psyche. 1984, The Wonder of Being Human - Our Brain & Our Mind, with Daniel N. Robinson, New York, Free Press. 1985, Mind and Brain: The Many-Faceted Problems, (Editor), New York : Paragon House. 1989, Evolution Of The Brain : Creation Of The Self. 1994, How the Self Controls Its Brain. Styles Mr John Eccles (1903-1929) Dr John Eccles (1929-1944) Prof. John Eccles (1944-1958) Sir John Eccles (1958-1990) Sir John Eccles AC (1990-1997) External links Sir John Eccles Biography. Nobel Foundation. Pratt, D.: John Eccles on Mind and Brain. A theosophical view. Sabbatini, R.M.E.: Neurons and synapses. The history of its discovery IV. Chemical transmission. Brain & Mind, 2004. 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3,634 | The_Spanish_Inquisition_(Monty_Python) | "Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!", featuring (left to right) Terry Jones, Michael Palin, and Terry Gilliam. "The Spanish Inquisition" was a series of sketches in Monty Python's Flying Circus, Series 2 Episode 2 parodying the real life Spanish Inquisition. This episode was itself entitled "The Spanish Inquisition". The principal catchphrase in these sketches was "Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!" Plot synopsis This was a recurring sketch always predicated on an unrelated sketch in which one character, expressing irritation at being questioned by another, would announce "I didn't expect the Spanish Inquisition!" At this point the Inquisition—consisting of Cardinals Ximénez (Michael Palin), Biggles (Terry Jones), and Fang (Terry Gilliam)—would burst into the room at the sound of a jarring chord. Ximénez would shout, with a particular and high-pitched emphasis on the first syllable, "Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!" After entering, the Inquisition frequently got bogged down in recitations of their weapons ("Amongst our weaponry are such diverse elements as fear, surprise, ruthless efficiency, an almost fanatical devotion to the Pope, and nice red uniforms!"). Ximénez would state the number of weapons they had ("Our two/three/four weapons are..."), then list one more than he had counted, then start again using a higher number. After several attempts, Ximénez would state, "I'll come in again...", and herd The Inquisition back off the set. The straight man would then deliver the cue line again, the Inquisition would burst back in (complete with jarring chord), and the introduction tried again. This was repeated two or three times before Ximénez would give up and move on. Ximénez repeatedly ran into the problem of not being able to torture anyone effectively. When he called for "the rack," Cardinal Biggles produced a dish-drying rack. When poking the victim with soft cushions produced no confession, Ximénez would inquire whether his assistants had got all the stuffing together into one end of the cushions, for supposed maximum effectiveness. Failing that, forcing the victim to sit in the "comfy chair" was tried. At the very end of the show, in "Court Charades", they are caught by surprise when a defendant (who is also a judge from another court) in session at the Old Bailey says "I didn't expect a kind of Spanish Inquisition". The whole court rises and looks expectantly at the witness entrance door (obviously expecting the Spanish Inquisition). As the closing credits roll the Inquisitors race to the Old Bailey by bus, to the tune of Devil's Gallop, only to arrive just as the words "THE END" appear. Ximénez has just enough time to say "Nobody expects the Spa...oh, bugger!" before the episode ends. "Bugger" was a strong word for a BBC comedy show in 1970, and some BBC regions omitted it from the broadcast. Cardinal Ximénez briefly appears two episodes later in a vox pop, again displaying difficulty counting (in this instance, the kinds of aftershave he uses). Shortly afterward during the Police Constable Pan Am Sketch, when the cop told the chemist to stop bugging him or he'll be tried for heresy, the chemist says "I didn't expect the Spanish Inquisition" but he is simply told to shut up by Pan Am, without any appearance by the Inquisition. References In the "Not The Nine O'Clock News" sketch on the new film "The Life of Christ" (itself a reference to Python's 1979 Life of Brian), the Bishop (played by Rowan Atkinson) who is being harangued for this parody of Pythonism professes himself surprised at the furore, saying, "Well, I didn't expect the Spanish Inquisition." Similarly in the 1998 film Sliding Doors, the skit plays a central role: James (John Hannah) exhorts Helen (Gwyneth Paltrow) to "remember what the Monty Python boys say...", - referring to the phrase "No one expects the Spanish Inquisition". Later, James and Helen and friends are cackling over the skit in the bar: "Our two weapons are..." "Our three weapons are..." "Our four weapons are..." It was referred to in the September 13, 2008 Get Fuzzy when Satchel was parodying lines said by Michael Palin when the discussion between Rob and Bucky was about Governor and former Republican vice-presidential nominee Sarah Palin - to which Satchel replied in the last panel "Nobody expects the Alaskan politician!". External links Transcript of the sketch | The_Spanish_Inquisition_(Monty_Python) |@lemmatized nobody:5 expect:11 spanish:12 inquisition:17 featuring:1 leave:1 right:1 terry:4 jones:2 michael:3 palin:4 gilliam:2 series:2 sketch:7 monty:2 python:3 fly:1 circus:1 episode:4 parody:3 real:1 life:3 entitled:1 principal:1 catchphrase:1 plot:1 synopsis:1 recur:1 always:1 predicate:1 unrelated:1 one:4 character:1 express:1 irritation:1 question:1 another:2 would:9 announce:1 point:1 consisting:1 cardinal:3 ximénez:9 biggles:2 fang:1 burst:2 room:1 sound:1 jarring:1 chord:2 shout:1 particular:1 high:2 pitch:1 emphasis:1 first:1 syllable:1 enter:1 frequently:1 get:3 bogged:1 recitation:1 weapon:6 amongst:1 weaponry:1 diverse:1 element:1 fear:1 surprise:3 ruthless:1 efficiency:1 almost:1 fanatical:1 devotion:1 pope:1 nice:1 red:1 uniform:1 state:2 number:2 two:4 three:3 four:2 list:1 count:1 start:1 use:2 several:1 attempt:1 come:1 herd:1 back:2 set:1 straight:1 man:1 deliver:1 cue:1 line:2 complete:1 jar:1 introduction:1 try:3 repeat:1 time:2 give:1 move:1 repeatedly:1 run:1 problem:1 able:1 torture:1 anyone:1 effectively:1 call:1 rack:2 produce:2 dish:1 dry:1 poke:1 victim:2 soft:1 cushion:2 confession:1 inquire:1 whether:1 assistant:1 stuff:1 together:1 end:4 suppose:1 maximum:1 effectiveness:1 fail:1 force:1 sit:1 comfy:1 chair:1 show:2 court:3 charade:1 catch:1 defendant:1 also:1 judge:1 session:1 old:2 bailey:2 say:6 kind:2 whole:1 rise:1 look:1 expectantly:1 witness:1 entrance:1 door:2 obviously:1 closing:1 credit:1 roll:1 inquisitor:1 race:1 bus:1 tune:1 devil:1 gallop:1 arrive:1 word:2 appear:2 enough:1 spa:1 oh:1 bugger:2 strong:1 bbc:2 comedy:1 region:1 omit:1 broadcast:1 briefly:1 later:2 vox:1 pop:1 display:1 difficulty:1 counting:1 instance:1 aftershave:1 shortly:1 afterward:1 police:1 constable:1 pan:2 cop:1 tell:1 chemist:2 stop:1 bug:1 heresy:1 simply:1 told:1 shut:1 without:1 appearance:1 reference:2 nine:1 clock:1 news:1 new:1 film:2 christ:1 brian:1 bishop:1 play:2 rowan:1 atkinson:1 harangue:1 pythonism:1 profess:1 furore:1 well:1 similarly:1 slide:1 skit:2 central:1 role:1 james:2 john:1 hannah:1 exhort:1 helen:2 gwyneth:1 paltrow:1 remember:1 boy:1 refer:2 phrase:1 friend:1 cackle:1 bar:1 september:1 fuzzy:1 satchel:2 discussion:1 rob:1 bucky:1 governor:1 former:1 republican:1 vice:1 presidential:1 nominee:1 sarah:1 reply:1 last:1 panel:1 alaskan:1 politician:1 external:1 link:1 transcript:1 |@bigram spanish_inquisition:12 terry_jones:2 michael_palin:3 terry_gilliam:2 sketch_monty:1 monty_python:2 fly_circus:1 plot_synopsis:1 shortly_afterward:1 rowan_atkinson:1 gwyneth_paltrow:1 presidential_nominee:1 sarah_palin:1 external_link:1 |
3,635 | Glacier | The Baltoro Glacier in the Karakoram Mountains, Pakistan. At in length, it is one of the longest alpine glaciers on earth Perito Moreno Glacier Patagonia Argentina Aletsch Glacier, Switzerland, the largest glacier in the European Alps A glacier is a large, slow-moving mass of ice, formed from compacted layers of snow, that slowly deforms and flows in response to heat and high pressure. The word glacier comes from French via the Vulgar Latin glacia, and ultimately from Latin glacies meaning ice. Glacier ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth, and second only to oceans as the largest reservoir of total water. Glaciers cover vast areas of the polar regions and are found in mountain ranges of every continent except Australia, although there are glaciers on New Zealand. In the tropics glaciers are restricted to the highest mountains. The processes and landforms caused by glaciers and related to them are referred to as glacial. The process of glacier growth and establishment is called glaciation. Glaciers are sensitive monitors of climate conditions and are crucial to both world water resources and sea level variation. Types of glaciers Mouth of the Schlatenkees Glacier near Innergschlöß, Austria. There are two main types of glaciers: Alpine glaciers, which are a highland glacier that flow slowly down a valley in a mountainous region like a river of ice, and continental glaciers-ice sheets, which can cover larger areas. Most of the concepts in this article apply equally to alpine glaciers and continental glaciers. Glaciers are also categorized by thermal characteristics, climate setting, and behavior. Ice sheets are the largest glaciers, enormous masses of ice that are not visibly affected by the landscape and that cover the entire surface beneath them, except possibly on the margins where they are thinnest. Antarctica and Greenland are the only places where continental ice sheets currently exist. These regions contain vast quantities of fresh water. The volume of ice is so large that if the Greenland ice sheet melted, it would cause sea levels to rise some six meters (20 ft) all around the world. If the Antarctic ice sheet melted, sea levels would rise up to 65 meters (210 ft). Ice shelves are areas of floating ice, commonly located at the margin of an ice sheet. As a result they are thinner, have limited slopes and reduced velocities. * Ice streams are fast moving sections of an ice sheet. Bindschadler, R.A. and T.A. Scambos. Satellite-image-derived velocity field of an Antarctic ice stream. Science, 252(5003), 242-246, 1991 . They can be several hundred kilometers long. Ice streams have narrow margins and either side ice flow is usually an order of magnitude less. In Antarctica many ice streams drain into large ice shelves. Although some drain directly into the sea, often with an ice tongue, e.g. Mertz Glacier. In Greenland and Antarctica ice streams ending at the sea are often referred to as tidewater glaciers or outlet glaciers, such as Jakobshavn Isbræ (). The smallest, alpine glaciers form high on the mountain slopes and are niche, slope or cirque glaciers. As a mountain glacier increases in size it can begin to flow down valley, and are referred to as valley glaciers. Larger glaciers can cover an entire mountain, mountain chain or even a volcano; this type is known as an ice cap or ice field, such as the Juneau ice field. Ice caps feed outlet glaciers, tongues of ice that extend into valleys below, far from the margins of those larger ice masses. Outlet glaciers are formed by the movement of ice from an ice cap, or an ice cap from mountainous regions. Tidewater glaciers are glaciers that flow into the sea. As the ice reaches the sea pieces break off, or calve, forming icebergs. Most tidewater glaciers calve above sea level, which often results in a tremendous splash as the iceberg strikes the water. If the water is deep, glaciers can calve underwater, causing the iceberg to suddenly explode up out of the water. The Hubbard Glacier is the longest tidewater glacier in Alaska and has a calving face over ten kilometers long. Yakutat Bay and Glacier Bay are both popular with cruise ship passengers because of the huge glaciers descending hundreds of feet to the water. This glacier type undergoes centuries-long cycles of advance and retreat that are much less affected by the climate changes currently causing the retreat of most other glaciers. Most tidewater glaciers are outlet glaciers of ice caps and ice fields. Formation Low and high contrast images of the Byrd Glacier. The low-contrast version is similar to the level of detail the naked eye would see — smooth and almost featureless. The bottom image uses enhanced contrast to highlight flow lines on the ice sheet and bottom crevasses. Formation of glacial ice Glaciers form where snow and ice accumulation exceed snow and ice melt. As the snow and ice thicken it will reach a point where it begins to move due to a combination of the slope the snow is lying on and the pressure of the overlying snow and ice. On steeper slopes this can occur with as little as 50 feet of snow-ice. The snow which forms temperate glaciers is subject to repeated freezing and thawing, which changes it into a form of granular ice called firn. Under the pressure of the layers of ice and snow above it, this granular ice fuses into denser and denser firn. Over a period of years, layers of firn undergo further compaction and become glacial ice. Glacier ice has a slightly reduced density from ice formed from the direct freezing of water. The air between snowflakes becomes trapped and becomes air bubble between the ice crystals. The distinctive blue tint of glacial ice is often wrongly attributed to Rayleigh scattering due to bubbles in the ice. The blue color is actually created for the same reason that water is blue, that is, its slight absorption of red light due to an overtone of the infrared OH stretching mode of the water molecule. What causes the blue color that sometimes appears in snow and ice ? Anatomy The Upper Grindelwald Glacier and the Schreckhorn, in the Swiss Alps, showing accumulation and ablation zones On the opposite end of the glacier, at its foot or terminal, is the deposition or ablation zone, where more ice is lost through melting than gained from snowfall and sediment is deposited. The place where the glacier thins to nothing is called the terminus. In terms of thermal characteristics a temperate glacier is at melting point throughout the year, from its surface to its base. The ice of a polar glaciers is always below freezing point from the surface to its base,though the surface snowpack may seasonally experience melting. Sub-polar glaciers have both temperate and polar ice, depending on the depth beneath the surface and position along the length of the glacier. Glaciers are broken into zones as well based on surface snowpack and melt conditions. [Benson, C.S., 1961, Stratigraphic studies in the snow and firn of the Greenland Ice Sheet, Res. Rep. 70, U.S. Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Res Establ., Corps of Eng., 120 pp] The ablation zone is the region where there is a net loss in glacier mass, and bare glacier ice is exposed. The equilibrium line separates the ablation zone and the accumulation zone. At this altitude, the amount of new snow gained by accumulation is equal to the amount of ice lost through ablation. The accumulation zone is a region where snowpack or superimposed ice accumulation persists. A further zonation of the accumulation zone distinguishes the melt conditions that exist. The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer and the snowpack remains dry. The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, and meltwater percolating into the snowpack, often this zone is marked by refrozen ice lenses, glands, and layers. In this zone the snowpack does not reach the melting point throughout. Near the equilibrium line on some glaciers this leads to development of a superimposed ice zone is a zone where meltwater refreezes as a cold layer in the glacier forming a continuous mass of ice. The wet snow zone is the region where all of the snow deposited since the end of the previous summer has been raised to 0°C.The upper part of a glacier that receives most of the snowfall is called the accumulation zone. In general, the glacier accumulation zone accounts for 60-70% of the glacier's surface area, more if the glacier calves icebergs. The depth of ice in the accumulation zone exerts a downward force sufficient to cause deep erosion of the rock in this area. After the glacier is gone, this often leaves a bowl or amphitheater-shaped isostatic depression ranging from large lake basins, the Great Lakes or Finger Lakes to smaller mountain basins,cirques. The "health" of a glacier is usually assessed by determining the glacier mass balance or observing terminus behavior. Healthy glaciers have large accumulation zones, more than 60% of their area snowcovered at the end of the melt season, and a terminus with vigorous flow. In the aftermath of the Little Ice Age, around 1850, the glaciers of the Earth have retreated substantially through the 1940s (see Retreat of glaciers since 1850). A slight cooling led to the advance of many alpine glaciers from 1950-1985. However, since 1985 glacier retreat and mass balance loss has become increasingly ubiquitous and large. http://folk.uio.no/kaeaeb/publications/grl04_paul.pdf Frank Paul, et al., 2004, Rapid disintegration of Alpine glaciers observed with satellite data, GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 31, L21402, doi:10.1029/2004GL020816, 2004 Recent Global Glacier Retreat Overview Motion Nadelhorn Glacier above Saas-Fee, Valais, Switzerland Glaciers have a tendency to move, or "flow", downhill. While the bulk of a glacier flows in the direction of lower elevation, every point of the glacier can move at a different rate, and in a different direction. The general motion is due to the force of gravity, and the rate of flow at each point on the glacier is affected by many factors. Ice behaves like an easily breaking solid until its thickness exceeds about 50 meters (160 ft). The pressure on ice deeper than that depth causes plastic flow. The glacial ice is made up of layers of molecules stacked on top of each other, with relatively weak bonds between the layers. When the stress of the layer above exceeds the inter-layer binding strength, it moves faster than the layer below. W.S.B. Paterson, Physics of ice Another type of movement is basal sliding. In this process, the whole glacier moves over the terrain on which it sits, lubricated by meltwater. As the pressure increases toward the base of the glacier, the melting point of water decreases, and the ice melts. Friction between ice and rock and geothermal heat from the Earth's interior also contribute to thawing. This type of movement is dominant in temperate glaciers. The geothermal heat flux becomes more important the thicker a glacier becomes. Hughes, T. West Antarctic ice streams. Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, 15(1), 1-46, 1977 Fracture zone and cracks Ice cracks in the Titlis Glacier Signs warning of the hazards of a glacier in New Zealand The top 50 meters of the glacier, being under less pressure, are more rigid; this section is known as the fracture zone, and mostly moves as a single unit, over the plastic-like flow of the lower section. When the glacier moves through irregular terrain, cracks up to 50 meters deep form in the fracture zone. The lower layers of glacial ice flow and deform plastically under the pressure, allowing the glacier as a whole to move slowly like a viscous fluid. Glaciers flow downslope, usually this reflects the slope of their base, but it may reflect the surface slope instead. Thus, a glacier can flow rises in terrain at their base. The upper layers of glaciers are more brittle, and often form deep cracks known as crevasses. the presence of crevasses is a sure sign of a glacier. Moving ice-snow of a glacier is often separated from a mountain side or snow-ice that is stationary and clinging to that mountain side by a bergshrund. This looks like a crevasse but is at the margin of the glacier and is a singular feature. Crevasses form due to differences in glacier velocity . As the parts move at different speeds and directions, shear forces cause the two sections to break apart opening the crack of a crevasse all along the disconnecting faces. Hence, the distance between the two separated parts while touching and rubbing deep down, frequently widens significantly towards the surface layers, many times creating a wide chasm. Crevasses seldom are more than 150 feet deep. Beneath this point the plastic deformation of the ice under pressure is too great for the differential motion to generate cracks. Transverse crevasses are transverse to flow, as a glacier accelerates where the slope steepens. Longitudinal crevasses form semi-parallel to flow where a glacier expands laterally. Marginal crevasses form from the edge of the glacier, due to the reduction in speed caused by friction of the valley walls. Marginal crevasses are usually largely transverse to flow. Crossing a crevasse on the Easton Glacier, Mount Baker, in the North Cascades Crevasses make travel over glaciers hazardous. Subsequent heavy snow may form fragile snow bridges, increasing the danger by hiding their presence at the surface. Below the equilibrium line glacier meltwater is concentrated in stream channels. The meltwater can pool in a proglacial lake, a lake on top of the glacier, or can descend into the depths of the glacier via moulins). Within or beneath the glacier the stream will flow in an englacial or sub-glacial tunnel. Sometimes these tunnels reemerge at the surface of the glacier. Speed The speed of glacial displacement is partly determined by friction. Friction makes the ice at the bottom of the glacier move more slowly than the upper portion. In alpine glaciers, friction is also generated at the valley's side walls, which slows the edges relative to the center. This was confirmed by experiments in the 19th century, in which stakes were planted in a line across an alpine glacier, and as time passed, those in the center moved farther. Mean speeds vary from stagnant areas with no motion where trees can establish themselves on surface sediment deposits such as in Alaska. In other cases they can move as fast as 20-30 meters per day, as in the case of Greenlands's Jakobshavn Isbræ (), or 2-3 m per day on Byrd Glacier the largest glacier in the world in Antarctica. Velocity increases with increasing slope, increasing thickness, increasing snowfall, increasing longitudinal confinement, increasing basal temperature, increasing meltwater production and reduced bed hardness. A few glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called surges. These glaciers exhibit normal movement until suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous state. During these surges, the glacier may reach velocities far greater than normal speed. T. Strozzi et al.: The Evolution of a Glacier Surge Observed with the ERS Satellites (pdf, 1.3 Mb) These surges may be caused by failure of the underlying bedrock, the ponding of meltwater at the base of the glacier The Brúarjökull Project: Sedimentary environments of a surging glacier. The Brúarjökull Project research idea. — perhaps delivered from a supraglacial lake — or the simple accumulation of mass beyond a critical "tipping point". Meier & Post (1969) Ogives Ogives are alternating dark and light bands of ice occurring as narrow wave crests and wave valleys on glacier surfaces. They only occur below icefalls but not all icefalls have ogives below them. Once formed, they bend progressively downglacier due to the increased velocity toward the glacier's centerline. Ogives are linked to seasonal motion of the glacier as the width of one dark and one light band generally equals the annual movement of the glacier. The ridges and valleys are formed because ice from an icefall is severely broken up thereby increasing ablation surface area during the summertime creating a swale and creating space for snow accumulation in the winter creating a ridge. Sometimes ogives are described as either wave ogives or band ogives in which they are solely undulations or varying color bands respectively. Glossary of Glacier Terminology Occurrence Black glacier in Aconcagua vicinity, Argentina Glaciers occur on every continent and in approximately 47 of the world's countries. Extensive glaciers are found in Antarctica, Patagonia, Canada, Alaska,Greenland and Iceland. Mountain glaciers are widespread e.g. in the Andes, the Himalaya, the Rocky Mountains, the Caucasus, and the Alps. On mainland Australia no glaciers exist today, although a small glacier on Mount Kosciuszko was present in the last glacial period, and Tasmania was widely glaciated. C.D. Ollier: Australian Landforms and their History, National Mapping Fab, Geoscience Australia On New Zealand's South Island the West Coast bears the Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers. In New Guinea small glaciers are located on its highest summit massif of Puncak Jaya. Though these glaciers are rapidly diminishing. Africa has glaciers on Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, on Mount Kenya and in the Ruwenzori Range. Permanent snow cover is affected by factors such as the degree of slope on the land, amount of snowfall and the force and nature of the winds. As temperature decreases with altitude, high mountains — even those near the Equator — have permanent snow cover on their upper portions, above the snow line. Examples include Mount Kilimanjaro and the Tropical Andes in South America; however, the only snow to occur exactly on the Equator is at on the southern slope of Volcán Cayambe in Ecuador. Conversely, areas of the Arctic such as Banks Island and Antarctic, Dry Valleys are arid and receive little snowfall despite the bitter cold. Cold air, unlike warm air, is unable to transport much water vapor. In Antarctica, the snow does not melt even at sea level. In addition to the dry, unglaciated regions of the Arctic, there are some mountains and volcanoes in Bolivia, Chile and Argentina that are high ( - ) and cold, but the relative lack of precipitation prevents snow from accumulating into glaciers. This is because these peaks are located near or in the hyperarid Atacama desert. Glaciers on Mars Northern polar icecap on Mars Elsewhere in the solar system, the vast polar ice caps of Mars rival those of the Earth and show glacial features. Especially the south polar cap is compared to glaciers on Earth. Kargel, J.S. et al.:Martian Polar Ice Sheets and Mid-Latitude Debris-Rich Glaciers, and Terrestrial Analogs, Third International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration, Alberta, Canada, October 13-17, 2003 (pdf 970 Kb) Other glacial features on Mars are glacial debris aprons and the lineated valley fills of the fretted terrain in northern Arabia Terra. Fretted Terrain: Lineated Valley Fill, Mars Global Surveyor Mars Orbiter Camera, Malin Space Science Systems/NASA Topographical features and computer models indicate the existence of more glaciers in Mars' past. Martian glaciers: did they originate from the atmosphere?, ESA Mars Express, 20 January 2006 Glacial Geology Rocks and sediments are added to glaciers through various processes. Glaciers erode the terrain principally through two methods: abrasion and plucking. Diagram of glacial plucking and abrasion As the glacier flows over the bedrock's fractured surface, it softens and lifts blocks of rock that are brought into the ice. This process is known as plucking, and it is produced when subglacial water penetrates the fractures and the subsequent freezing expansion separates them from the bedrock. When the ice expands, it acts as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting it. This way, sediments of all sizes become part of the glacier's load. The rocks frozen into the bottom of the ice then act like grit in sandpaper. Abrasion occurs when the ice and the load of rock fragments slide over the bedrock and function as sandpaper that smooths and polishes the surface situated below. This pulverized rock is called rock flour. This flour is formed by rock grains of a size between 0.002 and 0.00625 mm. Sometimes the amount of rock flour produced is so high that currents of meltwaters acquire a grayish color. These processes of erosion lead to steeper valley walls and mountains slopes in alpine settings, which then can cause avalanches and rock slides which further add material to the glacier. A visible characteristics of glacial abrasion are glacial striations. These are produced when the bottom's ice contains large chunks of rock that mark scratches in the bedrock. By mapping the direction of the flutes the direction of the glacier's movement can be determined. Chatter marks are seen as lines of roughly crescent shape depressions in the rock underlying a glacier caused by the abrasion where a boulder in the ice catches and is then released repetitively as the glacier drags it over the underlying basal rock. The rate of glacier erosion is variable. The differential erosion undertaken by the ice is controlled by six important factors: Velocity of glacial movement Thickness of the ice Shape, abundance and hardness of rock fragments contained in the ice at the bottom of the glacier Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the glacier. Thermal conditions at the glacier base. Permeability and water pressure at the glacier base. Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier are typically carried as far as the zone of ablation before being deposited. Glacial deposits are of two distinct types: Glacial till: material directly deposited from glacial ice. Till includes a mixture of undifferentiated material ranging from clay size to boulders, the usual composition of a moraine. Fluvial and outwash: sediments deposited by water. These deposits are stratified through various processes, such as boulders being separated from finer particles. The larger pieces of rock which are encrusted in till or deposited on the surface are called glacial erratics. They may range in size from pebbles to boulders, but as they may be moved great distances they may be of drastically different type than the material upon which they are found. Patterns of glacial erratics provide clues of past glacial motions. Moraines Glacial moraines are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated. These features usually appear as linear mounds of till, a non-sorted mixture of rock, gravel and boulders within a matrix of a fine powdery material. Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a glacier. Lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier. Medial moraines are formed when two different glaciers, flowing in the same direction, coalesce and the lateral moraines of each combine to form a moraine in the middle of the merged glacier. Less apparent is the ground moraine, also called glacial drift, which often blankets the surface underneath much of the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line. Glacial meltwaters contain rock flour, an extremely fine powder ground from the underlying rock by the glacier's movement. Other features formed by glacial deposition include long snake-like ridges formed by streambeds under glaciers, known as eskers, and distinctive streamlined hills, known as drumlins. Stoss-and-lee erosional features are formed by glaciers and show the direction of their movement. Long linear rock scratches (that follow the glacier's direction of movement) are called glacial striations, and divots in the rock are called chatter marks. Both of these features are left on the surfaces of stationary rock that were once under a glacier and were formed when loose rocks and boulders in the ice were transported over the rock surface. Transport of fine-grained material within a glacier can smooth or polish the surface of rocks, leading to glacial polish. Glacial erratics are rounded boulders that were left by a melting glacier and are often seen perched precariously on exposed rock faces after glacial retreat. The term moraine is of French origin, and it was coined by peasants to describe alluvial embankments and rims found near the margins of glaciers in the French Alps. In modern geology, the term is used more broadly, and is applied to a series of formations, all of which are composed of till. Drumlins A drumlin field forms after a glacier has modified the landscape. The teardrop-shaped formations denote the direction of the ice flow. Drumlins are asymmetrical, canoe shaped hills with aerodynamic profiles made mainly of till. Their heights vary from 15 to 50 meters and they can reach a kilometer in length. The tilted side of the hill looks toward the direction from which the ice advanced (stoss), while the longer slope follows the ice's direction of movement (lee). Drumlins are found in groups called drumlin fields or drumlin camps. An example of these fields is found east of Rochester, New York, and it is estimated that it contains about 10,000 drumlins. Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, it can be inferred from their shape that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers. It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers. Glacial valleys A glaciated valley in the Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest showing the characteristic U-shape and flat bottom. This image shows the termini of the glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya. Glacial lakes have been rapidly forming on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers in this region during the last few decades. Before glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic "V" shape, produced by downward erosion by water. However, during glaciation, these valleys widen and deepen, forming a "U"-shaped glacial valley. Besides the deepening and widening of the valley, the glacier also smooths the valley due to erosion. In this way, it eliminates the spurs of earth that extend across the valley. Because of this interaction, triangular cliffs called truncated spurs are formed. Many glaciers deepen their valleys more than their smaller tributaries. Therefore, when the glaciers recede from the region, the valleys of the tributary glaciers remain above the main glacier's depression, and these are called hanging valleys. In parts of the soil that were affected by abrasion and plucking, the depressions left can be filled by lakes, called paternoster lakes. At the 'start' of a classic valley glacier is the cirque, which has a bowl shape with escarped walls on three sides, but open on the side that descends into the valley. In the cirque, an accumulation of ice is formed. These begin as irregularities on the side of the mountain, which are later augmented in size by the coining of the ice. Once the glacier melts, these corries are usually occupied by small mountain lakes called tarns. There may be two glacial cirques 'back to back' which erode deep into their backwalls until only a narrow ridge, called an arête is left. This structure may result in a mountain pass. Glaciers are also responsible for the creation of fjords (deep coves or inlets) and escarpments that are found at high latitudes. Features of a glacial landscape Arêtes and horns (pyramid peak) An arête is a narrow crest with a sharp edge. The meeting of three or more arêtes creates pointed pyramidal peaks and in extremely steep-sided forms these are called horns. Both features may have the same process behind their formation: the enlargement of cirques from glacial plucking and the action of the ice. Horns are formed by cirques that encircle a single mountain. Arêtes emerge in a similar manner; the only difference is that the cirques are not located in a circle, but rather on opposite sides along a divide. Arêtes can also be produced by the collision of two parallel glaciers. In this case, the glacial tongues cut the divides down to size through erosion, and polish the adjacent valleys. Roche moutonnée Some rock formations in the path of a glacier are sculpted into small hills with a shape known as roche moutonnée or sheepback rock. An elongated, rounded, asymmetrical, bedrock knob can be produced by glacier erosion. It has a gentle slope on its up-glacier side and a steep to vertical face on the down-glacier side. The glacier abrades the smooth slope that it flows along, while rock is torn loose from the downstream side and carried away in ice, a process known as 'plucking'. Rock on this side is fractured by a combination of various forces, such as water, ice in rock cracks, and structural stresses. Alluvial stratification The water that rises from the ablation zone moves away from the glacier and carries with it fine eroded sediments. As the speed of the water decreases, so does its capacity to carry objects in suspension. The water then gradually deposits the sediment as it runs, creating an alluvial plain. When this phenomenon occurs in a valley, it is called a valley train. When the deposition is to an estuary, the sediments are known as "bay mud". Landscape produced by a receding glacier Outwash plains and valley trains are usually accompanied by basins known as kettles. These are glacial depressions which are produced when large ice blocks are stuck in the glacial alluvium and after melting, they leave holes in the sediment. The diameter of these depressions ranges from 5 m to 13 km, with depths of up to 45 meters. Most are circular in shape due to the melting blocks of ice becoming rounded. Lakes often form in these depressions and these are known as kettle lakes. Deposits in contact with ice When a glacier reduces in size to a critical point, its flow stops, and the ice becomes stationary. Meanwhile, meltwater flows over, within, and beneath the ice leave stratified alluvial deposits. Because of this, as the ice melts, it leaves stratified deposits in the form of columns, terraces and clusters. These types of deposits are known as deposits in contact with ice. When those deposits take the form of columns of tipped sides or mounds, which are called kames. Some kames form when meltwater deposits sediments through openings in the interior of the ice. In other cases, they are just the result of fans or deltas towards the exterior of the ice produced by meltwater. When the glacial ice occupies a valley it can form terraces or kame along the sides of the valley. A third type of deposit formed in contact with the ice is characterized by long, narrow sinuous crests composed fundamentally of sand and gravel deposited by streams of meltwater flowing within, or beneath the glacier. After the ice has melted these linear ridges or eskers remain as landscape features. Some of these crests have heights exceeding 100 meters and their lengths surpass 100 km. Loess deposits Very fine glacial sediments or rock flour is often picked up by wind blowing over the bare surface and may be deposited great distances from the original fluvial deposition site. These eolian loess deposits may be very deep, even hundreds of meters, as in areas of China and the Midwestern United States. Katabatic winds can be important in this process. Transportation & ErosionEntrainment is the picking up of loose material by the glacier from along the bed and valley sides. Entrainment can happen by regelation or by the ice simply picking up the debris.Basal Ice Freezing is thought to be to be made by glaciohydraulic supercooling, though some studies show that even where physical conditions allow it to occur, the process may not be responsible for observed sequences of basal ice. Plucking is the process involves the glacier freezing onto the valley sides and subsequent ice movement pulling away masses of rock. As the bedrock is greater in strength than the glacier, only previously loosened material can be removed. It can be loosened by local pressure and temperature, water and pressure release of the rock itself.Supraglacial debris is carried on the surface of the glacier as lateral and medial moraines. In summer ablation, surface melt water carries a small load and this often disappears down crevasses.Englacial debris is moraine carried within the body of the glacier.Subglacial debris is moved along the floor of the valley either by the ice as ground moraine or by meltwater streams formed by pressure melting. Deposition Lodgement till is identical to ground moraine. It is material that is smeared on to the valley floor when its weight becomes too great to be moved by the glacier.Ablation till is a combination of englacial and supraglacial moraine It is released as a stationary glacier begins to melt and material is dropped in situ.Dumping is when a glacier moves material to its outermost or lowermost end and dumps it.Deformation flow''' is the change of shape of the rock and land due to the glacier. Isostatic rebound Isostatic pressure by a glacier on the Earth's crust This rise of a part of the crust is due to an isostatic adjustment. A large mass, such as an ice sheet/glacier, depresses the crust of the Earth and displaces the mantle below. The depression is about a third the thickness of the ice sheet. After the glacier melts the mantle begins to flow back to its original position pushing the crust back to its original position. This post-glacial rebound, which lags melting of the ice sheet/glacier, is currently occurring in measurable amounts in Scandinavia and the Great Lakes region of North America. An interesting geomorphological feature created by the same process, but on a smaller scale, is known as dilation-faulting. It occurs within rock where previously compressed rock is allowed to return to its original shape, but more rapidly than can be maintained without faulting, leading to an effect similar to that which would be seen if the rock were hit by a large hammer. This can be observed in recently de-glaciated parts of Iceland. See also Aufeis Cryoseism Effects of global warming Erebus Ice Tongue Glacial motion Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve Glacier National Park (U.S.) Global warming Icefall Ice cap Ice field Ice sheet Kenai Fjords National Park Misty Fjords National Monument Quaternary period Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Sag (geology) Irish Sea Glacier Surge (glacier) Cited references Uncited references An excellent less-technical treatment of all aspects, with superb photographs and firsthand accounts of glaciologists' experiences. All images of this book can be found online (see Weblinks: Glaciers-online) An undergraduate-level textbook. A textbook for undergraduates avoiding mathematical complexities A textbook devoted to explaining the geography of our planet. A comprehensive reference on the physical principles underlying formation and behavior. External links Glaciers of the Pyrenees on PBS "On Thin Ice" be-x-old:Ледавік | Glacier |@lemmatized baltoro:1 glacier:212 karakoram:1 mountain:20 pakistan:1 length:3 one:3 long:9 alpine:9 earth:9 perito:1 moreno:1 patagonia:2 argentina:3 aletsch:1 switzerland:2 large:19 european:1 alps:1 slow:2 move:20 mass:10 ice:126 form:43 compacted:1 layer:13 snow:27 slowly:4 deforms:1 flow:28 response:1 heat:3 high:9 pressure:13 word:1 come:1 french:3 via:2 vulgar:1 latin:2 glacia:1 ultimately:1 glacies:1 mean:2 reservoir:2 fresh:2 water:23 second:1 ocean:1 total:1 cover:6 vast:3 area:11 polar:9 region:12 find:8 range:6 every:3 continent:2 except:2 australia:3 although:4 new:6 zealand:3 tropic:1 restrict:1 process:14 landforms:2 cause:12 relate:1 refer:3 glacial:44 growth:1 establishment:1 call:19 glaciation:3 sensitive:1 monitor:1 climate:3 condition:5 crucial:1 world:4 resource:1 sea:10 level:7 variation:1 type:10 mouth:1 schlatenkees:1 near:5 innergschlöß:1 austria:1 two:8 main:2 highland:1 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3,636 | Channel_4 | Channel 4 is a UK public-service television broadcaster which began transmissions on 2 November 1982. Although commercially self-funded, it is ultimately publicly owned; originally a subsidiary of the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA), the station is now owned and operated by the Channel Four Television Corporation, a public body established in 1990, coming into operation in 1993. The channel was established to provide a fourth television service to the UK that would break the duopoly of the Licence Fee funded BBC's two established services and the single commercial broadcasting network, ITV. Channel 4 enjoys almost universal coverage in the UK and some neighbouring countries and a significant audience share, despite having seen new competition with the growth of cable, satellite and digital services. Channel 4 was established with, and continues to hold, a remit of public service obligations which it must fulfil. The remit changes periodically, as dictated by various broadcasting and communications acts, and is regulated by the various authorities Channel 4 has been answerable to; originally the IBA, then the ITC and now Ofcom. The preamble of the remit as per the Communications Act 2003 states that: "The public service remit for Channel 4 is the provision of a broad range of high quality and diverse programming which, in particular: demonstrates innovation, experiment and creativity in the form and content of programmes; appeals to the tastes and interests of a culturally diverse society; makes a significant contribution to meeting the need for the licensed public service channels to include programmes of an educational nature and other programmes of educative value; and exhibits a distinctive character." The remit also involves an obligation to provide Schools Programming, and a substantial amount of programming produced outside of Greater London. Channel Four Television Corporation As an organisation, Channel 4 is known as the Channel Four Television Corporation, a statutory corporation, http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200607/cmselect/cmpubacc/409/40905.htm though this form is more recent than the station itself, having previously been the Channel Four Television Company, a subsidiary of the IBA, between 1982 and 1993. Towards the end of the 1980s, the government began a radical process of re-organisation of the commercial broadcasting industry, which was written onto the statute books by means of the Broadcasting Act 1990. Significantly, this meant the abolition of the IBA, and hence the Channel Four Television Company. The result led to the creation of a corporation to own and operate the channel, which would have a greater deal of autonomy and would eventually go on to establish its other operations. The new corporation, which became operational in 1993, remained publicly owned and was regulated by the new Independent Television Commission (ITC), created under the same act. The ITC and its duties were later replaced by Ofcom, which like its predecessor is responsible for appointing the Corporation's board, in agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. In terms of the station's remit and other duties, the creation of the corporation meant little change, however the new corporation would have to manage its own advertising, rather than this being carried out on its behalf by the local ITV contractors (see Funding). History Wales At the time the fourth service was being considered, a vocal movement in Wales lobbied for the creation of dedicated service that would air Welsh-language programmes, then only catered for at obscure times on BBC Wales and HTV. The campaign was taken so seriously by some, that Gwynfor Evans, former president of Plaid Cymru threatened the government with a hunger strike were it not to honour the plans. The result was that Channel 4 proper would be replaced by "Sianel Pedwar Cymru" or "Channel 4 Wales". Operated by a specially-created Welsh Fourth Channel Authority, S4C would air programmes in Welsh as made by HTV, the BBC, or from independent companies. Initially limited frequency space meant that Channel 4 proper could not be broadcast alongside S4C, though some English Channel 4 programmes would be aired at less popular times on the Welsh variant, a practice that still carries on to this day on S4C analogue. Since then, carriage on digital cable, satellite and digital terrestrial television means that Channel 4 is now available to over 70% of Welsh viewers. Following the completion of switchover to digital broadcasting in Wales in 2009, Channel 4 should become available to all Welsh TV viewers, alongside S4C. Consequently "S4C Digidol" does not carry Channel 4 programming. Conception Before Channel 4 and S4C, Britain had three terrestrial television services: BBC1, BBC2, and ITV. The Broadcasting Act 1980 began the process of adding a fourth, and Channel 4, along with its Welsh counterpart, was formally created by an Act of Parliament in 1982. After some months of test broadcasts, it began scheduled transmissions on 2 November 1982. The notion of a second commercial broadcaster in the UK had been around since the inception of ITV in 1954 and its subsequent launch in 1955; the idea of an 'ITV2' was long expected and pushed for. Indeed television sets sold throughout the 1970s and early 1980s had a spare channel called 'ITV/IBA 2'. Throughout ITV's history and until Channel 4 finally became a reality, a perennial dialogue existed between the GPO, the government, the ITV companies and other interested parties, concerning the form such an expansion of commercial broadcasting would take. It was most likely politics which had the biggest impact in leading to a delay of almost three decades before the second commercial channel became a reality. With what can crudely be summed up as a clash of ideologies between an expansion of ITV's commercial ethos and a public service approach more akin to the BBC, it was ultimately somewhat of a compromise that eventually led to the formation of Channel 4 as launched in 1982. One clear benefit of the 'late arrival' of the channel was that its frequency allocations at each transmitter had already been arranged in the early 1960s, when the launch of ITV2 was highly anticipated. This led to very good coverage across most of the country and few problems of interference with other UK based transmissions; a stark contrast to the problems associated with five's launch 15 years later. An actual channel named ITV2 did not launch until 1998, after the advent of digital terrestrial television. IBA Control: 1982–1993 The original Channel 4 logo, used from 1982–1996 The first voice ever heard on Channel 4's opening day of Tuesday 2 November 1982 was that of continuity announcer Paul Coia, who intoned, "Good afternoon. It's a pleasure to be able to say to you: Welcome to Channel Four", before heading into a montage of clips from its programmes set to the station's signature tune, Fourscore, penned by Lord David Dundas, which would form the basis of the station's jingles for its first decade. The first programme to air on the channel was the teatime game show Countdown, at 17.30 produced by Yorkshire Television; it is still running as of 2008 and is contracted until 2009. The first person to be seen on Channel 4 was Richard Whiteley with Carol Vorderman being the second and the first female on the channel. Whiteley opened the show with the famous words "As the countdown to a brand new channel ends a brand new countdown begins." Upon its launch, Channel 4 committed itself to providing an alternative to the existing channels, an agenda in part set out by its remit which required the provision of programming to minority groups. Its new style of programming often drew critical attention, with some, such as the public-decency campaigner Mary Whitehouse, claiming the station had overstepped the boundaries of acceptability whilst others argued that the new style of broadcasting had led to a liberalisation of the UK television industry. Programming such as the Red Triangle series, The Tube, and Network 7 often straddled the boundary between being pioneering and risqué. In step with its remit, the channel became well received both by minority groups and the arts and cultural worlds during this period, especially under Isaacs, where the channel gained a reputation for programmes on the contemporary arts. The channel often did not receive mass audiences for much of this period, however, as might be expected for a station focusing on minority interest. Channel 4 also began the funding of independent films, such as the Merchant-Ivory docudrama The Courtesans of Bombay, during this time. In 1992, Channel 4 also faced its first libel case by Jani Allan, a South African journalist, who objected to her representation in the documentary The Leader, His Driver and the Driver's Wife. Channel Four Television Corporation control: 1993 onwards The Channel 4 logo used from 1996–1999. The four circles appeared in various configurations. After control of the station passed from the Channel Four Television Company to the Channel Four Television Corporation in 1993 (see above), a shift in broadcasting style took place. Instead of aiming for the fringes of society, it began to focus on the edges of the mainstream, and the centre of the mass market itself. It began to show many US programmes in peak viewing time, far more than it had previously done. It premièred such shows as Friends and ER. Latterly, it began broadcasting various reality formats (including Big Brother) and obtained the rights to broadcast certain popular sporting events such as cricket and horse racing (the contract to broadcast Test Match Cricket ceased with the end of the Summer 2005 Ashes series). This new direction increased ratings and revenues. In addition, the Channel launched a number of new television channels through its new 4Ventures off-shoot, including Film4, At The Races, E4 and More4 (see Other Services). Partially in reaction to its new 'populist' direction, the Communications Act 2003 directed the channel to demonstrate innovation, experimentation and creativity, appeal to the tastes and interests of a culturally diverse society and to include programmes of an educational nature which exhibit a distinctive character. Under the leadership of Freeview founder Andy Duncan, 2005 saw a change of direction for Channel 4's digital channels. Channel 4 made E4 'free to air' on Digital Terrestrial, and launched a new 'free to air' digital channel called More4. By October Channel 4 had joined the Freeview consortium. By July 2006, Film4 had also become a 'free to air' and re-started broadcasting on Digital Terrestrial. Venturing into radio broadcasting, 2005 saw Channel 4 purchase a 51 per cent of shares in the now defunct Oneword radio station with UBC Media holding onto the remaining shares. New programmes such as the weekly, half hour The Morning Report news programme were among some of the new content Channel 4 provided for the station, with the name 4Radio being used. As of early 2009, however, Channel 4's future involvement in radio remained uncertain. The Channel 4 logo, used from 1999–2004. The sections of the 4 are cut out from an otherwise solid square, allowing the background to show through. On 2 November 2007, the station celebrated its twenty-fifth birthday. It showed the first episode of Countdown, an anniversary Countdown special, as well as a special edition of The Big Fat Quiz and using the original multicoloured 1982-1996 blocks logo on presentation and idents using the Fourscore jingle throughout the day. The future Channel 4 has in recent years raised concerns over how it might finance its public service obligations after digital switch-over. However, some certainty lies in the announcement in April 2006 that Channel 4's digital switch-over costs would be paid for by licence fee revenues. On 28 March 2007, Channel 4 announced plans to launch a music channel "4Music" as a joint venture with UK media company EMAP which would include carriage on the Freeview platform. On August 15 2008 4Music was launched across the U.K. http://4music.channel4.com/ Recently, Channel 4 have announced interest in launching a High Definition version of Film4 on freeview, to coincide with the launch of Channel 4 HD. Channel 4 has since acquired a 50% stake in EMAP's TV business for a reported £28 million. Carriage Channel 4 was carried from its beginning on analogue terrestrial (except in Wales), which was practically the only means of television broadcast in the UK at the time. It will continue to be broadcast through these means until the UK's analogue television services are closed down over the course of the next decade. Since 1998, it has been universally available on digital terrestrial, and the Sky Digital platform (encrypted, though free of charge) as well as having been available from various times in various areas, on analogue and digital cable networks. Due to its special status as a public service broadcaster with a specific remit, it is afforded free carriage on the terrestrial platforms, Digital PSB, Public Service Broadcasting post Digital Switchover, section 1.1 in contrast with other broadcasters such as ITV. Channel 4 is also available overseas: Some viewers in the Republic of Ireland and parts of the European mainland, have been able to receive terrestrial transmissions from Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and some overseas cable networks, especially in the Republic of Ireland, have carried the service. From 4 December 2006 Channel 4 was officially available to Sky viewers in the Republic of Ireland; some programmes, mainly imports, are not aired on this channel variant, due to Channel 4 not owning the relevant broadcast rights within the country. From June 2006 to Early 2008, Channel 4 allowed Internet users in the United Kingdom to watch Channel 4 live on the Internet. However, for legal reasons all adverts have been removed and some programmes (mostly international imports) are not shown. This service no longer exists. Channel 4 is also provided by Virgin Mobile's DAB mobile TV service which has the same restrictions as the internet live stream. Channel 4 also makes some of its programming available 'on demand' via cable and the internet (see 4oD). Funding During the station's formative years, funding came from the ITV companies in return for their right to sell advertisements in their region on the fourth channel. Nowadays it pays for itself in much the same way as most privately run commercial stations, i.e. through the sale of on-air advertising, programme sponsorship, and the sale of any programme content and merchandising rights it owns, such as overseas sales and video sales. It also has the ability to subsidise the main network through any profits made on the corporation's other endeavours, which have in the past included subscription fees from stations such as E4 and Film4 (now no longer subscription services) and its 'video-on-demand' sales. In practice, however, these other activities are loss-making, and are subsidised by the main network. According to Channel 4's last published accounts, for 2005, the extent of this cross-subsidy was some £30 million. 11419_11419_C4 The change in funding method came about by the Broadcasting Act 1990 when the new corporation was afforded the ability to fund itself. Originally this arrangement left a 'safety net' guaranteed minimum income should the revenue fall too low, funded by large insurance payments made to the ITV companies. Such a subsidy was never required, however, and these premiums were phased out by government in 1998. After the link with ITV was cut, the cross-promotion which had existed between ITV and Channel 4 also ended. In 2007 due to severe funding difficulties, the channel sought government help and was granted a payment of £14m over a six year period. The money would have come from the television license fee and would have been the first time that money from the license fee had been given to any broadcaster other than the BBC. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/jowell-challenges-channel-4-to-justify-16314m-of-public-funding-454035.html The plan was scrapped by The Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport, Andy Burnham, ahead of "broader decisions about the future framework of public service broadcasting" that are scheduled to be announced in early 2009 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7750501.stm Programming Channel 4 share of viewing 1992-2007 BARB figures. Peaks from mid-2000 coincide with broadcast of Endemol's Big Brother and Celebrity Big Brother Channel 4 is a "publisher-broadcaster", meaning that it commissions or "buys" all of its programming from companies independent of itself, and was the first broadcaster in the United Kingdom to do so on any significant scale. This had the consequence of starting an industry of production companies that did not have to rely on owning an ITV licence in order to see their programmes air, though since Channel 4, external commissioning has become regular practise on the numerous stations that have launched since, as well as on the BBC and in ITV (where a quota of 25% minimum of total output has been imposed since the 1990 Broadcasting Act came into force). Ironically, having been the first broadcaster in the UK to completely commission its core product from third parties, and after 25 years in-house, Channel 4 will now become the last terrestrial broadcaster to outsource its transmission and playout operations (to Red Bee Media). Channel 4 outsources jobs to Red Bee Media | Media | guardian.co.uk The requirement to obtain all content externally is stipulated in its licence. Additionally, Channel 4 also began a trend of owning the copyright and distribution rights of the programmes it aired, in a manner that is similar to the major Hollywood studios' ownership of television programs that they did not directly produce. Thus, although Channel 4 does not produce programmes, many are seen as belonging to it. Channel 4 also pioneered the concept of stranded programming, where seasons of programmes following a common theme would be aired and promoted together. Some would be very specific, and run for a fixed period of time; the 4 Mation season, for example, showed innovative animation. Other, less specific strands, were (and still are) run regularly, such as T4, a strand of programming aimed at teenagers, on weekend mornings (and weekdays during school/college holidays); Friday Night Comedy, a slot where the channel would pioneer its style of comedy commissions, 4Music (potentially about to expand soon into a full channel in partnership with Emap) and 4Later, an eclectic collection of offbeat programmes transmitted to a cult audience in the early hours of the morning. In its earlier years, Red Triangle was the name given to the airing of certain risqué art-house films due to the use of a red triangle DOG in the upper right of the screen, dubbed as being pornographic by many of Channel 4's critics, whilst general broadcasting of films on the station for many years came under the banner of Film on Four prior to the launch of the FilmFour brand and station in the late 1990s. Its critically acclaimed news service, Channel 4 News, is supplied by ITN whilst its long-standing investigative documentary, Dispatches, causes perennial media attention. Other Services November 1998 saw Channel 4 expand beyond its remit of providing the 'fourth service' in a significant way, with the launch of FilmFour. Since then the corporation has been involved in a range of other activities, all in some way associated with the main channel, and mainly using the '4' brand. 4Ventures/4Rights In 2001 4Ventures was created as the parent body of Channel 4 related commercial activities, rather than public-service obligations, with the intent of making profit which would serve to subsidise the main Channel 4. Following the sale of Quiz Call (a gaming channel operated by the then-owned subsidiary Ostrich Media) in 2006, a restructure of 4Ventures saw many of its activities re-integrated back into the main channel's operations (including day-to-day running of E4, Film4 and More4). 4Rights, was formed from an amalgamation of Channel 4 International and Channel 4 Consumer Products. As part of the restructure, much of the 4Ventures management team either left the company - former chief executive (and Channel 4 commercial director) Rob Woodward, and managing director Anmar Kawash are now Chief Executive Officer and Chief Operating Officer respectively of STV Group plc - or transferred to other posts within Channel 4. In 2007, the expanding, UK-based, independent distribution group Digital Rights Group (DRG) announced an intention to buy Channel 4 International (adding it to Zeal and ID Distribution among its other companies), following a review by Channel 4 of its commercial division. The deal was completed in November of the same year. The Consumer Products division has been retained by Channel 4 as part of a new, restructured, 4Rights division. Television Channel 4 digital channels viewing figures 1998-2008 Film4 Channel 4 has had a long record of success in funding the production of films through Channel Four Films, renamed FilmFour in 1998 to coincide with the launch of its digital channel of the same name. Notable successes include The Madness of King George, The Crying Game and Four Weddings and a Funeral. However, this dedicated film-making wing was scaled back in 2002 as a cost-cutting measure in the face of substantial losses. Channel 4 launched a subscription film channel, FilmFour, in November 1998. It was available on digital satellite television and digital cable. Companion services, such as FilmFour+1, FilmFour World and FilmFour Extreme were also available on some digital services. In 2003 Extreme and World were discontinued, and replaced with FilmFour Weekly. FilmFour Weekly closed in July 2006, when the main, newly named Film4 channel went free-to-view and became available on Digital Terrestrial. The switchover to digital terrestrial was heavily advertised. The adverts featured Lucy Liu, Christian Slater, Ewan McGregor, Judi Dench, Gael García Bernal, Willem Dafoe, Mackenzie Crook, Rhys Ifans and Ray Winstone declaring "Film4 is now free" in various situations across London. It remains the only film channel available free on digital terrestrial television. In 2002, Channel 4's film financing division (Film4 Productions) was seriously scaled back, due to massive losses, although total closure was averted. It had however had various successes, most notably Four Weddings and a Funeral and Trainspotting. In 1994, BAFTA/LA (the Los Angeles branch of the British Academy of Film & Television Arts) presented a full-length film festival in Los Angeles in conjunction with the American Cinematheque (the US equivalent of Britain's National Film Theatre) that saluted the considerable contributions to British film of Channel 4's film division since its inception. The festival presented many of the most celebrated Channel 4 films, and also featured panel discussions about Channel 4's role between Channel 4 chief executive Michael Grade and US TV producer Norman Lear. When Channel 4 had the rights to broadcast test match cricket in England, the downtime of the FilmFour channel was often used to broadcast uninterrupted coverage of a match when the main channel was committed elsewhere, usually to racing. At these times FilmFour was available unencrypted and free-to-air. E4 E4, a digital entertainment channel previously available on the Internet, with a target age-range of 16-34, was launched in January 2001. It features premières of US imports and supplementary footage for programmes on its main channel (most notably extended Big Brother coverage). In 2005 it launched on Digital Terrestrial. E4 now has as much coverage as other services available on Cable, Satellite and Digital Terrestrial like ITV2 and BBC Three. It is a very successful channel with a first look or sneak peek, with the next episode of some series, such as Hollyoaks and Desperate Housewives appearing on E4 immediately after the show on Channel 4 has finished. Also they have "Second Chance Sunday" which allows you to see programmes you have missed during the week on a Sunday. New show Skins was a massive success for E4, peaking at the 2 million mark - one of the most viewed premières in digital TV history. There has, however, been some criticism that E4 (like many other digital channels), relies on seemingly endless repeats of a small selection of shows (notably Friends), with further suggestion that it is often the same season of a particular show that is endlessly repeated. During Big Brother, E4 plays host to live coverage of the show, subject to a delay. Until 2005, programmes on the channel didn't air until 14.00 GMT, but on 12 August 2005 the widely-advertised E4 Music airs from 06.00 until 10.00 GMT, with various music shows and videos being showcased. This however is rested during Big Brother. Transmission of E4 Music has since declined and has been replaced with repeats of popular E4 shows. Since 2008, live coverage of Big Brother has been shortened during the day. E4 is widely available in the Republic of Ireland in close to 70% of homes. It is carried on the NTL / Chorus cable networks and also on Sky Digital. The channel operates a separate advertising opt-out in the Republic allowing advertisers to directly target Irish audiences. This has been a highly successful commercial operation and all airtime sales are handled on the channels behalf by Medialink in Dublin. More4 More4 is a channel aimed at those aged 35–60. Launched on 10 October 2005, it channel carries news and nightly discussion programmes, such as More4 News, an extension of Channel 4 News that attempts to look "beyond the headlines", giving in-depth analysis. Advertising before the launch of the channel flaunted such HBO shows as Curb Your Enthusiasm and The Sopranos, as well as NBC's The West Wing. Its conception has met conflicting responses; many people believe the programmes shown to be of great quality, while others see it as an excuse to free up more room for a deluge of property programmes or less respectable programmes (see Fat Pets) in all other free slots on Channel 4. 4Music Over recent years 4Music has risen, showing new single releases, as well as other music shows frequently broadcast across T4, Channel 4 and E4. 2007 saw its own logo being devised and since then has had many themed weekends dedicated to a current band or performer. On Sundays, Channel 4's 4Music strand aired between 17:00 and midnight on The Hits. The first 'episode' was presented by the most successful female act of the centuary Sugababes, however 4Music Sundays were meant to feature live acts and also The Shockwaves Album Chart Show. On 20 February 2008, it was announced that The Hits was to be rebranded as 4Music later in the year, and on 15 August 2008, Channel 4 replaced The Hits with 4Music. 4Music is available on Sky Digital 360, Virgin 330 and Freeview 18. (See Box Television) '+1' Channels Channel 4 runs time-shift variants of all its services (excluding 4Music and Channel 4 HD), including Channel 4 +1 since 20 August 2007. across all digital platforms. In common with many other broadcasters, these channels output exactly the same programmes and continuity as was broadcast an hour previously, and are titled with the station name followed by a "+1" suffix. Channel 4 +1, E4 +1 and More4 +1 all carry a "+1" indication onscreen. There was some concern about how it would be indicated on Channel 4 +1 as Channel 4 doesn't carry its own on-screen graphic. Eventually, a "+1" symbol that is derived from the Channel 4 logo was unveiled. However, it should be noted that neither Film4 or Film4 +1 carry on-screen graphics. Box Television In July 2007 Channel 4 bought 50% of Box Television Ltd for £28 m from Emap plc. It has since emerged that, as a result of Emap's decision to sell off its divisions in a break-up sale of the group, Channel 4 may be interested in acquiring the remaining half of the business. Box TV operates 7 music TV stations (4Music, The Box, Smash Hits, Kerrang!, Q, Kiss and Magic). Emap's stake in Box Television Limited was transferred to new owners, Bauer Consumer Media, following Bauer's acquisition of Emap's publishing and radio businesses. Channel 4 HD On 10 December 2007, Channel 4 launched a high definition television simulcast of Channel 4 on Sky+ HD. It is planned to roll out on other platforms "in the future". The channel carries the same schedule as Channel 4, broadcasting programmes in HD when available. Initially this has been mostly American imports (such as Ugly Betty for example) and movies, however, original programming such as Hollyoaks and Skins have been broadcast in HD. Although the intention is to increase the amount of "home grown" material being broadcast in HD. It has been announced as the UK's first full-time high definition channel from a terrestrial broadcaster. Previously, in the summer of 2006, Channel 4 ran a six month closed trial of HDTV, as part of the wider Freeview HD experiment in London Digital Dividend Review Annexes , including the use of Lost and Desperate Housewives as part of the experiment, as US broadcasters such as ABC already have a HDTV back catalogue. Previous Channels At The Races In 2000, Channel 4 launched a dedicated horse racing channel, At the Races. However, for a combination of financial and legal reasons the channel ceased broadcasting in 2003. It was subsequently bought by British Sky Broadcasting and relaunched in June 2004. Channel 4 has no involvement with the new At The Races, which is branded with almost identical livery as Sky Sports. Channel 4's racing coverage, re-named to incorporate "At The Races" in the title, returned to its original name of Channel 4 Racing when the channel left involvement with At The Races. Channel 4 racing programmes now feature close co-operation with rival digital racing channel Racing UK, who sub-licence the live rights and share the same production company. Channel 4 cross-promote Racing UK's coverage of the day's racing during its broadcasts. Quiz Call 4Ventures previously owned Ostrich Media Limited, a company which ran the participation television station, Quiz Call. In November 2006, Channel 4 confirmed that it had sold Ostrich Media Limited to iTouch. The Guardian, Channel 4 sell Ostrich Media Channel 4 cited the fact that strong competition in the UK participation television market had meant that it was no longer easy to make profits from participation TV as the reason for selling. The space occupied by QuizCall on Freeview wasn't included as part of the sale. Consequently, the channel left Channel 4's space on Freeview on 15 November 2006, and was replaced in the short term by Film4+1. Film4+1 to launch on Freeview 16 November - Topic Powered by eve community Channel 4 director of television, Kevin Lygo, confirmed the plan to launch a new channel in the longer term. However, he was reported not to be satisfied with the first round of ideas submitted to him (a US acquisitions channel, a comedy channel and a T4 youth brand channel) and is now canvassing further options. Radio 4 Digital Group Channel 4 was the leading member of the 4 Digital Group consortium, which includes EMAP, UTV and STV Group plc as partners (although STV's involvement will cease when Virgin Radio is floated as a separate company). In July 2007 The group was awarded the 12 year licence to operate the second UK national DAB radio licence after having defeated its only rival, National Grid Wireless, in the three-month bidding process. The service would have operated ten radio stations, including Channel 4 Radio, E4 Radio, Sky News Radio (operated by BSkyB and Global Radio) and Radio Disney (in association with Disney). Many of the services, especially Channel 4 Radio and E4 Radio, will attempt to compete directly with national BBC Radio stations. Podcast and text services will also be provided when the stations were going on air in 2008. In October 2008 Channel 4 announced that it was abandoning its plans for digital radio stations. The Guardian, News, Media, Radio, Tuesday October 14, 2008 16.52 BST - 4 Digital radio partners in crisis talks 4radio In June 2006 Channel 4 launched 4radio, offering audio programmes in the shape of podcasts aimed at introducing new public service radio services informed by C4's values of creativity and innovation. Coupled with its strategy of becoming a truly multimedia company, 4radio hosts shows that tie in with its flagship TV hits including Big Brother, Lost, and Channel 4 News. The successful multiplex consortium is not expected to launch until 2008. However a taste of Channel 4 Radio's audio output was made available earlier, including a revival of the channel's The Tube music programme, and a very small amount of 4radio-branded content could be heard on Oneword until its closure in January 2008. Due to closure of 4 Digital Group, Channel 4 decided to abandon 4radio on the 29 January 2009. Oneword Oneword was a digital radio station featuring the spoken word. In early 2005 Channel 4 purchased a minority stake in it, later that year buying a majority one worth £1,000,000. On 4 January 2007 it was announced that had Channel 4 sold its 51% stake back to UBC Media for £1. Its normal programming was suspended while a strategic review took place on the station. The station ceased broadcasting on 11 January 2008. Channel4.com The station's website is channel4.com. The site offers detailed programme information, highlights, and chats with actors and presenters of all Channel 4 channels. It also has in-depth sections including news, film, homes, sport, and more. Its learning sections are often used by many for educational needs. Internet 4mations In January 2008, Channel 4 joined with Aardman Animations and Lupus Films to create 4mations, a user-generated content animation portal, similar to aniBOOM or MyToons. 4oD / Catch-up 4oD Logo Launched in November 2006, 4oD stands for "4 on Demand", a service which allows some internet, Virgin Media, Tiscali TV and BT Vision users to view programming recently shown on Channel 4, E4 or More4, or from their archives. 4oD also includes a selection of films and content from the National Geographic Channel and FX (UK). The cable version is operated through an appropriate set top box whilst the internet variant requires the installation of a free piece of software, which allows users to download the programmes to a computer for viewing. The services are limited to UK and Republic of Ireland viewers only. As of April 2009, the internet version is fully available to Windows, Mac and Linux users so long as Adobe Flash Player is installed. http://blogs.channel4.com/platform4/2009/04/01/its-here-all-new-4od-catch-up/ The "Catch-up" service offers content free of charge for both streaming and downloaded versions of a programme for thirty days after its broadcast on Channel 4. Some content is available free of charge, whilst most other programmes and films, including archive programming, is charged for on a per-download basis, typically around 99p per standard programme or £1.99 per film. Video can be viewed multiple times, for up to forty-eight hours after the first time it was played, or for a month until played. The video on the internet service is advertised as being 'DVD quality', and estimates download time to be around twice the programme length on an average broadband connection, though speeds vary dramatically dependent on ISP, connection speed and other factors, and may be less or more than this. A Download to Own (DTO) or "Buy" feature is also available on selected content, allowing users to purchase a programme and keep it for as long as they wish. The 4oD internet service uses some of the same technologies (Kontiki Delivery Manager and Windows Media DRM) as the BBC iPlayer Download Manager and Sky Player. Teletext 4-Tel/FourText Channel 4 originally licensed an ancillary teletext service to provide schedules, programme information and features. The original service was called 4-Tel and was provided in collaboration with Oracle. In 1993, with Oracle losing its franchise to Teletext Ltd, the running of 4-Tel was taken over by Intelfax, and in 2002 was renamed FourText. Teletext on 4 In 2003, Channel 4 awarded Teletext Ltd a ten year contract to run the channel's ancillary teletext service, named Teletext on 4. The service is provided on both Channel 4 analogue and digital television services, Channel 4, E4 and More4. Corporate structure Management Channel 4 is run by a chief executive, whose role can be compared to that of the Director-General of the BBC. The chief executive is appointed by the chairman, which is a part-time position appointed by Ofcom. Chairmen Edmund Dell (1982 – 87) Richard Attenborough (1987 – 92) Michael Bishop (1993 – 97) Vanni Treves (January 1998 – December 2003) Luke Johnson (January 2004 – Present) Deputy Chairmen Richard Attenborough (1982 - 1987) David Puttnam Chief Executives Jeremy Isaacs (1981–1987) Michael Grade (1988–1997) Michael Jackson (1997–2002) Mark Thompson (March 2002–June 2004) Andy Duncan (July 2004–Present) Financial information Channel 4's total revenue for the year to 31 December 2005 was £894.3 million, of which £735.2 million was generated by its main channel, and the remainder by its subsidiaries channels, sales of programming rights to other broadcasters, Film Four and "new media". Operating profits for the year to 31 December 2006 fell 70% to £14.5 million from £56.9 million in 2005. 11419_11419_C4 Headquarters The Channel 4 building The Channel 4 building with the Channel 4 Logo Statue outside Originally based at 60 Charlotte Street (the same building in which former chief executive Jeremy Isaacs later originally based his Artsworld channel), close to the BT Tower in London's film and media heartland, Channel 4 has occupied since 1994 a distinctive, purpose-designed building at 124 Horseferry Road, Westminster, designed by Richard Rogers Partnership with structural engineering by Ove Arup & Partners. Architecturally it follows on from, but is more restrained than, the Lloyd's building in the City of London, and was constructed between 1991 and 1994. It was built on the former site of a Methodist teacher-training college, which occupied a neo-Gothic campus intermittently from its foundation in 1851 until World War II, when the buildings were badly damaged by an incendiary bomb. The College eventually moved to a purpose-built site in Oxford in 1959 and became Westminster College, Oxford. Despite commissioning all programmes from independent production companies, the Channel 4 headquarters contains a studio and post production facility, marketed as 124 Facilities. The studio has been used for Channel 4 programmes (such as T4 continuity), and third party programmes (such as the base for Five's football coverage). The studio was closed at the end of October 2007. As of June 2008, in preparation for the upcoming series The Big Art project there is a sculpture outside the building with the Channel 4 logo; note how from one angle the 4 is not visible, as can be seen in many of the company's onscreen presentation. Regions Channel 4 has, since its inception, broadcast identical programmes and continuity throughout the UK (excluding Wales where it does not operate on analogue transmitters). At launch this made it unique, as both the BBC and ITV had long established traditions of providing regional variations in their programming and announcements between transmitters in different areas of the country (although in the case of BBC2, variations have by and large tended to be limited to national idents as opposed to regional ones). In ITV's case, this was a consequence of its inherent federal structure (see ITV companies). Since the launch of subsequent British television channels, Channel 4 has become typical in its lack of variations of this nature. A few exceptions exist to this rule for programming and continuity: The Republic of Ireland has a dedicated variant broadcast on Sky Digital which omits programmes for which broadcast rights are not held in the Republic, whilst some schools' programming (1980s/early 90s) were regionalised due to differences in curricula between different regions of the UK. SchoolsTV.com History of ITV Schools on Channel 4. Retrieved at the Internet Archive, 16 February 2008 Part of Channel 4's remit covers the commissioning of programmes from outside of London. Channel 4 has a dedicated director of nations and regions, Stuart Cosgrove, who is based in a regional office in Glasgow. As his job title suggests, it is his responsibility to foster relations with independent producers based in areas of the UK (including Wales) outside of London. Advertising on Channel 4 does contain regular variation: Prior to 1993, when ITV was responsible for selling Channel 4's advertising, each regional ITV company would provide the content of advertising breaks, covering the same transmitter area as themselves, and these breaks were often unique to that area. After Channel 4 became responsible for its own advertising, it continued to offer advertisers the ability to target particular audiences and divided its coverage area into six parts coining the term 'LEMNUS' standing for "London, The East [and South] of England, The Midlands, The North of England, Ulster and Scotland. At present, Wales does not have its own advertising region, instead its viewers receive the southern region on digital platforms intentionally broadcast to the area, or the neighbouring region where analogue transmissions spill over into Wales. The Republic of Ireland shares its advertising region with Northern Ireland (referred to by Channel 4 as the 'Ulster Macro') with many advertisers selling products for the Republic here. E4 also has an advertising variant for the Republic. The six regions are also carried on satellite, cable and Digital Terrestrial. Five and GMTV use a similar model to Channel 4 for providing their own advertising regions, despite also having a single national output of programming. Future possibility of regional news With ITV plc pushing for much looser requirements on the amount of regional news and other programming it is obliged to broadcast in its ITV regions, the idea of Channel 4 taking on a regional news commitment has been considered, with the corporation in talks with Ofcom and ITV over the matter. Channel 4 believe that a scaling-back of such operations on ITV's part would be detrimental to Channel 4's national news operation, which shares much of its resources with ITV through their shared news contractor ITN. At the same time, Channel 4 also believe that such an additional public service commitment would bode well in on-going negotiations with Ofcom in securing additional funding for its other public service commitments. Annual Reports and Financial Statements Annual Reports and Financial Statements 1983-Present References See also List of British television channels Channel 4 programming 3 Minute Wonder Wank Week Channel 4 Sheffield Pitch competition Annan Committee External links Channel4.com Channel4Radio.com Media Guardian special report on Channel 4 | Channel_4 |@lemmatized channel:231 uk:25 public:16 service:46 television:37 broadcaster:13 begin:11 transmission:7 november:11 although:6 commercially:1 self:1 fund:6 ultimately:2 publicly:2 originally:6 subsidiary:4 independent:9 broadcasting:15 authority:3 iba:6 station:28 operate:13 four:15 corporation:15 body:2 establish:6 come:6 operation:8 provide:13 fourth:6 would:23 break:4 duopoly:1 licence:7 fee:5 bbc:12 two:1 single:3 commercial:11 network:7 itv:26 enjoy:1 almost:3 universal:1 coverage:11 neighbouring:2 country:4 significant:4 audience:5 share:8 despite:3 see:15 new:25 competition:3 growth:1 cable:10 satellite:5 digital:45 continue:3 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3,637 | Django_Reinhardt | Jean "Django" Reinhardt His first name was not "Jean-Baptiste" as often cited. pronounced . (23 January 1910 – 16 May 1953) was a Belgian Gypsy jazz guitarist. One of the first prominent European jazz musicians, Reinhardt remains one of the most renowned jazz guitarists due to his innovative and distinctive playing. With violinist Stéphane Grappelli he cofounded the Quintette du Hot Club de France, described by critic Thom Jurek http://allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:dzfqxql0ldte~T1 as "one of the most original bands in the history of recorded jazz." Reinhardt's most popular compositions have become jazz standards, including "Minor Swing", "Tears", "Belleville", "Djangology", "Swing '42" and "Nuages" (French for "Clouds"). Biography Born in Liberchies, Pont-à-Celles, Belgium, Reinhardt's Gypsy nickname "Django" was Romani for "I awake." He spent most of his youth in gypsy encampments close to Paris, playing banjo, guitar and violin from an early age, and professionally at Bal-musette halls in Paris. He started first on the violin and eventually moved on to a banjo-guitar that had been given to him and his first known recordings (in 1928) were of him playing the banjo. Django Reinhardt as a boy At the age of 18, Reinhardt was injured in a fire that ravaged the caravan he shared with Florine "Bella" Mayer, his first wife. They were very poor, and to supplement their income Bella made imitation flowers out of celluloid and paper. Consequently, their home was full of this highly flammable material. Returning from a performance late one night, Django apparently knocked over a candle on his way to bed. While his family and neighbors were quick to pull him to safety, he received first- and second-degree burns over half his body. His right leg was paralyzed and the third and fourth fingers of his left hand were badly burnt. Doctors believed that he would never play guitar again and intended to amputate one of his legs. Reinhardt refused to have the surgery and left the hospital after a short time; he was able to walk within a year with the aid of a cane. His brother Joseph Reinhardt, an accomplished guitarist himself, bought Django a new guitar. With painful rehabilitation and practice Django relearned his craft in a completely new way, even as his third and fourth fingers remained partially paralyzed. He played all of his guitar solos with only two fingers, and managed to use the two injured digits only for chord work. Career In 1934, Reinhardt and Parisian violinist Stéphane Grappelli formed the "Quintette du Hot Club de France" with Reinhardt's brother Joseph and Roger Chaput on guitar, and Louis Vola on bass. Occasionally Chaput was replaced by Reinhardt's best friend and fellow Gypsy Pierre "Baro" Ferret. The vocalist Freddy Taylor participated in a few songs, such as "Georgia On My Mind" and "Nagasaki". Jean Sablon was the first singer to record with him more than thirty songs from 1933. They also used their guitars for percussive sounds, as they had no true percussion section. The Quintet du Hot Club de France was one of the few well-known jazz ensembles composed only of string instruments. In Paris on March 14, 1933 Reinhardt recorded 2 takes each of "Parce que je vous aime" and "Si, j'aime Suzy", vocal numbers with lots of guitar fills and great guitar support, using 3 guitarists along with an accordion lead, violin, and bass. In August of the following year recordings were also made with more than one guitar (Joseph Reinhardt, Roger Chaput, and Django), including the first recording by the Quintet. In both years, it should be noted, the great majority of recordings featured a wide variety of horns, often in multiples, piano, etc. Reinhardt played and recorded also with many American Jazz legends such as Coleman Hawkins, Benny Carter, Rex Stewart (who later stayed in Paris), and a jam-session and radio performance with jazz legend Louis Armstrong. Later in his career he gigged with Dizzy Gillespie in France. Reinhardt could neither read nor write music, and was barely literate. Stéphane took the band's downtime to teach him. The guitars used by Django and the Hot Club of France, the Selmer Maccaferri, are the first commercially available guitars with a cutaway. Another innovation is a steel reinforced neck. Many luthiers consider them to be among the finest guitars ever made. WWII When World War II broke out, the original quintet was on tour in the United Kingdom. Reinhardt returned to Paris at once , leaving his wife behind. Grappelli remained in the United Kingdom for the duration of the war. Reinhardt reformed the quintet, with Hubert Rostaing on clarinet replacing Grappelli's violin. In 1943, Django married Sophie Ziegler in Salbris, with whom he had a son, Babik Reinhardt, who became a respected guitarist in his own right. Reinhardt survived World War II unscathed, unlike the many Gypsies who perished in the porajmos, the Nazi regime's systematic murder of several hundred thousand European Gypsies, quite a few of whom were sent to death camps. He was especially fortunate because the Nazi regime did not allow jazz to be performed and recorded. He apparently enjoyed the protection of the Luftwaffe officer Dietrich Schulz-Köhn, nicknamed "Doktor Jazz", who deeply admired his music. Post war After the war, Reinhardt rejoined Grappelli in the UK, and then went on in fall 1946 to tour the United States as a special guest soloist with Duke Ellington and His Orchestra, playing two nights at Carnegie Hall with many notable musicians and composers such as Maury Deutsch. Despite Reinhardt's great pride in touring with Ellington (one of his two letters to Grappelli relates this excitement), he wasn't really integrated into the band, playing only a few tunes at the end of the show, with no special arrangements written personally for him. He was used to his brother, Joseph, carrying around his guitar for him and tuning it. Allegedly, Reinhardt was given an untuned guitar to play with (discovered after strumming a chord) and it took him five whole minutes to tune it. Also, he was used to playing a Selmer Modèle Jazz, the guitar he made famous, but he was required to play a new amplified model. After "going electric", the results were not as much liked by fans. He returned to France with broken dreams, but continued to play and make many recordings. Django Reinhardt was among the first people in France to appreciate the music of Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie whom he sought when he arrived in New York. Unfortunately they were both on tour. After returning to France, Django spent the remainder of his days re-immersed in gypsy life, having found it difficult to adjust to the modern world. He would sometimes show up for concerts without a guitar or amp, or wander off to the park or beach, and on a few occasions he refused even to get out of bed. Reinhardt was known by his band, fans, and managers to be extremely unpredictable. He would often skip sold-out concerts to simply "walk to the beach" or "smell the dew". However, he did continue to compose and is still regarded as one of the most advanced jazz guitarists to ever play the instrument. In 1948, Reinhardt recruited a few Italian jazz players (on bass, piano, and snare drum) and recorded one of his most acclaimed contributions, "Djangology", once again with Stephane Grappelli on violin. Although his experience in the U.S. left him influenced greatly by American jazz, making him a different player from the man Grappelli had known, on this recording Reinhardt switched back to his old roots, once again playing the acoustic Selmer-Maccaferri. The recording was recently discovered by jazz enthusiasts and is now available in the U.S. and Europe. In 1951, he retired to Samois-sur-Seine, France, near Fontainebleau. He lived there for two years until 16 May 1953, when, while returning from the Avon train station, he collapsed outside his house from a brain hemorrhage. It took a full day for a doctor to arrive and Django was declared dead on arrival at the hospital in Fontainebleau. Influence Many musicians have expressed admiration for Reinhardt (whose main influence was Eddie Lang), including guitarist Jimmy McCulloch, classical guitarist Julian Bream; country artist Chet Atkins, who placed Reinhardt #1 on a list of the ten most influential guitarists of the 20th century (he placed himself fifth); Latin rocker Carlos Santana; blues legend B.B. King; Pierre Bensusan; the Grateful Dead's Jerry Garcia; Phish's Trey Anastasio; Black Sabbath's Tony Iommi; Jimi Hendrix; The Libertines' Carl Barat, Synyster Gates; Shawn Lane; Stevie Ray Vaughan; Derek Trucks; Mark Knopfler; Les Paul; Joe Pass; Peter Frampton; Denny Laine; Jeff Beck; Jon Larsen; Steve Howe; Charlie Christian; Barney Kessel; George Benson; Wes Montgomery; Martin Taylor; Tchavolo Schmitt; Stochelo Rosenberg; Biréli Lagrène; John Jorgenson; Michael Angelo Batio; Richard Thompson; Robert Fripp; and Jeff Martin. Willie Nelson wore a Django Reinhardt T-shirt on tour in Europe in 2002, stating in an interview that he admired Django's music and ability. The British guitarist Diz Disley plays in a style based on Reinhardt's technique and he collaborated on numerous projects with Stéphane Grappelli.Jose Feliciano attributes his unique style, in part, to that of the master, Django Reinhardt. in 2009 He composed an album inspired by those musical influences and entitled it, "Djangoisms." Musicians have paid tribute to Reinhardt in many other ways, such as by invoking his name in their own work or personal life. Jimi Hendrix is said to have named one of his bands the Band of Gypsys because of Django's music. Jazz trio The Lost Fingers from Quebec, Canada named themselves after Reinhardt's injured fingers, and play music that is strongly influenced by his style. A number of musicians named their sons Django in reference to Reinhardt, including David Crosby, former Slade singer Noddy Holder, Jerry Jeff Walker, Richard Durrant, and also actors Nana Visitor & Alexander Siddig and Raphael Sbarge. Jazz musician Django Bates and singer-songwriter Django Haskins were named after him. Songs written in Reinhardt's honor include "Django," composed by John Lewis, which has become a jazz standard performed by musicians such as Miles Davis. The Modern Jazz Quartet titled one of their albums Django in honor of him. The Allman Brothers Band song Jessica was written by Dickey Betts in tribute to Reinhardt — he wanted to write a song that could be played using only two fingers. This aspect of the artist's work also motivated Black Sabbath guitarist Tony Iommi, who was inspired by Reinhardt to keep playing guitar after a factory accident that cost him two fingertips. Composer Jon Larsen has composed several crossover concerts featuring Django inspired music together with symphonic arrangements, most famous are "White Night Stories" (2002) and "Vertavo" (1996). In 2005, Django Reinhardt ended on the 66th place in the election of The Greatest Belgian (De Grootste Belg) in Flanders and on the 76th place in the Walloon version of the same competition Le plus grand Belge. George Cole has created a seven piece acoustic band in the style of Django Reinhardt called George Cole and Vive Le Jazz. They perform original music with Gypsy Jazz rhythms. He owns one of Django's Selmer guitars and was featured in "Just Jazz Magazine." He has played at Carnegie Hall, The Fillmore and The Great American Music Hall. Reinhardt in popular culture Reinhardt has been portrayed in several films, such as in the opening sequence of the 2003 animated film Les Triplettes de Belleville. The third and fourth fingers of the cartoon Reinhardt are considerably smaller than the fingers used to play the guitar. Reinhardt's legacy dominates in Woody Allen's 1999 Sweet and Lowdown. This spoof biopic focuses on fictional American guitarist Emmet Ray's obsession with Reinhardt, with soundtrack featuring Howard Alden. He is also portrayed by guitarist John Jorgenson in the movie Head in the Clouds. In the classic Italian western Django, the titular hero is presumably named after Reinhardt. In the climax of the movie, his hands are smashed by his enemies and he is forced to fire a gun with his wounded hands. Reinhardt is also the idol of the character Arvid in the movie Swing Kids, where the character's left hand is smashed by a member of the Hitler Jugend (HJ), but is inspired to continue by Reinhardt's example. Reinhardt's music has been used in the soundtrack of many films, including the oracle scene in The Matrix; Rhythm Futur (95 minute mark) and I Can't Give You Anything But Love (41 minute mark) in The Aviator; Nuages in Gattaca; the score for Louis Malle's 1974 movie, Lacombe Lucien;the background for the Steve Martin movie L.A. Story; the background for a number of Woody Allen movies, including Stardust Memories, where Woody's character plays a Django record; Honeysuckle Rose in the background of the Central Park carriage ride scene in Kate and Leopold; during the Juilliard audition in the movie Daltry Calhoun; Minor Swing and Blues Clair in Metroland for which Mark Knopfler wrote the score; his rendition of Brazil can be heard on the "Something's Gotta Give" soundtrack; and Minor Swing in the scene in the painter's house in the Italian film "I Cento Passi", and as played by Johnny Depp in the river party scene in Lasse Hallström's Chocolat. Reinhardt's work also figures heavily into B. Monkey and The Pallbearer. Reinhardt's music has also been featured in the soundtracks of several video games, such as the 2002 game Mafia and several times in the 2007 game BioShock. Reinhardt has been a subject in several works of fiction. Harlan Ellison's short story "Django" is a fantasia about a guitarist, with similarities to Reinhardt. Author William Kotzwinkle's 1989 collection, The Hot Jazz Trio stars Reinhardt in a surrealistic fantasy also featuring Jean Cocteau. An extended discussion of Reinhardt takes place among several characters in the novel From Here to Eternity by James Jones. The character Andre Custine has a double bass that had been played by Reinhardt in the novel Century Rain by Alastair Reynolds. Reinhardt has been the subject of several songs, most notably "Django", a melancholy gypsy-flavored piece that jazz pianist John Lewis of the Modern Jazz Quartet wrote in honor of his memory (1954); numerous versions of the song have been recorded, including one on the 1973 Lindsey Buckingham / Stevie Nicks self-titled debut album; it also appears on Joe Bonamassa's 2006 LP "You & Me". The lyrics of the Norwegian song "Tanta til Beate" by Lillebjørn Nilsen mentions Django several times. He is mentioned in Jump Little Children's song "Mexico" as clearly influential and meaningful to the songwriter: "I won't let you leave, not with all my Django, Emmylou and Steve." The Django web application framework was named after Reinhardt, and so was the minor planet 94291 Django. Discography 1945 Paris 1945 1947 Ellingtonia - with the Rex Stewart Band - Dial 215 1949 Djangology1951 Django Reinhardt and the Hot Club Quintet1951 At Club St. Germain1953 Django Reinhardt et Ses Rythmes1954 The Great Artistry of Django Reinhardt1955 Django's Guitar1959 Django Reinhardt and His Rhythm1980 Routes to Django Reinhardt1991 Django Reinhardt - Pêche à la Mouche: The Great Blue Star Sessions 1947/19531996 Imagine2001 All Star Sessions2001 Jazz in Paris: Swing 392002 Djangology (remastered) (recorded in 1948, discovered, remastered and released by Bluebird Records)2003 Jazz in Paris: Nuages2003 Jazz in Paris: Nuits de Saint-Germain des-Prés2004 Le Génie Vagabond2008 Django on the Radio (radio broadcasts, 1945 - 1953) At least eight compilations have also been released. See also Gypsy Jazz List of Belgian bands and artists List of Belgian musicians and singers Golden Django Django Reinhardt Jazz Festival Jazz manouche List of Roma, Sinti and Mixed People Oscar Alemán Sinti Vernon Story List of compositions by Django Reinhardt Jean Sablon References External links HotClub.co.uk Information on players, playing, equipment, etc DjangoStation Information on Django and the Jazz Manouche : CD, DVD, video, concerts. In French'' Djangopedia - An Encyclopedia of Django's Recordings General Information on Django and Gypsy Jazz from Paul Vernon Chester | Django_Reinhardt |@lemmatized jean:5 django:47 reinhardt:63 first:10 name:8 baptiste:1 often:3 cite:1 pronounce:1 january:1 may:2 belgian:4 gypsy:12 jazz:33 guitarist:14 one:14 prominent:1 european:2 musician:8 remain:3 renowned:1 due:1 innovative:1 distinctive:1 playing:3 violinist:2 stéphane:4 grappelli:9 cofounded:1 quintette:2 du:3 hot:6 club:6 de:7 france:9 describe:1 critic:1 thom:1 jurek:1 http:1 allmusic:1 com:1 cg:1 amg:2 dll:1 p:1 sql:1 original:3 band:10 history:1 recorded:1 popular:2 composition:2 become:3 standard:2 include:8 minor:4 swing:6 tear:1 belleville:2 djangology:3 nuages:2 french:2 cloud:2 biography:1 bear:1 liberchies:1 pont:1 à:2 celles:1 belgium:1 nickname:2 romani:1 awake:1 spend:2 youth:1 encampment:1 close:1 paris:9 play:20 banjo:3 guitar:20 violin:5 early:1 age:2 professionally:1 bal:1 musette:1 hall:4 start:1 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3,638 | Bandy | Bandy is a winter sport where a ball is hit with a stick. It shares a common ancestry with ice hockey having been developed from the informal "ball and stick on ice" games known collectively as shinny. Bandy is played on ice. Old names for bandy are hockey on the ice or hockey on ice. Since the mid-20th Century the term bandy is usually preferred to prevent confusion with ice hockey. The sport is known by this name in many countries though there are a few notable exceptions. In Russia bandy is called "Russian hockey" (Русский хоккей) or more frequently hockey with ball (xоккей с мячом) while ice hockey is called hockey with puck (xоккей с шайбой) or Canadian hockey. In Finland bandy is known as ice ball (jääpallo) and ice hockey is ice puck (jääkiekko). Game Swedish teams Bollnäs GIF and Edsbyns IF in 2004 Bandy is played on ice, using a single round ball. Two teams of eleven players each compete to get the ball into the other team's goal using sticks, thereby scoring a goal. The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner; if both teams have scored an equal number of goals, then the game is a draw. There are exceptions to this rule, however. The primary rule is that the players (other than the goalkeepers) may not intentionally touch the ball with their heads, hands or arms during play. Although players usually use their sticks to move the ball around, they may use any part of their bodies other than their heads, hands or arms and may use their skates in a limited manner. Heading the ball will result in a five-minute penalty. In typical game play, players attempt to propel the ball toward their opponents' goal through individual control of the ball, such as by dribbling, passing the ball to a team-mate, and by taking shots at the goal, which is guarded by the opposing goalkeeper. Opposing players may try to regain control of the ball by intercepting a pass or through tackling the opponent who controls the ball; however, physical contact between opponents is limited. Bandy is generally a free-flowing game, with play stopping only when the ball has left the field of play, or when play is stopped by the referee. After a stoppage, play can recommence with a free stroke, a penalty shot or a corner stroke. If the ball has left the field along the sidelines, the referee must decide which team touched the ball last, and award a restart stroke to the opposing team, just like football's throw-in. The rules do not specify any player positions other than goalkeeper, but a number of player specialisations have evolved. Broadly, these include three main categories: forwards, whose main task is to score goals; defenders, who specialise in preventing their opponents from scoring; and midfielders, who dispossess the opposition and keep possession of the ball in order to pass it to the forwards; players in these positions are referred to as outfield players, in order to discern them from the single goalkeeper. These positions are further differentiated by which side of the field the player spends most time in. For example, there are central defenders, and left and right midfielders. The ten outfield players may be arranged in these positions in any combination (for example, there may be three defenders, five midfielders, and two forwards), and the number of players in each position determines the style of the team's play; more forwards and fewer defenders would create a more aggressive and offensive-minded game, while the reverse would create a slower, more defensive style of play. While players may spend most of the game in a specific position, there are few restrictions on player movement, and players can switch positions at any time. The layout of the players on the pitch is called the team's formation, and defining the team's formation and tactics is usually the prerogative of the team's manager(s). Rules Overview There are eighteen rules in the official bandy rules. The same rules are designed to apply to all levels of bandy, although certain modifications for groups such as juniors, seniors or women are permitted. The rules are often framed in broad terms, which allow flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game. The rules can be found on the official website of the Federation of International Bandy website. Players, equipment and officials A bandy stick and ball The making of a historic bandy ball, from the original cork to the left to the final ball painted red, to the far right is a modern bandy ball Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players (excluding substitutes), one of whom must be the goalkeeper. A team of fewer than eight players may not start a game. Goalkeepers are the only players allowed to play the ball with their hands or arms, but they are only allowed to do so within the penalty area in front of their own goal. Though there are a variety of positions in which the outfield (non-goalkeeper) players are strategically placed by a coach, these positions are not defined or required by the rules of the game. The basic equipment players are required to wear includes a pair of skates, a helmet, a mouth guard and, in the case of the goalkeeper, a face guard. The teams must wear uniforms that make it easy to distinguish the two teams. The skates, sticks and any tape on the stick must be of another colour than the ball. In addition to the aforementioned equipment, various protections are used to protect knees, elbows, genitals and throat and the pants and gloves may contain padding. Any number of players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game. Substitutions can be performed without notifying the referee and can be performed while the ball is in play. However, if the substitute enters the ice before his teammate has left it, this will result in a 5 minute ban. A team can bring at the most four substitutes to the game and one of these is likely to be an extra goalkeeper. A game is officiated by a referee, the authority to enforce the rules, and whose decisions are final. The referee may be assisted by one or two assistant referees. Field Standard field measurements The size of a bandy field is in the range 4,050 - 7,150 square metres (45-65 by 90-110 metres), about the same size as a football pitch and considerably larger than an ice hockey rink. Along the sidelines a 15 cm high border (vant, sarg, wand, wall) is placed to prevent the ball from leaving the ice. It should not be attached to the ice, in order to glide upon collisions, and should end 1-3 metres away from the corners. Centered at each shortline is a 3.5 m wide and 2.1 m high goal cage and in front of the cage is a half-circular penalty area with a 17 m radius. A penalty spot is located 12 metres in front of the goal and there are two free-stroke spots at the penalty area line, each surrounded by a 5 m circle. A centre spot denotes the center of the field and a circle of radius 5 m is centered at it. A centre-line is drawn through the centre spot and parallel with the shortlines. At each of the corners, a 1 m radius quarter-circle is drawn, and a dotted line is painted parallel to the shortline and five metres away from it without extending into the penalty area. The dotted line can be replaced with a half-metre long line starting at the edge of the penalty area and extending towards the sideline, five metres from the shortline. Duration and tie-breaking measures A standard adult bandy match consists of two periods of 45 minutes each, known as halves. Each half runs continuously, meaning that the clock is not stopped when the ball is out of play; the referee can, however, make allowance for time lost through significant stoppages as described below. There is usually a 15-minute "half-time" break between halves. The end of the match is known as full-time. The referee is the official timekeeper for the match, and may make an allowance for time lost through substitutions, injured players requiring attention, or other stoppages. This added time is commonly referred to as stoppage time or injury time, and must be reported to the match secretary and the two captains. The referee alone signals the end of the match. In league competitions games may end in a draw, but in some knockout competitions if a game is tied at the end of regulation time it may go into extra time, which consists of two further 15-minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time, the game will be replayed. As an alternative, the extra two times 15-minutes may be played as "Golden goal" which means that the first team that scores during the extra-time wins the game. If both extra periods are played without a scored goal, a penalty shootout will settle the game. The teams shoot five penalties each and if this doesn't settle the game, the teams shoot one more penalty each until one of them misses and the other scores. Ball in and out of play Under the rules, the two basic states of play during a game are ball in play and ball out of play. From the beginning of each playing period with a stroke-off (a set strike from the centre-spot by one team) until the end of the playing period, the ball is in play at all times, except when either the ball leaves the field of play, or play is stopped by the referee. When the ball becomes out of play, play is restarted by one of eight restart methods depending on how it went out of play: Elitserien 2007 in Sweden. A corner is about to be executed during the game Västerås SK-Edsbyns IF. MethodDescriptionStroke-offfollowing a goal by the opposing team, or to begin each period of play.Goal-throwwhen the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by an attacker; awarded to the defending team.Corner strokewhen the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a defender; awarded to attacking team. The defending team must locate themselves behind goal line and the attacking team must be situated outside the penalty area with everyone but the executor no closer to the shortline than 5 m. As soon as the corner is shoot, the attackers may enter the penalty area and the defenders may rush to try to stop the ball.Free-strokeawarded to fouled team following certain listed offences, or to the opposing team upon a team causing the ball to leave the field over the side-line.Penalty shotawarded to the fouled team following a foul usually punishable by a free-shot but that has occurred within their opponent's penalty area.Face-offoccurs when the referee has stopped play for any other reason (e.g., a serious injury to a player, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective). This restart is uncommon in adult games. If the time runs out while a team is preparing for a free-stroke or penalty, the strike should still be made but it must go into the goal by one shot to count as a goal. Similarly, a goal made via a corner stroke should be allowed, but it must be executed using only one shot in addition to the strike needed to put the ball in play. Free-strokes and penalty shots Free-strokes can be awarded to a team if a player of the opposite team offends any rule, e.g. by hitting with the stick against the opponent's stick or skates. Free-strokes can also be awarded upon incorrect execution of corner-strikes, free-strikes, goal-throws, etc. or the use of incorrect equipment, such as a broken stick. Rather than stopping play, the referee may allow play to continue when its continuation will benefit the team against which an offence has been committed. This is known as "playing an advantage". The referee may "call back" play and penalise the original offence if the anticipated advantage does not ensue within a short period of time, typically taken to be four to five seconds. Even if an offence is not penalised because the referee plays an advantage, the offender may still be sanctioned (see below) for any associated misconduct at the next stoppage of play. If a defender violently attacks an opponent within the penalty area, a penalty shot is awarded. Certain other offences, when carried out within the penalty area, result in a penalty shot provided there is a goal situation. These offences include a defender holding or hooking an attacker, or blocking a goal situation with a lifted skate, thrown stick or glove etc. Also, the defenders (with the exception of the goal-keeper) are not allowed to kneel or lay on the ice. The final offences that might mandate a penalty shot are those of hitting or blocking an opponent's stick or touching the ball with the hands, arms, stick or head above the shoulders. If any of these actions is carried out in a non-goal situation, they shall be awarded with a free-stroke from one of the free-stroke spots at the penalty area line. A penalty shot should always be accompanied by a 5 or 10 minutes penalty (see below). If the penalty results in a goal, the penalty should be considered personal meaning that a substitute can be sent in for the penalised player. This does not apply in the event of a red card (see below). Warnings and penalties A ten minutes penalty is indicated through the use of a blue card and can be caused by protesting or behaving incorrectly, attacking an opponent violently or stopping the ball incorrectly in order to get an advantage. The third time a player receives a penalty, it will be a personal penalty meaning he or she will miss the remainder of the match. A substitute can enter the field after five or ten minutes. A full game penalty can be received upon using abusive language or directly attacking an opponent and means that the player can neither play nor be substituted for the remainder of the game. A match penalty is indicated through the use of a red card. Previously, there has been white, and yellow cards in use for lesser fouls, these have been removed. Offside The offside rule effectively limits the ability of attacking players to remain forward (i.e. closer to the opponent's goal-line) of the ball, the second-to-last defending player (which can include the goalkeeper), and the half-way line. This rule is in effect just like that of football. International World map showing the 21 members of the Federation of International Bandy. World Championships The Bandy World Championships for men were first held in 1957 and then every two years starting in 1961, and every year since 2003. Currently there are 13 (WCS 2008) countries participating in the world championships. The participating countries vary from year to year. Finland won the 2004 world championship. All other championships have been won by the Soviet Union, Russia, or Sweden. In February 2004, Sweden won the first World Championship for women, hosted in Finland. The second women's World Championships were held in Roseville, Minnesota at the Guidant John Rose Minnesota Oval in the USA in 2006 and once again Sweden won, defeating Russia in the final (3-1). For all the tournaments since 1957, see Bandy World Championships. World Cup The World Championships should not be confused with the annual World Cup in Ljusdal, Sweden, which is the biggest bandy tournament for club teams on elite level. With matches played day and night, the tournament is played in four days in late October. The winner in 2008 was Edsbyns IF, the team that at present dominates Swedish bandy, having won five straight Swedish championships. International federation The Federation of International Bandy (FIB), has 27 members (2008). Formed in 1955, the name was changed from International Bandy Federation in 2001 after the International Olympic Committee approved it as a "recognized sport". Olympic Games Although bandy was the demonstration sport at the VI Olympic Winter Games in 1952 (Oslo, Norway), and is a "recognized sport" by the IOC, it is still waiting for acceptance as an Olympic sport. Only three teams played bandy at the 1952 Winter Olympics: Finland, Norway and Sweden. History Bandy, also known as banty, probably originated as a form of field hockey on ice and developed in a similar fashion to modern ice hockey. Rather than develop its own rules or codes (as ice hockey did), Bandy adopted rules similar to association football. The verb bandy means to toss things back and forth, though the things are usually words or ideas rather than balls. Games that are accepted as direct predecessors to bandy have been recorded in Russian monastery records dating back to the X-XI centuries. A game that could be recognized as essentially modern bandy was played in Russia by the early 1700s, although the rules used differed from those that were invented in England at a much later date. All the way through modern times, Russia has kept a top position in the Bandy area, being one of the founding nations of the International Federation, as well as the most successful team in the World Championships. Russians rightfully see themselves as the creators of the sport, which is reflected by the unofficial title for bandy, "Russian hockey," or "русский хоккей." In the western world, Britain has played an important role in the development of bandy. A game similar to bandy was known in Wales as Bando. It was played throughout the country in varying forms and is still to be found in some areas. The earliest example of the Welsh language term bando occurs in a dictionary by John Walters published in 1770–94. It was particularly popular in the Cynffig-Margam district of the Vale of Glamorgan where wide stretches of sandy beaches afforded ample room for play. As a winter sport, British bandy originated in the Fens of East Anglia where large expanses of ice formed on flooded meadows or shallow washes in cold winters, and skating was a tradition. Members of the Bury Fen bandy club published rules of the game in 1882, and introduced it into other countries. Bandy and hockey were used in parallel for the same sport, but today bandy is played on a frozen football pitch, and hockey on a smaller rink. Bandy/Hockey was divided by the North Americans in the 1800s by shrinking the pitch, goals and reducing the number of players. Bandy is now played in a few nations, including Russia, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Kazakhstan, Belarus, the United States, Canada, the Netherlands, Latvia, Estonia, Hungary, and Mongolia. Countries Britain The first recorded games of bandy on ice took place in the Fens during the great frost of 1813-1814, although it is probable that the game had been played there in the previous century. Bury Fen bandy club from Bluntisham-cum-Earith, near St Ives, was the most successful team, remaining unbeaten until the winter of 1890-1891. Charles G Tebbutt of the Bury Fen bandy club was responsible for the first published rules of bandy in 1882, and also for introducing the game into the Netherlands and Sweden, as well as elsewhere in England where it became popular with cricket, rowing and hockey clubs. Tebbutt's home-made bandy stick can be seen in the Norris Museum in St Ives. England won the European Bandy Championships in 1913, but that turned out to be the grand finale, and bandy is now virtually unknown in England. In March 2004, Norwegian ex-player Edgar Malman invited two big clubs to play an exhibition game in Streatham, London. Russian Champions and World Cup Winner Vodnik met Swedish Champions Edsbyn in a match that ended 5-5. Russia In Russia bandy is known as hockey with a ball or simply Russian hockey. The game became popular among nobility in early 1700s, with the royal court of Peter I the Great playing bandy on Saint Petersburg's frozen Neva river. Russians played bandy with sticks made out of juniper wood, later adopting skates. By the second half of the 19th century the game also became popular among the masses throughout the Russian Empire. Traditionally the Russians used a longer skate blade than other nations, giving them the advantage of running faster. However, they would find it more difficult to turn quickly. A bandy skate has a longer blade than a hockey skate, and the "Russian skate" even longer. When the Federation of International Bandy was formed in 1955, with the Soviet Union as one of its founding members, the Russians adopted the international rules of the game developed in England in the 19th century. Sweden Bandy was introduced to Sweden in 1895. The Swedish royal family, barons and diplomats were the first players. Swedish championships for men has been played annually since 1907. In the 1920s students played the game and it became a largely middle class sport. After Slottsbrons IF won the Swedish championship in 1934 it became popular amongst workers in the smaller industrial towns and villages. Bandy remains the main winter sport in many of these places. Bandy in Sweden is famous for its "culture" - both playing bandy and being a spectator requires great fortitude and dedication. A "bandy briefcase" is the classic accessory for spectating - it is typically made of brown leather, well worn and contain a warm drink in a thermos and/or a flask of liquor. Bandy is most often played at outdoor arenas during winter time, so the need for spectators to carry flask or thermoses of 'warming' liquid is a natural effect. The play-off match for the Swedish Championship is played every year on the third Sunday of March at Studenternas Idrottsplats in Uppsala, drawing crowds in excess of 20,000. Sweden is the current world champion in 2009. Norway Bandy was introduced to Norway in the 1910s. The Swedes contributed largely, and clubs sprang up around the capital of Oslo. In 1912 the Norwegians played their first National Championship, which was played annually up to 1940. During WWII, illegal bandy was played in hidden places in forests, on ponds and lakes. In 1943, -44 and -45, illegal championships were held. In 1946 legal play resumed and goes on still. After WWII the number of teams rose, but mild winters in the 1970s and 80s shrunk the league, and in 2003 only 5 clubs (teams) fought out the 1st division. Later, the number of artificially frozen pitches has risen, and the number of clubs has started a slight increase. From 1912 to 1928 the game was played 7-a-side and Ready (Oslo) won 13 titles. Since 1928 the sport has been played 11-a-side, and Drafn (Drammen) have won 18 titles (including one from the 7-man game). During the 1960s crowd attendance could be anything from 200 to 4000, but these days only a handful visitors cheer their side. Big games though, can still attract 2000 people. External links What is Bandy? - History and rules of Bandy. International Bandy Federation International Bandy Referees Bandysidan links - One of the most extensive link directories about bandy Norris Museum - Link to the Norris Museum of Saint Ives 2007 Bandy World Championship - Official site 2008 Bandy World Championship - Official site 2009 Bandy World Championship - Official site National Bandy Federations Argentina - Armenia - Australia - Australian Bandy Federation Canada - Canada Bandy Welcome to Canada Bandy People's Republic of China - Belarus - Беларуская федэрацыя хакея з мячом (Belarusian Bandy Federation) Estonia - Eesti Jääpalliliit (Bandy Federation of Estonia) Finland - Suomen Jääpalloliitto Suomen jääpalloliitto Hungary - Magyar Bandy Szövetség Hungarian Bandy Federation India - Bandy Federation of India Ireland - Bandy Federation of Ireland Italy - Federazione Italiana Bandy Kazakstan - Kazakhstan Bandy Federation Kyrgyzstan - Bandy Federation of Kyrgyzstan Latvia - Latvijas Bendija Federācija Latvijas Bendija Federācija Lithuania - Mongolia - Bandy Federation of Mongolia Netherlands - Dutch Bandy Federation BVN - Bandy Vereniging Nijmegen Poland - Bandy Federation of Poland Norway - Norges Bandyforbund Norges Bandyforbund - Bandy Russia - Всероссийская федерация хоккея с мячом (All Russian bandy federation) п⌠п╩п╟п╡п╫п╟я▐ Serbia - Bandy Federation of Serbia Sweden - Svenska Bandyförbundet Svenska Bandyförbundet - svenskbandy.se Switzerland - Bandy Federation of Switzerland Ukraine - Українськa Федерація хокею з м'ячем та рінк-бенді (Ukrainian Bandy and Rinkbandy Federation) Українська Федерація хокею з м'ячем і рінк-бенді United Arab Emirates - United States - American Bandy Association American Bandy Association References | Bandy |@lemmatized bandy:92 winter:9 sport:12 ball:44 hit:3 stick:15 share:1 common:1 ancestry:1 ice:21 hockey:22 develop:4 informal:1 game:42 know:9 collectively:1 shinny:1 play:60 old:1 name:3 since:5 mid:1 century:5 term:3 usually:6 prefer:1 prevent:3 confusion:1 many:2 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3,639 | Intuitionism | In the philosophy of mathematics, intuitionism, or neointuitionism (opposed to preintuitionism), is an approach to mathematics as the constructive mental activity of humans. That is, mathematics does not consist of analytic activities wherein deep properties of existence are revealed and applied. Instead, logic and mathematics are the application of internally consistent methods to realize more complex mental constructs. Truth and proof The fundamental distinguishing characteristic of intuitionism is its interpretation of what it means for a mathematical statement to be true. As the name suggests, in Brouwer's original intuitionism, the truth of a statement is taken to be equivalent to the mathematician being able to intuit the statement. The vagueness of the intuitionistic notion of truth often leads to misinterpretations about its meaning. Kleene formally defined intuitionistic truth from a realist position, however Brouwer would likely reject this formalization as meaningless, given his rejection of the realist/Platonist position. Intuitionistic truth therefore remains somewhat ill defined. Regardless of how it is interpreted, intuitionism does not equate the truth of a mathematical statement with its provability. However, because the intuitionistic notion of truth is more restrictive than that of classical mathematics, the intuitionist must reject some assumptions of classical logic to ensure that everything he/she proves is in fact intuitionistically true. This gives rise to intuitionistic logic. To claim an object with certain properties exists is, to an intuitionist, to claim to be able to construct a certain object with those properties. Any mathematical object is considered to be a product of a construction of a mind, and therefore, the existence of an object is equivalent to the possibility of its construction. This contrasts with the classical approach, which states that the existence of an entity can be proved by refuting its non-existence. For the intuitionist, this is not valid; the refutation of the non-existence does not mean that it is possible to find a constructive proof of existence. As such, intuitionism is a variety of mathematical constructivism; but it is not the only kind. As well, to say A or B, to an intuitionist, is to claim that either A or B can be proved. In particular, the law of excluded middle, A or not A, is disallowed since one can construct, via Gödel's incompleteness theorems, a mathematical statement that can be neither proven nor disproved. The interpretation of negation is also different. In classical logic, the negation of a statement asserts that the statement is false; to an intuitionist, it means the statement is refutable (i.e., that there is a proof that there is no proof of it). The asymmetry between a positive and negative statement becomes apparent. If a statement P is provable, then it is certainly impossible to prove that there is no proof of P; however, just because there is no proof that P is not true, we cannot conclude from this absence that there is a proof of P. Thus P is a stronger statement than not-not-P. Intuitionistic logic substitutes constructability for abstract truth and is associated with a transition from the proof to model theory of abstract truth in modern mathematics. The logical calculus preserves justification, rather than truth, across transformations yielding derived propositions. It has been taken as giving philosophical support to several schools of philosophy, most notably the Anti-realism of Michael Dummett. Thus, contrary to the first impression its name might convey, and as realized in specific approaches and disciplines (e.g. Fuzzy Sets and Systems), intuitionist mathematics is more rigorous than conventionally founded mathematics where, ironically, the foundational elements which Intutionism attempts to construct/refute/refound are taken as intuitively given. Intuitionism and infinity Among the different formulations of intuitionism, there are several different positions on the meaning and reality of infinity. The term potential infinity refers to a mathematical procedure in which there is an unending series of steps. After each step has been completed, there is always another step to be performed. For example, consider the process of counting: 1, 2, 3, ... The term actual infinity refers to a completed mathematical object which contains an infinite number of elements. An example is the set of natural numbers, . In Cantor's formulation of set theory, there are many different infinite sets, some of which are larger than others. For example, the set of all real numbers is larger than , because any procedure that you attempt to use to put the natural numbers into one-to-one correspondence with the real numbers will always fail: there will always be an infinite number of real numbers "left over". Any infinite set that can be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers is said to be "countable". Infinite sets larger than this are said to be "uncountable". Cantor's approach to set theory (in revised form) is the foundation of modern mainstream mathematics. Intuitionism was created, in part, as a reaction to Cantor's set theory. All forms of intuitionism reject the reality of uncountable infinite sets. Modern constructive set theory does include the axiom of infinity from Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (or a revised version of this axiom), and includes the set N of natural numbers. Most modern constructive mathematicians accept the reality of countably infinite sets (however, see Alexander Esenin-Volpin for a counter-example). Brouwer rejected the concept of actual infinity, but admitted the idea of potential infinity. "According to Weyl 1946, 'Brouwer made it clear, as I think beyond any doubt, that there is no evidence supporting the belief in the existential character of the totality of all natural numbers ... the sequence of numbers which grows beyond any stage already reached by passing to the next number, is a manifold of possibilities open towards infinity; it remains forever in the status of creation, but is not a closed realm of things existing in themselves. That we blindly converted one into the other is the true source of our difficulties, including the antinomies -- a source of more fundamental nature than Russell's vicious circle principle indicated. Brouwer opened our eyes and made us see how far classical mathematics, nourished by a belief in the 'absolute' that transcends all human possibilities of realization, goes beyond such statements as can claim real meaning and truth founded on evidence." (Kleene (1952): Introduction to Metamathematics, p. 48-49) Finitism is an extreme version of Intuitionism that rejects the idea of potential infinity. According to Finitism, a mathematical object does not exist unless it can be constructed from the natural numbers in a finite number of steps. History of Intuitionism Intuitionism's history can be traced to two controversies in nineteenth century mathematics. The first of these was the invention of transfinite arithmetic by Georg Cantor and its subsequent rejection by a number of prominent mathematicians including most famously his teacher Leopold Kronecker — a confirmed finitist. The second of these was Gottlob Frege's effort to reduce all of mathematics to a logical formulation via set theory and its derailing by a youthful Bertrand Russell, the discoverer of Russell's paradox. Frege had planned a three volume definitive work, however shortly after the first volume had been published, Russell sent Frege a letter outlining his paradox which demonstrated that one of Frege's rules of self-reference was self-contradictory. Frege, the story goes, plunged into depression and did not publish the second and third volumes of his work as he had planned. For more see Davis (2000) Chapters 3 and 4: Frege: From Breakthrough to Despair and Cantor: Detour through Infinity. See van Heijenoort for the original works and Heijenoort's commentary. These controversies are strongly linked as the logical methods used by Cantor in proving his results in transfinite arithmetic are essentially the same as those used by Russell in constructing his paradox. Hence how one chooses to resolve Russell's paradox has direct implications on the status accorded to Cantor's transfinite arithmetic. In the early twentieth century L. E. J. Brouwer represented the intuitionist position and David Hilbert the formalist position — see van Heijenoort. Kurt Gödel offered opinions referred to as Platonist (see various sources re Gödel). Alan Turing considers: "non-constructive systems of logic with which not all the steps in a proof are mechanical, some being intuitive" (Turing (1939) Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals in Undecidable, p. 210) Later, Stephen Cole Kleene brought forth a more rational consideration of intuitionism in his Introduction to Meta-mathematics (1952). Contributors to intuitionism L. E. J. Brouwer Arend Heyting Stephen Kleene Michael Dummett Branches of intuitionistic mathematics Intuitionistic logic Intuitionistic arithmetic Intuitionistic type theory Intuitionistic set theory Intuitionistic analysis See also Anti-realism BHK interpretation Brouwer-Hilbert controversy Computability logic Constructive logic Curry-Howard isomorphism Foundations of mathematics Fuzz (Mathematics and Computer Science) Game semantics Model Theory Intuition (knowledge) Ultraintuitionism Further reading "Analysis." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD 15 June 2006, "Constructive analysis" (Ian Stewart, author) W. S. Anglin, Mathematics: A Concise history and Philosophy, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1994. In Chapter 39 Foundations, with respect to the 20th century Anglin gives very precise, short descriptions of Platonism (with respect to Godel), Formalism (with respect to Hilbert), and Intuitionism (with respect to Brouwer). Martin Davis (ed.) (1965), The Undecidable, Raven Press, Hewlett, NY. Compilation of original papers by Gödel, Church, Kleene, Turing, Rosser, and Post. John W. Dawson Jr., Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel, A. K. Peters, Wellesley, MA, 1997. Less readable than Goldstein but, in Chapter III Excursis, Dawson gives an excellent "A Capsule History of the Development of Logic to 1928". Rebecca Goldstein, Incompleteness: The Proof and Paradox of Kurt Godel, Atlas Books, W.W. Norton, New York, 2005. In Chapter II Hilbert and the Formalists Goldstein gives further historical context. As a Platonist Gödel was reticent in the presence of the logical positivism of the Vienna Circle. She discusses Wittgenstein's impact and the impact of the formalists. Goldstein notes that the intuitionists were even more opposed to Platonism than Formalism. van Heijenoort, J., From Frege to Gödel, A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1967. Reprinted with corrections, 1977. The following papers appear in van Heijenoort: L.E.J. Brouwer, 1923, On the significance of the principle of excluded middle in mathematics, especially in function theory [reprinted with commentary, p. 334, van Heijenoort] Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov, 1925, On the principle of excluded middle, [reprinted with commentary, p. 414, van Heijenoort] L.E.J. Brouwer, 1927, On the domains of definitions of functions, [reprinted with commentary, p. 446, van Heijenoort] Although not directly germane, in his (1923) Brouwer uses certain words defined in this paper. L.E.J. Brouwer, 1927(2), Intuitionistic reflections on formalism, [reprinted with commentary, p. 490, van Heijenoort] Jacques Herbrand, (1931b), "On the consistency of arithmetic", [reprinted with commentary, p. 618ff, van Heijenoort] From van Heijenoort's commentary it is unclear whether or not Herbrand was a true "intuitionist"; Gödel (1963) asserted that indeed "...Herbrand was an intuitionist". But van Heijenoort says Herbrand's conception was "on the whole much closer to that of Hilbert's word 'finitary' ('finit') that to "intuitionistic" as applied to Brouwer's doctrine". Arend Heyting: In Chapter III A Critique of Mathematic Reasoning, §11. The paradoxes, Kleene discusses Intuitionism and Formalism in depth. Throughout the rest of the book he treats, and compares, both Formalist (classical) and Intuitionist logics with an emphasis on the former. Extraordinary writing by an extraordinary mathematician. Stephen Cole Kleene and Richard Eugene Vesley, The Foundations of Intuistionistic Mathematics, North-Holland Publishing Co. Amsterdam, 1965. The lead sentence tells it all "The constructive tendency in mathematics...". A text for specialists, but written in Kleene's wonderfully-clear style. Constance Reid, Hilbert, Copernicus - Springer-Verlag, 1st edition 1970, 2nd edition 1996. Definitive biography of Hilbert places his "Program" in historical context together with the subsequent fighting, sometimes rancorous, between the Intuitionists and the Formalists. Paul Rosenbloom, The Elements of Mathematical Logic, Dover Publications Inc, Mineola, New York, 1950. In a style more of Principia Mathematica -- many symbols, some antique, some from German script. Very good discussions of intuitionism in the following locations: pages 51-58 in Section 4 Many Valued Logics, Modal Logics, Intuitionism; pages 69-73 Chapter III The Logic of Propostional Functions Section 1 Informal Introduction; and p. 146-151 Section 7 the Axiom of Choice. Secondary references A. A. Markov (1954) Theory of algorithms. [Translated by Jacques J. Schorr-Kon and PST staff] Imprint Moscow, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1954 [i.e. Jerusalem, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, 1961; available from the Office of Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington] Description 444 p. 28 cm. Added t.p. in Russian Translation of Works of the Mathematical Institute, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, v. 42. Original title: Teoriya algorifmov. [QA248.M2943 Dartmouth College library. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Office of Technical Services, number OTS 60-51085.] A secondary reference for specialists: Markov opined that "The entire significance for mathematics of rendering more precise the concept of algorithm emerges, however, in connection with the problem of a constructive foundation for mathematics....[p. 3, italics added.] Markov believed that further applications of his work "merit a special book, which the author hopes to write in the future" (p. 3). Sadly, said work apparently never appeared. 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3,640 | Government | Detail from Elihu Vedder, Government (1896). Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C. A government is the body within an organization that has authority to make and the power to enforce laws, regulations, or rules. Typically, Governments refers to a civil government—local, country, or national. However, commercial, academic, religious, or other formal organizations are also governed by internal bodies. Such bodies may be called boards of directors, managers, or governors or they may be known as the administration (as in schools) or councils of elders (as in churches). Growth of an organization increases the complexity of its government, therefore small towns or small-to-medium privately-operated enterprises will have few officials compared to larger organizations such as multinational corporations which will have multiple interlocking, hierarchical layers of administration and governance. As complexity increases and the nature of governance becomes more complicated,so does the need for formal policies and procedures. Some people, known as anarchists believe that societies would function better without a government as they disagree with both the efficiency and the morality of using violence as a means (They deny the supposed legitimacy that has been granted through social contract theories). Public sector governance is studied as Public Administration while that in the private sector is studied as Business Administration. Types of government The U.S. Capitol houses the law making (legislative) branch of American government. The Parliament of India, the law making (legislative) branch of Indian government. Constitutional monarchy - A government that has a monarch, but his/her power is strictly limited by the government. Example: United Kingdom Fotopoulos, Takis, The Multidimensional Crisis and Inclusive Democracy. (Athens: Gordios, 2005). (English translation of the book with the same title published in Greek). Constitutional republic -- Rule by a government composed of representatives who are voted into power by the people. Democracy - Rule by a government where all [citizens] are represented but power is held by the majority. Dictatorship - Rule by an individual who has full power over the country. American 503 See also Autocracy and Stratocracy. Monarchy - Rule by an individual who has inherited the role and expects to bequeath it to their heir. American 1134 Oligarchy - Rule by a small group of people who share similar interests or family relations. American 1225 Plutocracy - A government composed of the wealthy class. Any of the forms of government listed here can be plutocracy. For instance, if all of the voted representatives in a republic are wealthy, then it is a republic and a plutocracy. Theocracy - Rule by a religious elite. American 1793 Other Classifications: Anarchism - Absence of government. American 65 Anarchism is not a form of government—it is the belief that governments are harmful and unnecessary. Totalitarianism - Characterized by a state that regulates nearly every aspect of public and private life. Authoritarianism - Characterized by an emphasis on the authority of the state in a republic or union. It is a political system controlled by nonelected rulers who usually permit some degree of individual freedom. The extent to which a government can be classified varies by degree. For example, Iran can be seen as democratic, authoritarian and theocratic while constitutional monarchies such as the Netherlands combine elements of monarchy and democracy. (printable version) Origin of government For many thousands of years when people were hunter-gatherers and small scale farmers, humans lived in small, non-hierarchical and self-sufficient communities. However, the human ability to precisely communicate abstract, learned information allowed humans to become ever more effective at agriculture, Christian 146-147 and that allowed for ever increasing population densities. Christian 245 David Christian explains how this resulted in states with laws and governments: The exact moment and place that the phenomenon of human government developed is lost in time; however, history does record the formations of very early governments. About 5,000 years ago, the first small city-states appeared. By the third to second millenniums BC, some of these had developed into larger governed areas: Sumer, Ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization, and the Yellow River Civilization. States formed as the results of a positive feedback loop where population growth results in increased information exchange which results in innovation which results in increased resources which results in further population growth. Christian 253 Most of this sentence is in the present tense because the process is still ongoing. The role of cities in the feedback loop is important. Cities became the primary conduits for the dramatic increases in information exchange that allowed for large and densely packed populations to form, and because cities concentrated knowledge, they also ended up concentrating power. Christian 271 The concept of the city itself became a self-reinforcing cycle. "The creation of such large and dense communities required new forms of power," and since cities concentrate power, the new (sovereign) rulers had incentives to build and expand cities to further increase their power.(Christian 271,321) "Increasing population density in farming regions provided the demographic and physical raw materials used to construct the first cities and states, and increasing congestion provided much of the motivation for creating states." Christian 248 Fundamental purpose of government According to supporters of government, fundamental purpose of government is the maintenance of basic security and public order. Schulze 81 The philosopher Thomas Hobbes figured that people, as rational animals, saw submission to a government dominated by a sovereign as preferable to anarchy. Dietz 68 People in a community create and submit to government for the purpose of establishing for themselves, safety and public order. Social Contract Theory Dietz 65-66 Hobbes idea of the necessity of the formation of government is known as the social contract theory. The field of study and thought about the necessity of governments and governments' relationships with people is known as political philosophy. Early governments These are examples of some of the earliest known governments: Sumer—5200 BC Ancient Egypt—3000 BC Christian 294 Indus Valley Civilization—3000 BC Higham, "Indus Valley Civilization" Yellow River Civilization (China)—2000 BC Jiroft Civilization-3rd millennium BC Expanded roles for government Military defense The fundamental purpose of government is to protect one from his or her neighbors; however, a sovereign of one country is not necessarily sovereign over the people of another country. The need for people to defend themselves against potentially thousands of non-neighbors necessitates a national defense mechanism—a military. Militaries are created to deal with the highly complex task of confronting large numbers of enemies. A farmer can defend himself from a single enemy person—or even five enemies, but he can't defend himself from twenty thousand—even with the help of his strongest and bravest family members. A far larger group would be needed, and despite the fact that most of the members of the group would not be related by family ties, they would have to learn to fight for one another as if they were all in the same family. An organization that trains people to do this is an army. Wars and armies predated governments, but once governments came onto the scene, they proceeded to dominate the formation and use of armies. Governments seek to maintain monopolies on the use of force, Adler 80-81 and to that end, they usually suppress the development of private armies within their states. Security (Internal) One of the most important roles of the government is to provide security, and to enforce Law. The instruments that are used for this purpose are Police, the management of Identity documents, etc. Economic security Increasing complexities in society resulted in the formations of governments, but the increases in complexity didn't stop. As the complexity and interdependency's of human communities moved forward, economies began to dominate the human experience enough for an individual's survival potential to be affected substantially by the region's economy. Governments were originally created for the purpose of increasing people's survival potentials, and in that same purpose, governments became involved in manipulating and managing regional economies. Schulze 13,58 One of a great many examples would be Wang Mang's attempt to reform the currency in favor of the peasants and poor in ancient China. General Zhaoyun par. 1 At a bare minimum, government ensures that money's value will not be undermined by prohibiting counterfeiting, but in almost all societies—including capitalist ones—governments attempt to regulate many more aspects of their economies. Interestingly, during World War I, the "capitalist" countries of Europe implemented economic measures that would make a socialist proud.(Schulze 275) However, very often, government involvement in a national economy has more than just a purpose of stabilizing it for the benefit of the people. Often, the members of government shape the government's economic policies for their own benefits. This will be discussed shortly. Social security Social security is related to economic security. Throughout most of human history, parents prepared for their old age by producing enough children to ensure that some of them would survive long enough to take care of the parents in their old age. Nebel 165-166 In modern, relatively high-income societies, a mixed approach is taken where the government shares a substantial responsibility of taking care of the elderly. This is not the case everywhere since there are still many countries where social security through having many children is the norm. Although social security is a relatively recent phenomenon, prevalent mostly in developed countries, it deserves mention because the existence of social security substantially changes reproductive behavior in a society, and it has an impact on reducing the cycle of poverty. By reducing the cycle of poverty, government creates a self-reinforcing cycle where people see the government as friend both because of the financial support they receive late in their lives, but also because of the overall reduction in national poverty due to the government's social security policies--which then adds to public support for social security. Bruce Bartlett. Social Security Then and Now. COMMENTARY. March 2005, Vol. 119, No. 3, pp. 52-56. In the online version on paragraph 13 it suggests that, During the Great Depression, Roosevelt wanted to suppress revolutionary tendencies by tying workers to the state—hence a state-run social security system. Also read the paragraphs above where it talks about populist demagogues and socialist revolutions in other countries. Tying workers to the state through social security was a politically strategic move designed to preserve the United States of America and its democracy. Healthcare Governments play a major role (with importance varying from a country to another) in contributing to the health of the cititzens. This role includes funding (directectly or indirectly via subsidies) and even managing the healthcare system. It also intervenes by elaborating Laws aiming at protecting the health of the citizens. Environmental security Governments play a crucial role in managing environmental public goods such as the atmosphere, forests and water bodies. Governments are valuable institutions for resolving problems involving these public goods at both the local and global scales (e.g., climate change, deforestation, overfishing). Although in recent decades the economic market has been championed by certain quarters as a suitable mechanism for managing environmental entities, markets have serious failures and governmental intervention and regulation and the rule of law is still required for the proper, just and sustainable management of the environment. Education The government plays a central role in the education of the citizens. In particular it finances (directly or via subsidizing) a huge portion of the educational system (Schools, Universities, continuous education). Aspects of government Governments vary greatly, and the situation of citizens within their governments can vary greatly from person to person. For many people, government is seen as a positive force. Upper economic class support Governments often seek to manipulate their nations' economies — ostensibly for the nations' benefits. However, another aspect of this kind of intervention is the fact that the members of government often take opportunities to shape economic policies for their own benefits. For example, capitalists in a government might adjust policy to favor capitalism, so capitalists would see that government as a friend. In a feudal society, feudal lords would maintain laws that reinforce their powers over their lands and the people working on them, so those lords would see their government as a friend. Naturally, the exploited persons in these situations may see government very differently. Support for democracy Government, especially in democratic and republican forms, can be seen as the entity for a sovereign people to establish the type of society, laws and national objectives that are desired collectively. Religion Government can benefit or suffer from religion, as religion can benefit or suffer from government. While governments can threaten people with physical harm for observed violations of the law, religion often provides a psychological disincentive for socially destructive or anti-government actions. Dietz 151n70 Dietz 138 Religion can also give people a perceived sense of peace and resolve even when they are in trying circumstances, and when an individual's religious beliefs are aligned with the government's, that person will tend to see government as a friend—especially during religious controversies. Although, multiculturalism makes this relevant to a far less degree. Legitimacy Anarchists question the legitimacy of government/state power. Statists have attempted to come up with a way to legitimize this authority. Social contract theorists, such as Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rosseau, believe that governments reduce people's freedom/rights in exchange for protecting them, and maintaining order. Many people question however, whether this is an actual exchange (where people voluntarily give up their freedoms), or whether they are taken by threat of force by the ruling party. Other statist theorists, like David Hume, give different definitions of legitimacy as they disagree with social contract theory. Negative Aspects of Government War In the most basic sense, people of one nation will see the government of another nation as the enemy when the two nations are at war. For example, the people of Carthage saw the Roman government as the enemy during the Punic wars. Enslavement In early human history, the outcome of war for the defeated was often enslavement. The enslaved people would not find it easy to see the conquering government as a friend. Religious opposition There is a flip side to the phenomenon of people's ability to view a government as a friend because they share the government's religious views. People with opposing religious views will have a greater tendency to view that government as their enemy. A good example would be the condition of Catholicism in England before the Catholic Emancipation. Protestants—who were politically dominant in England—used political, economic and social means to reduce the size and strength of Catholicism in England over the 16th to 18th centuries, and as a result, Catholics in England felt that their religion was being oppressed. Class oppression Whereas capitalists in a capitalist country may tend to see that nation's government as their friend, a class-aware group of industrial workers—a proletariat—may see things very differently. If the proletariat wishes to take control of the nation's productive resources, and they are blocked in their endeavors by continuing adjustments in the law made by capitalists in the government, Christian 358 then the proletariat will come to see the government as their enemy—especially if the conflicts become violent. The same situation can occur among peasants. The peasants in a country, e.g. Russia during the reign of Catherine the Great, may revolt against their landlords, only to find that their revolution is put down by government. Critical views and alternatives The relative merits of various forms of government have long been debated by philosophers, politicians and others. However, in recent times, the traditional conceptions of government and the role of government have also attracted increasing criticism from a range of sources. Some argue that the traditional conception of government, which is heavily influenced by the zero-sum perceptions of state actors and focuses on obtaining security and prosperity at a national level through primarily unilateral action, is no longer appropriate or effective in a modern world that is increasingly connected and interdependent. One such school of thought is human security, which advocates for a more people-based (as opposed to state-based) conception of security, focusing on protection and empowerment of individuals. Human security calls upon governments to recognise that insecurity and instability in one region affects all and to look beyond national borders in defining their interests and formulating policies for security and development. Human security also demands that governments engage in a far greater level of cooperation and coordination with not only domestic organisations, but also a range of international actors such as foreign governments, intergovernmental organisations and non-government organisations. Whilst human security attempts to provide a more holistic and comprehensive approach to world problems, its implementation still relies to a large extent on the will and ability of governments to adopt the agenda and appropriate policies. In this sense, human security provides a critique of traditional conceptions of the role of government, but also attempts to work within the current system of state-based international relations. Of course, the unique characteristics of different countries and resources available are some constraints for governments in utilising a human security framework. Anarchism Anarchists are those who disagree with using government violence as a means to solve complex social issues - or, in other words, they are those who find that explicit consent is necessary for legitimacy within a collective group or government. There are many forms of anarchist theories but under anarchy, these many different groups and individuals would seemingly need to deal with each other in the same way that people deal with their neighbors in the real world. Some anarchists, such as anarcho-syndicalists or anarcho-primitivists, advocate egalitarianism and non-hierarchical societies while others, such as anarcho-capitalists, advocate free markets, individual sovereignty and freedom. See Anarchic Governments Paradox. Critics of Governmental Role, Legitimacy and Efficiency Noam Chomsky Friedrich Hayek Michel Foucault Robert Nozick Ludwig von Mises Murray Rothbard Lysander Spooner Henry David Thoreau See also Governmental roles Caesar (title) Chief Minister Citizen Tsar Emir Emperor Favourite Figurehead Governor Head of government Head of state King (Shah) Leadership Monarch Premier President Prime minister Statesman Sultan Types of governance Constitutional monarchy Democracy List of forms of government Sovereign Related topics Governance Human security Official statistics Notes References Additional references Kenoyer, J. M. Ancient Cities of the Indus Civilization. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998 Possehl, Gregory L. Harappan Civilization: A Recent Perspective. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993 Indus Age: The Writing System. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996 “Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanisation,” Annual Review of Anthropology 19 (1990): 261–282. 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3,641 | Gumby | For the Monty Python characters, see Gumbys. Gumby is a green clay humanoid figure who was the subject of a 233-episode series of American television which spanned over a 35-year period. He was animated using stop motion clay animation. The Characters [[Image:Gumby sm.png|right|thumb|200px|Gumby in the episode "Lost Treasure".]] Gumby's principal sidekick is Pokey, a talking pony, and his nemeses are the Blockheads. Other characters are Gumby's dog Nopey (who responds to everything with a gloomy "nope"); Prickle, a yellow dinosaur or dragon; Goo, a flying blue mermaid who spits blue goo-balls Prickle and Goo are references to a well-known speech by philosopher Alan Watts. ; Gumby's mother Gumba; Gumby's father Gumbo; his sister Minga; Denali (a mastodon); Tilly (a hen); King Ott; and Professor Kapp. Origins of Gumby Gumby was created by Art Clokey while a student of Slavko Vorkapich at the University of Southern California. Clokey's first animated film was a 1953 3-minute short called Gumbasia, a surreal montage of moving and expanding lumps of clay set to music in a parody of Disney's Fantasia. Gumbasia (available in 2 video formats) Gumbasia was created in a style Vorkapich taught called Kinesthetic Film Principles. Described as "massaging of the eye cells," this technique of camera movements and editing was responsible for much of the Gumby look and feel. In 1955 Clokey showed Gumbasia to movie producer Sam Engel, who encouraged him to develop his technique by adding figures. Clokey and his wife Ruth (née Ruth Parkander) came up with the character Gumby, and Clokey made a 15-minute pilot later titled Gumby Goes to the Moon. NBC executive Thomas Warren Sarnoff liked the idea but rejected the pilot episode. The second Gumby episode, Robot Rumpus, made a successful debut on the Howdy Doody Show in August 1956, and in 1957 Gumby was given his own NBC series. Gumby was inspired by a suggestion from Clokey's wife Ruth that he base his character on the Gingerbread Man. Gumby was green simply because that was Clokey's favorite color. Gumby's legs and feet were made wide for pragmatic reasons: they ensured the clay character would stand up during stop-motion filming. The famous slanted shape of Gumby's head was based on the hair style of Clokey's father in an old photograph. Gumby, a segment of NPR's "Present at the Creation" series Female performers (among them Norma MacMillan) supplied Gumby's voice during the initial episodes, as did Dick Beals with his child-like voice characterization. New episodes were added from 1959 to 1964, at which time Dallas McKennon became the voice of Gumby. Production continued through 1968. The Lorimar Years Mr. Stuff gives Gumby all the goodies he can hold in "Grub Grabber Gumby." By the 1980s, the original Gumby shorts had enjoyed a revival, both on television and home video. This led to a new incarnation of the series for television syndication by Lorimar-Telepictures in 1988 that included new characters such as Gumby's sister Minga, Tilly the chicken, and Denali the mastodon. Dallas McKennon returned as the voice of Gumby in new adventures that would take Gumby and his pals beyond their toyland-type setting and establish themselves as a rock band. In addition to the new episodes, the classic 1955-59 and 1961-68 shorts were re-run as part of the series, but with newly recorded soundtracks, including new voices and synthesized musical scores (Clokey's rights to use the original Capitol Records production tracks could not be renewed at the time, due to legal issues.) Art Clokey reportedly gave many movie industry talents their first break in the business. A number of the clay animators who worked on the new series went on to work for Pixar, Disney and other studios. The movie and beyond Screenshot of the video game, Gumby vs. the Astrobots. In 1987, the character appeared in The Puppetoon Movie. In 1995, Clokey's production company produced an independently released theatrical film, Gumby I (aka Gumby: The Movie), marking the clay character's first feature-length adventure. In it, the villainous Blockheads replace Gumby and his band with robots and kidnap their dog, Lowbelly. The movie featured in-joke homages to such sci-fi classics as Star Wars, The Terminator, and 2001: A Space Odyssey. In 1998, Cartoon Network aired re-runs of Gumby episodes. The Library of Congress had Gumby as a spokescharacter from 1994 to 1995, due to a common sequence in his shows where Gumby walks into a book, and then experiences the world inside the book as a tangible place. By the end of the decade, Gumby and Pokey had appeared in commercials for Cheerios cereal, most notably Frosted Cheerios. Although no new animated Gumby material is planned for the foreseeable future, most of the episodes (with a few exceptions) of the two series are available on home video and DVD. In August 2005, the first video game featuring Gumby, Gumby vs. the Astrobots, was released by Namco for the Game Boy Advance. In it, Gumby must rescue Pokey, Prickle and Goo after they are captured by the Blockheads and their cohorts, the Astrobots. Also in the summer of 2005, an event produced by TheDeepArchives/TDA Animation was held in New York. The exhibit featured props, storyboards and script pages from various Gumby shorts over the past 50 years, as well as toys and other memorabilia that had appeared during Gumby's "career," including a reproduction of Eddie Murphy's Saturday Night Live Gumby costume. The centerpiece of the show was an actual complete set used in the production of a TV commercial for "Gumby vs. the Astrobots." In San Francisco, California, Studio Z held "Gumby's 50th Birthday Party" with Gumby creator Art Clokey. The bands Smash Mouth and Remoter played at the party, hosted by comedian Kevin Meaney. The party/comedy tribute was written by legendary comedy writer and stage director Martin Olson (Screen Actors Guild Awards, Penn & Teller's Sin City Spectacular etc.) and Gumby's creative director and composer Robert F. Thompson. It was produced by Missing Link Media Ventures and Clokey Productions. In 2006, The Center for Puppetry Arts, Atlanta, Georgia, hosted the most comprehensive Clokey/Gumby exhibition to date. Entitled "Gumby: Art Clokey - The First Fifty Years," the exhibition was curated by writer/animator David Scheve, and featured over one hundred puppets and many of the original sets from the 1980s television series, as well as the 1990s full length theatrical film. The exhibition ran from August 2006 until March 2007. Bob Burden wrote Gumby comic series with art by Rick Geary, colors by Steve Oliff and Lance Borde, edited by Mel Smith and published by Wildcard Ink. The first issue dated July 2006. It won an honor for Best Publication for a Younger Audience at the 2007 Eisner Awards. The Gumby images and toys are registered trademarks of Prema Toy Company. Premavision owns the distribution rights to the Gumby cartoons (having been recently reverted from previous distributor Warner Bros. Television), and has licensed the rights to Classic Media. On March 16, 2007, YouTube announced that all Gumby episodes would appear in their full-length form on its site, digitally remastered and with their original soundtracks. This deal also extended to other video sites, including AOL. In March 2007, KQED-TV broadcast an hour-long documentary "Gumby Dharma" as part of their Truly CA series. Toys and merchandise Various Gumby merchandise has been produced over the years, the most prominent item being bendable figures. Several single packs and multi-figure sets by Jesco, as well as a 50th anniversary collection, have been made of the Gumby characters. Also included in the Gumby merchandise catalog are plush dolls, keychains, mugs, a 1988 Colorforms color foams set, a 1995 Trendmasters playset, and a Kubricks set by Medicom. A tribute album, Gumby, was released in 1989 by Buena Vista records. In Popular Culture In the 1990s, employees of The Met (the government-run public transport corporation in Melbourne) were referred to as Gumbies because of the color of their uniforms and public awareness of the Gumby television show due to its syndication in Australia. During the 1980s American comedian Eddie Murphy played Gumby in several skits on Saturday Night Live. Murphy portrayed him as a temperamental, somewhat profane fading Yiddish TV star who demanded respect for his less than epic accomplishments. Those unfamiliar with his body of work were rebuked with his most memorable phrase, "I'm Gumby, dammit!". In the St. Patrick's Day episode of How I Met Your Mother, Marshall refers to a green cloak-wearing Barney as a "Gumby". "Gumby" is a common nickname for someone who is very flexible in any sense of the word – either double-jointed (someone with very limber joints), or very adaptable in different situations. A common saying in the United States Marine Corps is "Semper Gumby" which jokingly translates to "always flexible". This is based on the true motto of the Marine Corps -- Semper fidelis, or "always faithful". The word "Gumby" is now used as slang to describe an act of stupidity or inexperience and is also used to refer to someone particularly uncoordinated (although this refers to Mr. Gumby, one of several characters in Monty Python's Flying Circus). UFC Ultimate Fighter Jeremy Horn's nickname is "Gumby" due to his flexibility during ground fighting. Prickle and Goo were named after Alan Watts' categorization of the two types of people in the world ("the prickly and the gooey – the rigid, critical and the easygoing and mellow") after Art Clokey heard him lecture at San Jose State University. Gumby and Pokey Interview with Creators, The episode "Robot Rumpus" was lampooned in the movie-mocking series Mystery Science Theater 3000, presented as a short in episode 912 ("The Screaming Skull"). In the cult classic 80's rockumentary Spinal Tap there is a brief scene in which you can see Nigel carrying a Gumby in his shirt pocket. In The Simpsons episodes The Girl Who Slept Too Little and My Fair Laddy, Gumby appears in the couch gag. In The Office episode Stress Relief Michael compares Jim's body to that of Gumby In Supernatural Season 3 episode The Kids Are Alright character Dean Winchester (played by Jensen Ackles) determines to look up Lisa Braeden, with whom he had a one-night stand, declaring it the "bendiest weekend of my life" because she was a yoga teacher. He calls her 'Gumby girl' before he then pauses, looks worried and asks, "Does that make me Pokey?" A pizza chain that focuses on having restaurants in university cities, such as Columbus, Ohio (The Ohio State University) and Tallahassee, Florida (Florida State University) offers a wide variety of menu items, mostly typical for a pizza place. Their main non-pizza item is called Pokey sticks, after the Pokey character in Gumby. In the Smallville'' episode Hero, Jimmy Olsen refers to Pete Ross and Chloe Sullivan as Gumby and Pokey, saying "It looks like Gumby found his Pokey". References External links Gumbyworld.com Premavision/Clokey Productions ArtClokey the First 50 Years Official 50th Birthday Party Gumby's MySpace Bren's Gumbyland - The Ultimate Gumby Memorabilia Collection/Fansite | Gumby |@lemmatized monty:2 python:2 character:13 see:2 gumbys:1 gumby:76 green:3 clay:6 humanoid:1 figure:4 subject:1 episode:16 series:11 american:2 television:6 span:1 year:6 period:1 animate:3 use:5 stop:2 motion:2 animation:2 image:2 sm:1 png:1 right:4 thumb:1 lose:1 treasure:1 principal:1 sidekick:1 pokey:9 talk:1 pony:1 nemesis:1 blockhead:3 dog:2 nopey:1 respond:1 everything:1 gloomy:1 nope:1 prickle:4 yellow:1 dinosaur:1 dragon:1 goo:5 fly:2 blue:2 mermaid:1 spit:1 ball:1 reference:2 well:4 know:1 speech:1 philosopher:1 alan:2 watt:2 mother:2 gumba:1 father:2 gumbo:1 sister:2 minga:2 denali:2 mastodon:2 tilly:2 hen:1 king:1 ott:1 professor:1 kapp:1 origin:1 create:2 art:7 clokey:17 student:1 slavko:1 vorkapich:2 university:5 southern:1 california:2 first:7 film:4 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3,642 | Inquests_in_England_and_Wales | Inquests in England and Wales are held into sudden and unexplained deaths and also into the circumstances of discovery of a certain class of valuable artefacts known as "treasure trove". Inquests are the responsibility of the coroner. Where an inquest is needed There is a general duty upon every person to report a death to the coroner if an inquest is likely to be required. However, this duty is largely unenforceable in practice and the duty falls on the responsible registrar. The registrar must report a death where: Halsbury vol.9(2) 949-950 The deceased was not attended by a doctor during their last illness; The cause of death has not been certified by a doctor who saw the deceased after death or within the 14 days before death; The cause of death is unknown; The registrar believes that the cause of death was unnatural, caused by violence, neglect or abortion, or occurred in suspicious circumstances; Death occurred during surgery or while under anaesthetic; The cause of death was an industrial disease. The coroner must hold an inquest where the death was: Halsbury vol.9(2) 939 Violent or unnatural; Sudden and of unknown cause; or In prison or police custody. Where the cause of death is unknown, the coroner may order a post mortem examination in order to determine whether the death was violent. If the death is found to be non-violent, an inquest is unnecessary. In 2004 in England and Wales, there were 514,000 deaths of which 225,500 were referred to the coroner. Of those, 115,800 resulted in post-mortem examinations and there were 28,300 inquests, 570 with a jury. Department for Constitutional Affairs (2006) ==With or without a jury?== A coroner must summon a jury for an inquest if the death occurred in prison or in police custody, or in the execution of a police officer's duty, or if it falls under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, or if it affects public health or safety. Coroners Act 1988, s.8(3) Halsbury vol.9(2) 979 The coroner can also call a jury at their own discretion. This discretion has been heavily litigated in light of the Human Rights Act 1998 and means that juries are required in a broader range of situations than required by statute. Scope of inquest The purpose of the inquest is to answer four questions: Halsbury vol.9(2) 988 R v. HM Coroner for North Humberside and Scunthorpe, ex parte Jamieson [1995] QB 1 at 23, CA Coroners Rules 1984, SI 1984/552, r.36 Identity of the deceased; Place of death; Time of death; and How the deceased came by his death. Evidence must be solely for the purpose of answering these questions and no other evidence is admitted. It is not for the inquest to ascertain "how the deceased died" or "in what broad circumstances", but "how the deceased came by his death", a narrower and more limited question. Moreover, it is not the purpose of the inquest to determine, or appear to determine, criminal or civil liability, to apportion guilt or attribute blame. Coroners Rules 1984, SI 1984/552, r.42 For example, where a prisoner hanged himself in a cell, he came by his death by hanging and it was not the role of the inquest to enquire into the broader circumstances such as the alleged neglect of the prison authorities that might have contributed to his state of mind or given him the opportunity. However, the inquest should set out as many of the facts as the public interest requires. R (on the application of Davies) v. Birmingham Deputy Coroner [2003] EWCA (Civ) 1739, [2003] All ER (D) 40 (Dec) Under the European Convention of Human Rights, art.2 governments are required to "establish a framework of laws, precautions, procedures and means of enforcement which will, to the greatest extent reasonably practicable, protect life." The European Court of Human Rights has interpreted this as mandating independent official investigation of any death where public servants may be implicated. Since the coming into force of the Human Rights Act 1998, in those cases alone, the inquest is now to consider the broader question "by what means and in what circumstances". R (on the application of Middleton) v. West Somerset Coroner [2004] UKHL 10, [2004] 2 AC 182, [2004] 2 All ER 465 In disasters, such as the King's Cross fire, a single inquest may be held into several deaths. However, when several protesters were shot and killed by police in Mitchelstown in 1887, the findings of a common inquest were quashed because the killings had taken place at different times and in different places. Halsbury vol.9(2) 991 Re Mitchelstown Inquisition (1888) 22 LR Ir 279 Procedure Inquests are governed by the Coroners Rules. Coroners Rules 1984, SI 1984/552 Coroners (Amendment) Rules 2004, SI2004/921 Coroners (Amendment) Rules 2005, SI2005/420 The coroner gives notice to near relatives, those entitled to examine witnesses and those whose conduct is likely to be scrutinised. Halsbury vol.9(2) 976 Inquests are held in public except where there are real issues of national security. Coroners Rules 1984, SI 1984/552, r.17 Individuals with an interest in the proceedings, such as relatives of the deceased, individuals appearing as witnesses, and organisations or individuals who may face some responsibility in the death of the individual, may be represented by lawyers at the discretion of the coroner. Coroners Rules 1984, SI 1984/552, r.20 Witnesses may be compelled to testify subject to the privilege against self-incrimination. Coroners Rules 1984, SI 1984/552, r.22 Verdict The following verdicts are not mandatory but are strongly recommended: Halsbury vol.9(2) 1030 Category 1 Natural causes; Industrial diseases Dependency on drugs or non-dependent abuse of drugs; Want of attention at birth; Lack of care or self-neglect; Category 2 Suicide; Attempted or self-induced abortion; Accident or misadventure; Execution of sentence of death; Lawful killing (formerly "justifiable homicide"); Open verdict (cause of death unknown or unstated); Category 3 - Unlawful killing Murder; Manslaughter; Infanticide; Category 4 Still birth. In 2004, 37% of inquests recorded an outcome of death by accident / misadventure, 21% by natural causes, 13% suicide, 10% open verdicts, and 19% other outcomes. If an open verdict is returned, the inquest can be reopened if new evidence is found and presented to the coroner. Inquests into treasure Reform Owing to dissatisfaction with the current system, and in particular because of perceived failures to arrest the murder spree of Harold Shipman, proposals have been made for reform. Home Office (2003a, 2003b and 2004) A draft bill was published on 12 June 2006. The principle draft reforms are: Greater rights of bereaved people to contribute to coroners' investigations; A new office of chief coroner to lead and supervise practice; Full-time coroners with new district boundaries; Broader investigatory powers for coroners; Improved medical support for coroners' investigation and decision making; Vesting of treasure jurisdiction in the new office of treasure coroner with national responsibility. References External links - This act extends to England and Wales only. Coroners Rules 1984, SI1984/552, as amended and in force as of 21 October 2007. from the Coroners' Law Resource Bibliography Department for Constitutional Affairs (2006) Home Office (2003a) , Cm 5831 — (2003b) , Cm 5854 — (2004) , Cm 6159, ISBN 010-161592-2 Lord Mackay of Clashfern (ed.) 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3,643 | History_of_Malaysia | Malaysia is a country in South East Asia whose strategic sea-lane position brought trade and foreign influences that fundamentally influenced its history. Hindu India, the Islamic Middle East and Christian Europe to its west, and China and Japan w one of successive phases of outside influence, followed by the mid-twentieth century establishment of independence from foreign colonial powers. Hindu and Buddhist cultures imported from India dominated early Malaysian history. They reached their peak in the Sumatran-based Srivijaya civilisation, whose influence extended through Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula and much of Borneo from the 7th to the 14th centuries. Although Muslims had passed through Malaysia as early as the tenth century, it was not until the 14th and 15th centuries that Islam first established itself on the Malayan Peninsular. The adoption of Islam by the fifteenth century saw the rise of number sultanates, the most prominent of which was the Melaka (Malacca). Islamic culture has had a profound influence on the Malay people, but has also been influenced by them. The Portuguese were the first European colonial powers to establish themselves in Malaysia, capturing Malacca in 1511, followed by the Dutch. However, it was the British, who after initially establishing bases at Jesselton, Kuching, Penang and Singapore, ultimately secured their hegemony across the territory that is now Malaysia. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 defined the boundaries between British Malaya and the Netherlands East Indies (which became Indonesia). A fourth phase of foreign influence was immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo. Annual Report on the Federation of Malaya: 1951 in C.C. Chin and Karl Hack, Dialogues with Chin Peng pp. 380, 81. Japanese invasion during World War II ended British domination in Malaysia. The subsequent occupation from 1942 to 1945 unleashed nationalism in Malaya and Borneo. In the Peninsula, the Malayan Communist Party took up arms against the British. A tough military response was needed to end the insurgency and bring about the establishment of an independent, multi-racial Federation of Malaya in 1957. On 31 August 1963, the British territories in North Borneo and Singapore were granted independence and formed Malaysia with the Peninsular states on 16 September 1963. Approximately two years later, Singapore was expelled from the Federation. A confrontation with Indonesia occurred in the early-1960s. Race riots in 1969 led to the imposition of emergency rule, and a curtailment of political life and civil liberties which has never been fully reversed. Since 1970 the "National Front coalition" headed by United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) has governed Malaysia. Economic growth dramatically increased living standards by the 1990s. This growing prosperity helped minimise political discontent. Successive UMNO-dominated governments have promoted the use of the Malay language and carried out systematic positive discrimination in favour of Muslims, measures which cause great resentment. Early kingdoms The empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia. Indian influence in the region dates back to at least the 3rd century BCE. Indian traders came to the archipelago for abundant forest and marine products, and to trade with merchants from China. Both Hinduism and Buddhism were well established in the Malay Peninsula by the beginning of the 1st century AD, and from there spread across the archipelago. Chinese chronicles of the 5th century CE speak of a great port in the south called Guantoli, which is thought to have been in the Straits of Malacca. In the 7th century, a new port called Shilifoshi is mentioned, and this is believed to be a Chinese rendering of Srivijaya. Srivijaya Empire The site of Srivijaya's centre is thought be at a river mouth in eastern Sumatra, possibly near Palembang. For 700 years the Maharajahs of Srivijaya ruled a loose-knit maritime empire that controlled the coasts of Sumatra, Peninsular Malaya, and Borneo. Sometimes they also ruled parts of Java, but Javanese states resisted Srivijayan hegemony. Srivijaya was based on trade, welcoming annual trading fleets from China and India, and further afield, including Japanese, Iranians and Arabs. Its greatest enemies were the Siamese in the north. To secure a powerful ally against these enemies, the maharajahs paid tribute to the Chinese Emperors, but they were never under Chinese control. The power of Srivijaya declined from the 10th century CE. Never a centralised state, it was apparently weakened by a series of wars with the Javanese, which disrupted trade. In the 11th century CE a rival power centre arose at Melayu, a port possibly located further up the Sumatran coast at what is now the Indonesian Jambi province. Melayu's influence is shown by the fact that the name is the origin of the word "Malay." The power of the Hindu Maharajahs was further undermined by the spread of Islam. Areas which were converted to Islam early, such as Aceh, broke away from Srivijaya’s control. By the late 13th century, the Siamese kings of Sukhothai had brought most of Malaya under their rule. But the great wealth of the Srivijayan sphere, with its rich resources of aromatic timber, sea products, gold, tin, spices, wax and resins – all highly prized both in China and in the west – kept Srivijaya prosperous until it faded away in the 14th century. Indian influence There were numerous Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd century CE—as many as 30 according to Chinese sources. Kedah—known as Kedaram or Kataha, in ancient Pallava or Sanskrit—was in the direct route of invasions of Indian traders and kings. Rajendra Chola, Tamil Emperor who is now thought to have laid Kota Gelanggi to waste, put Kedah to heel in 1025 but his successor, Vir Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow the invaders. The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty of Srivijaya which had exerted influence over Kedah and Pattani and even as far as Ligor. The Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took control of Kedah, and its King Chandrabhanu used it as a base to attack Sri Lanka in the 11th century, an event noted in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in Tamil Nadu and in the Sri Lankan chronicles, Mahavamsa. During the first millennium, the people of the Malay peninsula adopted Hinduism and Buddhism and the use of Sanskrit until their later conversion to Islam. Melaka and Islamic Malaya The earliest record of a local law influenced by Islamic teaching and written in Jawi. The stone monument is found in Terengganu. The port of Melaka ("Malacca") on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula was founded around 1400 by Parameswara, a rebel prince of the Srivijaya royal line, who was claimed in the Sejarah Melayu to be a descendant of Alexander the Great. Expelled from Sumatra for killing the ruler of Temasek (modern day Singapore), Parameswara established himself in Melaka. The kingdom rapidly assumed the place previously held by Srivijaya, establishing independent relations with China, and exploiting its position dominating the Straits to control the China-India maritime trade, which became increasingly important when the Mongol conquests closed the overland route between China and the west. Within a few years of its establishment, Melaka officially adopted Islam, and the Raja became a Sultan. The political power of the Malaccan Sultanate helped Islam’s rapid spread through the archipelago, reaching as far as modern day Philippines, while leaving Bali as an isolated outpost of Hinduism. Islam came to the Malay Archipelago via India, and unlike Middle Eastern Islam it was influenced by the mystical traditions of Sufism, and also absorbed some elements of Malay animist and Hindu traditions. Because Islam was introduced by traders and not military conquest, there was no imposition of the Arabic language or Arab political customs. Since most ethnic Malays could not read the Arabic Qur'an, the local version of Islam was much less rigorous than in the Arabic world. And since the indigenous Malay rulers retained their power, the Islamic clergy did not gain the political influence it enjoyed in other parts of the Islamic world. Melaka's reign lasted little more than a century, but it came to be seen as a golden age of Malay self-rule, and the Sultans of Melaka became the models for all subsequent Malay rulers. Melaka became a cultural centre, creating the matrix of the modern Malay culture: a blend of indigenous Malay and imported Indian, Chinese and Islamic elements. Melaka's fashions in literature, art, music, dance and dress, and the ornate titles of its royal court, came to be seen as the standard for all ethnic Malays. The court of Melaka also gave great prestige to the Malay language, which had originally evolved in Sumatra and been brought to Melaka at the time of its foundation. In time Malay came to be the official language of all the Malaysian states, although local languages survived in many places. Struggles for hegemony The closing of the overland route from Asia to Europe by the Ottoman Empire and the claim towards trade monopoly with India and south-east Asia by Arab traders, led European powers to look for a maritime route. In 1498 Vasco da Gama, sent by King John II of Portugal, found the route around the Cape of Good Hope to India, and in 1511 Afonso de Albuquerque led an expedition to Malaya which seized Melaka following a month-long siege and made it the centre of Portugal’s eastern activity. The son of the last Sultan of Melaka fled to the island of Bintan off the southern tip of Malaya, where he founded a state that which became the Sultanate of Johore. By the late sixteenth century the tin mines of northern Malaya had been discovered by European traders, and Perak grew wealthy on the proceeds of tin exports. The European colonial expanded further into the region. The Portuguese gained control over the trade from the spice-rich Maluku islands, and in 1571 the Spanish captured Manila. In 1607, the Sultanate of Aceh rise as the powerful and wealthiest state in Malay archipelago. Under Iskandar Muda reign, he extended the sultanate's control over most of Sumatra and Malay peninsula. He conquered Pahang, a tin-producing region on the Malayan Peninsula. The strength of his formidable fleet was brought to an end with a disastrous campaign against Malacca in 1629, when the combined Portuguese and Johor forces managed to destroy all his ships and 19,000 troops according to Portuguese account. Aceh forces was not destroyed, however, as Aceh was able to conquer Kedah within the same year and taking many of its citizens to Aceh. The Sultan's son in law, Iskandar Thani, former prince of Pahang later became his successor. During his reign Aceh focused on internal consolidation and religious unity. In the early seventeenth century, the Dutch established Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, or VOC ), initially based trade and Maluku, and their post Batavia in west Java. From there they expanded across the archipelago, forming an alliance with Johore against their main enemies, the Portuguese at Melaka and the powerful Sultan of Aceh. In 1641, after several attempts, the VOC-Johore alliance captured Melaka, breaking Portuguese power in Malaya for good – Portugal was left with only Portuguese Timor. Backed by the Dutch, Johore established a loose hegemony over the Malay states, except Perak, which was able to play off Johore against the Siamese to the north and retain its independence. The weakness of the Malay states in this period allowed other people to migrate into the Malay homelands. The most significant migrants being the Bugis, seafarers from eastern Indonesia, who regularly raided the Malay coasts. They seized control of Johore following the assassination of the last Sultan of the old Melaka royal line in 1699 and other Bugis took control of Selangor. The Minangkabau from center Sumatra migrated into Malaya, and eventually established their own state in Negeri Sembilan. The fall of Johore left a power vacuum on the Malay Peninsula which was partly filled by the Siamese kings of Ayutthaya kingdom, who made the five northern Malay states – Kedah, Kelantan, Patani, Perlis and Terengganu – their vassals. Johore’s eclipse also left Perak as the unrivalled leader of the Malay states. The economic importance of Malaya to Europe grew rapidly during the 18th century. The fast-growing tea trade between China and Britain increased the demand for high-quality Malayan tin, which was used to line tea-chests. Malayan pepper also had a high reputation in Europe, while Kelantan and Pahang had gold mines. The growth of tin and gold mining and associated service industries led to the first influx of foreign settlers into the Malay world – initially Arabs and Indians, later Chinese – who colonised the towns and soon dominated economic activities. This established a pattern which characterised Malayan society for the next 200 years – a rural Malay population increasingly under the domination of wealthy urban immigrant communities, whose power the Sultans were unable to resist. English traders had been present in Malay waters since the 17th century, but it was not until the mid 18th century that the British East India Company, based in British India, developed a serious interest in Malayan affairs. The growth of the China trade in British ships increased the Company’s desire for bases in the region. Various islands were used for this purpose, but the first permanent acquisition was Penang, leased from the Sultan of Kedah in 1786. This was followed soon after by the leasing of a block of territory on the mainland opposite Penang (known as Province Wellesley). In 1795, during the Napoleonic Wars, the British occupied Dutch Melaka to forestall possible French interest in the area. When Melaka was handed back to the Dutch in 1815, the British governor, Stamford Raffles, looked for an alternative base, and in 1819 he acquired Singapore from the Sultan of Johore. The twin bases of Penang and Singapore, together with the decline of the Netherlands as a naval power, made Britain the dominant force in Malayan affairs. British influence was increased by Malayan fears of Siamese expansionism, to which Britain made a useful counterweight. During the 19th century the Malay Sultans became loyal allies of the British Empire. British Influence In 1824 British hegemony in Malaya (before the name Malaysia) was formalised by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the decisive event in the formation of modern Malaysia. The Dutch evacuated Melaka and renounced all interest in Malaya, while the British recognised Dutch rule over the rest of the East Indies. Penang, Melaka and Singapore were united as the Straits Settlements, ruled by a British Governor in Singapore. During the 19th century, the British concluded treaties with the Malay states, installing “residents” who advised the Sultans and soon became the effective rulers of their states. The wealth of Perak’s tin mines made political stability there a priority for British investors, and Perak was thus the first Malay state to agree to the supervision of a British resident. Johore alone resisted, holding out until 1914. In 1909 the weakened Siamese kingdom was compelled to cede Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu to the British. (Siam retained the Sultanate of Patani, leaving a Muslim minority in southern Thailand which has been a source of much trouble for successive Thai governments.) During the late 19th century the British also gained control of the north coast of Borneo, where Dutch rule had never been established. The eastern part of this region (now Sabah) was under the nominal control of the Sultan of Sulu, a vassal of the Spanish Philippines. The rest was the territory of the Sultanate of Brunei. In 1841, a British adventurer, James Brooke, leased Kuching from the Sultan and made himself the “White Raja” of Sarawak, steadily expanding his territory at Brunei’s expense. North-eastern Borneo was colonised by British traders, and in 1881 the British North Borneo Company was granted control of the territory under the distant supervision of the governor in Singapore. The Spanish Philippines never recognised this loss of the Sultan of Sulu’s territory, laying the basis of the subsequent Filipino claim to Sabah. In 1888 what was left of Brunei was made a British protectorate, and in 1891 another Anglo-Dutch treaty formalised the border between British and Dutch Borneo. Thus the borders of modern Malaysia were formed, in complete disregard of ethnic and linguistic factors, by the colonial powers. By 1910 the pattern of British rule in the Malay lands was established. The Straits Settlements were a Crown Colony, ruled by a governor under the supervision of the Colonial Office in London. Their population was about half Chinese, but all residents, regardless of race, were British subjects. The first four states to accept British residents, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang, were termed the Federated Malay States: while technically independent, they were placed under a Resident-General in 1895, making them British colonies in all but name. The Unfederated Malay States (Johore, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu) had a slightly larger degree of independence, although they were unable to resist the wishes of their British Residents for long. Johore, as Britain’s closest ally in Malay affairs, had the privilege of a written constitution, which gave the Sultan the right to appoint his own Cabinet, but he was generally careful to consult the British first. Multi-racial Influence Unlike some colonial powers, the British always saw their empire as primarily an economic concern, and its colonies were expected to turn a profit for British shareholders. Malaya’s obvious attractions were its tin and gold mines, but British planters soon began to experiment with tropical plantation crops – tapioca, gambier, pepper and coffee. But in 1877 the rubber plant was introduced from Brazil, and rubber soon became Malaya’s staple export, stimulated by booming demand from European industry. Rubber was later joined by palm oil as an export earner. All these industries required a large and disciplined labour force, and the British did not regard the Malays as reliable workers. The solution was the importation of plantation workers from India, mainly Tamil-speakers from South India. The mines, mills and docks also attracted a flood of immigrant workers from southern China. Soon towns like Singapore, Penang and Ipoh were majority Chinese, as was Kuala Lumpur, founded as a tin-mining centre in 1857. By 1891, when Malaya’s first census was taken, Perak and Selangor, the main tin-mining states, had Chinese majorities. The Chinese mostly arrived poor; yet, their belief in industriousness and frugality, their emphasis in their children's education and their maintenance of Confucian family hierarchy, as well as their voluntary connection with tightly knit networks of mutual aid societies (run by "Hui-Guan" 會館, or non-profit organizations with nominal geographic affiliations from different parts of China) all contributed to their prosperity. In the 1890s Yap Ah Loy, who held the title of Kapitan China of Kuala Lumpur, was the richest man in Malaya, owning a chain of mines, plantations and shops. Malaya’s banking and insurance industries were run by the Chinese from the start, and Chinese businesses, usually in partnership with London firms, soon had a stranglehold on the economy. Since the Malay Sultans tended to spend well beyond their means, they were soon indebted to Chinese bankers, and this gave the Chinese political as well as economic leverage. At first the Chinese immigrants were mostly men, and mamy intended to return home when they had made their fortunes. Many did go home, but many more stayed. At first they married Malay women, producing a community of Sino-Malayans or baba people, but soon they began importing Chinese brides, establishing permanent communities and building schools and temples. The Indians were initially less successful, since unlike the Chinese they came mainly as indentured labourers to work in the rubber plantations, and had few of the economic opportunities that the Chinese had. They were also a less united community, since they were divided between Hindus and Muslims and along lines of language and caste. An Indian commercial and professional class emerged during the early 20th century, but the majority of Indians remained poor and uneducated in rural ghettos in the rubber-growing areas. Traditional Malay society had great difficulty coping with both the loss of political sovereignty to the British and of economic sovereignty to the Chinese. By the early 20th century it seemed possible that the Malays would become a minority in their own country. The Sultans, who were seen as collaborators with both the British and the Chinese, lost some of their traditional prestige, particularly among the increasing number of Malays with a western education, but the mass of rural Malays continued to revere the Sultans and their prestige was thus an important prop for colonial rule. A small class of Malay nationalist intellectuals began to emerge during the early 20th century, and there was also a revival of Islam in response to the perceived threat of other imported religions, particularly Christianity. In fact few Malays converted to Christianity, although many Chinese did. The northern regions, which were less influenced by western ideas, became strongholds of Islamic conservatism, as they have remained. The one consolation to Malay pride was that the British allowed them a virtual monopoly of positions in the police and local military units, as well as a majority of those administrative positions open to non-Europeans. While the Chinese mostly built and paid for their own schools and colleges, importing teachers from China, the colonial government fostered education for Malays, opening Malay College in 1905 and creating the Malay Administrative Service in 1910. (The college was dubbed “Bab ud-Darajat” – the Gateway to High Rank.) A Malay Teachers College followed in 1922, and a Malay Women’s Training College in 1935. All this reflected the official British policy that Malaya belonged to the Malays, and that the other races were but temporary residents. This view was increasingly out of line with reality, and contained the seeds of much future trouble. In the years before World War II, the British neglected constitutional development in Malaya. Following their usual policy of indirect rule, they were concerned to prop up the authority of the Sultans and to discourage any talk of Malaya as a united or self-governing country. There were no moves to give Malaya a unitary government, and in fact in 1935 the position of Resident-General of the Federated States was abolished, and its powers decentralised to the individual states. With their usual tendency to racial stereotyping, the British regarded the Malays as amiable but unsophisticated and rather lazy, incapable of self-government, although making good soldiers under British officers. They regarded the Chinese as clever but dangerous – and indeed during the 1920s and ‘30s, reflecting events in China, the Chinese Nationalist Party (the Kuomintang) and the Communist Party of China built rival clandestine organisations in Malaya, leading to regular disturbances in the Chinese towns. The British saw no way that Malaya’s disparate collection of states and races could become a nation, let alone an independent one. War and Emergency Tugu Negara, the Malaysian national monument is dedicated to those that fell during World War II and the Malayan Emergency The outbreak of war in the Pacific in December 1941 found the British in Malaya completely unprepared. During the 1930s, anticipating the rising threat of Japanese naval power, they had built a great naval base at Singapore, but never anticipated an invasion of Malaya from the north. Because of the demands of the war in Europe, there was virtually no British air capacity in the Far East. The Japanese were thus able to attack from their bases in French Indo-China with impunity, and despite stubborn resistance from British, Australian and Indian forces, they overran Malaya in two months. Singapore, with no landward defences, no air cover and no water supply, was forced to surrender in February 1942, doing irreparable damage to British prestige. British North Borneo and Brunei were also occupied. Japanese troops moving through Kuala Lumpur during their advance through Malaya The Japanese had a racial policy just as the British did. They regarded the Malays as a colonial people liberated from British imperialist rule, and fostered a limited form of Malay nationalism, which gained them some degree of collaboration from the Malay civil service and intellectuals. (Most of the Sultans also collaborated with the Japanese, although they maintained later that they had done so unwillingly.) The occupiers regarded the Chinese, however, as enemy aliens, and treated them with great harshness: during the so-called sook ching (purification through suffering), up to 80,000 Chinese in Malaya and Singapore were killed. Chinese businesses were expropriated and Chinese schools either closed or burned down. Not surprisingly the Chinese, led by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP), became the backbone of the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA), which with British assistance became the most effective resistance force in the occupied Asian countries. But the Japanese also offended Malay nationalism by allowing their ally Thailand to re-annex the four northern states, Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan and Terengganu that had been surrendered to British in 1909. The loss of Malaya’s export markets soon produced mass unemployment which affected all races and made the Japanese increasingly unpopular. The Malayans were thus on the whole glad to see the British back in 1945, but things could not remain as they were before the war. Britain was bankrupt and the new Labour government was keen to withdraw its forces from the East as soon as possible. Colonial self-rule and eventual independence were now British policy. The tide of colonial nationalism sweeping through Asia soon reached Malaya. But most Malays were more concerned with defending themselves against the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) which was mostly made up of Chinese, than with demanding independence from the British – indeed their immediate concern was that the British not leave and abandon the Malays to the armed Communists of the MPAJA, which was the largest armed force in the country. During the last year of the war there had been armed clashes between Chinese and Malays and many Malays were killed by the armed Chinese communists members of the MPAJA and the returning British found a country on the brink of civil war. In 1946 the British announced plans for a Malayan Union, which would turn the Federated and Unfederated Malay States, plus Penang and Malacca (but not Singapore), into a unitary state, with a view to independence within a few years. There would be a common Malayan citizenship regardless of race. The Malays were horrified at this recognition that the Chinese and Indians were now to be a permanent and equal part of Malaya’s future, and vowed their opposition to the plan. The Sultans, who had initially supported it, backed down and placed themselves at the head of the resistance. In 1946 the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) was founded by Malay nationalists led by Dato Onn bin Jaafar, the Chief Minister of Johore. UMNO favoured independence for Malaya, but only if the new state was run exclusively by the Malays. Faced with implacable Malay opposition, the British dropped the plan. Meanwhile the Communists were moving towards open insurrection. The MPAJA had been disbanded in December 1945, and the MCP organised as a legal political party, but the MPAJA’s arms were carefully stored for future use. The MCP policy was for immediate independence with full equality for all races. This meant it recruited very few Malays. The Party’s strength was in the Chinese-dominated trade unions, particularly in Singapore, and in the Chinese schools, where the teachers, mostly born in China, saw the Communist Party of China as the leader of China’s national revival. In March 1947, reflecting the international Communist movement’s “turn to left” as the Cold War set in, the MCP leader Lai Tek was purged and replaced by the veteran MPAJA guerrilla leader Chin Peng, who turned the party increasingly to direct action. In July, following a string of assassinations of plantation managers, the colonial government struck back, declaring a State of Emergency, banning the MCP and arresting hundreds of its militants. The Party retreated to the jungle and formed the Malayan Peoples’ Liberation Army, with about 13,000 men under arms, all Chinese. The Malayan Emergency involved six years of bitter fighting across the Malayan Peninsula. The British strategy, which proved ultimately successful, was to isolate the MCP from its support base by a combination of economic and political concessions to the Chinese and the resettlement of Chinese squatters into “New Villages” in “white areas” free of MCP influence. The effective mobilisation of the Malays against the MCP was also an important part the British strategy. From 1949 the MCP campaign lost momentum and the number of recruits fell sharply. Although the MCP succeeded in assassinating the British High Commissioner, Sir Henry Gurney, in October 1951, this turn to “terrorist” tactics alienated many moderate Chinese from the Party. The arrival of Lt-Gen Sir Gerald Templer as British commander in 1952 was the beginning of the end of the Emergency. Templer invented the techniques of counter-insurgency warfare in Malaya and applied them ruthlessly. Towards Malaysia Dataran Merdeka (Independence Square) in Kuala Lumpur, where Malaysians celebrate Independence Day on 31 August each year Chinese reaction against the MCP was shown by the formation of the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) in 1949 as a vehicle for moderate Chinese political opinion. Its leader, Tan Cheng Lock, favoured a policy of collaboration with UMNO to win Malayan independence on a policy of equal citizenship, but with sufficient concessions to Malay sensitivities to ease nationalist fears. Tan formed a close collaboration with Tunku (Prince) Abdul Rahman, the Chief Minister of Kedah and from 1951 successor to Datuk Onn as leader of UMNO. Since the British had announced in 1949 that Malaya would soon become independent whether the Malayans liked it or not, both leaders were determined to forge an agreement their communities could live with as a basis for a stable independent state. The UMNO-MCA Alliance (which was later joined by the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC)), won convincing victories in local and state elections in both Malay and Chinese areas between 1952 and 1955. The introduction of elected local government was another important step in defeating the Communists. After Joseph Stalin’s death in 1953, there was a split in the MCP leadership over the wisdom of continuing the armed struggle. Many MCP militants lost heart and went home, and by the time Templer left Malaya in 1954 the Emergency was over, although Chin Peng led a diehard group that lurked in the inaccessible country along the Thai border for many years. The Emergency left a lasting legacy of bitterness between Malays and Chinese. During 1955 and 1956 UMNO, the MCA and the British hammered out a constitutional settlement for anciple of equal citizenship for all races. In exchange, the MCA agreed that Malaya’s head of state would be drawn from the ranks of the Malay Sultans, that Malay would be the official language, and that Malay education and economic development would be promoted and subsidised. In effect this meant that Malaya would be run by the Malays, particularly since they continued to dominate the civil service, the army and the police, but that the Chinese and Indians would have proportionate representation in the Cabinet and the parliament, would run those states where they were the majority, and would have their economic position protected. The difficult issue of who would control the education system was deferred until after independence. This came on August 31, 1957, when Tunku Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister of independent Malaya. This left the unfinished business of the other British-ruled territories in the region. After the Japanese surrender the Brooke family and the British North Borneo Company gave up their control of Sarawak and Sabah respectively, and these became British Crown Colonies. They were much less economically developed than Malaya, and their local political leaderships were too weak to demand independence. Singapore, with its large Chinese majority, achieved autonomy in 1955, and in 1959 the young socialist leader Lee Kuan Yew became Prime Minister. The Sultan of Brunei remained as a British client in his oil-rich enclave. Between 1959 and 1962 the British government orchestrated complex negotiations between these local leaders and the Malayan government. In 1961, Abdul Rahman mooted the idea of forming "Malaysia", which would consist of Brunei, Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore, all of which had been British colonies. The reasoning behind this was that this would allow the central government to control and combat communist activities, especially in Singapore. It was also feared that if Singapore achieved independence, it would become a base for Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty. To balance out the ethnic composition of the new nation, the other states, whose Malay and indigenous populations would cancel out the Singaporean Chinese majority, were also included. Shuid, Mahdi & Yunus, Mohd. Fauzi (2001). Malaysian Studies, p. 29. Longman. ISBN 983-74-2024-3. Although Lee Kuan Yew supported the proposal, his opponents from the Singaporean Socialist Front resisted, arguing that this was a ploy for the British to continue controlling the region. Most political parties in Sarawak were also against the merger, and in Sabah, where there were no political parties, community representatives also stated their opposition. Although the Sultan of Brunei supported the merger, the Parti Rakyat Brunei opposed it as well. At the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Conference in 1961, Abdul Rahman explained his proposal further to its opponents. In October, he obtained agreement from the British government to the plan, provided that feedback be obtained from the communities involved in the merger. The Cobbold Commission, named after its head, Lord Cobbold, conducted a study in the Borneo territories and approved a merger with Sabah and Sarawak; however, it was found that a substantial number of Bruneians opposed merger. A referendum was conducted in Singapore to gauge opinion, and 70% supported merger with substantial autonomy given to the state government. Shuid & Yunus, pp. 30–31. Adam, Ramlah binti, Samuri, Abdul Hakim bin & Fadzil, Muslimin bin (2004). Sejarah Tingkatan 3, p. 207. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. ISBN 983-62-8285-8. After reviewing the Cobbold Commission's findings, the British government appointed the Landsdowne Commission to draft a constitution for Malaysia. The eventual constitution was essentially the same as the 1957 constitution, albeit with some rewording. For instance, giving recognition to the special position of the natives of the Borneo States. Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore were also granted some autonomy unavailable to the states of Malaya. After negotiations in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on 31 August 1963, consisting of Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore. Brunei pulled out after Parti Rakyat Brunei staged an armed revolt, which, though it was put down, was viewed as potentially destabilising to the new nation. Shuid & Yunus, p. 31. The Philippines and Indonesia strenuously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming Malaysia represented a form of "neocolonialism" and the Philippines claiming Sabah as its territory. Indonesian President Sukarno, backed by the powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), chose to regard Malaysia as a "neocolonialist" plot against his country, and backed a Communist insurgency in Sarawak, mainly involving elements of the local Chinese community. Indonesian irregular forces were infiltrated into Sarawak, where they were contained by Malaysian and Commonwealth of Nations forces. This period of Konfrontasi lasted until the downfall of Sukarno in 1965/66. Under Sukarno’s successor, Suharto, Indonesian-Malaysian relations improved. At the same time Filipino President Diosdado Macapagal revived the long-dormant Filipino claim to Sabah, once part of the Sultanate of Sulu. In 1966 the new president, Ferdinand Marcos, dropped the claim, although it is still a point of contention marring Philippine-Malaysian relations. Malaysia formally came into being on 16 September 1963, consisting of Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore. In 1963 the total population of Malaysia was about 10 million. Problems of independence The Depression of the 1930s, followed by the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, had the effect of ending Chinese emigration to Malaya. This stabilised the demographic situation and ended the prospect of the Malays becoming a minority in their own country. At the time of independence in 1957, the Malays were 55% of the population, the Chinese 35% and the Indians 10%. Since the Malays have until recently had a higher birth rate, the proportion of Malays has increased since independence – by 2000 it was over 60%. This equation was upset by the inclusion of Singapore, which increased the Chinese proportion to close to 40%. Both UMNO and the MCA were nervous about the possible appeal of Lee's People's Action Party (then seen as a radical socialist party) to voters in Malaya, and tried to organise a party in Singapore to challenge Lee's position there. Lee in turn threatened to run PAP candidates in Malaya at the 1964 federal elections, despite an earlier agreement that he would not do so (see PAP-UMNO Relations). This provoked Tunku Abdul Rahman to demand that Singapore withdraw from Malaysia, which it did in August 1965. The most vexed issues of independent Malaysia were education and the disparity of economic power among the ethnic communities. Since there was no effective opposition party, these issues were contested mainly within the coalition government, which won all but one seat in the first post-independence Malayan Parliament. The two issues were related, since the Chinese advantage in education played a large part in maintaining their control of the economy, which the UMNO leaders were determined to end. The MCA leaders were torn between the need to defend their own community’s interests and the need to maintain good relations with UMNO. This produced a crisis in the MCA in 1959, in which a more assertive leadership under Lim Chong Eu defied UMNO over the education issue, only to be forced to back down when Tunku Abdul Rahman threatened to break up the coalition. The Education Act of 1961 put UMNO’s victory on the education issue into legislative form. Henceforward Malay and English would be the only teaching languages in secondary schools, and state primary schools would teach in Malay only. Although the Chinese and Indian communities could maintain their own Mandarin and Tamil-language primary schools, all their students were required to learn Malay, and to study an agreed “Malayan curriculum.” Most importantly, the entry exam to the University of Malaya (which moved from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur in 1963) would be conducted in Malay, even though most teaching at the university was in English until the 1970s. This had the effect of excluding many Chinese students. At the same time Malay schools were heavily subsidised, and Malays were given preferential treatment. This obvious defeat for the MCA greatly weakened its support in the Chinese community. At the time of independence Malaya had great economic advantages. It was among the world’s leading producers of three valuable commodities, rubber, tin and palm oil, and also a significant iron ore producer. These export industries gave the Malayan government a healthy surplus to invest in industrial development and infrastructure projects. Like other developing nations in the 1950s and '60s, Malaya (and later Malaysia) placed great stress on state planning, although UMNO was never a socialist party. The First and Second Malayan Plans (1956-60 and 1961-65 respectively) stimulated economic growth through state investment in industry and repairing infrastructure such as roads and ports, which had been damaged and neglected during the war and the Emergency. The government was keen to reduce Malaya’s dependence on commodity exports, which put the country at the mercy of fluctuating prices. The government was also aware that demand for natural rubber was bound to fall as the production and use of synthetic rubber expanded. Since a third of the Malay workforce worked in the rubber industry it was important to develop alternative sources of employment. Competition for Malaya’s rubber markets meant that the profitability of the rubber industry increasingly depended on keeping wages low, which perpetuated rural Malay poverty. As in education, the UMNO government’s unspoken agenda in the field of economic development was to shift economic power away from the Chinese and towards the Malays. The two Malayan Plans, and the First Malaysian Plan (1966-70), directed resources heavily into developments which would benefit the rural Malay community, such as village schools, rural roads, clinics and irrigation projects. Several agencies were set up to enable Malay smallholders to upgrade their production and increase their incomes. The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) helped many Malays buy farms or upgrade ones they already owned. The state also provided a range of incentives and low-interest loans to help Malays start businesses, and government tendering systematically favoured Malay companies, leading many Chinese-owned businesses to “Malayanise” their management. All this certainly tended to reduce to gap between Chinese and Malay standards of living, although some argued that this would have happened anyway as Malaysia’s trade and general prosperity increased. The crisis of 1969 The collaboration of the MCA and the MIC in these policies weakened their hold on the Chinese and Indian electorates. At the same time, the effects of the government’s affirmative action policies of the 1950s and ‘60s had been to create a discontented class of educated but underemployed Malays. This was a dangerous combination, and led to the formation of a new party, the Malaysian People’s Movement (Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia) in 1968. Gerakan was a deliberately non-communal party, bringing in Malay trade unionists and intellectuals as well as Chinese and Indian leaders. At the same time, an Islamist party, the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS) and a Chinese socialist party, the Democratic Action Party (DAP), gained increasing support, at the expense of UMNO and the MCA respectively. At the May 1969 federal elections, the UMNO-MCA-MIC Alliance polled only 48 percent of the vote, although it retained a majority in the legislature. The MCA lost most of the Chinese-majority seats to Gerakan or DAP candidates. The result was anti-government demonstrations by Chinese in Kuala Lumpur, provoking a Malay backlash and leading rapidly to riots and inter-communal violence in which about 6,000 Chinese homes and businesses were burned and at least 184 people were killed. The government declared a state of emergency, and a National Operations Council, headed by the Deputy Prime Minister, Tun Abdul Razak, took power from the government of Tunku Abdul Rahman, who in September 1970 was forced to retire in favour of Abdul Razak. Using the Emergency-era Internal Security Act (ISA), the new government suspended Parliament and political parties, imposed press censorship and placed severe restrictions on political activity. The ISA gave the government power to intern any person indefinitely without trial. These powers were widely used to silence the government’s critics, and have never been repealed. The Constitution was changed to make illegal any criticism, even in Parliament, of the Malaysian monarchy, the special position of Malays in the country, or the status of Malay as the national language. In 1971 Parliament reconvened, and a new government coalition, the National Front (Barisan Nasional), took office. This included UMNO, the MCA, the MIC, the much weakened Gerakan, and regional parties in Sabah and Sarawak. The DAP was left outside as the only significant opposition party. The PAS also joined the Front but was expelled in 1977. Abdul Razak held office until his death in 1976. He was succeeded by Datuk Hussein Onn, the son of UMNO’s founder Onn Jaafar, and then by Tun Dr Mahathir bin Mohamad, who had been Education Minister since 1971, and who held power for 22 years. During these years policies were put in place which led to the rapid transformation of Malaysia’s economy and society. Modern Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, a blend of old and new. In 1970 75 percent of Malaysians living below the poverty line were Malays, the majority of Malays were still rural workers, and Malays were still largely excluded from the modern economy. The government’s response was the New Economic Policy of 1971, which was to be implemented through a series of four five-year plans from 1971 to 1990. The plan had two objectives: the elimination of poverty, particularly rural poverty, and the elimination of the identification between race and economic function. This latter policy was understood to mean a decisive shift in economic power from the Chinese to the Malays. Poverty was tackled through an agricultural policy which resettled 250,000 Malays on newly cleared farmland, more investment in rural infrastructure, and the creation of free trade zones in rural areas to create new manufacturing jobs. During the 1970s and ‘80s rural poverty did decline, particularly in the Malayan Peninsula, but critics of the government’s policy contend that this was mainly due to the growth of overall national prosperity (due in large part to the discovery of important oil and gas reserves) and migration of rural people to the cities rather than to state intervention. Little was done to improve the living standards of the low-paid workers in plantation agriculture, although this group steadily declined as a proportion of the workforce. By 1990 the poorest parts of Malaysia were rural Sabah and Sarawak, which lagged significantly behind the rest of the country. These years saw rapid growth in Malaysian cities, particularly Kuala Lumpur, which became a magnet for immigration both from rural Malaya and from poorer neighbours such as Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand and the Philippines. Urban poverty became a problem for the first time, with shanty towns growing up around the cities. The second arm of government policy, driven mainly by Mahathir first as Education Minister and then as Prime Minister, was the transfer of economic power to the Malays. Mahathir greatly expanded the number of secondary schools and universities throughout the country, and enforced the policy of teaching in Malay rather than English. This had the effect of creating a large new Malay professional class. It also created an unofficial barrier against Chinese access to higher education, since few Chinese are sufficiently fluent in Malay to study at Malay-language universities. Chinese families therefore sent their children to universities in Singapore, Australia, Britain or the United States – by 2000, for example, 60,000 Malaysians held degrees from Australian universities. This had the unintended consequence of exposing large numbers of Malaysians to life in Western countries, creating a new source of discontent. Mahathir also greatly expanded educational opportunities for Malay women – by 2000 half of all university students were women. Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur the tallest building in South-East Asia. To find jobs for all these new Malay graduates, the government created several agencies for intervention in the economy. The most important of these were PERNAS (National Corporation Ltd.), PETRONAS (National Petroleum Ltd.), and HICOM (Heavy Industry Corporation of Malaysia), which not only directly employed many Malays but also invested in growing areas of the economy to create new technical and administrative jobs which were preferentially allocated to Malays. As a result, the share of Malay equity in the economy rose from 1.5 percent in 1969 to 20.3 percent in 1990, and the percentage of businesses of all kinds owned by Malays rose from 39 percent to 68 percent. This latter figure was deceptive because many businesses that appeared to be Malay-owned were still indirectly controlled by Chinese, but there is no doubt that the Malay share of the economy considerably increased. The Chinese remained disproportionately powerful in Malaysian economic life, but by 2000 the distinction between Chinese and Malay business was fading as many new corporations, particularly in growth sectors such as information technology, were owned and managed by people from both ethnic groups. Malaysia’s rapid economic progress since 1970, which was only temporarily disrupted by the Asian financial crisis of 1997, has not been matched by change in Malaysian politics. The repressive measures passed in 1970 remain in place. Malaysia has had regular elections since 1974, and although campaigning is reasonably free at election time, it is in effect a one-party state, with the UMNO-controlled National Front usually winning nearly all the seats, while the DAP wins some Chinese urban seats and the PAS some rural Malay ones. Since the DAP and the PAS have diametrically opposed policies, they have been unable to form an effective opposition coalition. There is almost no criticism of the government in the media and public protest remains severely restricted. The ISA continues to be used to silence dissidents, and the members of the UMNO youth movement are deployed to physically intimidate opponents. Mahathir administration Under Mahathir’s long Prime Ministership (1981-2003), Malaysia’s political culture became increasingly authoritarian, culminating in the dismissal and imprisonment on unsubstantiated charges of the Deputy Prime Minister, Anwar Ibrahim, in 1997 after an internal dispute within the government. The complicity of the judiciary in this piece of persecution was seen as a particularly clear sign of the decline of Malaysian democracy. The Anwar affair led to the formation of a new party, the People's Justice Party, or Keadilan, led by Anwar’s wife, Dr. Wan Azizah Wan Ismail. At the 1999 elections Keadilan formed a coalition with the DAP and the PAS known as the Alternative Front (Barisan Alternatif). The result of this was that the PAS won a number of Malay seats from UMNO, but many Chinese voters disapproved of this unnatural alliance with the Islamist PAS, causing the DAP to lose many of its seats to the MCA, including that of its veteran leader, Lim Kit Siang. Wan Azizah won her husband’s former constituency in Penang but otherwise Keadilan made little impact. Badawi administration Mahathir retired in 2003, and his successor, Dato Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, freed Anwar and allowed him to go abroad, which was seen as a portent of a mild liberalisation. At the 2004 election, the National Front led by Abdullah had a massive victory, virtually wiping out the PAS and Keadilan, although the DAP recovered the seats it had lost in 1999. This victory was seen as the result mainly of Abdullah's personal popularity and the strong recovery of Malaysia’s economy, which has lifted the living standards of most Malaysians to almost first world standards, coupled with an ineffective opposition. The government's objective is for Malaysia to become a fully developed country by 2020 as expressed in Wawasan 2020. It leaves unanswered, however, the question of when and how Malaysia will acquire a first world political system (a multi-party democracy, a free press, an independent judiciary and the restoration of civil and political liberties) to go with its new economic maturity. In November 2007, Malaysia was rocked by two anti-government rallies. The 2007 Bersih Rally which was attended by 40,000 people was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, on November 10 to campaign for electoral reform. It was precipitated by allegations of corruption and discrepancies in the Malaysian election system that heavily favor the ruling political party, Barisan Nasional, which has been in power since Malaysia achieved its independence in 1957. http://asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=863&Itemid=31 Malaysian petioners defy police The 2007 HINDRAF rally was a rally held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, on November 25. The rally organizer, the Hindu Rights Action Force, had called the protest over alleged discriminatory policies which favour ethnic Malays. The crowd was estimated to be between 5,000 to 30,000. http://www.malaysiakini.com/news/75250 Malaysiakini.com, November 25, 2007. In both cases the government and police were heavy handed and tried to prevent the gatherings from taking place. The issues of high inflation, rising crime rates, ethnic tensions in the multicultural nation, and many other issues came back to haunt Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi in the next general elections in 2008. The Opposition coalition of DAP, PAS and PKR won 82 seats in Malaysia's parliament, denying the government its two-thirds majority. The Opposition also took the 4 states of Penang, Kedah, Perak and Selangor, while retaining the opposition stronghold of Kelantan. Malaysia opposition takes aim at affirmative action - Yahoo! Malaysia News Polls deal stunning rebuke to Malaysia coalition - Yahoo! News Still Barisan Nasional, with a simple majority of 140 seats in Parliament, were able to form the next government. Malaysia's Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi was sworn in for a second term on 10 March 2008, defying calls to quit after presiding over the ruling coalition's worst ever election performance. Embattled Malaysian PM sworn in for second term - Yahoo! News References Goh, Cheng Teik (1994). Malaysia: Beyond Communal Politics. Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 967-978-475-4. Musa, M. Bakri (1999). The Malay Dilemma Revisited. Merantau Publishers. ISBN 1-58348-367-5. Ye, Lin-Sheng (2003). The Chinese Dilemma. East West Publishing. ISBN 0-9751646-1-9. 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3,644 | Double-ended_queue | In computer science, a double-ended queue (often abbreviated to deque, pronounced deck) is an abstract data structure that implements a queue for which elements can only be added to or removed from the front (head) or back (tail). Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 2.2.1: Stacks, Queues, and Deques, pp. 238–243. It is also often called a head-tail linked list. Naming conventions Deque is sometimes written dequeue, but this use is generally deprecated in technical literature or technical writing because dequeue is also a verb meaning "to remove from a queue". Nevertheless, several libraries and some writers, such as Aho, Hopcroft, and Ullman in their textbook Data Structures and Algorithms, spell it dequeue. DEQ and DQ are also used. Distinctions and sub-types This differs from the queue abstract data type or First-In-First-Out List (FIFO), where elements can only be added to one end and removed from the other. This general data class has some possible sub-types: An input-restricted deque is one where deletion can be made from both ends, but input can only be made at one end. An output-restricted deque is one where input can be made at both ends, but output can be made from one end only. Both the basic and most common list types in computing, the queues and stacks can be considered specializations of deques, and can be implemented using deques. Operations The following operations are possible on a deque: operation C++ Java Perl PHP Python Ruby JavaScript insert element at back push_back offerLast push array_push append push push insert element at front push_front offerFirst unshift array_unshift appendleft unshift unshift remove last element pop_back pollLast pop array_pop pop pop pop remove first element pop_front pollFirst shift array_shift popleft shift shift examine last element back peekLast $_[-1] end <obj>[-1] last <obj>[<obj>.length - 1] examine first element front peekFirst $_[0] reset <obj>[0] first <obj>[0] Implementations There are at least two common ways to efficiently implement a deque: with a modified dynamic array or with a doubly-linked list. Dynamic array implementation uses a variant of a dynamic array that can grow from both ends, sometimes called array deques. These array deques have all the properties of a dynamic array, such as constant time random access, good locality of reference, and inefficient insertion/removal in the middle, with the addition of amortized constant time insertion/removal at both ends, instead of just one end. Two common implementations include: Storing deque contents in a circular buffer, and only resizing when the buffer becomes completely full. This decreases the frequency of resizings, but requires an expensive branch instruction for indexing. Allocating deque contents from the center of the underlying array, and resizing the underlying array when either end is reached. This approach may require more frequent resizings and waste more space, particularly when elements are only inserted at one end. Language support C++'s Standard Template Library provides the templated classes std::deque and std::list, for the dynamic array and linked list implementations, respectively. As of Java 6, Java's Collections Framework provides a new interface that provides the functionality of insertion and removal at both ends. It is implemented by classes such as (also new in Java 6) and , providing the dynamic array and linked list implementations, respectively. Python 2.4 introduced the collections module with support for deque objects. As of PHP 5.3, PHP's SPL extension contains the 'SplDoublyLinkedList' class that can be used to implement Deque datastructures. Previously to make a Deque structure the array functions array_shift/unshift/pop/push had to be used instead. Complexity In a doubly-linked list implementation, the time complexity of all operations is O(1). In a growing array, the worst-case time complexity of insertion is O(n). The amortized time complexity of all operations is O(1). Applications One of examples where deque can be used is A-Steal job scheduling algorithm. See p.22. This algorithm implements task scheduling for several processors. A separate deque with threads to be executed is maintained for each processor. To execute a next thread, the processor gets the first element from the deque (using "remove first element" deque operation). If the current thread forks, it is put back to the front of the deque ("insert element at front") and a new thread is executed. When one of processors finished execution of all own threads (i.e. its deque is empty), it can "steal" a thread from another processor: get the last element from deque of another processor ("remove last element") and execute it. See also Queue Priority queue References External links SGI STL Documentation: deque<T, Alloc> Code Project: An In-Depth Study of the STL Deque Container Diagram of a typical STL deque implementation deque implementation in flash actionscript 3 open source library | Double-ended_queue |@lemmatized computer:2 science:1 double:1 end:13 queue:8 often:2 abbreviate:1 deque:23 pronounced:1 deck:1 abstract:2 data:4 structure:3 implement:6 element:14 add:2 remove:7 front:5 head:2 back:4 tail:2 donald:1 knuth:1 art:1 programming:1 volume:1 fundamental:1 algorithm:4 third:1 edition:1 addison:1 wesley:1 isbn:1 section:1 stack:2 deques:5 pp:1 also:5 call:2 link:6 list:8 naming:1 convention:1 sometimes:2 write:1 dequeue:3 use:8 generally:1 deprecate:1 technical:2 literature:1 writing:1 verb:1 meaning:1 nevertheless:1 several:2 library:3 writer:1 aho:1 hopcroft:1 ullman:1 textbook:1 spell:1 deq:1 dq:1 distinction:1 sub:2 type:4 differs:1 first:7 fifo:1 one:9 general:1 class:4 possible:2 input:3 restrict:2 deletion:1 make:5 output:2 basic:1 common:3 computing:1 consider:1 specialization:1 operation:6 following:1 c:2 java:4 perl:1 php:3 python:2 ruby:1 javascript:1 insert:4 offerlast:1 push:4 append:1 offerfirst:1 unshift:4 appendleft:1 last:5 polllast:1 pop:5 pollfirst:1 shift:3 popleft:1 examine:2 peeklast:1 obj:5 length:1 peekfirst:1 reset:1 implementation:8 least:1 two:2 way:1 efficiently:1 modified:1 dynamic:6 array:12 doubly:2 variant:1 grow:2 property:1 constant:2 time:5 random:1 access:1 good:1 locality:1 reference:2 inefficient:1 insertion:4 removal:3 middle:1 addition:1 amortized:2 instead:2 include:1 storing:1 content:2 circular:1 buffer:2 resize:2 become:1 completely:1 full:1 decrease:1 frequency:1 resizings:2 require:2 expensive:1 branch:1 instruction:1 index:1 allocate:1 center:1 underlying:2 either:1 reach:1 approach:1 may:1 frequent:1 waste:1 space:1 particularly:1 language:1 support:2 standard:1 template:1 provide:4 templated:1 std:2 respectively:2 collection:2 framework:1 new:3 interface:1 functionality:1 introduce:1 module:1 object:1 spl:1 extension:1 contain:1 spldoublylinkedlist:1 datastructures:1 previously:1 function:1 complexity:4 bad:1 case:1 n:1 application:1 example:1 steal:2 job:1 schedule:2 see:2 p:1 task:1 processor:6 separate:1 thread:6 execute:4 maintain:1 next:1 get:2 current:1 fork:1 put:1 finish:1 execution:1 e:1 empty:1 another:2 priority:1 external:1 sgi:1 stl:3 documentation:1 alloc:1 code:1 project:1 depth:1 study:1 container:1 diagram:1 typical:1 flash:1 actionscript:1 open:1 source:1 |@bigram donald_knuth:1 addison_wesley:1 stack_queue:1 naming_convention:1 perl_php:1 python_ruby:1 insertion_removal:3 priority_queue:1 external_link:1 flash_actionscript:1 |
3,645 | Jackson,_Michigan | Jackson is a city located along Interstate 94 in the south central area of the U.S. state of Michigan, about west of Ann Arbor. It is the county seat of Jackson County. As of the 2000 census, the city population was 36,316. It is the principal city of the Jackson Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes Jackson County. It was founded in 1829, and named after Democratic President Andrew Jackson. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 11.1 square miles (28.7 km²), all of it land. Jackson is considered to be part of Central Michigan. History Jackson County Tower, Jackson's tallest building. On July 3, 1829, Horace Blackman, accompanied by Alexander Laverty, a land surveyor, and an Indian guide forded the Grand River and made camp for the night at what is now Trail and S. Jackson Street. They arrived in Jackson on a well-traveled Indian trail leading west from Ann Arbor. Blackman hired Laverty and Pewytum to guide him west. Blackman returned to Ann Arbor and then Monroe and registered his claim for at two dollars an acre. Blackman returned to Jackson in August, 1829, with his brother Russell. Together they cleared land and built a cabin, built on the corner of what would become Ingham and Trail streets. The town was first called Jacksonopolis. Later, it was renamed Jacksonburgh. Finally, in 1838 the town's name was changed to simply Jackson. Birthplace of the Republican Party - "Under the Oaks" Jackson is the birthplace of the Republican Party. Undisputed is the fact that the first official meeting of the group that actually called itself "Republican" was held in Jackson under the Oaks on July 6, 1854. Earlier meetings of groups that later formed the Republican Party were held in Ripon, Wisconsin, Exeter, New Hampshire and Crawfordsville, Iowa, and all four cities bill themselves as the "Birthplace of the Republican Party." . Since the convention day was hot and the huge crowd could not be accommodated in the hall, the meeting adjourned to an oak grove on "Morgan's Forty" on the outskirts of town, where a slate of candidates was selected for state elections. The spot is now the north west corner of Second and Franklin streets in Jackson, and is commonly called Economy CMS Energy headquarters in downtown Jackson Two major employers in the city are CMS Energy, which provides natural gas and electrical services to much of Michigan and has its international headquarters in the city, as well as Allegiance Health. Michigan Automotive Compressor, Inc. (MACI) is the largest manufacturer in the County. Jackson is also home to Southern Michigan Prison, once the largest walled prison in the world and one of the world's largest maximum-security prisons. The prison closed in 2007. . Income tax The City of Jackson currently assesses a 1% income tax to residents and businesses located within the city, and 0.5% for non-residents working within the city limits. The income tax provides $7,000,000 of revenue, or 32% of the city's annual budget. Motorsports Jackson is from Michigan International Speedway. Each year the facility hosts several NASCAR sanctioned races including two Sprint Cup races held in June and August, in addition to a NASCAR Craftsman Truck series race and two Busch series Stock car races. The Jackson area was the home of Indy 500-winning car owner U. E. Patrick ("Pat" Patrick) and NASCAR team owner Harry Melling. Patrick Racing was formed in 1978 concurrent with the formation of Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART). For many years CART was sponsored by PPG. Patrick Racing won three Indianapolis 500s and two CART PPG championships with Gordon Johncock and Emerson Fittipaldi before the team folded in 1991. The team was revived in 1994 to test Firestone Indy car tires, and won the 1995 Michigan 500. Patrick Racing jumped to the IRL in 2004 and folded at the end of the season. Jackson area residents gave early financial support to Bill Elliott, then a promising young driver who joined the new Melling Racing team in 1982. Melling Racing with Elliott driving the Coors sponsored number 9 Ford Thunderbird won the NASCAR Winston Cup series title in 1988. Grass Lake is also the home of the Community Racing Challenge. The Community Racing Challenge Series of Events will be held every Saturday Night from April 28th through September 16th at Springport Motor Speedway in Springport, Mi. Springport Motor Speedway is a state-of-the-art facility constructed in the early 80's with a total capacity approaching 7500. Education The Jackson urbanized area is home to approximately 16 different elementary public schools, as well as about 16 private or parochial schools. It also has a large public middle school (The Middle School at Parkside), as well as Jackson Catholic Middle School. Finally, it also boasts eight high schools: Jackson High School (Public), East Jackson High School (Public), Jackson County Western High School (Public),Northwest High School (Public), The daVinci Institute (Charter), Jackson Christian School (Private, Non-Denom), Tomlinson Education Center, and Lumen Christi High School (Private, Catholic). Education continues for adults who can take advantage of programs offered at three institutions of higher learning: Jackson Community College (JCC), Baker College, and Spring Arbor University. There are an additional 15 institutions all within one hour of Jackson County. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 36,316 people, 14,210 households, and 8,668 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,274.9 per square mile (1,264.4/km²). There were 15,241 housing units at an average density of 1,374.4/sq mi (530.6/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 73.87% White, 19.70% Black or African American, 0.56% Native American, 0.51% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.65% from other races, and 3.67% from two or more races. 4.05% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 14,210 households out of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.8% were married couples living together, 19.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.0% were non-families. 32.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.12. In the city the population was spread out with 29.7% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 91.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,294, and the median income for a family was $39,072. Males had a median income of $31,957 versus $23,817 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,230. About 15.2% of families and 19.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.9% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over. Religion Jackson has a number of notable historic churches, several of which were established prior to the American Civil War. The First Baptist Church was established in 1839; the present building, a Romanesque Revival structure, was dedicated in March 1872. The First Congregational Church is housed in a monumental Romanesque Revival building constructed in 1859. Its congregation has actively participated in local social reform efforts, participating in the antislavery movement in the 1840s and later supporting the temperance and civil rights movements. St. Paul's Episcopal Church was also founded in 1839. The congregation's first church building, constructed in 1840, was replaced by a Romanesque Revival building in 1853; it is one of the oldest Episcopal Church structures in southern Michigan. Constructed in 1857, St. John's the Evangelist Church is the oldest Roman Catholic church in the city. It was established as a mission in 1836 to serve a congregation that was originally predominately Irish but has since diversified to include people of many ethnic backgrounds. St. Mary Star of the Sea was established in 1881 as Jackson's second Catholic church. The present building, a limestone Romanesque structure built between 1923-26, incorporates elements of the parish's first church as well as stained glass windows, marble altars and communion rails imported from Italy and Austria. Ashlee, Laura R. Traveling through time: a guide to Michigan's historical markers, pp. 202-205. University of Michigan Press, 2005. ISBN 0472030663 Jackson is also home to Temple Beth Israel, a Reform synagogue founded in 1862 by German Jews. Transportation Jackson was originally a major railway hub, and for over a century has been known as the crossroads of Michigan. Major highways Jackson is at the junction of Interstate Highway I-94 and US-127. I-94 I-94 Business Loop <center><center> US-127 is a north-south highway providing access northerly toward Lansing and Clare and southerly into Ohio. In the Jackson area, US-127 runs concurrently with I-94 for approximately four miles. It is freeway from Jackson northerly past Lansing, while the freeway south of Jackson quickly transitions to a two-lane, uncontrolled access highway. <center><center> Business US-127 is a loop route running through downtown, connecting with US-127 at either end. M-50 enters Jackson from the northwest, and exits southeast of town. M-60 approaches Jackson from the southwest, ending at I-94 west of the city. M-106 enters Jackson from the northeast and ends downtown. Airport Reynolds Field at Jackson County Airport is the main airport in the city. It had commercial service until 1984 and today operates as a general aviation facility. Michigan Flyer operates bus service between Jackson and Detroit Metro Airport running eight times daily. Rail Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Jackson, operating its Wolverine three times daily in each direction between Chicago and Pontiac, Michigan via Detroit. Baggage cannot be checked at this location; however, up to two suitcases in addition to any "personal items" such as briefcases, purses, laptop bags, and infant equipment are allowed on board as carry-ons. Public Transportation Jackson Transit Authority operates 8 routes Monday through Saturday out of a central station located downtown. Greyhound Lines provides service from the JTA station. In addition to the publicly funded JTA, there are four private taxicab companies operating in town. Notable people from Jackson Claire Allen - architect Austin Blair - Governor of Michigan Tim Crabtree - Major League Pitcher Tony Dungy - National Football League player and coach Paula Faris - sportscaster, NBC-5 Chicago W. A. Foote - Founder of Consumers Energy Raymond Salvatore Harmon - filmmaker Dave Hill - golfer Mike Hill - golfer Karch Kiraly - Olympic gold medalist and pro volleyball player Clarence Love - National Football League player, Super Bowl champion with Baltimore Ravens Tim McClelland - Major League Baseball umpire James McDivitt - NASA astronaut Tom Monaghan - Founder of Domino's Pizza Jack Paar - Original host of The Tonight Show Alonzo Sargent - Locomotive engineer Michelle Sawyer - Author Potter Stewart - U.S. Supreme Court Justice Rick Wise - Major League Baseball pitcher Alfred Worden - NASA astronaut Wendell Goler - Fox News White House Correspondent Philip Campbell Curtis - Artist James Earl Jones - Actor Greg Soule - Musician, Drummer Dr. Sanjay Gupta - CNN Medical Specialist Sister city Varel, Germany Greater Jackson Chamber of Commerce 20 November 2002. Retrieved on 31 August 2006. References External links Official City Web Site Greater Jackson Chamber of Commerce Jackson Convention and Visitors Bureau The Enterprise Group of Jackson, Inc. 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3,646 | Francisco_I._Madero | Francisco Ignacio Madero González His middle name was "Ignacio" or, in the archaic spelling recorded on his baptismal record, "Ygnacio". The popular belief that he was "Francisco Indalecio" appears to have no historical sustent. (October 30, 1873 – February 22, 1913) was a politician, writer and revolutionary who served as President of Mexico from 1911 to 1913. As a respectable upper-class politician he supplied a center around which opposition to the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz could coalesce. However, once Díaz was deposed, the Mexican Revolution quickly spun out of Madero's control. He was deposed and executed by the Porfirista military and his aides that he neglected to replace with revolutionary supporters. His assassination was followed by the most violent period of the revolution (1913-1917) until the Constitution of 1917 and revolutionary president Venustiano Carranza achieved some degree of stability. Early years, 1873–1903 He was born in Parras de la Fuente, Coahuila; the son of Francisco Indalecio Madero Hernández and Mercedes González Treviño. Some people say his middle initial, I, stood for Indalecio but according to his birth certificate it stood for Ignacio. His family was one of the richest families in Mexico: his grandfather had founded the Compañía Industrial de Parras, which was initially involved in vineyards, cotton, and textiles, and which moved into mining, cotton mills, ranching, banking, coal, rubber, and foundries in the later part of the nineteenth century. Madero was educated at the Jesuit college in Saltillo, but this early Catholic education had little lasting impact. Instead, his father's subscription to the magazine Revue Spirit awakened in the young Madero an interest in Spiritism, an offshoot of Spiritualism. As a young man, Madero's father sent him to business school in Paris. During his time in France, Madero made a pilgrimage to the tomb of Allan Kardec, the founder of Spiritism, and became a passionate advocate of Spiritism, soon coming to believe he was a medium. Following business school, Madero traveled to the University of California, Berkeley to study agricultural techniques and to improve his English. During his time there, he was influenced by the Theosophanist ideas of Annie Besant, which were prominent at nearby Stanford University. In 1893, 20-year-old Madero returned to Mexico and assumed management of the Madero family's hacienda at San Pedro, Coahuila. Industrious, he installed new irrigation works, introduced American cotton, and built a soap factory and an ice factory. He also embarked on a lifelong commitment to philanthropy. His peons were well paid and received regular medical exams; he built schools, hospitals, and community kitchens; and he paid to support orphans and give out scholarships. He also taught himself homeopathic medicine and offered medical treatments to peons personally. Introduction to politics, 1903–1908 Benito Juárez (1806-1872), President of Mexico 1858-1872. Madero founded the Benito Juárez Democratic Club in 1904. Madero believed that, as a medium, he was in contact with the spirit of Benito Juárez. On April 2, 1903, Bernardo Reyes, governor of Nuevo León, violently crushed a political demonstration, an example of the increasingly authoritarian policies of president Porfirio Díaz. Madero was deeply moved and, upon the suggestion of the spirit of his deceased brother Raúl, he decided to act. Madero responded by founding the Benito Juárez Democratic Club and ran for municipal office in 1904, though he lost the election narrowly. In addition to his political activities, Madero continued his interest in Spiritism, publishing a number of articles under the pseudonym of Arjuna (a prince from the Bhagavad Gita). In 1905, Madero became increasingly involved in opposition to the government of Porfirio Díaz. He organized political clubs and founded a political newspaper (El Demócrata) and a satirical periodical (El Mosco, "The Fly"). Madero's preferred candidate was again defeated by Porfirio Díaz's preferred candidate in the 1905 governmental elections. Beginning in 1907, Madero began to be guided by a more militant spirit, "José". At the suggestion of José and other spirits, Madero became increasingly ascetic; Madero became a vegetarian and stopped drinking alcohol at their urging. He also embarked on a speaking tour throughout Coahuila. He also used his substantial wealth to finance several more opposition newspapers. Leader of the Anti-Reelection Movement, 1908–1909 Photo of Porfirio Díaz (1830-1915) that accompanied the Creelman interview in Pearson's Magazine (1908). In a 1908 interview with U.S. journalist James Creelman published in Pearson's Magazine, Porfirio Díaz said that Mexico was ready for a democracy and that the 1910 presidential election would be a free election. Madero spent the bulk of 1908 writing a book at the directions of the spirits, which now included the spirit of Benito Juárez himself. This book, published in late 1908, was entitled La sucesión presidencial en 1910 (The Presidential Succession of 1910). The book quickly became a bestseller in Mexico. The book proclaimed that the concentration of absolute power in the hands of one man - Porfirio Díaz - for so long had made Mexico sick. Madero pointed out the irony that in 1871, Porfirio Díaz's political slogan had been "No Reelection". Madero acknowledged that Porfirio Díaz had brought peace and a measure of economic growth to Mexico. However, Madero argued that this was counterbalanced by the dramatic loss of freedom which included the brutal treatment of the Yaqui people, the repression of workers in Cananea, excessive concessions to the United States, and an unhealthy centralization of politics around the person of the president. Madero called for a return of the Liberal 1857 Constitution of Mexico. To achieve this, Madero proposed organizing a Democratic Party under the slogan Sufragio effectivo, no reelección ("Valid Suffrage, No Reelection"). Porfirio Díaz could either run in a free election or retire. Madero's book was well received, and many people began to call Madero the Apostle of Democracy. Madero sold off much of his property - often at a considerable loss - in order to finance anti-reelection activities throughout Mexico. He founded the Antireelection Center in Mexico City in May 1909, and soon thereafter lent his backing to the periodical El Antireeleccionista, which was run by the young lawyer/philosopher José Vasconcelos. Madero traveled throughout Mexico giving antireelectionist speeches, and everywhere he went he was greeted by crowds of thousands. The Porfirian regime reacted by placing pressure on the Madero family's banking interests, and at one point even issued a warrant for Madero's arrest on the grounds of "unlawful transaction in rubber". Madero was not arrested, though, and in April 1910, the Antireelectionist Party met and selected Madero as their nominee for President of Mexico. Madero, worried that Porfirio Díaz would not willingly relinquish office, warned his supporters of the possibility of electoral fraud and proclaimed that "Force shall be met by force!" Beginning of the Mexican Revolution, 1910–1911 Francisco I. Madero campaigns from the back of a railway car in 1910. Madero set out campaigning across the country and everywhere he was met by tens of thousands of cheering supporters. Finally, in June 1910, the Porfirian regime had him arrested in Monterrey and sent to a prison in San Luis Potosí. Approximately 5,000 other members of the Anti-Reelectionist movement were also jailed. Francisco Vázquez Gómez took over the nomination, but during Madero's time in jail, Díaz was "elected" as president with an electoral vote of 196 to 187. Madero's father used his influence with the state governor and posted a bond to gain Madero the right to move about the city on horseback during the day. On October 4, 1910, Madero galloped away from his guards and took refuge with sympathizers in a nearby village. He was then smuggled across the U.S. border, hidden in a baggage car by sympathetic railway workers. Madero set up shop in San Antonio, Texas, and quickly issued his Plan of San Luis Potosí, which had been written during his time in prison, partly with the help of Ramón López Velarde. The Plan proclaimed the elections of 1910 null and void, and called for an armed revolution to begin at 6 p.m. on November 20, 1910, against the illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Díaz. At that point, Madero would declare himself provisional President of Mexico, and called for a general refusal to acknowledge the central government, restitution of land to villages and Indian communities, and freedom for political prisoners. On November 20, 1910, Madero arrived at the border and planned to meet up with 400 men raised by his uncle Catarino to launch an attack on Ciudad Porfirio Díaz (modern-day Piedras Negras, Coahuila). However, his uncle showed up late and brought only ten men. As such, Madero decided to postpone the revolution. Instead he and his brother Raúl (who had been given the same name as his late brother) traveled incognito to New Orleans, Louisiana. In February 1911 he entered Mexico and led 130 men in an attack on Casas Grandes, Chihuahua. He spent the next several months as the head of the Mexican Revolution. Madero successfully imported arms from the United States, with the American government under William Howard Taft doing little to halt the flow of arms to the Mexican revolutionaries. By April, the Revolution had spread to eighteen states, including Morelos where the leader was Emiliano Zapata. On April 1, 1911, Porfirio Díaz claimed that he had heard the voice of the people of Mexico, replaced his cabinet, and agreed to restitution of the lands of the dispossessed. Madero did not believe Díaz and instead demanded the resignation of President Díaz and Vice President Ramón Corral. Madero then attended a meeting with the other revolutionary leaders – they agreed to a fourteen-point plan which called for pay for revolutionary soldiers; the release of political prisoners; and the right of the revolutionaries to name several members of cabinet. Madero was moderate, however. He believed that the revolutionaries should proceed cautiously so as to minimize bloodshed and should strike a deal with Díaz if possible. In May, Madero wanted a ceasefire, but his fellow revolutionaries Pascual Orozco and Francisco Villa disagreed and went ahead with an attack on Ciudad Juárez. The revolutionaries won this battle decisively and on May 21, 1911, the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez was signed. Under the terms of the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, Díaz and Corral agreed to resign by the end of May 1911, with Díaz's Minister of Foreign Affiars, Francisco León de la Barra, taking over as interim president solely for the purpose of calling general elections. This first phase of the Mexican Revolution thus ended with Díaz leaving for exile in Europe at the end of May 1911. On June 7, 1911, Madero entered Mexico City in triumph where he was greeted with huge crowds shouting "Viva Madero!" Interim Presidency of Francisco León de la Barra, May–November 1911 Although Madero had forced Porfirio Díaz from power, he did not assume the presidency in June 1911. Instead, he pursued a moderate policy, leaving Francisco León de la Barra, one of Díaz's supporters, as president. He also left in place the Congress of Mexico, which was full of candidates whom Díaz had handpicked for the 1910 election. Francisco León de la Barra (1863-1939), whose interim presidency in 1911 gave Madero's enemies time to organize. Madero now called for the disbanding of all revolutionary forces, arguing that the revolutionaries should henceforth proceed solely by peaceful means. In the south, revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata was skeptical about disbanding his troops, but Madero traveled south to meet with Zapata at Cuernavaca and Cuautla, Morelos. Madero assured Zapata that the land redistribution promised in the Plan of San Luis Potosí would be carried out when Madero became president. However, in Madero's absence, several landowners from Zapata's state of Morelos had appealed to President de la Barra and the Congress to restore their lands which had been seized by revolutionaries. They spread exaggerated stories of atrocities committed by Zapata's troops, calling Zapata the "Atilla of the South." De la Barra and the Congress therefore decided to send troops under Victoriano Huerta to suppress Zapata's troops. Madero once again traveled south to urge Zapata to disband his troops peacefully, but Zapata refused on the grounds that Huerta's troops were advancing on Yautepec de Zaragoza. Zapata's suspicions proved accurate as Huerta's troops moved violently into Yautepec de Zaragoza. Madero wrote to De la Barra, saying that Huerta's actions were unjustified and recommending that Zapata's demands be met. However, when he left the south, he had achieved nothing. However, he promised the Zapatistas that once he became president, things would change. Most Zapatistas had grown suspicious of Madero, however. Before becoming president, Madero published another book, this one under the pseudonym of Bhima (one of Arjuna's brothers in the Mahābhārata) called a Spiritualist Manual. Madero as President of Mexico, November 1911 – February 1913 Bernardo Reyes (1850-1913), whose brutality as Governor of Nuevo León in 1903 resulted in Madero's politicization, and who launched a rebellion against Madero in Nuevo León in December 1911. Madero became president in November 1911, and, intending to reconcile the nation, appointed a cabinet which included many of Porfirio Díaz's supporters. However, Madero was unable to seek the reconciliation he desired since conservative Porfirians had managed to get themselves organized during the interim presidency of Francisco León de la Barra and now mounted a sustained and effective opposition to Madero's reform program. Conservative Porfirians in the Senate refused to pass the reforms he advocated. At the same time, several of Madero's allies denounced him for being overly reconciliatory with the Porfirians and with not moving aggressively forward with reforms: thus, on November 25, 1911, Emiliano Zapata issued his Plan of Ayala, denouncing Madero for being uninterested in pursuing land reform. After years of censorship, Mexican newspapers took the opportunity of their newfound freedom of the press to roundly criticize Madero's performance as president. Gustavo A. Madero, the president's brother, remarked "the newspapers bite the hand that took off their muzzle." Francisco Madero refused the recommendation of some of his advisors that he bring back censorship, however. The press was particularly critical of Madero's handling of three rebellions that broke out against his rule shortly after he became president: (1) In December 1911, Bernardo Reyes (the popular general whom Porfirio Díaz had sent to Europe on a diplomatic mission because Díaz worried that Reyes was going to challenge him for the presidency) launched a rebellion in Nuevo León, where he had previously served as governor. Reyes' rebellion lasted only eleven days before Reyes surrendered at Linares, Nuevo León and was sent to a prison in Mexico City. Victoriano Huerta (1850-1916), general who defeated the Zapatistas in 1911 and Pascual Orozco in 1912. Huerta quarreled with Madero over the insubordination of Pancho Villa and ultimately turned against Madero during the Decena trágica. (2) In March 1912, Madero's former general Pascual Orozco, who was personally resentful of how Madero had treated him, launched a rebellion in Chihuahua with the financial backing of Luis Terrazas, a former Governor of Chihuahua who was the largest landowner in Mexico. Madero despatched troops under General José González Salas to put down the rebellion, but they were initially defeated by Orozco's troops. General José González Salas committed suicide and Victoriano Huerta assumed control of the federalist forces. Huerta was more successful, defeating Orozco's troops in three major battles and forcing Orozco to flee to the United States in September 1912. Félix Díaz (1868-1845), nephew of Porfirio Díaz, who launched a rebellion against Madero in 1912. Félix Díaz would later conspire with Victoriano Huerta during the Decena trágica. Relations between Huerta and Madero grew strained during the course of this campaign when Pancho Villa, the commander of the División del Norte, refused orders from General Huerta. Huerta ordered Villa's execution, but Madero commuted the sentence and Villa was set free. Angry at Madero's commutation of Villa's sentence, Huerta, after a long night of drinking, mused about reaching an agreement with Orozco and together deposing Madero as president. When Mexico's Minister of War learned of General Huerta's comments, he stripped Huerta of his command, but Madero intervened and restored Huerta to command. (3) In October 1912, Félix Díaz (nephew of Porfirio Díaz) launched a rebellion in Veracruz, "to reclaim the honor of the army trampled by Madero." This rebellion was quickly crushed and Félix Díaz was imprisoned. Madero was prepared to have Félix Díaz executed, but the Supreme Court of Mexico declared that Félix Díaz would be imprisoned, but not executed. Besides managing rebellions, Madero did have a number of accomplishments during his presidency: He created the Department of Labor; introduced regulation of the labor practices in the textile industry; and oversaw the creation of the Casa del Obrero Mundial ("House of the World Worker"), an organization with anarcho-syndicalist connections, that would play a major role in the subsequent Mexican labor movement. Although not as radical as the Zapatistas would have liked, Madero did introduce some agrarian reforms, such as a reorganization of rural credit and the creation of agricultural stations. He launched an infrastructure program, building schools, railroads, and new highways. He introduced new taxation on foreign oil companies. Fall and execution Citizens throng around The Citadel (La ciudadela) building during La decena tragica in 1913. In early 1913 Victoriano Huerta, the commander of the armed forces conspired with Félix Díaz (Porfirio Díaz's nephew), Bernardo Reyes, and US Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson against Madero, which culminated in a ten-day siege of La Ciudadela known as La decena tragica (the Tragic Ten Days). Madero accepted Huerta's "protection" from the Diaz/Reyes forces, only to be betrayed by Huerta and arrested. Madero's brother and advisor Gustavo A. Madero was kidnapped off the street, tortured, and killed. Following Huerta's coup d'état on February 18, 1913, Madero was forced to resign. After a 45 minute term of office, Pedro Lascuráin was replaced by Huerta who took over the Presidency later that day. Francisco Madero was shot four days later, aged 39. The Huerta government claimed that bodyguards were forced to shoot Madero and Vice President José María Pino Suárez, during a failed rescue attempt by Madero's supporters. This story has been challenged with general incredulity. Pino Suárez was the last vice president of México. 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3,647 | Adam_Weishaupt | Johann Adam Weishaupt (February 6, 1748 in Ingolstadt – November 18, 1830 Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie Vol. 41, p. 539. Engel, Leopold. Geschichte des Illuminaten-ordens. Berlin, H. Bermühler Verlag, 1906. van Dülmen, Richard. Der Geheimbund der Illuminaten. Stuttgart, Frommann-Holzboog, 1975. Stauffer, Vernon. New England and the Bavarian Illuminati. Columbia University, 1918. Page 146. Cf. the German Wikipedia. Cf. the Library of Congress Online Catalog. See example. in Gotha) was a German philosopher and founder of the Order of Illuminati, a secret society with origins in Bavaria. Early life Adam Weishaupt was born on February 6, 1748 in Ingolstadt Engel, Leopold. Geschichte des Illuminaten-ordens. Berlin, H. Bermühler Verlag, 1906. 22. Also, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie Vol. 41, p. 539. in the Electorate of Bavaria. Weishaupt's father Johann Georg Weishaupt (1717–1753) died Engel 22. when he was five years old. After his father's death he came under the tutelage of his godfather Johann Adam Freiherr von Ickstatt Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie Vol. 13, pp. 740–741. who, like his father, was a professor of law at the University of Ingolstadt. Freninger, Franz Xaver, ed. Das Matrikelbuch der Universitaet Ingolstadt-Landshut-München. München: A. Eichleiter, 1872. 31. Ickstatt was a proponent of the philosophy of Christian Wolff and of the Enlightenment, Hartmann, Peter Claus. Bayerns Weg in die Gegenwart. Regensburg: Pustet, 1989. 262. Also, Bauerreiss, Romuald. Kirchengeschichte Bayerns. Vol. 7. St. Ottilien: EOS Verlag, 1970. 405. and he influenced the young Weishaupt with his rationalism. Weishaupt began his formal education at age seven at a Jesuit school. He later enrolled at the University of Ingolstadt and graduated in 1768 Freninger 47. at age 20 with a doctorate of law. Engel 25–28. In 1772 Freninger 32. he became a professor of law. The following year he married Afra Sausenhofer Engel 31. of Eichstätt. After Pope Clement XIV’s suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773, Weishaupt became a professor of canon law, Engel 33. Also, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie Vol. 41, p. 540. a position that was held exclusively by the Jesuits until that time. In 1775 Weishaupt was introduced Engel 61–62. to the empirical philosophy of Johann Georg Heinrich Feder Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie Vol. 6, pp. 595–597. of the University of Göttingen. Both Feder and Weishaupt would later become opponents of Kantian idealism. Beiser, Frederick C. The Fate of Reason. Harvard University Press, 1987. 186-88. Founder of the Illuminati On May 1, 1776 Weishaupt formed the "Order of Perfectibilists", which was later known as the Illuminati. He adopted the name of "Brother Spartacus" within the order. Though the Order was not egalitarian or democratic, its mission was to establish a New World Order, which meant the abolition of all monarchical governments and religions. Weishaupt wrote: "the ends justified the means." The actual character of the society was modeled on one of its traditional enemies, the Jesuits, and was an elaborate network of spies and counter-spies. Each isolated cell of initiates reported to a superior, whom they did not know, a party structure that was effectively adopted by some later groups. Weishaupt was initiated into the Masonic Lodge "Theodor zum guten Rath", at Munich in 1777. His project of "illumination, enlightening the understanding by the sun of reason, which will dispel the clouds of superstition and of prejudice" was an unwelcome reform. Soon however he had developed gnostic mysteries of his own, with the goal of "perfecting human" nature through re-education to achieve a communal state with nature, freed of government and organized religion. He began working towards incorporating his system of Illuminism with that of Masonry, with the aim of creating a New World Order. He wrote: "I did not bring Deism into Bavaria more than into Rome. I found it here, in great vigour, more abounding than in any of the neighboring Protestant States. I am proud to be known to the world as the founder of the Illuminati." Weishaupt's radical rationalism and vocabulary was not likely to succeed. Writings that were intercepted in 1784 were interpreted as seditious, and the Society was banned by the government of Karl Theodor, Elector of Bavaria, in 1784. Weishaupt lost his position at the University of Ingolstadt and fled Bavaria. Activities in exile He received the assistance of Duke Ernest II of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (1745–1804), and lived in Gotha writing a series of works on Illuminism, including A Complete History of the Persecutions of the Illuminati in Bavaria (1785), A Picture of Illuminism (1786), An Apology for the Illuminati (1786), and An Improved System of Illuminism (1787). Adam Weishaupt died in Gotha on 18 November, 1830. van Dülmen, Richard. Der Geheimbund der Illuminaten. Stuttgart, Frommann-Holzboog, 1975. Stauffer, Vernon. New England and the Bavarian Illuminati. Columbia University, 1918. Page 146. Cf. the German Wikipedia. Cf. the Library of Congress Online Catalog. See example. He was survived by his second wife, Anna Maria (née Sausenhofer), and his children Nanette, Charlotte, Ernst, Karl, Eduard, and Alfred. Weishaupt was buried next to his son Wilhelm who preceded him in death in 1802. John Robison, a professor of natural philosophy at Edinburgh University in Scotland and a member of a Freemason Lodge there, said he had been asked to join the Illuminati. After consideration he concluded that the Illuminati were not for him. In 1798 he published a book called Proofs of a Conspiracy in which he wrote: "An association has been formed for the express purposes of rooting out all the religious establishments and overturning all existing governments... the leaders would rule the World with uncontrollable power, while all the rest would be employed as tools of the ambition of their unknown superiors." This book was sent to George Washington, who replied: It was not my intention to doubt that, the Doctrines of the Illuminati, and principles of Jacobinism had not spread in the United States. On the contrary, no one is more truly satisfied of this fact than I am. The idea that I meant to convey, was, that I did not believe that the Lodges of Free Masons in this Country had, as Societies, endeavoured to propagate the diabolical tenets of the first, or pernicious principles of the latter (if they are susceptible of separation). George Washington - Letter to the Reverend G. W. Snyder (24 October 1798) Quotes about Weishaupt References in pop culture Adam Weishaupt is referred to repeatedly in The Illuminatus! Trilogy, written by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson, as the founder of the Bavarian Illuminati and as an imposter who killed George Washington and took his place as the first president of the United States. Washington's portrait on the one-dollar bill is said to actually be Weishaupt's. Another version of Adam Weishaupt appears in the extensive comic book-cum-novel Cerebus the Aardvark by Dave Sim, as a combination of Weishaupt and George Washington. He appears primarily in the Cerebus and Church & State I volumes. His motives are republican confederalizing of city-states in Estarcion (a pseudo-Europe) and the accumulation of capital unencumbered by government or church. Weishaupt is also mentioned among the mish-mash of complicated conspiracies in the PC game Deus Ex. During JC Denton's escape from Versalife labs in Hong Kong, he recovers a virus engineered with the molecular structure in multiples of 17 and 23. Tracer Tong notes "1723... the birthdate of Adam Weishaupt" Weishaupt was in fact born in 1748. However 1723 was the year that Weishaupt's freemasonry lodge, "Theodor zum guten Rath", was founded. Adam Weishaupt is also mentioned ("Bush got a ouija to talk to Adam Weishaupt") by the New York rapper Cage in El-P's "Accidents Don't Happen", the 9th track on his album Fantastic Damage (2002). Seclorum magazine, based out of Detroit, Michigan, cites Adam Weishaupt as its Patron Saint. Works On the Illuminati (1786) Apologie der Illuminaten. (1786) Vollständige Geschichte der Verfolgung der Illuminaten in Bayern. (1786) Schilderung der Illuminaten. (1787) Einleitung zu meiner Apologie. (1787) [Einige Originalschriften des Illuminatenordens...] (1787) [Nachtrage von weitern Originalschriften...] Google Books (1787) Kurze Rechtfertigung meiner Absichten. (1787) Nachtrag zur Rechtfertigung meiner Absichten. (1787) Apologie des Mißvergnügens und des Übels. (1787) Das Verbesserte System der Illuminaten. (1788) Der ächte Illuminat, oder die wahren, unverbesserten Rituale der Illuminaten. (1795) Pythagoras, oder Betrachtungen über die geheime Welt- und Regierungskunst. Philosophical Works (1775) De Lapsu Academiarum Commentatio Politica. (1786) Über die Schrecken des Todes – eine philosophische Rede. (French) Discours Philosophique sur les Frayeurs de la Mort (1788). Gallica (1786) Über Materialismus und Idealismus. Torino (1788) Geschichte der Vervollkommnung des menschlichen Geschlechts. (1788) Über die Gründe und Gewißheit der Menschlichen Erkenntniß. (1788) Über die Kantischen Anschauungen und Erscheinungen. (1788) Zweifel über die Kantischen Begriffe von Zeit und Raum. (1793) Über Wahrheit und sittliche Vollkommenheit. (1794) Über die Lehre von den Gründen und Ursachen aller Dinge. (1794) Über die Selbsterkenntnis, ihre Hindernisse und Vorteile. (1797) Über die Zwecke oder Finalursachen. (1802) Über die Hindernisse der baierischen Industrie und Bevölkerung. (1804) Die Leuchte des Diogenes. Diogenes Lamp (Tr. Amelia Gill) introduced by Sir Mark Bruback chosen by the Masonic Book Club to be its published work for 2008. (Ed. Andrew Swanlund). (1817) Über die Staats-Ausgaben und Auflagen. Google Books (1818) Über das Besteuerungs-System. Notes External links Biography in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie Vol. 41, pp. 539-550 by Daniel Jacoby. (German) A Bavarian Illuminati primer by Trevor W. McKeown. Illuminati entry in The Catholic Encyclopedia, hosted by New Advent. The Bavarian Illuminati Motorcycle Cabal Articles and term paper about Adam Weishaupt and the historic illuminati... 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3,648 | Politics_of_Morocco | Politics of Morocco take place in a framework of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister of Morocco is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives of Morocco and the Assembly of Councillors. The Moroccan Constitution provides for a monarchy with a Parliament and an independent judiciary. Executive branch |King |Mohammed VI | |23 July 1999 |- |Prime Minister |Abbas El Fassi | |19 September 2007 |} The constitution grants the king extensive powers; he is both the political leader and the "Defender of the Faith". He presides over the Council of Ministers; appoints the Prime Minister following legislative elections, and on recommendations from the latter, appoints the members of the government. While the constitution theoretically allows the king to terminate the tenure of any minister, and after consultation with the heads of the higher and lower Assemblies, to dissolve the Parliament, suspend the constitution, call for new elections, or rule by decree, the only time this happened was in 1965. The King is formally the chief of the military. Upon the death of his father Mohammed V, King Hassan II succeeded to the throne in 1961. He ruled Morocco for the next 38 years, until he died in 1999. His son, King Mohammed VI, assumed the throne in July 1999. Following the March 1998 elections, a coalition government headed by opposition socialist leader Abderrahmane Youssoufi and composed largely of ministers drawn from opposition parties, was formed. Prime Minister Youssoufi's government is the first government drawn primarily from opposition parties in decades, and also represents the first opportunity for a coalition of socialist, left-of-center, and nationalist parties to be included in the government until October 2002. It was also the first time in the modern political history of the Arab world that the opposition assumed power following an election. The current government is headed by Abbas El Fassi. Legislative branch The legislature's building, in Rabat. Since the constitutional reform of 1996, the bicameral legislature consists of two chambers. The Assembly of Representatives of Morocco (Majlis al-Nuwab/Assemblée des Répresentants) has 325 members elected for a five year term, 295 elected in multi-seat constituencies and 30 in national lists consisting only of women. The Assembly of Councillors (Majlis al-Mustasharin) has 270 members, elected for a nine year term, elected by local councils (162 seats), professional chambers (91 seats) and wage-earners (27 seats). The Parliament's powers, though limited, were expanded under the 1992 and 1996 constitutional revisions and include budgetary matters, approving bills, questioning ministers, and establishing ad hoc commissions of inquiry to investigate the government's actions. The lower chamber of Parliament may dissolve the government through a vote of no confidence. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The highest court in the judicial structure is the Supreme Court, whose judges are appointed by the King. The Youssoufi government continued to implement a reform program to develop greater judicial independence and impartiality. Morocco is divided into 16 administrative regions; the regions are administered by the Walis and governors appointed by the King. Administrative divisions As part of a 1997 decentralization/regionalization law passed by the legislature 16 new regions (provided below) were created. It is the primary administrative division of Morocco : Chaouia-Ourdigha, Doukkala-Abda, Fes-Boulmane, Gharb-Chrarda-Beni Hssen, Greater Casablanca, Guelmim-Es Smara, Laayoune-Boujdour-Sakia El Hamra, Marrakech-Tensift-El Haouz, Meknes-Tafilalet, Oriental, Oued Eddahab-Lagouira, Rabat-Sale-Zemmour-Zaer, Souss-Massa-Draa, Tadla-Azilal, Tangier-Tetouan, Taza-Al Hoceima-Taounate Morocco is divided also into 37 provinces and 2 wilayas*: Agadir, Al Hoceima, Azilal, Beni Mellal, Ben Slimane, Boulemane, Casablanca*, Chaouen, El Jadida, El Kelaa des Sraghna, Er Rachidia, Essaouira, Fes, Figuig, Guelmim, Ifrane, Kenitra, Khemisset, Khenifra, Khouribga, Laayoune, Larache, Marrakech, Meknes, Nador, Ouarzazate, Oujda, Rabat-Sale*, Safi, Settat, Sidi Kacem, Tangier, Tan-Tan, Taounate, Taroudannt, Tata, Taza, Tetouan, Tiznit; three additional provinces of Ad Dakhla (Oued Eddahab), Boujdour, and Es Smara as well as parts of Tan-Tan and Laayoune fall within Moroccan-claimed Western Sahara International organization affiliations ABEDA, ACCT (associate), AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, EBRD, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OIC, OPCW, OSCE (partner), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO | Politics_of_Morocco |@lemmatized politics:1 morocco:8 take:1 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:1 constitutional:3 monarchy:2 whereby:1 prime:4 minister:8 head:4 government:12 multi:2 party:5 system:1 executive:2 power:5 exercise:1 legislative:3 vest:1 two:2 chamber:4 parliament:5 assembly:5 representative:2 councillor:2 moroccan:2 constitution:4 provide:2 independent:1 judiciary:1 branch:3 king:8 mohammed:3 vi:2 july:2 abbas:2 el:6 fassi:2 september:1 grant:1 extensive:1 political:3 leader:2 defender:1 faith:1 preside:1 council:2 appoint:4 follow:3 election:5 recommendation:1 latter:1 member:4 theoretically:1 allow:1 terminate:1 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affiliation:1 abeda:1 acct:1 associate:1 afdb:1 afesd:1 amf:1 amu:1 ebrd:1 eca:1 fao:1 g:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 iho:1 pending:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 itu:1 nam:1 oas:1 observer:1 oic:1 opcw:1 osce:1 partner:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unhcr:1 unido:1 upu:1 wco:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 |@bigram constitutional_monarchy:1 prime_minister:4 mohammed_vi:2 legislative_branch:1 bicameral_legislature:1 majlis_al:2 seat_constituency:1 wage_earner:1 ad_hoc:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 tan_tan:2 western_sahara:1 afesd_al:1 al_amf:1 eca_fao:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_icftu:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_iho:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_iso:1 iso_itu:1 itu_nam:1 nam_oas:1 oas_observer:1 observer_oic:1 oic_opcw:1 opcw_osce:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unhcr:1 unhcr_unido:1 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3,649 | Integrated_NATO_Air_Defense_System | Integrated NATO Air Defense System or INADS was the NATO response to the Russian development of long range bombers in the 1950s. The need to maintain a credible deterrence when early warning and intercept times were massively reduced led to the development of an improved air defense (AD) system. Development was approved by the NATO Military Committee in December 1955. The system was to be based on four air defense regions (ADRs) coordinated by SACEUR (Supreme Allied Commander Europe). Starting from 1956 early warning coverage was extended across Western Europe using eighteen radar stations. This part of the system was completed by 1962. Linked to existing national radar sites the coordinated system was called the NATO Air Defense Ground Environment (NADGE). By 1972 NADGE consisted of 84 radar stations and associated control and reporting centers (CRC). The current system is Air Command and Control System (ACCS). From 1960 NATO countries agreed to place all their air defense forces under the command of SACEUR in the event of war. These forces included command and control systems, radar installations, and Surface-to-Air (SAM) missile units as well as interceptor fighters. | Integrated_NATO_Air_Defense_System |@lemmatized integrate:1 nato:5 air:7 defense:5 system:8 inads:1 response:1 russian:1 development:3 long:1 range:1 bomber:1 need:1 maintain:1 credible:1 deterrence:1 early:2 warning:2 intercept:1 time:1 massively:1 reduce:1 lead:1 improved:1 ad:1 approve:1 military:1 committee:1 december:1 base:1 four:1 region:1 adrs:1 coordinate:1 saceur:2 supreme:1 ally:1 commander:1 europe:2 start:1 coverage:1 extend:1 across:1 western:1 use:1 eighteen:1 radar:4 station:2 part:1 complete:1 link:1 exist:1 national:1 sit:1 coordinated:1 call:1 ground:1 environment:1 nadge:2 consist:1 associate:1 control:3 reporting:1 center:1 crc:1 current:1 command:3 accs:1 country:1 agree:1 place:1 force:2 event:1 war:1 include:1 installation:1 surface:1 sam:1 missile:1 unit:1 well:1 interceptor:1 fighter:1 |@bigram |
3,650 | Economy_of_Costa_Rica | The economy of Costa Rica heavily depends on tourism, agriculture, and electronics exports. Poverty has been reduced over the past 15 years, and a social safety net put into place. Economic growth rebounded from -0.9% in 1996 to 4% in 1997, 6% in 1998, 7% in 1999. According to the CIA World Factbook, Costa Rica's GDP per capita is US$11,100; however, this developing country still faces the second highest inflation rate in Latin America, lack of maintenance and new investment in infrastructure, over 610,000 (16%) people below the poverty line and just over 270,000 (6.6%) unemployed. The Costa Rican economy grew nearly 5% in 2006 after experiencing 4 years of slow economic growth. Inflation rose to 22.5% in 1995, dropped to 11.1% in 1997, 12% in 1998, 11% in 1999 and 9% in 2007. Large government deficits - fueled by interest payments on the massive internal debt - and inefficient administration by government monopolies have undermined efforts to maintain the quality of social services. Curbing inflation, reducing the deficit, and improving public sector efficiency through an anti-corruption drive, remain key challenges to the government. Political resistance to privatization has stalled liberalization efforts. Costa Rica's economy emerged from recession in 1997 and has shown strong aggregate growth since then. After 6.2% growth in 1998, GDP grew a substantial 8.3% in 1999, led by exports of the country's. The strength in the nontraditional export and tourism sector is masking a relatively lackluster performance by traditional sectors, including agriculture. Inflation, as measured by the Consumer Price Index, was 10.1% in 1999, down from 11.2% the year before. The central government deficit decreased to 3.2% of GDP in 1999, down from 3.3% from the year before. On a consolidated basis, including Central Bank losses and parastatal enterprise profits, the public sector deficit was 2.3% of GDP. Controlling the budget deficit remains the single biggest challenge for the country's economic policy makers, as interest costs on the accumulated central government debt consumes the equivalent of 30% of the government's total revenues. This limits the resources available for investments in the country's deteriorated public infrastructure, investments in many cases that would result in higher quality infrastructure if they were better planned. Natural resources Costa Rica's major economic resources are its fertile land and frequent rainfall, its well-educated population, and its location in the Central American isthmus, which provides easy access to North and South American markets and direct ocean access to the European and Asian Continents. Costa Rica has two seasons, both of which have their own agricultural resources. The seasons are the basic, wet and dry, tropical seasons. One-fourth of Costa Rica's land is dedicated to national forests, often adjoining beaches, which has made the country a popular destination for affluent retirees and ecotourists.It is has one of the best economy in Latin America In terms of the 2008 Environmental Performance Index ranking, Costa Rica is 5th in the world, up from the 15th place in 2006. Tourism Ecotourism is key in Costa Rica's tourism industry. Shown Savegre River, Talamanca. With a $1.92-billion-a-year tourism industry, Costa Rica stands as the most visited nation in the Central American region, with 1.9 million foreign visitors in 2007, thus reaching a rate of foreign tourists per capita of 0.46, one of the highest in the Caribbean Basin, and above other popular destinations such as Mexico (0.21), Dominican Republic (0.38), and Brazil (0.03). Ecotourism is extremely popular with the many tourists visiting the extensive national parks and protected areas around the country. Costa Rica was a pioneer in this type of tourism and the country is recognized as one of the few with real ecotourism. Other important market segments are adventure, and sun and beaches. Most of the tourists come from the U.S. and Canada (46%), and the E.U. (16%), 2006 Annual Survey from the Costa Rican Board of Tourism (ICT) the prime market travelers in the world, which translates into a relatively high expenditure per tourist of $1000 per trip. In terms of 2008 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), Costa Rica reached the 44th place in the world ranking, being the first among Latin American countries, and second if the Caribbean is included. Just considering the subindex measuring human, cultural, and natural resources, Costa Rica ranks in the 24th place at a worldwide level, and 7th when considering just the natural resources criteria. The TTCI report also notes Costa Rica's main weaknesses, ground transport infrastructure (ranked 113th), and safety and security (ranked 128th). Exports, jobs, and energy Intel microprocessor facility in Costa Rica is responsible for 20% of exports and 4,9% of the country's GDP. Costa Rica used to be known principally as a producer of bananas and coffee. Even though coffee, bananas, pineapple, sugar, lumber, wood products and beef are still important exports, in recent times electronics, pharmaceuticals, financial outsourcing, software development, and ecotourism have become the prime industries in Costa Rica's economy. High levels of education among its residents make the country an attractive investing location. The country has successfully attracted important investments by such companies as Intel Corporation, which employs nearly 3,500 people at its custom built $300 million microprocessor plant; Procter & Gamble, which is establishing its administrative center for the Western Hemisphere in Costa Rica; and Abbott Laboratories and Baxter Healthcare from the health care products industry likewise. Manufacturing and industry's contribution to GDP overtook agriculture over the course of the 1990s, led by foreign investment in Costa Rica's free trade zones. Well over half of that investment has come from the U.S. In 2006 Intel's microprocessor facility alone was responsible for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 4.9% of the country's GDP. Poás Volcano Crater is one of the country's main tourist attractions. Trade with South East Asia and Russia has boomed during 2004 and 2005, and the country is expected to obtain full Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC) membership by 2007 (the country became an observer in 2004). Tourism is booming, with the number of visitors up from 780,000 in 1996, through 1 million in 1999, to 1.9 million foreign visitors in 2007, allowing the country to earn $1.9-billion in that year. Translation: Country closes year with the arrival of 1,9 million tourists Tourism now earns more foreign exchange than bananas and coffee combined. In 2005, tourism contributed with 8,1% of the country's GDP and represented 13,3% of direct and indirect employment. The country has not discovered sources of fossil fuels--apart from minor coal deposits-- but its mountainous terrain and abundant rainfall have permitted the construction of a dozen hydroelectric power plants, making it self-sufficient in all energy needs, except oil for transportation. Costa Rica exports electricity to Central America and has the potential to become a major electricity exporter if plans for new generating plants and a regional distribution grid are realized. Mild climate and trade winds make neither heating nor cooling necessary, particularly in the highland cities and towns where some 90% of the population lives. Infrastructure Costa Rica's infrastructure has suffered from a lack of maintenance and new investment. The country has an extensive road system of more than 30,000 kilometers, although much of it is in disrepair. Most parts of the country are accessible by road. The main highland cities in the country's Central Valley are connected by paved all-weather roads with the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and by the Pan American Highway with Nicaragua and Panama, the neighboring countries to the North and the South. Costa Rica's ports are struggling to keep pace with growing trade. They have insufficient capacity, and their equipment is in poor condition. The railroad didn't function for several years, until recent government effort to reactivate it for city transportation. The government hopes to bring foreign investment, technology, and management into the telecommunications and electrical power sectors, which are monopolies of the state. However, political opposition to opening these sectors to private participation has stalled the government's efforts. Costa Rica has a reputation as one of the most stable, prosperous, and among the least corrupt in Latin America. Costa Rica ranks 3rd among Latin American countries, and the 55th position worldwide. However, in fall 2004, three former Costa Rican presidents (Jose Maria Figueres, Miguel Angel Rodríguez, and Rafael Angel Calderon) were investigated on corruption charges related to the issuance of government contracts, and several of the legal proceeding are still open. The poor state of public finances and the maladministration by state monopolies will continue to limit the state's ability to try to modernize these sectors in the absence of a political consensus to permit private investment. Failure to act soon on telecommunications could prove an obstacle to the government's desire to attract more world-class foreign investment. Nationalized industry Some large sectors such as utilities and telecommunications are nationalized and/or are government supported monopolies. Although there are no formal capital controls, it has been claimed that the prevalence of state-owned banks have had the same effect. They are also blamed for the rampant inflation that currently runs at around 11%. The quality of these industries, particularly power and communications, have been sharply criticized for the outages that occur nearly daily in some areas. The large amount of government intervention and support for these industries has been blamed for the lack of funding for and virtual non-existence of police. Trade policy Costa Rica has sought to widen its economic and trade ties, both within and outside the region. Costa Rica signed a bilateral trade agreement with Mexico in 1994, which was later amended to cover a wider range of products. Costa Rica joined other Central American countries, plus the Dominican Republic, in establishing a Trade and Investment Council with the United States in March 1998. Costa Rica has bilateral free trade agreements with the following countries and blocs which took effect on (see date): Canada (November 1 2002) Chile (February 15 2002) Caribbean Community (CARICOM)¨ (November 15 2005) Dominican Republic (March 7 2002) El Salvador Customs union, (1963, re-launched in October 29, 1993) Guatemala Customs union, (1963, re-launched in October 29, 1993) Honduras Customs union, (1963, re-launched in October 29, 1993) Mexico (January 1 1995) Nicaragua Customs union, (1963, re-launched in October 29, 1993) Panama (July 31 1973, renegotiated and expanded for (January 1 2009) United States (January 1 2009) China under negotiation Singapore under negotiation European Union under negotiation Costa Rica also is a member of the Cairns Group which is pursuing global agricultural trade liberalization in the World Trade Organization and helping to maintain the proper economy level in Costa Rica. Statistics GDP:$24.0 billion (2007)GDP PPP:$37.96 billion. (2006)GDP real growth rate:4.5% (2008 est.)GDP per capita:purchasing power parity - $11,100 (2005 est.)GDP composition by sector:agriculture: 8.5% (2005) Bananas, pineapples, coffee, beef, sugarcane, rice, dairy products, vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants. industry: 29.7% (2004) Electronic components, food processing, textiles and apparel, construction materials, cement, fertilizer. services: 61.8% (2004) Hotels, restaurants, tourist services, banks, and insurance.Population below poverty line:17.7% (2008)Household income or consumption by percentage share:lowest 10%: 1.1% highest 10%: 36.8% (2004 est.)Inflation rate (consumer prices):15.77% (interanual from Sept 2007 to Sept 2008), 9.76%(2006)Labor force:2.01 million (2007)Labor force by occupation:agriculture 20%, industry 22%, services 58% (1999 est.)Unemployment rate:6.6% (2004 est.) (understated); 7.5% underemploymentBudget:revenues: $2.497 billion (2004 est.) expenditures: $3.094 billion (2004 est.)Industries:microprocessors, food processing, textiles and clothing, construction materials, fertilizer, plastic productsIndustrial production growth rate:24.5% (1999)Electricity production:5,742 GWh (1998)Electricity production by source:fossil fuel: 9.28% hydro: 80.62% nuclear: 0% other: 10.1% (1998)Electricity consumption:8.2 GWh (2008)Electricity exports:77 GWh (1998)Electricity imports:4 GWh (1998)Agriculture products:coffee, bananas, sugar, corn, rice, beans, potatoes, beef, timberExports:$6.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)Export commodities:coffee, bananas, sugar; textiles, electronic components, electricityExport partners:USA 49%, EU 22%, Central America 10% (1999)Imports:$6.5 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)Import commodities:raw materials, consumer goods, capital equipment, petroleum, electricityImport partners:USA 41%, Japan 8.1%, Mexico 7.3%, Venezuela 4% (1998)External debt:$3.9 billion (1998 est.)Economic aid - recipient:$107.1 million (1995)Currency:1 Costa Rican colon (₡) = 100 centimosExchange rates:Costa Rican colones (₡) per US$1 – 559.51 (October 24, 2008), per US$1 – 500.10 (December 2007), 516.78 (November 2007), 506.11 (April 2006), 479.57 (July 2005), 299.63 (February 2000), 285.68 (1999), 257.23 (1998), 232.60 (1997), 207.69 (1996) and 179.73 (1995) http://indicadoreseconomicos.bccr.fi.cr/indicadoreseconomicos/IndicadoresEconomicos/frmEstructuraInformacion.aspx?idioma=I&codMenu=%2071&DesTitulo=Daily%20Information Fiscal year:''' October 1 – September 30 References | Economy_of_Costa_Rica |@lemmatized economy:6 costa:35 rica:29 heavily:1 depend:1 tourism:11 agriculture:6 electronics:2 export:10 poverty:3 reduce:2 past:1 year:9 social:2 safety:2 net:1 put:1 place:4 economic:7 growth:6 rebound:1 accord:1 cia:1 world:6 factbook:1 gdp:13 per:7 caput:3 u:6 however:3 develop:1 country:26 still:3 face:1 second:2 high:6 inflation:6 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3,651 | Maser | A hydrogen radio frequency discharge, the first element inside a hydrogen maser (see description below) A maser is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through amplification due to stimulated emission. Historically the term came from the acronym "Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation", although modern masers emit over a broad portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. This has led some to replace "microwave" with "molecular" in the acronym, as suggested by Charles H. Townes. Charles H. Townes - Nobel Lecture When optical coherent oscillators were first developed, they were called optical masers, but it has become more common to refer to these as lasers. See the section on terminology below for more on this. History Theoretically, the principle of the maser was described by Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov from Lebedev Institute of Physics at an All-Union Conference on Radio-Spectroscopy held by USSR Academy of Sciences in May 1952. They subsequently published their results in October 1954. Independently, Charles H. Townes, J. P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger built the first maser at Columbia University in 1953. The device used stimulated emission in a stream of energized ammonia molecules to produce amplification of microwaves at a frequency of 24 gigahertz. Townes later worked with Arthur L. Schawlow to describe the principle of the optical maser, or laser, which Theodore H. Maiman first demonstrated in 1960. For their research in this field Townes, Basov, and Prokhorov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964. Technology The maser is based on the principle of stimulated emission proposed by Albert Einstein in 1917. When atoms have been put into an excited energy state, they can amplify radiation at the proper frequency. By putting such an amplifying medium in a resonant cavity, feedback is created that can produce coherent radiation. Some common types of masers Atomic beam masers Ammonia maser Hydrogen maser Gas masers Rubidium maser Solid State masers Ruby maser The dual noble gas maser is an example of a masing medium which is nonpolar. http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/Walsworth/Activities/DNGM/old-DNGM.html Uses Masers serve as high precision frequency references. These "atomic frequency standards" are one form of atomic clock. They are also used as electronic amplifiers in radio telescopes. Masers are being developed as directed-energy weapons. Hydrogen maser A hydrogen maser. Today, the most important type of maser is the hydrogen maser which is currently used as an atomic frequency standard. Together with other types of atomic clocks, they constitute the "Temps Atomique International" or TAI. This is the international time scale, which is coordinated by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, or BIPM. It was Norman Ramsey and his colleagues who first realized this device. Today's masers are identical to the original design. The maser oscillation relies on stimulated emission between two hyperfine levels of atomic hydrogen. Here is a brief description of how it works: First, a beam of atomic hydrogen is produced. This is done by submitting the gas at low pressure to an RF discharge (see the picture on this page). The next step is "state selection"—in order to get some stimulated emission, it is necessary to create a population inversion of the atoms. This is done in a way that is very similar to the famous Stern-Gerlach experiment. After passing through an aperture and a magnetic field, many of the atoms in the beam are left in the upper energy level of the lasing transition. From this state, the atoms can decay to the lower state and emit some microwave radiation. A high quality factor microwave cavity confines the microwaves and reinjects them repeatedly into the atom beam. The stimulated emission amplifies the microwaves on each pass through the beam. This combination of amplification and feedback is what defines all oscillators. The resonant frequency of the microwave cavity is exactly tuned to the hyperfine structure of hydrogen: 1420 405 751.768 Hz. A small fraction of the signal in the microwave cavity is coupled into a coaxial cable and then sent to a coherent receiver. The microwave signal coming out of the maser is very weak (a few pW). The frequency of the signal is fixed but extremely stable. The coherent receiver is used to amplify the signal and change the frequency. This is done using a series of phase-locked loops and a high performance quartz oscillator. Astrophysical masers Stimulated microwave and radio wave emission is observed in astronomy, and is frequently called superradiant emission to distinguish it from laboratory masers which typically employ resonant feedback. Such emission is observed from molecules such as water (H2O), hydroxyl radicals (OH), methanol (CH3OH), formaldehyde (CH2O), and silicon monoxide (SiO). Maser-like stimulated emission also occurs in nature in interstellar space. Water molecules in star-forming regions can undergo a population inversion and emit radiation at 22 GHz, creating the brightest spectral line in the radio universe. Some water masers also emit radiation from a vibrational mode at 96 GHz. Terminology The meaning of the term maser has changed slightly since its introduction. Initially the acronym was universally given as "microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation," which described devices which emitted in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The principle of stimulated emission has since been extended to more devices and frequencies, and so the original acronym is sometimes modified, as suggested by Charles H. Townes, to "molecular amplification by stimulated emission of radiation." Some have asserted that Townes's efforts to extend the acronym in this way were primarily motivated by the desire to increase the importance of his invention, and his reputation in the scientific community. When the laser was developed, Townes and Schawlow and their colleagues at Bell Labs pushed the use of the term optical maser, but this was largely abandoned in favor of laser, coined by their rival Gordon Gould. Taylor (2000), p. 66–70. In modern usage, devices that emit in the X-ray through infrared portions of the spectrum are typically called lasers, and devices that emit in the microwave region and below are commonly called masers, regardless of whether they emit microwaves or other frequencies. Gould originally proposed distinct names for devices that emit in each portion of the spectrum, including grasers (gamma ray lasers), xasers (x-ray lasers), uvasers (ultraviolet lasers), lasers (visible lasers), irasers (infrared lasers), masers (microwave masers), and rasers (RF masers). Most of these terms never caught on, however, and all have now become (apart from in science fiction) obsolete except for maser and laser. Masers in science fiction Masers often appear as weapons in science fiction movies and novels. Their characteristics often differ from those of real masers, however, and it is doubtful whether a practical maser weapon such as these can actually be made. Some notable science fiction appearances of masers: Larry Niven writes often of the use of masers by spaceships for communications in his Known Space books, as well as his other science-fiction novels, such as The Mote in God's Eye. Masers are the most recognizable weapon in the Godzilla series and Toho's other monster movies. "Maser tanks" are often deployed against monsters. These fire a bolt of electricity, presumably created by amplified microwaves. Maser tanks have also appeared in various video games and in other science fiction movies. Masers are common in anime and Japanese-inspired animated science fiction stories. They have appeared in the Transformers, Gundam SEED, GaoGaiGar, Code Geass and others. In Gundam SEED, Phonon Masers are weapons described as sound waves focused in laser-like fashion, rather than microwave devices. Masers are used predominantly as weaponry, both from spaceships and by ground troops in Peter F. Hamilton's Night's Dawn universe, as well as appearing in his Commonwealth Saga. Masers are frequently used as the assault weapon-of-choice by military forces in William Shatner's fictional novel series "Quest for Tomorrow". In the Star Wars Expanded Universe, masers (called "charrics") are the primary weapon for the Chiss race, on their fighters and for handheld rifles. The DANGI Maser is a prominent and very lethal weapon in a popular (and free) scenario for Marathon called Marathon Rubicon. In Carl Sagan's novel Contact, the main character, Ellie Arroway, does her thesis project on developing a "ruby maser". In the video game Ratchet and Clank: Size Matters, there is a weapon called the Laser Tracer. When fully upgraded to level 4, it becomes the Optical Maser Array. In the Star Control series history, the Androsynth defeated the humans' defenses with the use of MASER technology. The Monkeylord unit in Supreme Commander is armed with a "Microwave Laser." In David Brin's Uplift Universe, masers are used not as weapons, but as communication devices. In the ABC television program Alias (a member of the Spy-fi genre), the season 3 episode Prelude featured a maser attached to a Chinese satellite, able to pinpoint assassination targets from space. In the Halo universe masers are used for communication on spacecraft. In the MMORPG EVE Online, masers are a variation of Energy Turrets primarily used by the Amarrian race. In the webcomic Starslip Crisis, masers are a common form of starship weaponry. In the video game Phantasy Star Online, there is a weapon called a "Maser Beam." In the TV series Lost In Space, "Maser Beams" are used for teleportation in several episodes. In Star Trek, phasers were originally short for "photon masers" though were later changed. In Sony Online's MMO game Infantry Online, has a Maser weapon available for sale for Spec-Ops players. See also Laser List of laser types Footnotes References J.R. Singer, Masers, John Whiley and Sons Inc., 1959. J. Vanier, C. Audoin, The Quantum Physics of Atomic Frequency Standards, Adam Hilger, Bristol, 1989. Cartoon Megas XLR 2005 External links arXiv.org search for "maser" Noble gas Maser The Red Shift (Hydrogen Maser Clock) Experiment | Maser |@lemmatized hydrogen:10 radio:5 frequency:12 discharge:2 first:6 element:1 inside:1 maser:68 see:4 description:2 device:10 produce:4 coherent:5 electromagnetic:3 wave:3 amplification:6 due:1 stimulated:9 emission:14 historically:1 term:4 come:2 acronym:5 microwave:19 radiation:8 although:1 modern:2 emit:9 broad:1 portion:3 spectrum:4 lead:1 replace:1 molecular:2 suggest:2 charles:4 h:6 townes:8 nobel:2 lecture:1 optical:5 oscillator:3 develop:4 call:8 become:3 common:4 refer:1 laser:17 section:1 terminology:2 history:2 theoretically:1 principle:4 describe:4 nikolay:1 basov:2 alexander:1 prokhorov:2 lebedev:1 institute:1 physic:3 union:1 conference:1 spectroscopy:1 hold:1 ussr:1 academy:1 science:8 may:1 subsequently:1 publish:1 result:1 october:1 independently:1 j:4 p:2 gordon:2 zeiger:1 build:1 columbia:1 university:1 use:15 stimulate:3 stream:1 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3,652 | Constitution | A constitution is a system for government—often codified as a written document—that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity. In the case of countries, this term refers specifically to a national constitution defining the fundamental political principles, and establishing the structure, procedures, powers and duties, of a government. Most national constitutions also guarantee certain rights to the people. The term constitution can be applied to any overall law that defines the functioning of a government, including several historical constitutions that existed before the development of modern national constitutions. Constitutions concern different kinds of political organizations. They are found extensively in regional government, at supranational (e.g., European Union), federal (e.g., United States Constitution), state or provincial (e.g., Constitution of Maryland), and sub-national levels. They are also found in many political groups, such as political parties, pressure groups, and trade unions. Non-political entities such as corporations and voluntary associations, whether incorporated or not, may also have a constitution. The constitution of a legally incorporated entity is more usually styled as its memorandum and articles of association (U.S. incorporation). Etymology The term constitution comes from a Latin term denoting an important law, usually one proclaimed by the Roman emperor ("constitutiones principis"). Later, the term was widely used in canon law for an important determination, especially by the Pope, which are now referred to as apostolic constitutions. General features Generally, every constitution confers specific powers to an organization or institutional entity, established upon the primary condition that it abides by the said constitution's limitations. The Latin term ultra vires describes activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall outside the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials. For example, a students' union may be prohibited as an organization from engaging in activities not concerning students; if the union becomes involved in non-student activities these activities are considered ultra vires of the union's charter, and nobody would be compelled by the charter to follow them. An example from the constitutional law of nation-states would be a provincial government in a federal state trying to legislate in an area exclusively enumerated to the federal government in the constitution, such as ratifying a treaty. Ultra vires gives a legal justification for the forced cessation of such action, which might be enforced by the people with the support of a decision of the judiciary, in a case of judicial review. A violation of rights by an official would be ultra vires because a (constitutional) right is a restriction on the powers of government, and therefore that official would be exercising powers he doesn't have. When an official act is unconstitutional, i.e. it is not a power granted to the government by the Constitution, that act is null and void, and the nullification is ab initio, that is, from inception, not from the date of the finding. It was never "law", even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, it might have been adopted according to the procedures for adopting legislation. Sometimes the problem is not that a statute is unconstitutional, but the application of it is, on a particular occasion, and a court may decide that while there are ways it could be applied that are constitutional, that instance was not allowed or legitimate. In such a case, only the application may be ruled unconstitutional. Historically, the remedy for such violations have been petitions for common law writs, such as quo warranto. History and development Early legal codes Excavations in modern-day Iraq by Ernest de Sarzec in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known code of justice, issued by the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash ca 2300 BC. Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered; however it is known that it allowed some rights to his citizens. For example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the usury of the rich. After that, many governments ruled by special codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the Code of Ur-Nammu of (ca 2050 BC). Some of the better-known ancient law codes include the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, the code of Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Hittite code, the Assyrian code and Mosaic law. Later constitutions In 621 BC, a scribe named Draco wrote the laws of the city-state of Athens; and being quite cruel, this code prescribed the death penalty for any offence. In 594 BC, Solon, the ruler of Athens, created the new Solonian Constitution. It eased the burden of the workers, however it made the ruling class to be determined by wealth (plutocracy), rather than by birth (aristocracy). Cleisthenes again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a democratic footing in 508 BC. Aristotle (ca 350 BC) was one of the first in recorded history to make a formal distinction between ordinary law and constitutional law, establishing ideas of constitution and constitutionalism, and attempting to classify different forms of constitutional government. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was "the arrangement of the offices in a state". In his works Constitution of Athens, Politics, and Nicomachean Ethics he explores different constitutions of his day, including those of Athens, Sparta, and Carthage. He classified both what he regarded as good and bad constitutions, and came to the conclusion that the best constitution was a mixed system, including monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements. He also distinguished between citizens, who had the exclusive opportunity to participate in the state, and non-citizens and slaves who did not. The Romans first codified their constitution in 449 BC as the Twelve Tables. They operated under a series of laws that were added from time to time, but Roman law was never reorganised into a single code until the Codex Theodosianus (AD 438); later, in the Eastern Empire the Codex repetitæ prælectionis (534) was highly influential throughout Europe. This was followed in the east by the Ecloga of Leo III the Isaurian (740) and the Basilica of Basil I (878). The Edicts of Ashoka established constitutional principles for the 3rd century BC Maurya king's rule in Ancient India. Many of the Germanic peoples that filled the power vacuum left by the Western Roman Empire in the Early Middle Ages codified their laws. One of the first of these Germanic law codes to be written was the Visigothic Code of Euric (471). This was followed by the Lex Burgundionum, applying separate codes for Germans and for Romans; the Pactus Alamannorum; and the Salic Law of the Franks, all written soon after 500. In 506, the Breviarum or "Lex Romana" of Alaric II, king of the Visigoths, adopted and consolidated the Codex Theodosianus together with assorted earlier Roman laws. Systems that appeared somewhat later include the Edictum Rothari of the Lombards (643), the Lex Visigothorum (654), the Lex Alamannorum (730) and the Lex Frisionum (ca 785). These continental codes were all composed in Latin, whilst Anglo-Saxon was used for those of England, beginning with the Code of Ethelbert of Kent (602). In ca. 893, Alfred the Great combined this and two other earlier Saxon codes, with various Mosaic and Christian precepts, to produce the Doom Book code of laws for England. Japan's Seventeen-article constitution written in 604, reportedly by Prince Shōtoku, is an early example of a constitution in Asian political history. Influenced by Buddhist teachings, the document focuses more on social morality than institutions of government per se and remains a notable early attempt at a government constitution. Another is the Constitution of Medina, drafted by the prophet of Islam, Muhammad, in 622. It is said to be one of the earliest constitutions which guarantees basic rights to religions and adherents as well as reinforcing a judiciary process regarding the rules of warfare, tax and civil disputes. In Wales, the Cyfraith Hywel was codified by Hywel Dda c. 942-950. The Pravda Yaroslava, originally combined by Yaroslav the Wise the Grand Prince of Kiev, was granted to Great Novgorod around 1017, and in 1054 was incorporated into the Russkaya Pravda, that became the law for all of Kievan Rus. It survived only in later editions of the 15th century. The Gayanashagowa, or 'oral' constitution of the Iroquois nation, has been estimated to date from between 1090 and 1150. It is also thought to have provided a partial inspiration for the US Constitution and Bill of Rights, as was recognised by the US Congress in a resolution passed in October, 1988. In England, Henry I's proclamation of the Charter of Liberties in 1100 bound the king for the first time in his treatment of the clergy and the nobility. This idea was extended and refined by the English barony when they forced King John to sign Magna Carta in 1215. The most important single article of the Magna Carta, related to "habeas corpus", provided that the king was not permitted to imprison, outlaw, exile or kill anyone at a whim — there must be due process of law first. This article, Article 39, of the Magna Carta read: No free man shall be arrested, or imprisoned, or deprived of his property, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor shall we go against him or send against him, unless by legal judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land. This provision became the cornerstone of English liberty after that point. The social contract in the original case was between the king and the nobility, but was gradually extended to all of the people. It led to the system of Constitutional Monarchy, with further reforms shifting the balance of power from the monarchy and nobility to the House of Commons. Between 1220 and 1230, a Saxon administrator, Eike von Repgow, composed the Sachsenspiegel, which became the supreme law used in parts of Germany as late as 1900. In 1236, Sundiata Keita presented an oral constitution federating the Mali Empire, called the Kouroukan Fouga. Meanwhile, around 1240, the Coptic Egyptian Christian writer, 'Abul Fada'il Ibn al-'Assal, wrote the Fetha Negest in Arabic. 'Ibn al-Assal took his laws partly from apostolic writings and Mosaic law, and partly from the former Byzantine codes. There are a few historical records claiming that this law code was translated into Ge'ez and entered Ethiopia around 1450 in the reign of Zara Yaqob. Even so, its first recorded use in the function of a constitution (supreme law of the land) is with Sarsa Dengel beginning in 1563. The Fetha Negest remained the supreme law in Ethiopia until 1931, when a modern-style Constitution was first granted by Emperor Haile Selassie I. Stefan Dušan, Emperor of Serbs and Greeks, made and enforced Dušan's Code in Serbia, in two state congresses: in 1349 in Skopje and in 1354 in Serres. In China, the Hongwu Emperor created and refined a document he called Ancestral Injunctions (first published in 1375, revised twice more before his death in 1398). These rules served in a very real sense as a constitution for the Ming Dynasty for the next 250 years. Modern constitutions The earliest written constitution still governing a sovereign nation today may be that of San Marino. The Leges Statutae Republicae Sancti Marini was written in Latin and consists of six books. The first book, with 62 articles, establishes councils, courts, various executive officers and the powers assigned to them. The remaining books cover criminal and civil law, judicial procedures and remedies. Written in 1600, the document was based upon the Statuti Comunali (Town Statute) of 1300, itself influenced by the Codex Justinianus, and it remains in force today. In 1639, the Colony of Connecticut adopted the Fundamental Orders, which is considered the first North American constitution, and is the basis for every new Connecticut constitution since, and is also the reason for Connecticut's nickname, "the Constitution State". England had two short-lived written Constitutions during Cromwellian rule, known as the Instrument of Government (1653), and Humble Petition and Advice (1657). Agreements and Constitutions of Laws and Freedoms of the Zaporizian Host can be acknowledged as the first European constitution in a modern sense. Pylyp Orlyk Constitution, European commission for democracy through law (Venice Commission) The Constitutional Heritage of Europe. Montpellier, 22-23 November 1996. It was written in 1710 by Pylyp Orlyk, hetman of the Zaporozhian Host. This "Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk" (as it is widely known) was written to establish a free Zaporozhian-Ukrainian Republic, with the support of Charles XII of Sweden. It is notable in that it established a democratic standard for the separation of powers in government between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches, well before the publication of Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws. This Constitution also limited the executive authority of the hetman, and established a democratically elected Cossack parliament called the General Council. However, Orlyk's project for an independent Ukrainian State never materialized, and his constitution, written in exile, never went into effect. Other examples of early European constitutions were the Corsican Constitution of 1755 and the Swedish Constitution of 1772. All of the British colonies in North America that were to become the 13 original United States, adopted their own constitutions in 1776 and 1777, during the American Revolution (and before the later Articles of Confederation and United States Constitution), with the exceptions of Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts adopted its Constitution in 1780, the oldest still-functioning constitution of any U.S. state; while Connecticut and Rhode Island officially continued to operate under their old colonial charters, until they adopted their first state constitutions in 1818 and 1843, respectively. The United States Constitution, ratified June 21, 1788, was influenced by the British constitutional system and the political system of the United Provinces, plus the writings of Polybius, Locke, Montesquieu, and others. The document became a benchmark for republican and codified constitutions written thereafter. Next were the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Constitution of May 3, 1791, and the French Constitution of September 3, 1791. As a result of the turmoils of the French revolution, the absolute monarchy of Denmark lost its personal possession of Norway to another absolute monarchy, Sweden. However the Norwegians managed to infuse a radically democratic and liberal constitution in 1814, adopting many facets from the American constitution and the revolutionary French ones; but maintaining a heredetary monarch limited by the constitution. Principles of constitutional design After tribal people first began to live in cities and establish nations, many of these functioned according to unwritten customs, while some developed autocratic, even tyrannical monarchs, who ruled by decree, or mere personal whim. Such rule led some thinkers to take the position that what mattered was not the design of governmental institutions and operations, as much as the character of the rulers. This view can be seen in Plato, who called for rule by "philosopher-kings."<ref> Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez</ref> Later writers, such as Aristotle, Cicero and Plutarch, would examine designs for government from a legal and historical standpoint. The Renaissance brought a series of political philosophers who wrote implied criticisms of the practices of monarchs and sought to identify principles of constitutional design that would be likely to yield more effective and just governance from their viewpoints. This began with revival of the Roman law of nations concept Relectiones, Franciscus de Victoria (lect. 1532, first pub. 1557). and its application to the relations among nations, and they sought to establish customary "laws of war and peace" The Law of War and Peace, Hugo Grotius (1625) to ameliorate wars and make them less likely. This led to considerations of what authority monarchs or other officials have and don't have, from where that authority derives, and the remedies for abusing such authority. Vindiciae Contra Tyrannos (Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants), "Junius Brutus" (Orig. Fr. 1581, Eng. tr. 1622, 1689) A seminal juncture in this line of discourse arose in England from the Civil War, the Cromwellian Protectorate, the writings of Thomas Hobbes, Samuel Rutherford, the Levellers, John Milton, and James Harrington, leading to the debate between Robert Filmer, arguing for the divine right of monarchs, on the one side, and on the other, Henry Neville, James Tyrrell, Algernon Sidney, and John Locke. What arose from the latter was a concept of government being erected on the foundations of first, a state of nature governed by natural laws, then a state of society, established by a social contract or compact, which bring underlying natural or social laws, before governments are formally established on them as foundations. Along the way several writers examined how the design of government was important, even if the government were headed by a monarch. They also classified various historical examples of governmental designs, typically into democracies, aristocracies, or monarchies, and considered how just and effective each tended to be and why, and how the advantages of each might be obtained by combining elements of each into a more complex design that balanced competing tendencies. Some, such as Montesquieu, also examined how the functions of government, such as legislative, executive, and judicial, might appropriately be separated into branches. The prevailing theme among these writers was that the design of constitutions is not completely arbitrary or a matter of taste. They generally held that there are underlying principles of design that constrain all constitutions for every polity or organization. Each built on the ideas of those before concerning what those principles might be. The later writings of Orestes Brownson The American Republic: its Constitution, Tendencies, and Destiny, O. A. Brownson (1866) would try to explain what constitutional designers were trying to do. According to Brownson there are, in a sense, three "constitutions" involved: The first the constitution of nature that includes all of what was called "natural law." The second is the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it establishes the third, a constitution of government. The second would include such elements as the making of decisions by public conventions called by public notice and conducted by established rules of procedure. Each constitution must be consistent with, and derive its authority from, the ones before it, as well as from a historical act of society formation or constitutional ratification. Brownson argued that a state is a society with effective dominion over a well-defined territory, that consent to a well-designed constitution of government arises from presence on that territory, and that it is possible for provisions of a written constitution of government to be "unconstitutional" if they are inconsistent with the constitutions of nature or society. Brownson argued that it is not ratification alone that makes a written constitution of government legitimate, but that it must also be competently designed and applied. Other writers Principles of Constitutional Design, Donald S. Lutz (2006) ISBN 0-521-86168-3 have argued that such considerations apply not only to all national constitutions of government, but also to the constitutions of private organizations, that it is not an accident that the constitutions that tend to satisfy their members contain certain elements, as a minimum, or that their provisions tend to become very similar as they are amended after experience with their use. Provisions that give rise to certain kinds of questions are seen to need additional provisions for how to resolve those questions, and provisions that offer no course of action may best be omitted and left to policy decisions. Provisions that conflict with what Brownson and others can discern are the underlying "constitutions" of nature and society tend to be difficult or impossible to execute, or to lead to unresolvable disputes. Constitutional design has been treated as a kind of metagame in which play consists of finding the best design and provisions for a written constitution that will be the rules for the game of government, and that will be most likely to optimize a balance of the utilities of justice, liberty, and security. An example is the metagame Nomic. The Paradox of Self-Amendment, byPeter Suber (1990) ISBN 0-8204-1212-0 Governmental constitutions Most commonly, the term constitution refers to a set of rules and principles that define the nature and extent of government. Most constitutions seek to regulate the relationship between institutions of the state, in a basic sense the relationship between the executive, legislature and the judiciary, but also the relationship of institutions within those branches. For example, executive branches can be divided into a head of government, government departments/ministries, executive agencies and a civil service/bureaucracy. Most constitutions also attempt to define the relationship between individuals and the state, and to establish the broad rights of individual citizens. It is thus the most basic law of a territory from which all the other laws and rules are hierarchically derived; in some territories it is in fact called "Basic Law." Key features The following are features of democratic constitutions that have been identified by political scientists to exist, in one form or another, in virtually all national constitutions. Codification A fundamental classification is codification or lack of codification. A codified constitution is one that is contained in a single document, which is the single source of constitutional law in a state. An uncodified constitution is one that is not contained in a single document, consisting of several different sources, which may be written or unwritten. Codified constitution Most states in the world have codified constitutions. Only three have uncodified constitutions: Israel, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. The most obvious advantages of codified constitutions are that they tend to be more coherent and more easily understood, as well as simpler to read (being single documents). However, although codified constitutions are relatively rigid, they still yield a potentially wide range of interpretations by constitutional courts (see below). Codified constitutions are often the product of some dramatic political change, such as a revolution. For example, the United States Constitution was written and subsequently ratified less than 25 years after the American Revolution. The process by which a country adopts a constitution is closely tied to the historical and political context driving this fundamental change. This becomes evident when one compares the elaborate convention method adopted in the United States, with the MacArthur-inspired post war constitution foisted on Japan (see Constitution of Japan). The legitimacy (and often the longevity) of codified constitutions has often been tied to the process by which they are initially adopted. States that have codified constitutions normally give the constitution supremacy over ordinary statute law. That is, if there is any conflict between a legal statute and the codified constitution, all or part of the statute can be declared ultra vires by a court, and struck down as unconstitutional. In addition, an extraordinary procedure is often required to make a constitutional amendment. These procedures may involve: obtaining ⅔ majorities in the national legislature, the consent of regional legislatures, a referendum process, or some other procedure that makes obtaining a constitutional amendment more difficult than passing a simple law. Constitutions may also provide that their most basic principles can never be abolished, even by amendment (for example, the German Federal Constitution states in relevant part that the country has to be a democratic, a federal, and a social republic, in which the state powers have to: (i) leave dignity of man inviolable; (ii) where rule of law prevails; and (iii) where sovereignty lies with the people. Indeed, the German Federal Constitution further provides that it may not be altered See Article 79 section 3 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. ). In case a formally valid amendment of a constitution infringes these principles protected against any amendment, it may constitute a so-called unconstitutional constitutional law. The Constitution of Australia is an example of a constitution where the constitutional law derives mainly from a single written document, but other written documents are also considered parts of the constitution. The Constitution of India is the longest codified constitution in the world. President Kermit L. Hall - The Power of Comparison in Teaching Civic Literacy. Accessed March 3, 2007. http://www.albany.edu/president/speeches/power_of_comparison0706.shtml It is unique in that it incorporates codes from many other constitutions, such as those of Japan, Malaysia, and Anglosphere countries. Uncodified constitution Uncodified constitutions (also known as unwritten constitutions) are the product of an "evolution" of laws and conventions over centuries. By contrast to codified constitutions, in the Westminster tradition that originated in England, uncodified constitutions include written sources: e.g. constitutional statutes enacted by the Parliament (House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975, Northern Ireland Act 1998, Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act 1998, European Communities Act 1972 and Human Rights Act 1998); and also unwritten sources: constitutional conventions, observation of precedents, royal prerogatives, custom and tradition, such as always holding the General Election on Thursdays; together these constitute the British constitutional law. In the days of the British Empire, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council acted as the constitutional court for many of the British colonies such as Canada and Australia which had federal constitutions. In states using uncodified constitutions, the difference between constitutional law and statutory law (i.e. law applying to any area of governance) in legal terms is nil. Both can be altered or repealed by a simple majority in Parliament. In practice, democratic governments do not use this opportunity to abolish all civil rights, which in theory they could do, but the distinction between regular and constitutional law is still somewhat arbitrary, usually depending on the traditional devotion of popular opinion to historical principles embodied in important past legislation. For example, several Acts of Parliament such as the Bill of Rights, Human Rights Act and, prior to the creation of Parliament, Magna Carta are regarded as granting fundamental rights and principles which are treated as almost constitutional.See also: Fundamental Laws of England Written versus unwritten / codified versus uncodified The term written constitution is used to describe a constitution that is entirely written, which by definition includes every codified constitution. However, some constitutions are entirely written but, strictly speaking, not entirely codified. For example, in the Constitution of Australia, most of its fundamental political principles and regulations concerning the relationship between branches of government, and concerning the government and the individual are codified in a single document, the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. However, the presence of statutes with constitutional significance, namely the Statute of Westminster, as adopted by the Commonwealth in the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and the Australia Act 1986 means that Australia's constitution is not contained in a single constitutional document. The Constitution of Canada, which evolved from the British North America Acts until severed from nominal British control by the Canada Act 1982 (analogous to the Australia Act 1986), is a similar example. The term written constitution is often used interchangeably with codified constitution, and similarly unwritten constitution is used interchangeably with uncodified constitution. As shown above, this usage with respect to written and codified constitutions can be inaccurate. Strictly speaking, unwritten constitution is never an accurate synonym for uncodified constitution, because all modern democratic constitutions consist of some written sources, even if they have no different technical status than ordinary statutes. Another term used is formal (written) constitution, for example in the following context: "The United Kingdom has no formal constitution." This usage is correct, but it should be construed to mean that the United Kingdom does not have a codified constitution, not that the UK has no constitution of any kind, which would not be correct. A constitution can be written but not codified. Codified would suggest written in one document. This means that a constitution that has a number of written sources is still written, but not codified. Constitutions may provide that, for the purpose of clarity, they may be amended only by a law expressly amending or supplementing the Constitutional text itself (otherwise the relevant law would not enjoy the status of constitutinal law). The German Federal Constitution does expressly, and the constitutional tradition of the German federal states do at least in an implied manner, provide for this. Article 79 section 1 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. Entrenchment The presence or lack of entrenchment is a fundamental feature of constitutions. Entrenchment is an inherent feature in most written constitutions. The US constitution is an example of an entrenched constitution, and the UK constitution is an example of a constitution that is not entrenched. The procedure for modifying a constitution is often called amending. Sometimes, the reason for this is that the constitution is considered supreme law, such as according to the supremacy clause in the US constitution. Regardless of whether a constitution has this technical status, all states with an entrenched constitution recognise the difference between constitutional law and ordinary statutory law. Procedures for ratification of constitutional amendments vary between states. In a federal system of government, the approval of a majority of state/provincial legislatures may be required. Alternatively, a national referendum may be required in some states, such as in Australia. In constitutions that are not entrenched, no special procedure is required for modification. In the small number of countries with un-entrenched constitutions, the lack of entrenchment is because the constitution is not recognised with any higher legal status than ordinary statutes. In the UK, for example, passing laws which modify sources of the constitution, whether they are written or unwritten, are passed on a simple majority in Parliament. The concept of "amendment" does not apply, as the constitution can be altered as easily in terms of procedure as any national law. Distribution of sovereignty See also: FederalismConstitutions also establish where sovereignty is located in the state. There are three basic types of distribution of sovereignty: federal, unitary and confederal. A federal system of government will inevitably have a constitution that recognizes the division of sovereignty between the centre and peripheral/provincial regions of the state. The Canadian Constitution is an example of this, dividing power between the federal government and the provinces. A unitary constitution recognises that sovereignty resides only in the centre of the state. In the UK, the constitutional doctrine of Parliamentary sovereignty dictates than sovereignty is ultimately contained at the centre. However, some unitary states (Spain is an example) may delegate more and more power to sub-national governments until the state functions in practice much like a federal state. Confederal constitutions are rare, and there is often dispute to whether so-called "confederal" states are actually federal. In a confederacy, sovereignty is located in peripheral regions/provinces and only limited power is granted to the centre. A historical example of a confederal constitution is the Swiss Federal Constitution. Separation of powers Constitutions usually explicitly divide power between various branches of government. The standard model, described by the Baron de Montesquieu, involves three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. Some constitutions include additional branches, such as an auditory branch. Constitutions vary extensively as to the degree of separation of powers between these branches. Lines of accountability In presidential and semi-presidential systems of government, department secretaries/ministers are accountable to the president, who has patronage powers to appoint and dismiss ministers. The president is accountable to the people in an election. In parliamentary systems, ministers are accountable to Parliament, but it is the prime minister who appoints and dismisses them. In Westminster systems, this power derives from the monarch (or head of state in Westminster-style republics, such as India and the Republic of Ireland), a component of Parliament. There is the concept of a vote of no confidence in many countries with parliamentary systems, which means that if a majority of the legislature vote for a no confidence motion, then the government must resign, and a new one will be formed, or parliament will be dissolved and a general election called. Façade constitutions Italian political theorist Giovanni Sartori noted the existence of national constitutions which are a façade for authoritarian sources of power. While such documents may express respect for human rights or establish an independent judiciary, they may be ignored when the government feels threatened or entirely dishonoured in practice. An extreme example was the Constitution of the Soviet Union that on paper supported freedom of assembly or freedom of speech; however, citizens who acted accordingly were summarily imprisoned. The example demonstrates that the protections and benefits of a constitution are provided less through its written terms than through deference by government and society to its principles. Constitutional courts The constitution is often protected by a certain legal body in each country with various names, such as supreme, constitutional or high court. This court judges the compatibility of legislation with the provisions and principles of the constitution, which is termed "constitutionality." Especially important is the court's responsibility to protect constitutionally established rights and freedoms. In constitutions without the concept of supreme law, such as the United Kingdom constitution, the concept of "constitutionality" has little meaning, and constitutional courts do not exist. A "constitutional violation" is an action or legislative act that is judged by a constitutional court to be contrary to the constitution, that is, "unconstitutional." An example of constitutional violation by the executive could be a politician who abuses the powers of his constitutionally-established office. An example of constitutional violation by the legislature is an attempt to pass a law that would contradict the constitution, without first going through the proper constitutional amendment process. A constitutional court is normally the court of last resort, the highest judicial body in the government. The process of judicial review is then integrated into the system of courts of appeal. This is the case, for example, with the Supreme Court of the United States or Supreme Court of India. Cases must normally be heard in lower courts before being brought before the Supreme Court, except cases for which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction. Some other countries dedicate a special court solely to the protection of the constitution, as with the German Constitutional Court. Most constitutional courts are powerful instruments of judicial review, with the power to declare laws "unconstitutional," that is, incompatible with the constitution. The effect of this ruling varies between governments, but it is common for the courts' action to rule a law unenforceable, as is the case in the United States. However, many courts have the problem of relying on the legislative and executive branches' co-operation to properly enforce their decisions. For example, in the United States, the Supreme Court's ruling overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine in the 1950s depended on individual states co-operation to enforce. Some failed to do so, prompting the federal government to intervene. Other countries, such as France, have a Constitutional Council which may only judge the constitutionality of laws before the ratification process. Some countries, mainly those with uncodified constitutions, have no such courts at all – for example, as the United Kingdom traditionally functions under the principle of parliamentary sovereignty: the legislature has the power to enact any law it wishes. However, through its membership in the European Union, the UK is now subject to the jurisdiction of European Union law and the European Court of Justice; similarly, by acceding to the Council of Europe's European Convention on Human Rights, it is subject to the European Court of Human Rights. In effect, these bodies are constitutional courts that can invalidate or interpret UK legislation for compliance with international treaty obligations, first established as a principle by the Factortame case. See also Apostolic constitution (a class of Roman Catholic Church documents) Constitution of the Roman Republic Constitutional court Constitutionalism Corporate constitution Judicial activism Judicial restraint Judicial review Judicial philosophies of constitutional interpretation (note: generally specific to United States constitutional law)'' List of national constitutions Originalism Strict constructionism Textualism Proposed European Union constitution Treaty of Lisbon (adopts same changes, but without constitutional name) United Nations Charter References Report on the British constitution and proposed European constitution by Professor John McEldowney, University of Warwick Submitted as written evidence to House of Lords Select Committee on Constitution, published to the public on 15 October 2003. External links Dictionary of the History of Ideas Constitutionalism Constitutional Law, "Constitutions, bibliography, links" International Constitutional Law: English translations of various national constitutions constitutions of countries of the European Union Democracy in Ancient India by Steve Muhlberger of Nipissing University Constitutional Court Links Official Web site Constitutional Court of Thailand Official Web site Constitutional Court of Belgium Official Web site Constitutional Court of Brazil Official Web site Constitutional Court of Chile Official Web site Constitutional Court of Colombia Official Web site Constitutional Court of Ecuador Official Web site Constitutional Court of France Official Web site Constitutional Court of Germany Official Web site Constitutional Court of India Official Web site Constitutional Court of Indonesia Official Web site Constitutional Court of Italy Official Web site Constitutional Court of Korea Official Web site Constitutional Court of 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3,653 | Microcontroller | The integrated circuit from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip. A microcontroller (also microcontroller unit, MCU or µC) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit consisting of a relatively simple CPU combined with support functions such as a crystal oscillator, timers, watchdog, serial and analog I/O etc. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a, typically small, read/write memory. "Embedded Systems Dictionary" by Jack Ganssle and Mike Barr, p.173 Microcontrollers are designed for small applications. Thus, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers and other high-performance applications, simplicity is emphasized. Some microcontrollers may operate at clock frequencies as low as 32KHz, as this is adequate for many typical applications, enabling low power consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Embedded design The majority of computer systems in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and peripherals for computer systems. These are called embedded systems. While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low software complexity. Typical input and output devices include switches, relays, solenoids, LEDs, small or custom LCD displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for data such as temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer, and may lack human interaction devices of any kind. Interrupts It is mandatory that microcontrollers provide real time response to events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events occur, an interrupt system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and to begin an interrupt service routine (ISR). The ISR will perform any processing required based on the source of the interrupt before returning to the original instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device dependent, and often include events such as an internal timer overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic level change on an input such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a communication link. Where power consumption is important as in battery operated devices, interrupts may also wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep state where the processor is halted until required to do something by a peripheral event. Programs Microcontroller programs must fit in the available on-chip program memory, since it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable, memory. Compilers and assembly language are used to turn high-level language programs into a compact machine code for storage in the microcontroller's memory. Depending on the device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the factory, or program memory may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory. Other microcontroller features Since embedded processors are usually used to control devices, they sometimes need to accept input from the device they are controlling. This is the purpose of the analog to digital converter. Since processors are built to interpret and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they won't be able to do anything with the analog signals that may be being sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. There is also a digital to analog converter that allows the processor to send data to the device it is controlling. In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as well. One of the most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval Timer, or PIT for short. A PIT just counts down from some value to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the processor indicating that it has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as thermostats, which periodically test the temperature around them to see if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc. Time Processing Unit or TPU for short is a sophisticated timer. In addition to counting down, the TPU can detect input events, generate output events, and perform other useful operations. Dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight timer loops. Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. For those wanting ethernet one can use an external chip like Crystal Semiconductor CS8900A, Realtek RTL8019, or Microchip ENC 28J60. All of them allow easy interfacing with low pin count. Higher integration In contrast to general-purpose CPUs, microcontrollers may not implement an external address or data bus as they integrate RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU. Using fewer pins, the chip can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package. Integrating the memory and other peripherals on a single chip and testing them as a unit increases the cost of that chip, but often results in decreased net cost of the embedded system as a whole. Even if the cost of a CPU that has integrated peripherals is slightly more than the cost of a CPU + external peripherals, having fewer chips typically allows a smaller and cheaper circuit board, and reduces the labor required to assemble and test the circuit board. A microcontroller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features: central processing unit - ranging from small and simple 4-bit processors to complex 32- or 64-bit processors discrete input and output bits, allowing control or detection of the logic state of an individual package pin serial input/output such as serial ports (UARTs) other serial communications interfaces like I²C, Serial Peripheral Interface and Controller Area Network for system interconnect peripherals such as timers, event counters, PWM generators, and watchdog volatile memory (RAM) for data storage ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for program and operating parameter storage clock generator - often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal, resonator or RC circuit many include analog-to-digital converters in-circuit programming and debugging support This integration drastically reduces the number of chips and the amount of wiring and circuit board space that would be needed to produce equivalent systems using separate chips. Furthermore, and on low pin count devices in particular, each pin may interface to several internal peripherals, with the pin function selected by software. This allows a part to be used in a wider variety of applications than if pins had dedicated functions. Microcontrollers have proved to be highly popular in embedded systems since their introduction in the 1970s. Some microcontrollers use a Harvard architecture: separate memory buses for instructions and data, allowing accesses to take place concurrently. Where a Harvard architecture is used, instruction words for the processor may be a different bit size than the length of internal memory and registers; for example: 12-bit instructions used with 8-bit data registers. The decision of which peripheral to integrate is often difficult. The microcontroller vendors often trade operating frequencies and system design flexibility against time-to-market requirements from their customers and overall lower system cost. Manufacturers have to balance the need to minimize the chip size against additional functionality. Microcontroller architectures vary widely. Some designs include general-purpose microprocessor cores, with one or more ROM, RAM, or I/O functions integrated onto the package. Other designs are purpose built for control applications. A microcontroller instruction set usually has many instructions intended for bit-wise operations to make control programs more compact. Easy Way to build a Microcontroller project For example, a general purpose processor might require several instructions to test a bit in a register and branch if the bit is set, where a microcontroller could have a single instruction to provide that commonly-required function. Microcontroller typically do not have a math coprocessor, so fixed point or floating point arithmetic are performed by program code. Volumes About 55% of all CPUs sold in the world are 8-bit microcontrollers and microprocessors. According to Semico, Over 4 billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 2006. http://www.semico.com A typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general-purpose microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid range automobile has as many as 30 or more microcontrollers. They can also be found in any electrical device: washing machines, microwave ovens, telephones etc. A PIC 18F8720 microcontroller in an 80-pin TQFP package. Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their microcontrollers in order to help the hardware and software development of the target system. Originally these included EPROM versions that have a "window" on the top of the device through which program memory can be erased by ultra violet light, ready for reprogramming after a programming ("burn") and test cycle. Since 1998, EPROM versions are rare and have been replaced by EEPROM and flash, which are easier to use (can be erased electronically) and cheaper to manufacture. Other versions may be available where the ROM is accessed as an external device rather than as internal memory, however these are becoming increasingly rare due to the widespread availability of cheap microcontroller programmers. The use of field-programmable devices on a microcontroller may allow field update of the firmware or permit late factory revisions to products that have been assembled but not yet shipped. Programmable memory also reduces the lead time required for deployment of a new product. Where hundreds of thousands of identical devices are required, using parts programmed at the time of manufacture can be an economical option. These 'Mask Programmed' parts have the program laid down in the same way as the logic of the chip, at the same time. Programming environments Microcontrollers were originally programmed only in assembly language, but various high-level programming languages are now also in common use to target microcontrollers. These languages are either designed specially for the purpose, or versions of general purpose languages such as the C programming language. Compilers for general purpose languages will typically have some restrictions as well as enhancements to better support the unique characteristics of microcontrollers. Some microcontrollers have environments to aid developing certain types of applications. Microcontroller vendors often make tools freely available to make it easier to adopt their hardware. Many microcontrollers are so quirky that they effectively require their own non-standard dialects of C, such as SDCC for the 8051, which prevent using standard tools (such as code libraries or static analysis tools) even for code unrelated to hardware features. Interpreters are often used to hide such low level quirks. Interpreter firmware is also available for some microcontrollers. For example, BASIC on the early microcontrollers Intel 8052 "8052-Basic Microcontrollers" by Jan Axelson 1994 ; BASIC and FORTH on the Zilog Z8 "Optimizing the Zilog Z8 Forth Microcontroller for Rapid Prototyping" by Robert Edwards 1987, page 3. http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/1987/3445602791343.pdf as well as some modern devices. Typically these interpreters support interactive programming. Simulators are available for some microcontrollers, such as in Microchip's MPLAB environment. These allow a developer to analyze what the behavior of the microcontroller and their program should be if they were using the actual part. A simulator will show the internal processor state and also that of the outputs, as well as allowing input signals to be generated. While on the one hand most simulators will be limited from being unable to simulate much other hardware in a system, they can exercise conditions that may otherwise be hard to reproduce at will in the physical implementation, and can be the quickest way to debug and analyze problems. Recent microcontrollers are often integrated with on-chip debug circuitry that when accessed by an In-circuit emulator via JTAG, allow debugging of the firmware with a debugger. Types of microcontrollers As of 2008 there are several architectures: 68HC11 8051 ARM Atmel AVR 8-bit architecture Atmel AVR32 32-bit architecture Freescale CF (32-bit) Freescale S08 Hitachi H8, Hitachi SuperH MIPS (32-bit PIC32) NEC V850 PIC (8-bit PIC16, PIC18, 16-bit dsPIC33 / PIC24) PowerPC ISE PSoC (Programmable System-on-Chip) Rabbit 2000 TI MSP430 (16-bit) Toshiba TLCS-870 Zilog eZ8, eZ80 and many others, some of which are used in very narrow range of applications or are more like processors than microcontrollers. Interrupt latency In contrast to general-purpose computers, microcontrollers used in embedded systems often seek to minimize interrupt latency over instruction throughput. When an electronic device causes an interrupt, the intermediate results, the registers, have to be saved before the software responsible for handling the interrupt can run, and then must be put back after it is finished. If there are more registers, this saving and restoring process takes more time, increasing the latency. Low-latency MCUs generally have relatively few registers in their central processing units, or they have "shadow registers", a duplicate register set that is only used by the interrupt software. History The first single chip microprocessor was the 4 bit Intel 4004 released in 1971, with other more capable processors available over the next several years. These however all required external chip(s) to implement a working system, raising total system cost, and making it impossible to economically computerise appliances. The first computer system on a chip optimised for control applications - microcontroller was the Intel 8048 released in 1975, with both RAM and ROM on the same chip. This chip went on to be found in over a billion PC keyboards, and numerous applications. Most microcontrollers at this time had two variants. One had an erasable EEPROM program memory, which was significantly more expensive than the PROM variant which was only programmable once. In 1993, the introduction of EEPROM memory allowed microcontrollers (beginning with the Microchip PIC16x84) ) to be electrically erased quickly without an expensive package as required for EPROM, allowing both rapid prototyping, and In System Programming. The same year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using Flash memory. "Atmel’s Self-Programming Flash Microcontrollers" by Odd Jostein Svendsli 2003 . Other companies rapidly followed suit, with both memory types. Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest microcontrollers being available for well under $0.25 in 2009 , and 32 bit microcontrollers under $5. Nowadays microcontrollers are low cost and readily available for hobbyists, with large online communities around certain processors. See also Freescale Semiconductor Atmel AVR Cypress Semiconductor BASIC Stamp Contiki Energy Micro - EFM32 In-circuit emulator List of common microcontrollers Microarchitecture Microbotics PIC microcontrollers Picotux Programmable logic controller PSoC MSP430 Notes External links Microcontroller.com - Embedded Systems industry website with tutorials and dedicated resources Introduction to the MAXQ Architecture Understanding DC Electrical Characteristics of Microcontrollers Cornell ECE476 final project designs Microcontroller based electronics projects Microcontroller Projects Every Day Embedded Systems Design magazine | Microcontroller |@lemmatized integrate:7 circuit:10 intel:4 bit:21 microcontroller:25 include:8 cpu:11 run:2 mhz:1 byte:2 ram:5 eprom:5 chip:20 also:10 unit:5 mcu:1 µc:1 small:7 computer:7 single:5 integrated:2 consisting:1 relatively:2 simple:2 combine:1 support:4 function:5 crystal:3 oscillator:2 timer:8 watchdog:2 serial:6 analog:7 etc:5 program:21 memory:24 form:2 flash:6 otp:1 rom:5 often:11 well:7 typically:5 read:3 write:1 embed:7 system:27 dictionary:1 jack:1 ganssle:1 mike:1 barr:1 p:1 microcontrollers:35 design:9 application:10 thus:1 contrast:3 microprocessor:7 use:26 personal:2 high:4 performance:1 simplicity:1 emphasize:1 may:13 operate:3 clock:3 frequency:3 low:10 adequate:1 many:9 typical:4 enable:1 power:6 consumption:3 milliwatt:1 microwatts:1 generally:2 ability:1 retain:1 functionality:2 wait:1 event:8 button:2 press:2 interrupt:13 sleep:2 peripheral:10 nanowatts:1 make:8 suit:2 long:1 lasting:1 battery:2 automatically:1 control:13 product:3 device:23 automobile:3 engine:1 remote:1 office:1 machine:3 appliance:3 tool:4 toy:1 reduce:4 size:3 cost:9 compare:1 separate:3 input:8 output:6 economical:2 digitally:1 even:3 process:7 majority:1 today:1 machinery:1 telephone:2 call:1 embedded:7 sophisticated:2 minimal:1 requirement:2 length:2 operating:2 software:5 complexity:1 switch:1 relay:1 solenoid:1 led:1 custom:1 lcd:1 display:1 radio:1 sensor:1 data:10 temperature:2 humidity:1 light:2 level:5 usually:3 keyboard:2 screen:1 disk:1 printer:1 recognizable:1 lack:1 human:1 interaction:1 kind:1 mandatory:1 provide:3 real:1 time:9 response:1 certain:3 occur:1 signal:3 processor:15 suspend:1 current:1 instruction:10 sequence:2 begin:2 service:1 routine:1 isr:2 perform:3 processing:1 require:9 base:2 source:2 return:1 original:1 possible:3 dependent:1 internal:5 overflow:1 complete:1 digital:6 conversion:1 logic:4 change:1 receive:2 communication:2 link:2 important:1 wake:1 state:3 halt:1 something:1 must:2 fit:1 available:8 since:5 would:2 costly:1 external:7 expandable:1 compiler:2 assembly:2 language:8 turn:2 compact:2 code:4 storage:3 depend:1 permanent:1 factory:2 field:3 alterable:1 erasable:2 feature:3 sometimes:1 need:4 accept:1 purpose:10 converter:6 build:3 interpret:1 e:1 win:1 able:1 anything:1 send:3 convert:1 incoming:1 recognize:1 allow:12 addition:2 variety:2 one:5 common:3 type:4 programmable:6 interval:1 pit:2 short:2 count:5 value:1 zero:2 reach:1 indicate:1 finish:2 useful:2 thermostat:1 periodically:1 test:5 around:3 see:2 air:1 conditioner:1 heater:1 tpu:2 detect:1 generate:2 operation:2 dedicate:2 pulse:1 width:1 modulation:1 pwm:2 block:2 resistive:1 load:2 motor:1 without:2 lot:1 resource:2 tight:1 loop:1 universal:1 asynchronous:1 receiver:1 transmitter:1 uart:1 transmit:1 line:1 little:1 want:1 ethernet:1 like:3 semiconductor:3 realtek:1 microchip:3 enc:1 easy:4 interfacing:1 pin:8 integration:2 general:7 implement:2 address:1 bus:2 non:2 volatile:2 place:2 much:2 cheap:5 package:5 increase:2 result:2 decreased:1 net:1 whole:1 slightly:1 board:3 labor:1 assemble:2 commonly:2 following:1 central:2 range:3 complex:1 discrete:1 detection:1 individual:1 port:1 uarts:1 interface:3 controller:2 area:1 network:1 interconnect:1 counter:1 generator:2 eeprom:4 parameter:1 quartz:1 timing:1 resonator:1 rc:1 programming:6 debug:3 drastically:1 number:1 amount:1 wiring:1 space:1 produce:2 equivalent:1 furthermore:1 particular:1 several:4 select:1 part:4 wider:1 prove:1 highly:1 popular:1 introduction:3 harvard:2 architecture:7 access:3 take:2 concurrently:1 word:1 different:1 register:8 example:3 decision:1 difficult:1 vendor:2 trade:1 flexibility:1 market:1 customer:1 overall:1 manufacturer:2 balance:1 minimize:2 additional:1 vary:1 widely:1 core:1 onto:1 set:3 intend:1 wise:1 way:3 project:4 might:1 branch:1 could:1 math:1 coprocessor:1 fixed:1 point:2 float:1 arithmetic:1 volume:1 sell:2 world:1 accord:1 semico:2 billion:2 http:2 www:2 com:2 home:1 developed:1 country:1 likely:1 four:1 three:1 dozen:1 mid:1 find:2 electrical:2 washing:1 microwave:1 oven:1 pic:3 tqfp:1 special:1 version:5 order:1 help:1 hardware:4 development:1 target:2 originally:2 window:1 top:1 erase:2 ultra:1 violet:1 ready:1 reprogramming:1 burn:1 cycle:1 rare:2 replace:1 electronically:1 manufacture:2 rather:1 however:2 become:1 increasingly:1 due:1 widespread:1 availability:1 programmer:1 update:1 firmware:3 permit:1 late:1 revision:1 yet:1 ship:1 lead:1 deployment:1 new:1 hundred:1 thousand:1 identical:1 option:1 mask:1 lay:1 environment:3 various:1 either:1 specially:1 c:2 restriction:1 enhancement:1 good:1 unique:1 characteristic:2 aid:1 develop:1 freely:1 adopt:1 quirky:1 effectively:1 standard:2 dialect:1 sdcc:1 prevent:1 library:1 static:1 analysis:1 unrelated:1 interpreter:3 hide:1 quirk:1 basic:4 early:1 jan:1 axelson:1 forth:2 zilog:3 optimize:1 rapid:2 prototyping:2 robert:1 edward:1 page:1 ornl:1 gov:1 info:1 report:1 pdf:1 modern:1 interactive:1 simulator:3 mplab:1 developer:1 analyze:2 behavior:1 actual:1 show:1 hand:1 limit:1 unable:1 simulate:1 exercise:1 condition:1 otherwise:1 hard:1 reproduce:1 physical:1 implementation:1 quick:1 problem:1 recent:1 circuitry:1 emulator:2 via:1 jtag:1 debugging:1 debugger:1 arm:1 atmel:5 avr:2 freescale:3 cf:1 hitachi:2 superh:1 mips:1 nec:1 powerpc:1 ise:1 psoc:2 rabbit:1 ti:1 toshiba:1 tlc:1 others:1 narrow:1 latency:4 seek:1 throughput:1 electronic:1 cause:1 intermediate:1 save:1 responsible:1 handle:1 put:1 back:1 saving:1 restore:1 mcus:1 shadow:1 duplicate:1 history:1 first:3 release:2 capable:1 next:1 year:2 required:1 working:1 raise:1 total:1 impossible:1 economically:1 computerise:1 optimise:1 go:1 pc:1 numerous:1 two:1 variant:2 significantly:1 expensive:2 prom:1 electrically:1 erased:1 quickly:1 introduce:1 self:1 odd:1 jostein:1 svendsli:1 company:1 rapidly:1 follow:1 plummet:1 nowadays:1 readily:1 hobbyist:1 large:1 online:1 community:1 cypress:1 stamp:1 contiki:1 energy:1 micro:1 list:1 microarchitecture:1 microbotics:1 picotux:1 note:1 industry:1 website:1 tutorial:1 dedicated:1 maxq:1 understand:1 dc:1 cornell:1 final:1 electronics:1 every:1 day:1 magazine:1 |@bigram integrate_circuit:1 eprom_chip:1 integrated_circuit:2 input_output:4 lcd_display:1 digital_converter:3 analog_converter:1 air_conditioner:1 pulse_width:1 math_coprocessor:1 http_www:2 microwave_oven:1 ultra_violet:1 hundred_thousand:1 rapid_prototyping:2 ornl_gov:1 interrupt_latency:2 freescale_semiconductor:1 programmable_logic:1 external_link:1 |
3,654 | Gauss_(unit) | The gauss, abbreviated as G, is the cgs unit of measurement of a magnetic field B (which is also known as the "magnetic flux density", or the "magnetic induction"), named after the German mathematician and physicist Carl Friedrich Gauss. One gauss is defined as one maxwell per square centimeter. 1 gauss ≡ 1 Mx/cm2 Unit name and convention This unit is named after Carl Friedrich Gauss. As with all units whose names are derived from the proper name of a person, the first letter of its symbol is uppercase ("G"), but when the unit is spelled out, it should always be written in lowercase ("gauss"), unless it begins a sentence. Units conversions According to the alternative cgs (centimeter-gram-second) system, the gauss is the unit of magnetic flux density (B), while the oersted is the unit of magnetic field intensity (H). One tesla is equal to 104 gauss, and one ampere per meter is equal to 4π×10-3 oersted Hayt, Jr., William H. (1974). Engineering Electromagnetics, Third Edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-027390-1 . The units for magnetic flux (Φ)—which is the product of magnetic flux density (B) and area (A), i.e., Φ = BA—are the weber (Wb) in the MKS system and the maxwell (Mx) in the CGS system. The conversion factor is 108, since flux is the product of flux density and area, area having the units of the square of distance, thus 104 (flux density conversion factor) times the square of 102 (linear distance conversion factor, i.e., centimeters per meter). Typical values The Earth's magnetic field measures about 0.5 gauss, a small iron magnet has a field of about 100 gauss, a small neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnet has a field of about 2,000 gauss, a big electromagnet has a field of about 15,000 gauss, and the surface of a neutron star has a field of about 1012 gauss . References | Gauss_(unit) |@lemmatized gauss:13 abbreviate:1 g:2 cgs:3 unit:10 measurement:1 magnetic:8 field:7 b:3 also:1 know:1 flux:7 density:5 induction:1 name:5 german:1 mathematician:1 physicist:1 carl:2 friedrich:2 one:4 define:1 maxwell:2 per:3 square:3 centimeter:3 mx:2 convention:1 whose:1 derive:1 proper:1 person:1 first:1 letter:1 symbol:1 uppercase:1 spell:1 always:1 write:1 lowercase:1 unless:1 begin:1 sentence:1 conversion:4 accord:1 alternative:1 gram:1 second:1 system:3 oersted:2 intensity:1 h:2 tesla:1 equal:2 ampere:1 meter:2 hayt:1 jr:1 william:1 engineering:1 electromagnetics:1 third:1 edition:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 isbn:1 φ:2 product:2 area:3 e:2 ba:1 weber:1 wb:1 mks:1 factor:3 since:1 distance:2 thus:1 time:1 linear:1 typical:1 value:1 earth:1 measure:1 small:2 iron:2 magnet:2 neodymium:1 boron:1 nib:1 big:1 electromagnet:1 surface:1 neutron:1 star:1 reference:1 |@bigram cgs_unit:1 magnetic_field:3 magnetic_flux:4 carl_friedrich:2 friedrich_gauss:2 mcgraw_hill:1 |
3,655 | Cambridgeshire | CambridgeshireImage:EnglandCambridgeshire.svgGeography Status Ceremonial & (smaller) Non-metropolitan county Region East of England Hierarchical list of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics and the statistical regions of Europe The European Commission, Statistical Office of the European Communities (retrieved 06 January 2008) Area- Total- Admin. council- Admin. areaRanked 15th3,389 km²Ranked 15th3,046 km²Admin HQCambridgeISO 3166-2GB-CAMONS code12NUTS 3UKH12Demographics Population- Total ()- Density- Admin. council- Admin. pop.Ranked / km²Ranked Ethnicity94.6% White2.6% S.AsianPoliticsArms of Cambridgeshire County CouncilCambridgeshire County CouncilExecutiveMembers of Parliament Jonathan Djanogly (C) David Howarth (LD) Stewart Jackson (C) Andrew Lansley (C) Malcolm Moss (C) James Paice (C) Shailesh Vara (C)DistrictsImage:Cambridgeshire Ceremonial Numbered.png Cambridge South Cambridgeshire Huntingdonshire Fenland East Cambridgeshire Peterborough (Unitary) Cambridgeshire ( or ; also known, archaically, as the County of Cambridge; abbreviated Cambs.) is a county in England, bordering Lincolnshire to the north, Norfolk to the northeast, Suffolk to the east, Essex and Hertfordshire to the south, and Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire to the west. Modern Cambridgeshire was formed from the historic counties of Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, together with the Isle of Ely and the Soke of Peterborough; it contains most of the region known as Silicon Fen. The county town is Cambridge. Cambridgeshire is twinned with Kreis Viersen in Germany. History Cambridgeshire is noted as the site of some of the earliest known Neolithic permanent settlements in the United Kingdom, along with sites at Fengate and Balbridie. Cambridgeshire was recorded in the Domesday Book as "Grantbridgeshire" (or rather Grentebrigescire) (cf the river Granta). Covering a large part of East Anglia, Cambridgeshire today is the result of several local government unifications. In 1888 when county councils were introduced, separate councils were set up, following the traditional division of Cambridgeshire, for the area in the south around Cambridge, and the liberty of the Isle of Ely. In 1965, these two administrative counties were merged to form Cambridgeshire and the Isle of Ely. The Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely Order 1964 (SI 1964/366), see Local Government Commission for England (1958 - 1967), Report and Proposals for the East Midlands General Review Area (Report No.3), 31 July 1961 and Report and Proposals for the Lincolnshire and East Anglia General Review Area (Report No.9), 7 May 1965 Under the Local Government Act 1972 this merged with the county to the west, Huntingdon and Peterborough (which had itself been created in 1965 by the merger of Huntingdonshire with the Soke of Peterborough - previously a part of Northamptonshire which had its own county council). The resulting county was called simply Cambridgeshire. The English Non-Metropolitan Districts (Definition) Order 1972 (SI 1972/2039) Part 5: County of Cambridgeshire Since 1998 the City of Peterborough has been a separately administered area, as a unitary authority, but is associated with Cambridgeshire for ceremonial purposes such as Lieutenancy, and functions such as policing and the fire service. The Cambridgeshire (City of Peterborough) (Structural, Boundary and Electoral Changes) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1878), see Local Government Commission for England (1992), Final Recommendations for the Future Local Government of Cambridgeshire, October 1994 and Final Recommendations on the Future Local Government of Basildon & Thurrock, Blackburn & Blackpool, Broxtowe, Gedling & Rushcliffe, Dartford & Gravesham, Gillingham & Rochester upon Medway, Exeter, Gloucester, Halton & Warrington, Huntingdonshire & Peterborough, Northampton, Norwich, Spelthorne and the Wrekin, December 1995 In 2002, the conservation charity Plantlife unofficially designated Cambridgeshire's county flower as the Pasqueflower. A great quantity of archaeological finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age were made in East Cambridgeshire. Most items were found in Isleham. The Cambridgeshire Regiment (or Fen Tigers) county based army unit fought in South Africa, WWI and WWII. Due to its flat terrain and proximity to the continent, many RAF and USAAF bases were built for Bomber Command in WW2. In recognition of this, the only American WW2 burial ground in England is located in Madingley Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial. Most English counties have nicknames for their people, such as a Tyke from Yorkshire and a Yellowbelly from Lincolnshire; the traditional nicknames for people from Cambridgeshire are 'Cambridgeshire Camel' or 'Cambridgeshire Crane', referring to the wildfowl which were once abundant in the fens. Original historical documents relating to Cambridgeshire are held by Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies. Geography Large areas of the county are extremely low-lying and Holme Fen is notable for being the UK's lowest physical point at 2.75 m (9 ft) below sea level. The highest point is in the village of Great Chishill at 146 m (480 ft) above sea level. Other prominent hills are Little Trees Hill and Wandlebury Hill in the Gog Magog Downs, Rivey Hill above Linton, Rowley's Hill and the Madingley Hills. Economy This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Cambridgeshire at current basic prices published (pp.240–253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of English Pounds Sterling. Year Regional Gross Value Added Components may not sum to totals due to rounding Agriculture includes hunting and forestry Industry includes energy and construction Services includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured 1995 5,896 228 1,646 4,022 2000 7,996 166 2,029 5,801 2003 10,154 207 2,195 7,752 AWG plc is based in Huntingdon. The RAF has a few bases in the Huntingdon and St Ives area. Most of Cambridgeshire is agricultural. Close to Cambridge is the so-called Silicon Fen area of high-technology (electronics, computing and biotechnology) companies. ARM Limited is based in Cherry Hinton. Education Primary and Secondary Cambridgeshire has a completely comprehensive education system with 12 independent schools and 29 state schools, not including sixth form colleges. Tertiary The University of Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world and is regarded as one of the most prestigious academic institutions in the world. One of the campuses of Anglia Ruskin University is located in Cambridge as is one of the regional centres of the Open University. Settlements These are the settlements in Cambridgeshire with a town charter, city status or a population over 5,000; for a complete list of settlements see list of places in Cambridgeshire. Heraldic badge of the county council Burwell Cambridge Chatteris Ely Godmanchester Huntingdon Littleport March Peterborough (no longer part of the administrative county) Sawston Sawtry Soham St Ives St Neots Wisbech Whittlesey Yaxley The town of Newmarket is surrounded on three sides by Cambridgeshire, being connected by a narrow strip of land to the rest of Suffolk. Places of interest Anglesey Abbey National TrustImage:AP Icon.PNG Brampton Wood Buckden Towers Historic house Castor Hanglands NNR Denny Abbey Image:AP Icon.PNG Devil's Dyke Down Field Windmill Duxford Chapel English Heritage Duxford Airfield Elton Hall Historic house Ely Cathedral Image:AP Icon.PNG Flag Fen RSPB Fowlmere Gog Magog Downs Grafham Water Nature Reserve Great Gransden Post Mill Hereward Way Hinchingbrooke House Historic house Houghton Mill National Trust Icknield Way Kimbolton Castle Historic house Lattersey Nature Reserve Lode Watermill National Trust Nene Park Country Park Nene Valley Railway Heritage railway Nene Way New Bedford River Octavia Hill Birthplace Museum Old Bedford River Ouse Valley Way Ouse Washes Paxton Pits Nature Reserve Peckover House & Garden National Trust Peterborough Cathedral Image:AP Icon.PNG Prickwillow Drainage Engine Museum Museum paid admission Ramsey Abbey National Trust River Cam River Great Ouse RSPB Nene Washes RSPB Ouse Washes Three Shires Bridleway University of Cambridge Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology Wandlebury Country Park Country Park Wicken Fen National Trust Wimpole Hall National Trust Wisbech and March Bramley Line Heritage railway WWT Welney Famous people from Cambridgeshire Map of the Cambridgeshire area (1904) As well as those born in the county there are many notable people from, or associated with, Cambridgeshire who moved there, particularly due to the presence of Cambridge University. Cambridgeshire lays claim to Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell, Prime Minister John Major, businessmen Henry Royce and Peter Boizot, social reformers Octavia Hill and Thomas Clarkson, and economist John Maynard Keynes. Scientists include Brian J. Ford and Stephen Hawking, and Nobel laureate Harold Kroto. Literary figures who hail from Cambridgeshire include John Clare, Samuel Pepys, Lucy M. Boston, Jeffrey Archer, and Douglas Adams. In entertainment, cartoonist Ronald Searle, comedian Rory McGrath, television presenter Sarah Cawood, and radio sports presenter Adrian Durham are all from Cambridgeshire. Paul Nicholas, Richard Attenborough and Warwick Davis are all associated with film, while musicians include Andrew Eldritch, lead singer of The Sisters of Mercy; Andy Bell, lead singer for Erasure; David Gilmour, Roger Waters and Roger Keith "Syd" Barrett of Pink Floyd; Don Airey, keyboardist in the rock band Deep Purple; trombonist Don Lusher; Keith Palmer, of dance music band The Prodigy; Nigel Sixsmith, founding member of The Art Of Sound and well known Keytar player; Matt Bellamy and Operatic Bass-Baritone, Darren Jeffery. Athletes Joe Bugner, Sir Jack Hobbs, Louis Smith and Marty Scurll are also from the county. Richard Garriott, televangelist Peter Foxhall, and Hereward the Wake are from Cambridgeshire. In sport, england footballer John Gregory and Olympic Swimmer Mark Foster References See also Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely Lord Lieutenant of Cambridgeshire High Sheriff of Cambridgeshire Cambridgeshire local elections Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies Cambridgeshire Constabulary Cambridgeshire Fire and Rescue Service External links Cambridgeshire County Council Cambridgeshire.net community directory The Fens of North Cambridgeshire Cambridge Market Place Webcam Cambridgeshire Family History Society Cambridgeshire Community Archive Network | Cambridgeshire |@lemmatized cambridgeshireimage:1 englandcambridgeshire:1 svggeography:1 status:2 ceremonial:3 small:1 non:2 metropolitan:2 county:22 region:3 east:7 england:6 hierarchical:1 list:3 nomenclature:1 territorial:1 unit:2 statistic:2 statistical:2 europe:1 european:2 commission:3 office:2 community:3 retrieve:1 january:1 area:9 total:3 admin:4 council:7 arearanked:1 hqcambridgeiso:1 camons:1 population:2 density:1 pop:1 rank:1 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mercy:1 andy:1 bell:1 erasure:1 gilmour:1 roger:2 keith:2 syd:1 barrett:1 pink:1 floyd:1 airey:1 keyboardist:1 rock:1 band:2 deep:1 purple:1 trombonist:1 lusher:1 palmer:1 dance:1 music:1 prodigy:1 nigel:1 sixsmith:1 found:1 member:1 art:1 sound:1 keytar:1 player:1 matt:1 bellamy:1 operatic:1 bass:1 baritone:1 darren:1 jeffery:1 athlete:1 joe:1 bugner:1 sir:1 jack:1 hobbs:1 louis:1 smith:1 marty:1 scurll:1 garriott:1 televangelist:1 foxhall:1 wake:1 footballer:1 gregory:1 olympic:1 swimmer:1 mark:1 foster:1 reference:1 lieutenant:1 sheriff:1 election:1 constabulary:1 rescue:1 external:1 link:1 net:1 directory:1 market:1 webcam:1 family:1 society:1 network:1 |@bigram essex_hertfordshire:1 isle_ely:5 domesday_book:1 east_anglia:2 unitary_authority:1 halton_warrington:1 charity_plantlife:1 low_lying:1 gog_magog:2 pound_sterling:1 hunting_forestry:1 financial_intermediation:1 intermediation_service:1 st_ives:2 ap_icon:4 icon_png:4 peterborough_cathedral:1 lord_protector:1 oliver_cromwell:1 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3,656 | Astronomer | Galileo is often referred to as the Father of Modern Astronomy. An astronomer is a scientist who studies celestial bodies such as planets, stars, and galaxies. Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a PhD in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory. The number of professional astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The American Astronomical Society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 9500 members from 87 different countries who are involved in astronomical research at the PhD level and beyond. While the number of professional astronomers worldwide is not much larger than the population of a small town, there is a huge community of amateur astronomers. Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host star parties in their communities. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations. Like any hobby, most people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to stargazing and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from so-called "armchair astronomers" to the very ambitious, who own science-grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research. Modern astronomers Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night, it is very rare for a modern professional astronomer to use an eyepiece on a larger telescope. It is far more common to use a charge-coupled device camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light is added over time. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes - most spend a few weeks per year observing, and the rest of their time reducing the data (changing it from raw data to processed images) and analyzing it. Many astronomers work entirely from astronomical survey or space observatory data. Others work with radio telescopes like the Very Large Array, which is entirely automated, although it is maintained by telescope operators. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometime planetariums as a public service and to encourage interest in the field. See also List of astronomers List of Muslim astronomers Cosmologists References External links American Astronomical Society International Astronomical Union Astronomical Society of the Pacific | Astronomer |@lemmatized galileo:1 often:3 refer:1 father:1 modern:4 astronomy:5 astronomer:18 scientist:2 study:1 celestial:1 body:1 planet:1 star:2 galaxy:1 historically:1 concerned:1 classification:1 description:1 phenomenon:2 sky:1 astrophysics:1 attempt:1 explain:1 difference:1 use:3 physical:1 law:1 today:1 distinction:1 mostly:1 disappear:1 professional:7 highly:1 educate:1 individual:1 typically:1 phd:2 physic:2 employ:1 research:6 institution:1 university:2 spend:4 majority:1 time:6 work:3 although:2 quite:2 duty:1 teaching:1 building:1 instrument:2 aid:1 operation:1 observatory:2 number:3 united:1 state:1 actually:1 small:2 american:2 astronomical:9 society:5 major:1 organization:1 north:1 america:1 approximately:1 member:2 include:2 field:2 geology:1 engineering:1 whose:1 interest:2 closely:1 relate:1 international:2 union:2 comprise:2 almost:1 different:2 country:1 involve:1 level:1 beyond:1 worldwide:1 much:2 large:4 population:1 town:1 huge:1 community:2 amateur:4 city:1 club:1 meet:1 regular:1 basis:1 host:1 party:1 pacific:2 general:1 world:1 well:1 educator:1 nation:1 like:2 hobby:1 people:1 think:1 may:1 devote:1 hour:2 month:1 stargaze:1 read:1 late:1 development:1 however:1 amateurs:1 span:1 range:1 call:1 armchair:1 ambitious:1 science:1 grade:1 telescope:7 able:1 make:1 discovery:1 assist:1 contrary:1 classical:1 image:3 old:1 peering:1 dark:1 night:1 rare:1 eyepiece:1 far:1 common:2 charge:1 coupled:1 device:1 camera:1 record:1 long:1 deep:1 exposure:1 allow:1 sensitive:1 create:1 light:1 add:1 ccds:1 photographic:1 plate:1 method:1 observation:1 relatively:1 little:1 week:1 per:1 year:1 observing:1 rest:1 reduce:1 data:3 change:1 raw:1 processed:1 analyze:1 many:1 entirely:2 survey:1 space:1 others:1 radio:1 array:1 automate:1 maintain:1 operator:1 serve:1 faculty:1 teach:1 undergraduate:1 graduate:1 class:1 also:2 outreach:1 program:1 public:2 sometime:1 planetarium:1 service:1 encourage:1 see:1 list:2 muslim:1 cosmologist:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram closely_relate:1 amateur_astronomer:3 charge_coupled:1 coupled_device:1 photographic_plate:1 undergraduate_graduate:1 external_link:1 |
3,657 | Logical_connective | In logic, two sentences (either in a formal language or a natural language) may be joined by means of a logical connective to form a compound sentence (Enderton 2001:45). The truth value of the compound is uniquely determined by the truth values of the simpler sentences. Each logical connective therefore represents a function, called a truth function. For this reason, logical connectives are sometimes called truth-functional connectives. The logical connectives commonly used in mathematics include conjunction (AND), disjunction (OR), and implication. Truth functions in natural languages In the grammar of natural languages two sentences may be joined by a grammatical conjunction to form a grammatically compound sentence. Some but not all such grammatical conjunctions are truth-functions. For example consider the following sentences: A: Jack went up the hill. B: Jill went up the hill. C: Jack went up the hill and Jill went up the hill. D: Jack went up the hill so Jill went up the hill. The words and and so are both grammatical conjunctions joining the sentences (A) and (B) to form the compound sentences (C) and (D). The and in (C) is a logical connective, since the truth of (C) is completely determined by (A) and (B): it would make no sense to affirm (A) and (B) but deny (C). However so in (D) is NOT a logical connective, since it would be quite reasonable to affirm (A) and (B) but deny (D): perhaps, after all, Jill went up the hill to fetch a pail of water, not because Jack had gone up the Hill at all. Thus and is a logical connective but so is not. Various English words and word pairs express truth-functions, and some of them are synonymous. Examples (with the name of the relationship in parentheses) are: "and" (conjunction) "or" (inclusive or exclusive disjunction) "implies" (implication) "if...then" (implication) "if and only if" (equivalence) "only if" (implication) "just in case" (equivalence) "but" (conjunction) "however" (conjunction) "not both" (NAND) "neither...nor" (NOR) The word "not" (negation) and "it is false that" (negation) "it is not the case that" (negation) are also English words expressing a logical connective, even though they are applied to a single statement, and do not connect two statements. Truth functions in formal languages In formal languages truth-functions are represented by unambiguous symbols, and these can be exactly defined by means of truth tables. There are 16 binary truth tables, and so 16 different logical connectives which connect exactly two statements, can be defined. Not all of them are in common use. These symbols are called "truth-functional connectives", "logical connectives", "logical operators" or "propositional operators". See well-formed formula for the rules which allow new well-formed formulas to be constructed by joining other well-formed formulas using truth-functional connectives. Logical connectives can be used to link more than two statements. A more technical definition is that an "n-ary logical connective" is a function which assigns truth values "true" or "false" to n-tuples of truth values. Examples Commonly used logical connectives include: Negation (not) (¬ or ~) Conjunction (and) ( or &) Disjunction (or) () Material implication (if...then) (, or ) Biconditional (if and only if) (xnor) (, , or ) For example, the statements it is raining and I am indoors can be reformed using various different connectives to form sentences that relate the two in ways which augment their meaning: It is raining and I am indoors. If it is raining then I am indoors. It is raining if I am indoors. It is raining if and only if I am indoors. It is not raining. If we write 'P' for It is raining and 'Q' for I am indoors and we use the usual symbols for logical connectives, then the above examples could be represented in symbols, respectively: P Q P Q Q P P Q P All binary logical connectives There are sixteen different Boolean functions, associating the inputs P and Q with four digit binary outputs. Functional completeness Not all of these operators are necessary for a functionally complete logical calculus. Certain compound statements are logically equivalent. For example, ¬P ∨ Q is logically equivalent to P → Q;. So the conditional operator "→" is not necessary if you have "¬" (not) and "∨" (or). The smallest set of operators which still expresses every statement which is expressible in the propositional calculus is called a minimal functionally complete set. A minimally complete set of operators is achieved by NAND alone { ↑ } and NOR alone { ↓ }. The following are the functionally complete sets (of cardinality not exceeding 2) of operators whose arities do not exceed 2: { ↓ }, { ↑ }, { , }, { , }, { , ⊂ }, { , ⊄ }, { , }, { , ⊅ }, { ⊄, }, { ⊂, }, { ⊅, }, { ⊂, ⊄ }, { , }, { ⊂, ⊅ }, { , }, { ⊄, }, { ⊅, } Principle of compositionality Instead of using truth tables, logical connective symbols can be interpreted by means of an interpretation function and a functionally complete set of truth-functions (Gamut 1991), in satisfaction of the principle of compositionality of meaning. Let I be an interpretation function, let Φ, Ψ be any two sentences and let the truth function fnand be defined as:- fnand(T,T)=F; fnand(T,F)=fnand(F,T)=fnand(F,F)=T Then, for convenience, we define fnot, for fand etc. by means of fnand:- fnot(x)=fnand(x,x) for(x,y)= fnand(fnot(x), fnot(y)) fand(x,y)=fnot(fnand(x,y)) or, alternatively we define fnot, for fand, etc directly:- fnot(T)=F; fnot(F)=T; for(T,T)=for(T,F)=for(F,T)=T;for(F,F)=F fand(T,T)=T; fand(T,F)=fand(F,T)=fand(F,F)=F Then I(~)=I()=fnot I(&)=I(^)=I()=fand I(v)=I()= for I(~Φ)=I(Φ=I(I(Φ)=fnot(I(Φ)) I(ΦΨ) = I()(I(Φ), I(Ψ))= fand(I(Φ), I(Ψ)) etc. Thus if s is a sentence that is a string of symbols consisting of logical symbols v1..vn representing logical connectives, and non-logical symbols c1..cn , then if and only if I(v1)..I(vn) have been provided interpreting v1 to vn by means of fnand (or any other set of functional complete truth-functions) then the truth-value of I(s) is determined entirely by the truth-values of c1..cn, i.e. of I(c1)..I(cn). In other words, as expected and required, S is true or false only under an interpretation of all its non-logical symbols. Properties The logical connectives each possess different set of properties which may be expressed in the theorems containing the connective. Some of those properties that a logical connective may have are: Associativity: Within an expression containing two or more of the same associative connectives in a row, the order of the operations does not matter as long as the sequence of the operands is not changed. Commutivity: The operands of the connective may be swapped without affecting the truth-value of the expression. Distributivity: A connective denoted by · distributes over another connective denoted by +, if a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c) for all operands a, b, c. Idempotency: Whenever the operands of the operation are the same, the connective gives the operand as the result. Absorption: A pair of conenctives , satisfies the absorption law if for all operands a, b. A set of operators is functionally complete if and only if for each of the following five properties it contains at least one member lacking it: monotonic: If f(a1, ..., an) ≤ f(b1, ..., bn) for all a1, ..., an, b1, ..., bn ∈ {0,1} such that a1 ≤ b1, a2 ≤ b2, ..., an ≤ bn. E.g., , , , . affine: Each variable always makes a difference in the truth-value of the operation or it never makes a difference. E.g., , , , , . self dual: To read the truth-value assignments for the operation from top to bottom on its truth table is the same as taking the complement of reading it from bottom to top, in other words f(¬a1, ..., ¬an) = ¬f(a1, ..., an). E.g., . truth-preserving: The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'true' produces a truth value of 'true' as a result of these operations. E.g., , , , , , ⊂. falsehood-preserving: The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'false' produces a truth value of 'false' as a result of these operations. E.g., , , , , ⊄, ⊅. Arity In two-valued logic there are 2 nullary operators (constants), 4 unary operators, 16 binary operators, 256 ternary operators, and n-ary operators. In three valued logic there are 3 nullary operators (constants), 27 unary operators, 19683 binary operators, 7625597484987 ternary operators, and n-ary operators. An n-ary operator in k-valued logic is a function from . Therefore the number of such operators is , which is how the above numbers were derived. However, some of the operators of a particular arity are actually degenerate forms that perform a lower-arity operation on some of the inputs and ignores the rest of the inputs. Out of the 256 ternary boolean operators cited above, of them are such degenerate forms of binary or lower-arity operators, using the inclusion-exclusion principle. The ternary operator is one such operator which is actually a unary operator applied to one input, and ignoring the other two inputs. "Not" is a unary operator, it takes a single term (¬P). The rest are binary operators, taking two terms to make a compound statement (P Q, P Q, P → Q, P ↔ Q). The set of logical operators may be partitioned into disjoint subsets as follows: In this partition, is the set of operator symbols of arity . In the more familiar propositional calculi, is typically partitioned as follows: nullary operators: unary operators: binary operators: Order of precedence As a way of reducing the number of necessary parentheses, one may introduce precedence rules: ¬ has higher precedence than ∧, ∧ higher than ∨, and ∨ higher than →. So for example, P ∨ Q ∧ ¬R → S is short for (P ∨ (Q ∧ (¬R))) → S. Here is a table that shows a commonly used precedence of logical operators. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! Operator !! Precedence |- | ¬ || 1 |- | ∧ || 2 |- | ∨ || 3 |- | → || 4 |- | || 5 |} The order of precedence determines which connective is the "main connective" when interpreting a non-atomic formula. Applications in computer science Logical operators are implemented as logic gates in digital circuits. Practically all digital circuits (the major exception is DRAM) are built up from NAND, NOR, NOT, and transmission gates. NAND and NOR gates with 3 or more inputs rather than the usual 2 inputs are fairly common, although they are logically equivalent to a cascade of 2-input gates. All other operators are implemented by breaking them down into a logically equivalent combination of 2 or more of the above logic gates. The "logical equivalence" of "NAND alone", "NOR alone", and "NOT and AND" is similar to Turing equivalence. Is some new technology (such as reversible computing, clockless logic, or quantum dots computing) "functionally complete", in that it can be used to build computers that can do all the sorts of computation that CMOS-based computers can do? If it can implement the NAND operator, only then is it functionally complete. That fact that all logical connectives can be expressed with NOR alone is demonstrated by the Apollo guidance computer. See also Boolean domain Boolean function Boolean-valued function Bitwise operations Boolean algebra topics Laws of logic Logical constant Modal operator Propositional calculus Truth values References External links John MacFarlane (2005), "Logical constants", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Cullinane, Steven H. (2007) "The geometry of logic." | Logical_connective |@lemmatized logic:9 two:11 sentence:11 either:1 formal:3 language:6 natural:3 may:7 join:4 mean:6 logical:31 connective:32 form:9 compound:6 enderton:1 truth:32 value:18 uniquely:1 determine:3 simpler:1 therefore:2 represent:4 function:17 call:4 reason:1 sometimes:1 functional:5 commonly:3 use:10 mathematics:1 include:2 conjunction:8 disjunction:3 implication:5 grammar:1 grammatical:3 grammatically:1 example:7 consider:1 following:3 jack:4 go:8 hill:8 b:9 jill:4 c:8 word:7 since:2 completely:1 would:2 make:4 sense:1 affirm:2 deny:2 however:3 quite:1 reasonable:1 perhaps:1 fetch:1 pail:1 water:1 thus:2 various:2 english:2 pair:2 express:5 synonymous:1 name:1 relationship:1 parenthesis:2 inclusive:1 exclusive:1 implies:1 equivalence:4 case:2 nand:6 neither:1 negation:4 false:5 also:2 even:1 though:1 apply:2 single:2 statement:8 connect:2 unambiguous:1 symbol:10 exactly:2 define:5 table:5 binary:8 different:4 common:2 operator:39 propositional:4 see:2 well:3 formula:4 rule:2 allow:1 new:2 construct:1 link:2 technical:1 definition:1 n:5 ary:4 assign:3 true:4 tuples:1 material:1 biconditional:1 xnor:1 rain:7 indoors:6 reform:1 relate:1 way:2 augment:1 meaning:1 write:1 p:16 q:14 usual:2 could:1 respectively:1 sixteen:1 boolean:6 associate:1 input:8 four:1 digit:1 output:1 completeness:1 necessary:3 functionally:7 complete:9 calculus:4 certain:1 logically:4 equivalent:4 conditional:1 small:1 set:10 still:1 every:1 expressible:1 minimal:1 minimally:1 achieve:1 alone:5 cardinality:1 exceed:2 whose:1 arity:6 principle:3 compositionality:2 instead:1 interpret:3 interpretation:5 gamut:1 satisfaction:1 let:3 φ:7 ψ:3 fnand:10 f:21 convenience:1 fnot:10 fand:9 etc:3 x:7 alternatively:1 directly:1 v:1 φψ:1 string:1 consist:1 vn:3 non:3 cn:3 provide:1 entirely:1 e:6 expect:1 require:1 property:4 posse:1 theorem:1 contain:3 associativity:1 within:1 expression:2 associative:1 row:1 order:3 operation:8 matter:1 long:1 sequence:1 operand:4 change:1 commutivity:1 swap:1 without:1 affect:1 distributivity:1 denote:2 distributes:1 another:1 operands:2 idempotency:1 whenever:1 give:1 result:3 absorption:2 conenctives:1 satisfy:1 law:2 five:1 least:1 one:4 member:1 lack:1 monotonic:1 bn:3 g:5 affine:1 variable:3 always:1 difference:2 never:1 self:1 dual:1 read:2 assignment:1 top:2 bottom:2 take:3 complement:1 preserving:2 produce:2 falsehood:1 nullary:3 constant:4 unary:5 ternary:4 three:1 k:1 number:3 derive:1 particular:1 actually:2 degenerate:2 perform:1 low:2 ignore:2 rest:2 cite:1 inclusion:1 exclusion:1 term:2 partition:3 disjoint:1 subset:1 follow:2 familiar:1 typically:1 precedence:6 reduce:1 introduce:1 high:3 r:2 short:1 show:1 used:1 class:1 wikitable:1 style:1 text:1 align:1 center:1 determines:1 main:1 atomic:1 application:1 computer:4 science:1 implement:3 gate:5 digital:2 circuit:2 practically:1 major:1 exception:1 dram:1 build:2 transmission:1 rather:1 fairly:1 although:1 cascade:1 break:1 combination:1 similar:1 turing:1 technology:1 reversible:1 computing:1 clockless:1 quantum:1 dot:1 compute:1 sort:1 computation:1 cmos:1 base:1 fact:1 demonstrate:1 apollo:1 guidance:1 domain:1 bitwise:1 algebra:1 topic:1 modal:1 reference:1 external:1 john:1 macfarlane:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 philosophy:1 cullinane:1 steven:1 h:1 geometry:1 |@bigram logical_connective:20 uniquely_determine:1 connective_logical:4 conjunction_disjunction:2 inclusive_exclusive:1 exclusive_disjunction:1 n_ary:4 rain_indoors:5 propositional_calculus:3 φ_ψ:3 φ_φ:2 bn_bn:2 unary_operator:5 exclusion_principle:1 symbol_arity:1 commonly_used:1 class_wikitable:1 align_center:1 nand_gate:1 bitwise_operation:1 boolean_algebra:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 |
3,658 | Dino_Zoff | Dino Zoff (born February 28, 1942 in Mariano del Friuli) is an Italian former football goalkeeper and is the oldest winner ever of the World Cup, which he earned as captain of the Italian team in the 1982 tournament in Spain, at the age of 40. Zoff was a goalkeeper of outstanding ability and has a place in the history of the sport among the very best in this role. He holds the record for the longest playing time without allowing goals in international tournaments (1142 minutes) set between 1972 and 1974. With 112 caps he is third only to Paolo Maldini and Fabio Cannavaro in number of appearances for the Azzurri. In 2004 Pelé named him as one of the 125 greatest living footballers. After retiring as a footballer Zoff went on to become coach for several Italian clubs and the national team. Playing career Dino Zoff was born in Mariano del Friuli, Friuli-Venezia Giulia (Italy), and was elected in a poll by the IFFHS as the third best goalkeeper of the 20th Century - after Lev Yashin (1st) and Gordon Banks (2nd). IFFHS' Century Elections - rsssf.com - by Karel Stokkermans, RSSSF. Zoff's career got off to an inauspicious start, when at the age of fourteen he had trials with Inter Milan and Juventus F.C., but was rejected due to a lack of height. Five years later, having grown by 33 centimetres, he made his Serie A debut with Udinese, though Zoff made only four appearances for Udinese before moving to Mantova in 1963. In 1968, Zoff was transferred to Napoli. In the same year he made his debut for Italy, playing against Bulgaria in the quarter final of the 1968 European Championships. Italy proceeded to win the tournament, Zoff taking home a winners' medal after only his fourth international appearance. Left out of the Italian starting eleven in the 1970 FIFA World Cup, Zoff resumed his success after signing for Juventus in 1972. In eleven years with Juventus, Zoff won the Serie A championship six times, the Coppa Italia twice and the UEFA Cup once. However, Zoff's greatest feat came in the 1982 FIFA World Cup, where he captained Italy to victory in the tournament at the age of 40, making him the oldest ever winner of the World Cup. He followed in the footsteps of compatriot Giampiero Combi (1934) as only the second goalkeeper to captain a World Cup-winning side. He was also voted as the Best Goalkeeper of the Tournament. His manager Enzo Bearzot said: Zoff and Gianpiero Combi (in 1934) are the only goalkeepers to captain a team that won the World Cup. Zoff is also the oldest player ever to have won the trophy. World Cup Hall of Fame: Dino Zoff - www.sportillustrated.cnn.com He holds the record for the longest stretch (1142 minutes) without allowing any goals in international football, set between 1972 and 1974. That clean sheet stretch was ended by Haitian soccer player Manno Sanon's beautiful goal during the 1974 World Cup. He also held the records for the oldest Serie A player and most Serie A appearances (570 matches) for more than 20 years, until the season 2005–06 when the record was broken by S.S. Lazio goalkeeper Marco Ballotta and A.C. Milan defender Paolo Maldini respectively. Coaching career After his retirement as a player, Zoff went into coaching, joining the technical staff at Juventus, where he was head coach from 1988 to 1990. In 1990 he was sacked, despite winning the UEFA Cup. He then joined Lazio, where he became president in 1994. In 1998 Zoff was appointed coach of the Italian national team. Using a more open and attacking style than usually used by Italian sides, he coached Italy to a second-place finish in Euro 2000, suffering a cruel extra-time defeat at the hands of France in the final, when in the 90th minute of the game, Italy were 1-0 up and less than sixty seconds from winning the tournament before France scored to equalise and go to extra time. A few days later Zoff resigned, following strong criticism from A.C. Milan president and politician Silvio Berlusconi. Zoff returned to Lazio, but resigned following a poor start to the 2001–02 season. In 2005, he was named the coach of Fiorentina. But after saving the team from relegation on the last day of the season, Zoff was let go. Honours Club Juventus Serie A - 1972-73,1974-75,1976-77,1977-78,1980-81,1981-82 Coppa Italia 1978-79, 1982-83 UEFA Cup 1976-77 International FIFA World CUp 1982 European Football Championship 1968 Managerial Juventus Coppa Italia 1989-90 UEFA Cup 1989-90 Other honours November 2003: Italy's Golden Player - the best Italian player of the last 50 years, selected by the Italian Football Federation UEFA Golden PLayer: Dino Zoff - www.uefa.com. . Statistics |- |1961-62||rowspan="2"|Udinese||Serie A||4||0|||||||| |- |1962-63||Serie B||34||0|||||||| |- |1963-64||rowspan="4"|Mantova||rowspan="2"|Serie A||27||0|||||||| |- |1964-65||32||0|||||||| |- |1965-66||Serie B||38||0|||||||| |- |1966-67||Serie A||34||0|||||||| |- |1967-68||rowspan="5"|Napoli||rowspan="5"|Serie A||30||0|||||||| |- |1968-69||30||0|||||||| |- |1969-70||30||0|||||||| |- |1970-71||30||0|||||||| |- |1971-72||23||0|||||||| |- |1972-73||rowspan="11"|Juventus||rowspan="11"|Serie A||30||0|||||||| |- |1973-74||30||0|||||||| |- |1974-75||30||0|||||||| |- |1975-76||30||0|||||||| |- |1976-77||30||0|||||||| |- |1977-78||30||0|||||||| |- |1978-79||30||0|||||||| |- |1979-80||30||0|||||||| |- |1980-81||30||0|||||||| |- |1981-82||30||0|||||||| |- |1982-83||30||0|||||||| 570||0|||||||| 570||0|||||||| |} See also List of UEFA Cup winning managers References External links UEFA.com - Italy's Golden Player Dino Zoff Fan Site - Fan Site dedicated to Dino Zoff w/ info, photos, etc. Dino Zoff the Legend - a lot of useful information Dino Zoff @ Goalkeeping Greats | Dino_Zoff |@lemmatized dino:8 zoff:24 born:1 february:1 mariano:2 del:2 friuli:3 italian:8 former:1 football:4 goalkeeper:7 old:4 winner:3 ever:3 world:9 cup:14 earn:1 captain:4 team:5 tournament:6 spain:1 age:3 outstanding:1 ability:1 place:2 history:1 sport:1 among:1 best:4 role:1 hold:3 record:4 long:2 playing:1 time:4 without:2 allow:2 goal:3 international:4 minute:3 set:2 cap:1 third:2 paolo:2 maldini:2 fabio:1 cannavaro:1 number:1 appearance:4 azzurri:1 pelé:1 name:2 one:1 great:3 living:1 footballer:2 retire:1 go:4 become:2 coach:6 several:1 club:2 national:2 play:2 career:3 bear:1 venezia:1 giulia:1 italy:8 elect:1 poll:1 iffhs:2 century:2 lev:1 yashin:1 gordon:1 bank:1 election:1 rsssf:2 com:4 karel:1 stokkermans:1 get:1 inauspicious:1 start:3 fourteen:1 trial:1 inter:1 milan:3 juventus:7 f:1 c:3 reject:1 due:1 lack:1 height:1 five:1 year:5 later:2 grow:1 centimetre:1 make:4 serie:12 debut:2 udinese:3 though:1 four:1 move:1 mantova:2 transfer:1 napoli:2 bulgaria:1 quarter:1 final:2 european:2 championship:3 proceed:1 win:7 take:1 home:1 medal:1 fourth:1 leave:1 eleven:2 fifa:3 resume:1 success:1 sign:1 six:1 coppa:3 italia:3 twice:1 uefa:8 however:1 feat:1 come:1 victory:1 follow:3 footstep:1 compatriot:1 giampiero:1 combi:2 second:3 winning:1 side:2 also:4 vote:1 manager:2 enzo:1 bearzot:1 say:1 gianpiero:1 player:8 trophy:1 hall:1 fame:1 www:2 sportillustrated:1 cnn:1 stretch:2 clean:1 sheet:1 end:1 haitian:1 soccer:1 manno:1 sanon:1 beautiful:1 match:1 season:3 break:1 lazio:3 marco:1 ballotta:1 defender:1 respectively:1 retirement:1 coaching:1 join:2 technical:1 staff:1 head:1 sack:1 despite:1 president:2 appoint:1 use:2 open:1 attack:1 style:1 usually:1 finish:1 euro:1 suffer:1 cruel:1 extra:2 defeat:1 hand:1 france:2 game:1 less:1 sixty:1 score:1 equalise:1 day:2 resign:2 strong:1 criticism:1 politician:1 silvio:1 berlusconi:1 return:1 poor:1 fiorentina:1 save:1 relegation:1 last:2 let:1 honour:2 managerial:1 november:1 golden:3 select:1 federation:1 statistic:1 rowspan:7 b:2 see:1 list:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 fan:2 site:2 dedicate:1 w:1 info:1 photo:1 etc:1 legend:1 lot:1 useful:1 information:1 goalkeeping:1 |@bigram dino_zoff:8 fabio_cannavaro:1 friuli_venezia:1 venezia_giulia:1 coppa_italia:3 uefa_cup:5 hall_fame:1 cnn_com:1 silvio_berlusconi:1 serie_serie:2 external_link:1 |
3,659 | Jazz | Jazz is a musical art form which originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions. The style's West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation, and the swung note. Alyn Shipton, A New History of Jazz, 2nd. ed., Continuum, 2007, pp. 4–5 From its early development until the present, jazz has also incorporated music from 19th and 20th century American popular music. Bill Kirchner, The Oxford Companion to Jazz, Oxford University Press, 2005, Chapter Two. The word jazz began as a West Coast slang term of uncertain derivation and was first used to refer to music in Chicago in about 1915; for the origin and history, see Jazz (word). Jazz has, from its early 20th century inception, spawned a variety of subgenres, from New Orleans Dixieland dating from the early 1910s, big band-style swing from the 1930s and 1940s, bebop from the mid-1940s, a variety of Latin jazz fusions such as Afro-Cuban and Brazilian jazz from the 1950s and 1960s, jazz-rock fusion from the 1970s and late 1980s developments such as acid jazz, which blended jazz influences into funk and hip-hop. As the music has spread around the world it has drawn on local national and regional musical cultures, its aesthetics being adapted to its varied environments and giving rise to many distinctive styles. Definition Double bassist Reggie Workman, tenor saxophone player Pharoah Sanders, and drummer Idris Muhammad performing in 1978 Jazz can be hard to define because it spans from Ragtime waltzes to 2000s-era fusion. While many attempts have been made to define jazz from points of view outside jazz, such as using European music history or African music, jazz critic Joachim Berendt argues that all such attempts are unsatisfactory. Joachim E. Berendt. The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond. Translated by H. and B. Bredigkeit with Dan Morgenstern. 1981. Lawrence Hill Books. Page 371 One way to get around the definitional problems is to define the term “jazz” more broadly. Berendt defines jazz as a "form of art music which originated in the United States through the confrontation of blacks with European music"; he argues that jazz differs from European music in that jazz has a "special relationship to time, defined as 'swing'", "a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role"; and "sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician". Travis Jackson has also proposed a broader definition of jazz which is able to encompass all of the radically different eras: he states that it is music that includes qualities such as "swinging', improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being 'open' to different musical possibilities". Krin Gabbard claims that “jazz is a construct” or category that, while artificial, still is useful to designate “a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition”. While jazz may be difficult to define, improvisation is clearly one of its key elements. Early blues was commonly structured around a repetitive call-and-response pattern, a common element in the African American oral tradition. A form of folk music which rose in part from work songs and field hollers of rural Blacks, early blues was also highly improvisational. These features are fundamental to the nature of jazz. While in European classical music elements of interpretation, ornamentation and accompaniment are sometimes left to the performer's discretion, the performer's primary goal is to play a composition as it was written. In jazz, however, the skilled performer will interpret a tune in very individual ways, never playing the same composition exactly the same way twice. Depending upon the performer's mood and personal experience, interactions with fellow musicians, or even members of the audience, a jazz musician/performer may alter melodies, harmonies or time signature at will. European classical music has been said to be a composer's medium. Jazz, however, is often characterized as the product of democratic creativity, interaction and collaboration, placing equal value on the contributions of composer and performer, 'adroitly weigh[ing] the respective claims of the composer and the improviser'. Giddins 1998 70. In New Orleans and Dixieland jazz, performers took turns playing the melody, while others improvised countermelodies. By the swing era, big bands were coming to rely more on arranged music: arrangements were either written or learned by ear and memorized - many early jazz performers could not read music. Individual soloists would improvise within these arrangements. Later, in bebop the focus shifted back towards small groups and minimal arrangements; the melody (known as the "head") would be stated briefly at the start and end of a piece but the core of the performance would be the series of improvisations in the middle. Later styles of jazz such as modal jazz abandoned the strict notion of a chord progression, allowing the individual musicians to improvise even more freely within the context of a given scale or mode. (e.g., "So What" on the Miles Davis album Kind of Blue) The avant-garde and free jazz idioms permit, even call for, abandoning chords, scales, and rhythmic meters. Debates There have long been debates in the jazz community over the definition and the boundaries of “jazz.” Although alteration or transformation of jazz by new influences has often been initially criticized as a “debasement,” Andrew Gilbert argues that jazz has the “ability to absorb and transform influences” from diverse musical styles. In "Jazz Inc." by Andrew Gilbert, Metro Times, December 23, 1998 While some enthusiasts of certain types of jazz have argued for narrower definitions which exclude many other types of music also commonly known as "jazz", jazz musicians themselves are often reluctant to define the music they play. Duke Ellington summed it up by saying, "It's all music." Some critics have even stated that Ellington's music was not jazz because it was arranged and orchestrated. On the other hand Ellington's friend Earl Hines's twenty solo "transformative versions" of Ellington compositions (on Earl Hines Plays Duke Ellington recorded in the 1970s) were described by Ben Ratliff, the New York Times jazz critic, as "as good an example of the jazz process as anything out there." Ratliff 2002, 19. Commercially-oriented or popular music-influenced forms of jazz have both long been criticized, at least since the emergence of Bop. Traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed Bop, the 1970s jazz fusion era [and much else] as a period of commercial debasement of the music. According to Bruce Johnson, jazz music has always had a "tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form".In Review of The Cambridge Companion to Jazz by Peter Elsdon, FZMw (Frankfurt Journal of Musicology) No. 6, 2003 Gilbert notes that as the notion of a canon of jazz is developing, the “achievements of the past” may be become "…privileged over the idiosyncratic creativity...” and innovation of current artists. Village Voice jazz critic Gary Giddins argues that as the creation and dissemination of jazz is becoming increasingly institutionalized and dominated by major entertainment firms, jazz is facing a "...perilous future of respectability and disinterested acceptance." David Ake warns that the creation of “norms” in jazz and the establishment of a “jazz tradition” may exclude or sideline other newer, avant-garde forms of jazz. Controversy has also arisen over new forms of contemporary jazz created outside the United States and departing significantly from American styles. On one view they represent a vital part of jazz's current development; on another they are sometimes criticised as a rejection of vital jazz traditions. Origins In the late 18th-century painting The Old Plantation, African-Americans dance to banjo and percussion. By 1808 the Atlantic slave trade had brought almost half a million Africans to the United States. The slaves largely came from West Africa and brought strong tribal musical traditions with them. Lavish festivals featuring African dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo Square, in New Orleans until 1843, as were similar gatherings in New England and New York. African music was largely functional, for work or ritual, and included work songs and field hollers. The African tradition made use of a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, but without the European concept of harmony. Rhythms reflected African speech patterns, and the African use of pentatonic scales led to blue notes in blues and jazz. The blackface Virginia Minstrels in 1843, featuring tambourine, fiddle, banjo and bones. In the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In turn, European-American minstrel show performers in blackface popularized such music internationally, combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment. Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted African-American cakewalk music, South American, Caribbean and other slave melodies as piano salon music. Another influence came from black slaves who had learned the harmonic style of hymns and incorporated it into their own music as spirituals. The origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. Paul Oliver has drawn attention to similarities in instruments, music and social function to the griots of the West African savannah. Etymology of "Jazz" The word jazz makes one of its earliest appearances in San Francisco baseball writing in 1913. Word Myths: Debunking Linguistic Urban Legends, David Wilton, ISBN 0-19-517284-1 (2004) Jazz was introduced to San Francisco in 1913 by William (Spike) Slattery, sports editor of the Call, and propagated by a band-leader named Art Hickman. It reached Chicago by 1915 but was not heard of in New York until a year later. H. L. Mencken, The American Language, Supplement II, Knopf, 1948, p. 709. One of the first known uses of the word jazz appears in a March 3, 1913, baseball article in the San Francisco Bulletin by E. T. “Scoop” Gleeson ‘McCarl has been heralded all along the line as a “busher,” but now it develops that this dope is very much to the “jazz.” Three days later, Gleeson writes: Everybody has come back to the old town full of the old “jazz” and [the San Francisco Seals] promise to knock the fans off their feet with their playing. What is the “jazz”? Why, it’s a little of that “old life,” the “gin-i-ker,” the “pep,” otherwise known as the enthusiasalum [sic]. A grain of “jazz” and you feel like going out and eating your way through Twin Peaks. [. . .] The team which speeded into town this morning comes pretty close to representing the pick of the army. Its members have trained on ragtime and “jazz” and manager Dell Howard says there’s no stopping them’. E. T. “Scoop” Gleeson, March 3, 1913, San Francisco Bulletin. Decades later, in 1938, Gleeson recalls the origin of jazz: ‘Similarly the very word “jazz” itself, came into general usage at the same time. We were all seated around the dinner table at Boyes [Springs, Sonoma County, the Seals spring training site,] and William (“Spike”) Slattery, then sports editor of The Call, spoke about something being the “jazz,” or the old “gin-iker fizz.” “Spike” had picked up the expression in a crap game. Whenever one of the players rolled the dice he would shout, “Come on, the old jazz.” For the next week we gave “jazz” a great play in all our stories. And when Hickman’s orchestra swung into action for the evening’s dances, it was natural to find it included as “the jazziest tune tooters in all the Valley of the Moon.”’ in E. T. Gleeson, “I Remember the Birth of Jazz,” The Call-Bulletin, 3 Sep. 1938, p. 3, col. 1, reprinted in Cohen, “Jazz Revisited.” 1890s–1910s Ragtime The abolition of slavery led to new opportunities for the education of freed African-Americans, though strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, however Blacks were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide "low-class" entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, by which many marching bands formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs, and brothels, as ragtime developed. Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African American musicians such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895; two years later Vess Ossman recorded a medley of these songs as a banjo solo "Rag Time Medley". Also in 1897, the white composer William H. Krell published his "Mississippi Rag" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom Turpin published his Harlem Rag, that was the first rag published by an African-American. The classically-trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his "Original Rags" in the following year, then in 1899 had an international hit with "Maple Leaf Rag." He wrote numerous popular rags, including, "The Entertainer", combining syncopation, banjo figurations and sometimes call-and-response, which led to the ragtime idiom being taken up by classical composers including Claude Debussy and Igor Stravinsky. Blues music was published and popularized by W. C. Handy, whose "Memphis Blues" of 1912 and "St. Louis Blues" of 1914 both became jazz standards. New Orleans music The Bolden Band around 1905. The music of New Orleans had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. Many early jazz performers played in the brothels and bars of red-light district around Basin Street called "Storyville." In addition, numerous marching bands played at lavish funerals arranged by the African American community. The instruments used in marching bands and dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass and reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale and drums. Small bands of primarily self-taught African American musicians, many of whom came from the funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans, played a seminal role in the development and dissemination of early jazz, traveling throughout Black communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914 on, Afro-Creole and African American musicians playing in vaudeville shows took jazz to western and northern US cities. Morton published "Jelly Roll Blues" in 1915, the first jazz work in print. Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows around southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New York. His "Jelly Roll Blues," which he composed around 1905, was published in 1915 as the first jazz arrangement in print, introducing more musicians to the New Orleans style. In the northeastern United States, a "hot" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York which played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912. The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake influenced James P. Johnson's development of "Stride" piano playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline. The Original Dixieland Jass Band made the first Jazz recordings early in 1917, their "Livery Stable Blues" became the earliest Jazz recording. That year numerous other bands made recordings featuring "jazz" in the title or band name, mostly ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In September 1917 W.C. Handy's Orchestra of Memphis recorded a cover version of "Livery Stable Blues". In February 1918 James Reese Europe's "Hellfighters" infantry band took ragtime to Europe during World War I, then on return recorded Dixieland standards including "Darktown Strutters' Ball". 1920s and 1930s Prohibition in the United States (from 1920 to 1933) banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies becoming lively venues of the "Jazz Age", an era when popular music included current dance songs, novelty songs, and show tunes. Jazz started to get a reputation as being immoral and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old values in culture and promoting the new decadent values of the Roaring 20s. From 1919 Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and Los Angeles where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings. However, the main centre developing the new "Hot Jazz" was Chicago, where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. That year also saw the first recording by Bessie Smith, the most famous of the 1920s blues singers. The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924. Also in 1924 Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band as featured soloist for a year, then formed his virtuosic Hot Five band, also popularizing scat singing. Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers. There was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras, such as Jean Goldkette's orchestra and Paul Whiteman's orchestra. In 1924 Whiteman commissioned Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which was premièred by Whiteman's Orchestra. Other influential large ensembles included Fletcher Henderson's band, Duke Ellington's band (which opened an influential residency at the Cotton Club in 1927) in New York, and Earl Hines's Band in Chicago (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe there in 1928). All significantly influenced the development of big band-style swing jazz. Swing The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Glenn Miller, and Artie Shaw. Trumpeter, bandleader and singer Louis Armstrong was a much-imitated innovator of early jazz. Swing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the radio 'live' nightly across America for many years especially by Hines broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago, well placed for 'live' time-zones. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to 'solo' and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be very complex and 'important' music. Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton, and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or jump blues used small combos, up-tempo music, and blues chord progressions. Jump blues drew on boogie-woogie from the 1930s. Kansas City Jazz in the 1930s marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. Beginnings of European jazz Outside of the United States the beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz emerged in France with the Quintette du Hot Club de France which began in 1934. Belgian guitar virtuoso Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette" and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel. The main instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section. Some music researchers hold that it was Philadelphia's Eddie Lang (guitar) and Joe Venuti (violin) who pioneered the gypsy jazz form , which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late 1920s. 1940s and 1950s Dixieland revival In the late 1930s there was a revival of "Dixieland" music, harkening back to the original contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of early jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two populations of musicians involved in the revival. One group consisted of players who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style, and were either returning to it, or continuing what they had been playing all along, such as Bob Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and Wild Bill Davison. Most of this group were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved as well. The second population of revivalists consisted of young musicians such as the Lu Watters band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it. Collier, 1978 Bebop Thelonious Monk at Expo 67, 1967, Montréal, Québec. Bassist Larry Gales seen in background. In the early 1940s bebop performers helped to shift jazz from danceable popular music towards a more challenging "musician's music." Differing greatly from swing, early bebop divorced itself from dance music, establishing itself more as an art form but lessening its potential popular and commercial value. Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it used faster tempos. Beboppers introduced new forms of chromaticism and dissonance into jazz; the dissonant tritone (or "flatted fifth") interval became the "most important interval of bebop" Joachim Berendt. "The Jazz Book". 1981. Page 15. and players engaged in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation which used "passing" chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. The style of drumming shifted as well to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride cymbal was used to keep time, while the snare and bass drum were used for unpredictable, explosive accents. These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time initially met with a divided, sometimes hostile response among fans and fellow musicians, especially established swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be filled with "racing, nervous phrases" Joachim Berendt. "The Jazz Book". 1981. Page 16. Despite the initial friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary. The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie and Clifford Brown, tenor sax player Lester Young, and drummer Max Roach. (See also List of bebop musicians). Cool jazz By the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension of bebop was replaced with a tendency towards calm and smoothness, with the sounds of cool jazz, which favoured long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City, as a result of the mixture of the styles of predominantly white jazz musicians and black bebop musicians, and it dominated jazz in the first half of the 1950s. Cool jazz recordings by Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Bill Evans, Gil Evans, Stan Getz and the Modern Jazz Quartet usually have a "lighter" sound which avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonic abstraction of bebop. An important recording was trumpeter Miles Davis's Birth of the Cool (tracks originally recorded in 1949 and 1950 and collected as an LP in 1957). Cool jazz styles had a particular resonance in Europe, especially Scandinavia, with emergence of such major figures as baritone saxophonist Lars Gullin and pianist Bengt Hallberg. Players such as pianist Bill Evans later began searching for new ways to structure their improvisations by exploring modal music. The theoretical underpinnings of cool jazz were set out by the blind Chicago pianist Lennie Tristano. Cool jazz later became strongly identified with the West Coast jazz scene. Its influence stretches into such later developments as Bossa nova, modal jazz (especially in the form of Davis's Kind of Blue 1959), and even free jazz (see also the List of Cool jazz and West Coast jazz musicians). Hard bop Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or "bop") music that incorporates influences from rhythm and blues, gospel music, and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s. The hard bop style coalesced in 1953 and 1954, paralleling the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis' performance of "Walkin'" the title track of his album of the same year, at the very first Newport Jazz Festival in 1954, announced the style to the jazz world. The quintet Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by Blakey and featuring pianist Horace Silver and trumpeter Clifford Brown, were leaders in the hard bop movement along with Davis. (See also List of Hard bop musicians) Modal jazz Modal jazz is a development beginning in the later 1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, the goal of the soloist was to play a solo that fit into a given chord progression. However, with modal jazz, the soloist creates a melody using one or a small number of modes. The emphasis in this approach shifts from harmony to melody. Miles Davis recorded the best selling jazz album of all time in the modal framework: Kind of Blue, an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz. Other innovators in this style include John Coltrane and Herbie Hancock. Free jazz A shot from a 2006 performance by Peter Brötzmann, a key figure in European free jazz Free jazz and the related form of avant-garde jazz broke through into an open space of "free tonality" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of World music from India, Africa, and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing Joachim Berendt. "The Jazz Book". 1981. Page 21. . While rooted in bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist Charles Mingus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from a myriad of styles and genres. The first major stirrings came in the 1950s, with the early work of Ornette Coleman and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s, performers included John Coltrane (A Love Supreme), Archie Shepp, Sun Ra, Albert Ayler, Pharoah Sanders, and others. Free jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy and Eric Dolphy spent extended periods in Europe. A distinctive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating elements of free jazz but not limited to it) flourished also because of the emergence of musicians (such as John Surman, Zbigniew Namyslowski, Albert Mangelsdorff, Kenny Wheeler and Mike Westbrook) anxious to develop new approaches reflecting their national and regional musical cultures and contexts. Keith Jarrett has been prominent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditionalists in the 1990s and 2000s. 1960s and 1970s Latin jazz Latin jazz combines rhythms from African and Latin American countries, often played on instruments such as conga, timbale, güiro, and claves with jazz and classical harmonies played on typical jazz instruments (piano, double bass, etc.). There are two main varieties: Afro-Cuban jazz was played in the US directly after the bebop period, while Brazilian jazz became more popular in the 1960s. Afro-Cuban jazz began as a movement in the mid-1950s as bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor started Afro-Cuban bands influenced by such Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians as Xavier Cugat, Tito Puente, and Arturo Sandoval. Brazilian jazz such as bossa nova is derived from samba, with influences from jazz and other 20th century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English. The style was pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos Jobim. The related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of bossa nova compositions to the jazz idiom by American performers such as Stan Getz and Charlie Byrd. Post bop see post-bop jazz. Soul jazz Soul jazz was a development of hard bop which incorporated strong influences from blues, gospel and rhythm and blues in music for small groups, often the organ trio which partnered a Hammond organ player with a drummer and a tenor saxophonist. Unlike hard bop, soul jazz generally emphasized repetitive grooves and melodic hooks, and improvisations were often less complex than in other jazz styles. Horace Silver had a large influence on the soul jazz style, with his songs that used funky and often gospel-based piano vamps. It often had a steadier "funk" style groove, different from the swing rhythms typical of much hard bop. Important soul jazz organists included Jimmy McGriff and Jimmy Smith and Johnny Hammond Smith, and influential tenor saxophone players included Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis and Stanley Turrentine. (See also List of soul-jazz musicians.) Jazz fusion In the late 1960s and early 1970s the hybrid form of jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments, and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix. Miles Davis made the breakthrough into fusion in 1970s with his album Bitches Brew. Musicians who worked with Davis formed the four most influential fusion groups: Weather Report and Mahavishnu Orchestra emerged in 1971 and were soon followed by Return to Forever and The Headhunters. Although jazz purists protested the blend of jazz and rock, some of jazz's significant innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. Jazz fusion music often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, and complex chords and harmonies. In addition to using the electric instruments of rock, such as the electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano, and synthesizer keyboards, fusion also used the powerful amplification, "fuzz" pedals, wah-wah pedals, and other effects used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea, Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer Tony Williams, violinist Jean-Luc Ponty, guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola and John McLaughlin, Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter, and bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Other trends There was a resurgence of interest in jazz and other forms of African American cultural expression during the Black Arts Movement and Black nationalist period of the early 1970s. Musicians such as Pharoah Sanders, Hubert Laws and Wayne Shorter began using African instruments such as kalimbas, cowbells, beaded gourds and other instruments not traditional to jazz. Musicians began improvising jazz tunes on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp (Alice Coltrane), electrically-amplified and wah-wah pedaled jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty), and even bagpipes (Rufus Harley). Jazz continued to expand and change, influenced by other types of music, such as world music, avant garde classical music, and rock and pop music. Guitarist John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu Orchestra played a mix of rock and jazz infused with East Indian influences. The ECM record label began in Germany in the 1970s with artists including Keith Jarrett, Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek, Ralph Towner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman and Eberhard Weber, establishing a new chamber music aesthetic, featuring mainly acoustic instruments, and sometimes incorporating elements of world music and folk music. 1980s–2000s In the 1980s, the jazz community shrank dramatically and split. A mainly older audience retained an interest in traditional and straight-ahead jazz styles. Wynton Marsalis strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, creating extensions of small and large forms initially pioneered by such artists as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington. In 1987, the US House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative John Conyers, Jr. to define jazz as a unique form of American music stating, among other things, "...that jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated." It passed in the House of Representatives on September 23rd, 1987 and it passed the Senate on November 4th, 1987. The entire six point mandate can be found on the HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz and Blues website. HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz and Blues - http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html Pop fusion and other subgenres In the early 1980s, a lighter commercial form of jazz fusion called pop fusion or "smooth jazz" became successful and garnered significant radio airplay. Smooth jazz saxophonists include Grover Washington, Jr., Kenny G, Najee and Michael Lington. Smooth jazz received frequent airplay with more straight-ahead jazz in quiet storm time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S., helping to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan, and Sade. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, several subgenres fused jazz with popular music, such as Acid jazz, nu jazz, and jazz rap. Acid jazz and nu jazz combined elements of jazz and modern forms of electronic dance music. While nu jazz is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, there are usually no improvisational aspects. Jazz rap fused jazz and hip-hop. Gang Starr recorded "Words I Manifest," "Jazz Music," and "Jazz Thing", sampling Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis, and collaborating with Branford Marsalis and Terence Blanchard. Beginning in 1993, rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series used jazz musicians during the studio recordings. 'Straight-ahead' and Experimental performers In the 2000s, straight-ahead jazz continues to appeal to a core of listeners. Well-established jazz musicians whose careers span decades, such as Dave Brubeck, Wynton Marsalis, Sonny Rollins, and Wayne Shorter continue to perform and record. In the 1990s and 2000s, a number of young musicians emerged including US pianists Brad Mehldau, Jason Moran, and Vijay Iyer, guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, and saxophonists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman. The more experimental end of the spectrum has included US trumpeters Dave Douglas and Rob Mazurek, saxophonist Ken Vandermark, Norwegian pianist Bugge Wesseltoft, the Swedish group E.S.T., and US bassist Christian McBride. Toward the more dance or pop music end of the spectrum are St Germain who incorporates some live jazz playing with house beats and Jamie Cullum who plays a particular mix of Jazz Standards with own more pop-oriented compositions. See also Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame American Jazz Museum Cape jazz Cool (aesthetic) European free jazz International Association for Jazz Education Victorian Jazz Archive Jazz at Lincoln Center Jazz Education Jazz Foundation of America Jazz in Germany Jazz poetry Jazzpar Prize List of jazz festivals List of jazz violinists List of jazz vocalists Swing music Swing (jazz performance style) Thirty-two-bar form Notes References Adorno, Theodor. "Prisms." The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA. 1967. Allen, William Francis, Charles Pickard Ware, and Lucy McLim Garrison, eds. 1867. Slave Songs of the United States. New York: A Simpson & Co. Electronic edition, Chapel Hill, N. C.: Academic Affairs Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2000. Burns, Ken, and Geoffrey C. Ward. 2000. Jazz—A History of America's Music. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Also: The Jazz Film Project, Inc. . Carr, Ian. Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in Britain. 2nd edition. London: Northway. ISBN 978-0-9550908-6-8 Collier, James Lincoln. The Making of Jazz: A Comprehensive History (Dell Publishing Co., 1978) Davis, Miles. Elsdon, Peter. 2003. "The Cambridge Companion to Jazz, Edited by Mervyn Cooke and David Horn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Review." Frankfürter Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft 6:159–75. Gang Starr. 2006. Mass Appeal: The Best of Gang Starr. CD recording 72435-96708-2-9. New York: Virgin Records. Giddins, Gary. 1998. Visions of Jazz: The First Century New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195076753 Godbolt, Jim. 2005. A History of Jazz in Britain 1919-50 London: Northway. ISBN 0-9537040-5-X Gridley, Mark C. 2004. Concise Guide to Jazz, fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131826573 Kenney, William Howland. 1993. Chicago Jazz: A Cultural History, 1904-1930. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195064534 (cloth); paperback reprint 1994 ISBN 0195092600 . Mandel, Howard. 2007. Miles, Ornette, Cecil: Jazz Beyond Jazz. Routledge. ISBN 0415967147. Porter, Eric. 2002. What Is This Thing Called Jazz? African American Musicians as Artists, Critics and Activists. University of California Press, Ltd. London, England. Ratliffe, Ben. 2002. Jazz: A Critic's Guide to the 100 Most Important Recordings. The New York Times Essential Library. New York: Times Books. ISBN 0805070680 Scaruffi, Piero: A History of Jazz Music 1900-2000. 2007. Omniware. ISBN 978-0-9765531-3-7 Schuller, Gunther. 1968. Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development. Oxford University Press. New printing 1986. Schuller, Gunther. 1991. The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930-1945. Oxford University Press. Searle, Chris. 2008. Forward Groove: Jazz and the Real World from Louis Armstrong to Gilad Atzmon. London: Northway. ISBN 978-0-9550908-7-5 Szwed, John Francis. 2000. Jazz 101: A Complete Guide to Learning and Loving Jazz. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 0786884967 Vacher, Peter. 2004. Soloists and Sidemen: American Jazz Stories. London: Northway. ISBN 978-0-9537040-4-1 Yanow, Scott. 2004. Jazz on Film: The Complete Story of the Musicians and Music Onscreen. (Backbeat Books) ISBN 0879307838 External links Jazz Foundation of America Jazz @ the Smithsonian Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame website Jazz at Lincoln Center website Jazz At Lincoln Center Hall of Fame American Jazz Museum website The International Archives for the Jazz Organ The Jazz Archive at Duke University Jazz Festivals in Europe Scaruffi's History of Jazz Jazz Cafes Japan by Darron Davies, The Seoul Times, April 10 2009 The Victorian Jazz Archive be-x-old:Джаз | Jazz |@lemmatized jazz:256 musical:10 art:7 form:25 originate:2 beginning:4 century:7 african:24 american:25 community:5 southern:2 united:8 state:11 confluence:1 european:18 music:71 tradition:9 style:32 west:6 pedigree:1 evident:1 use:20 blue:29 note:5 improvisation:9 polyrhythms:1 syncopation:4 swung:2 alyn:1 shipton:1 new:41 history:9 ed:2 continuum:1 pp:1 early:26 development:11 present:1 also:21 incorporate:6 popular:11 bill:6 kirchner:1 oxford:6 companion:3 university:9 press:8 chapter:1 two:5 word:7 begin:12 coast:5 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3,660 | CIM-10_Bomarc | Bomarc missile launch The CIM-10 Bomarc (originally IM-99) was the product of the Bomarc Missile Program. The Program was a joint United States of America–Canada effort between 1957 and 1972 to protect against the USSR bomber threat. The Bomarc was a joint development with Boeing and Michigan Aeronautical Research Center. It involved the deployment of tactical stations armed with Bomarc missiles along the east and west coasts of North America and the central areas of the continent. BOMARC and the SAGE guidance system were phased out in the early 1970s since they seemed to be ineffective and costly. Neither of these systems was ever used in combat, so while their combat effectiveness remains untested, they are still perceived as having been an important deterrent. The supersonic Bomarc missiles were the first long-range anti-aircraft missiles in the world. They were capable of carrying conventional or nuclear warheads. Their intended role in defence was in an intrusion prevention perimeter. Bomarcs aligned on the eastern and western coasts of North America would theoretically launch and destroy enemy bombers before the bombers could drop their payloads on industrial regions. Design and development The name Bomarc was created by merging the names of two organizations: Boeing 'BO' and the Michigan Aeronautical Research Center 'MARC'. The Program was authorized in 1949 and originally designated F-99, a fighter designation but was quickly redesignated "IM" for Interceptor Missile, retaining the -99 series number. The "Bomarc IM-99A" was the first production Bomarc missile, test flown in February 1955. It had an operational radius of 200 miles (~320 km) and was designed to fly at Mach 2.5-2.8 at a cruising altitude of 60,000 feet (18.3 km). It was 46.6 ft (14.2 m) long and weighed 15,500 lb (7,020 kg). Its armament was either a 1,000 pound (455 kg) conventional warhead or a W40 nuclear warhead (7-10 kiloton yield). A liquid fuelled rocket engine boosted the Bomarc to Mach 2, when its Marquardt RJ43-MA-3 ramjet engines, fueled by 80-octane gasoline, would take over for the remainder of the flight. The "Super Bomarc IM-99B" was the 99A's successor, with a solid fuel booster rocket and improvements to its operational parameters. It was capable of striking targets within a radius of 400 miles, and able to fly at Mach 4 as high as 100,000 feet. It was 45 ft (13.7 m) long, weighed 16,000 lb (7,250 kg) with a W40 nuclear warhead as armament. The Bomarc relied on the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE), an automated control system used by NORAD for detecting, tracking and intercepting enemy bomber aircraft. SAGE allowed for remote launching of the Bomarc missiles, which were housed in a constant combat-ready basis in individual launch shelters in remote areas. At the height of the program, there were 14 Bomarc sites located in the United States and two in Canada. Boeing built 570 Bomarc missiles between 1957 and 1964, 269 CIM-10A, 301 CIM-10B. Gibson 1996, p. 199. Canada and the Bomarc The Bomarc Missile Program was highly controversial in Canada. The Progressive Conservative government of Prime Minister John Diefenbaker initially agreed to deploy the missiles, and shortly thereafter controversially scrapped the Avro Arrow interceptor program arguing that the missile program made the Arrow unnecessary. Initially, it was unclear whether the missiles would be equipped with nuclear warheads. Once their use as nuclear weapons became known in 1960, a debate ensued about whether Canada should accept nuclear weapons. Ultimately, the Diefenbaker government decided that the Bomarcs should be equipped with conventional warheads. The dispute split the Diefenbaker Cabinet, and led to the collapse of the government in 1963. The Opposition Liberal Party argued in favour of accepting nuclear warheads, and, after winning the 1963 election, the new Liberal government of Lester Pearson proceeded to accept nuclear warheads, with the first being deployed on 31 December 1963. Pierre Trudeau, still working as a journalist, attacked Pearson for the decision. While he was forced to reverse himself when he decided to run as a candidate for the Liberals in the 1965 election, he remained unenthusiastic. Shortly after becoming prime minister in 1968, he announced that the missiles would be phased out by 1971. Retirement Although a number of IM-99/CIM-10 Bomarcs have been placed on public display, concerns about the possible environmental hazards of the thoriated magnesium structure of the airframe have resulted in several being removed from public view. Radioactive contamination from a fire at McGuire AFB, N.J., that destroyed an active Bomarc-A airframe on the launch pad on 7 June 1960, resulted in that area remaining off-limits to the present day. However, the nuclear warhead was not activated in this Broken Arrow accident. The site remained in operation for several years following the fire. Russ Sneddon, director of the USAF Armament Museum, Eglin AFB, Florida provided information about missing CIM-10 exhibit airframe serial 59-2016, one of the museum's original artifacts from its founding in 1975 and donated by the 4751st Air Defense Squadron at Hurlburt Field, Eglin Auxiliary Field 9, Eglin AFB. As of December 2006, the suspect missile was still stored in a secure compound behind the Armaments Museum. Operators Royal Canadian Air Force 446 SAM Squadron, North Bay, Ontario 1962-1972 447 SAM Squadron, La Macaza, Quebec 1962-1972 United States Air Force Air (later Aerospace) Defense Command 6th Air Defense Missile Squadron (BOMARC-A) Suffolk County AFB, New York, 1959-1964 22d Air Defense Missile Squadron (BOMARC-A/B) Langley AFB, Virginia (1960-1972) 26th Air Defense Missile Squadron (BOMARC-A/B) Otis AFB, Massachusetts, 1960-1972 30th Air Defense Missile Squadron (BOMARC-A) Dow AFB, Maine, 1960-1964 35th Air Defense Missile Squadron (BOMARC-B) Niagara Falls International Airport, New York, 1961-1969 37th Air Defense Missile Squadron (BOMARC-B) Kincheloe AFB, Michigan, 1961-1972 46th Air Defense Missile Squadron (BOMARC-A/B) McGuire AFB, New Jersey, 1959-1972 74th Air Defense Missile Squadron (BOMARC-B) Duluth International Airport, Minnesota, 1960-1972 Locations under construction but not activated: Camp Adair, Oregon; Charleston AFB, South Carolina; Ethan Allen AFB, Vermont; Paine Field, Washington; Travis AFB, California; Truax Field, Wisconsin; Vandenberg AFB, California Reference for BOMARC units and locations: BOMARC Missile Sites Surviving Missiles Below is a list of museums or sites which have a Bomarc missile on display: Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida Air Force Space & Missile Museum, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida Alberta Aviation Museum, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Canada Aviation Museum, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Florence Air & Missile Museum, Florence, South Carolina Hill Aerospace Museum, Hill Air Force Base, Utah Historical Electronics Museum, Baltimore, Maryland (display of AN/DPN-53, the first airborne pulse-doppler radar, used in the Bomarc) Illinois Soldiers & Sailors Home, Quincy, Illinois Keesler Air Force Base, Biloxi, Mississippi Lee Park, North Bay, Ontario, Canada Museum of Aviation, Robins Air Force Base, Warner Robins, Georgia National Atomic Museum, Kirtland Air Force Base, Albuquerque, New Mexico National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum (former Chanute AFB), Rantoul, Illinois Peterson Air and Space Museum, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado Strategic Air and Space Museum (adjacent to Offutt Air Force Base), Bellevue, Nebraska US Air Force History and Traditions Museum, Lackland Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas Vandenberg Air Force Base, near the Vandenberg Cold War Museum, California. Bomarc not for public access. See also References Notes Bibliography Clearwater, John. Canadian Nuclear Weapons. Toronto: Dundern Press, 1999. ISBN 1-55002-299-7. Gibson, James N. Nuclear Weapons of the United States - An Illustrated History . Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1996, ISBN 0-7643-0063-6. Nicks, Don, Bradley, John and Charland, Chris. A History of the Air Defence of Canada 1948-1997. Ottawa: Commander Fighter Group, 1997. ISBN 0-9681973-0-2. Pedigree of Champions: Boeing Since 1916, Third Edition. Seattle, WA: The Boeing Company, 1969. External links Boeing Company History, Bomarc History of the Royal Canadian Air Force "Pinetree Line" air defense stations http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/bomarc.htm Bomarc pictures Official DND webpage on the BoMARC | CIM-10_Bomarc |@lemmatized bomarc:36 missile:28 launch:4 cim:5 originally:2 im:5 product:1 program:7 joint:2 united:5 state:5 america:3 canada:10 effort:1 protect:1 ussr:1 bomber:4 threat:1 development:2 boeing:6 michigan:3 aeronautical:2 research:2 center:2 involve:1 deployment:1 tactical:1 station:3 arm:1 along:1 east:1 west:1 coast:2 north:4 central:1 area:3 continent:1 sage:3 guidance:1 system:3 phase:2 early:1 since:2 seem:1 ineffective:1 costly:1 neither:1 ever:1 use:4 combat:3 effectiveness:1 remain:4 untested:1 still:3 perceive:1 important:1 deterrent:1 supersonic:1 first:4 long:3 range:1 anti:1 aircraft:2 world:1 capable:2 carry:1 conventional:3 nuclear:11 warhead:9 intended:1 role:1 defence:2 intrusion:1 prevention:1 perimeter:1 bomarcs:3 align:1 eastern:1 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3,661 | Geography_of_Luxembourg | gros connard Towns and rivers in Luxembourg Luxembourg is a small country located in the Low Countries, part of North-West Europe It borders Belgium (148 kilometres) to the west and north, France (73 km) to the south, and Germany (138 km) to the east. Luxembourg is landlocked, separated from the North Sea by Belgium. The topography of the country is divided very clearly between the hilly Oesling of the northern third of the Grand Duchy and the flat Gutland, which occupies the southern two-thirds. The country's longest river is the Sauer, which is a tributary of the Moselle, the basin of which includes almost all of Luxembourg's area. Other major rivers include the Alzette in the south and the Wiltz in the north. The capital, and by far the largest city, is Luxembourg City, which is located in the Gutland, as are most of the country's main population centres, including Esch-sur-Alzette, Dudelange, and Differdange. Besides Luxembourg City, the other main towns are primarily located in the southern Red Lands region, which lines the border between Luxembourg and France to the south. Physical geography Topography A map of Luxembourg's relief clearly illustrates the dichotomy between the hilly Oesling in the north and the southern Gutland. Despite its small size, Luxembourg has a varied topography, with two main features to its landscape. The northern section of the country is formed by part of the plateau of the Ardennes, where the mountain heights range from 1,500 to almost 2,000 feet (460-610 m) high. The rest of the country is made up of undulating countryside with broad valleys. The capital, Luxembourg City, is located in the southern part of the country. Green heart of Europe The most prominent landmark, the high plateau of the Ardennes in the north, took millions of years to carve. At its highest point, it reaches a height of 1,834 feet (559 m). Commonly known as the Oesling, the Ardennes region covers 325 sq. miles (842 m²), about 32% of the entire country. Rugged scenery predominates because river erosion over thousands of years has left a varied, low mountain landscape, densely covered with vegetation, sometimes with considerable variations in height. These differences in relief, together with stretches of water interspersed with forests, fields, and pastures are the main features that make the landscape so distinctive. Typical of this high area, however, is the infertile soil and poor drainage resulting in numerous peat bogs, which were once exploited as fuel. These factors, combined with heavy rainfall and frost, made this an inhospitable environment for the first settlers. Even today, the living conditions in such an environment are not particularly favourable. Nevertheless, some 7,800 people make a living of the land through either forestry, small-scale farming, or environment work. Because the soil is so difficult to cultivate, most of the land is used for cattle pasture. The Ardennes region also includes the Upper Sûre National Park, an important conservation area and a hiker's retreat. South of the Sûre Riverd, the country is known as the Gutland. The region covers slightly over two-thirds of the country. The terrain gently rises and falls with an average height of 700 feet (213 m). Agriculture is the main activity as term Gutland arises from the fertile soil and warm, dry summers experienced is this part of the Duchy compared to the Oesling region. As a result, vegetables and fruit, such as strawberries, apples, plums, and cherries, are grown in large quantities. River erosion in this area has created deep gorges and caves, resulting in some spectacular scenery. In the extreme south of the country lies "the land of the red rocks"- a reference to the deposits of minerals found here. Rich in iron ore since Roman, if not earlier times, the district is a mining and heavy industrial region that stretches for over 12.4 miles (20 km). The tall chimneys of the iron and steel works are typical landmarks of the industrial south. To the east lies the grape-growing valley of the Moselle. Numerous villages nestle in the deep valleys and behind the vineyards along the river banks. Every village has at least one winery. Also in the east is the "Little Switzerland" area, characterized by wooded glens and ravines in unusual rock formations. Rivers and lakes Luxembourg has a number of minor rivers, such as the Eisch, the Alzette, and the Pétrusse, but the main river is the Moselle with its tributaries-the Sûre and the Our. Together, their courses serve as a natural boundary between Luxembourg and Germany. Along their banks, many of the country's medieval castles can be found. The Moselle River actually rises in northeast France and flows north through Luxembourg for 19 miles (31 km) to join the mighty Rhine at Koblenz, Germany. The Moselle is 320 miles (515 km) long, and is navigable, due to canalization for 40 miles (64 km). Green slopes, covered with vines, flank the meandering course of the river. Rising in Belgium, the Sûre River flows for 107 miles (172 km) in an easterly direction through Luxembourg and into the Moselle. Its sinous course essentially cuts Luxembourg from east to west. The Our River, flowing along the northeastern border, is a tributary of the Sûre. Its valley is surrounded by unspoiled countryside. The Upper Sûre lake is the largest stretch of water in the Grandy Duchy. Surrounded by luxuriant vegetation and peaceful creeks, the lake is a centre for water sports, such as sailing, canoeing, and kayaking. Such outdoor activities, which has made it an attractive spot for tourists, have led to the growth of a local crafts industry. The town of Esch-sur-Sûre nestles at one end of the lake. Immediately above it, the river has been dammed to form a hydroelectric reservoir extending some 6 miles (10 km) up the valley. The Upper Sûre dam was built in the 1960s to meet the country's drinking water requirements. Extreme points Elevation extremes: lowest point: Moselle River in Wasserbillig 133 m highest point: Kneiff in Troisvierges 560 m Human geography Political geography Demographic geography Economic geography Environment Climate Luxembourg is part of the West European Continental climatic region, and enjoys a temperate climate without extremes. Winters are mild, summers fairly cool, and rainfall is high. Seasonal weather is somewhat different between the northern and southern regions. In the north there is considerable influence from the Atlantic systems, in which the passage of frequent pressure depressions gives rise to unstable weather conditions. This results in overcast skies and considerable drizzle in the winter. Rainfall reaches 1.2 m (49 inches) a year in some areas. In the summer, excessive heat is rare and temperatures drop noticeably at night. Low temperatures and humidity make for what those living in this part of the country call, optimistically, an "invigorating climate". In the south, although the rainfall is not significantly low, at around 80 cm (32 inches), and the winters no milder, the principal difference is in the higher summer temperatures, especially in the Moselle Valley. Crops, especially wine grapes, thrive here. With a mean annual temperature of 10 °C (50 °F), the sunniest months are May to August. In the spring, the countryside is a riot of wildflowers and blossoms. Flora and fauna Luxembourg's flora is characterized by the country's location at the border between the Atlantic-European and Central-European climate zones. In the north, beech and oak trees are plentiful. The oak trees can grow up to 30-45 m (100-150 feet), with a diameter of 1.2-2.4 m (4-8 feet). They supply large quantities of excellent hardwood timber because of their strength. Along the riverbanks, species like the Black Alder and willows can be found. Alder wood is pale yellow to reddish brown, fine-textured and durable even under water. It is also an important timber tree mainly because of its disease-resistant properties. Willow trees can reach a height of 20 m (65 feet), and are valued for ornamental purposes. The narrow, deeply incised valleys of the north also provide a habitat for rare plants and animals, especially the European Otter, a protected species. In the industrial south, among the abandoned quarries and deserted open pit mines, nature has reclaimed her own, and there are flowers everywhere. International agreements Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea Geographical statistics Geographic coordinates: Area: total: 2 586 km² land: 2 586 km² water: 0 km² Natural resources: iron ore (no longer exploited), arable land Land use: arable land: 24% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 20% forests and woodland: 21% other: 34% Irrigated land: 10 km² (including Belgium) (1993 est.) 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3,662 | Comparative_method | In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages. It requires the use of two or more languages. It is opposed to the method of internal reconstruction, which studies the internal development of a single language over time. Lehmann 1993:31 f. Ordinarily both methods are used together. They constitute a powerful means to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages, to fill in gaps in the historical record of a language, to study the development of phonological, morphological, and other linguistic systems, and to confirm or refute hypothesized relationships between languages. The comparative method was gradually developed during the course of the 19th century. The key contributions were made by the Danish scholars Rasmus Rask and Karl Verner and the German scholar Jacob Grimm. The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a proto-language was August Schleicher, in his Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, originally published in 1861. Lehmann 1993:26. Contrary to what is often assumed today, Schleicher and the other comparative linguists of the 19th century did not view the comparative method as a means to establish the validity of the language families they studied, which they considered to be already established through an interlocking web of lexical and morphological similarities. Characteristic is Schleicher’s explanation of why he took the then-radical step of offering reconstructed forms: Schleicher 1874: 8. The translator’s "Indo-European " is indogermanischen ('Indo-Germanic’) in the original. In the present work an attempt is made to set forth the inferred Indo-European original language side by side with its really existent derived languages. Besides the advantages offered by such a plan, in setting immediately before the eyes of the student the final results of the investigation in a more concrete form, and thereby rendering easier his insight into the nature of particular Indo-European languages, there is, I think, another of no less importance gained by it, namely that it shows the baselessness of the assumption that the non-Indian Indo-European languages were derived from Old-Indian (Sanskrit). During the first half of the 20th century, the conviction gradually took hold that reconstructions arrived at through the comparative method were the only valid means to establish genetic (i.e. genealogical) relationship between languages. This has since remained the prevailing view among historical linguists. It is contested only by followers of Joseph Greenberg. Although the following article deals only with the role of the comparative method in demonstrating genetic relationship, it is important to realize that this is only one application of the comparative method, which has rightly been described as the central tool of historical linguistics. For example, André Martinet uses the comparative method in his influential Economie des changements phonétiques (2005/1955) to study the evolution of sound systems over time and, via this, to develop generalizations about the nature of sound systems as synchronic entities. Demonstrating genetic relationship In its application to the demonstration of genetic relationship, the comparative method aims to prove that two or more historically attested languages are descended from a single proto-language by comparing lists of cognate terms. From these cognate lists, regular sound correspondences between the languages are established, and a sequence of regular sound changes can then be postulated which allows the proto-language to be reconstructed from its daughter languages. Relation is deemed certain only if a partial reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible, and if regular sound correspondences can be established with chance similarities ruled out. Developed in the 19th century through the study of the Indo-European languages, the comparative method remains the standard by which mainstream linguists judge whether two languages are related, with alternative lexicostatistical methods such as glottochronology generally considered to be unreliable as there are cases when lexicostatistics does not work at all. Potential problems with the comparative method have also arisen as a result of a number of advances in linguistic thought, in large part due to some of the "basic assumptions" of the comparative method. However, as Campbell (2004:146-7) observes, "What textbooks call the 'basic assumptions' of the comparative method might better be viewed as the consequences of how we reconstruct and of our views of sound change." Terminology In the present context, related has a specific meaning: two languages are genetically related if they are descended from the same ancestor language. Lyovin 1997:1-2 Thus, for example, Spanish and French are both descended from Latin. Therefore, French and Spanish are considered to belong to the same family of languages, the Romance languages. Beekes 1995:25 Descent, in turn, is defined in terms of transmission across the generations: children learn a language from the parents' generation and are then influenced by their peers; they then transmit it to the next generation, and so on (how and why changes are introduced is a complicated, unresolved issue). A continuous chain of speakers across the centuries links Vulgar Latin to all of its modern descendants. However, it is possible for languages to have different degrees of relatedness. English, for example, is related to both German and Russian, but is more closely related to the former than it is to the latter. The reason for this is that although all three languages share a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European, English and German also share, as a more recent common ancestor, one of the daughter languages of Proto-Indo-European – Proto-Germanic – while Russian does not. Therefore, English and German are considered to belong to a different subgroup of the Indo-European language family (the Germanic languages) than Russian (which belongs to the Slavic group). Beekes 1995:22, 27-29 The division of related languages into sub-groups by the comparative method is accomplished by finding languages with large numbers of shared linguistic innovations from the parent language; two languages having many shared retentions from the parent language is not sufficient evidence of a sub-group. This definition of relatedness implies that, even if two languages are quite similar in their vocabularies, they are not necessarily closely related. As a result of heavy borrowing over the years from Arabic into Persian, Modern Persian in fact takes more of its vocabulary from Arabic than from its direct ancestor, Proto-Indo-Iranian. Campbell 2000:1341 But under the definition just given, Persian is considered to be descended from Proto-Indo-Iranian, and not from Arabic. The comparative method is a method for proving relatedness in the sense just given, as well as a method for reconstructing the sound system and vocabulary of the common ancestral language and uncovering the sound changes the languages of a family have undergone. Origin and development The first known systematic attempt to prove the relationship between two languages on the basis of similarity of grammar and lexicon was made by the Hungarian János Sajnovics in 1770, when he attempted to demonstrate the relationship between Sami and Hungarian (work that was later extended to the whole Finno-Ugric language family in 1799 by his countryman Samuel Gyarmathi), Szemerényi 1996:6 but the origin of modern historical linguistics is often traced back to Sir William Jones, an English philologist living in India, who in 1782 made his famous observation: “The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothick and the Celtick, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family.” (Jones 1786, quoted in Lehman 1967 and Szemerényi 1996:4) An insight often attributed to Jones is conceiving of the idea of a proto-language, and consequently of the type of "family tree" model of language development (one proto-language splitting into various daughter languages, some of those then splitting again into further languages), upon which the comparative method is based. However, Jones' role in the development of these ideas has recently been called into question. According to the comparative linguist Lyle Campbell, the widely quoted passage from Jones has been removed from its proper context, and a reading of his work reveals his ideas of linguistic development as less clear. Many of the linguistic classifications proposed by Jones were also erroneous; for instance, he connected Austronesian languages with Sanskrit, and failed to include Slavic in the Indo-European family. Campbell, in press The comparative method itself developed out of the attempts to reconstruct the proto-language which Jones had hypothesized about, known as Proto-Indo-European (PIE). The first attempt to analyse the relationships between the Indo-European languages was made by the German linguist Franz Bopp in 1816. Though he did not attempt a reconstruction, he tried to prove that Greek, Latin and Sanskrit were related by systematically demonstrating that they shared a both common structure and a common lexicon. Szemerenyi 1996:5-6 It was the German scholar Friedrich Schlegel who in 1808 first stated the importance of using the eldest possible form of a language when trying to prove its relationships; Szemerényi 1996:7 then, in 1818, the Danish philologist Rasmus Christian Rask developed the principle of regular sound changes to explain his observations of similarities between individual words in the Germanic languages and their cognates in Greek and Latin. Szémerenyi 1996:17 It was another German, Jacob Grimm - better known for his Fairy Tales - who in Deutsche Grammatik (published 1819-37 in four volumes) first made use of something resembling the modern comparative method in attempting to show the development of the Germanic languages from a common origin, the first systematic study of diachronic language change. Szemerényi 1996:7-8 Both Rask and Grimm were unable to explain apparent exceptions to the sound laws that they had discovered. Though the German linguist Hermann Grassmann explained one of these anomalies with the publication of Grassmann's law in 1862, Szemerenyi 1996:19 it was in 1875 that a Danish scholar, Karl Verner, made a methodological breakthrough when he identified a pattern now known as Verner's law, the first sound law to use comparative evidence to show that a phonological change in one phoneme could depend on other factors within the same word, such as the neighbouring phonemes and the position of the accent: Szemerényi 1996:20 in other words, the modern concept of conditioning environments. Similar discoveries were made by a group of radical young German academics at the University of Leipzig known as Junggrammatiker (usually rendered as Neogrammarians in English) in the late 1800s, leading them to conclude that all sound changes were ultimately regular, and resulting in the famous statement by Karl Brugmann and Hermann Osthoff in 1878 that "sound laws have no exceptions". Szemerényi 1996:21 This revolutionary idea is fundamental to the modern comparative method, since the method necessarily assumes regular correspondences between sounds in related languages, and consequently regular sound changes from the proto-language. It was this Neogrammarian Hypothesis which led to application of the comparative method to reconstruct Proto-Indo-European, with Indo-European being at that time by far the most well-studied language family. Linguists working with other families soon followed suit, and the comparative method quickly became the established method for uncovering linguistic relationships. Application There is no concrete set of steps to be followed in the application of the comparative method, but linguists generally agree on the basic steps, which are as follows: Campbell 2004 Assemble potential cognate lists Genetic kinship between two (or more) languages can be established if they show a number of regular correspondences in native vocabulary, which means that there is a regularly recurring match between the phonetic structure of basic words with similar meanings. Lyovin 1997:2-3 Thus, this step simply involves making lists of words which are likely cognates among the languages being compared. For example, looking at the Polynesian family Using sources such as Churchward 1959 for Tongan, and Pukui & Elbert 1986 for Hawaiian. The table is modified from Campbell 2004 and Crowley 1992 linguists would come up with a list similar to the following, although in practice a real list would be much longer: Gloss one two three four five man sea taboo octopus canoe enter Tongan Samoan Māori Rapanui Rarotongan Hawaiian Caution needs to be exercised to avoid including borrowings or false cognates in the list, which could skew or obscure the correct data. Lyovin 1997:3-5 For example, there is a similarity between English taboo () and the six Polynesian forms. Though this may seem to be a cognate, showing that English is genetically related to the Polynesian languages, it is not, as the similarity is due to borrowing from Tongan into English. Oxford English Dictionary: Taboo This problem can usually be overcome by using basic vocabulary such as kinship terms, numbers, body parts, pronouns, and other basic terms. Lyovin 1997:3 Nonetheless, even basic vocabulary can be borrowed. Finnish, for example, borrowed the word for "mother", äiti, from Gothic aiþei, Campbell 2004:65, 300 while Pirahã, a Muran language of South America, borrowed all its pronouns from Nhengatu; Thomason and Everett n.d.:8-12; Aikhenvald & Dixon 1999:355 likewise, English borrowed the pronouns "they", "them", and "their(s)" from Norse. Oxford English Dictionary: They Establish correspondence sets Once potential cognate lists are established, the next step is to determine the regular sound correspondences they exhibit. The notion of regular correspondence is very important here: mere phonetic similarity, as between English day and Latin dies (both with the same meaning), has no probative value. Lyovin 1997:2 English initial d- does not regularly match Latin d-, Beekes 1995:127 and whatever sporadic matches can be observed are due either to chance (as in the above example) or to borrowing (e.g. Latin diabolus and English devil, both ultimately of Greek origin). Oxford English Dictionary: Devil The Neogrammarians first emphasized this point in the late 1800s, and their motto, "sound laws have no exceptions", has remained a fundamental axiom in historical linguistics to this day. For example, although the correspondence d- : d- (where the notation "A : B" means "A corresponds to B") in English and Latin day and dies above is not regular, English and Latin do exhibit a very regular correspondence of t- : d-. For example: In Latin, <c> represents . dingua is an Old Latin form of the word later attested as lingua English ten two tow tongue tooth Latin decem duo dūco dingua dent- Since a truly systematic correspondence is unlikely to be accidental, if alternative possibilities like massive borrowing can be ruled out, then the correspondence can be attributed to common descent. If there are many regular correspondence sets of this kind (the more the better), then common origin becomes a virtual certainty, particularly if some of the correspondences are non-trivial or unusual. Discover which sets are in complementary distribution During the time the comparative method was being developed (late 18th to late 19th century), two major developments occurred which improved the method's effectiveness. First, it was found that many sound changes are conditioned by a particular context. Thus for example, in both Greek and Sanskrit, an aspirated stop evolved into an unaspirated one, but only if a second aspirate occurred later on in the same word; Beekes 1995:128 this is Grassmann's law, known to the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini Sag 1974; Janda & Joseph 1989 and promulgated as a historical discovery by Hermann Grassmann in 1863. Second, it was found that sometimes sound changes occurred in contexts that were later lost. For instance, in Sanskrit velars (k-like sounds) were replaced by palatals (ch-like sounds) whenever the following vowel was *i or *e. The asterisk (*) means that the sound is inferred/reconstructed, rather than historically documented or attested Subsequent to this change, all instances of *e were replaced by a. Or, more accurately, earlier *e, *o, and *a merged as a The situation would have been unreconstructable, had not the original distribution of e and a been recoverable from the evidence of other Indo-European languages. Beekes 1995:60-61 Thus, for instance, Latin que, "and", preserves the original *e vowel that caused the consonant shift in Sanskrit: 1. *ke Pre-Sanskrit "and" 2. *ce Velars replaced by palatals before *i and *e 3. ca *e becomes a Ca is the attested Sanskrit form for and. This finding was made independently by several scholars during the 1870s. Verner's Law, discovered by Karl Verner in about 1875, is a similar case: the voicing of consonants in Germanic languages underwent a change that was determined by the position of the old Indo-European accent. Following the change, the accent shifted across the board to initial position. Beekes 1995:130-131 Verner solved the puzzle by comparing the Germanic voicing pattern with data from Greek and Sanskrit accent. This stage of the comparative method, therefore, involves examining the correspondence sets discovered in step 2 and seeing which of them apply only in certain contexts. If two (or more) sets involve identical or similar sounds, and apply in complementary distribution, then the sets can be assumed to reflect a single original phoneme. This is because "some sound changes, particularly conditioned sound changes, can result in a proto-sound being associated with more than one correspondence set". Campbell 2004:136 To take another example, the Romance languages, descended from Latin, exhibit two different correspondence sets which both involve k: Italian Spanish Portuguese French 1. k k k k 2. k k k Italian Spanish Portuguese French Gloss 1. corpo cuerpo corpo corps body 2. crudo crudo cru cru raw 3. catena cadena cadeia chaîne chain 4. cacciare cazar caçar chasser to hunt What linguists do in this situation is try to see if the two sets occur in complementary distribution, in which case they reflect a single proto-phoneme, or if both occur in identical environments, in which case they must both reflect separate proto-phonemes. In this case, French only occurs before a in the other languages (which becomes in French), while French k occurs elsewhere. Both sets 1 and 2 can therefore be assumed to reflect a single proto-phoneme (in this case *k, spelled <c> in Latin). Campbell 2004:26 A more complex case involves consonant clusters in Proto-Algonquian, which have been notoriously difficult to reconstruct. The Algonquianist Leonard Bloomfield used the reflexes of the clusters in four of the daughter languages of Proto-Algonquian to come up with the following correspondence sets: Although the clusters are shown here ending in -k, this also generally applies to clusters ending in any of the plosives. The table is modified after that in Campbell 2004:141 Ojibwe Meskwaki Plains Cree Menomini 1. kk hk hk hk 2. kk hk sk hk 3. sk hk sk 4. sk sk 5. sk hk hk Although all five correspondence sets overlap with one another in various places, they are not in complementary distribution, and so Bloomfield recognized that a different cluster must be reconstructed for each set; his reconstructions were, respectively, *hk, *xk, *čk (=), *šk (=), and çk (where ‘x’ and ‘ç’ are arbitrary symbols, not attempts to guess the phonetic value of the proto-phonemes). Bloomfield 1925 Reconstruct proto-phonemes This step tends to be much more subjective than the previous ones. A linguist here has to rely mostly on their general intuitions about what types of sound changes are likely and which are unlikely. For example, the voicing of voiceless plosives between vowels is an extremely common sound change, occurring in languages all over the world, whilst the devoicing of voiced plosives between vowels is extremely uncommon. Therefore, if a linguist were comparing two languages with a correspondence of -t- : -d- between vowels, they would reconstruct the proto-phoneme as being *-t-, and assume that it became voiced to -d- in the second language (unless they had a very good reason not to). Sometimes, sound changes occur that are extremely unusual or unexpected. The Proto-Indo-European word for two, for example, is reconstructed as *dwō, which is reflected in Classical Armenian as erku. Several other cognates demonstrate that the change *dw- → erk- in the history of Armenian was a regular one. Szemerényi 1996:28; citing Szemerényi 1960:96 Similarly, in Bearlake, a dialect of the Athabaskan language of Slavey, there has been a sound change of Proto-Athabaskan *ts → Bearlake . Campbell 1997:113 It is very unlikely that *dw- changed directly into erk- and *ts into , but instead they must have gone through several intermediate steps to arrive at the later forms. The lesson here is that with enough sound changes, a given sound can change into just about any other sound. This is why it is not phonetic similarity which matters when utilizing the comparative method, but regular sound correspondences. Another assumption used in determining a proto-phoneme is that the reconstruction should ideally involve as few sound changes as possible to arrive at the modern reflexes in the daughter languages. In other words, unless there is persuasive evidence to the contrary, whatever value is the most common reflex in the daughter languages should be reconstructed as the value of the proto-phoneme. For example, Algonquian languages exhibit the following correspondence set: Vocabulary Words in the Algonquian Language Family Goddard 1974 Ojibwe Míkmaq Cree Munsee Blackfoot Arapaho m m m m m b The simplest reconstruction for this set would be either *m or *b. Both *m → b and *b → m (where "*A → B" means "*A becomes B") are conceivable sound changes, so the principle of reconstructing "likely" changes over "unlikely" ones is not useful here. Instead, because the reflex of this proto-phoneme is m in five of the languages compared here, and b in only one of them, if *b is reconstructed, then it is necessary to assume five separate changes of *b → m, whereas if *m is reconstructed, it is only necessary to assume a single change of *m → b in one language in the family. Since the assumption is that reconstructions should require the fewest number of changes possible to arrive at the modern reflexes, linguists would reconstruct *m here. Examine the reconstructed system typologically In the final step, the linguist takes all the proto-phonemes that have been reconstructed using steps 1-4, and checks to see how the system fits with what is currently known about typological constraints. For example, if the reconstructed phonemes fit together in the following hypothetical system, the linguist would be suspicious, because languages generally (though not always) tend to maintain symmetry in their phonemic inventories: p t k b n ŋ l In this hypothetical reconstructed system, there is only one voiced plosive, *b, and although there is an alveolar and a velar nasal, *n and *ŋ, there is no corresponding labial nasal. In this case, the linguist would have to return to step 4 and reevaluate their earlier conclusions. In this case, they would try to figure out if there is any evidence to suggest that what was earlier reconstructed as *b is in fact *m, or evidence that what was earlier reconstructed as *n and *ŋ are in fact *d and *g. Even a symmetrical system can be typologically suspicious. For example, the Proto-Indo-European plosive inventory, as traditionally reconstructed, Beekes 1995:124 is as follows: Labials Dentals Velars Labiovelars Palatovelars Voiceless ptk Voiced (b)dg Voiced aspirated Since the mid-20th century, a number of linguists have argued that this system is, at best, very suspicious typologically. Szemerényi 1996:143 They state that it is extremely unlikely, or maybe even impossible, for a language to have a voiced aspirated (breathy voice) series without a corresponding voiceless aspirated series. These linguists therefore argue, on typological grounds, that it is necessary to reevaluate the traditional reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European. A potential solution was provided by Thomas Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav V. Ivanov, who argued that the series traditionally reconstructed as plain voiced should in fact be reconstructed as glottalized — either implosive or ejective . The plain voiceless and voiced aspirated series would thus be seen as just voiceless and voiced, with aspiration being a non-distinctive quality of both. Beekes 1995:109-113 This example of the application of linguistic typology to linguistic reconstruction has become known as the Glottalic Theory. It has a large number of proponents but is not generally accepted. Szemerényi 1996:151-152 The reconstruction of proto-sounds and their historical transformations enables linguists to proceed further: they can compare grammatical morphemes (word-forming affixes and inflectional endings), patterns of declension and conjugation, and so on. The full reconstruction of an unrecorded protolanguage can never be complete (for example, proto-syntax is far more elusive than phonology or morphology, and all elements of linguistic structure undergo inevitable erosion and gradual loss or replacement over time), but a consistent partial reconstruction can and must be attempted as proof of genetic relationship. Limitations A number of difficulties with aspects related to the method are now recognized, Lyovin 1997:4-5, 7-8 but the comparative method is still seen as being one of the most valuable tools in comparative linguistics, and linguists continue to use it widely; other proposed approaches to determining linguistic relationships and reconstructing proto-languages, such as glottochronology and mass lexical comparison, are considered flawed and unreliable by most linguists. Campbell 2004:347-348; Lyovin 1997:8; Trask 1996 Linguists recognize, however, that results obtained with the comparative method are not historical fact. Fox (1997:141-2), for example, concludes: “The Comparative Method as such is not, in fact, historical; it provides evidence of linguistic relationships to which we may give a historical interpretation. ...[Our increased knowledge about the historical processes involved] has probably made historical linguists less prone to equate the idealizations required by the method with historical reality. ...Provided we keep [the interpretation of the results and the method itself] apart, the Comparative Method can continue to be used in the reconstruction of earlier stages of languages.” Neogrammarian Hypothesis The foundation of the comparative method, and of comparative linguistics in general, is the Neogrammarians' fundamental assumption that "sound laws have no exceptions." When it was initially proposed, critics of the Neogrammarians proposed an alternate position, summarized by the maxim "each word has its own history". Szemerényi 1996:23 The so-called Neogrammarian Hypothesis is now well-established and well-supported, though there remain some situations in which its application can yield faulty results. Borrowings, areal diffusion and random mutations Even the Neogrammarians recognized that, apart from the general sound change laws, languages are also subject to borrowings from other languages and other sporadic changes (such as irregular inflections, compounding, and abbreviation) that affect one word at a time, or small subsets of words. While borrowed words should be excluded from the analysis, on the grounds that they are not genetic by definition, they do add noise to the data, and thus may hide systematic laws or distort their analysis. Moreover, there is the danger of circular reasoning — namely, of assuming that a word has been borrowed solely because it does not fit the current assumptions about the regular sound laws. Attempts to apply the comparative method to languages which have been affected by the process of areal diffusion can also be problematic. This is, in essence, a subtle form of borrowing, which can take place when a significant number of speakers of one language have some competence in another, possibly unrelated language. This may cause the languages to acquire phonological characteristics from one another, sometimes even without the conscious borrowing of lexical or morphological forms, with the result that the two languages may end up appearing to be genetically related when in fact they are not. It is also possible that two or more unrelated languages may appear to be related as the result of independent areal diffusion from a third unrelated language. Aikhenvald & Dixon 2001:2-3 It becomes especially hard when several areal features and other influences converge to form a sprachbund, making their identification all the more important; for instance, the East Asian Sprachbund suggested several false classifications of such languages as Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese before it was recognized. The other exceptions to the sound laws are a more serious problem, because they occur in generic language transmission. Such a sporadic change, with no apparent logical reason, is illustrated by the Spanish words palabra ('word'), peligro ('danger') and milagro ('miracle'). By regular sound changes from the Latin parabŏla, perĩcǔlum and mĩrãcǔlum, these should have become parabla, periglo, miraglo; but the r and l changed places by sporadic metathesis. Campbell 2004:39 Analogy A source of sporadic changes that was recognized by the Neogrammarians themselves was analogy, in which a word is sporadically changed to be closer to another word in the lexicon which is perceived as being somehow related to it. For example, the Russian word for nine, by regular sound changes from Proto-Slavic, should have been , but is in fact . It is believed that the initial changed to under influence of the word for "ten" in Russian, . Beekes 1995:79 Analogy very often affects verbs whose paradigms have become irregular through conditional sound-changes. Gradual application More recently, William Labov and other linguists who have studied contemporary language changes in detail have discovered that even a systematic sound change is at first applied in an unsystematic fashion, with the percentage of its occurrence in a person's speech dependent on various social factors. Beekes 1995:55; Szemerényi 1996:3 Often the sound change begins to affect some words in a language, and then gradually spreads to others, a process known as lexical diffusion. While not invalidating the Neogrammarians' axiom that "sound laws have no exceptions", this does seem to show that sound laws do not always apply to all lexical items at the same time. As Hock (1991:446-7) notes, "While it probably is true in the long run every word has its own history, it is not justified to conclude as some linguists have, that therefore the Neogrammarian position on the nature of linguistic change is falsified." Problems with the Tree Model Another weakness of the comparative method lies in its reliance on the Tree Model (German Stammbaum). Lyovin 1997:7-8 In this model, daughter languages are seen as branching out from the proto-language, gradually growing more and more distant from the proto-language through accumulated phonological, morpho-syntactic, and lexical changes; and possibly splitting into further daughter languages. This model is usually represented by upside-down tree-like diagrams. For example, here is a diagram of the Uto-Aztecan family of languages, spoken throughout the southern and western United States and Mexico: The diagram is based on Mithun 1999 and Campbell 1997 An example of the Tree Model, used here to represent the Uto-Aztecan language family. (Families are in bold, individual languages in italics. Not all of the branches and languages are shown, for lack of space.) Wave model Since languages change gradually, there are long periods in which different dialects of a language, as they evolve into separate languages, remain in contact with one another and influence each other. Therefore, the Tree Model does not reflect the reality of how languages change, as even once they are completely separated, languages which are near to one another will continue to influence each other, often sharing grammatical, phonological, and lexical innovations. A change in one language of a family will often spread to neighboring languages; and multiple waves of change may partially overlap like waves on the surface of a pond, across language and dialect boundaries, each with its own randomly delimited range. Fox 1995:129 The following diagram illustrates this conception of language change, called the Wave Model: Based partly on the diagram found in Fox 1995:128, and Johannes Schmidt, 1872. Die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der indogermanischen Sprachen. Weimar: H. Böhlau The Wave Model has been proposed as an alternative model of language change. However, Hock (1991:454) observes: “The discovery in the late nineteenth century that isoglosses can cut across well-established linguistic boundaries at first created considerable attention and controversy. And it became fashionable to oppose a wave theory to a tree theory... Today, however, it is quite evident that the phenomena referred to by these two terms are complementary aspects of linguistic change... What seemed at the outstart as two incompatible conceptions of how languages change had already coalesced into one single explanatory theory. As demonstrated by Labov (2007), what needed to be reconciled within one framework of thinking were the transmission and the diffusion principles of linguistic change. The transmission of change within a speech community is characterized by incrementation within a faithfully reproduced pattern characteristic of the tree model, while diffusion across communities shows weakening of the original pattern and a loss of structural features. This is the result of the differences between the learning abilities of children and adults as intercommunal contacts are primarily between the latter. Mixed and hybrid languages An additional problem with the Tree Model involves mixed and hybrid languages. For example, according to Zuckermann, Zuckermann 2009:63 "Israeli", his term for Modern Hebrew, which he regards as a Semito-European hybrid, "demonstrates that the reality of linguistic genesis is far more complex than a simple family tree system allows. 'Revived' languages are unlikely to have a single parent." Non-uniformity of the proto-language Another assumption implicit in the methodology of the comparative method is that the proto-language is uniform. This is problematic, as even in extremely small language communities there are always dialect differences, whether based on area, gender, class, or other factors (the Pirahã language of Brazil is spoken by only several hundred people, but has at least two different dialects, one spoken by men and one by women, for example). Aikhenvald & Dixon 1999:354; Ladefoged 2003:14 Therefore, the single proto-language reconstructed by the comparative method is an idealized language which never existed. This may not be as serious an issue as it at first appears, however; Campbell (2004:146-7) for instance, points out: “It is not so much that the comparative method 'assumes' no variation; rather, it is just that there is nothing built into the comparative method which would allow it to address variation directly....This assumption of uniformity is a reasonable idealization; it does no more damage to the understanding of the language than, say, modern reference grammars do which concentrate on a language's general structure, typically leaving out consideration of regional or social variation.” Subjectivity of the reconstruction While the identification of systematic sound correspondences between known languages is fairly objective, the reconstruction of their common ancestral language is inherently subjective. In the Proto-Algonquian example above, the choice of *m as the parent phoneme is only likely, not certain. It is conceivable that a Proto-Algonquian language with *b in those positions split into two branches, one which preserved *b and one which changed it to *m instead; and while the first branch only developed into Arapaho, the second spread out wider and developed into all the other Algonquian tribes. It is also possible that the nearest common ancestor of the Algonquian languages used some other sound instead, such as *p, which eventually mutated to *b in one branch and to *m in the other. Since the reconstruction of a proto-language involves many of these choices, some linguists prefer to view the proto-phonemes that are reconstructed as abstract representations of sound correspondences, rather than a literal guess about what sounds were present in the proto-language. On the other hand, there are a number of well-known cases where reconstructions have been confirmed as correct by independent evidence such as loanwords. For example Finnic languages such as Finnish have borrowed many words from an early stage of Germanic, and the shape of the loans matches the forms that have been reconstructed for Proto-Germanic: compare, e.g., Finnish kuningas 'king' and kaunis 'beautiful' to the Germanic reconstructions *kuningaz and *skauniz (> German König 'king', schön 'beautiful'). Kylstra & al. 1991- See also Historical linguistics Comparative linguistics Proto-language Lexicostatistics Swadesh list Notes References Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. and R. M. W. Dixon (eds.) (1999). The Amazonian Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ———— (eds.) (2001). Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Beekes, Robert S. P. (1995). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Bloomfield, Leonard (1925). "On the Sound System of Central Algonquian." Language 1:130-56. Campbell, George L. (2000). Compendium of the World's Languages (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ———— (2004). Historical Linguistics: An Introduction (2nd ed.). Cambridge: The MIT Press. ———— (in press) Why Sir William Jones got it all Wrong, or Jones’ Role in how to Establish Language Families. Festschrift/Memorial volume for Larry Trask, ed. by Joseba Lakarra. (Preprint available on Lyle Campbell's website) Churchward, C. Maxwell. (1959). Tongan Dictionary. Tonga: Government Printing Office. Comrie, Bernard (ed.) (1990). The World's Major Languages. New York: Oxford University Press. Crowley, Terry (1992). An Introduction to Historical Linguistics (2nd ed.). Auckland: Oxford University Press. Dixon, R. M. W. (1997). The Rise and Fall of Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fox, Anthony (1995). Linguistic Reconstruction: An Introduction to Theory and Method. New York: Oxford University Press. Goddard, Ives (1974). "An Outline of the Historical Phonology of Arapaho and Atsina." International Journal of American Linguistics 40:102-16. ———— (1994a). "A New Look for Algonquian." Paper presented at the Comparative Linguistics Workship, University of Pittsburgh, April 9. ———— (1994b). "The West-to-East Cline in Algonquian Dialectology." Actes du Vingt-Cinquième Congrès des Algonquibustes, ed. William Cowan: 187-211. Ottawa: Carleton University. Hock, Hans Henrich (1991). Principles of Historical Linguistics (2nd/rv/upd ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Holm, John (1989). Pidgins and Creoles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Janda, Richard D. & Brian D. Joseph (1989). "In Further Defence of a Non-Phonological Account for Sanskrit Root-Initial Aspiration Alternations". Proceedings of the Fifth Eastern States Conference on Linguistics: 246-260. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University. Available online. Jones, Sir William (1786). "The Third Anniversary Discourse, on the Hindus." In Lehmann, W. P. (ed.) (1967). A Reader in Nineteenth Century Historical Indo-European Linguistics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Available online. Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003). The Dravidian Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kylstra, A. D., Sirkka-Liisa Hahmo, Tette Hofstra & Osmo Nikkilä (1991-). Lexikon der älteren germanischen Lehnwörter in den ostseefinnischen Sprachen. Bd. I-III (the third volume forthcoming). Amsterdam / Atlanta: Rodopi. Ladefoged, Peter (2003). Phonetic Data Analysis: An Introduction to Fieldwork and Instrumental Techniques. Oxford: Blackwell. Labov, William (2007). "Transmission and diffusion." Language 83.344-387. Lehmann, Winfred P. (1993). Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics. London: Routledge. Mithun, Marianne (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. OED (1989). The Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pedersen, Holger (1962). The Discovery of Language. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Picard, Marc (1984). "On the Naturalness of Algonquian ." International Journal of American Linguistics 50:424-37. Sag, Ivan. A. (1974) "The Grassmann's Law Ordering Pseudoparadox," Linguistic Inquiry 5: 591-607. Schleicher, August (1874). A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin Languages, translated from the third German edition by Herbert Bendall. London: Trübner and Co. (Actually an abridgement of the German original.) Szemerényi, Oswald J. L. (1960). Studies in the Indo-European System of Numerals. Heidelberg: C. Winter. ———— (1996). Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Thomason, Sarah G. and Daniel L. Everett (n.d.). Pronoun Borrowing. Available online. Trask, R. L. (1996). Historical Linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2009). "Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns." Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2:40-67. "Vocabulary Words in the Algonquian Language Family" from Native Languages of the Americas. 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3,663 | Lansing,_Michigan | Lansing () is the capital city of the U.S. state of Michigan, and the state's sixth largest city. It is located about 80 miles (125 km) west-northwest of Detroit and is mostly in Ingham County, although small portions of the city extend into Eaton County. As of the July 1, 2008 Census Bureau estimate, it has a population of 114,947 and a Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) population of 454,035. United States Census Bureau, 1 July 2008 Population Estimate. Retrieved on March 19, 2009 The even larger Combined Statistical Area (CSA) population, which includes Shiawassee County, is estimated at 524,915. The Lansing metropolitan area, colloquially referred to as "Mid-Michigan", is an important center for educational, cultural, governmental, business, and high-tech manufacturing institutions, including three medical schools (two human medicine and one veterinary), two nursing schools, two law schools including the nation's largest law school, a Big Ten Conference university (Michigan State), the state capital, the state Supreme Court and Court of Appeals, a federal court, the Library of Michigan and Historical Center, and headquarters of four national insurance companies. Lansing is the only U.S. state capital (among the 44 located in counties) that is not also a county seat. The county seat of Ingham County is Mason, but the county maintains some offices in Lansing. History The area that is now Lansing was originally surveyed in 1825 in what was then dense forest. There would be no roads to this area for decades to come. "Lansing and Its Yesterdays", published by the State Journal Company, Published January 1, 1930 In the winter of 1835 and early 1836, two brothers from New York plotted the area now known as REO Town just south of downtown Lansing and named it "Biddle City." All of this land lay in a floodplain and was underwater during the majority of the year. Regardless, the brothers went back to New York, specifically Lansing, New York, to sell plots for the town that did not exist. They told the residents of Lansing, New York that this new "city" had an area of 65 blocks, contained a church and also a public and academic square. A group of 16 men bought plots in the nonexistent city and upon reaching the area later that year found they had been scammed. Many in the group too disappointed to stay ended up settling around what is now Metropolitan Lansing. Those who stayed quickly renamed the area "Lansing Township" in honor of their home village in New York. The sleepy settlement of fewer than 20 people would remain dormant until the winter of 1847 when the state constitution required that the capital be moved from Detroit to a more centralized and safer location in the interior of the state since many were concerned about Detroit's close proximity to British-controlled Canada, which had captured Detroit in the War of 1812. The United States had recaptured the city in 1813, but these events led to the dire need to have the center of government relocated away from hostile British territory. In addition, there was also concern with Detroit's strong influence over Michigan politics, being the largest city in the state as well as the capital city. During the multi-day session to determine a new location for the state capital, many cities, including Ann Arbor, Marshall, and Jackson, lobbied hard to win this designation. Samuel W. Durant (1880) History of Ingham and Eaton Counties, Michigan, Philadelphia: D.W. Ensign, p.72–73. Unable to publicly reach a consensus due to constant political wrangling, the Michigan House of Representatives privately chose the Township of Lansing out of frustration. When announced, many present openly laughed that such an insignificant settlement was now the capital city of Michigan. Two months later, the governor William L. Greenly signed into law the act of the legislature officially making Lansing Township the state capital. With the announcement that Lansing Township had been made the capital, the small village quickly transformed into the seat of state government. The legislature gave the settlement the temporary name of the "Town of Michigan". In April 1848, the legislature then gave the settlement the name of "Lansing". Within months after it became the capital city, individual settlements began to develop along three key points along the Grand River in the township. "Lower Village/Town", where present-day Old Town stands, was the oldest of the three villages. It was home to the first house built in Lansing in 1843 by pioneer James Seymour and his family. Lower Town began to develop in 1847 with the completion of the Franklin Avenue (now Grand River Avenue) covered bridge over the Grand River. Michigan State Capitol "Upper Village/Town", where present-day REO Town stands at the confluence of the Grand River and the Red Cedar River. It began to take off in 1847 when the Main Street Bridge was constructed over the Grand River. This village's focal point was the Benton House, a 4-story hotel which opened in 1848. It was the first brick building in Lansing and was later razed in 1900. "Middle Village/Town", where downtown Lansing now stands, was the last of the three villages to develop in 1848 with the completion of the Michigan Avenue bridge across the Grand River and the completion of the temporary capitol building which sat where Cooley Law School stands today on Capitol Avenue in between Allegan and Washtenaw Streets, and finally the relocation of the post office to the village in 1851. This area would grow to become larger than the other two villages up and down river. For a brief time the combined villages were referred to as "Michigan" but was officially named Lansing in 1848. In 1859, the settlement having grown to nearly 3,000 and encompassing about in area was incorporated as a city. The boundaries of the original city were Douglas Avenue to the north, Wood and Regent Streets to the east, Mount Hope Avenue to the south, and Jenison Avenue to the west. These boundaries would remain unchanged until 1916. Lansing began to grow steadily over the next two decades with the completion of the railroads through the city, a plank road, and the completion of the current capitol building in 1878. Most of what is known as Lansing today is the direct result of the city becoming an industrial powerhouse which began with the founding of Olds Motor Vehicle Company in August 1897. The company went through many changes, including a buyout, between its founding to 1905 when founder Ransom E. Olds started his new company REO Motor Car Company, which would last in Lansing for another 70 years. Olds would be joined by the less successful Clarkmobile around 1903. Clymer, Floyd. Treasury of Early American Automobiles, 1877–1925 (New York: Bonanza Books, 1950), p.25. Over the next decades, the city would see itself transformed into a major American industrial center for the manufacturing of automobiles and automobile parts among other industries. The city continued to grow in area too. By 1956, the city had grown to , and doubled in size over the next decade to its current size of roughly . Today, the city's economy is now diversified among government service, healthcare, manufacturing, insurance, banking, and education. Timeline Lansing, MI 1890 Michigan Supreme Court at the Hall of Justice, opened in 2002 1825 – Lansing Township surveyed. 1836 – A pair of New York speculators plot and market a non-existent city known as "Biddle City." The New Yorkers that bought into the idea arrive in Lansing to discover that the plots they had bought are located in a marsh, and are underwater. Some of the pioneers stay, but develop a village in what is now Old Town Lansing a mile north of the non-existent "Biddle City." 1847 – The state capital moved from Detroit to Lansing Township. 1855 – Michigan State University is founded as the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan. 1859 – The city of Lansing officially incorporated with about 3,000 citizens inside of . 1879 – New State Capitol dedicated. The structure cost $1,510,130. 1881 – Michigan Millers Insurance Company founded. 1897 – Ransom E. Olds drives his first car down a Lansing street. Later that year he founded the Olds Motor Vehicle Company, which became the Oldsmobile division of General Motors in 1908, and he was also the founder of the REO Motor Car Company in 1904, both headquartered in Lansing. 1904 – The "most extensive flood in 135 years of local history" causes the Grand River to overflow its banks in March 24–27, leading to major damage and one death. Bridges at Logan Street, Kalamazoo Street, Cedar Street and Mt. Hope Road are all washed away. The Kalamazoo St. bridge lodges against the Michigan Avenue bridge; it is later salvaged and re-erected at Kalamazoo Street. 1910 – The population of the city nearly doubles from the 1900 census to 31,229. 1912 – The Accident Fund Insurance Company of America founded. 1916 – Auto-Owners Insurance Company founded. 1929 – The Lansing Symphony Orchestra founded. 1940 – Lansing's population stagnates, only rising by 356 over the decade to 78,753. 1954 – Frandor Mall opens – first in the area, and second in the state. 1956 – The city reaches in size. 1957 – Lansing Community College founded. 1960 – The city's population finally breaks the 100,000 mark at 107,807. 1961 – Jackson National Life Insurance Company founded. 1965 – The city reaches in size. 1970 – Lansing reaches its peak population of 131,546. 1972 – The Thomas M. Cooley Law School founded. 1980 – Lansing's population declines for the first time losing 989 to hit 130,414. 1989 – The Library of Michigan and Historical Center near the Capitol Complex dedicated. 1992 – The Michigan State Capitol completes an extensive renovation to restore it to its original grandeur. 1998 – Mayor David Hollister signs a 425 Agreement with Alaiedon Township in September to facilitate the development of the headquarters of Jackson National Life Insurance Company. 1999 – Mayor David Hollister signs a 425 Agreement with Meridian Township in November to facilitate the development of the Governor's Collection/College Fields upscale housing development and golf course. 2000 – Lansing's population experiences its greatest drop in its history, falling over 6% over the preceding decade to 119,128. 2001 – GM opens new assembly plant, Lansing Grand River Assembly. Builds the Cadillac CTS, STS, SRX and V-Series. The architecture of the assembly plant resembles a high-tech research facility instead of a traditional factory. 2002 – The Hall of Justice (Michigan Supreme Court building) at the West-end of the Capitol Complex is dedicated. 2004 – Last Oldsmobile rolls off the assembly line at Lansing Car Assembly on April 29. This same year the Thomas M. Cooley Law School becomes the largest law school in the nation. 2005 – Mayor Tony Benavides signs a series of three 425 Agreements with Delta Township and General Motors facilitating the development General Motors' Lansing Delta Township Assembly Plant. 2006 – GM opens state of the art facility in nearby Delta Charter Township. As with the 2001 assembly plant built in Lansing, the Delta plant resembles a high-tech research facility and not a traditional factory. 2008 - Accident Fund Insurance Company of America announces the renovation of the Ottawa Street Power Station and addition of modern buildings connected by an atrium for their new headquarters. Geography Lansing is the centerpiece of a region of Michigan known as Mid-Michigan or Central Michigan. The North Lansing dam of the Grand River. The Lansing River Trail and Ottawa Street Power Station are visible behind. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which of it is land and (0.57%) of it is water. This figure includes two 425 Agreements with Alaiedon Township and Meridian Township, but not the four 425 Agreements with Delta Township since 2000. Under Michigan law, 425 Agreements are only temporary land sharing agreements, and do not count as official annexations. The Census Bureau, however, for statistical purposes, does count these as annexations. Not counting the temporary 425 Agreements, Lansing administers total. Lansing is located in the south central part of the lower peninsula where the Grand River meets the Red Cedar River. The city occupies most of what had formerly been part of Lansing Charter Township. It has also annexed adjacent tracts of land in Delta Charter Township and Windsor Township in Eaton County to the west and Delhi Charter Township in Ingham County to the south. The city also controls three non-contiguous tracts of land through 425 Agreements (conditional land transfer agreements) with Meridian Charter Township, Delta Charter Township, and Alaiedon Township in Ingham County to the southeast. The Ottawa Street Power Station Lansing elevation ranges between above sea level on the far south side of Lansing along Northrup Street near the Cedar Street intersection, to to above sea level along the Grand River because of the two dams along the river. The Grand River, the largest river in Michigan, flows through downtown Lansing; and the Red Cedar River, a tributary of the Grand River, flows through the campus at Michigan State University. There are two lakes in the area, Park Lake and Lake Lansing, both northeast of the city. Lake Lansing is approximately in size and is a summer favorite for swimmers, boaters, and fishermen. Michigan State University Sailing Club and the Lansing Sailing Club are located on Lake Lansing, where sailing regattas are hosted throughout the summer. The city of Lansing operates a total of of parkland, of which is parkland, are golflands, and are cemetery lands. This figure includes the Waverly Hills Golf Course and adjacent Michigan Avenue Park, which are part of Lansing Township, but operated by the City of Lansing. The figure, however, does not include the [Ingham County parklands within the borders of Lansing. Kellie Brown, Interim Administrative Assistant, Lansing Parks and Recreation Department, January 3, 2007 Climate Monthly Normal and Record High and Low Temperatures Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Rec High °F (°C) 66 (18.8) 69 (20.5) 79 (26.1) 86 (30) 94 (34.4) 99 (37.2) 100 (37.7) 100 (37.7) 97 (36.1) 89 (31.6) 77 (25) 69 (20.5) Norm High °F (°C) 29.4 (-1.4) 32.6 (0.3) 43.5 (6.4) 56.6 (13.6) 69.4 (20.7) 78.1 (25.6) 82.1 (27.8) 79.7 (26.5) 72 (22.2) 59.8 (15.4) 46 (7.7) 34.1 (1.2) Norm Low °F (°C) 13.9 (-10.05) 15.4 (-9.2) 24.3 (-4.3) 34.5 (1.4) 44.8 (7.1) 54.3 (12.4) 58.4 (14.6) 57 (13.4) 48.9 (9.4) 38.6 (3.6) 30.1 (-1.05) 19.7 (-6.8) Rec Low °F (°C) -29 (-33.8) -25 (-31.6) -15 (-26.1) -2 (-18.8) 19 (-7.2) 30 (-1.1) 37 (2.7) 35 (1.6) 22 (-5.5) 15 (-9.4) 4 (-15.5) -18 (-27.7) Precip in (mm) 1.61 (40.9) 1.45 (36.8) 2.33 (59.2) 3.09 (78.5) 2.71 (68.8) 3.6 (91.4) 2.68 (67.1) 3.46 (87.9) 3.48 (88.4) 2.29 (58.2) 2.66 (67.6) 2.17 (55.1)Source: WeatherByDay.com Lansing Climate Neighborhoods Boji Tower, Lansing's tallest building, located downtown The city's downtown is dominated by state government buildings, especially the State Capitol; but downtown has also experienced recent growth in new restaurants, retail stores and residential developments. Downtown Lansing has a historic city market that is one of the oldest continuously operating farmers' markets in the United States. Lansing City Market Upriver and north of downtown is historic Old Town Lansing] with many architecturally significant buildings dating to the mid-1800s. Old Town Directly south of downtown on the other side of I-496 along Washington Avenue lies "REO Town", the birthplace of the automobile in the United States, is where Ransom Eli Olds built factories along Washington Avenue. Ransom Eli Olds' home, which once overlooked the factories along Washington Avenue, was displaced by I-496. Lansing is generally divided into four sections: Eastside, Westside, Northwestside, and the Southside. Each section contains a diverse array of neighborhoods. The Eastside, located east of the Grand River and north of the Red Cedar River, is the most ethnically diverse side of Lansing, with foreign-born citizens making up more of its population than any other side in the city. Allen Neighborhood Center The Eastside's commercial districts are located mainly along Michigan Avenue, and to a lesser extent along Kalamazoo Street. It is anchored by Frandor Shopping Center on the very eastern edge of the eastside. The Westside, roughly located north, west, and south of the Grand River as it curves through the city, is sometimes regarded the city's most socio-economically diverse section. This side also contains Lansing's downtown area, though this neighborhood is often included as an area all its own. Outside downtown, this side is largely a collection of residential neighborhoods and is served by only one other commercial area along Saginaw Street. However, it also includes a small part of the Old Town Commercial Association. The Northwestside, generally located north of the Grand River, with the city limits defining its north and western borders, is physically the smallest side of the city. This part of the city includes suburban areas and some more rural areas. North of Grand River Avenue, the main street of the side, lie warehouses and light industrial areas served by a major rail line that runs through Lansing. The most notable landmark of this side is Lansing's airport: Capital Region International Airport. The Southside, usually described as the neighborhoods located south of the Grand and Red Cedar rivers and the I-496 freeway, is physically the largest and most populous side of the city, and contains some of the city's most healthy neighborhoods. The area is largely suburban in nature (south of Mount Hope Road near the northern edge), and is served by numerous commercial strips along Cedar Street, Martin Luther King, Jr. Boulevard, Pennsylvania Avenue, and Waverly Road, which run north/south. The large Edgewood District is located in the southernmost part of the Southside and is sometimes referred to as South Lansing. Though it is the largest area of the city by both physical size and population, it has often been regarded by Southside citizens as Lansing's most overlooked and forgotten area, as most of Lansing's attention in recent decades has been put into the revitalization of the city's historic core located mostly on small parts of both the East and Westsides. Demographics Michigan's State Capitol in Lansing As of the census of 2000, there were 119,128 people, 49,505 households, and 28,366 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,399.0 per square mile (1,312.3/km²). There were 53,159 housing units at an average density of 1,516.8/sq mi (585.6/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 65.28% White (61.4% non-Hispanic White), 21.91% African American, 0.80% Native American, 2.83% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 4.54% from other races, and 4.60% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.0% of the population. The city's foreign-born population stood at 5.9%. As of 2000, the city's population rose by 32,293 (27%) to 151,421 during the day due to the influx of workers. U.S. Census Bureau courtesy of City-Data.com There were 49,505 households out of which 30.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.8% were married couples living together, 17.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.7% were non-families. 33.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.08. In the city the population was spread out with 26.8% under the age of 18, 11.4% from 18 to 24, 32.7% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 9.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $34,833, and the median income for a family was $41,283. Males had a median income of $32,648 versus $27,051 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,924. About 13.2% of families and 16.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.2% of those under age 18 and 9.0% of those age 65 or over. Government Municipal government Lansing is administered under a mayor-council government, more specifically a "strong mayor" setup in which the mayor holds most of the city's administrative powers, such as appointment of department heads and drafting and administering a city budget, though the council must approve his/her actions. The mayor is elected at-large every four years. Lansing is different from most U.S. cities in that its eight-member city council includes four members each elected from one of four wards, as well as four "at-large" members elected citywide. The reasoning behind this system is that while each ward of the city gets its own representation, the at-large councilmembers serve as a voice for often- underrepresented neighborhoods in those wards. Lansing City Hall & Lansing Police Department Central Precinct The current mayor is Virgil Bernero, who took office on January 1, 2006. The city council members as of January 3, 2008 are: Eric Hewitt (1st Ward), Sandy Allen (2nd Ward), A'Lynne Robinson (3rd Ward and Council Vice President), Tim Kaltenbach (4th Ward), Kathie Dunbar (at-large), Brian Jeffries (at-large), Derrick Quinney (at-large and Council President) and Carol Wood (at-large). List of Mayors of Lansing, Michigan State and federal representation Lansing currently lies mostly within the boundaries of Michigan's 8th congressional district, which has been represented by Republican congressman Mike J. Rogers since 2001. The small portion of the city that extends into Eaton County is located in Michigan's 7th congressional district, which has been represented by Democratic congressman Mark Schauer since 2009. At the state level, Lansing is located in the 23rd district of the Michigan Senate, which has been represented by Democratic state senator Gretchen Whitmer since January 1, 2007. The small portion of the city that extends into Eaton County is located in the 24th district of the Michigan Senate, which is currently represented by Republican state senator Patricia L. Birkholz. The city lies in the 67th, 68th, 69th, and 71st districts of the Michigan State House of Representatives, represented by state representatives Barb Byrum (D-67), Joan Bauer (D-68), Mark Meadows (D-69), and Rick Jones (R-71). Michigan House District 71 Despite Lansing not being a designated county seat, many county offices and courts are still located within downtown Lansing, including the county circuit court. Economy The Lansing metropolitan area's major industries are government, education, insurance, healthcare, and automobile manufacturing. Being the state capital, many state government workers reside in the area. Michigan State University, Thomas M. Cooley Law School, and Lansing Community College are significant employers in the region. The former Oldsmobile Headquarters and the Otto Eckert Power Station General Motors has offices and a hi-tech manufacturing facility in Lansing and several manufacturing facilities immediately outside the city, as well, in nearby Lansing and Delta townships. The Lansing area is headquarters to four major national insurance companies: Auto-Owners Insurance Company, Jackson National Life, the Accident Fund, Accident Fund and Michigan Millers Insurance Company. Michigan Millers Insurance Company The Lansing area is also home to rapidly growing financial companies such as Siena Capital Management Siena Capital Management and Capitol Bancorp Limited. Capitol Bancorp Limited Elderly Instruments, an internationally recognized music retailer, is located in Lansing. The recent decline of the auto industry in the region has increased the region's awareness of the importance of a strategy to foster the high-technology sector. An initiative called Prima Civitas, created by Michigan State University, in cooperation with the cities of Lansing and East Lansing, under the direction of former Lansing mayor David Hollister, is spearheading focused economic development in the technology sector in the region. Early availability of high-speed Internet in 1996, as well as the MSU, Cooley Law School, and LCC student population, fostered an intellectual environment for information technology companies to incubate. Lansing has a number of technology companies in the fields of information technology and biotechnology. Neogen Corporation is an international food and animal safety company headquartered in Lansing. Neogen develops and manufactures among other things, diagnostic kits, equine vaccines and culture media. Neogen Corporation Emergent BioSolutions is an international biopharmaceutical company that maintains significant operations in Lansing. Emergent BioSolutions is developing an array of biodefense and commercial products and currently manufactures the only FDA approved anthrax vaccine at its Lansing operations. Emergent BioSolutions In March 2009 Emergent announced another $10.9 million investment in its Lansing facility and is adding 93 new employees. "Biotech Company Invests $10.9 Million to Update Key Lansing Facility", Capital Gains, March 25, 2009 TechSmith Corporation is located just outside Lansing and is the world's leading provider of screen capture and recording software for individual and professional use. TechSmith Corporation Liquid Web, Inc. is a web hosting company located in neighboring Delta Township, and operates two datacenters there. Liquid Web, Inc. Niowave is a high-tech company in Lansing that makes parts for superconducting particle accelerators. ACD.net is an independent company in Lansing that provides high-speed Internet service, Web hosting, telephone service and data storage to more than 20,000 customers across Michigan. IBM announced in January 2009 that it was opening its first U.S. programming center in the former MSU Federal Credit Union headquarters in East Lansing for application software for governments, universities, etc. Lansing State Journal, January 15, 2009 Healthcare Sparrow Hospital is a 740 bed hospital and is affiliated with Michigan State University and its College of Human Medicine and College of Osteopathic Medicine. In February 2009 it was announced that Sparrow and MSU formalized their partnership to increase research and faculty recruitment. "MSU, Sparrow formalize partnership", The State News, Jacob Carpenter, February 23, 2009 Sparrow Hospital is the Regional Center for pediatrics, cancer care, including radiation therapy, trauma care, neurological care, high-risk obstetrics and neonatal intensive care. The Sparrow Tower was finished January 2008 and includes but is not limited to: a dedicated pediatric emergency room (the only one in the region), the largest adult emergency room in the region, state-of-the-art operating rooms, a rooftop helipad, oncology center, heart and vascular center and orthopedic department. In addition, 4,500 deliveries are performed at Sparrow Hospital annually, rehabilitation, and emergency treatment is more than any other hospital in mid-Michigan. The Sparrow Health System Laboratory performs over 3 million tests per year, at various laboratory sites, which include four remote testing facilities and thirteen patient service centers. Sparrow Hospital is certified as a Level I Trauma Center by the American College of Surgeons. "Trauma Programs", American College of Surgeons In May 2009 Sparrow announced that it now has its own helicopter service based at its downtown Lansing hospital's new $2.5 million helipad. http://www.lansingstatejournal.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=2009905010320 The addition is expected to increase helicopter patient transport to the hospital from four a month to 400 a year. Ingham Regional Medical Center is also a university affiliated teaching hospital. Ingham enjoys a special affiliation in radiation oncology with the University of Michigan and Michigan State University; Ingham is part of the Great Lakes Cancer Institute (GLCI). Ingham received five-star ratings for: Coronary bypass surgery; Cardiac interventions; Treatment of heart attacks; Total knee replacement; Total hip replacement; Back and neck surgery; Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease care; Community-Acquired pneumonia care. "About Us", Ingham Regional Medical Center "Cool City" and downtown redevelopment Several urban renewal projects by private developers are adding higher end apartments and condominiums to the Lansing market. The Arbaugh, a former department store across from Cooley Law School was converted into apartments in 2005. Motor Wheel Lofts, an industrial site, will be converted into loft-style living spaces in mid-2006. Motor Wheel Lofts A combination retail and residential complex to the south of Oldsmobile Park baseball stadium called "The Stadium District", was completed in 2007. The Stadium District In May 2006, the historically significant Mutual Building located on Capitol Avenue was purchased by The Christman Company to be renovated back to its original grandeur and used as the company's headquarters. Additional downtown developments include the renovation of the historic Hollister Building, and the expansion of the former Abrams Aerial Building. As of August 2008, an 18-story condominium high-rise called Capitol Club Tower is in the design phase with the adjacent parking structure already having been approved by city council and purchased by the developer. The city market, in existence since 1909, was approved to be sold for a multi-building mixed use development called MarketPlace that will be built after a new city market is built by 2009, right next to the current market on the adjacent riverfront. The MarketPlace project is being developed along with BallPark North, another mixed-use development that will be immediately north of Oldsmobile Stadium. The new city market will be across the river from where the Accident Fund insurance company is rennovating the former (art deco) Ottawa Street Powerplant into their new headquarters as well as the addition of modern buildings to the north that will be connected by an atrium. List of largest metropolitan Lansing employers – 2005 Source: Lansing Chamber of Commerce - Lansing Region's Largest Employers - 2005 Lansing Chamber of Commerce - Lansing Region's Largest Employers - 2005 Company/OrganizationSectorLocal Full-time EmploymentState of MichiganGovernment14,355Michigan State UniversityHigher Education10,500General Motors CorporationAutomobile Manufacturing6,300Sparrow Health SystemHealthcare6,000Lansing Community CollegeHigher Education3,180Ingham Regional Medical CenterHealthcare2,500Lansing Public School DistrictPrimary Education2,106MeijerWarehousing, Retailer, Grocer2,000Auto-Owners InsuranceInsurance1,500Peckham, Inc.Manufacturing1,400Jackson National LifeInsurance1,393Ingham CountyGovernment1,258City of LansingGovernment1,240United States Postal ServiceGovernment1,200Wal-MartRetailer1,185Dart ContainerContainer Manufacturer1,144 Education J.W. Sexton High School, Westside Lansing Michigan State University, a member of the Big Ten Conference, is known as "the pioneer land grant college", located in neighboring East Lansing. MSU has the largest land campus in the United States and is home to several nationally and internationally recognized academic and research oriented programs. Michigan State offers over 200 programs of study and is home to fourteen different degree-granting schools and colleges including three medical schools, a law school, and numerous PhD programs. It is the only university in the nation with three medical schools. MSU is consistently one of the top three programs in the United States for study abroad programs. The MSU College of Education is also consistently rated as the top education program in the nation. Michigan State University is the oldest agricultural college in the United States. The MSU School of Criminal Justice is the oldest continuous degree granting criminal justice program in the nation. "Message from the Director", School of Criminal Justice at Michigan State University In 2008, the Department of Energy announced MSU won the contest for a $550 million Facility for Rare Isotope Beams that will attract top researchers from around the world to conduct experiments in nuclear science, astrophysics and applications of isotopes to other fields. "Funding Opportunity Announcement (FOA) Updates", Facility for Rare Isotope Beams, Office of Nuclear Physics The Thomas M. Cooley Law School is the largest law school in the nation and is located in downtown Lansing. Cooley is fully accredited by the American Bar Association. A majority of Cooley students are from out-of-state. Lansing Community College offers more than 500 areas of study to over 18,000 students at its main facilities in Lansing, and another 5,000 students at twenty-nine extension centers and a site in Otsu, Japan. LCC's new, state-of-the-art University Center enables students to take courses with the goal of eventually earning an undergraduate or graduate degree from other Michigan institutions. The University Center stands on the former site of "Old Central", Lansing's first public high school, which was established in 1875 as Lansing High School. (In the 1920s it was renamed as Central High School, and in 1957 became the first building on the LCC campus.) Other institutions of higher education include Western Michigan University (branch campus in Delta Township), Davenport University in Downtown Lansing, Central Michigan University (branch campus), and Great Lakes Christian College(campus in Delta Township). Eastern High School, Eastside Lansing Public and private primary schools Lansing School District Lansing School District Lansing Public Schools: (Lansing Everett, JW Sexton High School, and Lansing Eastern) Lansing Christian Schools Lansing Catholic Central Waverly School District Mid-Michigan Public School Academy El-Hajj Malik Shabazz Academy (named after Malcolm X) Gada Masif Johnson School for the Arts Our Savior Lutheran School Our Savior Lutheran School Culture Parades The Capital City African American Cultural Association hosts an African American Parade and Heritage Festival every year for almost a decade. The chair of the CCAACA is the Rev. Dr. Michael C. Murphy, who is pastor of St. Stephen's Community Church, a former State Representative and a long-time community leader. The parade highlights African American culture, its influence in Michigan, and recognizes prominent African American individuals in the community and their contributions to Lansing as the grand marshal of each parade. The festival immediately following the parade consists of live entertainment, "soul food" and lots of fun for adults and children. It is held every year on the first Saturday in August and begins at 11:00 a.m. in downtown Lansing, Michigan. The festival is held at Ferris Park in downtown Lansing. In 2009 they will celebrate 10 years. The 24th Annual Silver Bells in the City Parade proceeded through the streets of downtown Lansing on November 21, 2008. The 2007 parade attracted over 120,000 for the Electric Light Parade followed by the lighting of Michigan's official Christmas tree in front of the State Capitol and a firework show (weather permitting) over the State Capitol. Silver Bells in the City Parade Music The Lansing Symphony Orchestra has been entertaining generations of Lansing area residents since 1929. The current music director is Timothy Muffett. There are many bars and clubs in downtown Lansing let alone in the neighborhoods surrounding downtown. Bars and clubs in downtown include: Brannigan Brothers, Kelly's, The Firm, Tavern on the Square, 621, Excel, The Exchange, Harem's, Rum Runners (dueling piano bar), Moriarty's, Nuthouse, Art's and The Green Door to name just a few. Many of these bars and clubs have live bands; The Green Door is a blues bar that has live bands 7-nights a week. The Green Door The Lansing JazzFest and the Old Town BluesFest host leading musicians, and are two of the larger music festivals held each year in the state. Old Town Oktoberfest is a two-day event drawing hundreds to the Old Town neighborhood for live polka music, authentic German food and of course world renowned German-style beer. Old Town Oktoberfest It was announced in May 2007 that the city would host a Thursday night, summertime blues concerts along Washington Square in downtown Lansing named "Blues on the Square" that will feature national acts during the summer June-August. In 2008 the event regularly drew crowds over 500 to downtown. "Lansing warms up to the blues with summer series", CityPulse, Eric Gallippo, June 20, 2007 The Common Ground Festival Common Ground Festival is a musical event held over a week every July at the Adado Riverfront Park in downtown Lansing pulling in crowds over 90,000 for the week. It began in 2000 and replaced the Michigan Festival that was held in nearby East Lansing. It has wide range of musical acts. In 2008, acts included Staind, Drowning Pool, Sammy Hagar, The Hard Lessons, Snoop Dogg, REO Speedwagon, Kellie Pickler, Seether and Trace Adkins. Theatre The Riverwalk Theatre, Riverwalk Theatre (formerly the Okemos Barn Theatre), the Lansing Civic Players, Lansing Civic Players and the BoarsHead Theater BoarsHead Theater are all located in downtown. Peppermint Creek Theatre Company Peppermint Creek Theatre Company is a well established "new" award winning theater company. The Greater Lansing Ballet Company is an award-winning ballet and dance company. The Creole Gallery The Creole Gallery brings in various musicians and hosts the Icarus Falling Theater group. Museums Lansing is home to a number of small, specialized museums such as: The Impression 5 Science Center, Impression 5 Science Center a children's museum located in a historic wagon works factory on the Grand River. The Michigan Museum of Surveying the only museum in North America solely dedicated to surveying and mapping. It is located in a former steam plant constructed in 1923. The R.E. Olds Transportation Museum, a museum dedicated to the education of Lansing's role in the development of transportation, particularly the automobile. The Michigan Women's Hall of Fame, a museum dedicated to the historical accomplishments and achievements of Michigan women. The house is located directly south of downtown in the 1903-built Cooley-Haze House. The museum is surrounded by Cooley Gardens. Cooley Gardens The Turner-Dodge House, Turner-Dodge House a museum dedicated to Lansing's early pioneers. The museum sits in the Classical Revival-styled Turner-Dodge Mansion, built in 1858 for James and Marion Turner, and later by their daughter and her husband. It is on the National Register of Historic Places. Farmers' markets Lansing has several farmers' markets throughout the city in the summer months. These markets include the Allen Street Farmer's Market on the city's eastside, the Old Town Farmer's Market, and the year-round historic Lansing City Market located near downtown. The Lansing City Market is building a brand new $1.6 million facility on the riverfront in downtown Lansing where it will continue its year round operations providing specialty items in addition to regular groceries from over 30 vendors. Potter Park Zoo The historic Potter Park Zoo, located along the Red Cedar River in Lansing, has more than 400 animals and numerous programs and events for children and families. With annual attendance increasing every year since 2006 (137,236 in 2008 compared to 110,167 in 2006) there are $667,100 in capital improvements planned for 2009 including a giant walk-in aviary and a new female tiger. This is in addition to $1.3 million spent on capital improvements in 2008. Libraries The Library of Michigan and Historical Center is a highly regarded state library and research center. The library is one of the top five genealogical research facilities in the United States. The Capital Area District Library has three branches in the city: The Main library downtown, the Foster Library on the east side, and the South Lansing Library on the south side. Other area destinations The Wharton Center for Performing Arts recently began a 24,000 sq/ft expansion having already spent over $1.3 million in 2008 . Many Broadway shows come to The Wharton Center before making to theaters in larger places such as Chicago .The Kresge Art Museum, the MSU Museum, and the Abrams Planetarium are highly acclaimed cultural destinations located on the campus of Michigan State University in East Lansing. In June 2007 MSU announced the plans to build a new art museum after a $26 million gift from Eli and Edythe Broad . Internationally known Pritzker Prize winning architect Zaha Hadid of London won the design competition for the museum that will be built in East Lansing. Media Newspapers and Magazines Lansing State Journal Lansing City Pulse The New Citizens Press Capital Gains Media Capital Area Women's Lifestyle Magazine The Greater Lansing Business Monthly Greater Lansing Woman Magazine The Hub MIRS News-Michigan Information & Research Service The State News Television WLNS 6 (CBS) (Cable 9) WILX 10 (NBC) (Cable 4) WHTV 18 (My Network TV) (Cable 8) WKAR 23 (PBS) (Cable 13) WSYM 47 (FOX) (Cable 7) WLAJ 53 (ABC) (Cable 3) / DT2 (CW) (Cable 5) The NBC affiliate maintains the FOX affiliate's News programming. Both affiliates broadcast their newscasts at the News 10 studios in Lansing. Often the same reporters are used on both broadcasts. Radio Lansing's radio dial has quite a few stations. Note: If the station has no city listed before the format, it is licensed to Lansing. 87.7 WLNS – (audio of CBS Affiliate channel 6) 88.1 WLGH – (Leroy Township, contemporary Christian) "Smile FM" 88.5 WJOM – (Eagle, contemporary Christian) "Smile FM" 88.9 WDBM – (East Lansing, college/Michigan State University) "The Impact" 89.7 WLNZ – (public radio/Lansing Community College) 90.5 WKAR – (East Lansing, public radio/Michigan State University) Note: WKAR runs with 86,000 watts 91.3 WOES – (Ovid, polka/Ovid-Elsie High School) 92.1 WQTX – (St. Johns, oldies) 92.9 WJZL – (Grand Ledge, smooth jazz) 93.7 WBCT-FM – (Grand Rapids, country) "B93" Note: WBCT runs with 320,000 watts 94.1 WVIC – (Jackson, soft rock) 94.9 WMMQ – (East Lansing, classic rock) 96.5 WQHH – (DeWitt, urban) "Power 96.5" 97.5 WJIM – (CHR) 99.1 WFMK – (East Lansing, adult contemporary) 100.7 WITL-FM – (country) "Whittle" 101.7 WHZZ – (adult hits) "Mike-FM" 105.7 WOOD – (Grand Rapids, adult contemporary) "Star 105.7" 106.1 WJXQ – (Charlotte, active rock) "Q106" 107.3 WKLQ – (Greenville/Grand Rapids, rock) 730 AM WVFN – (East Lansing, sports talk) "The Game" 870 AM WKAR – (East Lansing, NPR news/talk) 1110 AM WUNN – (Mason, religious/southern gospel) 1180 AM WXLA – (Dimondale, (adult standards) "Timeless Classics 1180" 1240 AM WJIM – (news/talk) "Lansing's Big Talker" 1320 AM WILS – (news/talk) "More Compelling Talk" 1390 AM WLCM – (Charlotte, religious) 1580 AM WWSJ – (St. Johns, urban contemporary gospel) "Joy 1580" 162.400 WXK81 – NOAA Weather Radio (Onondaga, weather) Sports The Lansing Lugnuts are a Class A Midwest League, Minor League Baseball team, currently affiliated with the Toronto Blue Jays. The Lugnuts are one of the most popular franchises in Minor League Baseball, drawing 538,325 fans during the 1996 season , and in the process outdrawing many larger teams. Their logo is one of the most popular in the minors . The team plays its home games at Oldsmobile Park, which was built at a cost of $12.7 million and opened in 1996 in downtown Lansing. It was partially renovated in 2006. Oldsmobile Park has a seating capacity of 11,215 fans, and was built to accommodate additional expansion. The team has won two Midwest League championships, their first in 1997 and their second in 2003. The Lansing Capitals began play in the International Basketball League in 2006. Michigan State University sponsors both men's and women's sports, usually competing as a member of the Big Ten Conference. The Spartans have won National Titles in Men's Basketball, Football, Men's Boxing, Men's Cross Country, Men's Gymnastics, Men's Ice Hockey, Men's Soccer, and Men's Wrestling. Lansing Community College also sponsors many sports, competing as members of the Michigan Community College Athletic Association. The Stars have won NJCAA titles in the following sports: Women's Softball, Men's Basketball, Women's Basketball, Men's Cross Country, Women's Cross Country, Women's Marathon and Men's Marathon. The Lansing area is also known for its many golf courses, with two courses owned by Michigan State University, four municipal courses, and many additional public and private courses in the area. Walnut Hills Country Club in nearby East Lansing formerly hosted the LPGA's Oldsmobile Classic from 1992–2000. The Michigan PGA recently relocated from the Detroit area to Bath, Michigan, which is on the northern edge of Lansing. In the 1980s and 1990s Lansing was a major player in semi-pro football. The Lansing Crusaders won MFL/MCFL championships in 1982, 1983, 1985, 1987, 1989, and 1990. The team finished second in 1984, 1986, and 1991. Other past sports teams include: Lansing – Michigan State League (baseball) – 1889 to 1890 Lansing Senators – Michigan State League (baseball) – 1895 and 1902 Southern Michigan League – 1907 to 1914 Central League – 1921 to 1922 renamed the Lansing Lancers – Michigan State League – 1940 and then back as the Lansing Senators – Michigan State League – 1941 Lansing Capitals – North American Basketball League – 1966-67 to 1967-68 Lansing Lancers – International Hockey League – 1974 to 1975 Capital City Cardinals – Michigan Charity Football League – 1980 Lansing Crusaders – Michigan Charity Football League – 1980 to 1988 Michigan Football League – 1989 to 1994 Capital City Cowboys – Michigan Football League – 1992 Lansing Ice Nuts – International Independent Hockey League – 2003 to 2004 Transportation Airports Scheduled commercial airline service is offered from Capital Region International Airport (formerly known as Capital City Airport). Lansing Capital City Airport Northwest Airlines maintains routes to Detroit and Minneapolis/St. Paul. United Airlines maintains routes to Chicago O'Hare. In 2008 Capital City Airport received a port of entry designation and will have a permanent customs facility, thus changing its name to reflect the port of entry status. Starting in June 2009 Air Azul is adding direct flights from Capital Region Internation Airport to New York City (Newark) and Washington D.C. (Baltimore) UPS has a freight hub at CRIA making up part of the 24 million pounds of annual cargo moving through the airport. In 2008 a extension to the largest of the three runways (now 8,500 feet) was completed to allow for larger aircraft to use the airport. Michigan Flyer provides bus service between Lansing and Detroit Metro Airport eight times daily. Major highways Interstate highways I-69 runs from Indianapolis north to Lansing and east to Port Huron, connecting to Canada. I-96 runs from Muskegon, past Grand Rapids and Lansing to Detroit. I-496, the Ransom E. Olds Freeway, loops through downtown Lansing, connecting with I-96 on either end. I-69 Business Loop or BL I-69 is a loop route running through Lansing and East Lansing. I-96 Business Loop or BL I-96 is a loop route running through Lansing. Capitol Loop a loop route off I-496 serving the state capitol and other downtown facilities. US highways US 127 is a north-south highway passing between the city and neighboring East Lansing, continuing northerly toward Clare and Grayling and southerly toward Jackson, Michigan and into Ohio. Michigan state trunklines M-43 (Saginaw Avenue) M-99 (Martin Luther King Jr. Blvd.). Railways Amtrak provides intercity passenger rail service at a stop in nearby East Lansing, on the Blue Water line from Chicago to Port Huron. Three freight railroads serve Lansing including Canadian National Railways (CN), CSX Transportation (CSXT), and Norfolk Southern Railway (NS). Public transportation Capital Area Transportation Authority (CATA) provides public transit bus service to the Lansing-East Lansing Metropolitan area on 33 routes. CATA boasts the second highest ridership in the state of Michigan after Detroit with 53,000 daily rides in September 2008 and 11,306,339 rides in fiscal year 2008. CATA also provides paratransit services through Spec-Tran and the "Night Owl." Also, the "Entertainment Express" (CATA route 4) runs Thursday through Saturday from 7pm-2am connecting downtown Lansing's and East Lansing's entertainment districts. CATA won APTA's America's Best Transit Award in the medium size category (4-30 million rides) in 2007. CATA has two transportation centers (CTC), one in downtown Lansing and one on the campus of Michigan Sate University. Greyhound Lines provides inter-city bus service. CATA and Greyhound are both located in the CATA Transportation Center (CTC) in downtown Lansing. Also, Lansing has several taxicab companies serving the area, including Spartan-Yellow Cab, Big Daddy Taxi, Jb's Country Club Transportation, S-cabs Taxi Service and L-town cab. In 2008 the Green Cab Company opened using Toyota Prius hybrid cars to provide "green" cabs to Lansing. Michigan Flyer provides daily shuttle service between Lansing, Jackson, & Ann Arbor, to and from the Detroit Metro Airport. Daily The Michigan Flyer has eight shuttles east bound headed towards the airport, and also eight shuttles west bound headed back towards Ann Arbor, Jackson, & East Lansing. The Michigan Flyer luxury motor coach service is based out of East Lansing. Bicycling The eight-mile (13-km), non-motorized Lansing River Trail runs along the Grand River and the Red Cedar River, running as far east as Michigan State University, and passes Potter Park Zoo, the Capitol Loop, and several other destinations of interest, and as far west as Moores Park. Utilities Water supply, Power and Steam are municipally-owned utilities which are provided by Lansing Board of Water & Light. In 2008 the Lansing BWL constructed Michigan's largest solar array towards the goal of increasing renewable energy in the energy grid. Natural gas is provided by Consumers Energy. Notable residents Joel Bakan – Canadian law professor and documentary filmmaker Martin Bertram – author of medieval novel Vanity of Vanities Terry Brunk - ex-World Wrestling Entertainment/ECW/TNA/WCW professional wrestler known as "Sabu" Timothy Busfield – actor/director Charles G. Callard – co-founder of Callard Madden & Associates and a pioneer developer of corporate valuation models Jim Cash – screenwriter of Top Gun and many other commercially successful films Doc Corbin Dart – singer of punk band The Crucifucks Ed Emshwiller – visual artist & founder of CalArts Computer Animation Lab David Fairchild, botanist Chris Hansen – Dateline NBC correspondent Thom Hartmann – radio talk-show host & author Ahney Her - actress Gran Torino'' Andy Hilbert – NHL hockey player John Hughes – film director Magic Johnson – Michigan State University and NBA basketball star Rashad Evans - UFC Fighter Michael Kimball - novelist Lisa Kron – theatre actress & playwright Matthew Lillard – actor Suzanne Malveaux – CNN television news reporter Ryan Miller – NHL – hockey star Muhsin Muhammad – NFL football player Ransom E. Olds – Automobile Manufacturer; founded Olds Motor Vehicle Company Larry Page – co-founder of Google.com Greg Raymer – 2004 World Series of Poker champion Burt Reynolds – actor Steven Seagal – actor John Smoltz – MLB player and 1996 Cy Young Award winner Jim "Soni" Sonefeld – drummer & percussionist for Hootie & The Blowfish Debbie Stabenow – U.S. Senator Jay Vincent – retired American professional basketball player Sam Vincent – retired American professional basketball player Malcolm X – human rights activist Sister cities Akuapim South District, Ghana Guadalajara, Mexico Ōtsu, Japan Saint Petersburg, Russia Saltillo, Mexico Sanming, China Lansing also has three "friendship cities" : Cosenza, Italy Lanzhou, China Sakaide, Japan References Notes The city also extends into Eaton County along its southwest side. There are also two small non-contiguous tracts located in Ingham County. These sections are not highlighted on the map displayed as they are part of a 425 Agreement, meaning they do not officially count towards Lansing's area. External links Allen Neighborhood Center Capital Area District Library City of Lansing Downtown Lansing, Inc. 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3,664 | Higher_education | The University of Cambridge is a prestigious institute of higher learning in the U.K. Higher education refers to a level of education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, community colleges, liberal arts colleges, institutes of technology and other collegiate level institutions, such as vocational schools, trade schools and career colleges, that award academic degrees or professional certifications. Since 1950, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At the world level, the United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966, guarantees this right under its Article 13, which states that "higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education". Overview Post-secondary or tertiary education, also referred to as third-stage, third level or higher education, is the non-compulsory educational level, following the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school or gymnasium. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions, that provide tertiary education (sometimes known collectively as tertiary institutions). Examples of institutions that provide post-secondary education are vocational schools, community colleges and universities in the United States, the TAFEs in Australia, CEGEPs in Quebec and the IEKs in Greece. They are sometimes known collectively as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas or academic degrees. Rupert I founded the University of Heidelberg in 1386 Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities; and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). In the United Kingdom, post-secondary education below the level of higher education is referred to as further education. Higher education in that country generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries, a high proportion of the population (up to 50%), now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. There can be disagreement about what precisely constitutes post-secondary or tertiary education: "It is not always clear, though, what tertiary education includes. Is it only that which results in a formal qualification or might it include leisure classes? In the UK, are A-levels tertiary education as they are post-compulsory, but taught in school settings, as well as colleges? Is professional updating or on-the-job training part of tertiary education, even if it does not follow successful completion of secondary education?" There are two types of higher education in the UK: higher general education and higher vocational education. Higher education in the United States specifically refers to post-secondary institutions that offer associate degrees, baccalaureate degrees, master's degrees or Ph.D. degrees or equivalents. Such institutions may offer non-degree certificates, which indicate completion of a set of courses comprising some body of knowledge, but the granting of such certificates is not the primary purpose of the institution. Tertiary education is not a term used in reference to post-secondary institutions in the United States. Types General The general higher education and training that takes place in a university or college is usually theoretically inclined. In contrast, the vocational higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on both practice and applied theory. Additionally, professional education is included within higher education, as many postgraduate academic disciplines are vocationally and professionally oriented, such as social work, law and medicine. Liberal arts Academic areas that may be included within the Liberal arts include: Great Books Program History Languages Law Literature Philosophy Religious studies Performing arts The performing arts differ from the plastic arts or visual arts, insofar as the former uses the artist's own body, face and presence as a medium; the latter uses materials such as clay, metal or paint, which can be molded or transformed to create a work of art. Higher educational institutions include: Circus schools College or university school of music Dance school Drama school Music education Plastic or visual arts The plastic arts or visual arts are a class of art forms, that involve the use of materials, that can be moulded or modulated in some way, often in three dimensions. Examples are painting, sculpture and drawing, etc. Higher educational institutions are: Film school List of art schools List of art schools in Europe List of international architecture schools Vocational Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non-university tertiary level. Such education combines teaching of both practical skills and theoretical expertise. Higher education differs from other forms of post-secondary education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education, which are more colloquially known as trade schools. Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a usually broader scientific field, which might concentrate on theory and abstract conceptual knowledge. A Vocational university is an institution of higher education and sometime research, which grants Professional degrees like Professional Bachelor's degree, Professional Master's degree and Professional doctorates) in a variety of subjects. There are vocational universities in Applied sciences and Applied arts Professional Business school Dental school Journalism school Law school Library school Medical school Public policy school Veterinary school Recognition of studies The Lisbon Recognition Convention stipulates that degrees and periods of study must be recognised in all Signatory Parties of the Convention. As employers Universities are fairly large employers. Depending on the funding, a university typically has a teacher per 3-20 students. According to the ideal of research-university, the university teaching staff is actively involved in the research of the institution. In addition, the university usually also has dedicated research staff and a considerable support staff. Typically to work in higher education as a member of the academic faculty, a candidate must first obtain a doctorate in an academic field, although some lower teaching positions require only master's degree. Member of the staff or administration usually have education that is necessary for the fulfilment of their duties. Depending on the university, the main administration is more or less centralized. Typically most of the administrative staff works in different administrative sections, such as Student Affairs. In addition, there may be central support units, such as a university library which have a dedicated staff. The professional field involving the collection, analysis, and reporting of higher education data is called institutional research. Professionals in this field can be found, in addition to universities, in e.g. state educational departments. By region Africa Education in Egypt List of universities in South Africa List of universities in Somalia(and Somaliland) Madrasah Asia Colleges and institutes in India Education in the People's Republic of China Education in Bangladesh Higher education in Iran List of colleges and universities in the Philippines List of universities in Pakistan Madrasah Europe Dutch universities Higher education in Poland Italian universities League of European Research Universities List of colleges and universities in France List of institutions of higher learning in Russia List of universities in Finland List of universities in Romania List of universities in Sweden List of universities in Ukraine Spanish universities Universities in the United Kingdom North America Higher education in Canada Higher education in the United States List of schools in United States territories List of universities in Mexico Oceania List of universities in Australia List of universities in New Zealand Technical and Further Education (TAFE) South America List of Argentine universities List of universities in Brazil List of universities in Chile List of universities in Peru See also Adult education First professional degree Foundation degree Further education Higher education policy Liberal education Lifelong learning Professional certification Notes References Higher education in the United States Bakvis, Herman and David M. Cameron (2000), "Post-secondary education and the SUFA". IRPP. Commission Reports: A National Dialogue: The Secretary of Education's Commission on the Future of Higher Education, United States Department of Education, 2006. Davies, Antony and Thomas W. Cline (2005). The ROI on the MBA, BizEd. Douglass, John A. and Todd Greenspan, eds. History of the California Master Plan for Higher Education." El-Khawas, E. (1996). Campus trends. Washington, DC.: American Council on Education. Ewell, P.T. (1999). Assessment of higher education and quality: Promise and politics. In S.J. Messick (Ed.), Assessment in higher education: Issues of access, quality, student development, and public policy. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Finn, C. E. (1988, Jul.-Aug.). Judgment time for higher education: In the court of public opinion. Change, 20(4), 34-39. Forest, James and Kevin Kinser (2002). Higher Education in the United States: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Green, Madeleine, F., ed. 1988. Leaders for a New Era: Strategies for Higher Education. New York: Macmillan. Snyder, Benson R. (1970). The Hidden Curriculum. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Spellings, Margaret, "A Test of Leadership: Charting the Future of U.S. Higher Education", A Report of the Commission Appointed by Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings, September 2006. (highlights of report) Veblen, Thorstein (1918). The Higher Learning in America: A Memorandum on the Conduct of Universities by Businessmen. New York: Huebsch External links American Council on Education Association for the Study of Higher Education Center for Higher Education Policy Studies Higher Education Resource Hub World Bank Tertiary Education | Higher_education |@lemmatized university:43 cambridge:2 prestigious:1 institute:3 high:45 learning:3 u:2 k:1 education:79 refers:2 level:11 provide:4 vocational:13 community:2 college:11 liberal:4 art:15 technology:1 collegiate:1 institution:15 school:27 trade:2 career:1 award:1 academic:6 degree:16 professional:12 certification:2 since:1 article:2 first:3 protocol:1 european:2 convention:3 human:1 right:5 oblige:1 signatory:2 party:2 guarantee:2 world:2 united:11 nation:1 international:2 covenant:1 economic:1 social:3 cultural:1 state:10 shall:1 make:1 equally:1 accessible:1 basis:1 capacity:1 every:1 appropriate:1 mean:1 particular:1 progressive:1 introduction:1 free:1 overview:1 post:9 secondary:11 tertiary:14 also:3 refer:4 third:2 stage:1 non:3 compulsory:2 educational:4 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period:1 must:2 recognise:1 employer:2 fairly:1 large:1 depend:2 funding:1 typically:3 teacher:1 per:1 student:3 accord:1 ideal:1 staff:6 actively:1 addition:3 dedicate:1 considerable:1 support:2 member:2 faculty:1 candidate:1 obtain:1 although:1 low:1 position:1 require:1 administration:2 necessary:1 fulfilment:1 duty:1 less:1 centralize:1 administrative:2 different:1 section:1 affair:1 central:1 unit:1 dedicated:1 collection:1 analysis:1 reporting:1 data:1 call:1 institutional:1 find:1 e:3 g:1 department:2 region:1 africa:2 egypt:1 south:2 somalia:1 somaliland:1 madrasah:2 asia:1 india:1 people:1 republic:1 china:1 bangladesh:1 iran:1 philippine:1 pakistan:1 dutch:1 poland:1 italian:1 league:1 france:1 russia:1 finland:1 romania:1 sweden:1 ukraine:1 spanish:1 north:1 america:3 canada:1 territory:1 mexico:1 oceania:1 new:4 zealand:1 technical:1 tafe:1 argentine:1 brazil:1 chile:1 peru:1 see:1 adult:1 lifelong:1 learn:1 note:1 bakvis:1 herman:1 david:1 cameron:1 sufa:1 irpp:1 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3,665 | Oberon_(programming_language) | Oberon is a programming language created in 1986 by Professor Niklaus Wirth (creator of the Pascal, Modula, and Modula-2 programming languages) and his associates at ETH Zurich in Switzerland. It was developed as part of the implementation of the Oberon operating system. The original intention was to use Modula-2 as the implementation language but it lacked the required safe type-extension facilities. Also, it was planned to eventually publish the full details of the operating system and compiler so that they could be studied and understood. These factors led to the decision to design a new language which concentrated on just the essential features necessary for the task in hand. The name is from the moon of Uranus, Oberon. Oberon is very much like Modula-2 in its syntax, but is considerably smaller. Oberon's feature simplicity leads to considerable space and coding efficiency for its compilers. The full language can be specified in a page of EBNF. The Oberon report is, at 16 pages, about a third of the size of the Modula-2 report, and one of the early full compilers was only about 4000 lines long. Unlike Modula-2, it has garbage collection. Oberon was designed for Oberon operating system which ran on the Ceres workstation (built around the National Semiconductor 32032 CPU) and the Chameleon workstation. The Oberon language (and later, Oberon-2) has now been ported to many other operating systems, including the Java platform, where Oberon source code compiles to source code in Java, or to bytecode for a Java virtual machine. The Oberon operating system is also available for several hardware platforms other than the original workstation. Design goals Oberon is designed to be a 'safe' language; it employs array bounds checking, garbage collection and strong type checking. These features, particularly ones which enable logic errors to be detected as early as possible (i.e. at compile-time), can significantly reduce the number of bugs occurring in a program at runtime. However, some features included in other languages in an attempt to reduce bugs (e.g. enumerations and programmer-defined ranges on integers), were omitted. Consequently, more care should be taken by the programmer, when working with numeric expressions, to avoid logic errors. Oberon was intended to make mistakes harder in part by making code less opaque, and in part because features not included cannot be misused. As this is an intent whose success cannot be easily quantified, there remains some disagreement that Oberon has achieved its intended goals in this respect. One objection to its strategy of language design simplification was expressed by Jean Ichbiah, the architect of Ada when Wirth criticized Ada for being too big; he responded "There are times when Wirth believes in small solutions for big problems. I don't believe in that sort of miracle. Big problems need big solutions!" Oberon developers have even felt that Oberon went too far in this respect, as Oberon-2 returned the 'FOR' statement to that version of the language. It can be argued that failure to include a feature may force the programmer to reimplement the feature in his code, leading to multiple 'wheel reinvention' and consequent problems. Libraries can mitigate this—more or less—effectively depending on the feature and a language's graceful use of such libraries. Java is an example of a relatively simple language (though far less so than Oberon) embedded in large standard libraries. (Oberon has a much smaller standard library than Java.) As much of the effort of learning any language is learning the standard libraries, Ichbiah's objection above can be extended to a strategy of simplification by moving features from the core language into standard libraries. Wirth, and Oberon fans, argue that Oberon has essentially, and effectively, avoided this problem. Interesting features Key characteristics The following features characterise the Oberon language: Pascal-like, but more consistent syntax Type-extension with strong type-checking Modules with type-checked interfaces and separate compilation Compatibility between all numeric types (mixed expressions) String operations Support for system programming Visibility flags Global variables, types, constants, and procedures are by default only visible within the declaring module. They may be made public to other modules by suffixing them with a visibility flag, namely an asterisk (*) for read-write permission. The default was chosen to ensure safety in case a flag was inadvertently omitted. Local variables, types, constants, and procedures are always visible only to the declaring procedure. Call by reference or by value Two possible modes are available for procedure parameters. Call-by-value allows expressions to be used as parameters, so that the value of the expression is passed down to the procedure. Call-by-reference allows variables to be used, so that the value of the variable may be changed by the procedure. A procedure may declare a reference parameter by prefixing it with the VAR keyword. Available implementations & further language variants Oberon No-cost implementations of Oberon (the language) and Oberon (the operating system) can be found on the Internet (several are from ETHZ itself). Oberon-2 A few changes were made to the first released specification (object-oriented programming features were added, the 'FOR' loop was reinstated, for instance); the result was Oberon-2, currently the most common implementation. There is a release called Native Oberon which includes an operating system, and can directly boot on PC class hardware. A .NET implementation of Oberon with the addition of some minor .NET-related extensions has also been developed at ETHZ. Oberon-2 compilers maintained by ETH include versions for Windows, Linux, Solaris, Mac OS X. There is an Oberon-2 Lex scanner and Yacc parser by Stephen J Bevan of Manchester University, UK, based on the one in the Mössenböck and Wirth reference. It is at version 1.4. Oberon-07 Oberon-07, defined by Niklaus Wirth in 2007, is a revision of the original version of Oberon. The main changes are: the loop statement has been eliminated, return statements are connected to the end of a function, array assignments are handled just like other assignments, constant parameters are introduced and imported variables are read-only. For full details, see The Programming Language Oberon-07. The initial implementations of Oberon-07 target systems using 32-bit ARM processors. Related languages Development has continued on languages in this family. A further extension of Oberon-2 produced Component Pascal, currently supported by Oberon Microsystems, a commercial company spun off from ETHZ, and by Queensland University of Technology. In addition, the Lagoona and Obliq languages carry the Oberon spirit into specialized areas. ETHZ has released Active Oberon which supports active objects, and the Bluebottle operating system and environment (JDK, HTTP, FTP, etc) for the language. As with many prior designs from ETHZ, versions of both are available for download on the Internet. As this is written, both single and dual x86 CPUs and the StrongARM family are supported. Recent .NET development efforts at ETHZ have been focused on a new language called Zonnon. This is an extended Oberon language that also supports the concept of active objects. Additional new features include operator overloading and exception handling. Zonnon is available as a plug-in language for the Microsoft Visual Studio for .NET development environment. Oberon-V (originally called Seneca, after Seneca the Younger) is a descendant of Oberon designed for numerical applications on supercomputers, especially vector or pipelined architectures. It includes array constructors and an ALL statement. (See "Seneca - A Language for Numerical Applications on Vectorcomputers", Proc CONPAR 90 - VAPP IV Conf. R. Griesemer, Diss Nr. 10277, ETH Zurich.) See also Oberon operating system External links General Oberon Home Page at ETH-Zürich Niklaus Wirth's Oberon page at ETH-Zürich Native Oberon Home Page at ETHZ Oberon Language Genealogy Oberon Web Ring Oberon at SSW, Linz Language Report Linux Native Oberon related section Armaide - ARM Oberon-07 Development System Evolution of Oberon "From Modula-2 to Oberon" Wirth (1988) "The Programming Language Oberon" Wirth (1988) "Differences between Oberon and Oberon-2" Mössenböck and Wirth (1991) "The Programming Language Oberon-2" H. Mössenböck, N. Wirth, Institut für Computersysteme, ETH Zürich, January 1992 "What's New in Component Pascal" (Changes from Oberon-2 to CP), Pfister (2001) "Differences between Oberon-07 and Oberon" Wirth (2007) be-x-old:Oberon | Oberon_(programming_language) |@lemmatized oberon:63 programming:6 language:30 create:1 professor:1 niklaus:3 wirth:12 creator:1 pascal:4 modula:7 associate:1 eth:6 zurich:2 switzerland:1 develop:2 part:3 implementation:7 operating:7 system:12 original:3 intention:1 use:5 lack:1 required:1 safe:2 type:8 extension:4 facility:1 also:5 plan:1 eventually:1 publish:1 full:4 detail:2 compiler:4 could:1 study:1 understood:1 factor:1 lead:3 decision:1 design:7 new:4 concentrate:1 essential:1 feature:13 necessary:1 task:1 hand:1 name:1 moon:1 uranus:1 much:3 like:3 syntax:2 considerably:1 small:3 simplicity:1 considerable:1 space:1 coding:1 efficiency:1 specify:1 page:5 ebnf:1 report:3 third:1 size:1 one:4 early:2 line:1 long:1 unlike:1 garbage:2 collection:2 run:1 cere:1 workstation:3 build:1 around:1 national:1 semiconductor:1 cpu:2 chameleon:1 later:1 port:1 many:2 operate:2 include:8 java:5 platform:1 source:2 code:4 compiles:1 bytecode:1 virtual:1 machine:1 available:5 several:2 hardware:2 platforms:1 goal:2 employ:1 array:3 bound:1 check:1 strong:2 checking:2 particularly:1 enable:1 logic:2 error:2 detect:1 possible:2 e:2 compile:1 time:2 significantly:1 reduce:2 number:1 bug:2 occur:1 program:2 runtime:1 however:1 attempt:1 g:1 enumeration:1 programmer:3 define:2 range:1 integer:1 omit:2 consequently:1 care:1 take:1 work:1 numeric:2 expression:4 avoid:2 intend:1 make:4 mistake:1 hard:1 less:3 opaque:1 cannot:2 misuse:1 intent:1 whose:1 success:1 easily:1 quantify:1 remain:1 disagreement:1 achieve:1 intended:1 respect:2 objection:2 strategy:2 simplification:2 express:1 jean:1 ichbiah:2 architect:1 ada:2 criticize:1 big:4 respond:1 believe:2 solution:2 problem:4 sort:1 miracle:1 need:1 developer:1 even:1 felt:1 go:1 far:2 return:2 statement:4 version:5 argue:2 failure:1 may:4 force:1 reimplement:1 multiple:1 wheel:1 reinvention:1 consequent:1 library:6 mitigate:1 effectively:2 depend:1 graceful:1 example:1 relatively:1 simple:1 though:1 embed:1 large:1 standard:4 effort:2 learn:2 extend:1 move:1 core:1 fan:1 essentially:1 interesting:1 key:1 characteristic:1 following:1 characterise:1 consistent:1 module:3 checked:1 interface:1 separate:1 compilation:1 compatibility:1 mixed:1 string:1 operation:1 support:5 visibility:2 flag:3 global:1 variable:5 constant:3 procedure:7 default:2 visible:2 within:1 declare:2 public:1 suffix:1 namely:1 asterisk:1 read:2 write:2 permission:1 choose:1 ensure:1 safety:1 case:1 inadvertently:1 local:1 always:1 declaring:1 call:6 reference:4 value:4 two:1 mode:1 parameter:4 allow:2 pass:1 change:4 prefix:1 var:1 keyword:1 variant:1 cost:1 find:1 internet:2 ethz:7 first:1 release:3 specification:1 object:3 orient:1 add:1 loop:2 reinstate:1 instance:1 result:1 currently:2 common:1 native:3 directly:1 boot:1 pc:1 class:1 net:4 addition:2 minor:1 relate:3 maintain:1 window:1 linux:2 solaris:1 mac:1 x:2 lex:1 scanner:1 yacc:1 parser:1 stephen:1 j:1 bevan:1 manchester:1 university:2 uk:1 base:1 mössenböck:3 revision:1 main:1 eliminate:1 connect:1 end:1 function:1 assignment:2 handle:1 introduce:1 import:1 see:3 initial:1 target:1 bit:1 arm:2 processor:1 development:4 continue:1 family:2 produce:1 component:2 microsystems:1 commercial:1 company:1 spin:1 queensland:1 technology:1 lagoona:1 obliq:1 carry:1 spirit:1 specialized:1 area:1 active:3 bluebottle:1 environment:2 jdk:1 http:1 ftp:1 etc:1 prior:1 download:1 single:1 dual:1 strongarm:1 recent:1 focus:1 zonnon:2 extended:1 concept:1 additional:1 operator:1 overloading:1 exception:1 handling:1 plug:1 microsoft:1 visual:1 studio:1 v:1 originally:1 seneca:3 young:1 descendant:1 numerical:2 application:2 supercomputer:1 especially:1 vector:1 pipelined:1 architecture:1 constructor:1 vectorcomputers:1 proc:1 conpar:1 vapp:1 iv:1 conf:1 r:1 griesemer:1 diss:1 nr:1 external:1 link:1 general:1 home:2 zürich:3 genealogy:1 web:1 ring:1 ssw:1 linz:1 section:1 armaide:1 evolution:1 difference:2 h:1 n:1 institut:1 für:1 computersysteme:1 january:1 cp:1 pfister:1 old:1 |@bigram niklaus_wirth:3 modula_modula:1 eth_zurich:2 zurich_switzerland:1 oberon_oberon:4 garbage_collection:2 java_bytecode:1 jean_ichbiah:1 orient_programming:1 linux_solaris:1 external_link:1 eth_zürich:3 institut_für:1 |
3,666 | Lindy_Hop | Dancing the Lindy Hop at the Sacramento Jazz Jubilee, Sacramento, California, USA (2006) The Lindy Hop is an African American dance, based on the popular Charleston and named for Charles Lindbergh's Atlantic crossing in 1927. It evolved in New York City in the 1920's and 30's and orginally evolved with the jazz music of that time. Lindy was a fusion of many dances that preceded it or were popular during its development but is mainly based on jazz, tap, breakaway and Charleston. It is frequently described as a jazz or street dance and is a member of the swing dance family. In its development, the Lindy Hop combined elements of both partnered and solo dancing by using the movements and improvisation of black dances along with the formal eight-count structure of European partner dances. This is most clearly illustrated in the Lindy's basic step, the swingout. In this step's open position, each dancer is generally connected hand-to-hand; in its closed position, men and women are connected as though in an embrace. Revived in the 1980s by American, Swedish, and British dancers, the Lindy Hop is now represented by dancers and loosely affiliated grass roots organizations found in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and Oceania. History Swing era (1920s-1940s) Born in African American communities in Harlem, New York in the United States from about 1927 into the early 1930s from four possible sources: the breakaway, the Charleston, the Texas Tommy, and the hop. According to Ethel Williams, who helped popularize the Texas Tommy in New York in 1913, the Texas Tommy "was like the Lindy", and the basic steps were followed by a breakaway identical to that found in the Lindy. Savoy dancer "Shorty" George Snowden stated that, "We used to call the basic step the Hop long before Lindbergh did his hop across the Atlantic. It had been around a long time and some people began to call it the Lindbergh Hop after 1927, although it didn't last. Then, during the marathon at Manhattan Casino, I got tired of the same old steps and cut loose with a breakaway..." Fox Movietone News covered the marathon and took a close-up of Shorty's feet. When asked "What are you doing with your feet," Shorty replied, "The Lindy". The date was June 17, 1928. The first generation of Lindy Hop is popularly associated with dancers such as "Shorty" George Snowden, his partner Big Bea, and Leroy Stretch Jones and Little Bea. "Shorty" George and Big Bea regularly won contests at the Savoy Ballroom. Their dancing accentuated the difference in size with Big Bea towering over Shorty. These dancers specialized in so-called floor steps. As white people began going to Harlem to watch black dancers, according to Langston Hughes: "The lindy-hoppers at the Savoy even began to practice acrobatic routines, and to do absurd things for the entertainment of the whites, that probably never would have entered their heads to attempt for their own effortless amusement. Some of the lindy-hoppers had cards printed with their names on them and became dance professors teaching the tourists. Then Harlem nights became show nights for the Nordics." - cited in Charles Buchanan, manager of the Savoy, paid dancers such as Shortly Snowden to "perform" for his clientele. According to Snowden, "When he finally offered to pay us, we went up and had a ball. All we wanted to do was dance anyway." "Air steps" such as the Hip to Hip, Side Flip, and Over the Back (the names describe the motion of the woman in the air) began to appear in 1936, all of which were disapproved of by the old guard such as Leon James, Leroy Jones, and Shorty Snowden. Younger dancers fresh out of high school: Al Minns, Joe Daniels, Russell WIlliams, and Pepsi Bethel worked out the Back Flip, Over the head, and 'the Snatch. Frankie Manning was part of a new generation of Lindy Hoppers, and is the most celebrated Lindy Hopper in history. Al Minns and Pepsi Bethel, Leon James, and Norma Miller also feature prominently in contemporary histories of Lindy Hop. Some sources credit Frankie Manning, working with his partner Freida Washington, for inventing the ground-breaking 'Air Step' or 'aerial' in 1935. One source credits Al Minns and Pepsi Bethel as among those who refined the air step. An Air Step is a dance move in which at least one of the partners' two feet leave the ground in a dramatic, acrobatic style. Most importantly, it is done in time with the music. Air steps are now widely associated with the characterization of lindy hop, despite being generally reserved for competition or performance dancing, and not generally being executed on any social dance floor. Lindy Hop entered mainstream American culture in the 1930s, gaining popularity through multiple sources. Dance troupes, including the Whitey's Lindy Hoppers (also known as the Harlem Congaroos), Hot Chocolates and Big Apple Dancers exhibited the Lindy Hop. Hollywood films, such as Hellzapoppin' and A Day at the Races began featuring the Lindy Hop in dance sequences. Dance studios such as those of Arthur Murray and Irene and Vernon Castle began teaching Lindy Hop. Lindy Hop's movement to the west coast of the United States is popularly associated with Dean Collins, who brought Lindy Hop to Los Angeles after learning it at the Savoy Ballroom in New York. Lindy Hop moved off-shore in the 1930s and 40s, again in films and news reels, but also with American troops stationed overseas, particularly in the United Kingdom,Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and other allied nations. Although Lindy Hop and jazz were banned in countries such as Germany, both were popular in other European countries during this period. In 1944, due to continued involvement in World War II, the United States levied a 30 percent federal excise tax against "dancing" nightclubs. Although the tax was later reduced to 20 percent, "No Dancing Allowed" signs went up all over the country. post Swing Era (1950s-1960s) Arthur Murray's 1954 edition of "How to become a Good Dancer" included 4 pages of instruction for Swing: the Basic Lindy Step, the Double Lindy Hop, the Triple Lindy Hop, the Sugar Foot Walk, and the Tuck-In Turn. How to become a Good Dancer. by Arthur Murray. 1954. Simon and Shuster. Table of Contents and pages 48-52. no ISBN A chapter is devoted to Lindy Hop in the 1953 and 1958 editions of "Dancing Made Easy". Dancing Made Easy. Betty White. David McKay Company, Inc. page 177. Library of Congress CCN 53-11379 The 1962 "Ballroom Dancebook for Teachers" included an entire chapter on "Lindy". Ballroom DanceBook for Teachers. Betty White. 1962. David McKay Company, Inc. pages 131-144. Library of Congress Number 62-18465 According to the book "Social Dance", copyrighted in 1969, by 1960 The Lindy Hop was known as Swing. Social Dance.John G. Youmans. Goodyear Publishing Company, Inc. 1969. page 25. Library of Congress Number 69-17984 Revival (1980s and 1990s) Sandra Cameron and Larry Schulz of the Cameron Dance Center Inc in New York were instrumental in bringing Al Minns and Frank Manning back into teaching Lindy Hop at their dance center. Swing dancer: Version 1.10, a swing dancer's manual. Craig R Hutchinson. December 1998. Potomac Swing Dance Club, Inc. page 5.1-5 Minns joined the dance center and began a swing program there in 1981. Frank Manning joined the Center in 1985. Al Minns' early students formed the basis for the New York Swing Dance Society, established in 1985. Swing dancer: Version 1.10, a swing dancer's manual. Craig R Hutchinson. December 1998. Potomac Swing Dance Club, Inc. page 5.1-5 In the 1980s, American and European dancers from California, New York, London, and Sweden (such as Sylvia Sykes, Erin Stevens, Steven Mitchell, Terry Monaghan and Warren Heyes who formed London's Jiving Lindy Hoppers performance troupe, and Stockholm's Rhythm Hot Shots / Harlem Hot Shots) went about 'reviving' Lindy Hop using archival films such as Hellzapoppin' and A Day at the Races and by contacting dancers such as Frankie Manning, Al Minns, Norma Miller, Jewel McGowan and Dean Collins. In the mid-to-late 1990s the popularity of neo swing music of the swing revival stimulated mainstream interest in the dance. The dance was propelled to wide visibility after it was featured in movies such as Swing Kids in 1993, and Swingers in 1996, and in television commercials for GAP in 1998. The popularity led to the founding of local Lindy Hop dance communities in many cities. Current status There are thriving communities throughout the world. The small village of Herräng in Sweden (north of Stockholm) has unofficially become the international mecca of Lindy Hop thanks to the annual Herräng Dance Camp run by the Harlem Hot Shots with an attendance from around 40 countries. Lindy Hop can be found in almost every large westernized city in the world. Some of these include London, Reykjavík, Beijing, Tokyo, Seol, Barcelona, New York, and Buenos Aires. Lindy Hop tends to be concentrated in small local scenes in different cities in each of these countries, although regional, national, and international dance events bring dancers from many of these scenes together. Local swing dance communities in each city and country feature different local cultures. The concept of a Lindy exchange, a gathering of lindy hop dancers in one city for several days to dance with visitors and locals, enables different communities to share their ideas with others. Many Internet forums have emerged in these dance scenes, providing information about Lindy Hop and dance events in the geographic area. Yehoodi has become the largest of these, although many smaller local forums also exist. Lindy Hop today is danced as a social dance, as a competitive dance, as a performance dance, and in classes, workshops, and camps. In each, partners may dance alone or together, with improvisation a central part of social dancing and many performance and competition pieces. Mass media Lindy Hop has been featured in the mass media since its inception. In the 1953 episode of I Love Lucy called "Lucy Has Her Eyes Examined", Lucy dances Lindy Hop with a "cool cat" dance partner in a showcase at Ricky's nightclub but can't do the dance properly due to the dilating eyedrops the eye doctor gave her. Lindy Hop is featured in several music videos, including Marilyn Manson's Mobscene, the 2002 music video to Elvis Presley vs. JXL remix of A Little Less Conversation, the 2007 music video to Christina Aguilera's song Candyman and the 2008 video release from Millencolin; Detox. The Lindy Hop was the dance Homer Simpson performed as a panda in The Simpsons episode "Homer vs. Dignity" season 12. The Harlem Lindy Hop dance club and zoot suit culture forms a colourful backdrop in the early part of Spike Lee's film Malcolm X, starring Denzel Washington. Spike Lee's character is called "Shorty". References Further reading DeFrantz, Thomas. Dancing Many Drums: Excavations in African American Dance. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001. Emery, Lynne Fauley. Black Dance in the United States from 1619 to 1970. California: National Press Books, 1972. Friedland, LeeEllen. "Social Commentary in African-American Movement Performance." Human Action Signs in Cultural Context: The Visible and the Invisible in Movement and Dance. Ed. Brenda Farnell. London: Scarecrow Press, 1995. 136 - 57. Gottschild, Brenda Dixon. Digging the Africanist Presence in American Performance. Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1996. Hazzard-Gordon, Katrina. Jookin': The Rise of Social Dance Formations in African-American Culture. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990. Jackson, Jonathan David. "Improvisation in African-American Vernacular Dancing." Dance Research Journal 33.2 (2001/2002): 40 - 53. Malone, Jacqui. Steppin' on the Blues: The Visible Rhythms of African American Dance. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996. Szwed, John F., and Morton Marks. "The Afro-American Transformation of European Set Dances and Dance Suites." Dance Research Journal 20.1 (1988): 29 - 36. Thomas, Amy. "Infinity Dance: The Move That Never Ends". California: National Press Books, 2006 Batchelor, Christian, This Thing Called Swing''. Christian Batchelor Books, 1997, ISBN 0953063100 See also List of lindy hop moves Hollywood-style Lindy Hop Savoy-style Lindy Hop Jitterbug External links Savoystyle Archives of early Lindy Hop - resource for Lindy Hop history, sanctioned by Frankie Manning Dancehistory.org resource for Jazz Dance history Lindy Hop Terms I AM LINDY HOP stories from modern day Lindy Hoppers on Lindy Hop today The Lindy Hop resource listing of many Lindy Hop links including teachers, communities, and forums. Yehoodi: The website for the hardcore hep-cat swinger! international discussion forum for all things lindy hop. | Lindy_Hop |@lemmatized dance:57 lindy:59 hop:48 sacramento:2 jazz:6 jubilee:1 california:4 usa:1 african:7 american:13 base:2 popular:3 charleston:3 name:3 charles:2 lindbergh:3 atlantic:2 crossing:1 evolve:2 new:10 york:8 city:6 orginally:1 music:6 time:3 fusion:1 many:8 precede:1 development:2 mainly:1 tap:1 breakaway:4 frequently:1 describe:2 street:1 member:1 swing:18 family:1 combine:1 element:1 partner:7 solo:1 dancing:5 use:3 movement:4 improvisation:3 black:3 along:1 formal:1 eight:1 count:1 structure:1 european:4 clearly:1 illustrate:1 basic:4 step:12 swingout:1 open:1 position:2 dancer:20 generally:3 connect:2 hand:2 closed:1 men:1 woman:2 though:1 embrace:1 revive:2 swedish:1 british:1 represent:1 loosely:1 affiliated:1 grass:1 root:1 organization:1 find:3 north:2 america:2 south:1 europe:1 asia:1 oceania:1 history:5 era:2 bear:1 community:6 harlem:7 united:5 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3,667 | Chalcedonian_Definition | The Confession of Chalcedon (also Definition or Creed of Chalcedon), also known as the "Doctrine of the Hypostatic Union" or the "2-Nature Doctrine", was adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor. That Council of Chalcedon is one of the seven ecumenical councils accepted by Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and many Protestant Christian churches. It is the first Council not recognized by any of the Oriental Orthodox churches. The Chalcedonian creed was written amid controversy between the western and eastern churches over the meaning of the Incarnation (see Christology), the ecclesiastical influence of the emperor, and the supremacy of the Roman Pope. The western churches readily accepted the creed, but some eastern churches did not. The creed became standard orthodox doctrine, while the Coptic church of Alexandria dissented, holding to Cyril's formula of the oneness of Christ’s nature as the incarnation of God the Word. This church felt that this understanding required that the creed should have stated that Christ be acknowledged "from two natures" rather than "in two natures". This miaphysite position, often known as "Monophysitism", formed the basis for the distinction from other churches of the Coptic church of Egypt and Ethiopia and the "Jacobite" churches of Syria and Armenia (see Oriental Orthodoxy). Over the last 30 years, however, the miaphysite position has been accepted as a mere restatement of orthodox belief by Patriarch Bartholomew I of the Eastern Orthodox Church and by Pope John Paul II of the Roman Catholic Church. English translation We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach people to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood; truly God and truly man, of a reasonable [rational] soul and body; consubstantial [co-essential] with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood; in all things like unto us, without sin; begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God, according to the Manhood; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably; the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person and one Subsistence, not parted or divided into two persons, but one and the same Son, and only begotten, God the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophets from the beginning [have declared] concerning Him, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us. External links The Chalcedonian Creed in Greek and English at www.earlychurchtexts.com. | Chalcedonian_Definition |@lemmatized confession:1 chalcedon:4 also:3 definition:1 creed:7 know:2 doctrine:3 hypostatic:1 union:2 nature:7 adopt:1 council:4 asia:1 minor:1 one:7 seven:1 ecumenical:1 accept:3 eastern:4 orthodox:5 catholic:2 many:1 protestant:1 christian:1 church:12 first:1 recognize:1 oriental:2 chalcedonian:2 write:1 amid:1 controversy:1 western:2 meaning:1 incarnation:2 see:2 christology:1 ecclesiastical:1 influence:1 emperor:1 supremacy:1 roman:2 pope:2 readily:1 become:1 standard:1 coptic:2 alexandria:1 dissent:1 hold:1 cyril:1 formula:1 oneness:1 christ:6 god:4 word:2 felt:1 understanding:1 require:1 state:1 acknowledge:2 two:4 rather:2 miaphysite:2 position:2 often:1 monophysitism:1 form:1 basis:1 distinction:2 egypt:1 ethiopia:1 jacobite:1 syria:1 armenia:1 orthodoxy:1 last:1 year:1 however:1 mere:1 restatement:1 belief:1 patriarch:1 bartholomew:1 john:1 paul:1 ii:1 english:2 translation:1 follow:1 holy:2 father:4 consent:1 teach:2 people:1 confess:1 son:3 lord:4 jesus:3 perfect:2 godhead:3 manhood:3 truly:2 man:1 reasonable:1 rational:1 soul:1 body:1 consubstantial:2 co:1 essential:1 accord:4 u:5 thing:1 like:1 unto:1 without:1 sin:1 beget:2 age:1 latter:1 day:1 salvation:1 born:1 virgin:1 mary:1 mother:1 begotten:1 inconfusedly:1 unchangeably:1 indivisibly:1 inseparably:1 mean:1 take:1 away:1 property:1 preserve:1 concur:1 person:2 subsistence:1 part:1 divide:1 prophet:1 begin:1 declare:1 concern:1 hand:1 external:1 link:1 greek:1 www:1 earlychurchtexts:1 com:1 |@bigram hypostatic_union:1 council_chalcedon:2 ecumenical_council:1 eastern_orthodox:2 oriental_orthodox:1 chalcedonian_creed:2 oriental_orthodoxy:1 patriarch_bartholomew:1 jesus_christ:3 virgin_mary:1 external_link:1 |
3,668 | Clutch | Rear side of a Ford V6 engine, looking at the clutch housing on the flywheel Single, dry, clutch friction disc. The splined hub is attached to the disc with springs to damp chatter. A clutch is a mechanism for transmitting rotation, which can be engaged and disengaged. Clutches are useful in devices that have two rotating shafts. In these devices, one shaft is typically driven by a motor or pulley, and the other shaft drives another device. In a drill, for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor, and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts so that they can either be locked together and spin at the same speed (engaged), or be decoupled and spin at different speeds (disengaged). Multiple plate friction clutch This type of clutch has several driving members interleaved with several driven members. It is used in motorcycles and in some diesel locomotives with mechanical transmission. It is also used in some electronically-controlled all-wheel drive systems. This is the most common type of clutch on modern types of vehicles. When the brake is pushed the caliper containing piston pushes the pad towards the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as when the handbrake is pulled the cylinder pushes the brake shoes towards the drum which also slows the wheel down. Vehicular There are many different vehicle clutch designs but most are based on one or more friction discs, pressed tightly together or against a flywheel using springs. The friction material varies in composition depending on whether the clutch is dry or wet, and on other considerations. Friction discs once contained asbestos, but this has been largely eliminated. Clutches found in heavy duty applications such as trucks and competition cars use ceramic clutches that have a greatly increased friction coefficient; however, these have a "grabby" action and are unsuitable for road cars. The spring pressure is released when the clutch pedal is depressed thus either pushing or pulling the diaphragm of the pressure plate, depending on type, and the friction plate is released and allowed to rotate freely. When engaging the clutch, the engine speed may need to be increased from idle, using the manual throttle, so that the engine does not stall (although in some cars, especially diesels, there is enough torque at idling speed that the car can move; this requires fine control of the clutch). However, raising the engine speed too high while engaging the clutch will cause excessive clutch plate wear. Engaging the clutch abruptly when the engine is turning at high speed causes a harsh, jerky start. This kind of start is necessary and desirable in drag racing and other competitions where speed is more of an issue than comfort. Wet and dry A 'wet clutch' is immersed in a cooling lubricating fluid, which also keeps the surfaces clean and gives smoother performance and longer life. Wet clutches, however, tend to lose some energy to the liquid. A 'dry clutch', as the name implies, is not bathed in fluid. Since the surfaces of a wet clutch can be slippery (as with a motorcycle clutch bathed in transmission oil), stacking multiple clutch disks can compensate for the lower coefficient of friction and so eliminate slippage when fully engaged. Operation in automobiles This plastic pilot shaft guide tool is used to align the clutch disk as the spring-loaded pressure plate is installed. The transmission's drive splines and pilot shaft have an identical shape. A number of such devices fit various makes and models of drivetrains In a car the clutch is operated by the left-most pedal using hydraulics or a cable connection from the pedal to the clutch mechanism. Even though the clutch may physically be located very close to the pedal, such remote means of actuation (or a multi-jointed linkage) are necessary to eliminate the effect of slight engine movement, engine mountings being flexible by design. With a rigid mechanical linkage, smooth engagement would be near-impossible, because engine movement inevitably occurs as the drive is "taken up." No pressure on the pedal means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while pressing the pedal disengages the clutch plates, allowing the driver to shift gears or coast. A manual transmission contains cogs for selecting gears. These cogs have matching teeth, called dog teeth, which means that the rotation speeds of the two parts have a synchronizer, a device that uses frictional contact to bring the two parts to the same speed, and a locking mechanism called a blocker ring to prevent engagement of the teeth (full movement of the shift lever into gear) until the speeds are synchronized. Clutch Stages A Stage 1 clutch is designed to match an automobile's stock clutch in performance and driveability. These are intended for stock vehicles with little or no performance upgrades or increased torque. Stage 2 and 2+ clutches provide greater clamping and torque capability with mildly decreased driveability respectively. These are intended for automobiles with mild to moderate engine tuning or performance upgrades resulting in increased horse power and torque beyond that of the stock engine. Stage 3 and 3+ clutches are designed to provide higher levels of clamping and torque handling. These are typically intended only for racing purposes where extreme heat conditions are generated. Note that some Stage 3 and 3+ clutches require significant warming before performing optimally. Non-powertrain in automobiles There are other clutches found in a car. For example, a belt-driven engine cooling fan may have a clutch that is heat-activated. The driving and driven elements are separated by a silicone-based fluid and a valve controlled by a bimetallic spring. When the temperature is low, the spring winds and closes the valve, which allows the fan to spin at about 20% to 30% of the shaft speed. As the temperature of the spring rises, it unwinds and opens the valve, allowing fluid past the valve which allows the fan to spin at about 60% to 90% of shaft speed depending on whether it's a regular or heavy-duty clutch. There are also electronically engaged clutches (such as for an air conditioning compressor) that use magnetic force to lock the drive and driven shafts together. Operation in motorcycles On most motorcycles, the clutch is operated by the clutch lever, located on the left handlebar. No pressure on the lever means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while pulling the lever back towards the rider will disengage the clutch plates, allowing the rider to shift gears. Motorcycle clutches are usually made up of a stack of alternating plain steel and friction plates. One type of plate has lugs on its inner diameter that key it to the engine crankshaft, while the other type of plate has lugs on its outer diameter that key it to a basket that turns the transmission input shaft. The plates are forced together by a set of coil springs when the clutch is engaged. Racing motorcycles often use slipper clutches to eliminate the effects of engine braking. Centrifugal Some cars and mopeds have a centrifugal clutch, using centrifugal effects to engage the clutch above certain rpm, see Saxomat. Other clutches Dog clutches Cone clutches Torque limiter or Safety clutch: This device allows a rotating shaft to "slip" when higher than normal resistance is encountered on a machine. An example of a safety clutch is the one mounted on the driving shaft of a large grass mower. The clutch will "slip" or "give" if the blades hit a rock, stump, or other immobile object. Overrunning clutch or freewheel Centrifugal clutch and semi-centrifugal clutch Hydraulic clutch Electromagnetic clutch See also Clamp Clutch control External links HowStuffWorks has a detailed explanation of the working of a clutch. Fan Clutch Operation & Troubleshooting has a detailed explanation of how a fan clutch works. | Clutch |@lemmatized rear:1 side:1 ford:1 engine:13 look:1 clutch:64 housing:1 flywheel:2 single:1 dry:4 friction:9 disc:5 splined:1 hub:1 attach:1 spring:8 damp:1 chatter:1 mechanism:3 transmit:1 rotation:2 engage:11 disengage:4 useful:1 device:6 two:4 rotate:3 shaft:13 one:5 typically:2 drive:12 motor:2 pulley:1 another:1 drill:2 instance:1 chuck:1 connect:1 either:2 lock:2 together:4 spin:4 speed:12 decouple:1 different:2 multiple:2 plate:11 type:6 several:2 member:2 interleave:1 driven:3 use:11 motorcycle:6 diesel:2 locomotives:1 mechanical:2 transmission:5 also:5 electronically:2 control:4 wheel:3 system:1 common:1 modern:1 vehicle:3 brake:4 push:4 caliper:1 contain:2 piston:1 pad:1 towards:3 slow:2 drum:2 similar:1 handbrake:1 pull:3 cylinder:1 shoe:1 vehicular:1 many:1 design:4 base:2 press:2 tightly:1 material:1 varies:1 composition:1 depend:3 whether:2 wet:5 consideration:1 asbestos:1 largely:1 eliminate:4 find:2 heavy:2 duty:2 application:1 truck:1 competition:2 car:7 ceramic:1 greatly:1 increased:2 coefficient:2 however:3 grabby:1 action:1 unsuitable:1 road:1 pressure:5 release:2 pedal:6 depress:1 thus:1 diaphragm:1 allow:7 freely:1 may:3 need:1 increase:2 idle:2 manual:2 throttle:1 stall:1 although:1 especially:1 enough:1 torque:6 move:1 require:2 fine:1 raise:1 high:4 cause:2 excessive:1 wear:1 abruptly:1 turn:2 harsh:1 jerky:1 start:2 kind:1 necessary:2 desirable:1 drag:1 racing:1 issue:1 comfort:1 immerse:1 cooling:1 lubricate:1 fluid:4 keep:1 surface:2 clean:1 give:2 smooth:2 performance:4 long:1 life:1 tend:1 lose:1 energy:1 liquid:1 name:1 implies:1 bath:2 since:1 slippery:1 oil:1 stack:2 disk:2 compensate:1 low:2 slippage:1 fully:1 operation:3 automobile:4 plastic:1 pilot:2 guide:1 tool:1 align:1 loaded:1 instal:1 spline:1 identical:1 shape:1 number:1 fit:1 various:1 make:2 model:1 drivetrains:1 operate:2 leave:1 hydraulics:1 cable:1 connection:1 even:1 though:1 physically:1 locate:2 close:2 remote:1 mean:4 actuation:1 multi:1 jointed:1 linkage:2 effect:3 slight:1 movement:3 mounting:1 flexible:1 rigid:1 engagement:2 would:1 near:1 impossible:1 inevitably:1 occur:1 take:1 plat:2 driver:1 shift:3 gear:4 coast:1 contains:1 cog:2 select:1 match:2 teeth:3 call:2 dog:2 part:2 synchronizer:1 frictional:1 contact:1 bring:1 locking:1 blocker:1 ring:1 prevent:1 full:1 lever:4 synchronize:1 stag:1 stage:4 stock:3 driveability:2 intend:3 little:1 upgrade:2 provide:2 great:1 clamping:2 capability:1 mildly:1 decrease:1 respectively:1 mild:1 moderate:1 tuning:1 result:1 horse:1 power:1 beyond:1 level:1 handling:1 race:2 purpose:1 extreme:1 heat:2 condition:2 generate:1 note:1 significant:1 warming:1 perform:1 optimally:1 non:1 powertrain:1 example:2 belt:1 cool:1 fan:5 activate:1 driving:2 element:1 separate:1 silicone:1 valve:4 bimetallic:1 temperature:2 wind:1 rise:1 unwind:1 open:1 past:1 regular:1 air:1 compressor:1 magnetic:1 force:2 left:1 handlebar:1 back:1 rider:2 usually:1 alternate:1 plain:1 steel:1 lug:2 inner:1 diameter:2 key:2 crankshaft:1 outer:1 basket:1 input:1 set:1 coil:1 often:1 slipper:1 braking:1 centrifugal:5 moped:1 certain:1 rpm:1 see:2 saxomat:1 cone:1 limiter:1 safety:2 slip:2 normal:1 resistance:1 encounter:1 machine:1 mount:1 large:1 grass:1 mower:1 blade:1 hit:1 rock:1 stump:1 immobile:1 object:1 overrun:1 freewheel:1 semi:1 hydraulic:1 electromagnetic:1 clamp:1 external:1 link:1 howstuffworks:1 detailed:2 explanation:2 working:1 troubleshooting:1 work:1 |@bigram engage_disengage:1 pedal_depress:1 drag_racing:1 coefficient_friction:1 spring_loaded:1 locking_mechanism:1 engine_crankshaft:1 external_link:1 |
3,669 | E._O._Wilson | Edward Osborne Wilson (born June 10, 1929) is an American biologist, researcher (sociobiology, biodiversity), theorist (consilience, biophilia), naturalist (conservationism) and author. His biological specialty is myrmecology, a branch of entomology. He is a two-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction, Wilson is known for his career as a scientist, his advocacy for environmentalism, and his secular-humanist ideas pertaining to religious and ethical matters. As of 2007, he is Pellegrino University Research Professor in Entomology for the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University and a Fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. He is a Humanist Laureate of the International Academy of Humanism "E.O. Wilson Profile" - Comprehensive list of Degrees, Awards and Positions , E. O. Wilson biography . Early life Wilson was born in Birmingham, Alabama. According to his autobiography Naturalist, he grew up mostly around Washington, D.C. and in the countryside around Mobile, Alabama Edward O. Wilson – Naturalist, Island Press; (April 24, 2006), ISBN 1597260886 . From an early age, he was interested in natural history. His parents, Edward and Inez Wilson, divorced when he was seven. In that same year, he blinded himself in one eye in a fishing accident. The young naturalist grew up in several cities and towns, moving around with his father and his stepmother. His reduced ability to observe mammals and birds led him to concentrate on insects. At nine, Wilson undertook his first expeditions at the Rock Creek Park in Washington, DC. At the age of 18, intent on becoming an entomologist, he began by collecting flies, but the shortage of insect pins caused by World War II caused him to switch to ants, which could be stored in vials. With the encouragement of Marion R. Smith, a myrmecologist from the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, Wilson began a survey of all the ants of Alabama. Concerned that he might not be able to afford to go to a university, Wilson attempted to enlist in the United States Army. His plan was to earn U.S. government financial support for his education, but he failed his Army medical examination due to his impaired eyesight. Wilson was able to afford to enroll in the University of Alabama after all. There, he earned his B.S. and M.S. degrees. He later earned his Ph.D. degree from Harvard University. In 1994 Island Press published "Naturalist" an autobiography of Wilson's life Edward O. Wilson - Naturalist, Island Press; ISBN 1-55963-288-7 (cloth)[QH31.W64A3 1994 508'.092--dc20 94-13111] . Theories and beliefs Epic of evolution "Epic of Evolution is a term that, within the past three years (1998), has become the theme and title of a number of gatherings. It seems to have been first used by Harvard biologist Edward O. Wilson in 1978 E. O. Wilson coined the term ‘evolutionary epic’– Teilhard Perspective, Volume 30 #2 Fall 1997 ‘The evolutionary epic,’. Wilson wrote in his book On Human Nature, ‘is probably the best myth we will ever have.’ Myth as falsehood was not the usage intended by Wilson in this statement. Rather, myth as a grand narrative that provides a people with a placement in time—a meaningful placement that celebrates extraordinary moments of a shared heritage. The epic of evolution is science translated into meaningful story” Connie Barlow - The Epic of Evolution: Religious and cultural interpretations of modern scientific cosmology, Science & Spirit Magazine . Wilson was not the first to use the term but his Pulitzer fame prompted its usage as the morphed phrase epic of evolution. name="cnn"> . Wilson explained the need for the Epic of Evolution - "Human beings must have an epic, a sublime account of how the world was created and how humanity became part of it (…) Religious epics satisfy another primal need. They confirm we are part of something greater than ourselves (…) The way to achieve our epic that unites human spirituality, instead of cleave it, it is to compose it from the best empirical knowledge that science and history can provide". Edward O. Wilson, Foreword of Everybody's Story: Wising Up to the Epic of Evolution By Loyal D. Rue, SUNY Press, 1999, page ix and x,ISBN 0791443922, . The worth of the Epic he explained as -“The true evolutionary epic retold as poetry, is as intrinsically ennobling as any religious epic” Edward O. Wilson, Consilience 1998 Cosmologist Brian Swimme concludes in a 1997 interview : “I think that what E. O. Wilson is trying to suggest is that to be fully human, a person has to see that life has a heroic dimension (…) I think for the scientist, and for other people, it's a question of "is the universe valuable? Is it sacred? Is it holy? Or is the human agenda all that matters?" I just don't think we're that stupid to continue in a way that continues to destroy. I'm hopeful that the Epic of Evolution will be yet another strategy in our culture that will lead our consciousness out of a very tight, human-centered materialism” - Science as Wisdom: The New Story as a Way Forward Brian Swimme interview Naturalistic and liberal religious writers have picked up on Wilson's term and it have used in a number of texts. These authors however have at times used other terms as synonyms for the story such as: Universal Story (Brian Swimme, John F. Haught), Great Story (Connie Barlow, Michael Dowd), Everybody’s Story (Loyal Rue), New Story (Thomas Berry, Al Gore, Brian Swimme) and Cosmic Evolution (Eric Chaisson) Eric Chaisson - Epic of Evolution: Seven Ages of the Cosmos, Columbia University Press, 2006, ISBN 0231135602, 9780231135603 Loyal Rue - Everybody's Story: Wising Up to the Epic of Evolution, SUNY Press, 1999, ISBN 0791443922 Alfred K Thomas - The Epic of Evolution, Its Etiology and Art: A Study of Vardis Fisher's Testament of Man, University Microfilms International, 1989*James B. Miller - The Epic of Evolution: Science and Religion in Dialogue, Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2003, ISBN 013093318X Gordon Kaufman - The Epic of Evolution as a Framework for Human Orientation,1997 . Sociobiology Michael McGoodwin quoting Wilson on sociobiology - Edward O. Wilson: On Human Nature - Summary by Michael McGoodwin, prepared 1991 Sociobiology is defined (by Wilson) as the systematic study of the biological basis of all forms of behavior, including human, incorporating ecology, ethology, and genetics. "If humankind evolved by Darwinian natural selection, genetic chance and environmental necessity, not God, made the species." "The brain [and the mind] exists because it promotes the survival and multiplication of the genes that direct its assembly." The two apparent dilemmas we face therefore are: (1) We lack any goal external to our biological nature (for even religions evolve to enhance the persistence and influence of their practitioners). Will societies transcendental goals dissolve and will we regress to mere self-indulgence? (2) Morality evolved as instinct "which of the censors and motivators should be obeyed and which ones might better be curtailed or sublimated." Although much human diversity in behavior is culturally influenced, some has been shown to be genetic - rapid acquisition of language, human unpredictability, hypertrophy (extreme growth of pre-existing social structures), altruism and religions. "Religious practices that consistently enhance survival and procreation of the practitioners will propagate the physiological controls that favor the acquisition of the practices during single lifetimes." Unthinking submission to the communal will promotes the fitness of the members of the tribe. Even submission to secular religions and cults involve willing subordination of the individual to the group. Religious practices confer biological advantages Summary by Michael McGoodwin, prepared 1991 Wilson used sociobiology and evolutionary principles to explain the behavior of the social insects and then to understand the social behavior of other animals, including humans, thus established sociobiology as a new scientific field. He argued that all animal behavior, including that of humans, is the product of heredity, environmental stimuli, and past experiences, and that free will is an illusion. He has referred to the biological basis of behaviour as the "genetic leash." E. O. Wilson, Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge, New York, Knopf, 1998, pp. 127-128. The sociobiological view is that all animal social behavior is governed by epigenetic rules worked out by the laws of evolution. This theory and research proved to be seminal, controversial, and influential. Wolfe, Tom (1996). Sorry, But Your Soul Just Died. Vol. 158, Issue 13, pp.210ff. Forbes The controversy of sociobiological research is in how it applies to humans. The theory established a scientific argument for rejecting the common doctrine of tabula rasa, which holds that human beings are born without any innate mental content and that culture functions to increase human knowledge and aid in survival and success. In the final chapter of the book Sociobiology and in the full text of his Pulitzer Prize-winning On Human Nature, Wilson argues that the human mind is shaped as much by genetic inheritance as it is by culture (if not more). There are limits on just how much influence social and environmental factors can have in altering human behavior. Ants and social insects Wilson, along with Bert Hölldobler, has done a systematic study of ants and ant behavior Taking a Cue From Ants on Evolution of Humans , culminating in their encyclopedic work, The Ants (1990). Because much self-sacrificing behavior on the part of individual ants can be explained on the basis of their genetic interests in the survival of the sisters, with whom (it was thought at the time) they share 75% of their genes, Wilson was led to argue for a sociobiological explanation for all social behavior on the model of the behavior of the social insects. (It turns out that because queens mate more than once, the 75% number is too high, though suggestive for selfish-gene explanations.) In his more recent work, he has sought to defend his views against the criticism of younger scientists such as Deborah Gordon, whose results challenge the idea that ant behavior is as rigidly-predictable as Wilson's explanations make it. Edward O. Wilson, referring to ants, once said that "Karl Marx was right, socialism works, it is just that he had the wrong species", meaning that while ants and other eusocial species appear to live in communist-like societies, they only do so because they are forced to do so from their basic biology, as they lack reproductive independence: worker ants, being sterile, need their ant-queen to survive as a colony and a species and individual ants cannot reproduce without a queen, thus being forced to live in centralised societies. Humans, however, as a more advanced biological being, do possess reproductive independence so they can give birth to offspring without the need of a "queen", and in fact humans enjoy their maximum level of Darwinian fitness only when they look after themselves and their families, while finding innovative ways to use the societies they live in for their own benefit. Consilience In his 1998 book Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge, Wilson discusses methods that have been used to unite the sciences, and might be able to unite the sciences with the humanities. Wilson prefers and uses the term "consilience" to describe the synthesis of knowledge from different specialized fields of human endeavor. He defines human nature as a collection of epigenetic rules, the genetic patterns of mental development. He argues that culture and rituals are products, not parts, of human nature. He says art is not part of human nature, but our appreciation of art is. He argues that concepts such as art appreciation, fear of snakes, or the incest taboo (Westermarck effect) can be studied using scientific methods. Previously, these phenomena were only part of psychological, sociological, or anthropological studies. Wilson proposes that they can be part of interdisciplinary research. The unit and target of selection Wilson has argued that the "unit of selection is a gene, the basic element of heredity. The target of selection is normally the individual who carries an ensemble of genes of certain kinds." With regards to the use kin selection in explaining the behavior of eusocial insects, Wilson said to Discover magazine, the "new view that I'm proposing is that it was group selection all along, an idea first roughly formulated by Darwin." Richard Conniff "Discover Interview: E.O. Wilson" June 25, 2006. Spiritual and political beliefs Wilson’s views on religion As summarized by Michael McGoodwin Edward O. Wilson: On Human Nature - Summary by Michael McGoodwin, prepared 1991 - The predisposition to religious belief is an ineradicable part of human behavior. Mankind has produced 100,000 religions. It is an illusion to think that scientific humanism and learning will dispel religious belief. Men would rather believe than know (…) A kind of Darwinistic survival of the fittest has occurred with religions (…) The ecological principle called Gause's law holds that competition is maximal between species with identical needs (…) Even submission to secular religions such as Communism and guru cults involve willing subordination of the individual to the group. Religious practices confer biological advantage. The mechanisms of religion include (1) objectification (the reduction of reality to images and definitions that are easily understood and cannot be refuted), (2) commitment through faith (a kind of tribalism enacted through self-surrender), (3) and myth (the narratives that explain the tribe's favored position on the earth, often incorporating supernatural forces struggling for control, apocalypse, and millennium). The three great religion categories of today are Marxism, traditional religion, and scientific materialism. Though theology is not likely to survive as an independent intellectual discipline, traditional religion will endure for a long time to come and will not be replaced by scientific materialism. Scientific humanism Wilson coined the phrase scientific humanism as "the only worldview compatible with science's growing knowledge of the real world and the laws of nature". in Harvard Magazine December 2005 p 33. Wilson argues that it is best suited to improve the human condition. God and religion On the question of God, Wilson has described his position as provisional deism. The Creation He has explained his faith as a trajectory away from traditional beliefs: "I drifted away from the church, not definitively agnostic or atheistic, just Baptist & Christian no more." Wilson argues that the belief in God and rituals of religion are products of evolution. Human Nature He argues that they should not be rejected or dismissed, but further investigated by science to better understand their significance to human nature. In his book The Creation, Wilson suggests that scientists "offer the hand of friendship" to religious leaders and build an alliance with them, stating that "Science and religion are two of the most potent forces on Earth and they should come together to save the creation." Naturalist E.O. Wilson is optimistic Harvard Gazette June 15, 2006 Ecology When discussing the reinvigoration of his original fields of study since the 1960s, Wilson has said that if he could start his life over he would work in microbial ecology. He studied the mass extinctions of the 20th century and their relationship to modern society, arguing strongly for an ecological approach: Now when you cut a forest, an ancient forest in particular, you are not just removing a lot of big trees and a few birds fluttering around in the canopy. You are drastically imperiling a vast array of species within a few square miles of you. The number of these species may go to tens of thousands. ... Many of them are still unknown to science, and science has not yet discovered the key role undoubtedly played in the maintenance of that ecosystem, as in the case of fungi, microorganisms, and many of the insects. Wilson, E. O. (1998 April 28, 1998). Slide show, page 2. Delivered at Washington, DC. Website of Save America's Forests. Accessed 2008-11-13. His understanding of the scale of the extinction crisis has led him to advocate a number of strategies for forest protection, including the Forests Now Declaration, which calls for new markets-based mechanisms to protect tropical forests. Criticism of human sociobiology Wilson experienced significant criticism for his sociobiological views from several different communities. The scientific response included several of Wilson's colleagues at Harvard, such as Richard Lewontin and Stephen Jay Gould, who were vehemently opposed to his ideas regarding sociobiology. Marshall Sahlins's work The Use and Abuse of Biology was a direct criticism of Wilson's theories* Marshall David Sahlins - The Use and Abuse of Biology (1976: ISBN 0472087770) Politically, Wilson's sociobiological ideas have offended some liberals and conservatives, who both favored the idea that human behavior was culturally based. Sociobiology re-ignited the nature-versus-nurture debate, and Wilson's scientific perspective on human nature led to public debate. He was accused of racism, misogyny, and eugenics. Douglas, Ed (2001). Darwin's Natural Heir. Guardian Unlimitied. In one incident, members of the International Committee Against Racism poured a pitcher of water on Wilson's head and chanted "Wilson, you're all wet" at a conference in November 1977. Wilson, Edward O. (1995). Naturalist. ISBN 0446671991. Wilson later spoke of the incident as a source of pride: "I believe...I was the only scientist in modern times to be physically attacked for an idea." Religious objections included those of Paul E. Rothrock, who said: "... sociobiology has the potential of becoming a religion of scientific materialism." Mythology of Scientific Materialism Awards and honors Wilson at a "fireside chat" during which he received the Addison Emery Verrill Medal in 2007 Wilson's scientific and conservation honors include: Eagle Scout, Boy Scouts of America Distinguished Eagle Scout Award Member, National Academy of Sciences, 1969 U.S. National Medal of Science, 1976 Pulitzer Prize for On Human Nature, 1979 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement, 1984 ECI Prize, International Ecology Institute, terrestrial ecology, 1987 Crafoord Prize, 1990, a prize awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in certain sciences not covered by the Nobel Prize, and therefore considered the highest award given in the field of ecology Pulitzer Prize for The Ants (with Bert Hölldobler), 1991 Carl Sagan Award for Public Understanding of Science 1994 Time Magazine's 25 Most Influential People in America, 1995 American Humanist Association's 1999 Humanist of the Year Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science, 2000 Nierenberg Prize, 2001 Dauphin Island Sea Lab christened its newest research vessel the R/V E.O. Wilson in 2005. Addison Emery Verrill Medal from the Peabody Museum of Natural History, 2007 TED Prize 2007 given yearly to honor a maximum of three individuals who have shown that they can, in some way, positively impact life on this planet. XIX Premi Internacional Catalunya 2007 Member of the World Knowledge DialogueHonorary Board, and Scientist in Residence for the 2008 symposium organized in Crans-Montana (Switzerland). Main works The Theory of Island Biogeography, 1967, Princeton University Press (2001 reprint), ISBN 0-691-08836-5, with Robert H. MacArthur The Insect Societies, 1971, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-45490-1 Sociobiology: The New Synthesis 1975, Harvard University Press, (Twenty-fifth Anniversary Edition, 2000 ISBN 0-674-00089-7) On Human Nature, 1979, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-01638-6 Genes, Mind and Culture: The coevolutionary process, 1981, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-34475-8 Promethean fire: reflections on the origin of mind, 1983, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-71445-8 , 1984, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-07441-6 Success and Dominance in Ecosystems: The Case of the Social Insects, 1990, Inter-Research, ISSN 0932-2205 The Ants, 1990, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-04075-9, Winner of the Pulitzer Prize, with Bert Hölldobler The Diversity of Life, 1992, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-21298-3, [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/WILDIS.html The Diversity of Life: Special Edition], ISBN 0-674-21299-1 The Biophilia Hypothesis, 1993, Shearwater Books, ISBN 1-55963-148-1, with Stephen R. Kellert Journey to the Ants: A Story of Scientific Exploration, 1994, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-48525-4, with Bert Hölldobler Naturalist, 1994, Shearwater Books, ISBN 1-55963-288-7 In Search of Nature, 1996, Shearwater Books, ISBN 1-55963-215-1, with Laura Simonds Southworth Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge, 1998, Knopf, ISBN 0-679-45077-7 The Future of Life, 2002, Knopf, ISBN 0-679-45078-5 Pheidole in the New World: A Dominant, Hyperdiverse Ant Genus, 2003, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-00293-8 From So Simple a Beginning: Darwin's Four Great Books. 2005, W. W. Norton. The Creation: An Appeal to Save Life on Earth, September 2006, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0393062175 Nature Revealed: Selected Writings 1949-2006, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. ISBN 0-8018-8329-6 The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies, 2009, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-393-06704-0, with Bert Hölldobler See also Sociobiology Biodiversity Biophilia Hypothesis Westermarck effect Green economics Evolutionary psychology Human behavioral ecology Dual inheritance theory Richard Machalek Laura Simonds Southworth Barry Lopez Bert Hölldobler Myrmecology Superorganism Biomass Encyclopedia of Life The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll Footnotes External links Bio "E.O. Wilson Profile" - Comprehensive list of Degrees, Awards and Positions E. O. Wilson's CV E. O. Wilson biography Videos "On the Relation of Science and Humanities" - lecture at Harvard@Home "From So Simple a Beginning: The Four Great Books of Charles Darwin" - lecture at BookTV Appearance on Charlie Rose - interviewed with James D. Watson Appearance on MeaningOfLife.tv - interview by Robert Wright Ubben Lecture at DePauw University E. O. Wilson Charlie Rose complete interviews E.O. Wilson: TED Prize wish: Help build the Encyclopedia of Life TED, March 2007, on the Encyclopedia of Life Appearance on NOVA's Little Creatures Who Run the World, 1997 Subject of NOVA's Lord of the Ants, 2008 Interviews Living in Shimmering Disequilibrium - interview by Fred Branfman (Salon) Karl Marx was right, it is just that he had the wrong species - interview by Frans Roes (Speak, Darwinists!) E.O. Wilson - interview by Paul D. Thacker (BioMedNet) City Arts & Lectures, 2006/10/10 Esquire, August 5, 2008 Articles Sorry, But Your Soul Just Died - essay by Tom Wolfe (Forbes, 1996) Darwin's natural heir: Profile - essay by Ed Douglas (The Guardian, 2001) The Ant King's Latest Mission: Profile - essay by Robin McKie (GuardianUnlimited, 2006) Editorial on Sustainability e-Journal - essay by E.O. Wilson (Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, 2005) Essays Science and Ideology (1995) Kin Selection as the Key to Altruism: Its Rise and Fall (2005) Letter to a Southern Baptist Minister (Excerpt from The Creation: An Appeal to Save Life on Earth). (2006) Books Success and Dominance in Ecosystems: The Case of the Social Insects (1987), available as free download. | E._O._Wilson |@lemmatized edward:11 osborne:1 wilson:68 bear:3 june:3 american:2 biologist:2 researcher:1 sociobiology:13 biodiversity:2 theorist:1 consilience:7 biophilia:3 naturalist:9 conservationism:1 author:2 biological:7 specialty:1 myrmecology:2 branch:1 entomology:2 two:3 time:7 winner:2 pulitzer:6 prize:14 general:1 non:1 fiction:1 know:2 career:1 scientist:6 advocacy:1 environmentalism:1 secular:3 humanist:4 idea:7 pertain:1 religious:12 ethical:1 matter:2 pellegrino:1 university:20 research:6 professor:1 department:1 organismic:1 evolutionary:6 biology:4 harvard:18 fellow:1 committee:2 skeptical:1 inquiry:1 laureate:1 international:4 academy:3 humanism:4 e:18 profile:4 comprehensive:2 list:2 degree:4 award:7 position:4 biography:2 early:2 life:13 birmingham:1 alabama:4 accord:1 autobiography:2 grow:3 mostly:1 around:4 washington:4 c:1 countryside:1 mobile:1 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3,670 | Goddess | A goddess is a female deity. Often deities are part of a polytheistic system that includes several deities in a pantheon. Common associations of goddesses are the Earth, the Mother, Love, and the household, reflecting historical gender roles. The primacy of a monotheistic or near-monotheistic "Great Goddess" is advocated by some modern matriarchists as a female version of, preceding, or analogue to, the Abrahamic God associated with the historical rise of monotheism in the Mediterranean Axis Age. Some currents of Neopaganism, in particular Wicca, have a ditheistic concept of a single goddess and a single god, who in hierosgamos represent a united whole. Polytheistic reconstructionists focus on reconstructing polytheistic religions, including the various goddesses and figures associated with indigenous cultures. Some religions have living Goddesses to this day, for example the practice of worshipping the goddess Kumari Devi a pre-pubescent girl as a source of supreme power has been an integral part of both Hinduism and Buddhism. In Nepal the Kumari Devi lives in the building known as the Kumari Ghar, right beside Kathmandu's Durbar Square. The Goddess of the South Seas or Nyai Lara Kidul, also called the Queen of the Spirits, dwells in the ocean to the south of Java and each year the Sultan of Yoga spends a night with her to maintain ties between Queen Lara Kidul and the great royal family of Mataram. The deep spiritual significance of the union of Queen Lara Kidul and the king of Mataram can be witnessed during the Labuhan ceremony, still celebrated annually at the water’s edge. The ceremony, which takes place after the birthday of the Sultan of Yogyakarta, is in honor of Queen Lara Kidul, and seeks her continued blessing on the sultan, his court, and his people. Offerings are brought from the sultan’s palace to Parangsumo, on the southern coast facing the Indian Ocean. The offerings include money, petals and female garments such as a shawl and a length of batik. There are also offerings of the sultan’s hair and fingernail clippings. Historical polytheism Ancient Near East Ancient Egypt A statue of the Egyptian war goddess Neith wearing the Deshret crown of northern (lower) Egypt, which bears the cobra of Wadjet. Goddesses of the Ennead of Heliopolis: Isis, Nut, Nephthys, Tefnut Goddesses of the Ogdoad of Hermopolis: Naunet, Amaunet, Kauket, Hauhet; originally a cult of Hathor Satis and Anuket of the triad of Elephantine Mesopotamia Ishtar (Inanna) was the main goddess of Babylonia and Assyria. Other Mesopotamian goddesses include Ninhursag, Ninlil, Antu Canaan Goddesses of the Canaanite religion: Ba`alat Gebal, Astarte, Anat. Pre-Islamic Arabia In pre-Islamic Mecca the goddesses Uzza, al-Manāt and al-Lāt were known as "the daughters of god". Uzzā was worshipped by the Nabataeans, who equated her with the Graeco-Roman goddesses Aphrodite, Urania, Venus and Caelestis. Each of the three goddesses had a separate shrine near Mecca. Uzzā, was called upon for protection by the pre-Islamic Quraysh. "In 624 at the battle called "Uhud", the war cry of the Qurayshites was, "O people of Uzzā, people of Hubal!" (Tawil 1993). According to Ibn Ishaq's controversial account of the Satanic Verses (q.v.), these verses had previously endorsed them as intercessors for Muslims, but were abrogated. Most Muslim scholars have regarded the story as historically implausible, while opinion is divided among western scholars such as Leone Caetani and John Burton, who argue against, and William Muir and William Montgomery Watt, who for its plausibility. Indo-European Pre-Christian and pre-Islamic goddesses in Indo-European cultures. Indo-Iranian Ushas is the main goddess of the Rigveda. Prithivi, the Earth, also appears as a goddess. Rivers are also deified as goddesses. Greco-Roman Statue of Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture Eleusinian Mysteries: Persephone, Demeter, Baubo Aphrodite: Goddess of love, lust and beauty. Artemis: Goddess of the moon, fertility, childbirth, and the hunt. She is the protector of children and maidens and she is also virgin goddess. Athena: Goddess of crafts, strategy, wisdom and war. Athena is also virgin goddess. Cybele Eris: Goddess of discord (chaos). Hera: Goddess of family and marriage. She is the wife of Zeus and the queen of the Olympians. Mother of Ares. Hekate: Goddess of sorcery, crossroads and magic. Often considered an chthonic or lunar goddess. She is either portrayed as a single goddess or a triple goddess (maiden, woman, crone). Iris: Messenger of the gods. Nike: Goddess of victory. She is predominantly pictured with Zeus or Athena. Potnia Theron Selene: The original moon goddess but later then give her powers to Artemis. Her twin brother Helios is the sun god. Celtic Goddesses in Celtic polytheism: Celtic antiquity: Brigantia Gallo-Roman goddesses: Epona, Dea Matrona Goddesses of Insular (Welsh, Irish) mythology: Mórrígan-Nemain-Macha-Badb, Brigid, Ériu, Danu Germanic The goddess Freyja is nuzzled by the boar Hildisvíni while gesturing to Hyndla (1895) by Lorenz Frølich. Surviving accounts of Germanic mythology and later Norse mythology contain numerous tales and mentions of female goddesses, female giantesses, and divine female figures. The Germanic peoples had altars erected to the "Mothers and Matrons" and held celebrations specific to them (such as the Anglo-Saxon "Mothers-night"), and various other female deities are attested among the Germanic peoples, such as Nerthus attested in an early account of the Germanic peoples, Ēostre attested among the pagan Anglo-Saxons and Sinthgunt attested among the pagan continental Germanic peoples. Examples of goddesses attested in Norse mythology include Frigg (wife of Odin, and the Anglo-Saxon version of whom is namesake of the modern English weekday Friday), Skaði (one time wife of Njörðr), Freyja (wife of Óðr), Sif (wife of Thor), Gerðr (wife of Freyr), and personifications such as Jörð (earth), Sól (the sun), and Nótt (night). Female deities also play heavily into the Norse concept of death, where half of those slain in battle enter Freyja's field Fólkvangr, Hel receiving the dead in her realm of the same name, and Rán, receiving those who die at sea. Other female deities such as the valkyries, the norns, and the dísir are associated with a Germanic concept of fate (Old Norse Ørlög, Old English Wyrd), and celebrations were held in their honor, such as the Dísablót and Disting. Folk religion and animism African religions In African and African diasporic religions, goddesses are often syncretized with Marian devotion, as in Ezili Dantor (Black Madonna of Częstochowa) and Erzulie Freda (Mater Dolorosa). A rare example of henotheism focussed on a single Goddess is found among the Southern Nuba of Sudan. The Nuba conceive of the creator Goddess as the "Great Mother" who gave birth to earth and to mankind. Mbiti, J.S., Introduction to African Religion, Oxford, 1975, p. 53. Chinese folk religion Mazu is the goddess of the sea who protects fishermen and sailors, widely worshipped in the south-eastern coastal areas of China and neighbouring areas in Southeast Asia. Hinduism The Hindu warrior goddess Durga killing the buffalo-demon Mahishasura. Hinduism is a complex of various belief systems that sees many gods and goddesses as being representative of and/or emanative from a single source, Brahman, understood either as a formless, infinite, impersonal monad in the Advaita tradition or as a dual god in the form of Lakshmi-Vishnu, Radha-Krishna, Shiva-Shakti in Dvaita traditions. Shaktas, worshippers of the Goddess, equate this god with Devi, the mother goddess. Such aspects of one god as male god (Shaktiman) and female energy (Shakti), working as a pair are often envisioned as male gods and their wives or consorts and provide many analogues between passive male ground and dynamic female energy. For example, Brahma pairs with Sarasvati. Shiva likewise pairs with Parvati who later is represented through a number of avatars (incarnations): Sati and the warrior figures, Durga and Kali. All goddesses in Hinduism are sometimes grouped together as the great goddess, Devi. A further step was taken by the idea of the Shaktis. Their ideology based mainly on tantras sees Shakti as the principle of energy through which all divinity functions, thus showing the masculine to be dependent on the feminine. Indeed, in the great shakta scripture known as the Devi Mahatmya, all the goddesses are shown to be aspects of one presiding female force, one in truth and many in expression, giving the world and the cosmos the galvanic energy for motion. It is expressed through both philosophical tracts and metaphor that the potentiality of masculine being is given actuation by the feminine divine. Local deities of different village regions in India were often identified with "mainstream" Hindu deities, a process that has been called "Sanskritization". Others attribute it to the influence of monism or Advaita which discounts polytheist or monotheist categorization. While the monist forces have led to a fusion between some of the goddesses (108 names are common for many goddesses), centrifugal forces have also resulted in new goddesses and rituals gaining ascendance among the laity in different parts of Hindu world. Thus, the immensely popular goddess Durga was a pre-Vedic goddess who was later fused with Parvati, a process that can be traced through texts such as Kalika Purana (10th century), Durgabhaktitarangini (Vidyapati 15th century), Chandimangal (16th century) etc. Abrahamic religions Monotheist cultures, which recognise only one central deity, generally characterize that deity as male, implicitly grammatically by using masculine gender, but also explicitly by terms such as "Father" or "Lord". In all monotheistic religions, however, there are mystic undercurrents which emphasize the feminine aspects of the godhead, e.g. the Collyridians in the time of early Christianity, who viewed Mary as a goddess, the medieval visionary Julian of Norwich, the Judaic Shekinah and the Gnostic Sophia traditions. Judaism The Hebrew cosmogony originally told a story of God creating Adam to marry a local Goddess-associated figure named Lilith. Lilith was a follower of the Great Mother Goddess, Inanna- later known as both Ishtar and Asherah. In The Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh was said to have destroyed a tree that was in a sacred grove dedicated to the goddess Ishtar/Inanna/Asherah. Lilith ran into the wilderness in despair. She then is depicted in the Talmud and Kabbalah as first wife to God's first creation of man, Adam. In time, as stated in the Old Testament, the Hebrew followers continued to worship "False Idols", like Asherah, as being as powerful as God. Jeremiah speaks of his (and God's) displeasure at this behavior to the Hebrew people about the worship of the goddess in the Old Testament. Lilith is banished from Adam and God's presence when she is discovered to be a "demon" and Eve becomes Adam's wife. Lilith then takes the form of the serpent in her jealous rage at being displaced as Adam's wife. Lilith as serpent then proceeds to trick Eve into eating the fruit from the tree of knowledge and in this way is responsible for the downfall of all of mankind. It is worthwhile to note here that in religions pre-dating Judaism, the serpent was known to be associated with wisdom and re-birth (with the shedding of its skin). Judaism is a Patriarchal religion, with emphasis being placed on God as having creating Adam is his own image. Eve is a secondary addition to creation, having been created from Adam's rib. God is referred to as "He" and family lines through Abraham are followed in a Patrilinear fashion. The concept of a Goddess seems to be absent from all but the original Creation myth which some scholars say appears have roots in the nearby Babylonian creation myth, Enuma Elis. Christianity In Christianity, belief in a feminine deity was deemed characteristic of heresy, but veneration for Mary, the mother of Jesus, as an especially privileged human being, though not as a deity, has continued since the beginning of the Christian faith. Virgin Sophia design on a Harmony Society doorway in Harmony, Pennsylvania, carved by Frederick Reichert Rapp (1775-1834). In some Christian traditions (like the Orthodox tradition), Sophia is the personification of either divine wisdom (or of an archangel) which takes female form. She is mentioned in the first chapter of the Book of Proverbs. In Christian mysticism, Gnosticism, as well as some Hellenistic religions, there is a female spirit or goddess named Sophia who is said to embody wisdom and who is sometimes described as a virgin. In Roman Catholic mysticism, Hildegard of Bingen celebrated Sophia as a cosmic figure both in her writing and art. Within the Protestant tradition in England, 17th Century Christian Mystic, Universalist and founder of the Philadelphian Society Jane Leade wrote copious descriptions of her visions and dialogues with the "Virgin Sophia" who, she said, revealed to her the spiritual workings of the universe. Leade was hugely influenced by the theosophical writings of 16th Century German Christian mystic Jakob Böhme, who also speaks of the Sophia in works such as The Way to Christ. Jakob Böhme was very influential to a number of Christian mystics and religious leaders, including George Rapp and the Harmony Society. Feminism and Neopaganism At least since first-wave feminism in the United States, there has been interest in analyzing religion to see if and how doctrines and practices treat women unfairly, as in Elizabeth Cady Stanton's The Woman's Bible. Again in second-wave feminism in the U.S., as well as in many European and other countries, religion became the focus of some feminist analysis in Judaism, Christianity, and other religions, and some women turned to ancient goddess religions as an alternative to Abrahamic religions (Womanspirit Rising 1979; Weaving the Visions 1989). Today both women and men continue to be involved in the Goddess movement (Christ 1997). The popularity of organizations such as the Fellowship of Isis attest to the continuing growth of the religion of the Goddess throughout the world. While much of the attempt at gender equity in mainstream Christianity (Judaism never recognized any gender for God) is aimed at reinterpreting scripture and degenderizing language used to name and describe the divine (Ruether, 1984; Plaskow, 1991), there are a growing number of people who identify as Christians or Jews who are trying to integrate goddess imagery into their religions (Kien, 2000; Kidd 1996,"Goddess Christians Yahoogroup"). Joseph Campbell in The Power of Myth, a 1988 interview with Bill Moyers, first broadcast on PBS in 1988 as a documentary, The Power of Myth was also released in the same year as a book created under the direction of the late Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis links the image of the Earth or Mother Goddess to symbols of fertility and reproduction. Chapter 6, "The Gift of the Goddess" and Episode 5, "Love and the Goddess" For example, Campbell states that, "There have been systems of religion where the mother is the prime parent, the source... We talk of Mother Earth. And in Egypt you have the Mother Heavens, the Goddess Nut, who is represented as the whole heavenly sphere". p. 165, 1988, first edition Campbell continues by stating that the correlation between fertility and the Goddess found its roots in agriculture: Bill Moyers: But what happened along the way to this reverence that in primitive societies was directed to the Goddess figure, the Great Goddess, the mother earth- what happened to that? Joseph Campbell: Well that was associated primarily with agriculture and the agricultural societies. It has to do with the earth. The human woman gives birth just as the earth gives birth to the plants...so woman magic and earth magic are the same. They are related. And the personification of the energy that gives birth to forms and nourishes forms is properly female. It is in the agricultural world of ancient Mesopotamia, the Egyptian Nile, and in the earlier planting-culture systems that the Goddess is the dominant mythic form. pp.166-7, 1988, first edition) Campbell also argues that the image of the Virgin Mary was derived from the image of Isis and her child Horus: "The antique model for the Madonna, actually, is Isis with Horus at her breast". p. 176, 1988, first edition In Wicca "the Goddess" is a deity of prime importance, along with her consort the Horned God. In the earliest Wiccan publications she is described as a tribal goddess of the witch community, neither omnipotent nor universal, and it was recognised that there was a greater "Prime Mover", although the witches did not concern themselves much with this being. Within many forms of Wicca the Goddess has come to be considered as a universal deity, more in line with her description in the Charge of the Goddess, a key Wiccan text. In this guise she is the "Queen of Heaven", similar to Isis; she also encompasses and conceives all life, much like Gaia. Much like Isis and certain late Classical conceptions of Selene, she is held to be the summation of all other goddesses, who represent her different names and aspects across the different cultures. The Goddess is often portrayed with strong lunar symbolism, drawing on various cultures and deities such as Diana, Hecate and Isis, and is often depicted as the Maiden, Mother and Crone triad popularised by Robert Graves (see Triple Goddess below). Many depictions of her also draw strongly on Celtic goddesses. Some Wiccans believe there are many goddesses, and in some forms of Wicca, notably Dianic Wicca, the Goddess alone is worshipped, and the God plays very little part in their worship and ritual. The lunar Triple Goddess symbol. Goddesses or demi-goddesses appear in sets of three in a number of ancient European pagan mythologies; these include the Greek Erinyes (Furies) and Moirae (Fates); the Norse Norns; Brighid and her two sisters, also called Brighid, from Irish or Keltoi mythology. Robert Graves popularised the triad of "Maiden" (or "Virgin"), "Mother" and "Crone", and while this idea did not rest on sound scholarship, his poetic inspiration has gained a tenacious hold. Considerable variation in the precise conceptions of these figures exists, as typically occurs in Neopaganism and indeed in pagan religions in general. Some choose to interpret them as three stages in a woman's life, separated by menarche and menopause. Others find this too biologically based and rigid, and prefer a freer interpretation, with the Maiden as birth (independent, self-centred, seeking), the Mother as giving birth (interrelated, compassionate nurturing, creating), and the Crone as death and renewal (holistic, remote, unknowable) — and all three erotic and wise. Metaphorical use The term "goddess" has also been adapted to poetic and secular use as a complimentary description of a non-mythological woman. OED: "Applied to a woman. one's goddess: the woman whom one ‘worships’ or devotedly admires." The OED notes 1579 as the date of the earliest attestation of such figurative use, in Lauretta the diuine Petrarches Goddesse. Shakespeare had several of his male characters address female characters as goddesses, including Demetrius to Helena in A Midsummer Night's Dream ("O Helen, goddess, nymph, perfect, divine!"), Berowne to Rosaline in Love's Labour's Lost ("A woman I forswore; but I will prove, Thou being a goddess, I forswore not thee"), and Bertram to Diana in All's Well That Ends Well. Pisanio also compares Imogen to a goddess to describe her composure under duress in Cymbeline. "Domestic goddess" is a humorous term for a housewife. See also God (male deity) Anima (Jung) God and gender Goddess movement Mother goddess Sophia References Bibliography Knight, Peter, Thirteen Moons - Conversations with the Goddess, Stone Seeker, 2007. Christ, Carol P., Rebirth of the Goddess, Addison-Wesley 1997. Kidd, Sue Monk, The Dance of the Dissident Daughter, HarperSanFrancisco 1996. Jenny Kien, Reinstating the Divine Woman in Judaism, Universal 2000. David Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, ISBN 81-208-0379-5. Plaskow, Judith, Standing Again at Sinai, HarperCollins 1991. McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal. New York: Oxford University Press. Ruether, Rosemary Radford, Woman-Church, Harper & Row 1984. Womanspirit Rising, ed. Carol P. Christ and Judith Plaskow, Harper & Row 1979. Weaving the Visions, ed. Judith Plaskow and Carol P. Christ, Harper & Row 1989. Jackson, Jared, "The Rise of Kristy", New Deity Publications 2006. Ternes, Jacqueline, "Goddess Vision", Harper & Row 1987 Barnes, Craig, "In Search of the Lost Feminine: Decoding the Myths That Radically Reshaped Civilization", Fulcrum Publishing 2006 | Goddess |@lemmatized goddess:103 female:16 deity:17 often:7 part:4 polytheistic:3 system:4 include:8 several:2 pantheon:1 common:2 association:1 earth:10 mother:17 love:4 household:1 reflect:1 historical:3 gender:5 role:1 primacy:1 monotheistic:3 near:3 great:8 advocate:1 modern:2 matriarchists:1 version:2 precede:1 analogue:2 abrahamic:3 god:23 associate:5 rise:4 monotheism:1 mediterranean:1 axis:1 age:1 current:1 neopaganism:3 particular:1 wicca:5 ditheistic:1 concept:4 single:5 hierosgamos:1 represent:4 united:2 whole:2 reconstructionists:1 focus:3 reconstruct:1 religion:22 various:4 figure:7 indigenous:1 culture:6 live:2 day:1 example:5 practice:2 worship:9 kumari:3 devi:5 pre:8 pubescent:1 girl:1 source:3 supreme:1 power:4 integral:1 hinduism:4 buddhism:1 nepal:1 building:1 know:5 ghar:1 right:1 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3,671 | Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol | Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-level protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems. http://www.ietf.org/internet-drafts/draft-ietf-httpbis-p1-messaging-05.txt Its use for retrieving inter-linked resources led to the establishment of the World Wide Web. HTTP development was coordinated by the World Wide Web Consortium and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments (RFCs), most notably RFC 2616 (June 1999), which defines HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use. Support for pre-standard HTTP/1.1 based on the then developing RFC 2068 was rapidly adopted by the major browser developers in early 1996. By March 1996, pre-standard HTTP/1.1 was supported in Netscape 2.0, Netscape Navigator Gold 2.01, Mosaic 2.7, Lynx 2.5, and in Internet Explorer 3.0. End user adoption of the new browsers was rapid. In March 1996, one web hosting company reported that over 40% of browsers in use on the Internet were HTTP 1.1 compliant. That same web hosting company reported that by June 1996, 65% of all browsers accessing their servers were HTTP 1.1 Compliant. webcom.com glossary entry for HTTP/1.1 "http://www.webcom.com/glossary/http1.1.shtml" Retrieved on May 29, 2009 The HTTP 1.1 standard as defined in RFC 2068 was offically released in January of 1997. Improvements and updates to the The HTTP/1.1 standard were released under RFC 2616 in June 1999. HTTP is a request/response standard of a client and a server. A client is the end-user, the server is the web site. The client making a HTTP request—using a web browser, spider, or other end-user tool—is referred to as the user agent. The responding server—which stores or creates resources such as HTML files and images—is called the origin server. In between the user agent and origin server may be several intermediaries, such as proxies, gateways, and tunnels. HTTP is not constrained to using TCP/IP and its supporting layers, although this is its most popular application on the Internet. Indeed HTTP can be "implemented on top of any other protocol on the Internet, or on other networks." HTTP only presumes a reliable transport; any protocol that provides such guarantees can be used." Fielding, et al. "Internet RFC 2616.", section 1.4. Retrieved on January 21, 2009. Typically, an HTTP client initiates a request. It establishes a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection to a particular port on a host (port 80 by default; see List of TCP and UDP port numbers). An HTTP server listening on that port waits for the client to send a request message. Upon receiving the request, the server sends back a status line, such as "HTTP/1.1 200 OK", and a message of its own, the body of which is perhaps the requested resource, an error message, or some other information. Resources to be accessed by HTTP are identified using Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs)—or, more specifically, Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)—using the http: or https URI schemes. Request message The request message consists of the following: Request line, such as GET /images/logo.gif HTTP/1.1, which requests a resource called /images/logo.gif from server Headers, such as Accept-Language: en An empty line An optional message body The request line and headers must all end with <CR><LF> (that is, a carriage return followed by a line feed). The empty line must consist of only <CR><LF> and no other whitespace. In the HTTP/1.1 protocol, all headers except Host are optional. A request line containing only the path name is accepted by servers to maintain compatibility with HTTP clients before the HTTP/1.0 specification in RFC1945 090502 apacheweek.com . HTTP/1.1 is defined in RFC2068. Request methods A HTTP request made using telnet. The request, response headers and response body are highlighted. HTTP defines eight methods (sometimes referred to as "verbs") indicating the desired action to be performed on the identified resource. What this resource represents, whether pre-existing data or data that is generated dynamically, depends on the implementation of the server. Often, the resource corresponds to a file or the output of an executable residing on the server. HEAD Asks for the response identical to the one that would correspond to a GET request, but without the response body. This is useful for retrieving meta-information written in response headers, without having to transport the entire content. GET Requests a representation of the specified resource. Note that GET should not be used for operations that cause side-effects, such as using it for taking actions in web applications. One reason for this is that GET may be used arbitrarily by robots or crawlers, which should not need to consider the side effects that a request should cause. See safe methods below. POST Submits data to be processed (e.g., from an HTML form) to the identified resource. The data is included in the body of the request. This may result in the creation of a new resource or the updates of existing resources or both. PUT Uploads a representation of the specified resource. DELETE Deletes the specified resource. TRACE Echoes back the received request, so that a client can see what intermediate servers are adding or changing in the request. OPTIONS Returns the HTTP methods that the server supports for specified URL. This can be used to check the functionality of a web server by requesting '*' instead of a specific resource. CONNECT Converts the request connection to a transparent TCP/IP tunnel, usually to facilitate SSL-encrypted communication (HTTPS) through an unencrypted HTTP proxy. HTTP servers are required to implement at least the GET and HEAD methods HTTP 1.1 Section 5.1.1 and, whenever possible, also the OPTIONS method. Safe methods Some methods (for example, HEAD, GET, OPTIONS and TRACE) are defined as safe, which means they are intended only for information retrieval and should not change the state of the server. In other words, they should not have side effects, beyond relatively harmless effects such as logging, caching, the serving of banner advertisements or incrementing a web counter. Making arbitrary GET requests without regard to the context of the application's state should therefore be considered safe. By contrast, methods such as POST, PUT and DELETE are intended for actions which may cause side effects either on the server, or external side effects such as financial transactions or transmission of email. Such methods are therefore not usually used by conforming web robots or web crawlers, which tend to make requests without regard to context or consequences. Despite the prescribed safety of GET requests, in practice their handling by the server is not technically limited in any way, and careless or deliberate programming can just as easily (or more easily, due to lack of user agent precautions) cause non-trivial changes on the server. This is discouraged, because it can cause problems for Web caching, search engines and other automated agents, which can make unintended changes on the server. Idempotent methods and web applications Methods PUT and DELETE are defined to be idempotent, meaning that multiple identical requests should have the same effect as a single request. Methods GET, HEAD, OPTIONS and TRACE, being prescribed as safe, should also be idempotent, as HTTP is a stateless protocol. By contrast, the POST method is not necessarily idempotent, and therefore sending an identical POST request multiple times may further affect state or cause further side effects (such as financial transactions). In some cases this may be desirable, but in other cases this could be due to an accident, such as when a user does not realize that their action will result in sending another request, or they did not receive adequate feedback that their first request was successful. While web browsers may show alert dialog boxes to warn users in some cases where reloading a page may re-submit a POST request, it is generally up to the web application to handle cases where a POST request should not be submitted more than once. Note that whether a method is idempotent is not enforced by the protocol or web server. It is perfectly possible to write a web application in which (for example) a database insert or other non-idempotent action is triggered by a GET or other request. Ignoring this recommendation, however, may result in undesirable consequences if a user agent assumes that repeating the same request is safe when it isn't. Status codes In HTTP/1.0 and since, the first line of the HTTP response is called the status line and includes a numeric status code (such as "404") and a textual reason phrase (such as "Not Found"). The way the user agent handles the response primarily depends on the code and secondarily on the response headers. Custom status codes can be used since, if the user agent encounters a code it does not recognize, it can use the first digit of the code to determine the general class of the response. 6.1 Status-Line Also, the standard reason phrases are only recommendations and can be replaced with "local equivalents" at the web developer's discretion. If the status code indicated a problem, the user agent might display the reason phrase to the user to provide further information about the nature of the problem. The standard also allows the user agent to attempt to interpret the reason phrase, though this might be unwise since the standard explicitly specifies that status codes are machine-readable and reason phrases are human-readable. Persistent connections In HTTP/0.9 and 1.0, the connection is closed after a single request/response pair. In HTTP/1.1 a keep-alive-mechanism was introduced, where a connection could be reused for more than one request. Such persistent connections reduce lag perceptibly, because the client does not need to re-negotiate the TCP connection after the first request has been sent. Version 1.1 of the protocol made bandwidth optimization improvements to HTTP/1.0. For example, HTTP/1.1 introduced chunked transfer encoding to allow content on persistent connections to be streamed, rather than buffered. HTTP pipelining further reduces lag time, allowing clients to send multiple requests before a previous response has been received to the first one. Another improvement to the protocol was byte serving, which is when a server transmits just the portion of a resource explicitly requested by a client. HTTP session state HTTP is a stateless protocol. The advantage of a stateless protocol is that hosts do not need to retain information about users between requests, but this forces web developers to use alternative methods for maintaining users' states. For example, when a host needs to customize the content of a website for a user, the web application must be written to track the user's progress from page to page. A common method for solving this problem involves sending and receiving cookies. Other methods include server side sessions, hidden variables (when the current page is a form), and URL encoded parameters (such as /index.php?session_id=some_unique_session_code). Secure HTTP There are currently two methods of establishing a secure HTTP connection: the HTTPS URI scheme and the HTTP 1.1 Upgrade header, introduced by RFC 2817. Browser support for the Upgrade header is, however, nearly non-existent, hence the HTTPS URI scheme is still the dominant method of establishing a secure HTTP connection. Secure HTTP is notated by the prefix HTTPS:// instead of HTTP:// HTTPS URI scheme HTTPS: is a URI scheme syntactically identical to the http: scheme used for normal HTTP connections, but which signals the browser to use an added encryption layer of SSL/TLS to protect the traffic. SSL is especially suited for HTTP since it can provide some protection even if only one side of the communication is authenticated. This is the case with HTTP transactions over the Internet, where typically only the server is authenticated (by the client examining the server's certificate). HTTP 1.1 Upgrade header HTTP 1.1 introduced support for the Upgrade header. In the exchange, the client begins by making a clear-text request, which is later upgraded to TLS. Either the client or the server may request (or demand) that the connection be upgraded. The most common usage is a clear-text request by the client followed by a server demand to upgrade the connection, which looks like this: Client: GET /encrypted-area HTTP/1.1 Host: www.example.com Server: HTTP/1.1 426 Upgrade Required Upgrade: TLS/1.0, HTTP/1.1 Connection: Upgrade The server returns a 426 status-code because 400 level codes indicate a client failure (see List of HTTP status codes), which correctly alerts legacy clients that the failure was client-related. The benefits of using this method for establishing a secure connection are: that it removes messy and problematic redirection and URL rewriting on the server side, it allows virtual hosting of secured websites (although HTTPS also allows this using Server Name Indication), and it reduces user confusion by providing a single way to access a particular resource. A weakness with this method is that the requirement for a secure HTTP cannot be specified in the URI. In practice, the (untrusted) server will thus be responsible for enabling secure HTTP, not the (trusted) client. Sample Below is a sample conversation between an HTTP client and an HTTP server running on www.example.com, port 80. Client request (followed by a blank line, so that request ends with a double newline, each in the form of a carriage return followed by a line feed): GET /index.html HTTP/1.1 Host: www.example.com The "Host" header distinguishes between various DNS names sharing a single IP address, allowing name-based virtual hosting. While optional in HTTP/1.0, it is mandatory in HTTP/1.1. Server response (followed by a blank line and text of the requested page): HTTP/1.1 200 OK Date: Mon, 23 May 2005 22:38:34 GMT Server: Apache/1.3.3.7 (Unix) (Red-Hat/Linux) Last-Modified: Wed, 08 Jan 2003 23:11:55 GMT Etag: "3f80f-1b6-3e1cb03b" Accept-Ranges: bytes Content-Length: 438 Connection: close Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8 The ETag (entity tag) header is used to determine if a cached version of the requested resource is identical to the current version of the resource on the server. Content-Type specifies the Internet media type of the data conveyed by the http message, while Content-Length indicates its length in bytes. The HTTP/1.1 webserver publishes its ability to respond to requests for certain byte ranges of the document by setting the header Accept-Ranges: bytes. This is useful if the client needs to have only certain portions draft-ietf-http-range-retrieval-00 - Byte Range Retrieval Extension to HTTP of a resource sent by the server, which is called byte serving. When Connection: close is sent in a header, it means that the web server will close the TCP connection immediately after the transfer of this package. See also Basic access authentication Content negotiation Digest access authentication HTTP compression Hxxp List of computer standards List of file transfer protocols List of HTTP status codes List of HTTP headers WebDAV Web cache References Further Reading HTTP 0.9 - As Implemented in 1991 External links Bulkcheck HTTP-Headers from different URLs simultaneously Watch HTTP Client/Server Request/Responses HTTP header bookmarklet | Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol |@lemmatized hypertext:1 transfer:4 protocol:12 http:86 application:8 level:2 distribute:1 collaborative:1 hypermedia:1 information:6 system:1 www:5 ietf:4 org:1 internet:9 draft:3 httpbis:1 message:8 txt:1 use:22 retrieve:4 inter:1 link:2 resource:22 lead:1 establishment:1 world:2 wide:2 web:22 development:1 coordinate:1 consortium:1 engineering:1 task:1 force:2 culminating:1 publication:1 series:1 request:50 comment:1 rfcs:1 notably:1 rfc:6 june:3 define:5 version:4 common:3 support:6 pre:3 standard:9 base:2 develop:1 rapidly:1 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3,672 | F-Zero:_Maximum_Velocity | F-Zero Maximum Velocity (or as it known in Japan) is a futuristic racing video game developed by Nd Cube and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance (GBA). The game was released in Japan, North America and Europe in 2001 as a launch title for the GBA. It is the fourth released game in the F-Zero series and the first to be released on a handheld game console. Players control fast hovering crafts and use their speed-boosting abilities to navigate through the courses as quickly as possible. The game takes place twenty-five years after F-Zero. Gameplay Every race consists of five laps around a race track. The race will end prematurely if the player lands outside of the track after a jump, destroys their machine by depleting its energy, completes a lap in too low of a rank, or drops to 20th place; all of these conditions necessitate the player using an extra machine (if available in the Grand Prix) to try again. For each lap completed the player is rewarded with an approximate four second speed boost, one of the "SSS" marks will be shaded green to indicate that it can be used. A boost will dramatically increase a player's speed, but will decrease their ability to turn. A boost used before a jump will make the player jump farther, allowing the player to use a shortcut. The Grand Prix is the main single player component of Maximum Velocity. It consists of four series (one hidden), each containing five races. The player needs to be in the top three at the end of the last lap in order to continue to the next race. If the player is unable to continue, the player will lose a machine and can try the race again. If the player runs out of machines, then the game ends, and the player has to start the series from the beginning. Championship is another single player component. It is basically the same as a "Time Attack" mode, except the player can only race on one, special course: the Synobazz Championship Circuit. This special course is not selectable in Multi Cartridge vs. Story Maximum Velocity takes place a twenty-five years after Captain Falcon, Dr. Stewart, etc "piloted their way to fame". Due to the aforementioned, it is the only F-Zero game without Captain Falcon, Samurai Goroh, Pico, or Dr. Stewart. However, one of the F-Zero cars resembles Falcon's Blue Falcon. The pilot, Kent Akechi, also claims to be Falcon's son. Multiplayer Maximum Velocity can be played in two multiplayer modes using the Game Boy Advance link cable, with one cartridge, or one cartridge per player. Two to four Players can play in both modes. Single cartridge In single cart, only one player needs to have a cartridge. The other players will boot off the link cable network from the player with the cart using the GBA's netboot capability. All players drive a generic craft, and the game can only be played on one level, Silence. Silence is the only re-used course in Maximum Velocity other than Fire Field. Aptly, Silence in F-Zero Maximum Velocity has no background music. Multi cartridge In multi cart, each player needs to have a cartridge to play. This has many advantages over single cart: All players can use any machine in this game that has been unlocked by another player. Players can select any course in this game. After race is finished, all of the player's ranking data are mixed and shared ("Mixed ranking" stored in each cart). Development F-Zero: Maximum Velocity is one of first titles to be developed by Nd Cube. Maximum Velocity implement the "Mode 7" system used in F-Zero to simulate 3D environments by allowing different kinds of scaling and rotation effects of bitmap graphics. The Mode 7 rendering Maximum Velocity consists of a double-layer; one of which gives the illusion of depth. Reception F-Zero: Maximum Velocity sold 334,145 copies in Japan and 273,229 copies in the U.S. as of 2005. References External links Japanese Maximum Velocity web site Official European homepage | F-Zero:_Maximum_Velocity |@lemmatized f:9 zero:9 maximum:11 velocity:11 know:1 japan:3 futuristic:1 racing:1 video:1 game:12 develop:2 nd:2 cube:2 publish:1 nintendo:1 boy:2 advance:2 gba:3 release:2 north:1 america:1 europe:1 launch:1 title:2 fourth:1 released:1 series:3 first:2 handheld:1 console:1 player:26 control:1 fast:1 hovering:1 craft:2 use:9 speed:3 boosting:1 ability:2 navigate:1 course:5 quickly:1 possible:1 take:2 place:3 twenty:2 five:4 year:2 gameplay:1 every:1 race:8 consist:3 lap:4 around:1 track:2 end:3 prematurely:1 land:1 outside:1 jump:3 destroy:1 machine:5 deplete:1 energy:1 complete:2 low:1 rank:2 drop:1 condition:1 necessitate:1 extra:1 available:1 grand:2 prix:2 try:2 reward:1 approximate:1 four:3 second:1 boost:3 one:10 ss:1 mark:1 shade:1 green:1 indicate:1 dramatically:1 increase:1 decrease:1 turn:1 make:1 far:1 allow:2 shortcut:1 main:1 single:5 component:2 hidden:1 contain:1 need:3 top:1 three:1 last:1 order:1 continue:2 next:1 unable:1 lose:1 run:1 start:1 beginning:1 championship:2 another:2 basically:1 time:1 attack:1 mode:5 except:1 special:2 synobazz:1 circuit:1 selectable:1 multi:3 cartridge:7 v:1 story:1 captain:2 falcon:5 dr:2 stewart:2 etc:1 pilot:2 way:1 fame:1 due:1 aforementioned:1 without:1 samurai:1 goroh:1 pico:1 however:1 car:1 resemble:1 blue:1 kent:1 akechi:1 also:1 claim:1 son:1 multiplayer:2 play:4 two:2 link:3 cable:2 per:1 cart:5 boot:1 network:1 netboot:1 capability:1 drive:1 generic:1 level:1 silence:3 used:1 fire:1 field:1 aptly:1 background:1 music:1 many:1 advantage:1 unlock:1 select:1 finish:1 ranking:1 data:1 mixed:2 share:1 store:1 development:1 implement:1 system:1 simulate:1 environment:1 different:1 kind:1 scaling:1 rotation:1 effect:1 bitmap:1 graphic:1 render:1 double:1 layer:1 give:1 illusion:1 depth:1 reception:1 sell:1 copy:2 u:1 reference:1 external:1 japanese:1 web:1 site:1 official:1 european:1 homepage:1 |@bigram grand_prix:2 bitmap_graphic:1 external_link:1 |
3,673 | Aedesius | Aedesius (Greek , died 355) was a Neoplatonist philosopher and mystic born of a noble Cappadocian family. Career He migrated to Syria, attracted by the lectures of Iamblichus, of whom he became a follower. According to Eunapius, he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with theurgy and magic. After the death of his master the school of Syria was dispersed, and Aedesius seems to have modified his doctrines out of fear of Constantine, and took refuge in divination. An oracle in hexameter verse represented a pastoral life as his only retreat, but his disciples, perhaps calming his fears by a metaphorical interpretation, compelled him to resume his instructions. He settled at Pergamum, where he numbered among his pupils Eusebius of Myndus, Maximus of Ephesus, and the emperor Julian. After the accession of the latter to the imperial purple he invited Aedesius to continue his instructions, but the declining strength of the sage being unequal to the task, two of his most learned disciples, Chrysanthius and the aforementioned Eusebius, were by his own desire appointed to supply his place. Eunapius, Vita Aedesius References | Aedesius |@lemmatized aedesius:4 greek:1 die:1 neoplatonist:1 philosopher:1 mystic:1 born:1 noble:1 cappadocian:1 family:1 career:1 migrate:1 syria:2 attract:1 lecture:1 iamblichus:2 become:1 follower:1 accord:1 eunapius:2 differ:1 certain:1 point:1 connect:1 theurgy:1 magic:1 death:1 master:1 school:1 disperse:1 seem:1 modify:1 doctrine:1 fear:2 constantine:1 take:1 refuge:1 divination:1 oracle:1 hexameter:1 verse:1 represent:1 pastoral:1 life:1 retreat:1 disciple:2 perhaps:1 calm:1 metaphorical:1 interpretation:1 compel:1 resume:1 instruction:2 settle:1 pergamum:1 number:1 among:1 pupil:1 eusebius:2 myndus:1 maximus:1 ephesus:1 emperor:1 julian:1 accession:1 latter:1 imperial:1 purple:1 invite:1 continue:1 de:1 clining:1 strength:1 sage:1 unequal:1 task:1 two:1 learned:1 chrysanthius:1 aforementioned:1 desire:1 appoint:1 supply:1 place:1 vita:1 reference:1 |@bigram neoplatonist_philosopher:1 hexameter_verse:1 |
3,674 | Dirk_Benedict | Dirk Benedict (born Dirk Niewoehner on March 1, 1945) is an American movie, television and stage actor, perhaps best known for playing the characters Lieutenant Templeton "Faceman" Peck in The A-Team television series and Lieutenant Starbuck in the original Battlestar Galactica film and television series. He was born in Helena, Montana, NYT Biography: Dirk Benedict. Accessed January 23, 2008 and grew up in White Sulphur Springs, Montana. Career Early television When the New York run for Butterflies Are Free ended, he received an offer to repeat his performance in Hawaii, opposite Barbara Rush. While there, he appeared as a guest lead on Hawaii Five-O. The producers of a psycho-thriller called Ssssss saw Benedict's performance in Hawaii Five-O and promptly cast him as the lead in that movie. He next played the psychotic wife-beating husband of Twiggy in her American film debut, W. Benedict starred in the television series Chopper One, but his career break came in 1978 when he appeared as Lieutenant Starbuck in the movie and television series Battlestar Galactica. A-Team Four years later, Dirk gained further popularity in the A-Team as con-man Lieutenant Templeton "Faceman" Peck in 1980s action television series, The A-Team. He did not appear in the Pilot film - creators Stephen J. Cannell and Frank Lupo had wanted him from the beginning, but the network executives insisted that they wanted a different sort of actor in the role. Tim Dunigan won the part; but upon completion of the pilot, the executives decided that he wasn't quite right for the role, and it was given to Benedict after all. He played "Faceman" from 1982 to 1986 (although the series didn't air until January 1983; and the final episode wasn't shown until 1987 re-runs). Later career Theatre In 1987, Benedict took the title role of Shakespeare's Hamlet at the Abbey Theatre. Both his performance and the entire play were drubbed by critics. NYTimes, September 22, 1987 Films In 2000, Benedict wrote and directed his first screenplay, Cahoots. NYTimes Movies: Cahoots In 2005 he played a role in the German movie Goldene Zeiten (Times of Gold) by Peter Thorwardt. He played an 80s moviestar attempting to make a comeback. Celebrity Big Brother Dirk appeared as a contestant on the controversial fifth series of Celebrity Big Brother, broadcast in the . Bookmakers give him the third-best odds of winning out of the fourteen contestants. He made what is possibly the show's most memorable entrance to date, arriving in the classic A-Team Van (although this was a replica, not an original, as it sported a red instead of a tan interior), accompanied by the famous theme tune. YouTube - Big Brother Dirk Benedict A-Team He also smoked a cigar on his entrance to the house, and claimed to a fellow housemate to have a whole stock of cigars in his luggage. He had also told the Big Brother producers "no cigars, no Benedict" as part of the deal to appear on the show. Dirk was the third to last contestant to be evicted from Celebrity Big Brother, finishing in third place overall with 16% of the public vote. All the three remaining contestants were non-Brits. Link Personal life In 1986, he married Toni Hudson, an actress (who had previously appeared in the fourth season A-Team episode "Blood, Sweat and Cheers"), with whom he has two sons, George and Roland. They divorced in 1995. In 1998, Benedict learned that he also has another son, John (born 1968), from a youthful relationship. Adopted and Searching for Answers PARADE Magazine Benedict is a macrobiotic follower. Confessions of a Kamikaze Cowboy: A True Story of Discovery, Acting, Health, Illness, Recovery And Life by Dirk Benedict Reaction to the re-imagined Battlestar Galactica Benedict was sharply critical of the revived series, and the changes to the story and characters. A May 2004 article in Dreamwatch magazine, entitled "Starbuck: Lost in Castration", "Starbuck: Lost in Castration" (mirror) revealed his disdain for the re-imagined series, its dark tone and its moral relativism. Benedict said, "'Re-imagining', they call it. 'Un-imagining' is more accurate. To take what once was and twist it into what never was intended. So that a television show based on hope, spiritual faith, and family is unimagined and regurgitated as a show of despair, sexual violence and family dysfunction." Benedict focused in particular on the decision to recast Lieutenant Starbuck as a female character, Kara Thrace, whom he derisively refers to as "Stardoe". He relates the change to what he perceives as a general anti-masculinity agenda, saying "One thing is certain. In the new un-imagined, re-imagined world of Battlestar Galactica everything is female driven. The male characters, from Adama on down, are confused, weak, and wracked with indecision while the female characters are decisive, bold, angry as hell, puffing cigars (gasp) and not about to take it any more." References External links Dirk Benedict official website Dirk Benedict Interview Dirk Benedict Blog - In Cahoots with Butch Cassidy & the Sundance Kid (2006) | Dirk_Benedict |@lemmatized dirk:11 benedict:18 born:2 niewoehner:1 march:1 american:2 movie:5 television:8 stage:1 actor:2 perhaps:1 best:2 know:1 play:6 character:5 lieutenant:5 templeton:2 faceman:3 peck:2 team:7 series:9 starbuck:5 original:2 battlestar:4 galactica:4 film:4 bear:1 helena:1 montana:2 nyt:1 biography:1 access:1 january:2 grow:1 white:1 sulphur:1 spring:1 career:3 early:1 new:2 york:1 run:2 butterfly:1 free:1 end:1 receive:1 offer:1 repeat:1 performance:3 hawaii:3 opposite:1 barbara:1 rush:1 appear:6 guest:1 lead:2 five:2 producer:2 psycho:1 thriller:1 call:2 sss:1 saw:1 promptly:1 cast:1 next:1 psychotic:1 wife:1 beating:1 husband:1 twiggy:1 debut:1 w:1 star:1 chopper:1 one:2 break:1 come:1 four:1 year:1 later:2 gain:1 popularity:1 con:1 man:1 action:1 pilot:2 creator:1 stephen:1 j:1 cannell:1 frank:1 lupo:1 want:2 beginning:1 network:1 executive:2 insist:1 different:1 sort:1 role:4 tim:1 dunigan:1 win:2 part:2 upon:1 completion:1 decide:1 quite:1 right:1 give:2 although:2 air:1 final:1 episode:2 show:5 theatre:2 take:3 title:1 shakespeare:1 hamlet:1 abbey:1 entire:1 drub:1 critic:1 nytimes:2 september:1 write:1 direct:1 first:1 screenplay:1 cahoot:3 german:1 goldene:1 zeiten:1 time:1 gold:1 peter:1 thorwardt:1 moviestar:1 attempt:1 make:2 comeback:1 celebrity:3 big:5 brother:5 contestant:4 controversial:1 fifth:1 broadcast:1 bookmaker:1 third:3 odds:1 fourteen:1 possibly:1 memorable:1 entrance:2 date:1 arrive:1 classic:1 van:1 replica:1 sport:1 red:1 instead:1 tan:1 interior:1 accompany:1 famous:1 theme:1 tune:1 youtube:1 also:3 smoke:1 cigar:4 house:1 claim:1 fellow:1 housemate:1 whole:1 stock:1 luggage:1 tell:1 deal:1 last:1 evict:1 finish:1 place:1 overall:1 public:1 vote:1 three:1 remain:1 non:1 brit:1 link:2 personal:1 life:2 marry:1 toni:1 hudson:1 actress:1 previously:1 fourth:1 season:1 blood:1 sweat:1 cheer:1 two:1 son:2 george:1 roland:1 divorce:1 learn:1 another:1 john:1 youthful:1 relationship:1 adopt:1 search:1 answer:1 parade:1 magazine:2 macrobiotic:1 follower:1 confession:1 kamikaze:1 cowboy:1 true:1 story:2 discovery:1 act:1 health:1 illness:1 recovery:1 reaction:1 imagined:3 sharply:1 critical:1 revive:1 change:2 may:1 article:1 dreamwatch:1 entitle:1 lose:2 castration:2 mirror:1 reveal:1 disdain:1 dark:1 tone:1 moral:1 relativism:1 say:2 imagine:3 un:2 accurate:1 twist:1 never:1 intend:1 base:1 hope:1 spiritual:1 faith:1 family:2 unimagined:1 regurgitate:1 despair:1 sexual:1 violence:1 dysfunction:1 focus:1 particular:1 decision:1 recast:1 female:3 kara:1 thrace:1 derisively:1 refer:1 stardoe:1 relate:1 perceive:1 general:1 anti:1 masculinity:1 agenda:1 thing:1 certain:1 world:1 everything:1 driven:1 male:1 adama:1 confuse:1 weak:1 wrack:1 indecision:1 decisive:1 bold:1 angry:1 hell:1 puff:1 gasp:1 reference:1 external:1 official:1 website:1 interview:1 blog:1 butch:1 cassidy:1 sundance:1 kid:1 |@bigram dirk_benedict:7 battlestar_galactica:4 shakespeare_hamlet:1 moral_relativism:1 external_link:1 butch_cassidy:1 sundance_kid:1 |
3,675 | History_of_Kyrgyzstan | Historical map of Central Asia Early history Stone implements found in the Tian Shan mountains indicate the presence of human society in what is now Kyrgyzstan as many as 200,000 to 300,000 years ago. The first written records of a civilization in the area occupied by Kyrgyzstan appear in Chinese chronicles beginning about 2000 B.C. Origins of the Kyrgyz people According to recent historical findings, Kyrgyz history dates back to 201 BC. The early Kyrgyz lived in the upper Yenisey River valley, central Siberia (see Yenisei Kirghiz for details). Chinese and Muslim sources of the 7th–12th centuries AD describe the Kyrgyz as red-haired with fair complexion and green (blue) eyes. First appearing in Chinese records of the Grand Historian as Gekun or Jiankun (鬲昆 or 隔昆), and later as part of the Tiele tribes, they were once under the rule of Göktürks and Uyghurs. The descent of the Kyrgyz from the autochthonous Siberian population is confirmed on the other hand by the recent genetic studies ( The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity). Remarkably, 63% of the modern Kyrgyz men share Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA) with Tajiks (64%), Ukrainians (54%), Poles (56%) and even Icelanders (25%). Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA) is believed to be a marker of the Proto-Indo-European language speakers. Kyrgyz genesis legend tells about an ancestor and father of all Kyrgyzes Kyzyl Taigan (Red Dog). A daughter of the khan was in the habit to take long walks in a company of 40 maidens-servants. Once, on return home after her usual walk, the Princess saw that her native aul was ravaged by an enemy. In the aul they found only one alive creature, a red dog. The princess and her 40 maids become mothers, in a company with only one male attraction, a red dog. By the number of matrons, the posterity of 40 maidens, kyrk-kyz, began to be called Kyrgyz people. Valihanov Ch. Ch. Works in 5 vol., vol. 2, p. 48, Alma-Ata, 1985 Abramzon S.M. Kirgizes and their ethnogenetical historical and cultural connections, Moscow, 1971, p. 361 The cult of the Heavenly Dog was widespread between the tribes west and east of the ancient China. Zuev Yu.L., The strongest tribe, p. 35-46, Almaty, 2004 The Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 AD. Then Kyrgyz quickly moved as far as the Tian Shan range and maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years. In the 12th century, however, the Kyrgyz domination had shrunk to the Altay Range and the Sayan Mountains as a result of the rising Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the Kyrgyz migrated south. Plano Carpin, an envoy of the Papal states, and William Rubruck, an envoy of France, all wrote about their life under the Mongols. Various Turkic peoples ruled them until 1685, when they came under the control of the Oirats (Dzungars). Early medieval times The first Turks to form a state in the territory of Central Asia (including Kyrgyzstan) were Göktürks or Kök-Türks. Known in medieval Chinese sources as Tujue (突厥 tú jué), the Göktürks under the leadership of Bumin/Tuman Khan/Khaghan (d. 552) and his sons established the first known Turkic state around 552 in the general area of territory that had earlier been occupied by the Xiongnu, and expanded rapidly to rule wide territories in Central Asia. The Göktürks split in two rival Khanates, of which the western one disintegrated in 744 AD. The first kingdom to emerge from the Qokturk khanate was the Buddhist Uyghur Empire that flourished in the territory encompassing most of Central Asia from 740 to 840 AD. After the Uyghur empire disintegrated a branch of the Uyghurs migrated to oasis settlements in the Tarim Basin and Gansu, such as Gaochang (Khoja) and Hami (Kumul), and set up a confederation of decentralized Buddhist states called Kara-Khoja. Others, mainly closely related to the Uyghurs (the Karluks), occupying the western Tarim Basin, Ferghana Valley, Jungaria and parts of modern Kazakhstan bordering the Muslim Turco-Tajik Khwarazm Sultanate, converted to Islam no later than the 10th century and built a federation with Muslim institutions called Kara-Khanlik, whose princely dynasties are called Karakhanids by most historians. Its capital, Balasagun flourished as a cultural and economic centre. Burana Tower in Balasagun {11th century). The Islamized Karluk princely clan, the Balasagunlu Ashinalar (or the Karakhanids) gravitated toward the Persian Islamic cultural zone after their political autonomy and suzerainty over Central Asia was secured during the 9-10th century. As they became increasingly Persianized they settled in the more Indo-Iranian sedentary centers such as Kashgaria, and became detached from the nomadic traditions of fellow Karluks, many of whom retained cultural elements of the Uyghur Khanate. The principality was significantly weakened by the early 12th century and the territory of modern Kyrgyrstan was conquered by Uyghur Kara-Khitais. The Kara-Khitan Khanate (Traditional Chinese: 西遼; Simplified Chinese: 西辽; pinyin: Xī Liáo, 1124-1218), also known as Western Liao, was established by Yelü Dashi (耶律大石) who led around 100,000 Khitan remnants after escaping the Jurchen conquest of their native country, the Khitan dynasty. The Khitay conquest of Central Asia can thus be seen as an internecine struggle within the Karluk nomadic tribe, played out as dynastic conflict between the conquering Buddhist Khitay elites and the defending Kara-Khanid princes, resulting in the subjugation of the latter by the former, and in the subjugation of the Muslim Karluks by their Nestorian/Buddhist kin. Mongol domination The Mongols' invasion of Central Asia in the 13th century devastated the territory of Kyrgyzstan, costing its people their independence and their written language. The son of Genghis Khan, Juche, conquered the Kyrgyz tribes of the Yenisey region, who by this time had become disunited. At the same time, the area of present Kyrgyzstan was an important link in the Silk Road, as attested by several Nestorian gravestones. For the next 200 years, the Kyrgyz remained under the Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate and the Oirats as well as Dzungars that succeeded that regime. Freedom was regained in 1510, but Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the seventeenth century by the Kalmyks, in the mid-eighteenth century by the Manchus, and in the early nineteenth century by the Uzbeks. Timurids and Uzbeks Timurids and Uzbeks. Russian Empire A 50-Kyrgyzstani som banknote representing Kurmanjan Datka. In the early 19th century, the southern territory of Kyrgyzstan came under the control of the Khanate of Kokand, but the territory was occupied and formally annexed by the Russian Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover instigated numerous revolts against tsarist authority, and many Kyrgyz opted to move into the Pamir Mountains or to Afghanistan. The ruthless suppression of the 1916 rebellion in Central Asia, triggered by the Russian imposition of the military draft on the Kyrgyz and other Central Asian peoples, caused many Kyrgyz to flee to China. The Soviet Era Soviet power was initially established in the region in 1918, and in 1924, the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast was created within the Russian SFSR. (The term Kara-Kyrgyz was used until the mid-1920s by the Russians to distinguish them from the Kazakhs, who were also referred to as Kyrgyz.) In 1926, it became the Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On December 5, 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) was established as a full Union Republic of the U.S.S.R. Flag of Kyrgyz SSR During the 1920s, Kyrgyzstan saw considerable cultural, educational, and social change. Economic and social development also was notable. Literacy increased, and a standard literary language was introduced. The Kyrgyz language belongs to the Western Turkic group of languages. In 1924, an Arabic-based Kyrgyz alphabet was introduced, which was replaced by Latin script in 1928. In 1941 Cyrillic script was adopted. Many aspects of the Kyrgyz national culture were retained despite suppression of nationalist activity under Joseph Stalin, who controlled the Soviet Union from the late 1920s until 1953. The early years of glasnost in the late 1980s had little effect on the political climate in Kyrgyzstan. However, the republic's press was permitted to adopt a more liberal stance and to establish a new publication, Literaturny Kyrgyzstan, by the Union of Writers. Unofficial political groups were forbidden, but several groups that emerged in 1989 to deal with an acute housing crisis were permitted to function. In June 1990, ethnic tensions between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz surfaced in an area of the Osh Oblast where Uzbeks form a majority of the population. Violent confrontations ensued, and a state of emergency and curfew were introduced. Order was not restored until August 1990. Modern Kyrgyz religious affiliation is eclectically Muslim for a majority of the population. Typical Kyrgyz families vary in their devotion to Islam. Urbanized areas of Kyrgyzstan are similar to the United States in terms of religious identity; while most Americans claim to be Christian, the majority are rather eclectic in practice. The same is true for Kyrgyzstan, in that the more rural the individual, the more devoted to Islam they tend to be and vice-versa. Russian and Kyrgyz cultures differ in respect to family, religious identity, and social structure. Kyrgyzstan is a country in transition. The current social dilemma is one that has emerged from the controlling body mainly relying on classic Russian ethnicities, to Kyrgyz or Turkic ethnic groups shaping and forming the infrastructure of Kyrgyzstan. This has resulted in a measurable degree of instability and chaos associated with a social transition. The ancestral Kyrgyz social structure was dominated by nomadic traditions, governing political philosophies, and socialization. As classical Russian ethnic groups were injected into the Soviet Republic of Kyrgyzstan, the urbanization process began and was mainly authored by the Russian communities placed within the Soviet Republic, mostly by policies created by the communist party. It is unclear why these policies were created and it is only clear that these policies forced Russians of certain descent to populate the Republic. As in many former Soviet republics, after Kyrgyzstan regained independence in August 1991 many individuals, organizations, and political parties sought to reestablish (and, to a certain extent, to create from scratch) a Kyrgyz national cultural identity; often one that included a backlash against Russians. Independent Kyrgyzstan The early 1990s brought measurable change to Kyrgyzstan. The Kyrgyzstan Democratic Movement (KDM) had developed into a significant political force with support in parliament. In an upset victory, Askar Akayev, the president of the Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences, was elected to the presidency in October 1990. The following January, Akayev introduced new government structures and appointed a new government comprised mainly of younger, reform-oriented politicians. In December 1990, the Supreme Soviet voted to change the republic's name to the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. (In 1993, it became the Kyrgyz Republic.) In February 1991, the name of the capital, Frunze, was changed back to its pre-revolutionary name—Bishkek. Despite these moves toward independence, economic realities seemed to work against secession from the Soviet Union In a referendum on the preservation of the USSR, in March 1991, 88.7% of the voters approved a proposal to remain part of the union as a "renewed federation." On August 19, 1991, when the State Emergency Committee assumed power in Moscow, there was an attempt to depose Akayev in Kyrgyzstan. After the coup collapsed the following week, Akayev and Vice President German Kuznetsov announced their resignations from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), and the entire politburo and secretariat resigned. This was followed by the Supreme Soviet vote declaring independence from the U.S.S.R. on August 31, 1991. Kyrgyz was announced as the state language in September 1991. (In December 2001, through a constitutional amendment, the Russian language was given official status.) In October 1991, Akayev ran unopposed and was elected President of the new independent republic by direct ballot, receiving 95% of the votes cast. Together with the representatives of seven other republics, he signed the Treaty of the New Economic Communists that same month. On December 21, 1991, Kyrgyzstan formally entered the new Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). In 1993, allegations of corruption against Akayev's closest political associates blossomed into a major scandal. One of those accused of improprieties was Prime Minister Chyngyshev, who was dismissed for ethical reasons in December. Following Chyngyshev's dismissal, Akayev dismissed the government and called upon the last communist premier, Apas Djumagulov, to form a new one. In January 1994, Akayev initiated a referendum asking for a renewed mandate to complete his term of office. He received 96.2% of the vote. A new constitution was passed by the parliament in May 1993. In 1994, however, the parliament failed to produce a quorum for its last scheduled session prior to the expiration of its term in February 1995. President Akayev was widely accused of having manipulated a boycott by a majority of the parliamentarians. Akayev, in turn, asserted that the communists had caused a political crisis by preventing the legislature from fulfilling its role. Akayev scheduled an October 1994 referendum, overwhelmingly approved by voters, which proposed two amendments to the constitution—one that would allow the constitution to be amended by means of a referendum, and the other creating a new bicameral parliament called the Jogorku Kenesh. Elections for the two legislative chambers—a 35-seat full-time assembly and a 70-seat part-time assembly—were held in February 1995 after campaigns considered remarkably free and open by most international observers, although the election-day proceedings were marred by widespread irregularities. Independent candidates won most of the seats, suggesting that personalities prevailed over ideologies. The new parliament convened its initial session in March 1995. One of its first orders of business was the approval of the precise constitutional language on the role of the legislature. On December 24, 1995, President Akayev was reelected for another 5-year term with wide support (75% of vote) over two opposing candidates. He used government resources and state-owned media to carry out his campaign. Three (out of six) candidates were de-registered shortly before the election. A February 1996 referendum—in violation of the constitution and the law on referendums—amended the constitution to give President Akayev more power. Although the changes gave the president the power to dissolve parliament, it also more clearly defined the parliament's powers. Since that time, the parliament has demonstrated real independence from the executive branch. An October 1998 referendum approved constitutional changes, including increasing the number of deputies in the lower house, reducing the number of deputies in the upper house, providing for 25% of lower house deputies to be elected by party lists, rolling back parliamentary immunity, introducing private property, prohibiting adoption of laws restricting freedom of speech and mass media, and reforming the state budget. Two rounds of parliamentary elections were held on February 20, 2000 and March 12, 2000. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) reported that the elections failed to comply with commitments to free and fair elections and hence were invalid. Questionable judicial proceedings against opposition candidates and parties limited the choice of candidates available to Kyrgyz voters, while state-controlled media only reported favorably on official candidates. Government officials put pressure on independent media outlets that favored the opposition. The presidential election that followed later in 2000 also was marred by irregularities and was not declared free and fair by international observers. The most recent elections were parliamentary, held February 27 and March 13, 2005. The OSCE found that while the elections failed to comply with commitments to free and fair elections, there were improvements over the 2000 elections, notably the use of indelible ink, transparent ballot boxes, and generally good access by election observers. Sporadic protests against perceived manipulation and fraud during the elections of February 27 2005, erupted into widespread calls for the government to resign, which started in the southern provinces. On March 24, 15,000 pro-opposition demonstrators in Bishkek called for the resignation of the President and his regime. Protesters seized the main government building, and Akayev hurriedly fled the country, first to neighboring Kazakhstan and then to Moscow. Initially refusing to resign and denouncing the events as a coup, he subsequently resigned his office on April 4. (See also: Tulip Revolution) Notes and references History of Kyrgystan Books on History of Kyrgystan Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic | History_of_Kyrgyzstan |@lemmatized historical:3 map:1 central:10 asia:8 early:8 history:4 stone:1 implement:1 find:3 tian:2 mountain:2 indicate:1 presence:1 human:1 society:1 kyrgyzstan:21 many:7 year:5 ago:1 first:7 write:3 record:2 civilization:1 area:5 occupy:4 appear:2 chinese:6 chronicle:1 begin:3 b:1 c:1 origin:1 kyrgyz:37 people:5 accord:1 recent:3 finding:1 date:1 back:3 bc:1 live:1 upper:2 yenisey:2 river:1 valley:2 siberia:1 see:3 yenisei:1 kirghiz:3 detail:1 muslim:5 source:2 century:12 ad:4 describe:1 red:4 haired:1 fair:4 complexion:1 green:1 blue:1 eye:1 grand:1 historian:2 gekun:1 jiankun:1 鬲昆:1 隔昆:1 later:3 part:4 tiele:1 tribe:5 rule:3 göktürks:4 uyghurs:3 descent:2 autochthonous:1 siberian:1 population:3 confirm:1 hand:1 genetic:1 study:1 eurasian:1 heartland:1 continental:1 perspective:1 chromosome:1 diversity:1 remarkably:2 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3,676 | David_Hayes_Agnew | David Hayes Agnew (November 24, 1818 - March 22, 1892) was an American surgeon, born in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. He graduated from the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania in 1838, and a few years later set up in practice at Philadelphia and became a lecturer at the Philadelphia School of Anatomy. He married Margaret Irwin in 1841. He also helped found the Irwin & Agnew Iron Foundry in 1846. In 1852, he bought and revived the Philadelphia School of Anatomy, where he continued to work through 1862. He was appointed surgeon at the Philadelphia Hospital in 1854 and was the founder of its pathological museum. For twenty-six years (1863-1889) he was connected with the medical faculty of the University of Pennsylvania, being elected professor of operative surgery in 1870 and professor of the principles and practice of surgery in the following year. From 1865 to 1884—except for a brief interval—he was a surgeon at the Pennsylvania Hospital. In 1889 he became the subject of the largest painting ever made by the Philadelphia artist Thomas Eakins, called The Agnew Clinic, in which he is shown conducting a mastectomy operation before a gallery of students and doctors. The artist can also be found to the right of the painting. During the American Civil War he was consulting surgeon in the Mower Army Hospital, near Philadelphia, and acquired considerable reputation for his operations in cases of gun-shot wounds. He attended as operating surgeon when President Garfield was fatally wounded by the bullet of an assassin in 1881. He was the author of several works, the most important being The Principles and Practice of Surgery (1878-1883). He died at Philadelphia on March 22, 1892, and is buried in West Laurel Hill Cemetery. References Who Was Who in America: Historical Volume, 1607-1896. Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, 1963. | David_Hayes_Agnew |@lemmatized david:1 hayes:1 agnew:3 november:1 march:2 american:2 surgeon:5 bear:1 lancaster:1 county:1 pennsylvania:4 graduate:1 medical:2 department:1 university:2 year:3 later:1 set:1 practice:3 philadelphia:7 become:2 lecturer:1 school:2 anatomy:2 marry:1 margaret:1 irwin:2 also:2 help:1 find:2 iron:1 foundry:1 buy:1 revive:1 continue:1 work:2 appoint:1 hospital:3 founder:1 pathological:1 museum:1 twenty:1 six:1 connect:1 faculty:1 elect:1 professor:2 operative:1 surgery:3 principle:2 following:1 except:1 brief:1 interval:1 subject:1 large:1 painting:2 ever:1 make:1 artist:2 thomas:1 eakins:1 call:1 clinic:1 show:1 conduct:1 mastectomy:1 operation:2 gallery:1 student:1 doctor:1 right:1 civil:1 war:1 consult:1 mower:1 army:1 near:1 acquire:1 considerable:1 reputation:1 case:1 gun:1 shot:1 wound:2 attend:1 operating:1 president:1 garfield:1 fatally:1 bullet:1 assassin:1 author:1 several:1 important:1 die:1 bury:1 west:1 laurel:1 hill:1 cemetery:1 reference:1 america:1 historical:1 volume:1 chicago:1 marquis:1 |@bigram thomas_eakins:1 fatally_wound:1 |
3,677 | Self-propelled_anti-aircraft_weapon | Soviet-made ZSU-23-4 at Camp Pendleton. A self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon (SPAA, also self-propelled air defense, SPAD, or self-propelled anti-aircraft gun, SPAAG) is an anti-aircraft gun or surface-to-air missile launcher mounted on a mobile vehicle chassis. The Russian equivalent of SPAAG is ZSU, for zenitnaya samokhodnaya ustanovka, ("anti-aircraft self-propelled mount"). Specific weapon systems include machine guns, autocannon, larger guns, or missiles, and some mount both guns and longer-ranged missiles. Platforms used include both trucks and heavier armored fighting vehicles such as APCs and tanks, which add protection from aircraft, artillery, and small arms fire for front line deployment. A Gepard of the German Army Anti-aircraft guns are usually mounted in a quickly-traversing turret with a high rate of elevation, for tracking fast-moving aircraft. They are often in dual or quadruple mounts, allowing a high rate of fire. Today, missiles (generally mounted on similar turrets) have largely supplanted anti-aircraft guns, particularly in the minds of generals and military planners. Anti-aircraft guns are still deadly against aircraft at short ranges (within a few kilometers). This is evidenced by: US ground attack aircraft doctrine was built around countering the Russian ZSU-23-4 Shilka, which is found in armies across the world. Despite the heavy use of anti-aircraft missiles by the North Vietnamese forces in the Vietnam War, their .50 caliber machine guns were the main cause of US helicopter losses. The Ultimate Weaponry, Paddy Griffith, Blitz Editions, 1991 Israeli aircraft casualties in the 1973 war were primarily caused by ZSU-23-4 Shilkas. History The Chinese Type 95 SPAAA Anti-aircraft machine guns have long been mounted on trucks, and these were quite common during World War I. A predecessor of the WW2 German "88" anti-aircraft gun, the WWI German 77 mm anti-aircraft gun, was truck-mounted and used to great effect against British tanks. The British QF 3 inch 20 cwt was mounted on trucks for use on the Western front Between the wars the British developed the Birch gun, a general purpose artillery piece on an armoured tracked chassis capable of maintaining formation with their current tanks. Larger guns followed on larger trucks, but these mountings generally required off-truck setup in order to unlimber the stabilizing legs these guns needed. One exception to this rule was the Italian Cannone da 90/53 which was highly effective when mounted on trucks, a fit known as the "autocannoni da 90/53". The 90/53 was a feared weapon, notably in the anti-tank role, but only a few hundred had been produced by the time of the armistice in 1943. Among early pre-WW2 pioneers of self-propelled AA guns were the Germans. By WW2, they fielded the SdKfz 10/4 and 6/2, cargo halftracks mounting single 20 mm or 37 mm AA guns (respectively). Later in the war similar German halftracks mounted quad 20 mm weapons. Other nations tended to work on truck chassis. Starting in 1941, the British developed the "en portee" method of mounting an anti-tank gun (initially a 2 pounder) on a truck. This was to prevent the weapon from being damaged by long-distance towing across rough, stony deserts, and it was intended only to be a carrying method, with the gun unloaded for firing. However, crews tended to fire their weapons from their vehicles for the mobility this method provided, with consequent casualties. Advanced Squad Leader, Avalon Hill Game Company This undoubtedly inspired their Morris C9/B (officially the "Carrier, SP, 4x4, 40 mm AA"), a Bofors 40 mm AA gun mounted on a chassis derived from the Morris Quad Field Artillery Tractor truck. Similar types, based on 3-ton lorries, were produced in Britain, Canada and Australia, and together formed the most numerous self-propelled AA guns in British service. Interest in mobile AA turned to heavier vehicles with the mass and stability needed to easily train weapons of all sizes. Probably the desire, particularly in German service, for anti-aircraft vehicles to be armoured for their own protection also assisted this trend. PZA Loara, Poland The concept of an armored SPAAG was pioneered mainly by Germany during World War II, with their "flakpanzer" series. German World War II SPAAGs include the Möbelwagen, Wirbelwind, Ostwind and Kugelblitz. Other forces followed with designs of their own, notably the American M16 created by mounting quadruple M2 machine guns on a M3 Half-track. The British developed their own SPAAGs throughout the war mounting multiple machine guns and light cannon on various tank and armoured car chassis and by 1943, the Crusader AA tanks, which mounted the Bofors 40 mm gun or two-three Oerlikon 20 mm cannon. Although used during the Normandy landings, by that point German aircraft were contained by the Allies own air forces and they were largely unneeded. On occasion SPAAGs have been used as very effective direct fire weapons against infantry, for example by American forces during late World War II, in Korea against mass infantry assault, and extensively during the Vietnam War, where for example the U.S. M42 Duster SPAAG (based on a light tank) was employed purely for this purpose. Modern weapons include the Russian ZSU-23-4 Shilka and Tunguska-M1, Chinese Type 95 SPAAA, Swedish CV9040 AAV, Polish PZA Loara, American M6 Bradley Linebacker and M1097 Humvee Avenger, Yugoslavian BOV-3, Canadian ADATS, aging German Gepard, Japanese Type 87 SPAAG and similar versions with the British Marksman turret (which was also adapted for a number of other users), Italian SIDAM 25 and Otomatic, and versions of the French AMX-13. Older post-war examples include the ZSU-57-2, M163 VADS (mounting the Vulcan cannon) and failed M247 Sergeant York. References See also Man-portable air-defence system | Self-propelled_anti-aircraft_weapon |@lemmatized soviet:1 make:1 zsu:6 camp:1 pendleton:1 self:6 propel:6 anti:14 aircraft:18 weapon:9 spaa:1 also:4 air:4 defense:1 spad:1 gun:24 spaag:5 surface:1 missile:5 launcher:1 mount:18 mobile:2 vehicle:5 chassis:5 russian:3 equivalent:1 zenitnaya:1 samokhodnaya:1 ustanovka:1 specific:1 system:2 include:5 machine:5 autocannon:1 large:3 long:3 range:2 platform:1 use:6 truck:10 heavy:2 armor:1 fight:1 apc:1 tank:8 add:1 protection:2 artillery:3 small:1 arm:1 fire:4 front:2 line:1 deployment:1 gepard:2 german:9 army:2 usually:1 quickly:1 traverse:1 turret:3 high:2 rate:2 elevation:1 track:2 fast:1 moving:1 often:1 dual:1 quadruple:2 allow:1 today:1 generally:2 similar:4 largely:2 supplant:1 particularly:2 mind:1 general:2 military:1 planner:1 still:1 deadly:1 short:1 within:1 kilometer:1 evidence:1 u:3 grind:1 attack:1 doctrine:1 build:1 around:1 counter:1 shilka:2 find:1 across:2 world:5 despite:1 north:1 vietnamese:1 force:4 vietnam:2 war:11 caliber:1 main:1 cause:2 helicopter:1 loss:1 ultimate:1 weaponry:1 paddy:1 griffith:1 blitz:1 edition:1 israeli:1 casualty:2 primarily:1 shilkas:1 history:1 chinese:2 type:4 spaaa:2 quite:1 common:1 predecessor:1 wwi:1 mm:8 great:1 effect:1 british:7 qf:1 inch:1 cwt:1 western:1 develop:3 birch:1 purpose:2 piece:1 armoured:2 tracked:1 capable:1 maintain:1 formation:1 current:1 follow:2 mounting:1 require:1 setup:1 order:1 unlimber:1 stabilizing:1 legs:1 need:2 one:1 exception:1 rule:1 italian:2 cannone:1 da:2 highly:1 effective:2 fit:1 know:1 autocannoni:1 feared:1 notably:2 role:1 hundred:1 produce:2 time:1 armistice:1 among:1 early:1 pre:1 pioneer:2 aa:7 field:2 sdkfz:1 cargo:1 halftracks:2 single:1 respectively:1 later:1 quad:2 nation:1 tend:2 work:1 start:1 en:1 portee:1 method:3 initially:1 pounder:1 prevent:1 damage:1 distance:1 tow:1 rough:1 stony:1 desert:1 intend:1 carry:1 unload:1 firing:1 however:1 crew:1 mobility:1 provide:1 consequent:1 advanced:1 squad:1 leader:1 avalon:1 hill:1 game:1 company:1 undoubtedly:1 inspire:1 morris:2 b:1 officially:1 carrier:1 sp:1 bofors:2 derive:1 tractor:1 base:2 ton:1 lorry:1 britain:1 canada:1 australia:1 together:1 form:1 numerous:1 service:2 interest:1 turn:1 heavier:1 mass:2 stability:1 easily:1 train:1 size:1 probably:1 desire:1 armour:1 assist:1 trend:1 pza:2 loara:2 poland:1 concept:1 armored:1 mainly:1 germany:1 ii:3 flakpanzer:1 series:1 spaags:3 möbelwagen:1 wirbelwind:1 ostwind:1 kugelblitz:1 design:1 american:3 create:1 half:1 throughout:1 multiple:1 light:2 cannon:3 various:1 car:1 crusader:1 two:1 three:1 oerlikon:1 although:1 normandy:1 landing:1 point:1 contain:1 ally:1 unneeded:1 occasion:1 direct:1 infantry:2 example:3 late:1 korea:1 assault:1 extensively:1 duster:1 employ:1 purely:1 modern:1 tunguska:1 swedish:1 aav:1 polish:1 bradley:1 linebacker:1 humvee:1 avenger:1 yugoslavian:1 bov:1 canadian:1 adats:1 age:1 japanese:1 version:2 marksman:1 adapt:1 number:1 user:1 sidam:1 otomatic:1 french:1 amx:1 old:1 post:1 vads:1 vulcan:1 fail:1 sergeant:1 york:1 reference:1 see:1 man:1 portable:1 defence:1 |@bigram self_propel:6 fast_moving:1 mm_mm:1 artillery_tractor:1 normandy_landing:1 vulcan_cannon:1 |
3,678 | Guerrilla_warfare | Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat in which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes, raids, etc.) to combat a larger and less mobile formal army. The guerrilla army uses ambush (stealth and surprise) and mobility (draw enemy forces to terrain unsuited to them) in attacking vulnerable targets in enemy territory. This term means "little war" in Spanish and was created during the Peninsular War. The concept acknowledges a conflict between armed civilians against a powerful nation state army, either foriegn or domestic. The tactics of guerrilla warfare were used sucessfully in the recent 20th century by among others the People's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War, Fidel Castro's rebel army in the Cuban Revolution, and by the Viet Cong, and the North Vietnam Army in the Vietnam War. Most factions of the Iraqi Insurgency and groups such as FARC are said to be engaged in some form of guerrilla warfare. Etymology The Spanish guerrillero Juan Martín Díez, known by his nom de guerre, El Empecinado. Statue of Juana Galán in Valdepeñas, Spanish woman guerrillere Guerrilla () means small war, the diminutive of the Spanish word Guerra (war). The Spanish word derives from the Old High German word Werra and from the middle Dutch word warre; adopted by the Visigoths in A.D. 5th century Hispania. The use of the diminutive evokes the differences in number, scale, and scope between the guerrilla army and the formal, professional army of the state. An early example of this came when General John Burgoyne, who, during the Saratoga campaign of the American War of Independence, noted that in proceeding through dense woodland: ‘the enemy is infinitely inferior to the King’s Troop in open space, and hardy combat, is well fitted by disposition and practice, for the stratagems of enterprises of Little War...upon the Same principle must be a constant rule, in or near Woods to place advanced Centuries, where they may have a Tree or Some other defence to prevent their being taken off by a single Marksman.' So conscious of hidden marksmen was Burgoyne that he asked his men, ‘when the Lieut’t General visits an outpost, the men are not to stand to their Arms or pay him any compliment’, clearly being aware he would be singled out. Rogers, Horatio (ed.), A Journal Kept in Canada and Upon Burgoyne’s Campaign in 1776 and 1777 by Lieutenant James M. Hadden, Roy. Art., Jorel Munsell’s Sons, (Albany, NY, 1884), pp.71 - 77. The word was thus not coined in Spain to describe resistance to Napoleon Bonaparte's French régime during the Peninsula War. Its meaning was however broadened to mean any similar-scale armed resistance. Guerrillero is the Spanish word for guerrilla fighter, while in Spanish-speaking countries the noun guerrilla usually denotes guerrilla army (e.g. la guerrilla de las FARC translates as "the FARC guerrilla group"). Moreover, per the OED, 'the guerrilla was in English usage (as early as 1809), describing the fighters, not only their tactics (e.g."the town was taken by the guerrillas"), however, in most languages guerrilla still denotes the specific style of warfare. Strategy, tactics and organization The strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare tend to focus around the use of a small, mobile force competing against a large, unwieldy one. The guerrilla focuses on organising in small units, dependent on the support of the local population. Tactically, the guerrilla army attacks its enemy in small, repetitive attacks from the opponents center of gravity with a view to reducing casualties and becoming an intensive, repetitive strain on the enemies resources, forcing an over-eager response which will both anger their own supporters and increase support for the guerrilla, thus forcing the enemy to withdraw. History Boer guerrillas during the Second Boer War in South Africa. Since Classical Antiquity, when many strategies and tactics were used to fight foreign occupation that anticipated the modern guerrilla. An early example was the hit-and-run tactics employed by the nomadic Scythians of Central Asia against Darius the Great's Persian Achaemenid Empire and later against Alexander the Great's Macedonian Empire. The Fabian strategy applied by the Roman Republic against Hannibal in the Second Punic War could be considered another early example of guerrilla tactics: After witnessing several disastrous defeats, assassinations and raiding parties, the Romans set aside the typical military doctrine of crushing the enemy in a single battle and initiated a successful, albeit unpopular, war of attrition against the Carthaginians that lasted for 14 years. In expanding their own Empire, the Romans encountered numerous examples of guerrilla resistance to their legions as well. The success of Judas Maccabeus in his rebellion against Seleucid rule was at least partly due to his mastery of irregular warfare. The victory of the Basque forces against Charlemagne's army in the Battle of Roncevaux Pass, which gave birth to the Medieval myth of Roland, was due to effective use of a guerrilla principles in the mountain terrain of the Pyrenees. Mongols also faced irregulars composed of armed peasants in Hungary after the Battle of Mohi. One of the most successful of the guerrilla campaigns was that of Robert Bruce in the Scottish War of Independence when using strategies of ambushes, avoiding large battles, destroying enemy strongholds and using a scorched earth policy, the Scots forced the English out of Scotland without a single largescale battle until the Battle of Bannockburn eight years after the start of the war. Scott, Ronald McNair, Robert Bruce, King of the Scots, 1989, p242 In the 15th century, Vietnamese leader Le Loi launched a guerrilla war against Chinese. Le Loi And The Le Dynasty One of the most successful guerrilla wars against the invading Ottomans was led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg from 1443 to 1468. In 1443 he rallied Albanian forces and drove the Turks from his homeland. For 25 years Skanderbeg kept the Turks from retaking Albania, which due to its proximity to Italy, could easily have served as a springboard to the rest of Europe. Scanderbeg In 1462, the Ottomans were driven back by Wallachian prince Vlad III Dracula. Vlad was unable to stop the Turks from entering Wallachia, so he resorted to guerrilla war, constantly organizing small attacks and ambushes on the Turks. Vlad The Impaler: Brief History During The Deluge in Poland guerrilla tactics were applied. The reign of the Vasa dynasty (1587-1668) the wars with Sweden and the events of the Swedish Deluge In the 100 years war between England and France, commander Bertrand du Guesclin used guerrilla tactics to pester the English invaders. The Frisian warlord Pier Gerlofs Donia fought a guerrilla against Philip I of Castile Geldersche Volks-Almanak Published 1853 and with co-commander Wijerd Jelckama against Charles V. During the Dutch Revolt of the 16th century, the Geuzen waged a guerrilla war against the Spanish Empire. Geuzen, or Gueux (Dutch history) During the Scanian War, a pro-Danish guerrilla group known as the Snapphane fought against the Swedes. In 17th century Ireland, Irish irregulars called tories and rapparees used guerrilla warfare in the Irish Confederate Wars and the Williamite war in Ireland. Finnish guerrillas, sissis, fought against Russian occupation troops in the Great Northern War, 1700-1721. The Russians retaliated brutally against the civilian populace; the period is called Isoviha (Grand Hatred) in Finland. Many clandestine organizations (often known as resistance movements) operated in the countries occupied by Nazi Germany during the World War II. By 1944 the Polish resistance was thought to number 400,000. Poland - World War II The strength of the Soviet partisan units and formations can not be accurately estimated, but in Belarus alone is thought to have been in excess of 300,000. The Partisan War Current guerrilla conflicts Present ongoing guerrilla wars, and regions facing guerrilla war activity include: Kashmir Arab-Israeli Conflict Uganda Zapatista Army of National Liberation, Mexico - have been relatively non-violent since 1994 India Internal conflict in Peru Second Chechen War ETA in Spain Taliban insurgency Afghanistan Darfur Conflict Colombian Armed Conflict Iran Conflict in Iraq Kurdish Unrest in Turkey Ivorian Civil War Islamic and Communist Insurgencies in the Philippines Sudan Second Tuareg Rebellion Baloch republican army, Pakistani Balochistan Real Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland Counter-guerrilla warfare Principles The guerrilla can be difficult to beat, but certain principles of counter-insurgency warfare are well known since the 1950s and 1960s and have been successfully applied. Classic guidelines The widely distributed and influential work of Sir Robert Thompson, counter-insurgency expert of the Malayan Emergency, offers several such guidelines. Thompson's underlying assumption is that of a country minimally committed to the rule of law and better governance. Some governments, however, give such considerations short shrift, and their counterguerrilla operations have involved mass murder, genocide, starvation and the massive spread of terror, torture and execution. The totalitarian regimes of Hitler are classic examples, as are more modern conflicts in places like Afghanistan. In Afghanistan's anti-Mujahideen war for example, the Soviets implemented a ruthless policy of wastage and depopulation, driving over one third of the Afghan population into exile (over 5 million people), and carrying out widespread destruction of villages, granaries, crops, herds and irrigation systems, including the deadly and widespread mining of fields and pastures. See Wiki article Soviet war in Afghanistan. Many modern countries employ manhunting doctrine to seek out and eliminate individual guerrillas. Elements of Thompson's moderate approach are adapted here: Robert Thompson (1966). "Defeating Communist Insurgency: The Lessons of Malaya and Vietnam", Chatto & Widus, ISBN 0-7011-1133-X The people are the key base to be secured and defended rather than territory won or enemy bodies counted. Contrary to the focus of conventional warfare, territory gained, or casualty counts are not of overriding importance in counter-guerrilla warfare. The support of the population is the key variable. Since many insurgents rely on the population for recruits, food, shelter, financing, and other materials, the counter-insurgent force must focus its efforts on providing physical and economic security for that population and defending it against insurgent attacks and propaganda. There must be a clear political counter-vision that can overshadow, match or neutralize the guerrilla vision. This can range from granting political autonomy, to economic development measures in the affected region. The vision must be an integrated approach, involving political, social and economic and media influence measures. A nationalist narrative for example, might be used in one situation, an ethnic autonomy approach in another. An aggressive media campaign must also be mounted in support of the competing vision or the counter-insurgent regime will appear weak or incompetent. Practical action must be taken at the lower levels to match the competitive political vision. It may be tempting for the counter-insurgent side to simply declare guerrillas "terrorists" and pursue a harsh liquidation strategy. Brute force however, may not be successful in the long run. Action does not mean capitulation, but sincere steps such as removing corrupt or arbitrary officials, cleaning up fraud, building more infrastructure, collecting taxes honestly, or addressing other legitimate grievances can do much to undermine the guerrillas' appeal. Economy of force. The counter-insurgent regime must not overreact to guerrilla provocations, since this may indeed be what they seek to create a crisis in civilian morale. Indiscriminate use of firepower may only serve to alienate the key focus of counterinsurgency- the base of the people. Police level actions should guide the effort and take place in a clear framework of legality, even if under a State of Emergency. Civil liberties and other customs of peacetime may have to be suspended, but again, the counter-insurgent regime must exercise restraint, and cleave to orderly procedures. In the counter-insurgency context, "boots on the ground" are even more important than technological prowess and massive firepower, although anti-guerrilla forces should take full advantage of modern air, artillery and electronic warfare assets. Learning from Iraq: Counterinsurgency in American Strategy - Steven Metz. US Army Strategic Studies Institute monograph, December 2006, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=752, retrieved June 1, 2007 Big unit action may sometimes be necessary. If police action is not sufficient to stop the guerrilla fighters, military sweeps may be necessary. Such "big battalion" operations may be needed to break up significant guerrilla concentrations and split them into small groups where combined civic-police action can control them. Aggressive mobility. Mobility and aggressive small unit action is extremely important for the counter-insurgent regime. Heavy formations must be lightened to aggressively locate, pursue and fix insurgent units. Huddling in static strongpoints simply concedes the field to the insurgents. They must be kept on the run constantly with aggressive patrols, raids, ambushes, sweeps, cordons, roadblocks, prisoner snatches, etc. Ground level embedding and integration. In tandem with mobility is the embedding of hardcore counter-insurgent units or troops with local security forces and civilian elements. The US Marines in Vietnam also saw some success with this method, under its CAP (Combined Action Program) where Marines were teamed as both trainers and "stiffeners" of local elements on the ground. US Special Forces in Vietnam like the Green Berets, also caused significant local problems for their opponents by their leadership and integration with mobile tribal and irregular forces. Michael Lee Lanning and Daniel Craig, "Inside the VC and NVA", and "Inside the LRRP's" The CIA's Special Activities Division created successful guerrilla forces from the Hmong tribe during the war in Vietnam in the 1960's, Shooting at the Moon: The Story of America's Clandestine War in Laos, Steerforth Press, 1996 |isbn=9781883642365 from the Northern Alliance against the Taliban during the war in Afghanistan in 2001, Bush at War, Bob Woodward, Simon and Shuster, 2002 and from the Kurdish Peshmerga against Ansar al-Islam and the forces of Saddam Hussein during the war in Iraq in 2003. Operation Hotel California: The Clandestine War inside Iraq, Mike Tucker, Charles Faddis, 2008, The Lyons Press |isbn=9781599213668 Plan of Attack, Bob Woodward, Simon and Shuster, 2004 isbn=9780743255479 In Iraq, the 2007 US "surge" strategy saw the embedding of regular and special forces troops among Iraqi army units. These hardcore groups were also incorporated into local neighborhood outposts in a bid to facilitate intelligence gathering, and to strengthen ground level support among the masses. Cultural sensitivity. Counter-insurgent forces require familiarity with the local culture, mores and language or they will experience numerous difficulties. Americans experienced this in Vietnam and during the US Iraqi Freedom invasion and occupation, where shortages of Arabic speaking interpreters and translators hindered both civil and military operations. Learning from Iraq, op. cit. Systematic intelligence effort. Every effort must be made to gather and organize useful intelligence. A systematic process must be set up to do so, from casual questioning of civilians to structured interrogations of prisoners. Creative measures must also be used, including the use of double agents, or even bogus "liberation" or sympathizer groups that help reveal insurgent personnel or operations. Methodical clear and hold. An "ink spot" clear and hold strategy must be used by the counter-insurgent regime, dividing the conflict area into sectors, and assigning priorities between them. Control must expand outward like an ink spot on paper, systematically neutralizing and eliminating the insurgents in one sector of the grid, before proceeding to the next. It may be necessary to pursue holding or defensive actions elsewhere, while priority areas are cleared and held. Careful deployment of mass popular forces and special units. Mass forces include village self-defence groups and citizen militias organized for community defence and can be useful in providing civic mobilization and local security. Specialist units can be used profitably, including commando squads, long range reconnaissance and "hunter-killer" patrols, defectors who can track or persuade their former colleagues like the Kit Carson units in Vietnam, and paramilitary style groups. Strict control must be kept over specialist units to prevent the emergence of violent vigilante style reprisal squads that undermine the government's program. The limits of foreign assistance must be clearly defined and carefully used. Such aid should be limited either by time, or as to material and technical, and personnel support, or both. While outside aid or even troops can be helpful, lack of clear limits, in terms of either a realistic plan for victory or exit strategy, may find the foreign helper "taking over" the local war, and being sucked into a lengthy commitment, thus providing the guerrillas with valuable propaganda opportunities as the stream of dead foreigners mounts. Such a scenario occurred with the US in Vietnam, with the American effort creating dependence in South Vietnam, and war weariness and protests back home. Heavy-handed foreign interference may also fail to operate effectively within the local cultural context, setting up conditions for failure. Time. A key factor in guerrilla strategy is a drawn-out, protracted conflict, that wears down the will of the opposing counter-insurgent forces. Democracies are especially vulnerable to the factor of time. The counter-insurgent force must allow enough time to get the job done. Impatient demands for victory centered around short-term electoral cycles play into the hands of the guerrillas, though it is equally important to recognize when a cause is lost and the guerrillas have won. Variants Some writers on counter-insurgency warfare emphasize the more turbulent nature of today's guerrilla warfare environment, where the clear political goals, parties and structures of such places as Vietnam, Malaysia, or El Salvador are not as prevalent. These writers point to numerous guerrilla conflicts that center around religious, ethnic or even criminal enterprise themes, and that do not lend themselves to the classic "national liberation" template. The wide availability of the Internet has also cause changes in the tempo and mode of guerrilla operations in such areas as coordination of strikes, leveraging of financing, recruitment, and media manipulation. While the classic guidelines still apply, today's anti-guerrilla forces need to accept a more disruptive, disorderly and ambiguous mode of operation. "Insurgents may not be seeking to overthrow the state, may have no coherent strategy or may pursue a faith-based approach difficult to counter with traditional methods. There may be numerous competing insurgencies in one theater, meaning that the counterinsurgent must control the overall environment rather than defeat a specific enemy. The actions of individuals and the propaganda effect of a subjective “single narrative” may far outweigh practical progress, rendering counterinsurgency even more non-linear and unpredictable than before. The counterinsurgent, not the insurgent, may initiate the conflict and represent the forces of revolutionary change. The economic relationship between insurgent and population may be diametrically opposed to classical theory. And insurgent tactics, based on exploiting the propaganda effects of urban bombing, may invalidate some classical tactics and render others, like patrolling, counterproductive under some circumstances. Thus, field evidence suggests, classical theory is necessary but not sufficient for success against contemporary insurgencies..." Counter-insurgency Redux", David Kilcullen Influence on the arts Guerrilla Warfare, 1999 album by the Hot Boys Guerrilla, a 2007 film "Guerillas in tha Mist", a song by Da Lench Mob Guerrilla Girls, a feminist artist group Guerrilla Radio, a song by Rage Against the Machine Guerrilla War (arcade game), an arcade game by SNK Gorillaz, a cartoon band, originally military-themed. Guerrilla (or Gorilla) Unit, a rap group. Guerrilla burlesque, a style of burlesque performance that involves descending upon audiences, uninvited. Tomorrow series A series of books written by John Marsden (writer) about guerrilla warfare during a fictional invasion and occupation of Australia. First Blood which then led to the film series Rambo Guerrillas, a thrash-hardcore band from Cluj-Napoca(RO). For Whom The Bell Tolls, a novel by Ernest Hemingway telling the story of Robert Jordan, a volunteer American attached to an anti-fascist guerrilla unit during the Spanish Civil War. Guerilla An Achievement on the Xbox 360 Game "Halo 3." Unlocked By Achieving over 15,000 Points on the Meta-Game on the First Level. Just Cause Guerrilla is one of the main modes In Empire: Total War Special Forces Edition, the Spanish Guerrillas is an irregular unit fighting in the Spanish Faction See also Asymmetric warfare Central Intelligence Agency's Special Activities Division Basil Henry Liddell Hart Bushwhackers (Union and Confederate) and Jayhawkers (Union) of the American Civil War Cavalry in the American Civil War Combatant Commando Counter insurgency Directive control Edmund Charaszkiewicz Fabian Strategy Fictional resistance movements and groups Fitzroy Maclean Disputed Barricade: The Life and Times of Josip Broz Tito Franc-Tireurs Gladio Guerrilla communication Guerrilla gardening is political gardening, a form of nonviolent direct action, primarily practiced by environmentalists Guerrilla Warfare, by Che Guevara. Hans von Dach, a Swiss army major famous for his book Total Resistance: A War Manual for Everyone, which teaches the readers in guerrilla warfare Irregular military Irregular Warfare List of guerrilla movements List of guerrilla fighters List of revolutions and rebellions Lord's Resistance Army LRRP and sissi, regular army units using guerrilla tactics Manhunt (military) Militia Paramilitary Partisan PKK Resistance during World War II Resistance movement Robert Asprey War in the Shadows: The Guerrilla in History. Spaßguerilla Special forces Unconventional warfare Vietnam War NotesFurther References:' Robert Asprey, War in the Shadows: The Guerrilla in History. Fitzroy Maclean, Disputed Barricade: The Life and Times of Josip Broz Tito. Peter MacDonald, Giap: The Victor in Vietnam. External links Spanish Anthem of the traditional Guerrilleros unit Tribute to Mexican Women Guerrilleras. On the Freedom Country abcNEWS: The Secret War - Pakistani militants conduct raids in Iran abcNEWS Exclusive: The Secret War - Deadly guerrilla raids in Iran Insurgency Research Group - Multi-expert blog dedicated to the study of insurgency and the development of counter-insurgency policy. Guerrilla warfare on Spartacus Schoolnet Encyclopaedia Britannica, Guerrilla warfare Mao on Guerrilla warfare Relearning Counterinsurgency Warfare Guerrilla Warfare Counter Insurgency Jungle Warfare School (CIJWS)India | Guerrilla_warfare |@lemmatized guerrilla:83 warfare:28 unconventional:2 combat:3 small:8 group:13 combatant:2 use:19 mobile:4 tactic:13 ambush:5 raid:5 etc:2 large:3 less:1 formal:2 army:20 stealth:1 surprise:1 mobility:4 draw:1 enemy:10 force:26 terrain:2 unsuited:1 attack:6 vulnerable:2 target:1 territory:3 term:3 mean:5 little:2 war:53 spanish:12 create:4 peninsular:1 concept:1 acknowledge:1 conflict:12 arm:4 civilian:5 powerful:1 nation:1 state:4 either:3 foriegn:1 domestic:1 sucessfully:1 recent:1 century:6 among:3 others:2 people:4 liberation:4 chinese:2 civil:7 fidel:1 castro:1 rebel:1 cuban:1 revolution:2 viet:1 cong:1 north:1 vietnam:13 faction:2 iraqi:3 insurgency:16 farc:3 say:1 engage:1 form:2 etymology:1 guerrillero:2 juan:1 martín:1 díez:1 know:4 nom:1 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3,679 | Philosophical_methodology | Philosophical method (or philosophical methodology) is the study of how to do philosophy. A common view among philosophers is that philosophy is distinguished by the methods that philosophers follow in addressing philosophical questions. There is not just one method that philosophers use to answer philosophical questions. Methodology process Some common features of the methods that philosophers follow (and discuss when discussing philosophical method) include: Methodic Doubt - a systematic process of being skeptical about (or doubting) the truth of one's beliefs. Argument - provide an argument or several arguments supporting the solution. Dialectic - present the solution and arguments for criticism by other philosophers, and help them judge their own. Doubt and the sense of wonder As Aristotle wrote in the Metaphysics, philosophy depends greatly upon wonder. Philosophizing may begin with some simple doubts about accepted beliefs. The initial impulse to philosophize may arise from suspicion, for example that we do not fully understand, and have not fully justified, even our most basic beliefs about the world. Formulate questions and problems Another element of philosophical method is to formulate questions to be answered or problems to be solved. The working assumption is that the more clearly the question or problem is stated, the easier it is to identify critical issues. A relatively small number of major philosophers prefer not to be quick, but to spend more time trying to get extremely clear on what the problem is all about. Enunciate a solution Another approach is to enunciate a theory, or to offer a definition or analysis, which constitutes an attempt to solve a philosophical problem. Sometimes a philosophical theory by itself can be stated quite briefly. All the supporting philosophical text is offered by way of hedging, explanation, and argument. Not all proposed solutions to philosophical problems consist of definitions or generalizations. Sometimes what is called for is a certain sort of explanation — not a causal explanation, but an explanation for example of how two different views, which seem to be contrary to one another, can be held at the same time, consistently. One can call this a philosophical explanation. Justify the solution An argument is a set of statements, one of which (the conclusion), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the premises). One might think of arguments as bundles of reasons — often not just a list, but logically interconnected statements — followed by the claim they are reasons for. The reasons are the premises, the claim they support is the conclusion; together they make an argument. Philosophical arguments and justifications are another important part of philosophical method. It is rare to find a philosopher, particularly in the Western philosophical tradition, who lacks many arguments. Philosophers are, or at least are expected to be, very good at giving arguments. They constantly demand and offer arguments for different claims they make. This therefore indicates that philosophy is a quest for arguments. A good argument — a clear, organized, and sound statement of reasons — may ultimately cure the original doubts that motivated us to take up philosophy. If one is willing to be satisfied without any good supporting reasons, then a Western philosophical approach may not be what one actually requires. Philosophical criticism In philosophy, which concerns the most fundamental aspects of the universe, the experts all disagree. It follows that another element of philosophical method, common in the work of nearly all philosophers, is philosophical criticism. It is this that makes much philosophizing a social endeavor. Philosophers offer definitions and explanations in solution to problems; they argue for those solutions; and then other philosophers provide counter arguments, expecting to eventually come up with better solutions. This exchange and resulting revision of views is called dialectic. Dialectic (in one sense of this history-laden word) is simply philosophical conversation amongst people who do not always agree with each other about everything. One can do this sort of harsh criticism on one's own, but others can help greatly, if important assumptions are shared with the person offering the criticisms. Others are able to think of criticisms from another perspective. Some philosophers and ordinary people dive right in and start trying to solve the problem. They immediately start giving arguments, pro and con, on different sides of the issue. Doing philosophy is different from this. It is about questioning assumptions, digging for deeper understanding. Doing philosophy is about the journey, the process, as much as it is about the destination, the conclusion. Its method differs from other disciplines, in which the experts can agree about most of the fundamentals. Motivation Method in philosophy is in some sense rooted in motivation, only by understanding why people take up philosophy can one properly understand what philosophy is. People often find themselves believing things that they do not understand. For example, about God, themselves, the natural world, human society, morality and human productions. Often, people fail to understand what it is they believe, and fail to understand the reasons they believe in what they do. Some people have questions about the meaning of their beliefs and questions about the justification (or rationality) of their beliefs. A lack of these things shows a lack of understanding, and some dislike not having this understanding. These questions about are only the tip of the philosophical iceberg. There are many other things about this universe about which people are also fundamentally ignorant. Philosophers are in the business of investigating all sorts of those areas of ignorance. A bewilderingly huge number of basic concepts are poorly understood. For example: What does it mean to say that one thing causes another? What is rationality? What are space and time? What is beauty, and if it is in the eye of the beholder, then what is it that is being said to be in the eye of the beholder? One might also consider some of the many questions about justification. Human lives are deeply informed with many basic assumptions. Different assumptions, would lead to different ways of living. 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3,680 | Italic_languages | Approximate distribution of languages in Iron Age Italy during the sixth century BC. The Italic subfamily is a member of the Indo-European language family. It includes the Romance languages derived from Latin (Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian, etc.), and a number of extinct languages of the Italian Peninsula, including Umbrian, Oscan, and Latin. Phonetic changes A partial list of regular phonetic changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Italic: Palatovelars merge with plain velars > > > Voiced labiovelars unround or lenite > > or Voiced aspirates become first unvoiced, then fricativize > > > > > > > > before ; unchanged elsewhere > before in following syllable (e.g. Latin quinque 'five' from PIE *penkʷe); unchanged elsewhere Resonants and remaining stops () unchanged Further changes occurred during the evolution of the individual Italic languages, such as > between vowels and > in Latin. Branches The Italic family has two known branches: Sabellic, including: Oscan, which was spoken in the south-central region of the Italian Peninsula Umbrian group, including: Umbrian (not to be confused with the modern Umbrian dialect of Italian), which was spoken in the north-central region Volscian Aequian Marsian, the language of the Marsi South Picene, in east-central Italy Latino-Faliscan, including: Faliscan, which was spoken in the area around Falerii Veteres (modern Civita Castellana) north of the city of Rome and possibly Sardinia Latin, which was spoken in west-central Italy. The Roman conquests eventually spread it throughout the peninsula and beyond in the Roman Empire. Romance languages, the descendants of Latin (see List of Romance languages) The Italic speakers were not native to Italy, but migrated into the Italian Peninsula in the course of the 2nd millennium BC and were apparently related to the Celtic tribes that roamed over a large part of Western Europe at the time. Archaeologically, the Apennine culture (inhumations) enters the Italian Peninsula from ca. 1350 BC, east to west. Before the Italic arrival, Italy was populated primarily by non-Indo-European groups (perhaps including the Etruscans). The first settlement on the Palatine hill dates to ca. 750 BC, settlements on the Quirinal to 720 BC (see Founding of Rome). The ancient Venetic language, as revealed by its inscriptions (including complete sentences), was also closely related to the Italic languages and is sometimes even classified as Italic. However, since it also shares similarities with other Western Indo-European branches (particularly Germanic), some linguists prefer to consider it an independent Indo-European language. The Italic languages are first attested in writing from Umbrian and Faliscan inscriptions dating to the 7th century BC. The alphabets used are based on the Old Italic alphabet, which is itself based on the Greek alphabet. The Italic languages themselves show minor influence from the Etruscan and somewhat more from the Ancient Greek languages. As Rome extended its political dominion over the whole of the Italian Peninsula, Latin became dominant over the other Italic languages, which ceased to be spoken perhaps sometime in the 1st century AD. From so-called Vulgar Latin the Romance languages emerged. See also Language families and languages Italo-Celtic References Ernst Pulgram: Tongues of Italy, Prehistory and History Rix, Helmut (2004). Ausgliederung und Aufgliederung der italischen Sprachen. Languages in Prehistoric Europe. 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3,681 | Cayman_Islands | The Cayman Islands ( or ) are a British overseas territory located in the western Caribbean Sea. The territory comprises the islands of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and Little Cayman, located south of Cuba and northwest of Jamaica. The territory is a major offshore financial center in the Caribbean. History The Cayman Islands were sighted by Christopher Columbus, on 10 May 1503 on his fourth and final voyage to the New World. He named them Las Tortugas after the numerous sea turtles there. The first recorded English visitor to the islands was Sir Francis Drake, who landed there in 1586 and named them the Cayman Islands after the Neo-Taino nations term (caiman) for alligator. Cayman Islands National MuseumThe first recorded permanent inhabitant of the Cayman Islands, Isaac Bodden, was born on Grand Cayman around 1661. He was the grandson of the original settler named Bodden who was probably one of Oliver Cromwell's soldiers at the taking of Jamaica in 1655. The islands, along with nearby Jamaica, were captured by, then ceded to England in 1670 under the Treaty of Madrid. They were governed as a single colony with Jamaica until 1962 when they became a separate British Overseas Territory and Jamaica became an independent Commonwealth realm. The island of Grand Cayman, which lies largely unprotected at sea level, was hit by Hurricane Ivan on 11- 12 September 2004, which destroyed many buildings and damaged 90% of them. Power, water and communications were all disrupted in some areas for months as Ivan was the worst hurricane to hit the islands in 86 years. However, Grand Cayman forced a major rebuilding process and within two years its infrastructure was nearly returned to pre-Ivan levels. The Cayman Islands have the dubious honor of having experienced the most hurricane strikes in history. Due to the proximity of the islands, more hurricane and tropical systems have affected the Cayman Islands than any other region in the Atlantic basin (brushed or hit every 2.23 years). Grand Cayman's history with tropical systems The Cayman Islands enjoy a high global standard of living fully dependent upon tourism and banking. Geography Map of the Cayman Islands George Town waterfront The Cayman Islands are located in the western Caribbean Sea. They are the peaks of a massive underwater ridge, known as the Cayman Trench, standing 8,000 feet (2,400 m) from the sea floor, which barely exceeds the surface. The islands lie in the northwest of the Caribbean Sea, south of Cuba and west of Jamaica. They are situated about 400 miles (650 km) south of Miami, 180 miles (300 km) south of Cuba, and 195 miles (315 km) northwest of Jamaica. Grand Cayman is by far the biggest, with an area of 76 square miles (197 km²). The two "Sister Islands" of Cayman Brac and Little Cayman are located about 80 miles (130 km) east of Grand Cayman and have areas of 14 square miles (36 km²) and 10 square miles (25.9 km²) respectively. All three islands were formed by large coral heads covering submerged ice age peaks of western extensions of the Cuban Sierra Maestra range and are mostly flat. One notable exception to this is The Bluff on Cayman Brac's eastern part, which rises to 140 feet (42.6 m) above sea level, the highest point on the island. Cayman avian fauna includes two endemic subspecies of Amazona parrots: Amazona leucocephala hesterna, or Cayman Brac Parrot, native only to Cayman Brac, and Amazona leucocephala caymanensis or Grand Cayman Parrot, which is native only to Grand Cayman. Another notable fauna is the endangered Blue Iguana, which is native to Grand Cayman. There is also the agouti and the Booby Birds on Cayman Brac. Demographics The Cayman Islands have more registered businesses than they have people. Regions and territories: Cayman Islands. BBC News. The latest population estimate of the Cayman Islands is about 52,000 as of 2006, representing a mix of more than 100 nationalities. Out of that number, about half are of Caymanian descent. About 60% of the population is of mixed race (mostly mixed African-European). Of the remaining 40%, about half are of European descent and half are of African descent. The islands are almost exclusively Christian, with large number of Presbyterians and Catholics. Caymanians enjoy the highest standard of living in the Caribbean. The vast majority of the population resides on Grand Cayman. Cayman Brac is the second most populated with about 1,200 residents, followed by Little Cayman with around 200 permanent residents. The capital and major city of the Cayman Islands is George Town, which is located on the south west coast of Grand Cayman. Economy Stingrays are one of the biggest tourist attractions. With an average income of around $42,000, Caymanians enjoy the highest standard of living in the Caribbean. According to the CIA World Factbook, the Cayman Islands GDP per capita is the 12th highest in the world. The islands print their own currency, the Cayman Islands Dollar (KYD), which is pegged to the U.S. dollar at a fixed rate of 1 KYD = 1.20 USD. The History of Cayman Islands Currency However, as of April 17, 2009, U.S. $20 bill is commonly exchanged at merchants for C.I.$16. The government's primary source of income is indirect taxation - there is no income tax or capital gains tax or corporation tax. An import duty of 5% to 20% is levied against goods imported into the islands. Few goods are exempt; notable examples include books, cameras and infant formula. The government charges licensing fees to financial institutions that operate in the islands as well as work permit fees for expatriate employees ranging from around US$500 for a clerk to around US$20,000 for a CEO. Tourism Tourism accounts for 70-75% of the annual GDP of the Cayman Islands. Of the million+ tourists (Cayman Islands Gov Website) that visit the islands annually, 99% visit Grand Cayman. George Town also serves as a major cruise ship port, which brings in 4,000 to 22,000 tourists a day, five days a week, depending on the number of ships in port. One of Grand Cayman's (GCM) main attractions is the world-famous Seven Mile Beach on which a number of the island's hotels and resorts are located. Seven Mile Beach is regarded by many as one of the best beaches in the world. Historical sites in GCM such as Pedro St. James Castle in BoddenTown also attract visitors. The Sister Islands - Little Cayman "This week's dream: diving and lazing on Little Cayman", (29 November 2008) The Week p. 39, Dennis Publishers, UK and Cayman Brac Skip Harper, "Adventuring in Cayman Brac",Head and Toe Publishers, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA, 2001, ISBN 0-9640645-2-0 - also supply their own unique charm. The Cayman Islands is regarded as one of the world's best scuba diving destinations because of its crystal-clear waters and pristine walls. Cayman Brac and Little Cayman are also elite SCUBA dive destinations. There are several snorkeling locations where tourists can swim with stingrays including the popular Stingray City, Grand Cayman. Divers find two shipwrecks off the shores of Cayman Brac particularly interesting including the MV Keith Tibbetts. Other Grand Cayman tourist attractions include the Ironshore landscape of Hell, the marine theme park Boatswain's Beach, also home of the Cayman Turtle Farm, the production of gourmet sea salt, and the Mastic Trail, a hiking trail through the forests in the center of the island. The NationalTrust for the Cayman Islands provides guided tours weekly on the Mastic Trail and other locations National Trust For the Cayman islands . Financial services industry The Cayman Islands are a major international financial center. The biggest sectors are "banking, hedge fund formation and investment, structured finance and securitization, captive insurance, and general corporate activities." United States Government Accountability Office (2008). GAO Report to the Chairman and Ranking Member, Committee on Finance, U.S. Senate, p. 7. Regulation and supervision of the financial services industry is the responsibility of the Cayman Islands Monetary Authority (CIMA). The Cayman Islands are the fifth-largest banking center in the world; Places in the sun. (2007, 24 February). The Economist, no. 382 (8517 suppl.), 3-5. with $1.5 trillion in banking liabilities. They are home to 279 banks (as of June 2008), 19 of which are licensed to conduct banking activities with domestic (Cayman based) and international clients, the remaining 260 are licensed to operate on an international basis with only limited domestic activity. Cayman Islands Monetary Authority (11 July 2008), Regulatory Framework: Statistics. Retrieved 25 July 2008 from: One reason for the Cayman Islands’ success as an offshore financial center has been the concentration of top-quality service providers. These include leading global financial institutions (incl. UBS and Goldman Sachs), over 80 administrators, leading accountancy practices (incl. the Big Four auditors), and offshore law practices (incl. Maples & Calder and Ogier). Bringing Cayman's Mutual Funds Law up to speed (1 October 2005). Hedge Week. Since the introduction of the Mutual Funds Law in 1993, which has been copied by jurisdictions around the world, the Cayman Islands have grown to be the world’s leading offshore hedge fund jurisdiction. In June 2008 it passed 10,000 hedge fund registrations, and over the year ending June 2008 CIMA reported a net growth rate of 12% for hedge funds. CayCompass.com (29 July 2008), 0,000–plus funds registered in CI. Starting in the mid-late 1990s offshore financial centers, such as the Cayman Islands, came under increasing pressure from the OECD for their allegedly harmful tax regimes, where the OECD wished to prevent low-tax regimes from having an unfair advantage in the global marketplace, and thus be harmful to the economies of more developed nations. The OECD threatened to place the Cayman Islands and other tax havens on a "black list" and impose sanctions against them. Natasha L. Rogoff (n.d.), Haven or havoc?. However the Cayman Islands successfully avoided being placed on the OECD black list in 2000 by committing to regulatory reform to improve transparency and begin information exchange with OECD member countries about their citizens. The Cayman Islands had previously appeared on the FATF Blacklist in 2000. In 2004, under pressure from the UK, the Cayman Islands agreed in principle to implement the European Union Savings Directive (EUSD), but only after securing some important benefits for the financial services industry in the Cayman Islands. As the Cayman Islands are not subject to laws, the implementation of the EUSD is by way of bilateral agreements between each EU member state and the Cayman Islands. The government of the Cayman Islands agreed on a model agreement, which set out how the EUSD would be implemented with the Cayman Islands. Appleby, Guide to the EU Savings Directive: Its relevance for Cayman Islands Investment Funds. A report published by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), in March 2005, assessing supervision and regulation in the Cayman Islands' banking, insurance and securities industries, as well as its money laundering regime, recognized the jurisdiction's comprehensive regulatory and compliance frameworks. "An extensive program of legislative, rule and guideline development has introduced an increasingly effective system of regulation, both formalizing earlier practices and introducing enhanced procedures," noted IMF assessors. The report further stated that "the supervisory system benefits from a well-developed banking infrastructure with an internationally experienced and qualified workforce as well as experienced lawyers, accountants and auditors," adding that, "the overall compliance culture within Cayman is very strong, including the compliance culture related to AML (anti-money laundering) obligations." Cayman Islands Financial Services (n.d.). International Cooperation. On May 4, 2009 President Obama declared his intentions to curb the use of tax havens by multinational corporations. In his speech, he singled out the Cayman Islands as a tax shelter. Obama Speech on Tax Havens May 5 2009, . The next day, the Cayman Island Financial Services Association submitted an open letter to the president detailing The Caymans' role in international finance and its value to the US financial system. CIFSA Open Letter to President Obama, . Government The Legislative Assembly building in George Town The Cayman Islands are a British overseas territory, listed by the UN Special Committee of Twenty-Four as one of the last non-self governing territories. A fifteen-seat Legislative Assembly is elected by the people every four years to handle domestic affairs. Of the elected Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), five are chosen to serve as government ministers in a Cabinet headed by the Governor. The head of government is the Leader of Government Business, which is currently The Honorable Kurt Tibbetts. A Governor is appointed by the British Government to represent the monarch. Governors can exercise complete executive authority if they wish through blanket powers reserved to them in the constitution. They must give Royal Assent to all legislation, which allows them the power to strike down any law the legislature may see fit for the country. In modern times, the Governor usually allows the country to be run by the Cabinet, and the civil service to be run by the Chief Secretary, who is the Acting Governor when the Governor is not able to discharge his usual duties for one reason or another. The current Governor of the Cayman Islands is Stuart Jack and the current Chief Secretary is The Honorable George McCarthy, OBE, JP. The defense of the Cayman Islands is the responsibility of the United Kingdom. The Royal Cayman Islands Police Service provides police services in the country. The Cayman Islands Cadet Corps was formed in March 2001. Taxation There is no direct taxation imposed on Caymanians and Cayman Islands companies. The government receives the majority of its income from indirect taxation. A 20% duty is levied against imported goods. Some items are exempted like baby formula, books and cameras. Duty on automobiles depends on the class and make of the model; duty can reach up to 40% for expensive models. Financial institutions that operate in the islands are charged a flat licensing fee by the government. A 10% government tax is placed on all tourist accommodations in addition to the small fee each tourist pays upon getting on the island. Education Primary and secondary schools The Cayman Islands Education Department operates state schools. Caymanian children are entitled to free primary and secondary education. Various churches and private foundations operate several private schools that offer American and British based studies starting from nursery up to A Levels. Colleges and universities Grand Cayman is home to University College of the Cayman Islands, the only government run college on the island. University College Cayman Islands: About us. The University College is located in George Town on Grand Cayman. The International College of the Cayman Islands is a private college and is located in Newlands, Grand Cayman about seven miles (11 km) east of George Town. The college was established in 1970 and offers Associate's, Bachelor's and Post Graduate degree programmes. International College of the Cayman islands: Programs of Study. Grand Cayman is also home to St. Matthew's University, which includes a medical school and a school of veterinary medicine. St. Matthew's University. The Cayman Islands Law School (CILS)], a branch of the University of Liverpool in the UK, is also based on Grand Cayman. Cayman Islands law School. Situated in George Town, the law school has been in operation since 1982. The Cayman Islands Civil Service College, a unit of Cayman Islands government organized under the Portfolio of the Civil Service, is also located in Grand Cayman. Co-situated with University College of the Cayman Islands in a building on the south side of the campus, the intent of the CICSC is offer both degree programs and continuing education units of various sorts. Further, the college is planned to develop as a government research center. It opened in autumn 2007. Health care The Cayman Islands have a modern health care system. There are two hospitals in George Town, the government run George Town Hospital and the smaller, private Chrissie Tomlinson Memorial Hospital. Additionally, Faith Hospital is an eighteen-bed facility on Cayman Brac. The Government maintains a satellite clinic on Little Cayman. Health insurance is handled by private insurers and a government-run company (CINICO). There is no universal health coverage as in the UK. All employers are required under Law to provide Health Insurance for their employees (although the employee may be required to contribute 50% of the premium). Full time employees also contribute US$10 every month to the "Indigent Fund", which helps cover care for the unemployed, elderly, and other groups in need of monetary assistance. Currently the islands lack facilities for cardiac catheterisation, though many feel the population is large enough to support the procedure. Various attempts to establish a cath lab in George Town Hospital have stalled. There remains an urgent need for retinal surgery on the islands. Currently, residents with severe diabetic eye conditions or retinal detachments become blind, unless they have the financial means to seek prompt care on the mainland. The Cayman Islands lacked an MRI after one was destroyed during Hurricane Ivan, but in July 2007 a new unit was installed at the Chrissie Tomlinson Memorial Hospital. For divers and others in need of hyperbaric oxygen therapy, there is a two-person recompression chamber at George Town Hospital on Grand Cayman, run by Cayman Hyperbaric Services. The same organization has built a hyperbaric unit at Faith Hospital in Cayman Brac. Work permits In order to work in the Cayman Islands as a non-citizen, a work permit is required. This involves passing a police background check and a health check. A prospective worker will not be granted a permit if certain medical conditions are present. Work permits are not issued after age 60. If you are an individual on special work a permit may be granted. The Cayman Islands presently imposes a controversial "rollover" policy in relation to expatriate workers who require a work permit. Non-Caymanians are only permitted to reside and work within the Territory for a maximum of seven years (non-renewable) unless they satisfy the criteria of key employees. The policy has been the subject of some controversy within the press. Law firms have been particularly upset by the recruitment difficulties that it has caused. Row brews over rollover, 22 January 2007 , Cayman net News. Other less well remunerated employment sectors have been affected as well. Concerns about safety have been expressed by diving instructors and realtors have also expressed concerns. Others support the rollover as necessary to protect Caymanian identity in the face of large immigration of expatriate workers. Government takes up permit issue, Editorial, 5 March 2006, Camanian Compass. Concerns have been expressed that in the long term, the policy may damage the pre-eminence of the Cayman Islands as an offshore financial center by making it difficult to recruit and retain experienced staff from onshore financial centers. Government employees are no longer exempt from this "rollover" policy according to this report in a local newspaper. The governor has decided to use his constitutional powers, which give him absolute control for the disposition of civil service employees to determine which expatriate civil servants are dismissed after seven years service and which are not. This policy is enshrined in the Immigration Law (2003 revision), written by the UDP government, and subsequently enforced by the PPM government. Both governments agree to the term limits on foreign workers, and the majority of Caymanians also agree it is necessary to protect local culture and heritage from being eroded by a large number of foreigners gaining residency and citizenship. Military The defense of the Cayman Islands is the responsibility of the United Kingdom. The Islands have their own police force, the Royal Cayman Islands Police Service. Regular off-shore marine patrols are conducted by the RCIP and Grand Cayman is a port of call for the United States Coast Guard. Foreign relations The foreign relations of the Cayman Islands are largely managed from the United Kingdom, as the islands remain an overseas territory of the UK. However, the Government of the Cayman Islands often resolves important issues with foreign governments alone, without intervention from Britain. Although in its early days, the Cayman Islands' most important relationships were with Britain and Jamaica, in recent years, a relationship with the United States has developed. Though the Cayman Islands are involved in no major international disputes, they have come under some criticism due to the use of their territory for narcotics trafficking and money laundering. In an attempt to address this, the Government entered into the Narcotics Agreement of 1984 and the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty of 1986 with the United States, in order to reduce the use of their facilities associated with these activities. In more recent years, they have stepped up the fight against money laundering, by limiting banking secrecy, introducing requirements for customer identification and record keeping, and requiring banks to cooperate with foreign investigators. Due to their status as an overseas territory of the UK, the Cayman Islands have no representation either on the United Nations, or in most other international organizations. However, the Cayman Islands still participates in some international organizations, being a full member of the Central Development Bank, and an associate member of Caricom and UNESCO, and a member of a sub-bureau of Interpol. Sports Soccer is the national and most popular sport. Rugby Union in the Cayman Islands is a developing sport, and has its own national men's team, women's team and Sevens team. The Cayman Islands are members of The International Cricket Council, FIFA, the International Olympic Committee and the Pan American Sports Organization, and also compete in the biannual Island Games. Music Film Production Notable feature films that have been filmed in the Cayman Islands include: The Firm, Haven and Cayman Went. The Cayman Islands Film Commission provides assistance to productions utilizing the jurisdiction. See also Footnotes References Originally from the CIA World Factbook 2000. 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3,682 | Luftwaffe | () is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1933 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956. Two other historic German air forces are the World War I-era Luftstreitkräfte and the Luftstreitkräfte der NVA in the GDR. Additionally, Luftwaffe is also the name of the Swiss Air Force in German (Forces aériennes suisses in French and Forze Aeree Svizzere in Italian). The air force of Austria is called Österreichische Luftstreitkräfte. History World War I The forerunner of the Luftwaffe, the Imperial German Army Air Service (Luftstreitkräfte), was founded in 1910 with the name Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches, and changed to the name "Luftstreitkräfte" by the end of 1916, with the emergence of military aircraft, although they were intended to be used primarily for reconnaissance in support of armies on the ground, just as balloons had been used in the same fashion during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 and even as far back as the Napoleonic Wars. It was not the world's first air force, however, because France's embryonic army air service, which eventually became the French Air Force (Armée de l’Air), had also been founded in 1910. Britain's Royal Flying Corps (which merged in 1918 with the Royal Naval Air Service to form the Royal Air Force) was founded in 1912. During World War I, the Imperial Army Air Service utilised a wide variety of aircraft, ranging from fighters (such as those manufactured by Albatros-Flugzeugwerke and Fokker) to reconnaissance aircraft (Aviatik and DFW) and heavy bombers (Gothaer Waggonfabrik, better known simply as Gotha, and the Zeppelin-Staaken R.VI "giant" heavy bomber). Missions were also flown in a wide range of theatres, from the Western Front to the plains of Russia and even as far away as bombing raids on British Suez Canal positions in support of the Ottoman offense in 1915. First World War - Willmott, H.P. Dorling Kindersley, 2003, Page 87 However, the fighters on the Western Front received the most attention in the annals of military aviation, since it produced aces such as Manfred von Richthofen, popularly known as the Red Baron (der Rote Baron), Ernst Udet, Hermann Göring, Oswald Boelcke, Werner Voss, and Max Immelmann (the first airman to win the Pour le Mérite, Imperial Germany's highest decoration for gallantry, as a result of which the decoration became popularly known as the Blue Max). As did the German Navy, the German Army used Zeppelins as airships for bombing military and civilian targets in France and Belgium as well as the United Kingdom. All German and Austro-Hungarian military aircraft in service used the Iron Cross insignia until early 1918. Afterwards, the Balkenkreuz, a black Greek cross on white, was introduced. After the war ended in German defeat, the service was dissolved completely on May 8, 1920 under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which demanded that its aeroplanes be completely destroyed. As a result of this disbanding, today's Luftwaffe (which dates from 1956) can not claim to be the oldest independent air force in the world, since the Royal Air Force of the United Kingdom is older, having been founded on 1 April 1918. Interwar period Since the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany from having an air force, German pilots had to be trained in secret. Initially, civil aviation schools within Germany were used, yet only light training planes could be used in order to maintain the facade that the trainees were going to fly with civil airlines such as Lufthansa. To train its pilots on the latest combat aircraft, Germany solicited the help of its future enemy, the USSR, which was also isolated in Europe. A secret training airfield was established at Lipetsk in 1924 and operated for approximately nine years using mostly Dutch and Russian, but also some German, training aircraft before being closed in 1933. This base was officially known as 4th squadron of the 40th wing of the Red Army. Collar tabs of a Luftwaffe major (1935–1945). The background colour denotes that the wearer belonged to the flying branch or paratroops; other branches had patches with different coloured backgrounds, such as red for the antiaircraft artillery (Flak). On 26 February 1935, Adolf Hitler ordered Hermann Göring to establish the Luftwaffe, breaking the Treaty of Versailles's ban on German military aviation. Germany violated the treaty without sanction from Britain, France, or the League of Nations, and neither they nor the league did anything to oppose this. Although the new air force was to be run totally separately from the army, it retained the tradition of according army ranks for its officers and airmen, a tradition retained today by united Germany's Luftwaffe and by many air forces throughout the world. It is worth noting, however, that before the official promulgation of Göring's new Luftwaffe in 1935, Germany had a paramilitary air force known as the Deutscher Luftsportverband (DLV: German air sports union). The DLV was headed by Ernst Udet and its insignia were taken over by the new Luftwaffe, although the DLV "ranks" had special names that made them sound more civilian than military. Dr. Fritz Todt, the engineer who founded the forced labor Organisation Todt, was appointed to the rank of Generalmajor in the Luftwaffe. He was not, strictly speaking, an airman, although he had served in an observation squadron during World War I and had been awarded the Iron Cross. He died in a plane crash in February 1942. Hermann Göring personally chose an insignia for the Luftwaffe that differed from that of the other armed branches. The eagle, an old symbol of the German Empire, was used, but in a different posture. Since 1933, when Hitler's National Socialist Party came to power, the eagle held between his claws the symbol of the party—the swastika (an old symbol of sunrise)—which usually was enveloped by an oak wreath. Göring rejected the old heraldic eagle because he felt it was too stylized, too static, and too massive; instead he chose a younger, more natural and lighter eagle with wings spread as if in flight, as he considered this a more suitable symbol for an air force. While the Wehrmacht eagle held the symbol of the Nazi Party firmly in its claws, the Luftwaffe eagle held the swastika with only one claw while the other was bent in a threatening gesture. The Luftwaffe had the ideal opportunity to test its pilots, aircraft and tactics in the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, when the Condor Legion was sent to Spain in support of the anti-Republican government revolt led by Francisco Franco. Modern machines included names which would become world famous: the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bomber, Dornier Do 17 "Schnell" (fast) bomber, and the Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter plane. However, since the aircraft were seconded to Franco's Nationalist air force, Luftwaffe markings were replaced to avoid giving the world the impression that Germany was actively supporting the revolt. Instead of the Nazi Party's swastika on the tail, the German planes used the nationalist air force aircraft markings (a Saint Andrew's cross over a white background, painted on the rudder of the aircraft and a black disc on fuselage and wings). All aircraft in the Legion were affiliated to units given a designation ending in the number 88. For example, bombers were in Kampfgruppe (combat group) 88, abbreviated K/88; and fighters, in Jagdgruppe (fighter group) 88, J/88. A grim foretaste of the systematic bombing of cities during World War II came in April 1937 when a combined force of German and Italian bombers under Spanish-Nationalist command destroyed most of the Basque city of Guernica in north-east Spain. This bombing received worldwide condemnation, and the collective memory of the horror of the bombing of civilians has ever since become most acute via the famous painting, named after the town, by the Cubist artist Pablo Picasso. Many feared that this would be the way that future air wars would be conducted, since the Italian strategist, General Giulio Douhet (who had died in 1930), had formulated theories regarding what would be dubbed "strategic bombing", the idea that wars would be won by striking from the air at the heart of the industrial muscle of a warring nation, and thus demoralising the civilian population to the point where the government of that nation would be driven to sue for peace—a portent of things to come, certainly, and not just during the war which would break out in Europe only months after the end of the civil war in Spain. World War II At the outset of the war, the Luftwaffe was one of the most modern, powerful, and experienced air forces in the world, dominating the skies over Europe with aircraft much more advanced than their counterparts. The Luftwaffe was central to the German Blitzkrieg (lightning war) doctrine, as the close air support provided by various medium two-engine bombers, Stuka dive bombers and an overwhelming force of tactical fighters were key to several early successes. Unlike the British and American Air Forces, the Luftwaffe never developed four-engine bombers in any significant numbers, and was thus unable to conduct an effective long-range strategic bombing campaign against either the Russians or the Western Allies. The Messerschmitt Bf 109 was the most versatile and widely-produced fighter aircraft operated by the Luftwaffe and was designed when biplanes were still standard. Many versions of this aircraft were made. The engine, a liquid cooled Mercedes-Benz DB 601, initially generated up to almost . This power increased as direct fuel injection was introduced to the engines. The kill ratio (almost 9:1) made this plane far superior than any of the other German fighters during the war. In this regard it was followed by the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 at 4:1. This plane had relatively short wings and was powered by a radial BMW engine. The Junkers Ju 87 Stuka was a main asset for Blitzkrieg, able to place bombs with deadly accuracy. The leader of the Luftwaffe was Hermann Göring, a World War I fighter ace and former commander of Manfred von Richthofen's famous JG 1 (aka "The Flying Circus") who had joined the Nazi party in its early stages. In the summer and autumn of 1940, the Luftwaffe lost the Battle of Britain over the skies of England, the first all-air battle. Following the military failures on the Eastern Front, from 1942 onwards, the Luftwaffe went into a steady, gradual decline that saw it outnumbered and overwhelmed by the sheer number of Allied aircraft being deployed against it. Towards the end of the war, the Luftwaffe was no longer a major factor, and despite fielding advanced aircraft like the Messerschmitt Me 262, Heinkel He 162, Arado Ar 234, and Me 163 was crippled by fuel shortages and a lack of trained pilots. There was also very little time to develop these aircraft, and could not be produced fast enough by the Germans, so the jets and rockets proved to be "too little too late." Cold War The Canadian version of the North American F-86 Sabre, the Canadair CL-13, had a long career in the Luftwaffe, with which 75 Mk. 5 and 225 Mk. 6 examples served. This preserved aircraft is in the markings of JG 74. West-German Luftwaffe field cap from 1962 German aviation in general was severely curtailed, and military aviation was completely forbidden when the Luftwaffe was officially disbanded in August 1946 by the Allied Control Commission. This changed when West Germany joined NATO in 1955, as the Western Allies believed that Germany was needed in view of the increasing military threat posed by the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies. Throughout the following decades, the West German Luftwaffe (Bundesluftwaffe: federal air force) was equipped mostly with U.S.-designed aircraft manufactured locally under license. All aircraft sported—and continue to sport—the Iron Cross on the fuselage, harking back to the days of World War I, while the national flag of West Germany is displayed on the tail. Many well-known fighter pilots who had fought with the Luftwaffe in World War II joined the new post-war air force and underwent refresher training in the U.S. before returning to West Germany to upgrade on the latest U.S.-supplied hardware. These included Erich Hartmann, the highest-ever scoring ace (352 enemy aircraft destroyed), Gerhard Barkhorn (301), Günther Rall (275) and Johannes Steinhoff (176). Steinhoff, who suffered a crash in a Messerschmitt Me 262 shortly before the end of the war that resulted in lifelong scarring of his face and other parts of his body, would eventually become commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe, with Rall as his immediate successor. Hartmann retired as an Oberst (colonel) in 1970 at age 48. Josef Kammhuber, mentioned above, also served in the post-war Luftwaffe, retiring in 1962 as Inspekteur der Bundesluftwaffe (chief inspector of the Federal air force). During the 1960s, the "Starfighter crisis" developed into a political issue, as many of these Lockheed F-104 Starfighters crashed after being modified to serve for Luftwaffe purposes — specifically for terrain, weather, and ground mechanic support issues. In Luftwaffe service, 292 of the 916 Starfighters crashed, claiming the lives of 115 pilots and leading to cries that the Starfighter was fundamentally unsafe from the West German public, which referred to it as the Witwenmacher (widow-maker), fliegender Sarg (flying coffin), and Erdnagel (ground nail). Steinhoff and his deputy Günther Rall noted that the non-German F-104s proved much safer — Spain, for example, lost none in the same period. The Americans blamed the high loss rate of the Luftwaffe F-104s on the extreme low-level and aggressive flying of German pilots rather than any faults in the aircraft. German Starfighter losses . Steinhoff and Rall immediately left their daily work and went to America to learn to fly the Starfighter under Lockheed instruction and noted some specifics in the training (a distinct lack of mountain and foggy-weather training), combined with handling capabilities (sharp start high G turns) of the aircraft that could create accident situations. Steinhoff and Rall immediately changed the training regimen for the F-104 pilots, and the accident rates quickly fell to those comparable or better than other air forces. They also brought about the high level of training and professionalism seen today throughout the Luftwaffe, and the start of a strategic direction for Luftwaffe pilots to tactically and combat train outside Germany. However, the F-104 never lived down its reputation as a widow-maker and was replaced much earlier by the Luftwaffe than other national air forces. The Starfighter was completely replaced by the American-built McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II fighter and the Panavia Tornado fighter-bomber, where the latter was designed and produced by a cooperative of companies from the United Kingdom, Germany, and Italy. These fighters all remain in Luftwaffe service today, especially with upgrades to their electronics and the addition of the AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air missile for the air defense of Germany. One of 212 Panavia Tornado IDSs delivered to the Luftwaffe From 1965 through 1970, two surface-to-surface missile wings (Flugkörpergeschwader) fielded 16 of the Pershing I missile systems with nuclear warheads under U.S. Army custody. In 1970, the system was upgraded to Pershing IA with 72 missiles. Although not directly affected by the 1988 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, the Luftwaffe unilaterally agreed to the removal of the Pershing IA missiles from its inventory in 1991, and the missiles were destroyed. Beginning in June 1979, the Luftwaffe took delivery of 212 Panavia Tornado fighters. Reunification GDR Air Force plane marking The GDR air force, the Luftstreitkräfte der NVA, was supplied exclusively with Eastern Bloc-produced aircraft such as the Sukhoi Su-17 "Fitter" and the more famous Mikoyan-Gurevich (MiG) family of aircraft, such as the MiG-21, MiG-23 and MiG-29 fighters, and served primarily as an extension of Red Air Force units in Eastern Germany. The East German Air Force was unique among Warsaw Pact countries in that it was often equipped with Soviet-standard combat aircraft instead of downgraded export models. Operated as an extension of Soviet air power, the East German Air Force enjoyed less autonomy than other Eastern Bloc air forces. Unlike the West German Luftwaffe, the markings sported on the aircraft reflected the identity of the country as belonging to the Communist bloc. These markings consisted of a diamond-shaped design, in which could be seen the vertically oriented three stripes in black, red and gold surmounted by the stylized hammer, compass and wreath-like ears-of-grain design, which was also on the Flag of East Germany, although the stripes were a 90° orientation from those to be seen on either national flag of the two German nations between 1959 and 1990. After East and West Germany were reunified in October 1990, the aircraft of the NVA were taken over by the unified Federal Republic of Germany, and their GDR markings were replaced by the Iron Cross, thus creating the singular situation of Soviet-built aircraft serving in a NATO air force. However, most of these would eventually be taken out of service altogether, in many cases being sold to the new Eastern European allies now part of NATO, such as Poland and the Baltic states. Luftwaffe MiG-29UB The exception to this was the Jagdgeschwader 73 "Steinhoff" (Fighter Wing 73 "Steinhoff") stationed in Laage. The pilots of the JG 73 flew MiG-29s acquired during the reunification and were some of the most experienced MiG-29 pilots in the world. One of their primary duties was to serve as aggressor pilots, training other pilots in dissimilar combat tactics. The United States sent a group of fighter pilots to Germany during the Red October exercise to practice real tactics against the aircraft they were most likely to meet in real combat. In 2004, however, the MiG-29s were sold to Poland. Since then, pilots of the JG 73 fly the Eurofighter Typhoon. 1990s The United States provides nuclear weapons for use by Germany under a NATO nuclear sharing agreement. As of 2007, only 22 B61-4s are still present, stored at Büchel Air Base for delivery with German Air Force Panavia Tornados. These bombs are likely to be withdrawn when the Tornados at Büchel are replaced with Eurofighter Typhoons after 2012, since it is not planned to integrate the B-61 bomb into the Eurofighter. B-61s stationed at Nörvenich and Memmingen Air Base (fighter-bomber wing JaBoG 34 "Allgäu") have already been withdrawn in the mid- to late-1990s. All nuclear bombs formerly stored at the Ramstein Air Base have been returned to the U.S. or elsewhere (the U.K. is possible), due to ongoing construction work at Ramstein AB, and they will not be returned to Germany. In March 1999, for the first time since 1945, the Luftwaffe engaged in combat operations as part of the NATO-led Kosovo War. This event was noted as significant in the British press with "The Sun" running the headline "Luftwaffe and the RAF into battle side by side". The Luftwaffe flew suppression of enemy air defence (SEAD) sorties. No Luftwaffe aircraft was lost during the campaign, but the force's role proved to be controversial in Germany because Germany was not and, indeed, still is not allowed to participate in "wars of aggression", as provided in its 1949 constitution (Grundgesetz). In addition to constitutional concerns, strong pacifist sentiment is present in the population that is opposed to the use of force by Germany in international affairs. 2000s In 2005, four F-4F Phantoms participated in NATO's Baltic Air Policing operation. In 2006, to support coalition operations across Afghanistan, the Luftwaffe deployed Panavia Tornado reconnaissance aircraft from Aufklärungsgeschwader 51 "Immelmann" (the 51st Reconnaissance Wing "Immelmann"), stationed in Mazar-i-Sharif, Northern Afghanistan. Recce-Tornados nach Afghanistan There are also various Luftwaffe helicopters in operation the German air base in Mazar-i-Sharif and German Luftwaffe C-160 Transall support planes shuttle cargo from Germany to Afghanistan via Russia and its former satellite states in asia. Future A Luftwaffe Eurofighter Typhoon (two-seater trainer version) Since the 1970s, the Luftwaffe of West Germany and later the reunited Germany (as well as many other European air forces) has actively pursued the construction of European combat aircraft such as the Panavia Tornado and, more recently, the Eurofighter Typhoon, which was introduced in 2006. On 13 January 2004, the then-German Defence Minister Peter Struck announced major changes to the German armed forces. A major part of this announcement was a plan to cut the German fighter fleet from 426 aircraft in early 2004 to 265 by 2015. Assuming the full German order for 180 Eurofighter Typhoons is fulfilled, this will see the Tornado force reduced to 85. The German Navy's air wing (Marineflieger) received 112 Tornado IDSs. In late 2004 the last Tornado unit was disbanded. The maritime combat role has been assumed by the Luftwaffe, a unit of which has had its Tornados upgraded to carry the Kormoran II and AGM-88 HARM missiles. Tactical training centers Luftwaffe Panavia Tornados at CFB Goose Bay In light of the destroyed infrastructure of West Germany post-World War II, the restrictions on aircraft production placed on Germany and the later restrictive flying zones available for training pilots, the reconstructed Luftwaffe trained most of its pilots tactically away from Germany, mainly in the United States and Canada where most of its aircraft were sourced. During the 1960s and 1970s, a very large number of Luftwaffe jet crashes—the Luftwaffe suffered a 36 percent crash rate for F-84F Thunderstreaks and an almost 30 percent loss of F-104 Starfighters—created considerable public demand for moving Luftwaffe combat training centres away from Germany. As a result, the Luftwaffe set up two tactical training centres: one, like those of many of the NATO forces, at the Canadian Forces Air Command base at Goose Bay; and the second in a unique partnership with the United States Air Force at Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico (F-104 pilots had already been trained at Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, since 1964). Both facilities provide access to large unpopulated areas, where tactical and combat training can take place without danger to large populations. In September 2004, the Luftwaffes chief of staff, Klaus-Peter Stieglitz, announced a reduction in its training program of roughly 20%. Holloman Air Force Base F-4Es of the 1st GAFTS. On 1 May 1996, the Luftwaffe established the German Air Force Tactical Training Center (TTC) in concert with the United States Air Force 20th Fighter Squadron, which provides aircrew training in the F-4F Phantom II. The TTC serves as the parent command for two German air crew training squadrons. The F-4 Training Squadron oversees all German F-4 student personnel affairs and provides German instructor pilots to cooperate in the contracted F-4 training program provided by the U.S. Air Force (20th Fighter Squadron). A second TTC unit, the Tornado Training Squadron, provides academic and tactical flying training, by German air force instructors, for German Tornado aircrews. The first contingent of Tornado aircraft arrived at Holloman in March 1996. More than 300 German air force members are permanently assigned at Holloman to the TTC, the only unit of its kind in the United States. The German Air Force Flying Training Center activated on 31 March 1996, with German Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Portz and U.S. Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Michael Ryan present. The Luftwaffe has since stationed up to 800 personnel at Holloman for training exercises, due to limited training space in Europe. Organization Structure of the German air force in 2008 MIM-104 Patriot system of the Luftwaffe |Büchel airbase of the Luftwaffe, Germany Current Structure of the German Luftwaffe down to squadron level, as of 20 December 2007 Inspekteur der Luftwaffe (Chief of Staff, Air Force)(Currently: Lieutenant General Klaus-Peter Stieglitz) Air Staff at the Federal Ministry of Defence Air Force Command German Air Force Air Operations Command HQ Squadron National Air Policing Centre Air Force Command and Control Support units 1st Air Division 2nd Air Division 4th Air Division Air Transport Command HQ Squadron HQ Squadron HQ Squadron HQ Squadron Air Force Band No 1 Air Force Band No 2 Air Force Band No 4 1st Tactical Air Command and Control Group 3rd Tactical Air Command and Control Group 2nd Tactical Air Command and Control Group 5th Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) Wing 22nd SAM Battalion 23rd SAM Battalion 2nd Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) Wing 21st SAM Battalion 24th SAM Battalion 1st Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) Wing 25th SAM Battalion 26th SAM Battalion32nd Fighter-Bomber Wing 321st Fighter-Bomber Squadron 322nd Fighter-Bomber Squadron 74th Fighter Wing 741st Fighter Squadron 742nd Fighter Squadron31st Fighter-Bomber Wing “Boelcke” 311th Fighter-Bomber Squadron 312th Fighter-Bomber Squadron 33rd Fighter-Bomber Wing 331st Fighter-Bomber Squadron 332nd Fighter-Bomber Squadron 73rd Fighter Wing “Steinhoff” 371st Fighter Squadron71st Fighter Wing "Richthofen" 711th Fighter Squadron 712th Fighter Squadron 51st Reconnaissance Wing “Immelmann” 511th Reconnaissance Squadron 512th Reconnaissance SquadronSpecial Air Mission Wing, Federal Ministry of Defense 1st Transport Squadron 2nd Transport Squadron 61st Air Transport Wing 611th Transport Squadron 612th Transport Squadron 613th Transport Squadron 62nd Air Transport Wing 621st Transport Squadron 622nd Transport Squadron 62nd Air Transport Group 63rd Air Transport Wing 631st Transport Squadron 632nd Transport Squadron 633rd Transport Squadron German Air Force Tactical Training Center, ItalyAir Force Ground Combat Support Regiment "Frisia" Air Force Office HQ Support Company Surgeon General of the Air Force Bundeswehr Air Traffic Services Office Air Force Training Command Air Force Weapon Systems Command German Air Force Command United States/ Canada HQ Company HQ Company HQ Company Air Force Officer School Non-Commissioned Officer's School of the Air Force 1st Air Force School of Engineering 3rd Air Force School of Engineering Air Force Training Regiment 1st Maintenance Regiment 11th Maintenance Group 12th Maintenance Group 13th Maintenance Group 14th Maintenance Group 15th Maintenance Group 2nd Maintenance Regiment 21st Maintenance Group 22nd Maintenance Group 23rd Maintenance Group 24th Maintenance Group 25th Maintenance Group Weapon Systems Support Center German Air Force Flying Training Center, United States Holloman AFB German Air Force Air Defense Center, United States Aircraft inventory A Eurofighter in the 2-seat trainer version A Tornado ECR A Transall C-160 Luftwaffe Airbus A310 MRTT ready for refueling, shown at the Paris Air Show 2007 F-4F Phantom II A310 VIP transport aircraft for the leaders of the German government EuroHawk ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, 15 January 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Airbus A310 || || transporttanker || A310-304A310 MRTT || 7 || |----- | Airbus A319CJ || || VIP transport || Airbus A319-115CJ || 0 || 2 ordered |----- | Airbus A340 || || VIP transport || Airbus A340-313 || 1 || 2 former Lufthansa A340-313 ordered. Entry into service: 2009 |----- | Airbus A400M || || transport/tanker || Airbus A400M || 0 || 60 on order |----- | UH-1 Iroquois || || utility helicopter || UH-1D || 73 || built by Dornier |----- | Bombardier Challenger 600 || || VIP transport || CL-601 || 6 || |----- | EuroHawk || || SIGINT || RQ-4B Block 20|| 0|| 5 on order; to be built by Northrop Grumman and equipped with an EADS reconnaissance payload |----- | Global Express 5000 || || VIP transport || Bombardier Global Express 5000 || 0 || 4 ordered |----- | T-6 Texan II || || trainer || T-6A ||50 || flying under USAF roundel |----- | Eurocopter Cougar || || transport helicopter || AS 532U-2 || 3 || |----- | Eurofighter Typhoon || || fighter || EF-2000 || 40|| another 140 under delivery |----- | Grob G-120 || || trainer || G-120 || 6 || Civilian operated at Goodyear, Arizona (U.S.) |----- | McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II || || fighter || F-4F || 44 || In service until 2012 (to be replaced by Eurofighter Typhoon) |----- | NHI NH90 || || transport + CSAR || NH90 TTH|| 4 || 38 on order (+12 options) |----- | Cessna T-37 Tweet || || trainer || T-37B || 47 || flying under USAF roundel; In service until summer 2009 (to be replaced by T-6 Texan II) "Generationenwechsel in Sheppard" www.lufthansa.de 04. September 2008. Retrieved on 2009-04-15 |----- | Northrop T-38 Talon || || trainer || T-38 || 46 || flying under USAF roundel |----- | Panavia Tornado || || electronic warfareattack/reconnaissance || Tornado ECRTornado IDS || 34 German military aviation OrBat 186 || |----- | Transall C-160 || || tactical transport || C-160D || 83 || |} See also History of the Luftwaffe during World War II Organization of the Luftwaffe during World War II German Air Fleets in World War II Reich Air Ministry Luftstreitkräfte der NVA List of military aircraft of Germany Luftwaffenmuseum, Berlin References Notes Selected bibliography Hundreds of books, magazines and articles have been written about the Luftwaffe. A select few are listed here. Aders, Gebhard (1992), History of the German Night-Fighter Force, 1917-1945 (edited and translated by Alex Vanags-Baginskis), Crecy. ISBN 0-947554-21-1. (Originally published by Jane's in 1979.) Amadio, Jill (2002), Günther Rall: A Memoir, Seven Locks Press. ISBN 0-9715533-0-0. Galland, Adolf (2000 [1957]), The First and the Last, Buccaneer Books, Inc. ISBN 0-89966-728-7. Green, William (1990), Warplanes of the Third Reich, Galahad. [Second edition, following from original work published in 1970.] ISBN 0-88365-666-3. Held, Werner and Nauroth, Holger (1982), The Defence of the Reich: Hitler's Nightfighter Planes and Pilots (translated by David Roberts), London, Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 0-85368-414-6. Mermet, Jean-Claude and Ehrengardt, Christian-Jacques (2002), Les Jets de la Luftwaffe: Aéro-Journal Hors-Série No.4, Aéro-Éditions International (French language edition only). ISSN 0336-1055 . Orbis Publishing Limited, London (1974-77), Wings, a part-work encyclopedia of aviation in eight volumes, which included many articles about the battles during World War II in which the Luftwaffe took part, as well as biographies of some of its high-profile airmen. Orbis Publishing Limited, London (1981-84) (second edition), World War II, a part-work encyclopedia in eight volumes about the 1939-1945 War. Philpott, Bryan (1986), History of the German Air Force, Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-50293-7. Price, Alfred (2005), Battle Over The Reich: The Strategic Bomber Offensive Against Germany 1939-1945, Classic Publications. [Revised, second edition based on the previous work with the same title first published in 1973.] ISBN 1-903223-47-4. Price, Alfred (2000), Blitz on Britain, 1939-1945, Sutton. [Revised edition of Blitz on Britain : the bomber attacks on the United Kingdom, 1939-1945, first published by Ian Allan in 1977]. ISBN 0-7110-0723-3 (1977 edition). Sobolev, D. A. and Khazanov, D.B. (2001), The German Imprint on the History of Russian Aviation, Moscow, Rusavia (English edition). ISBN 5-900078-08-6. Wood, Tony, and Gunston, Bill (1984), Hitler's Luftwaffe: A Pictorial History and Technical Encyclopedia of Hitler's Air Power in World War II, Book Sales (originally published by Salamander Books). ISBN 0-89009-758-5. External links Luftwaffe official website The Defeat of the German Air Force, The United States Strategic Bombing Survey Luftwaffe museum & German Democratic Republic (1955-1990) Air Force website Luftwaffe Resource Center - Data and photos of Luftwaffe aircraft Luftwaffe Fighter Pilots Neil Page's web site translated German pilot accounts and exclusive material on the leading Fw 190 Reich's defence Geschwader JG 300 Luftwaffe missing-in-action (MIA) website | Luftwaffe |@lemmatized generic:1 german:63 term:1 air:118 force:82 also:12 official:3 name:7 two:8 four:3 historic:2 wehrmacht:2 arm:3 found:7 disband:3 current:2 bundeswehr:2 world:25 war:36 era:1 luftstreitkräfte:7 der:5 nva:4 gdr:4 additionally:1 luftwaffe:75 swiss:1 aériennes:1 suisse:1 french:3 forze:1 aeree:1 svizzere:1 italian:3 austria:1 call:1 österreichische:1 history:6 forerunner:1 imperial:3 army:9 service:14 die:3 fliegertruppen:1 de:4 deutschen:1 kaiserreiches:1 change:4 end:6 emergence:1 military:12 aircraft:43 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3,683 | Krugerrand | The face of Paul Kruger, shown on the obverse side of the coin. A Krugerrand is a South African gold coin, first minted in 1967 in order to help market South African gold. The coins have legal tender status in South Africa but are not actually intended to be used as currency; thus it is regarded as a medal-coin. History The Krugerrand was the first bullion coin that could be used as legal tender at the market value of its face gold content. Earlier gold coins such as the gold sovereign had a tender value in currency engraved on their face which could differ significantly from their market value. The Krugerrand was the first gold coin to contain precisely one ounce of fine gold and was intended from the moment of creation to provide a vehicle for the private ownership of gold. By making the coin legal tender, Krugerrands could be owned by citizens of the United States, which at that time prohibited private ownership of bullion but allowed ownership of foreign coins. Despite this, the policy of apartheid in South Africa made the Krugerrand an illegal import in many Western countries during the 1970s and 1980s, until the South African political reforms of the early to mid-1990s. Properties Krugerrands: Their gold content is exactly one troy ounce. Originally, it was sold at a premium of five percent over the base gold value, and only one size of coin was made, containing one troy ounce (31.1035 g) of gold. Today Krugerrands are produced in a variety of sizes, at a premium above the market price of gold. Since the Krugerrand is minted from gold alloy that is 91.67 percent pure (22 karats), the actual weight of a "one ounce" coin is 1.0909 troy ounces (33.93 g), to provide one troy ounce of pure gold. The remainder of the coin's mass is made up of copper (2.826 grams), giving the Krugerrand a more orange appearance than silver-alloyed gold coins. Alloys are used to make gold coins harder and more durable, so they can resist scratches and dents during handling. In 1980, three other sizes were introduced, offering a half, quarter, and tenth ounce weights. In total, 54.5 million coins have been sold. The Krugerrand gets its name from the fact that the obverse features the face of Paul Kruger, a prominent Boer resistance leader against the British, and eventually the fifth and last president of the old South African Republic, holding that office for four terms. The reverse depicts a springbok antelope, one of the national symbols of South Africa that was designed by Coert Steynberg and used on the reverse of the earlier five shilling South African coinage for King George VI and Queen Elizabeth II. The name "South Africa" and the gold content are inscribed in both Afrikaans and English. The word "Krugerrand" is a registered trade mark owned by Rand Refinery Limited, a South African corporation of Germiston, South Africa. +Specifications DenominationDiameter* (mm)Thickness* (mm)Weight (g)Fineness Gold contentEdge reeded (g) (oz t) 1 oz 32.77 2.84 33.930 22 carat 91.67% 31.103 1.000 180 1/2 oz 27.07 2.215 16.965 22 carat 91.67% 15.552 0.500 150 1/4 oz 22.06 1.888 8.482 22 carat 91.67% 7.776 0.250 140 1/10 oz 16.55 1.35 3.393 22 carat 91.67% 3.110 0.100 115* Maximum dimensions Popularity By 1980 the Krugerrand accounted for 90% of the gold coin market, thanks to the promotion by the International Gold Corporation. The success of the Krugerrand led to many other gold-producing nations minting their own bullion coins, including the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf in 1979, the Australian Nugget in 1981, the British Britannia coin in 1987 and the American Gold Eagle in 1986. Proof Krugerrands Krugerrands are a popular way to invest in gold. The South African Mint Company produces limited edition proof or medal-coin Krugerrands intended as collectors items. These coins generally have a value above base gold value. They can be distinguished from the bullion Krugerrands by the number of serrations on the edge of the coin. Proof coins have 220 while bullion coins have 180. http://www.samint.co.za/CoinCollection/FAQ.asp Coinworld at SA Mint Silver Krugerrand The official site of the South African Mint Company and the Rand Refinery both state the historical reasons that caused Krugerrands to be made out of gold. According to the "Tax Free Gold" website, there is no such a thing as a silver Krugerrand, and the coins "are not official, have no legal tender value, are not produced or sanctioned by the South Africa Mint or Government, not Krugerrands, and not even coins". References Footnotes Notations Rand Refinery & Mint Krugerrand page External links Kruggerrand Coin Image Gallery Coin World at the South African Mint | Krugerrand |@lemmatized face:4 paul:2 kruger:2 show:1 obverse:2 side:1 coin:27 krugerrand:13 south:15 african:9 gold:27 first:3 mint:9 order:1 help:1 market:5 legal:4 tender:5 status:1 africa:6 actually:1 intend:3 use:4 currency:2 thus:1 regard:1 medal:2 history:1 bullion:5 could:3 value:7 content:3 earlier:1 sovereign:1 engrave:1 differ:1 significantly:1 contain:2 precisely:1 one:7 ounce:7 fine:1 moment:1 creation:1 provide:2 vehicle:1 private:2 ownership:3 make:6 krugerrands:9 citizen:1 united:1 state:2 time:1 prohibit:1 allow:1 foreign:1 despite:1 policy:1 apartheid:1 illegal:1 import:1 many:2 western:1 country:1 political:1 reform:1 early:2 mid:1 property:1 exactly:1 troy:4 originally:1 sell:2 premium:2 five:2 percent:2 base:2 size:3 g:4 today:1 produce:4 variety:1 price:1 since:1 alloy:2 pure:2 karat:1 actual:1 weight:3 remainder:1 mass:1 copper:1 gram:1 give:1 orange:1 appearance:1 silver:3 alloyed:1 hard:1 durable:1 resist:1 scratch:1 dent:1 handle:1 three:1 introduce:1 offer:1 half:1 quarter:1 tenth:1 total:1 million:1 get:1 name:2 fact:1 feature:1 prominent:1 boer:1 resistance:1 leader:1 british:2 eventually:1 fifth:1 last:1 president:1 old:1 republic:1 hold:1 office:1 four:1 term:1 reverse:2 depict:1 springbok:1 antelope:1 national:1 symbol:1 design:1 coert:1 steynberg:1 shill:1 coinage:1 king:1 george:1 vi:1 queen:1 elizabeth:1 ii:1 inscribe:1 afrikaans:1 english:1 word:1 registered:1 trade:1 mark:1 rand:3 refinery:3 limit:1 corporation:2 germiston:1 specification:1 denominationdiameter:1 mm:2 thickness:1 fineness:1 contentedge:1 reeded:1 oz:5 carat:4 maximum:1 dimension:1 popularity:1 account:1 thanks:1 promotion:1 international:1 success:1 lead:1 nation:1 include:1 canadian:1 maple:1 leaf:1 australian:1 nugget:1 britannia:1 american:1 eagle:1 proof:3 popular:1 way:1 invest:1 company:2 limited:1 edition:1 collector:1 item:1 generally:1 distinguish:1 number:1 serration:1 edge:1 http:1 www:1 samint:1 co:1 za:1 coincollection:1 faq:1 asp:1 coinworld:1 sa:1 official:2 site:1 historical:1 reason:1 cause:1 accord:1 tax:1 free:1 website:1 thing:1 sanction:1 government:1 even:1 reference:1 footnote:1 notation:1 page:1 external:1 link:1 kruggerrand:1 image:1 gallery:1 world:1 |@bigram paul_kruger:2 legal_tender:4 bullion_coin:3 troy_ounce:4 queen_elizabeth:1 maple_leaf:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
3,684 | Camelot | Camelot is the most famous castle and court associated with the legendary King Arthur. Absent in the early Arthurian material, Camelot first appeared in 12th-century French romances and eventually came to be described as the fantastic capital of Arthur's realm and a symbol of the fabulous Arthurian world. The stories locate it somewhere in Britain and sometimes associate it with real cities, though more usually its precise location is not revealed. Most modern scholars regard it as being entirely fictional, its geography being perfect for romance writers; Arthurian scholar Norris J. Lacy commented that "Camelot, located no where in particular, can be anywhere.". Lacy, Norris J. (1991). "Camelot". In Norris J. Lacy (Ed.), The New Arthurian Encyclopedia, pp. 66–67. New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8240-4377-4. Nevertheless arguments about the location of the "real Camelot" have occurred since the 15th century and continue to rage today in popular works and for tourism purposes. Early appearances The castle is mentioned for the first time in Chrétien de Troyes' poem Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, dating to the 1170s, though it is not mentioned in all the manuscripts. "Camelot". From the Camelot Project. Retrieved October 9, 2008. It is mentioned in passing, and is not described: A un jor d'une Acenssion / Fu venuz de vers Carlion / Li rois Artus et tenu ot / Cort molt riche a Camaalot / Si riche com au jor estut. Lancelot Ou Le Chevalier De La Charette Upon a certain Ascension Day King Arthur had come from Caerleon, and had held a very magnificent court at Camelot as was fitting on such a day. Lancelot, vv. 31-32. Nothing in Chrétien's poem suggests the level of importance Camelot would have in later romances. For Chrétien, Arthur's chief court was in Caerleon in Wales; this was the king's primary base in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae and subsequent literature. Chrétien depicts Arthur, like a typical medieval monarch, holding court at a number of cities and castles. It is not until the 13th-century French prose romances, including the Lancelot-Grail and the Post-Vulgate Cycle, that Camelot began to supersede Caerleon, and even then, many descriptive details applied to Camelot derive from Geoffrey's earlier grand depiction of the Welsh town. Arthurian romances of this period produced in English or Welsh such as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight did not follow this trend; Camelot was referred to infrequently and only in translations from French. In Britain Arthur's court continued to be located at Caerleon, or at Carlisle, which is usually identified with the "Carduel" of the French romances. Ashley, pp. 612-3. It was not until the late 15th century that Thomas Malory created the image of Camelot most familiar to English speakers today in his Le Morte d'Arthur, a work based mostly on the French romances. He firmly identifies Camelot with Winchester, an identification that remained popular over the centuries, though it was rejected by Malory's own editor, William Caxton, who preferred a Welsh location. Malory, Le Morte d'Arthur, p. xvii. Etymology The name's derivation is also unknown. Some have suggested it is similar enough to other Iron Age and Romano-British place names such as Camulodunum to suggest some historicity; that particular locale was the first capital of Roman Britain and would have significance in Romano-British culture. Indeed John Morris, the English historian who specialized in the study of the institutions of the Roman Empire and the history of Sub-Roman Britain, suggested in his book The Age of Arthur that as the descendants of Romanized Britons looked back to a golden age of peace and prosperity under Rome, the name "Camelot" of Arthurian legend may have referred to the capital of Britannia (Camulodunum - modern Colchester) in Roman times. If historical the first part of it, Cam, could also reflect the Celtic word meaning "crooked" which is commonly used in place names as seen in Camlann. Given Chrétien's known tendency to create new stories and characters, being the first to mention the hero Lancelot and his love affair with Queen Guinevere for example, the name might also be entirely invented. Description in the romances The romances depict the city of Camelot as standing along a river, downstream from Astolat. It is surrounded by plains and forests, and its magnificent cathedral, St. Stephen's, is the religious centre for Arthur's Knights of the Round Table. There Arthur and Guinevere are married and there are the tombs of many kings and knights. In a mighty castle stands the Round Table; it is here that Galahad conquers the Siege Perilous, and where the knights see a vision of the Holy Grail and swear to find it. Jousts are held in a meadow outside the city. In the Palamedes and other works, the castle is eventually destroyed by King Mark of Cornwall after the loss of Arthur at the Battle of Camlann. However maddening to later scholars searching for Camelot's location, its imprecise geography serves the romances well, as Camelot becomes less a literal place than a powerful symbol of Arthur's court and universe. The romancers' versions of Camelot drew on earlier descriptions of Arthur's fabulous court. From Geoffrey's grand description of Caerleon, Camelot gains its impressive architecture, its many churches and the chivalry and courtesy of its inhabitants. Geoffrey's description in turn drew on an already established tradition in Welsh oral tradition of the grandeur of Arthur's court. The tale Culhwch and Olwen, associated with the Mabinogion and perhaps written in the 11th century, draws a dramatic picture of Arthur's hall and his many powerful warriors who go from there on great adventures, placing it in Celliwig, an uncertain locale in Cornwall. Although the court at Celliwig is the most prominent in remaining early Welsh manuscripts, the various versions of the Welsh Triads agree in giving Arthur multiple courts, one in each of the areas inhabited by the Britons: Cornwall, Wales and the Old North. This perhaps reflects the influence of widespread oral traditions common by 800 which are recorded in various place names and features such as Arthur's Seat indicating Arthur was a hero known and associated with many locations across Brittonic areas of Britain as well as Brittany. Even at this stage Arthur could not be tied to one location. Ashe, Geoffrey (1991). "Topography and Local Legends". In Norris J. Lacy (Ed.), The New Arthurian Encyclopedia, pp. 455–458. New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8240-4377-4. Many other places are listed as a location where Arthur holds court in the later romances, Carlisle and London perhaps being the most prominent. Identifications The romancers versions of Camelot draw on earlier traditions of Arthur's fabulous court. The Celliwig of Culhwch and Olwen appears in the Welsh Triads as well; interestingly, this early Welsh material places Wales' greatest leader outside its national boundaries. Geoffrey's description of Caerleon is probably based on his personal familiarity with the town and its impressive Roman ruins; it is less clear that Caerleon was associated with Arthur before Geoffrey. The later French romances make much of "Carduel," a northern city based on the real Carlisle. Malory's identification of Camelot as Winchester was probably partially inspired by the latter city's history. It had been the capital of Wessex under Alfred the Great, and boasted the Winchester Round Table, an artifact constructed in the 13th century but widely believed to be the original by Malory's time. Malory's editor Caxton rejects the association, saying Camelot was in Wales and that its ruins could still be seen; this is a likely reference to the Roman ruins at Caerwent. Malory associated other Arthurian locations with modern places, for instance locating Astolat at Guildford. In 1542 John Leland reported the locals around Cadbury Castle in Somerset considered it to be the original Camelot. This theory, which was repeated by later antiquaries, is bolstered, or may have derived from, Cadbury's proximity to the River Cam and towns Queen Camel and West Camel, and remained popular enough to help inspire a large scale archaeological dig in the 20th century. These excavations, led by archaeologist Leslie Alcock from 1966-70, were titled "Cadbury-Camelot," and won much media attention, even being mentioned in the film of the musical Camelot. The dig revealed by far the largest known fortification of the period, with Mediterranean artifacts (representing extensive trade) and Saxon artifacts. The use of the name Camelot and the support of Geoffrey Ashe helped ensure much publicity for the finds, but Alcock himself later grew embarrassed by the supposed Arthurian connection to the site. Following the arguments of David Dumville, Alcock felt the site was too late and too uncertain to be a tenable Camelot. Modern archaeologists follow him in rejecting the name, calling it instead Cadbury Castle hill fort. Alcock, Stenvenson, & Musson, C. R. Despite this, Cadbury remains widely associated with Camelot. The fact there were two towns in Roman Britain named Camulodunum, Colchester in Essex, and Slack in West Yorkshire, deriving from the Celtic god Camulos has led to the suggestion they originated the name. However, the Essex Camulodunum was located well within territory usually thought to have been conquered early in the 5th century by Saxons, so it is unlikely to have been the location of any "true" Camelot. The town was definitely known as Colchester as early as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 917. Place Names Even Colchester Museum argues strongly regarding the historical Arthur: "it would be impossible and inconceivable to link him to the Colchester area, or to Essex more generally" pointing out that the connection between the name Camuloduum and Colchester was unknown till the 18th century. Official Response to linking Arthur and Colchester Other places in Britain with names related to "Camel" have also been suggested, such as Camelford in Cornwall, located down the River Camel from where Geoffrey places Camlann, the scene of Arthur's final battle. The area's connections with Camelot and Camlann are merely speculative. Later uses Camelot has become a permanent fixture in interpretations of the Arthurian legend. Modern versions typically retain Camelot's lack of precise location and its status as a symbol of the Arthurian world, though they typically transform the castle itself into romantically lavish vision of a High Middle Ages palace. It lends its name to the 1960 musical Camelot by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe, which is based on T. H. White's literary version of the legend, The Once and Future King. The musical was adapted into a 1967 film of the same name, which starred Richard Harris as Arthur, and which featured the Castle of Coca, Segovia as fittingly opulent Camelot. The symbolism of Camelot so impressed Alfred, Lord Tennyson that he wrote up a prose sketch on the castle as one of his earliest attempts to treat the Arthurian legend. Staines, David (1991). "Alfred, Lord Tennyson". In Norris J. Lacy (Ed.), The New Arthurian Encyclopedia, pp. 446–449. New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8240-4377-4. Some writers of the "realist" strain of modern Arthurian fiction have attempted a more sensible Camelot; inspired by Alcock's Cadbury-Camelot excavation, writers Marion Zimmer Bradley, Mary Stewart, and Catherine Christian place their Camelots in that city and describe it accordingly. See also Sites and places associated with Arthurian legend Notes References Alcock, Leslie; Stenvenson, S. J.; & Musson, C. R. (1995). Cadbury Castle, Somerset: The Early Medieval Archaeology. University of Wales Press. Ashley, Mike (2005). The Mammoth Book of King Arthur. London: Running Press. ISBN 0-7867-1566-9. Lacy, Norris J. (Ed.) (1991). The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8240-4377-4. Malory, Thomas (1994). Le Morte D'Arthur. New York: Modern Library. ISBN 0-679-60099-X. 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3,685 | Caesium | Caesium or cesium () is the chemical element with the symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-gold alkali metal with a melting point of , which makes it one of only five metals that are liquid at or near room temperature. Along with rubidium ( ), francium ( ), mercury ( ), and gallium ( ). Bromine is also liquid at room temperature (-7.2 °C, 19 °F) but it is not a metal, but a halogen. Caesium is most notably used in atomic clocks. Caesium is the international spelling standardized by the IUPAC, but in the United States it is spelled as cesium. IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements Characteristics High purity caesium metal. The emission spectrum of caesium has two bright lines in the blue area of the spectrum along with several other lines in the red, yellow, and green areas. This metal is silvery gold in color and is both soft and ductile. Caesium has the lowest ionization potential of the chemical elements. Caesium is the least abundant of the five non-radioactive alkali metals. (Francium is the least common alkali metal but it has no stable isotopes. ). Caesium, gallium, francium, rubidium, and mercury are the only pure metals liquid at or near room temperature. (Some sodium-potassium alloys are also liquid at room temperature.) Caesium reacts explosively in cold water and also reacts with ice at temperatures above , 157 K). Caesium hydroxide (CsOH) is a very strong base and will rapidly etch the surface of glass. CsOH is often stated to be the "strongest base", but in fact many compounds such as n-butyllithium and sodium amide are stronger but are not classic hydroxide bases and are destroyed by water. Applications Probably the most widespread use of caesium today is in caesium formate-based drilling fluids for the oil industry. The high density of the caesium formate brine (up to 2.3 sg), coupled with the relatively benign nature of natural caesium (which has minimal radioactivity because it is almost entirely composed of a stable istotope), reduces the requirement for toxic high-density suspended solids in the drilling fluid, which is a significant technological, engineering and environmental advantage. Drilling and Completing Difficult HP/HT Wells With the Aid of Cesium Formate Brines-A Performance Review Overview: Cesium Formate Fluids Caesium is also used in atomic clocks, which are accurate to seconds over many thousands of years. Since 1967, the has based its unit of time, the second, on the properties of caesium. The International System of Units (SI) defines the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation, which corresponds to the transition between two hyperfine energy levels of the ground state of the 133Cs atom. 134Cs has been used in hydrology as a measure of caesium output by the nuclear power industry. This isotope is used because, while it is less prevalent than either 133Cs or 137Cs, 134Cs can be produced solely by nuclear reactions. 135Cs has also been used in this function. Like other elements of group 1, caesium has a great affinity for oxygen and is used as a "getter" in vacuum tubes. This metal is also used in photoelectric cells due to its ready emission of electrons. Caesium was used as a propellant in early ion engines. It used a method of ionization to strip the outer electron from the propellant by simple contact with tungsten. Caesium use as a propellant was discontinued when Hughes Research Laboratory conducted a study finding xenon gas as a suitable replacement. Caesium is used as a catalyst in the hydrogenation of certain organic compounds. Radioactive isotopes of caesium are used in the medical field to treat certain types of cancer. Caesium fluoride is widely used in organic chemistry as a base and as a source of anhydrous fluoride ion. Caesium vapor is used in many common magnetometers. Because of their high density, caesium chloride solutions are commonly used in molecular biology for density gradient ultracentrifugation, primarily for the isolation of viral particles, subcellular organelles and fractions, and nucleic acids from biological samples. Caesium nitrate is used as an oxidizer and pyrotechnic colorant to burn silicon in infrared flares United States Patent 6230628: Infrared illumination compositions and articles containing the same such as the LUU-19 flare, LUU-19 Flare because it emits much of its light in the near infrared spectrum. Caesium-137 is an extremely common radioisotope used as a gamma-emitter in industrial applications such as: moisture/density gauges leveling gauges thickness gauges well logging devices which are used to measure the electron density, which is analogous to the bulk density, of the rock formations. Caesium is also used as an internal standard in spectrophotometry. Caesium has been used to reduce the radar signature of exhaust plumes in military aircraft. History Caesium (Latin caesius meaning "blueish grey") Bunsen quotes Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae II, 26 by Nigidius Figulus: Nostris autem veteribus caesia dicts est quae Graecis, ut Nigidus ait, de colore coeli quasi coelia. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Edition was spectroscopically discovered by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860 in mineral water from Dürkheim, Germany. The residues of 44,000 liters of mineral water yielded several grams of caesium salt for further analysis. Its identification was based upon the bright blue lines in its spectrum and it was the first element discovered by spectrum analysis. The first caesium metal was produced in 1882 by electrolysis of caesium chloride by Carl Setterberg. Setterberg received his PhD from Kekule and Bunsen for this work. Historically, the most important use for caesium has been in research and development, primarily in chemical and electrical applications. Occurrence Pollucite, a caesium mineral. An alkali metal, caesium occurs in lepidolite, pollucite (hydrated silicate of aluminium and caesium) and within other sources. One of the world's most significant and rich sources of this metal is at Bernic Lake in Manitoba. The deposits there are estimated to contain 300,000 metric tons of pollucite ore at an average of composition of 20% caesium by weight. It can be isolated by electrolysis of fused caesium cyanide and in a number of other ways. Exceptionally pure and gas-free caesium can be made by the thermal decomposition of caesium azide. The primary compounds of caesium are caesium chloride and its nitrate. The price of caesium metal in 1997 was about US$30 per gram, but its compounds are much cheaper. Isotopes Caesium has at least 39 known isotopes, which is more than any other element except francium. The atomic masses of these isotopes range from 112 to 151. Even though this element has a large number of isotopes, it has only one naturally occurring stable isotope, 133Cs. Most of the other isotopes have half-lives from a few days to fractions of a second. The radiogenic isotope 137Cs has been used in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of 3H. 137Cs is produced from the detonation of nuclear weapons and is produced in nuclear power plants, and was released to the atmosphere most notably from the 1986 Chernobyl meltdown. This isotope (137Cs) is one of the numerous products of fission, directly issued from the fission of uranium. High purity caesium-133 (preserved under argon) Beginning in 1945 with the commencement of nuclear weapons testing, 137Cs was released into the atmosphere where it is not absorbed readily into solution and is returned to the surface of the earth as a component of radioactive fallout. Once 137Cs enters the ground water, it is deposited on soil surfaces and removed from the landscape primarily by particle transport. As a result, the input function of these isotopes cannot be estimated as a function of time. Caesium-137 has a half-life of 30.17 years. It decomposes to barium-137m (a short-lived product of decay) then to a form of nonradioactive barium. Precautions All alkali metals are highly reactive. Caesium, being one of the heavier alkali metals, is also one of the most reactive and is highly explosive when it comes in contact with water. The hydrogen gas produced by the reaction is heated by the thermal energy released at the same time, causing ignition and a violent explosion (the same as all alkali metals) - but caesium is so reactive that this explosive reaction can even be triggered by cold water or ice. Caesium is highly pyrophoric and ignites spontaneously in air to form caesium hydroxide and various oxides. Caesium hydroxide is an extremely strong base, and can etch glass. Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most persons. All caesium compounds should be regarded as mildly toxic because of its chemical similarity to potassium. Large amounts cause hyperirritability and spasms, but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources, so Cs is not a major chemical environmental pollutant. Rats fed caesium in place of potassium in their diet die, so this element cannot replace potassium in function in rats. The isotopes 134Cs and 137Cs (present in the biosphere in small amounts as a result of radiation leaks) represent a radioactivity burden which varies depending on location. Radiocaesium does not accumulate in the body as effectively as many other fission products (such as radioiodine and radiostrontium), which are actively accumulated by the body. See also Caesium-137 Goiânia accident, a major radioactive contamination incident involving a rod of caesium chloride. Caesium compounds Dirty bomb References Los Alamos National Laboratory - Cesium</div> External links WebElements.com – Caesium Humor site dedicated to caesium | Caesium |@lemmatized caesium:60 cesium:5 chemical:5 element:8 symbol:1 c:2 atomic:4 number:3 soft:2 silvery:2 gold:2 alkali:7 metal:16 melt:1 point:1 make:2 one:6 five:2 liquid:4 near:3 room:4 temperature:5 along:2 rubidium:2 francium:4 mercury:2 gallium:2 bromine:1 also:9 f:1 halogen:1 notably:2 use:24 clock:2 international:2 spelling:1 standardize:1 iupac:2 united:2 state:4 spell:1 periodic:1 table:1 characteristic:1 high:5 purity:2 emission:2 spectrum:5 two:2 bright:2 line:3 blue:2 area:2 several:2 red:1 yellow:1 green:1 color:1 ductile:1 low:1 ionization:2 potential:1 least:3 abundant:1 non:1 radioactive:4 common:3 stable:3 isotope:13 pure:2 sodium:2 potassium:4 alloy:1 react:2 explosively:1 cold:2 water:7 ice:2 k:1 hydroxide:4 csoh:2 strong:4 base:8 rapidly:1 etch:2 surface:3 glass:2 often:1 fact:1 many:4 compound:7 n:1 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3,686 | Insulator_(electricity) | Conducting copper wire insulated by an outer layer of polyethylene An insulator, also called a dielectric, is a material that resists the flow of electric current. An insulating material has atoms with tightly bonded valence electrons. These materials are used in parts of electrical equipment, also called insulators or insulation, intended to support or separate electrical conductors without passing current through themselves. The term is also used more specifically to refer to insulating supports that attach electric power transmission wires to utility poles or pylons. Some materials such as glass or Teflon are very good electrical insulators. A much larger class of materials, for example rubber-like polymers and most plastics are still "good enough" to insulate electrical wiring and cables even though they may have lower bulk resistivity. These materials can serve as practical and safe insulators for low to moderate voltages (hundreds, or even thousands, of volts). Physics of conduction in solids Electrical insulation is the absence of electrical conduction. Electronic band theory (a branch of physics) predicts that a charge will flow whenever there are states available into which the electrons in a material can be excited. This allows them to gain energy and thereby move through the conductor (usually a metal). If no such states are available, the material is an insulator. Most (though not all, see Mott insulator) insulators are characterized by having a large band gap. This occurs because the "valence" band containing the highest energy electrons is full, and a large energy gap separates this band from the next band above it. There is always some voltage (called the breakdown voltage) that will give the electrons enough energy to be excited into this band. Once this voltage is exceeded, the material ceases being an insulator, and charge will begin to pass through it. However, it is usually accompanied by physical or chemical changes that permanently degrade the material's insulating properties. Materials that lack electron conduction are insulators if they lack other mobile charges as well. For example, if a liquid or gas contains ions, then the ions can be made to flow as an electric current, and the material is a conductor. Electrolytes and plasmas contain ions and will act as conductors whether or not electron flow is involved. Breakdown Insulators suffer from the phenomenon of electrical breakdown. When any voltage applied across a length of insulating substance exceeds a threshold breakdown field for that substance, which equals the band gap energy, the insulator suddenly turns into a resistor, sometimes with catastrophic results. During electrical breakdown, any free charge carrier being accelerated by the strong e-field will have enough velocity to knock electrons from (ionize) any atom it strikes. These freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms, creating more charge carriers, in a chain reaction. Rapidly the insulator becomes filled with mobile carriers, and its resistance drops to a low level. In air, the outbreak of conductivity is called "corona discharge" or a "spark." Similar breakdown can occur within any insulator, even within the bulk solid of a material. Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of break down, but in this case the breakdown or vacuum arc involves charges ejected from the surface of metal electrodes rather than produced by the vacuum itself. Uses Insulators are commonly used as a flexible coating on electric wire and cable. Since air is a insulator, no other substance is needed to "keep the electricity within the wires." However, wires which touch each other will produce cross connections, short circuits, and fire hazards. In coaxial cable the center conductor must be supported exactly in the middle of the hollow shield in order to prevent EM wave reflections. And any wires which present voltages higher than 60V can cause human shock and electrocution hazards. Insulating coatings prevent all of these problems. In electronic systems, printed circuit boards are made from epoxy plastic and fiberglass. The nonconductive boards support layers of copper foil conductors. In electronic devices, the tiny and delicate active components are embedded within nonconductive epoxy or phenolic plastics, or within baked glass or ceramic coatings. In microelectronic components such as transistors and ICs, the silicon material is normally a conductor because of doping, but it can easily be selectively transformed into a good insulator by the application of heat and oxygen. Oxidized silicon is quartz, i.e. silicon dioxide. In high voltage systems containing transformers and capacitors, liquid insulator oil is the typical method used for preventing sparks. The oil replaces the air in any spaces which must support significant voltage without electrical breakdown. Other methods of insulating high voltage systems are ceramic or glass wire holders and simply placing the wires with a large separation, using the air as insulation. Telegraph and power transmission insulators 110 kV ceramic insulator, showing sheds Suspended wires for electric power transmission are bare, except when connecting to houses, and are insulated by the surrounding air. Insulators are required at the points at which they are supported by utility poles or pylons. Insulators are also required where the wire enters buildings or electrical devices, such as transformers or circuit breakers, to insulate the wire from the case. These hollow insulators with a conductor inside them are called bushings. Material Insulators used for high-voltage power transmission are made from glass, porcelain, or composite polymer materials. Porcelain insulators are made from clay, quartz or alumina and feldspar, and are covered with a smooth glaze to shed dirt. Insulators made from porcelain rich in alumina are used where high mechanical strength is a criterion. Porcelain has a dielectric strength of about 4–10 kV/mm. Glass has a higher dielectric strength, but it attracts condensation and the thick irregular shapes needed for insulators are difficult to cast without internal strains. copied on Insulator Usage, A.C. Walker's Insulator Information page Some insulator manufacturers stopped making glass insulators in the late 1960s, switching to ceramic materials. Recently, some electric utilities have begun converting to polymer composite materials for some types of insulators. These are typically composed of a central rod made of fibre reinforced plastic and an outer weathershed made of silicone rubber or EPDM. Composite insulators are less costly, lighter in weight, and have excellent hydrophobic capability. This combination makes them ideal for service in polluted areas. However, these materials do not yet have the long-term proven service life of glass and porcelain. Other insulating materials are cold, un-ionized gases (including air), water (if purified and deionized) and oil. Design Cap and pin insulator string (the vertical string of discs) on a 275 kV suspension pylon. The electrical breakdown of an insulator due to excessive voltage can occur in one of two ways: Puncture voltage is the voltage across the insulator (when installed in its normal manner) which causes a breakdown and conduction through the interior of the insulator. The heat resulting from the puncture arc usually damages the insulator irreparably. Flashover voltage is the voltage which causes the air around or along the surface of the insulator to break down and conduct, causing a 'flashover' arc along the outside of the insulator. They are usually designed to withstand this without damage. High voltage insulators are designed with a lower flashover voltage than puncture voltage, so they will flashover before they puncture, to avoid damage. Dirt, pollution, salt, and particularly water on the surface of a high voltage insulator can create a conductive path across it, causing leakage currents and flashovers. The flashover voltage can be more than 50% lower when the insulator is wet. High voltage insulators for outdoor use are shaped to maximise the length of the leakage path along the surface from one end to the other, called the creepage length, to minimize these leakage currents. To accomplish this the surface is molded into a series of corrugations or concentric disk shapes. These usually include one or more sheds; downward facing cup-shaped surfaces that act as umbrellas to ensure that the part of the surface leakage path under the 'cup' stays dry in wet weather. Minimum creepage distances are 20–25 mm/kV, but must be increased in high pollution or airborne sea-salt areas. Cap and pin insulators Higher voltage transmission lines use modular cap and pin insulator designs (see picture above). The wires are suspended from a 'string' of identical disk-shaped insulators which attach to each other with metal clevis pin or ball and socket links. The advantage of this design is that insulator strings with different breakdown voltages, for use with different line voltages, can be constructed by using different numbers of the basic units. Also, if one of the insulator units in the string breaks, it can be replaced without discarding the entire string. Standard disk insulator units are 10 inches (25.4 cm) in diameter and 5 3/4 in. (14.6 cm) long, can support a load of 75 kN (15 klbf), and are rated at an operating voltage of 10-12 kV. However, the flashover voltage of a string is less than the sum of its component disks, because the electric field is not distributed evenly but is strongest at the disk nearest to the conductor, which will flashover first. Metal grading rings are sometimes added around the lowest disk, to reduce the electric field across that disk and improve flashover voltage. History The first electrical systems to make use of insulators were telegraph lines; direct attachment of wires to wooden poles was found to give very poor results, especially during damp weather. The first glass insulators used in large quantities had an unthreaded pinhole. These pieces of glass were positioned on a tapered wooden pin, vertically extending upwards from the pole's crossarm (commonly only two insulators to a pole and maybe one on top of the pole itself). Natural contraction and expansion of the wires tied to these "threadless insulators" resulted in insulators unseating from their pins, requiring manual reseating. Amongst the first to produce ceramic insulators were companies in the United Kingdom, with Stiff and Doulton using stoneware from the mid 1840s, Joseph Bourne (later renamed Denby) producing them from around 1860 and Bullers from 1868. Utility patent number 48,906 was granted to Louis A. Cauvet on July 25, 1865 for a process to produce insulators with a threaded pinhole. To this day, pin-type insulators still have threaded pinholes. The invention of suspension-type insulators made high-voltage power transmission possible. Pin-type insulators were unsatisfactory over about 60,000 volts. A large variety of telephone, telegraph and power insulators have been made; some people collect them. Insulation of antennas Egg shaped strain insulator Often a broadcasting radio antenna is built as a mast radiator, which means that the entire mast structure is energized with high voltage and must be insulated from the ground. Steatite mountings are used. They have to withstand not only the voltage of the mast radiator to ground, which can reach values up to 400 kV at some antennas, but also the weight of the mast construction and dynamic forces. Arcing horns and lightning arresters are necessary because lightning strikes to the mast are common. Guy wires supporting antenna masts usually have strain insulators inserted in the cable run, to keep the high voltages on the antenna from short circuiting to ground or creating a shock hazard. Often guy cables have several insulators, placed to break up the cable into lengths that are not submultiples of the transmitting wavelength to avoid unwanted electrical resonances in the guy. These insulators are usually ceramic and cylindrical or egg-shaped (see picture). This construction has the advantage that the ceramic is under compression rather than tension, so it can withstand greater load, and that if the insulator breaks the cable ends will still be linked. These insulators also have to be equipped with overvoltage protection equipment. For the dimensions of the guy insulation, static charges on guys have to be considered, at high masts these can be much higher than the voltage caused by the transmitter requiring guys divided by insulators in multiple sections on the highest masts. In this case, guys which are grounded at the anchor basements via a coil - or if possible, directly - are the better choice. Feedlines attaching antennas to radio equipment, particularly twin lead type, often must be kept at a distance from metal structures. The insulated supports used for this purpose are called standoff insulators. Insulation in electrical apparatus The most important insulation material is air. A variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous insulators are also used in electrical apparatus. In smaller transformers, generators, and electric motors, insulation on the wire coils consists of up to four thin layers of polymer varnish film. Film insulated magnet wire permits a manufacturer to obtain the maximum number of turns within the available space. Windings that use thicker conductors are often wrapped with supplemental fiberglass insulating tape. Windings may also be impregnated with insulating varnishes to prevent electrical corona and reduce magnetically induced wire vibration. Large power transformer windings are still mostly insulated with paper, wood, varnish, and mineral oil; although these materials have been used for more than 100 years, they still provide a good balance of economy and adequate performance. Busbars and circuit breakers in switchgear may be insulated with glass-reinforced plastic insulation, treated to have low flame spread and to prevent tracking of current across the material. In older apparatus made up to the early 1970s, boards made of compressed asbestos may be found; while this is an adequate insulator at power frequencies, handling or repairs to asbestos material will release dangerous fibers into the air and must be carried out with caution. Wire insulated with felted asbestos was used in high-temperature and rugged applications from the 1920s. Wire of this type was sold by General Electric under the trade name "Deltabeston" Live-front switchboards up to the early part of the 20th century were made of slate or marble. Some high voltage equipment is designed to operate within a high pressure insulating gas such as sulfur hexafluoride. Insulation materials that perform well at power and low frequencies may be unsatisfactory at radio frequency, due to heating from excessive dielectric dissipation. Electrical wires may be insulated with polyethylene, crosslinked polyethylene (either through electron beam processing or chemical crosslinking), PVC, rubber-like polymers, oil impregnated paper, Teflon, silicone, or modified ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE). Larger power cables may use compressed inorganic powder, depending on the application. Flexible insulating materials such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride) are used to insulate the circuit and prevent human contact with a 'live' wire -- one having voltage of 600 volts or less. Alternative materials are likely to become increasingly used due to EU safety and environmental legislation making PVC less economic. Class 1 and Class 2 insulation All portable or hand-held electrical devices are insulated to protect their user from harmful shock. Class 1 insulation requires that the metal body and other exposed metal parts of the device is connected to earth via a "grounding" wire which is earthed at the main service panel; but only basic insulation of the conductors is needed. This equipment is easily identified by a third pin on the power plug for the grounding connection. Class 2 insulation means that the device is double insulated. This is used on some appliances such as electric shavers, hair dryers and portable power tools. Double insulation requires that the devices have both basic and supplementary insulation, each of which is sufficient to prevent electric shock. All internal electrically energized components are totally enclosed within an insulated body that prevents any contact with "live" parts. They can be recognised because their power plugs have two pins, or on three pin plugs the third (earth) pin is made of plastic rather than metal. In the EU, double insulated appliances all are marked with a symbol of two squares, one inside the other. Clearance Distance between two conductors in gas medium (like air). Creepage Is the shortest distance between two conductive parts, or between a conductive part and a exposed conductive part, measured along the surface of the insulation. Ref. Hampson Electrotechnology Practice. clearance distance relevance to PCB's(printed circuit boards) See also Dielectric Resistance Conductivity Arcing horns Pylon Electrical substation Mast radiator Mott insulator Michael Faraday Henry Clay Fry Pin insulator Notes References Bullers of Milton Sue Taylor, Churnet Valley Books. 2003 ISBN 1-897949-96-0 External links US Glass Insulators Reference Site National Insulator Association - US site Teleramics - specialises in UK telegraph insulators with a railway bias One person's obsession with US telephone pole insulators Insulatorscanada Insulator Patent Reference Library - Contains over 2,800 US patents relating to electrical insulators and related items Hungarian Insulators Online Museum for Hemingray Glass Company items | Insulator_(electricity) |@lemmatized conduct:2 copper:2 wire:23 insulate:19 outer:2 layer:3 polyethylene:3 insulator:79 also:10 call:7 dielectric:5 material:27 resist:1 flow:4 electric:12 current:6 atoms:1 tightly:1 bond:1 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3,687 | Galen | Claude Galien. Lithograph by Pierre Roche Vigneron. (Paris: Lith de Gregoire et Deneux, ca. 1865) Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (AD 129 – 200/217), better known as Galen of Pergamum (Greek: Γαληνός, Galēnos), was a prominent Roman physician and philosopher of Greek origin, and probably the most accomplished medical researcher of the Roman period. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for well over a millennium. His account of medical anatomy was based on monkeys as human dissection was not permitted in his time, but it was unsurpassed until the printed description and illustrations of human dissections by Andreas Vesalius in 1543. O'Malley, C., Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514-1564, Berkeley: University of California Press Galen's account of the activities of the heart, arteries and veins endured until William Harvey established that the blood circulates with the heart acting as a pump in 1628. Furley, D, and J. Wilkie, 1984, Galen On Respiration and the Arteries, Princeton University Press, and Bylebyl, J (ed), 1979, William Harvey and His Age, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press In the 19th century, student physicians would still read Galen to learn some concepts. Galen developed many nerve ligation experiments that supported the theory, which is still believed today, that the brain controls all the motions of the muscles by means of the cranial and peripheral nervous systems. Frampton, M., 2008, Embodiments of Will: Anatomical and Physiological Theories of Voluntary Animal Motionfrom Greek Antiquity to the Latin Middle Ages, 400 B.C.–A.D. 1300, Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag. pp. 180 - 323 Galen wrote a small work called "That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher"<ref>Brian, P., 1979, "Galen on the ideal of the physician", South Africa Medical Journal, 52: 936-938</ref>, and he saw himself as being both, which meant grounding medical practice in theoretically sound knowledge or "philosophy" as it was called in his time. Galen was very interested in the dispute between Rationalist and Empiricist medical sects, Frede, M. and R. Walzer, 1985, Three Treatises on the Nature of Science, Indianapolis: Hacket. and his use of direct observation, dissection and vivisection in medical training and as a way to ground medical practice can be understood as considering both of those perspectives and constructing a more complex and nuanced middle ground that avoided problems with each position. De Lacy, P., 1972, "Galen's Platonism", American Journal of Philosophy, pp. 27-39, Cosans, C., 1997, “Galen’s Critique of Rationalist and Empiricist Anatomy”, Journal of the History of Biology, 30: 35-54, and Cosans, C., 1998, “The Experimental Foundations of Galen’s Teleology”, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 29: 63-80. Life Early life Galen was born in the ancient Greek city of Pergamon (Pergamum or Pergamos), now Bergama in the region of Mysia on the Sea of Marmara, Asia Minor, now Turkey, which was part of the Roman Empire, on September 1, AD 129 (estimates vary from 125-131) Controversies over name His name, Γαληνός in Greek, meant quiet or peaceable. The abbreviation "Cl.", was first documented in texts from the Renaissance and may denote that Galen belonged to the Claudian gens. The contention that "Cl." is an abbreviation for the honourific Clarissimus is erroneous: Clarissimus (correctly, vir clarissimus or clarissimus vir) was a title reserved for the senatorial class, of which Galen was not a member; the usual abbreviation for it being V.C. or C.V. "Cl." invariably only appears as an abbreviation for the name Claudius. However, note that Galen's father, Aelius Nicon, belonged to the Aelian gens. This being so, it is likely that Nicon's son also bore the family name Aelius. Life in Pergamum He describes his early life in "On the affections of the mind". Born in September 129 AD, his father Aelius Nicon was a wealthy patrician, an architect and builder, with eclectic interests including philosophy, mathematics, logic, astronomy, agriculture and literature. Galen describes his father as a "highly amiable, just, good and benevolent man". At that time Pergamon was a major cultural and intellectual centre, noted for its library (Eumenes II), second only to that in Alexandria Metzger BM. New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. BRILL 1980 ISBN 9004061630, 9789004061637 and attracted both Stoic and Platonic philosophers, to whom Galen was exposed at age 14. His studies also took in each of the principal philosophical systems of the time, including Aristotelian and Epicurean. His father had planned a traditional career for Galen in philosophy or politics and took care to expose him to literary and philosophical influences. However Galen states that in around 144, his father had a dream in which the God Asclepius (Aesculapius) appeared and commanded Nicon to send his son to study medicine. Again, no expense was spared, and following his earlier liberal education, at 16 he began studies at the prestigious local sanctuary or Asclepieum dedicated to Asclepius, God of medicine, as a θεραπευτής (therapeutes, or attendant) for four years. There he came under the influence of men like Aeschrion, Stratonicus and Satyrus. Asclepiea functioned as spas or sanitoria to which came the sick to seek the ministrations of the priesthood. The temple at Pergamon was eagerly sought by Romans in search of a cure. It was also the haunt of notable people such as Claudius Charax the historian, Aelius Aristeides the orator, Polemo the sophist, and Cuspius Rufinus the Consul. First voyage In 148, when he was 19, his father died, leaving him independently wealthy. He then followed the advice he found in Hippocrates' teaching Hippocrates. Airs, Waters, and Places. Jones (ed.) 70-2 and travelled and studied widely including Smyrna (now Izmir), Corinth, Crete, Cilicia (now Çukurova), Cyprus and finally the great medical school of Alexandria, exposing himself to the various schools of thought in medicine. In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and wealthiest men in Asia. Over the four years there he learnt the importance of diet, fitness, hygiene and preventive measures, as well as living anatomy, and the treatment of fractures and severe trauma, referring to their wounds as "windows into the body". Only five deaths occurred while he held the post, compared to sixty in his predecessor's time, generally ascribed to his attention to their wounds. At the same time he pursued studies in theoretical medicine and philosophy. Galen On Food and Diet. Grant M (trans.) Routledge 2000 Rome Galen provides accounts of his later life in Rome, in On Prognosis, and On his own Books. Στάσις (stasis, or political unrest) in Pergamon was probably the reason for Galen to leave Pergamon in 161, travelling in the Eastern Mediterranean studying the properties of minerals. His travels took him to Lemnos, Cyprus, and Palestinian Syria,before reaching Rome in August 162, aged 33, in the second year of the reign of the joint Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. As a Greek in Rome, he faced cultural challenges, stiff competition and professional jealousy. French RK. Medicine Before Science: The Rational and Learned Doctor from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521007615, 9780521007610 Eudemus One of his more famous patients was the peripatetic philosopher Eudemus, a friend of his father, and his former tutor. He recounts curing Eudemus of Quartan Fever in 162 (Praen 2:5) von Staden H. (ed. trans.) Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria. Cambridge University Press, 1989 ISBN 0521236460, 9780521236461 This proved fortuitous, since during this illness, Eudemus was visited by Flavius Boethus, a former Consul and later Governor of Palestine (166-8), Swain S. Hellenism and Empire: Language, Classicism, and Power in the Greek World, AD 50-250 Oxford University Press, 1996 ISBN 0198147724, 9780198147725 Sergius Paulus, who became a Prefect, and Severus, uncle of the Emperor Lucius. They were Aristotelians and had heard of Galen's anatomical skills and were anxious to set up vivisection demonstrations, which they hoped would promote him (AA). Galen's skills in caring for Eudemus and his rigorous philosophical explanation of the pathology greatly enhanced his reputation in the upper circles of Rome. His bent for didactic teaching of his patients led him to seek those he could discourse with as a clientale. Gourevitch D. The Paths of Knowledge: Medicine in the Roman World, in Grmek M (ed.) Western Medical Thought from Antiquiry to the Middle Ages, Shugar A (trans.) Harvard, Cambridge, MA 1998 Word of how he gave Eudemus a prognosis earned disapproval from some Roman physicians such as Martianus (an Erasistratean), who compared it to divination. Providing a prognosis was not part of their tradition, unlike Galen and the Hippocratic school. Galen in turn criticised the Roman doctors for their relationship with rich patrons, ostentatious dress and belief that medicine could be learned quickly. Galen was fortunate in having the wise advice of Eudemus to guide him through the politics of Roman medicine and society, even warning him that he might be in danger of his life. Bloodletting At first reluctantly, but then with increasing vigour, Galen promoted Hippocratic teaching including venesection, then unknown in Rome. This was sharply criticised by Erasistrateans, who predicted dire outcomes, believing that it was not blood but Pneuma that flowed in the veins. Galen however staunchly defended venesection in his three books on the subject, Brain P (trans.) Galen on Bloodletting: A study of the origins, development and validity of his opinions, with a translation of the three works. Cambridge 1986 and in his demonstrations and public disputations. Reputation Galen's fame rested on his anatomical demonstrations, success with influential patrons where others had failed, his learning and his rhetoric. His background and wealth and friendship with Eudemus helped him advance in Roman society. However, Galen was not reluctant to show his contempt for the learning and ethics of his contemporaries in Rome, and his ambitiousness created enemies. This first Roman sojourn coincided with the Parthian Wars of the Emperor Lucius Verus (161-166). (Praen 14:647-9) Pergamon interlude (166-168) When he returned to Pergamon in August 166 he claimed he had departed due to professional jealousy, although the outbreak of the Antonine Plague which accompanied the return of Lucius Verus' army in that year Birley AR. Marcus Aurelius, a Biography. Routledge, 2000 ISBN 0415171253, 9780415171250 page 202 may have contributed to this. Return to Rome He was recalled to Rome by the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus to serve in the German wars, a task he did not relish, preferring to stay in Rome with Marcus Aurelius' son, Commodus. Amongst his clients was the Consul Flavius Boethus, who had introduced him to the imperial court, where he became personal physician to Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus, returning to Rome on the death of Verus in 169. He later also served as physician to the Emperor Septimius Severus. His own writings are rich with anecdotes illustrating the heights of his fame. Temkin, Owsei. Galenism: Rise and Decline of a Medical Philosophy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1973. p. 52 Despite being a member of the court, Galen reputedly shunned Latin, preferring to speak and write in his native Greek, a tongue that was actually quite popular in Rome. Galen spent most of the rest of his life at the Roman imperial court, where he was given leave to write and experiment. The bulk of his output occurring during this period. For instance, On Prognosis was written in 177-8. He returned to Pergamon in the 190s. Death Because of a reference in the 10th century Suda lexicon, the year of Galen's death has traditionally been placed at 199/200. However, since some scholars argue that textual evidence shows Galen writing as late as 207, they contend that he lived longer, the latest year proposed being 217, according to Arabic sources, derived from Alexander of Aphrodisias. Ustun C. Galen and his anatomic eponym: Vein of Galen. Clinical Anatomy Volume 17 Issue 6 454-457, 2004 Work Galen's works covered a wide range of topics, from anatomy, physiology, and medicine to logic and philosophy, both summarising what was known and adding his own observations. His writings pay homage to, amongst others, Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics, but above all to Hippocrates, whom he refers to as "divine" (θειότατος Ίπποκράτης Nat Fac III: 13). Thus much of his explanation of pathology relies on Hippocrates' humoral theories. He proceeded by observation, deductive reasoning and experimentation, such as his demonstration of the effect of ligating the ureters (Nat Fac I: 13), and the functions of the spinal cord. His medical practice drew on the biological theory and anatomical observations from Aristotle to the Alexandrians in addition to his own research. His therapeutics led him to travel widely gathering elements and plants. However his reasoning led him astray as much as it did to truth, such as his rejection of the role of the stomach wall in digestion (Nat Fac III: 4) and his concepts of specific attraction. Galen's approach to colleagues and the state of knowledge was very forthright. He despised what he referred to as partisanship (Nat Fac I: 13), and was impatient with those with whom he disagreed, such as the Erasistrateans Kotrč RF. Critical Notes on Galen's De Venae Sectione Adversus Erasistrateos Romae Degentes [K XI 187-249] The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 23, No. 2 (November, 1973), pp. 369-374 and Asclepiadeans. (Nat Fac I: 17) Another target of his scorn were the Methodists, abhorring their consideration of pathology in a vacuum, treating the disease not the patient, whereas he taught that vital processes in an organism had to be interpreted in relation to its environment. Other disputes were with the Atomists , and the Anatomists, arguing that the whole is far greater than the sum of the parts. His own personal credo was based on three branches of philosophy; logic, physics and ethics. (Opt Med) He wrote in a highly polished precise Attic style, using many words (such as haematopoietic) that have passed down to us in modern medical terminology, albeit with altered meaning. Galen developed an interest in anatomy from his studies of Herophilus and Erasistratus, who had dissected the human body and even living bodies (vivisection). Although Galen studied the human body, dissection of human corpses was against Roman law, 'Tragically, the prohibition of human dissection by Rome in 150 BC arrested this progress and few of their findings survived', Arthur Aufderheide, 'The Scientific Study of Mummies' (2003), page 5 so instead he performed vivisections on pigs, apes, and other animals (e.g. Nat Fac III: 8), to study the function of the kidneys and the spinal cord. In this study of comparative anatomy, he frequently dissected the Barbary Macaque and other primates, assuming their anatomy was basically the same as that of humans. Vivian Nutton, 'The Unknown Galen', (2002), page 89 Heinrich Von Staden, 'Herophilus' (1989), page 140 Philip Lutgendorf, 'Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey' (2007), page 348 The legal limitations forced on him led to quite a number of mistaken ideas about the body. For instance, he thought a group of blood vessels near the back of the brain, the rete mirabile, was common in humans, although it actually is absent in humans. Galen performed many audacious operations — including brain and eye surgeries — that were not tried again for almost two millennia. To perform cataract surgery, he would insert a long needle-like instrument into the eye behind the lens, then pull the instrument back slightly to remove the cataract. The slightest slip could have caused permanent blindness. Galen identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Venous blood was thought to originate in the liver and arterial blood in the heart; the blood flowed from those organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed. Published works Galen produced more work than any author in antiquity, Kotrc RF, Walters KR. A bibliography of the Galenic Corpus. A newly researched list and arrangement of the titles of the treatises extant in Greek, Latin, and Arabic. Trans Stud Coll Physicians Phila. 1979 December;1(4):256-304 and may have possibly written up to 600 treatises, although less than a third of his works have survived. His surviving work runs to around 3 million words. Carolus Kühn of Leipzig translated 122 of Galen's writings (1821-1833) and his edition, which is the most complete although flawed, consists of the Greek text, with Latin translations, and runs to 22 volumes, 676 index pages, and is over 20,000 pages in length. More modern projects like the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum have still to match the Kühn edition. A digital version of the Galen's corpus is included in the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae a digital library of Greek literature started in 1972. Another useful modern source is the French Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médicine (BIUM). It has been reported that Galen employed 20 scribes to write down his words. In 191, a fire in the Temple of Peace destroyed many of his works, particularly treatises on philosophy. Others were lost in the destruction of the Library at Alexandria and in the general chaos associated with the collapse of the Roman Empire. The Arabs captured and preserved some ancient medical texts during the expansion and Golden Age of the Arab Empire - only those works exist today, and some still exist only in Arabic translation, Boylen M. Galen. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy while others exist only in mediaeval Latin translations of the Arabic. In some cases scholars have even attempted to translate back into Greek where the original is lost. Rosen RM. Review of Vivian Nutton (ed.) Galen. On My Own Opinions. Corpus Medicorum Graecorum 5.3.2 Galeni De Proprius Placentis. Bryn Mawr Classical Review August 24 2000 Nutton V. The Patient's Choice: A New Treatise by Galen. The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 40, No. 1 (1990), pp. 236-257 So great was Galen's output in both quantity and authority that no single authoritative collection of his work exists, and controversy still exists as to the authenticity of a number of attributed works. The surviving Greek texts represent half of all the original Greek literature we have today. For some of the ancient sources, such as Herophilus, Galen's account of their work is all that survives. Even in his own time, forgeries and unscrupulous editions of his work were a problem, prompting him to write On his Own Books. Over the years many different titles have appeared for the same treatises. Sources are often in obscure and difficult to access journals or repositories. Forgeries in Latin, Arabic or Greek continued till the Renaissance. Consequently research on Galen's work is fraught with hazard. Although written in Greek, by convention the works are referred to by Latin titles, and often by merely abbreviations of those. Various attempts have been made to classify Galen's vast output. For instance Coxe (1846) lists a Prolegomena, or introductory books, followed by 7 classes of treatise embracing Physiology (28 vols.), Hygiene (12), Aetiology (19), Semeiotics (14), Pharmacy (10), Blood letting (4) and Therapeutics (17), in addition to 4 of aphorisms, and spurious works. Coxe JR. The Writings of Hippocrates and Galen. Epitomised from the Original Latin translations. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1846 Legacy In his time, Galen's reputation as both physician and philosopher was legendary, Nutton V. Galen in the eyes of his contemporaries. BHM 58(3) fall 1984 315-24 the Emperor Marcus Aurelius describing him as "Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum" (first among doctors and unique among philosophers Praen 14: 660). Other contemporary authors in the Greek world confirm this including Theodotus the Shoemaker, Athenaeus and Alexander of Aphrodisias. The 7th century poet George of Pisida going so far as to refer to Christ as a second and neglected Galen. George of Pisida. Hexameron 1.1588f Galen continued to exert an important influence over the theory and practice of medicine until the mid seventeenth century in the Byzantine and Arabic worlds and Europe. Hippocrates and Galen form important landmarks of 600 years of Greek medicine. AJ Brock describes them as representing the foundation and apex respectively. Brock AJ. Introduction. Galen. On the Natural Faculties. Edinburgh 1916 A few centuries after Galen Palladius Iatrosophista in his commentary on Hippocrates, stated that Hippocrates sowed and Galen reaped. Thus Galen summarised and synthesised the work of his predecessors, and it is in Galen's words (Galenism) that Greek medicine was handed down to subsequent generations, such that Galenism became the means by which Greek medicine was known to the world. Frequently this was in the form of restating and reinterpreting, such as in Magnus of Nisibis' fourth century work on urine, which was in turn translated into Arabic. Yet the full importance of his contributions was not appreciated till long after his death. Galen's rhetoric and prolificity were so powerful as to convey the impression that there was little left to learn. The term Galenism has subsequently taken on both a positive and pejorative meaning as one that transformed medicine in late antiquity yet so dominated subsequent thinking as to stifle further progress. Galenism in history The era following Galen's death, and the gradual dissolution of the Roman and then Byzantine Empire was one of continual political turmoil during which scientific study held a low priority. Many commentators of the subsequent centuries such as Oribasius - physician to the emperor Julian who compiled a Synopsis in the 4th Century - preserved and disseminated Galen's works, making Galenism more accessible. Nutton refers to these authors as the "medical refrigerators of antiquity". In late antiquity medical writing veered increasingly in the direction of the theoretical at the expense of the practical. Many authors merely debating Galenism. Magnus of Nisibis was a pure theorist, as was John of Alexandria and Agnellus of Ravenna with their lectures on Galen's De Sectis. Temkin O. Studies on late Alexandrian medicine. Bull Hist Med 3: 405-30, 1935 So strong was Galenism that other authors such as Hippocrates began to be seen through a Galenic lens, while his opponents became marginalised and other medical sects such as Asclepiadism slowly disappeared. Greek medicine was part of Greek culture and as such spread West into Asia through Syria and Persia, largely by the Nestorians. There it came into contact with the Islamic world which assimilated it. Islam Islamic culture placed great emphasis on the teachings of Aristotle and Galen, which they systematised and commented on. O'Leary D. How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London 1949 Hunayn ibn Ishaq translated (c.830-870) 129 works of "Jalinos" Dear P. Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500-1700. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (2001), 37-39 into Arabic. Galen's insistence on a rational systematic approach to medicine set the template for Islamic medicine, which rapidly spread throughout the Arab Empire. Arabic sources, such as Rhazes (Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi 865-925 AD), continue to be the source of discovery of new or relatively inaccessible Galenic writings. As the title, Doubts on Galen by Rhazes implies, G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", The Rational Argumentator, Issue VI as well as the writings of physicians such as Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) and Ibn al-Nafis, Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2): 74-85 [80] the works of Galen were not taken on unquestioningly, but as a challengeable basis for further enquiry. A strong emphasis on experimentation and empiricism led to new results and new observations, which were contrasted and combined with those of Galen by writers such as Rhazes, Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (Haly Abbas), Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulasis), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis. For example, the experiments carried out by Rāzi and Ibn Zuhr contradicted the Galenic theory of humorism, while Ibn al-Nafis' discovery of the pulmonary circulation contradicted the Galenic theory on the heart. S. A. Al-Dabbagh. Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation. The Lancet 1978 311(8074):1148 Reintroduction to Medieval Western culture From the 11th century onwards, Latin translations of Islamic medical texts began to appear in the West, alongside the Salerno school of thought, and were soon incorporated into teaching at the universities of Naples and Montpellier. Galenism now took on a new unquestioned authority, Galen even being referred to as the "Medical Pope of the Middle Ages". Constantine the African was amongst those who carried out translations of both Hippocrates and Galen. Galen's writings on anatomy became the mainstay of the medieval physician's university curriculum, alongside Ibn Sina's The Canon of Medicine which elaborated on Galen's works. Unlike pagan Rome, Christian Europe did not exercise a universal prohibition of the dissection and autopsy of the human body and such examinations were carried out regularly from at least the 13th century. P Prioreschi, Determinants of the revival of dissection of the human body in the Middle Ages', Medical Hypotheses (2001) 56(2), 229–234) However, Galen's influence, as in the Arab world, was so great that when dissections discovered anomalies in Galen's anatomy, the physicians often tried to fit these into the Galenic system. An example of this is Mondino de Liuzzi, who describes rudimentary blood circulation in his writings but still asserts that the left ventricle should contain air. Renaissance The Renaissance and fall of the Byzantine Empire (1453) was accompanied by an influx of Greek scholars and texts to the West, allowing direct comparison between the Arabic commentaries and their Greek originals. This New Learning and the Humanist movement, particularly the work of Thomas Linacre, promoted litterae humaniores including Galen in the Latin scientific canon, De Naturalibus Facultatibus appearing in London in 1523. Debates on medical science now had two traditions, the more conservative Arabian and liberal Greek. The more extreme liberal movements began to challenge the role of authority in medicine, as exemplified by Paracelsus symbolically burning the works of Avicenna and Galen at his medical school in Basle. Nevertheless Galen's pre-eminence amongst the great thinkers of the millennium is exemplified by a 16th century mural in the refectory of the Great Lavra of Mt Athos. This depicts pagan sages at the foot of the Tree of Jesse, with Galen between the Sibyl and Aristotle. Nutton V. From Galen to Alexander, aspects of medicine and medical practice in late antiquity. Dunbarton Oaks Papers. 38, 1984 Downfall of Galenism Galenism's final defeat came from a combination of the negativism of Paracelsus and the constructivism of the Italian Renaissance anatomists, such as Vesalius in the 16th century. In the 1530s, Belgian anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Vesalius' most famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form. Seeking to examine critically Galen's methods and outlook, Vesalius turned to human cadaver dissection as a means of verification. Galen's writings were frequently shown not to describe details present in humans but absent in monkeys by Vesalius, who demonstrated Galen's limitations through books and hands-on demonstrations, despite fierce opposition from pro-Galenist orthodoxy, such as Jacobus Sylvius. Since Galen states that he is using observations of monkeys (human dissection was prohibited) to give an account of what the body looks like,Vesalius could portray himself as using Galen's approach of description of direct observation to create a record of the exact details of the human body, since he worked in a time when human dissection was allowed. Galen argued that monkey anatomy was close enough to humans for physicians to learn anatomy with monkey dissections and then make observations of similar structures in the wounds of their patients, rather than trying to learn anatomy only from wounds in human patients as students being trained by the Empiricist medical sect would. Cosans, C., 1997, “Galen’s Critique of Rationalist and Empiricist Anatomy”, Journal of the History of Biology, 30: 35-54 The examinations of Vesalius also disproved medical theories of Aristotle and Mondino de Liuzzi. One of the most well known examples of Vesalius' overturning of Galenism was his demonstration that the interventricular septum of the heart was not permeable, as Galen had taught (Nat Fac III xv). Another convincing case where understanding of the body was extended beyond where Galen had left it came from these demonstrations of the nature of the circulation and the subsequent work of Andrea Cesalpino, Fabricio of Acquapendente and William Harvey. Some Galenic teaching, such as his emphasis on bloodletting as a remedy for many ailments, however remained influential until well into the 1800s. Brian, P., 1986, Galen on Bloodletting, Cambridge University Press Contemporary scholarship Galenic scholarship remains an intense and vibrant field, following renewed interest in his work, dating from the Altertumswissenschaft. Notes Sources On Galen Boudon-Millot V (ed. and trans.) Galien: Introduction générale; Sur l'ordre de ses propres livres; Sur ses propres livres; Que l'excellent médecin est aussi philosophe Paris: Les Belles Lettres. 2007, 978-2-251-00536-2 Boylen M. Galen. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Debru A. Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium, Lille, 16-18 March 1995 BRILL 1997 ISBN 9004104038, 9789004104037 Dunn PM. Galen (AD 129-200) of Pergamun: anatomist and experimental physiologist. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003 Sep;88(5):F441-3. Gleason MW. Shock and Awe: The Performance Dimension of Galen’s Anatomy Demonstrations. Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics January 2007 Hankinson RJ (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Galen. CUP 2008 ISBN 9780521819541 Ilberg J. Aus Galens Praxis. Neue Jahrbücher für das Klassische Altertum, Geschichte und Deutsche Literatur 15: 276-312, 1905 Peterson DW. Observations on the chronology of the Galenic Corpus. Bull Hist Med 51(3): 484, 1977 Siegel RE. Galen's System of Physiology and Medicine, Basel 1968 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars) Siegel RE. Galen on Sense Perception, His Doctrines, Observations and Experiments on Vision, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Touch and Pain, and Their Historical Sources. Karger, Basel 1970 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars) Siegel RE. Galen on Psychology, Psychopathology, and Function and Diseases of the Nervous System 1973 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars) Temkin O. Galenism: Rise and Decline of a Medical Philosophy. Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1973 Galenic bibliography Kotrc RF, Walters KR. A bibliography of the Galenic Corpus. A newly researched list and arrangement of the titles of the treatises extant in Greek, Latin, and Arabic. Trans Stud Coll Physicians Phila. 1979 December;1(4):256-304 On Ancient Medicine van der Eijk P. Medicine and Philosophy in Classical Antiquity: Doctors and Philosophers on Nature, Soul, Health and Disease. Cambridge University Press, 2005 ISBN 0521818001, 9780521818001 Mattern SP. Physicians and the Roman Imperial Aristocracy: The Patronage of Therapeutics. Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Volume 73, Number 1, Spring 1999, pp. 1-18 Muhaqqiq M. Medical Sects in Islam. al-Tawhid Islamic Journal, vol. VIII, No.2 Nutton V. Roman Medicine, 250 BC to AD 200, and Medicine in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, in Lawrence C.(ed.) The Western Medical Tradition: 800-1800 A.D. 1995 Nutton V. Ancient Medicine. Routledge, 2004 ISBN 0415086116, 9780415086110 Osler W. The Evolution of Modern Medicine 1913. Plain Label Books 1987. Chapter II: Greek Medicine Taylor HO. Greek Biology And Medicine. Marshall Jones 1922. Chapter 5: The Final System - Galen The Cambridge Ancient History: Second Edition. XI The High Empire A.D. 70-192 Cambridge University Press, 2000 ISBN 0521263352, 9780521263351 On the History of Medicine French RK. Medicine Before Science: The Rational and Learned Doctor from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521007615, 9780521007610 On Philosophy Hankinson RJ. Cause and explanation in ancient Greek thought. Oxford University Press, 1998 ISBN 0199246564, 9780199246564 Algra K (ed.) The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0521250285, 9780521250283 On classical texts Smith WG. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. J Walton 1849 Thesaurus Linguae Graecae: TLG On related topics Metzger BM. New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. BRILL 1980 ISBN 9004061630, 9789004061637 Watson PB. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Harper & brothers, 1884 Everson S. (ed.) Language. Cambridge University Press, 1994 ISBN 0521357950, 9780521357951 See also Ancient Greek medicine Aeschrion of Pergamon Hippocrates Antonine Plague Galenic formulation Humorism Timeline of medicine and medical technology External links Galen. De pulsibus. (Manuscript; Venice, ca. 1550). This Greek manuscript of Galen’s treatise on the pulse is interleaved with a Latin translation. Works Hypertexts - Medicina Antiqua, University College London(Commentary on Hippocrates' On the Nature of Man; On the Natural Faculties; Exhortation to Study the Arts: To Menodotus; On Diagnosis from Dreams)'' Classicsindex: Galen Commentaries University of Virginia: Health Sciences Library. Galen University of Dayton: Galen of Pergamum Channel 4 - History - Ancient surgery Lienhard JH. Engines of our Ingenuity, Number 2097 - Constantine the African Nutton V. Galen of Pergamum, Encyclopedia Britannica Pearcy L. Galen: A biographical sketch. Medicina Antiqua Taylor HO. Greek Biology and Medicine 1922: Chapter 5 - "The Final System: Galen" Galenus von Pergamon - Leben und Werk. 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3,688 | James_Lind | James Lind|A portrait of Scottish doctor James Lind (1716-1794) James Lind (1716 in Edinburgh – 1794 in Gosport) was a pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy. By conducting the first ever clinical trial, he developed the theory that citrus fruits cured scurvy. He argued for the health benefits of better ventilation aboard naval ships, including improved clothing and cleanliness of sailors and below-deck fumigation with sulphur and arsenic. He also proposed that fresh water could be obtained by distilling sea water. By his work he also influenced practices of preventive medicine and good nutrition among Scottish soldiers. Early life Lind was born in Edinburgh in 1716. In 1731 he began his medical studies as an apprentice of George Bush Langlands, a fellow of the Incorporation of Surgeons which preceded the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. In 1739, he entered the Navy as an on-board cleaner, serving in the Mediterranean, off the coast of West Africa, and in the West Indies. By 1747 he had become head cleaner and gardener of in the Channel Fleet. A year later he retired from the Navy, wrote his La Gardening treatise on venereal diseases, and was granted a license to garden hydroponics in Edinburgh, Scotland. Legacy A cure for scurvy Scurvy is a disease now known to be caused by a deficiency of vitamin C, but in Lind's day, the concept of vitamins was unknown. Vitamin C is necessary for the maintenance of healthy connective tissue. In 1740 the catastrophic result of Anson's circumnavigation attracted much attention in Europe; out of 1900 men, 1400 had died, most of them allegedly from having contracted scurvy. According to Lind, scurvy caused more deaths in the British fleets than French and Spanish arms. Brown, Stephen R. (2003). Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner, and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312313918 Since the 1600s, it had been known that citrus fruit had an antiscorbutic effect, when John Woodall (1570 – 1643), an English military surgeon of the British East India Company recommended them Rogers, Everett M. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations. New York, NY: The Free Press. ISBN 0743222091. Page 7. but their use wasn't widespread. Although Lind was not the first to suggest citrus fruit as a cure for scurvy, he was the first to study their effect by a systematic experiment in 1747. Carlisle, Rodney (2004). Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries, p.393. John Wiley & Songs, Inc., New Jersey. ISBN 0471244104. It ranks as one of the first clinical experiments in the history of medicine. Lind thought that scurvy was due to putrefaction of the body which could be prevented by acids; that is why he chose to experiment with dietary supplements of acidic quality. In his experiment he divided twelve scorbutic sailors into six groups. They all received the same diet, and in addition group one was given a quart of cider daily, group two twenty-five drops of elixir of vitriol (sulfuric acid), group three six spoonful of vinegar, group four half a pint of seawater, group five received two oranges and one lemon and the last group a spicy paste plus a drink of barley water. The treatment of group five stopped after six days when they ran out of fruit, but by that time one sailor was fit for duty and the other had almost recovered. Apart from that, only group one also showed some effect of its treatment. Shortly after this experiment Lind retired from the Navy and at first practised privately as a physician. In 1753 he published A treatise of the scurvy, which was virtually ignored. In 1758 he was appointed chief physician of the Royal Naval Hospital Haslar at Portsmouth. When James Cook went on his first voyage he carried wort (0.1 mg vitamin C per 100 g), sauerkraut (10-15 mg per 100 g) and a syrup of oranges and lemons (the juice contains 40-60 mg of vitamin C per 100 g) as antiscorbutics, but only the results of the trials on wort were published. In 1762 Lind’s Essay on the most effectual means of preserving the health of seamen appeared. In it he recommended growing salad, i.e. watercress (662 mg vitamin C per 100 g) on wet blankets. This was actually put in practice, and in the winter of 1775 the British Army in North America was supplied with mustard and cress seeds. Lind also continued to advocate citrus fruit. But because he – and most other physicians – still believed that their curative effect was due to the acid, it was reasonable to substitute them with cheaper acids. It was Gilbert Blane who implemented citrus fruit. In an experiment in 1794 lemon juice was issued on board the Suffolk on a twenty-three week, non-stop voyage to India. The daily ration of two-thirds of an ounce mixed in grog contained just about the minimum daily intake of 10 mg vitamin C. There was no serious outbreak of scurvy. The following year the Admiralty took up the general issue of lemon juice to the whole fleet. This was not the end of scurvy in the Navy, as lemon juice was considered as a cure for scurvy and consequentially was dispensed by the ship's surgeon. Only after 1800 were the preventive qualities increasingly recognised. Macdonald, Janet (2006). Feeding Nelson’s Navy. The True Story of Food at Sea in the Georgian Era. Chatham, London. ISBN 1-86176-288-7, p. 154-166. Fresh water from the sea In the 18th century sailors took along water and cordial and milk in casks. According to the Regulations and Instructions relating to His Majesty's Service at Sea, which had been published for the first time in 1733 by the Admiralty, sailors were entitled to a gallon of weak beer daily (5/6 of the usual British gallon, equivalent to the modern American gallon or slightly more than three and a half litres). As the beer had been boiled in the brewing process it was reasonably free from bacteria and lasted for months unlike water kept in a cask for the same time. In the Mediterranean, wine was also issued, often fortified with brandy. For example, a frigate with 240 men, equipped with stores for four months, carried more than hundred tons of drink. Water quality depended on the original source of the water, the condition of the casks and for how long it had been kept. During normal times sailors weren't allowed to take any water away. When water got scarce, it was rationed and rain water was collected with spread sails. Fresh water was also collected when an opportunity presented itself en voyage, but watering places were often marshy, and in the tropics infested by malaria. In 1759, Lind discovered that the steam of heated salt water was fresh. He also proposed to use solar energy for the distillation of water. But only when a new type of cooking stove was introduced in 1810 did the possibility arise of producing fresh water by distillation on a useful scale. Family Lind's son, James Lind also embarked on a career with the navy. He served at sea for a number of years, rising to the rank of post-captain, and being notable for his role in the Battle of Vizagapatam in 1804, for which he was knighted. He died a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in 1823. Notes References External links James Lind Library (including biography and extracts from Lind's most important works) The Lind pages with reference to the Lind family in general including a family tree and other family documents The James Lind Alliance, part of the James Lind Initiative to involve patients and clinicians in prioritising treatment uncertainties for clinical research | James_Lind |@lemmatized james:8 lind:20 portrait:1 scottish:2 doctor:1 edinburgh:4 gosport:1 pioneer:1 naval:3 hygiene:1 royal:3 navy:7 conduct:1 first:7 ever:1 clinical:3 trial:2 develop:1 theory:1 citrus:5 fruit:6 cure:4 scurvy:12 argue:1 health:2 benefit:1 good:2 ventilation:1 aboard:1 ship:2 include:3 improve:1 clothing:1 cleanliness:1 sailor:6 deck:1 fumigation:1 sulphur:1 arsenic:1 also:8 propose:2 fresh:5 water:16 could:2 obtain:1 distil:1 sea:5 work:2 influence:1 practice:2 preventive:2 medicine:2 nutrition:1 among:1 soldier:1 early:1 life:1 bear:1 begin:1 medical:2 study:2 apprentice:1 george:1 bush:1 langlands:1 fellow:1 incorporation:1 surgeon:5 precede:1 college:1 enter:1 board:2 cleaner:2 serve:2 mediterranean:2 coast:1 west:2 africa:1 indie:1 become:1 head:1 gardener:1 channel:1 fleet:3 year:3 later:1 retire:2 write:1 la:1 garden:2 treatise:2 venereal:1 disease:2 grant:1 license:1 hydroponics:1 scotland:1 legacy:1 know:2 cause:2 deficiency:1 vitamin:7 c:6 day:2 concept:1 unknown:1 necessary:1 maintenance:1 healthy:1 connective:1 tissue:1 catastrophic:1 result:2 anson:1 circumnavigation:1 attract:1 much:1 attention:1 europe:1 men:2 die:2 allegedly:1 contract:1 accord:2 death:1 british:4 french:1 spanish:1 arm:1 brown:1 stephen:1 r:1 mariner:1 gentleman:1 solve:1 great:1 mystery:1 age:1 sail:2 new:4 york:2 ny:2 st:1 martin:1 press:2 isbn:4 since:1 antiscorbutic:1 effect:4 john:2 woodall:1 english:1 military:1 east:1 india:2 company:1 recommend:2 rogers:1 everett:1 diffusion:1 innovation:1 free:2 page:2 use:2 widespread:1 although:1 suggest:1 systematic:1 experiment:6 carlisle:1 rodney:1 scientific:1 american:2 invention:1 discovery:1 p:2 wiley:1 song:1 inc:1 jersey:1 rank:2 one:5 history:1 think:1 due:2 putrefaction:1 body:1 prevent:1 acid:4 choose:1 dietary:1 supplement:1 acidic:1 quality:3 divide:1 twelve:1 scorbutic:1 six:3 group:9 receive:2 diet:1 addition:1 give:1 quart:1 cider:1 daily:4 two:3 twenty:2 five:3 drop:1 elixir:1 vitriol:1 sulfuric:1 three:3 spoonful:1 vinegar:1 four:2 half:2 pint:1 seawater:1 orange:2 lemon:5 last:2 spicy:1 paste:1 plus:1 drink:2 barley:1 treatment:3 stop:2 run:1 time:4 fit:1 duty:1 almost:1 recover:1 apart:1 show:1 shortly:1 practise:1 privately:1 physician:3 publish:3 virtually:1 ignore:1 appoint:1 chief:1 hospital:1 haslar:1 portsmouth:1 cook:2 go:1 voyage:3 carry:2 wort:2 mg:5 per:4 g:4 sauerkraut:1 syrup:1 juice:4 contain:2 antiscorbutics:1 essay:1 effectual:1 mean:1 preserve:1 seaman:1 appear:1 grow:1 salad:1 e:1 watercress:1 wet:1 blanket:1 actually:1 put:1 winter:1 army:1 north:1 america:1 supply:1 mustard:1 cress:1 seed:1 continue:1 advocate:1 still:1 believe:1 curative:1 reasonable:1 substitute:1 cheap:1 gilbert:1 blane:1 implement:1 issue:3 suffolk:1 week:1 non:1 ration:2 third:1 ounce:1 mixed:1 grog:1 minimum:1 intake:1 serious:1 outbreak:1 following:1 admiralty:2 take:3 general:2 whole:1 end:1 consider:1 consequentially:1 dispense:1 increasingly:1 recognise:1 macdonald:1 janet:1 feed:1 nelson:1 true:1 story:1 food:1 georgian:1 era:1 chatham:1 london:1 century:1 along:1 cordial:1 milk:1 cask:3 regulation:1 instruction:1 relate:1 majesty:1 service:1 entitle:1 gallon:3 weak:1 beer:2 usual:1 equivalent:1 modern:1 slightly:1 litres:1 boil:1 brewing:1 process:1 reasonably:1 bacteria:1 month:2 unlike:1 kept:1 wine:1 often:2 fortify:1 brandy:1 example:1 frigate:1 equip:1 store:1 hundred:1 ton:1 depend:1 original:1 source:1 condition:1 long:1 keep:1 normal:1 allow:1 away:1 get:1 scarce:1 rain:1 collect:2 spread:1 opportunity:1 present:1 en:1 place:1 marshy:1 tropic:1 infest:1 malaria:1 discover:1 steam:1 heat:1 salt:1 solar:1 energy:1 distillation:2 type:1 stove:1 introduce:1 possibility:1 arise:1 produce:1 useful:1 scale:1 family:4 son:1 embark:1 career:1 number:1 rise:1 post:1 captain:1 notable:1 role:1 battle:1 vizagapatam:1 knight:2 commander:1 order:1 bath:1 note:1 reference:2 external:1 link:1 library:1 biography:1 extract:1 important:1 tree:1 document:1 alliance:1 part:1 initiative:1 involve:1 patient:1 clinician:1 prioritise:1 uncertainty:1 research:1 |@bigram clinical_trial:1 citrus_fruit:5 cure_scurvy:4 preventive_medicine:1 west_indie:1 venereal_disease:1 connective_tissue:1 dietary_supplement:1 sulfuric_acid:1 orange_lemon:1 lemon_juice:4 external_link:1 |
3,689 | Geography_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo | Map of the DR of the Congo Topography of the Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo includes the greater part of the Congo River Basin, which covers an area of almost 1 million square kilometers (400,000 sq. mi.). The country's only outlet to the Atlantic Ocean is a narrow strip of land on the north bank of the Congo River. The vast, low-lying central area is a basin-shaped plateau sloping toward the west and covered by tropical rainforest. This area is surrounded by mountainous terraces in the west, plateaus merging into savannas in the south and southwest, and dense grasslands extending beyond the Congo River in the north. High mountains above 5,000 m are found in the extreme eastern region in the Ruwenzori Range. The DRC lies on the Equator, with one-third of the country to the north and two-thirds to the south. The climate is hot and humid in the river basin and cool and dry in the southern highlands, with a cold, alpine climate in the Ruwenzori Range. There is a South of the Equator, the rainy season lasts from October to May and north of the Equator, from April to November. Along the Equator, rainfall is fairly regular throughout the year. During the wet season, thunderstorms often are violent but seldom last more than a few hours. The average rainfall for the entire country is about . Despite being on the Equator, snow does fall in the country in the high Ruwenzori Range. Location: Central Africa, northeast of Angola Geographic coordinates: Map references: Africa Area: total: 2,345,410 km2 land: 2,267,600 km2 water: 77,810 km2 Area - comparative: slightly less than one-fourth the size of the US Land boundaries: total: 10,744 km border countries: Angola 2,511 km, Burundi 233 km, Central African Republic 1,577 km, Republic of the Congo 2,410 km, Rwanda 217 km, Sudan 628 km, Tanzania 473 km, Uganda 765 km, Zambia 1,930 km Coastline: .) Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: boundaries with neighbors territorial sea: 12 nm Climate: tropical; hot and humid in equatorial river basin; cooler and drier in southern highlands; cooler-cold and wetter in eastern highlands and the Ruwenzori Range; north of Equator - wet season April to October, dry season December to February; south of Equator - wet season November to March, dry season April to October Location of country on world map Terrain: vast central basin is a low-lying plateau; mountains in east Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Pic Marguerite on Mont Ngaliema (Mount Stanley) 5,110 m Natural resources: cobalt, copper, cadmium, petroleum, industrial and gem diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, germanium, uranium, radium, bauxite, iron ore, coal, hydropower, timber Land use: arable land: 2.96% (1998 est), 3% (1993 est.) permanent crops: 0.52% (1998 est.), 0% (1993 est.) permanent pastures: 7% (1993 est.) forests and woodland: 77% (1993 est.) other: 96.52 (1998 est.), 13% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 110 km2 (1998 est.), 100 km2 (1993 est.) Natural hazards: periodic droughts in south; Congo River floods (seasonal); in the east, in the Great Rift Valley, there are active volcanoes Environment - current issues: poaching threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; deforestation; refugees responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching; mining of minerals (coltan — a mineral used in creating capacitors, diamonds, and gold) causing environmental damage Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification Geography - note: straddles Equator; very narrow strip of land that controls the lower Congo River and is only outlet to South Atlantic Ocean; dense tropical rain forest in central river basin and eastern highlands See also Democratic Republic of the Congo | Geography_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo |@lemmatized map:3 dr:1 congo:10 topography:1 democratic:3 republic:5 include:1 great:2 part:1 river:8 basin:6 cover:2 area:5 almost:1 million:1 square:1 kilometer:1 sq:1 mi:1 country:6 outlet:2 atlantic:3 ocean:3 narrow:2 strip:2 land:7 north:5 bank:1 vast:2 low:4 lie:3 central:5 shaped:1 plateau:2 slop:1 toward:1 west:2 tropical:5 rainforest:1 surround:1 mountainous:1 terrace:1 plateaus:1 merge:1 savanna:1 south:6 southwest:1 dense:2 grassland:1 extend:1 beyond:1 high:3 mountain:2 find:1 extreme:2 eastern:3 region:1 ruwenzori:4 range:4 drc:1 equator:8 one:2 third:2 two:1 climate:4 hot:2 humid:2 cool:1 dry:3 southern:2 highland:4 cold:2 alpine:1 rainy:1 season:6 last:2 october:3 may:1 april:3 november:2 along:1 rainfall:2 fairly:1 regular:1 throughout:1 year:1 wet:3 thunderstorm:1 often:1 violent:1 seldom:1 hour:1 average:1 entire:1 despite:1 snow:1 fall:1 location:2 africa:2 northeast:1 angola:2 geographic:1 coordinate:1 reference:1 total:2 water:2 comparative:1 slightly:1 less:1 fourth:1 size:1 u:1 boundary:2 km:10 border:1 burundi:1 african:1 rwanda:1 sudan:1 tanzania:1 uganda:1 zambia:1 coastline:1 maritime:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:1 neighbor:1 territorial:1 sea:2 nm:1 equatorial:1 cooler:2 drier:1 wetter:1 december:1 february:1 march:1 world:1 terrain:1 east:2 elevation:1 point:2 pic:1 marguerite:1 mont:1 ngaliema:1 mount:1 stanley:1 natural:2 resource:1 cobalt:1 copper:1 cadmium:1 petroleum:1 industrial:1 gem:1 diamond:2 gold:2 silver:1 zinc:1 manganese:1 tin:1 germanium:1 uranium:1 radium:1 bauxite:1 iron:1 ore:1 coal:1 hydropower:1 timber:3 use:2 arable:1 est:10 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:2 woodland:1 irrigated:1 hazard:1 periodic:1 drought:1 flood:1 seasonal:1 rift:1 valley:1 active:1 volcano:1 environment:2 current:1 issue:1 poaching:2 threaten:1 wildlife:2 population:1 pollution:1 deforestation:2 refugees:1 responsible:1 significant:1 soil:1 erosion:1 mining:1 mineral:2 coltan:1 create:1 capacitor:1 cause:1 environmental:2 damage:1 international:1 agreement:1 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 desertification:1 endanger:1 specie:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 law:1 marine:1 dumping:1 nuclear:1 test:1 ban:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 wetland:1 sign:1 ratify:1 modification:1 geography:1 note:1 straddle:1 control:1 rain:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram republic_congo:4 square_kilometer:1 kilometer_sq:1 sq_mi:1 atlantic_ocean:3 tropical_rainforest:1 ruwenzori_range:4 hot_humid:2 rainy_season:1 geographic_coordinate:1 cooler_drier:1 gold_silver:1 iron_ore:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 periodic_drought:1 rift_valley:1 active_volcano:1 deforestation_soil:1 soil_erosion:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 hazardous_waste:1 marine_dumping:1 dumping_nuclear:1 ozone_layer:1 tropical_timber:2 timber_tropical:1 timber_wetland:1 straddle_equator:1 rain_forest:1 |
3,690 | Coitus_interruptus | Coitus interruptus, also known as withdrawal or the pull-out method, is a method of contraception in which a couple has sexual intercourse, but semen is ejaculated outside of and away from the vagina. Coitus interruptus may also more generally refer to any extraction of the penis prior to ejaculation during intercourse. This method has been widely used for at least 2,000 years and was used by an estimated 38 million couples worldwide in 1991. , which cites: Population Action International (1991). "A Guide to Methods of Birth Control." Briefing Paper No. 25, Washington, D. C. Efficacy Like many methods of birth control, reliable effectiveness is achieved only by correct and consistent use. Observed failure rates of withdrawal vary depending on the population being studied: studies have found actual failure rates of 15-28% per year. , which cites: In comparison the pill has an actual use failure rate of 2-8%, - see table First-Year Contraceptive Failure Rates while the intrauterine device (IUD) has an actual use failure rate of 0.8%. The condom has an actual use failure rate of 10-18%. (see Comparison of birth control methods) For couples that use coitus interruptus correctly at every act of intercourse, the failure rate is 4% per year. In comparison the pill has a perfect-use failure rate of 0.3%, and the IUD has a perfect-use failure rate of 0.6%. The condom has a perfect-use failure rate of 2%. The primary cause of failure of the withdrawal method is the lack of self-control of those using it. Poor timing of the withdrawal can result in semen on the vulva, which can easily migrate into the female reproductive tract. Some medical professionals view withdrawal as an ineffective method of birth control. In contrast, a recent study in Iran found that provinces with higher rates of withdrawal use do not have higher fertility rates, and that the contribution of withdrawal use to unintended pregnancies is not markedly different from that of other commonly used methods such as the pill or condom. It has been suggested that the pre-ejaculate ("Cowper's fluid") emitted by the penis prior to ejaculation contains spermatozoa (sperm cells), which can easily pass into the upper female genital tract in the presence of cervical mucus. However, several small studies have failed to find any viable sperm in the fluid. While no large conclusive studies have been done, it is now believed the primary cause of method (correct-use) failure is the pre-ejaculate fluid picking up sperm from a previous ejaculation. For this reason, it is recommended that users of withdrawal have the male partner urinate between ejaculations, to clear the urethra of sperm, and wash any ejaculate from objects that might come near the woman's vulva (e.g. hands and penis). Advantages The advantage of coitus interruptus is that it can be used by people who have objections to or do not have access to other forms of contraception. (Some men prefer it so they can avoid possible adverse effects of hormonal contraceptives on their partners. ) Some women also prefer this method over hormonal contraception to avoid adverse effects such as depression, mood swings, vaginal dryness, decreased libido, and headaches, among others. It has no direct monetary cost, requires no artificial devices, has no physical side effects, can be practiced without a prescription or medical consultation, and provides no barriers to stimulation. Disadvantages Compared to the common reversible methods of IUDs, hormonal contraceptives, and male condoms, coitus interruptus is less effective at preventing pregnancy. As a result, it is also less cost-effective than many more effective methods: although the method itself has little direct cost, users have a greater chance of incurring the risks and expenses of pregnancy and child-birth. Only models that assume all couples practice perfect use of the method find cost savings associated with the choice of withdrawal as a birth control method. The method is largely ineffective in the prevention of STDs, like HIV, since pre-ejaculate may carry viral particles or bacteria which may infect the partner if this fluid comes in contact with mucous membranes. However, a reduction in the volume of bodily fluids exchanged during intercourse may reduce the likelihood of disease transmission compared to using no method due to the smaller number of pathogens present. The method may be difficult for some couples to use. The interruption of intercourse may leave some couples sexually frustrated or dissatisfied. Prevalence Worldwide, 3% of women of childbearing age rely on withdrawal as their primary method of contraception. Regional popularity of the method varies widely, from a low of 1% on the African continent to 16% in Western Asia. (Data from surveys during the late 1990s). In the United States, studies have indicated 56% of women of reproductive age have had a partner use withdrawal. In 2002, 2.5% were using withdrawal as their primary method of contraception. See Tables 53 and 56. 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3,691 | History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo | Early Congolese history map of the Kingdom of Kongo The area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo was populated as early as 10,000 years ago and settled in the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. by Bantus from present-day Nigeria. During its history the area has also been known as Congo, Congo Free State, Belgian Congo and Zaire. The Kingdom of Kongo was a powerful kingdom that existed from the 14th to the 18th century. It was the dominant force in the region until the arrival of the Portuguese. Second in importance was the Anziku Kingdom. European colonization Congo Free State (1885–1908) Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule The Congo Free State was a corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II, King of the Belgians through the Association Internationale Africaine, a non-governmental organization. Leopold was the sole shareholder and chairman. The state included the entire area of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo. Under Leopold II's administration, the Congo Free State became the site of one of the most infamous international scandals of the turn of the twentieth century. The report of the British Consul Roger Casement led to the arrest and punishment of white officials who had been responsible for cold-blooded killings during a rubber-collecting expedition in 1903, including one Belgian national for causing the shooting of at least 122 Congolese natives. Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. In the absence of a census, the first was made in 1924, it is even more difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Roger Casement's famous 1904 report estimated three million people. According to Casement's report, indiscriminate "war", starvation, reduction of births and tropical diseases caused the country's depopulation. Report of the British Consul, Roger Casement, on the Administration of the Congo Free State The European and U.S. press agencies exposed the conditions in the Congo Free State to the public in 1900. By 1908 public and diplomatic pressure led Leopold II to the annex the Congo as the Belgian Congo colony. Belgian Congo (1908–1960) On November 15, 1908 King Léopold II of Belgium formally relinquished personal control of the Congo Free State. The renamed Belgian Congo came under the administration of the Belgian parliament, which lasted until independence was granted in 1960. The Belgian administration might be most charitably characterized as paternalistic colonialism. Roman Catholic and Protestant churches dominated the education system and the curricula reflected Christian and Western values. In 1948 Christian missions controlled 99.6% of educational facilities. They had little regard for native culture and beliefs. Native schools provided a mainly religious and vocational education. The Congo Crisis (1960–1965) Patrice Lumumba Following a series of riots and unrest, the Belgians realised they could not maintain control of such a vast country. The Belgians announced on January 27, 1960 that they would relinquish control in six months. The Congo was granted its independence on June 30, 1960, adopting the name "Republic of the Congo" (République du Congo). As the French colony of Middle Congo (Moyen Congo) also chose the name Republic of Congo upon receiving its independence, the two countries were more commonly known as Congo-Léopoldville and Congo-Brazzaville, after their capital cities. President Mobutu changed the country's official name to Zaire in 1966. In 1960, the country was in a very unstable state—regional tribal leaders held far more power than the central government—and with the departure of the Belgian administrators, there were almost no skilled bureaucrats left in the country. The first Congolese university graduate was only in 1956, and virtually no one in the new nation had any idea of how to manage a country of such size. Parliamentary elections in 1960 produced the nationalist Patrice Lumumba as prime minister and pro-Western Joseph Kasavubu as president of the renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo. Even from this fleeting moment of independence democracy began to unravel. A military coup broke out in the capital and rampant looting began. On July 11 the richest province of the country, Katanga, seceded under Moise Tshombe. The United Nations sent 20,000 peacekeepers to protect Europeans in the country and try to restore order. Western paramilitaries and mercenaries, often hired by mining companies to protect their interests, also began to pour into the country. In this same period Congo's second richest province, Kasai, also announced its independence. Prime Minister Lumumba turned to the USSR for assistance. Nikita Khrushchev agreed to help, offering advanced weaponry and technical advisors. The United States viewed the Soviet presence as an attempt to take advantage of the situation and gain a proxy state in sub-Saharan Africa. UN forces were ordered to block any shipments of arms into the country. The United States also looked for a way to replace Lumumba as leader. President Kasavubu had clashed with Prime Minister Lumumba and advocated an alliance with the West rather than the Soviets. The U.S. sent weapons and CIA personnel to aid forces allied with Kasavubu and combat the Soviet presence. In December 1960, with U.S. and CIA support, Kasavubu and his loyal Colonel Joseph Mobutu overthrew the government. Lumumba was assassinated by Mobutu cronies with support of the Belgian government soon after; some have alleged that U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower gave the CIA direct orders to assassinate Lumumba, but this has never been confirmed. According the same sources, the American government was also in support of such an action. After some reverses, UN and Congolese government forces succeeded in recapturing the breakaway provinces of Katanga and South Kasai. In Stanleyville, those loyal to the deposed Lumumba set up a rival government under Antoine Gizenga. Belgian, British, and U.S. troops helped end the rebellion. Zaire (1965–1996) Mobutu Sese Seko Unrest and rebellion plagued the government until 1965, when Lieutenant General Mobutu, by then commander in chief of the national army, seized control of the country and declared himself president for five years. Mobutu quickly consolidated his power and was elected unopposed as president in 1970. Embarking on a campaign of cultural awareness, Mobutu renamed the country the Republic of Zaire and required citizens to adopt African names. Relative peace and stability prevailed until 1977 and 1978 when Katangan rebels, based in Angola, launched a series of invasions into the Shaba (Katanga) region. The rebels were driven out with the aid of Belgian paratroopers. Zaire remained a one-party state in the 1980s. Although Mobutu successfully maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism. As the Cold War came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his massive embezzlement of government funds for personal use. In April 1990, Mobutu declared the Third Republic, agreeing to a limited multi-party system with elections and a constitution. As details of a reform package were delayed, soldiers in September 1991 began looting Kinshasa to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on U.S. Air Force planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa. In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop Laurent Monsengwo as its chairman, along with Étienne Tshisekedi wa Mulumba, leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the High Council of Republic-Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and Kengo Wa Dondo as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next two years, they never took place. First and Second Congo Wars (1996–2003) By 1996, tensions from the neighboring Rwanda war and genocide had spilled over to Zaire: see History of Rwanda. Rwandan Hutu militia forces (Interahamwe), who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of a Tutsi-led government, had been using Hutu refugees camps in eastern Zaire as a basis for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire. In turn, these Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks. When the Zairian government began to escalate its massacres in November 1996, the Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu. The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by Laurent-Desire Kabila, became known as the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (AFDL). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila in May 1997, Mobutu left the country, and Kabila marched unopposed to Kinshasa on May 20. Kabila named himself president, consolidated power around himself and the AFDL, and reverted the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of Congo. Kabila demonstrated little ability to manage the problems of his country, and lost his allies. Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), led by the warlord Jean-Pierre Bemba, attacked in August 1998, backed by Rwandan and Ugandan troops. Soon afterwards, Angola, Zimbabwe and Namibia became involved militarily in the DRC, with Zimbabwe and Angola supporting the government. While the six African governments involved in the war signed a ceasefire accord in Lusaka in July 1999, the Congolese rebels did not and the ceasefire broke down within months. Kabila was assassinated in January 2001 by one of his bodyguards, and was succeeded by his son Joseph. Upon taking office Kabila called for multilateral peace talks to end the war. He partly succeeded in February 2001 when a further peace deal was brokered between Kabila, Rwanda and Uganda leading to the apparent withdrawal of foreign troops. UN peacekeepers, MONUC, arrived in April 2001. Currently the Ugandans and the MLC still hold a wide section of the north of the country; Rwandan forces and its front, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD) control a large section of the east; and government forces or their allies hold the west and south of the country. There were reports that the conflict is being prolonged as a cover for extensive looting of the substantial natural resources in the country, including diamonds, copper, zinc, and coltan. The conflict was reignited in January 2002 by ethnic clashes in the northeast and both Uganda and Rwanda then halted their withdrawal and sent in more troops. Talks between Kabila and the rebel leaders, held in Sun City, lasted a full six weeks, beginning in April 2002. In June they signed a peace accord in which Kabila would share power with former rebels. By June 2003 all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo. Transitional government (2003–2006) DR Congo had a transitional government in July 2003 until the election was over. A constitution was approved by voters and on July 30, 2006 the Congo held its first multi-party elections since independence in 1960. After this Joseph Kabila took 45% of the votes and his opponent Jean-Pierre Bemba took 20%. That was the origin of a fight between the two parts from August 20-22, 2006 in the streets of the capital, Kinshasa. Sixteen people died before policemen and UN mission MONUC took control of the city. A new election was held on October 29, 2006, which Kabila won with 70% of the vote. Bemba has publicly commented on election "irregularities," despite the fact that every neutral observer has praised the elections. On December 6, 2006 the Transitional Government came to an end as Joseph Kabila was sworn in as President. Significant conflicts The fragility of the state has allowed continued violence and human rights abuses in the east. There are three significant centers of conflict: North and South Kivu, where Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) continues to threaten the Rwandan border and the Banyamulenge, and where Rwanda supports RCD-Goma rebels against Kinshasa (see Kivu war). Ituri, where MONUC has proved unable to contain the numerous militia and groups driving the Ituri conflict Northern Katanga, where Mai-Mai created by Laurent Kabila slipped out of the control of Kinshasa. Former names of cities The following table shows the names that were formerly used in French and Dutch for major cities, during the colonial period. Both languages now use the modern (Congolese) names. Current Name Former name in French Former name in Dutch Bandundu Banningville Bukavu Costermansville Djokupunda Charlesvilles Goma Ilebo Port-Francqui Isiro Paulis Kalemie Albertville Albertstad Kananga Lualabourg Lualaburg Kikwit Kindu Kinshasa Léopoldville Leopoldstad Kisangani Stanleyville Stanleystad Current Name Former name in French Former name in Dutch Kolwezi Likasi Jadotville Jadotstad Lubumbashi Elisabethville Elisabethstad Lukutu Lusanga Leverville Leverstad Mbandaka Coquilhatville Cocquilhatstad Mbanza-Ngungu Thysville Thysstad Moba Baudoinville Boudewijnstad Mobaye-Mbongo Banzyville Banzystad Mbuji-Mayi Bakwanga Ubundu Ponthierville Ponthierstad Further reading Forbath, Peter. (1977) The River Congo, Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-122490-1. Conrad, Joseph. (1902) Heart of Darkness. (fiction) Gondola, Ch. Didier. (2002) The History of Congo, Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-31696-1. Covers Congolese history from the prehistoric period to 2002. Hall, Richard. (1974) Stanley: an adventurer explored, Purnell. Kingsolver, Barbara. (1998) The Poisonwood Bible, HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-017540-0. (fiction) Pakenham, Thomas. (1991) The scramble for Africa, Abacus. ISBN 0-349-10449-2. Rodney, Walter. (1974) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, Howard University Press. ISBN 0-88258-013-2. Hochschild, Adam. (1999) King Leopold's Ghost, Mariner Books. ISBN 0-618-00190-5. Butcher, Tim. (2007) Blood River: A Journey to Africa's Broken Heart, Chatto & Windus. ISBN 0-7011-7981-3. References External links "Reforming the Heart of Darkness" Concerning the Congo under Léopold II BBC, Country profile: Democratic Republic of Congo BBC, DR Congo: Key facts BBC, Q&A: DR Congo conflict Timeline: Democratic Republic of Congo BBC, In pictures: Congo crisis | History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo |@lemmatized early:4 congolese:8 history:5 map:1 kingdom:4 kongo:2 area:3 know:4 democratic:7 republic:11 congo:41 populate:1 year:4 ago:1 settle:1 century:3 bantu:1 present:2 day:1 nigeria:1 also:6 free:7 state:16 belgian:15 zaire:8 powerful:1 exist:1 dominant:1 force:12 region:2 arrival:1 portuguese:1 second:3 importance:1 anziku:1 european:3 colonization:1 child:1 mutilate:1 king:4 leopold:6 ii:6 rule:1 corporate:1 privately:1 control:10 association:1 internationale:1 africaine:1 non:1 governmental:1 organization:1 sole:1 shareholder:1 chairman:2 include:4 entire:1 administration:4 become:3 site:1 one:5 infamous:1 international:3 scandal:1 turn:3 twentieth:1 report:5 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elisabethstad:1 lukutu:1 lusanga:1 leverville:1 leverstad:1 mbandaka:1 coquilhatville:1 cocquilhatstad:1 mbanza:1 ngungu:1 thysville:1 thysstad:1 moba:1 baudoinville:1 boudewijnstad:1 mobaye:1 mbongo:1 banzyville:1 banzystad:1 mbuji:1 mayi:1 bakwanga:1 ubundu:1 ponthierville:1 ponthierstad:1 reading:1 forbath:1 peter:1 river:2 harper:1 row:1 isbn:7 conrad:1 heart:3 darkness:2 fiction:2 gondola:1 ch:1 didier:1 greenwood:1 prehistoric:1 hall:1 richard:1 stanley:1 adventurer:1 explore:1 purnell:1 kingsolver:1 barbara:1 poisonwood:1 bible:1 harpercollins:1 pakenham:1 thomas:1 scramble:1 abacus:1 rodney:1 walter:1 europe:1 underdevelop:1 howard:1 hochschild:1 adam:1 ghost:1 mariner:1 book:1 butcher:1 tim:1 blood:1 journey:1 broken:1 chatto:1 windus:1 reference:1 link:1 concern:1 bbc:4 profile:1 key:1 q:1 timeline:1 picture:1 |@bigram republic_congo:8 belgian_congo:4 twentieth_century:1 roger_casement:3 patrice_lumumba:2 congo_brazzaville:1 prime_minister:6 nikita_khrushchev:1 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3,692 | GNU | GNU (pronounced , or in some countries ) is a computer operating system composed entirely of free software. Its name is a recursive acronym for GNU's Not Unix; it was chosen because its design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by being free software and containing no Unix code. Development of GNU was initiated by Richard Stallman and was the original focus of the Free Software Foundation (FSF). GNU is developed by the GNU Project, and programs released under the auspices of the project are called GNU packages or GNU programs. The system's basic components include the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), the GNU Binary Utilities (binutils), the bash shell, the GNU C library (glibc), and GNU Core Utilities (coreutils). GNU is in active development. Although nearly all components have been completed long ago and have been in production use for a decade or more, its official kernel, GNU Hurd, is incomplete and not all GNU components work with it. Thus, the third-party Linux kernel is most commonly used instead. While this kernel has not been officially adopted by the GNU project, some third-party software is included, such as the X.Org release of the X Window System and the TeX typesetting system. Many GNU programs have also been ported to numerous other operating systems such as Microsoft Windows, BSD variants, Solaris and Mac OS. The GNU General Public License (GPL), the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), and the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) were written for GNU, but are also used by many unrelated projects. History The plan for the GNU operating system was publicly announced on September 27 1983, on the net.unix-wizards and net.usoft newsgroups by Richard Stallman. Software development began on January 5, 1984, when Stallman quit his job at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Artificial Intelligence laboratory so that they could not claim ownership or interfere with distributing GNU as free software. Richard Stallman chose the name by using various plays on words, including the song The Gnu. The goal was to bring a wholly free software operating system into existence. Stallman wanted computer users to be free, as most were in the 1960s and 1970s — free to study the source code of the software they use, free to share the software with other people, free to modify the behaviour of the software, and free to publish their modified versions of the software. This philosophy was later published as the GNU Manifesto in March 1985. Richard Stallman's experience with the Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS), an early operating system written in assembly language that became obsolete due to discontinuation of PDP-10, the computer architecture for which ITS was written, led to a decision that a portable system was necessary. It was thus decided that GNU would be mostly compatible with Unix. At the time, Unix was already a popular proprietary operating system. The design of Unix had proven to be solid, and it was modular, so it could be reimplemented piece by piece. Much of the needed software had to be written from scratch, but existing compatible free software components were also used such as the TeX typesetting system, and the X Window System. Most of GNU has been written by volunteers; some in their spare time, some paid by companies, educational institutions, and other non-profit organizations. In October 1985, Stallman set up the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In the late 1980s and 1990s, the FSF hired software developers to write the software needed for GNU. As GNU gained prominence, interested businesses began contributing to development or selling GNU software and technical support. The most prominent and successful of these was Cygnus Solutions, now part of Red Hat. Design and implementation The initial plan for GNU was to be mostly Unix-compatible, while adding enhancements where they were useful. By 1990, the GNU system had an extensible text editor (Emacs), a very successful optimizing compiler (GCC), and most of the core libraries and utilities of a standard Unix distribution. As the goal was to make a whole free operating system exist — rather than necessarily to write a whole free operating system — Stallman tried to use existing free software when possible. In the 1980s there was not much free software, but there was the X Window System for graphical display, the TeX typesetting system, and the Mach microkernel. These components were integrated into GNU. In the GNU Manifesto, Stallman had mentioned that "an initial kernel exists but many more features are needed to emulate Unix." He was referring to TRIX, a remote procedure call kernel developed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, whose authors had decided to distribute it as free software, and was compatible with Version 7 Unix. In December 1986, work had started on modifying this kernel. However, the developers eventually decided it was unusable as a starting point, primarily because it only ran on "an obscure, expensive 68000 box" and would therefore have to be ported to other architectures before it could be used. The GNU Project's early plan was to adapt the BSD 4.4-Lite kernel for GNU. However, due to a lack of cooperation from the Berkeley programmers, by 1988 Stallman decided instead to use the Mach kernel being developed at Carnegie Mellon University, although its release as free software was delayed until 1990 while its developers worked to remove code copyrighted to AT&T. Thomas Bushnell, the initial Hurd architect, said in hindsight that the decision to start a new kernel rather than adapt the BSD work set the project back considerably, and that the project should have used the BSD kernel for this reason. The design of the kernel was to be GNU's largest departure from "traditional" Unix. GNU's kernel was to be a multi-server microkernel, and was to consist of a set of programs called servers that offers the same functionality as the traditional Unix kernel. Since the Mach microkernel, by design, provided just the low-level kernel functionality, the GNU Project had to develop the higher-level parts of the kernel, as a collection of user programs. Initially, this collection was to be called Alix, but developer Thomas Bushnell later preferred the name Hurd, so the Alix name was moved to a subsystem and eventually dropped completely. About the GNU Project - GNU Project - Free Software Foundation (FSF) Eventually, development progress of the Hurd became very slow due to ongoing technical issues. Despite an optimistic announcement by Stallman in 2002 predicting a release of GNU/Hurd, further development and design are still required. The latest release of the Hurd is version 0.2. It is fairly stable, suitable for use in non-critical applications. , Hurd is in slow development, and is now the official kernel of the GNU system. There are also projects working on porting the GNU system to the kernels of FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenSolaris. After the Linux kernel became usable and was switched to a free software license, it became the most common host for GNU software. The GNU project coined the term GNU/Linux for such systems. Copyright, licenses, and stewardship The GNU Project suggests contributors assign the copyright for GNU packages to the Free Software Foundation, Copyright Papers - Information For Maintainers of GNU Software although this is not required. Why the FSF gets copyright assignments from contributors - GNU Project - Free Software Foundation (FSF) Copyright law grants the copyright-holder significant control over the copying and distributing of a work, but FSF wrote a license for the GNU software which grant recipients permission to copy and redistribute the software under highly permissive terms. For most of the 80s, each GNU package had its own license - the Emacs General Public License, the GCC General Public License, etc. In 1989, FSF published a single license they could use for all their software, and which could be used by non-GNU projects: the GNU General Public License (GPL). This license is now used by most GNU programs, as well as a large number of free software programs that are not part of the GNU project; it is the most commonly used free software license. It gives all recipients of a program the right to run, copy, modify and distribute it, while forbidding them from imposing further restrictions on any copies they distribute. This idea is often referred to as copyleft. In 1991, the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), then known as the Library General Public License, was written for certain libraries. 1991 also saw the release of version 2 of the GNU GPL. The GNU Free Documentation License (FDL), for documentation, followed in 2000. The GPL and LGPL were revised to version 3 in 2007, improving their international applicability, and adding protection for users whose hardware restricts software changes. Most GNU software is distributed under the GPL. A minority is distributed under the LGPL, and a handful of packages are distributed under permissive free software licences. What the GPLv3 Means for MS-Novell Agreement GNU software Prominent components of the GNU system include the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), the GNU C Library (glibc), the GNU Emacs text editor, and the GNOME desktop environment. Many GNU programs have been ported to a multitude of other operating systems, including various proprietary platforms such as Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. They are often installed on proprietary UNIX systems as a replacement for proprietary utilities, however, this is often a hot topic among enthusiasts, as the motive for developing these programs was to replace those systems with free software, not to enhance them. These GNU programs have in contested cases been tested to show as being more reliable than their proprietary Unix counterparts. 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3,693 | Hermann_Hesse | Hermann Hesse () (2 July 1877 – 9 August 1962) was a German-Swiss poet, novelist, and painter. In 1946 he received the Nobel Prize in Literature. His best-known works include Steppenwolf, Siddhartha, and The Glass Bead Game (also known as Magister Ludi) which explore an individual's search for authenticity, self-knowledge and spirituality. Youth Hesse was born in the Black Forest town of Calw in Württemberg, Germany to a Christian missionary family. Both of his parents served with a Basel Mission to India where Hesse's mother Marie Gundert was born in 1842. Hesse's father, Johannes Hesse, the son of a doctor, was born in 1847 in Estonia. The Hesse family had lived in Calw since 1873, where they operated a missionary publishing house under the direction of Hesse's grandfather, Hermann Gundert. Hesse spent his first years of life surrounded by the spirit of Swabian piety. In 1881, when Hesse was four, the family moved to Basel, Switzerland, staying for six years then returning to Calw. After successful attendance at the Latin School in Göppingen Hesse began to attend the Evangelical Theological Seminary in Maulbronn in 1891. Here in March 1892 Hesse showed his rebellious character and in one instance he fled from the Seminary and was found in a field a day later. Hesse began a journey through various institutions and schools and experienced intense conflicts with his parents. In May, after an attempt at suicide, he spent time at an institution in Bad Boll under the care of theologian and minister Christoph Friedrich Blumhardt. Later he was placed in a mental institution in Stetten im Remstal, and then a boys' institution in Basel. At the end of 1892 he attended the Gymnasium in Cannstatt. In 1893 he passed the One Year Examination which concluded his schooling. After this Hesse began a bookshop apprenticeship in Esslingen am Neckar but after three days he left. Then in the early summer of 1894 he began a 14-month mechanic apprenticeship at a clock tower factory in Calw. The monotony of soldering and filing work made him resolve to turn himself toward more spiritual activities. In October 1895 he was ready to begin wholeheartedly a new apprenticeship with a bookseller in Tübingen. This experience from his youth he returns to later in his novel Beneath the Wheel. Becoming a writer On 17 October 1895 Hesse began working in the bookshop Heckenhauer in Tübingen which had a specialized collection in theology, philology, and law. Hesse's assignment there consisted of organizing, packing, and archiving the books. After the end of each twelve hour workday Hesse pursued his own work further and he spent his long, idle Sundays with books rather than friends. Hesse studied theological writings and later Goethe, Lessing, Schiller, and several texts on Greek mythology. In 1896 his poem 'Madonna' appeared in a Viennese periodical. By 1898 Hesse had a respectable income that enabled financial independence from his parents. During this time he concentrated on the works of the German Romantics, including much of the work from Clemens Brentano, Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff, Friedrich Hölderlin and Novalis. In letters to his parents he expressed a belief that "the morality of artists is replaced by aesthetics." In the autumn Hesse released his first small volume of poetry Romantic Songs and in the summer of 1899, a collection of prose entitled One Hour After Midnight. Both works were a business failure. In two years only 54 of the 600 printed copies of Romantic Songs were sold, and One Hour After Midnight received only one printing and sold sluggishly. Nevertheless, the Leipzig publisher Eugen Diederichs was convinced of the literary quality of the work and from the beginning regarded the publications more as encouragement of a young author than as profitable business. From the autumn of 1899 Hesse worked in a distinguished antique book shop in Basel. Through family contacts he stayed with the intellectual families of Basel. In this environment with rich stimuli for his pursuits, he further developed spiritually and artistically. At the same time Basel offered the solitary Hesse many opportunities for withdrawal into a private life of artistic self-exploration, journeys and wanderings. In 1900, Hesse was exempted from compulsory military service due to an eye condition. This, along with nerve disorders and persistent headaches, affected him his entire life. In 1901 Hesse undertook to fulfill a long-held dream and travelled for the first time to Italy. In the same year Hesse changed jobs and began working at the antiquarium Wattenwyl in Basel. Hesse had more opportunities to release poems and small literary texts to journals. These publications now provided honorariums. Shortly the publisher Samuel Fischer became interested in Hesse, and with the novel Peter Camenzind, which appeared first as a pre-publication in 1903 and then as a regular printing by Fischer in 1904, came a breakthrough: from now on, Hesse could make a living as a writer. Between Lake Constance and India With the literary fame Hesse married Maria Bernoulli (of the famous family of mathematicians Gustav Emil Müller, Philosophy of Literature, Ayer Publishing, 1976. ) in 1904, settled down with her in Gaienhofen on Lake Constance, and began a family, eventually having three sons. In Gaienhofen he wrote his second novel Beneath the Wheel, which was published in 1906. In the following time he composed primarily short stories and poems. His next novel, Gertrude, published in 1910, revealed a production crisis—he had to struggle through writing it, and he later would describe it as "a miscarriage." Gaienhofen was also the place where Hesse's interest in Buddhism was resparked. Following a letter to Kapff in 1895 entitled Nirvana, Hesse ceased alluding to Buddhist references in his work. In 1904, however, Arthur Schopenhauer and his philosophical ideas started receiving attention again, and Hesse discovered theosophy. Schopenhauer and theosophy renewed Hesse's interest in India. Although it was many years before the publication of Hesse's Siddhartha (1922), this masterpiece was to be derived from these new influences. During this time there also was increased dissonance between him and Maria, and in 1911 Hesse left alone for a long trip to Sri Lanka and Indonesia. Any spiritual or religious inspiration that he was looking for eluded him, but the journey made a strong impression on his literary work. Following Hesse's return the family moved to Bern (1912), but the change of environment could not solve the marriage problems, as he himself confessed in his novel Rosshalde from 1914. The First World War At the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 Hesse registered himself as a volunteer with the Imperial army, saying that he could not sit inactively by a warm fireplace while other young authors were dying on the front. He was found unfit for combat duty, but was assigned to service involving the care of war prisoners. On 3 November 1914, in the Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Hesse's essay "O Friends, Not These Tones" ("O Freunde, nicht diese Töne") See Text of the fourth movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9. appeared, in which he appealed to German intellectuals not to fall for patriotism. What followed from this, Hesse later indicated, was a great turning point in his life: For the first time he found himself in the middle of a serious political conflict, attacked by the German press, the recipient of hate mail, and distanced from old friends. He did receive continued support from his friend Theodor Heuss, and the French writer Romain Rolland, whom Hesse visited in August 1915. This public controversy was not yet resolved when a deeper life crisis befell Hesse with the death of his father on 8 March 1916, the serious sickness of his son Martin, and his wife's schizophrenia. He was forced to leave his military service and begin receiving psychotherapy. This began for Hesse a long preoccupation with psychoanalysis, through which he came to know Carl Jung personally, and was challenged to new creative heights. During a three-week period during September and October 1917, Hesse penned his novel Demian, which would be published following the armistice in 1919 under the pseudonym Emil Sinclair. Casa Camuzzi By the time Hesse returned to civilian life in 1919 his marriage had shattered. His wife had a severe episode of psychosis, but even after her recovery, Hesse saw no possible future with her. Their home in Bern was divided and Hesse resettled alone in the middle of April in Ticino. He occupied a small farm house near Minusio (close to Locarno), living from 25 April to 11 May in Sorengo. On 11 May he moved to the town Montagnola and rented four small rooms in a castle-like building, the 'Casa Camuzzi'. Here he explored his writing projects further; he began to paint, an activity which is reflected in his next major story Klingsor's Last Summer, published in 1920. In 1922 Hesse's novel Siddhartha appeared, which showed the love for Indian culture and Buddhist philosophy, which had already developed in his earlier life. In 1924 Hesse married the singer Ruth Wenger, the daughter of the Swiss writer Lisa Wenger and aunt of Meret Oppenheim. This marriage never attained any stability, however. In 1923 Hesse received Swiss citizenship. His next major works, Kurgast (1925) and The Nuremberg Trip (1927), were autobiographical narratives with ironic undertones, and foreshadowed Hesse's following novel, Steppenwolf, which was published in 1927. In the year of his 50th birthday, the first biography of Hesse appeared, written by his friend Hugo Ball. Shortly after his new successful novel, he turned away from the solitude of Steppenwolf and married art historian Ninon Dolbin, née Ausländer. This change to companionship was reflected in the novel Narcissus and Goldmund, appearing in 1930. In 1931 Hesse left the Casa Camuzzi and moved with Ninon to a large house (Casa Hesse) near Montagnola, which was built according to his wishes. The Glass Bead Game In 1931 Hesse began planning what would become his last major work, The Glass Bead Game (aka Magister Ludi). In 1932, as a preliminary study, he released the novella, Journey to the East. The Glass Bead Game was printed in 1943 in Switzerland. For this work he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1946. Later life Hesse observed the rise to power of Nazism in Germany with concern. In 1933 Bertolt Brecht and Thomas Mann made their travels into exile and in both cases were aided by Hesse. In this way Hesse attempted to work against Hitler's suppression of art and literature that protested Nazi ideology. Hesse, who had long published pieces in German journals and newspapers, spoke publicly in support of Jewish artists and others pursued by the Nazis. However, when he wrote for the Frankfurter Zeitung, he was accused of supporting the Nazis, whom Hesse did not publicly condemn. From the end of the 1930s German journals stopped publishing Hesse's work, and it was eventually banned by the Nazis. The Glass Bead Game was Hesse's last novel. During the last twenty years of his life Hesse wrote many short stories (chiefly recollections of his childhood) and poems (frequently with nature as their theme). Hesse wrote ironic essays about his alienation from writing (for instance, the mock autobiographies: Life Story Briefly Told and Aus den Briefwechseln eines Dichters) and spent much time pursuing his interest in watercolors. Hesse also occupied himself with the steady stream of letters he received as a result of the prize and as a new generation of German readers explored his work. In one essay Hesse reflected wryly on his lifelong failure to acquire a talent for idleness and speculated that his average daily correspondence was in excess of 150 pages. He died on 9 August 1962 and was buried in the cemetery at San Abbondio in Montagnola, where Hugo Ball is also buried. Popularity outside the German-speaking countries Following the death of Hesse in 1962 his novels saw a revival in popularity due to their association with some of the popular themes of the 1960s counterculture (or "hippie") movement. In particular the quest-for-enlightenment theme of Siddhartha, Journey to the East, and Narcissus and Goldmund resonated with counter-cultural ideals. The "magic theatre" sequences in Steppenwolf were interpreted by some as drug-induced psychedelia. These and other Hesse novels were republished in paperback editions and were widely read by university students and young people in the United States and elsewhere. Hesse's Siddhartha is one of the most popular Western novels set in India. The work has been translated into most Indian languages. An authorized translation of Siddhartha was published in the Malayalam language in 1990, the language which surrounded Hesse's grandfather, Hermann Gundert, for most of his life. A Hermann Hesse Society of India has also been formed. It aims to bring out authentic translations of Siddhartha in all Indian languages. It has already prepared the Sanskrit translation of Siddhartha. One enduring monument to Hesse's lasting popularity in the United States is the Magic Theatre in San Francisco. Referring to "The Magic Theatre for Madmen Only" in Steppenwolf (a kind of spiritual and somewhat nightmarish cabaret attended by some of the characters, including Harry Haller), the Magic Theatre was founded in 1967 to perform works by new playwrights. Founded by the late John Lion, the Magic Theatre has fulfilled that mission for many years, including the world premieres of many plays by Sam Shepard. Hesse's Demian was translated into Esperanto in 2007 by Detlef Karthaus and published in New York by Mondial. Selected works For a more complete list, see Hermann Hesse (German Wikipedia) and Sämtliche Werke (Complete works, ed. 2001-2007). 1904 – Peter Camenzind 1906 – Beneath the Wheel (also published under the title The Prodigy) 1910 – Gertrude 1914 – Rosshalde 1915 – Knulp 1919 – Demian (published under the pen name Emil Sinclair) 1919 – Klein and Wagner 1920 – Klingsor's Last Summer 1922 – Siddhartha 1927 – Steppenwolf 1930 – Narcissus and Goldmund 1932 – Journey to the East 1943 – The Glass Bead Game (also published under the title Magister Ludi) Awards 1906 - Bauernfeld-Preis 1928 - Mejstrik-Preis der Wiener Schiller-Stiftung 1936 - Gottfried-Keller-Preis 1946 - Goethepreis der Stadt Frankfurt 1946 - Nobel Prize in Literature 1947 - Honorary Doctorate from the University of Bern 1950 - Wilhelm-Raabe-Preis 1954 - Orden Pour le mérite für Wissenschaft und Künste 1955 - Peace Prize of the German Book Trade Hesse received honorary citizenship from his home city of Calw, and additionally, throughout Germany many schools are named after him. In 1964 the Calwer Hermann-Hesse-Preis was founded, which is awarded every two years, alternately to a German-language literary journal or to the translator of Hesse's work to a foreign language. There is also a Hermann-Hesse-Preis that is associated with the city of Karlsruhe. Hermann Hesse in popular culture In the summer of 1948, the composer Richard Strauss set three short poems by Hesse to music to become all but one of his valedictory Four Last Songs, his final works before his death in 1949. In 1967, the rock band Steppenwolf named themselves after Hesse's novel, partly due to lead singer John Kay having been born and raised in Germany. Along with other bands also inspired by Hesse, like Anyone's Daughter with their 40-minute version of "Piktors Verwandlungen", Steppenwolf played in 2002 on Calw's market square as part of the International Hermann-Hesse-Festival 2002. The Volvos singer Heynes Arms wrote a song entitled "I Think I'm Herman Hesse". Like Hesse, Arms had German parentage and was born on 2 July. The British progressive rock band Yes was influenced by Hesse, especially on their 1972 album, Close to the Edge. The American band Kansas had a song entitled 'Journey to Mariabronn' on their self-titled first album Kansas (1974) which was based on Hesse's Narcissus and Goldmund. World Champion Slam Poet Buddy Wakefield titled the first track of his 2006 album Run On Anything "Healing Hermann Hesse." Electronic duo Thievery Corporation has a song on their album Sounds from the Thievery Hi-Fi (1997) titled "The Glass Bead Game". A song by English rock band Blur, "Strange News from Another Star," from their self-titled album, takes its name from the title of a Hesse anthology of the same name. American performance artist Laurie Anderson mentions Hesse and his grave in her spoken piece "Maria Teresa Teresa Maria" on the live album The Ugly One with the Jewels. In it she mentions the disparity between his gravestone and that of his wife, Nina, apparently misunderstanding the citation "Ausländer", which in fact was Nina's maiden name. River Phoenix was named for the river of life in the Hermann Hesse novel Siddhartha. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE7DF173DF930A25752C1A965958260 The German composer Bertold Hummel wrote two song cycles after poems by Hermann Hesse . The cycle Headless was his final work before his death in 2002. His Poem for Violoncello and Strings is based on the famous poem Stages by Hermann Hesse. The Magic Theatre in San Francisco, which has been continuously performing works by new playwrights since 1967, has a name taken from Hesse's "Magic Theatre for Madmen Only" in 'Steppenwolf.' For more information, see the section entitled "Popularity outside German speaking countries," above. The computer game Cryostasis: Sleep of Reason begins with a quote attributed to Hesse. References External links Complete bibliography at Nobelprize.org Poems in Dedication to Hermann Hesse, with some of his own incorporated throughout - in English and German, webmastered by S. Wolf Britain, Human and Civil Rights Advocate Hermann Hesse Page - in German and English, maintained by Professor Gunther Gottschalk Hermann Hesse Portal Community of the Journeyer to the East - in German and English Concise Biography - originally published by the Germanic American Institute, by Paul A. Schons Article at 'Books and Writers' The painter Hermann Hesse Galerie Ludorff, Duesseldorf, Germany Audio recording in English of Siddhartha from Librivox.org. | Hermann_Hesse |@lemmatized hermann:17 hesse:97 july:2 august:3 german:17 swiss:3 poet:2 novelist:1 painter:2 receive:8 nobel:3 prize:5 literature:5 best:1 know:3 work:26 include:4 steppenwolf:9 siddhartha:11 glass:7 bead:7 game:8 also:10 magister:3 ludi:3 explore:3 individual:1 search:1 authenticity:1 self:4 knowledge:1 spirituality:1 youth:2 bear:5 black:1 forest:1 town:2 calw:6 württemberg:1 germany:5 christian:1 missionary:2 family:8 parent:4 serve:1 basel:7 mission:2 india:5 mother:1 marie:1 gundert:3 father:2 johannes:1 son:3 doctor:1 estonia:1 live:2 since:2 operate:1 publishing:2 house:3 direction:1 grandfather:2 spend:4 first:10 year:10 life:12 surround:2 spirit:1 swabian:1 piety:1 four:3 move:4 switzerland:2 stay:2 six:1 return:4 successful:2 attendance:1 latin:1 school:3 göppingen:1 begin:13 attend:3 evangelical:1 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3,694 | Open_cluster | The Pleiades is one of the most famous open clusters. An open cluster is a group of up to a few thousand stars that were formed from the same giant molecular cloud, and are still loosely gravitationally bound to each other. In contrast, globular clusters are very tightly bound by gravity. Open clusters have been found only in spiral and irregular galaxies, in which active star formation is occurring. They are usually less than a few hundred million years old: they become disrupted by close encounters with other clusters and clouds of gas as they orbit the galactic center, as well as losing cluster members through internal close encounters. Young open clusters may still be contained within the molecular cloud from which they formed, illuminating it to create an H II region. A good example of this is NGC 2244, in the Rosette Nebula. See also Over time, radiation pressure from the cluster will disperse the molecular cloud. Typically, about 10% of the mass of a gas cloud will coalesce into stars before radiation pressure drives the rest away. Open clusters are very important objects in the study of stellar evolution. Because the stars are all of very similar age and chemical composition, the effects of other more subtle variables on the properties of stars are much more easily studied than they are for isolated stars. A number of open clusters, such as the Pleiades, Hyades or the Alpha Persei Cluster are readily visible for the naked eye. Some others, such as the Double Cluster, are barely perceptible without instruments, while many more can be seen in binoculars or telescopes. Historical observations The most prominent open clusters such as the Pleiades have been known and recognised as groups of stars since antiquity. Others were known as fuzzy patches of light, but had to wait until the invention of the telescope to be resolved into their constituent stars. Telescopic observations revealed two distinct types of clusters, one of which contained thousands of stars in a regular spherical distribution and was found preferentially towards the centre of the Milky Way, and the other of which consisted of a generally sparser population of stars in a more irregular shape and found all over the sky. Astronomers dubbed the former globular clusters, and the latter open clusters. Open clusters are also occasionally referred to as galactic clusters, because they are almost exclusively found in the plane of the Milky Way, as discussed below. It was realised early on that the stars in the open clusters were physically related. The Reverend John Michell calculated in 1767 that the probability of even just one group of stars like the Pleiades being the result of a chance alignment as seen from Earth was just 1 in 496,000. Michell J. (1767), An Inquiry into the probable Parallax, and Magnitude, of the Fixed Stars, from the Quantity of Light which they afford us, and the particular Circumstances of their Situation, Philosophical Transactions, v. 57, p. 234–264 As astrometry became more accurate, cluster stars were found to share a common proper motion through space, while spectroscopic measurements revealed common radial velocities, thus showing that the clusters consist of stars born at the same time and bound together as a group. While open clusters and globular clusters form two fairly distinct groups, there may not be a great deal of difference in appearance between a very sparse globular cluster and a very rich open cluster. Some astronomers believe the two types of star clusters form via the same basic mechanism, with the difference being that the conditions which allowed the formation of the very rich globular clusters containing hundreds of thousands of stars no longer prevail in our galaxy. Formation Infrared light reveals the dense open cluster forming at the heart of the Orion nebula. A large fraction of stars are originally formed in multiple systems because only a cloud of gas containing many times the mass of the Sun will be heavy enough to collapse under its own gravity, but such a heavy cloud cannot collapse into a single star. Boss A.P. (1998), The Jeans Mass Constraint and the Fragmentation of Molecular Cloud Cores, Astrophysical Journal Letters v.501, p.L77 The formation of an open cluster begins with the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud, a cold dense cloud of gas containing up to many thousands of times the mass of the Sun. Many factors may trigger the collapse of a giant molecular cloud (or part of it) and a burst of star formation which will result in an open cluster, including shock waves from a nearby supernova and gravitational interactions. Once a giant molecular cloud begins to collapse, star formation proceeds via successive fragmentations of the cloud into smaller and smaller clumps, resulting eventually in the formation of up to several thousand stars. In our own galaxy, the formation rate of open clusters is estimated to be one every few thousand years. Battinelli P., Capuzzo-Dolcetta R. (1991), Formation and evolutionary properties of the Galactic open cluster system, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 249, p. 76–83 Once star formation has begun, the hottest and most massive stars (known as OB stars) will emit copious amounts of ultraviolet radiation. This radiation rapidly ionizes the surrounding gas of the giant molecular cloud, forming an H II region. Stellar winds from the massive stars and radiation pressure begin to drive away the gases; after a few million years the cluster will experience its first supernovae, which will also expel gas from the system. After a few tens of millions of years, the cluster will be stripped of gas and no further star formation will take place. Typically, less than 10% of the gas originally in the cluster will form into stars before it is dissipated. also see Battinelli P as previous reference. Another view of cluster formation is that they form rapidly out of a contracting molecular cloud core and once the massive stars begin to shine they expel the residual gas with the sound speed of the hot ionised gas. From the time of start of cloud-core contraction to gas expulsion takes typically not more than one to three million years. As only 30 to 40 per cent of the gas in the cloud core forms stars, the process of residual gas expulsion is highly damaging to the cluster which loses many and perhaps all of its stars. Kroupa P., Aarseth S.J., Hurley J. (2001), "The formation of a bound star cluster: from the Orion nebula cluster to the Pleiades", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 321, 699-712 preprint All clusters thus suffer significant infant weight loss, while a large fraction undergo infant mortality. The young stars so released from their natal cluster become part of the Galactic field population. Because most if not all stars form clustered, star clusters are to be viewed the fundamental building blocks of galaxies. The violent gas-expulsion events that shape and destroy many star clusters at birth leave their imprint in the morphological and kinematical structures of galaxies. Kroupa P. (2005), "The Fundamental Building Blocks of Galaxies", in Proceedings of the Gaia Symposium "The Three-Dimensional Universe with Gaia" (ESA SP-576). Held at the Observatoire de Paris-Meudon, 4-7 October 2004. Editors: C. Turon, K.S. O'Flaherty, M.A.C. Perryman, p.629 preprint It is common for two or more separate open clusters to form out of the same molecular cloud. In the Large Magellanic Cloud, both Hodge 301 and R136 are forming from the gases of the Tarantula Nebula, while in our own galaxy, tracing back the motion through space of the Hyades and Praesepe, two prominent nearby open clusters, suggests that they formed in the same cloud about 600 million years ago. Eggen O. J. (1960), Stellar groups, VII. The structure of the Hyades group, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 120, p.540 Sometimes, two clusters born at the same time will form a binary cluster. The best known example in the Milky Way is the Double Cluster of h Persei and χ Persei, but at least 10 more double clusters are known to exist. Subramaniam A., Gorti U., Sagar R., Bhatt H. C. (1995), Probable binary open star clusters in the Galaxy, Astronomy and Astrophysics, v.302, p.86 Many more are known in the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds — they are easier to detect in external systems than in our own galaxy because projection effects can cause unrelated clusters within the Milky Way to appear close to each other. Morphology and classification NGC 2158 is a rich and concentrated cluster in Gemini. Open clusters range from very sparse clusters with only a few members to large agglomerations containing thousands of stars. They usually consist of quite a distinct dense core, surrounded by a more diffuse 'corona' of cluster members. The core is typically about 3–4 light years across, with the corona extending to about 20 light years from the cluster centre. Typical star densities in the centre of a cluster are about 1.5 stars per cubic light year (the stellar density near the sun is about 0.003 star per cubic light year). Nilakshi S.R., Pandey A.K., Mohan V. (2002), A study of spatial structure of galactic open star clusters, Astronomy and Astrophysics, v. 383, p. 153–162 Open clusters are often classified according to a scheme developed by Robert Trumpler in 1930. The Trumpler scheme gives a cluster a three part designation, with a Roman numeral from I-IV indicating its concentration and detachment from the surrounding star field (from strongly to weakly concentrated), an Arabic numeral from 1 to 3 indicating the range in brightness of members (from small to large range), and p, m or r to indication whether the cluster is poor, medium or rich in stars. An 'n' is appended if the cluster lies within nebulosity. Trumpler R.J. (1930), Preliminary results on the distances, dimensions and space distribution of open star clusters, Lick Observatory bulletin no. 420, Berkeley : University of California Press, p. 154–188 Under the Trumpler scheme, the Pleiades are classified as I3rn (strongly concentrated and richly populated with nebulosity present), while the nearby Hyades are classified as II3m (more dispersed, and with fewer members). Numbers and distribution NGC 346, an open cluster in the Small Magellanic Cloud. There are over 1,000 known open clusters in our galaxy, but the true total may be up to ten times higher than that. Dias W.S., Alessi B.S., Moitinho A., Lépine J.R.D. (2002), New catalogue of optically visible open clusters and candidates, Astronomy and Astrophysics, v. 389, p. 871–873 In spiral galaxies, open clusters are invariably found in the spiral arms where gas densities are highest and so most star formation occurs, and clusters usually disperse before they have had time to travel beyond their spiral arm. Open clusters are strongly concentrated close to the galactic plane, with a scale height in our galaxy of about 180 light years, compared to a galactic radius of approximately 100,000 light years. Janes K.A., Phelps R.L. (1980), The galactic system of old star clusters: The development of the galactic disk, The Astronomical Journal, v. 108, p. 1773–1785 In irregular galaxies, open clusters may be found throughout the galaxy, although their concentration is highest where the gas density is highest. Open clusters are not seen in elliptical galaxies: star formation ceased many millions of years ago in ellipticals, and so the open clusters which were originally present have long since dispersed. In our galaxy, the distribution of clusters depends on age, with older clusters being preferentially found at greater distances from the galactic centre. Tidal forces are stronger nearer the centre of the galaxy, increasing the rate of disruption of clusters, and also the giant molecular clouds which cause the disruption of clusters are concentrated towards the inner regions of the galaxy, so clusters in the inner regions of the galaxy tend to get dispersed at a younger age than their counterparts in the outer regions. Stellar composition A cluster of stars a few million years old at the lower right illuminates the Tarantula Nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Because open clusters tend to be dispersed before most of their stars reach the end of their lives, the light from them tends to be dominated by the young, hot blue stars. These stars are the most massive, and have the shortest lives of a few tens of millions of years. The older open clusters tend to contain more yellow stars. Some open clusters contain hot blue stars which seem to be much younger than the rest of the cluster. These blue stragglers are also observed in globular clusters, and in the very dense cores of globulars they are believed to arise when stars collide, forming a much hotter, more massive star. However, the stellar density in open clusters is much lower than that in globular clusters, and stellar collisions cannot explain the numbers of blue stragglers observed. Instead, it is thought that most of them probably originate when dynamical interactions with other stars cause a binary system to coalesce into one star. Andronov N., Pinsonneault M., Terndrup D. (2003), Formation of Blue Stragglers in Open Clusters, American Astronomical Society Meeting 203 Once they have exhausted their supply of hydrogen through nuclear fusion, medium to low mass stars shed their outer layers to form a planetary nebula and evolve into white dwarfs. While most clusters become dispersed before a large proportion of their members have reached the white dwarf stage, the number of white dwarfs in open clusters is still generally much lower than would be expected, given the age of the cluster and the expected initial mass distribution of the stars. One possible explanation for the lack of white dwarfs is that when a red giant expels its outer layers to become a planetary nebula, a slight asymmetry in the loss of material could give the star a 'kick' of a few kilometres per second, enough to eject it from the cluster. Fellhauer M., Lin D.N.C., Bolte M., Aarseth S.J., Williams K.A. (2003), The White Dwarf Deficit in Open Clusters: Dynamical Processes, The Astrophysical Journal, v. 595, pp. L53-L56 Eventual fate NGC 604 in the Triangulum Galaxy is a very massive open cluster surrounded by an H II region. Many open clusters are inherently unstable, with a small enough mass that the escape velocity of the system is lower than the average velocity of the constituent stars. These clusters will rapidly disperse within a few million years. In many cases, the stripping away of the gas from which the cluster formed by the radiation pressure of the hot young stars reduces the cluster mass enough to allow rapid dispersal. Clusters which have enough mass to be gravitationally bound once the surrounding nebula has evaporated can remain distinct for many tens of millions of years, but over time internal and external processes tend also to disperse them. Internally, close encounters between members of the cluster will often result in the velocity of one being increased to beyond the escape velocity of the cluster, which results in the gradual 'evaporation' of cluster members. Externally, about every half-billion years or so an open cluster tends to be disturbed by external factors such as passing close to or through a molecular cloud. The gravitational tidal forces generated by such an encounter tend to disrupt the cluster. Eventually, the cluster becomes a stream of stars, not close enough to be a cluster but all related and moving in similar directions at similar speeds. The timescale over which a cluster disrupts depends on its initial stellar density, with more tightly packed clusters persisting for longer. Estimated cluster half lives, after which half the original cluster members will have been lost, range from 150–800 million years, depending on the original density. After a cluster has become gravitationally unbound, many of its constituent stars will still be moving through space on similar trajectories, in what is known as a stellar association, moving cluster or moving group. Several of the brightest stars in the 'Plough' of Ursa Major are former members of an open cluster which now form such an association, in this case, the Ursa Major moving group. Eventually their slightly different relative velocities will see them scattered throughout the galaxy. A larger cluster is then known as a stream, if we discover the similar velocities and ages of otherwise unrelated stars. Studying stellar evolution Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams for two open clusters. NGC 188 is older, and shows a lower turn off from the main sequence than that seen in M67. When a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is plotted for an open cluster, most stars lie on the main sequence. The most massive stars have begun to evolve away from the main sequence and are becoming red giants; the position of the turn-off from the main sequence can be used to estimate the age of the cluster. Because the stars in an open cluster are all at roughly the same distance from Earth, and were born at roughly the same time from the same raw material, the differences in apparent brightness among cluster members is due only to their mass. This makes open clusters very useful in the study of stellar evolution, because when comparing one star to another, many of the variable parameters are fixed. The study of the abundances of lithium and beryllium in open cluster stars can give important clues about the evolution of stars and their interior structures. While hydrogen nuclei cannot fuse to form helium until the temperature reaches about 10 million K, lithium and beryllium are destroyed at temperatures of 2.5 million K and 3.5 million K respectively. This means that their abundances depend strongly on how much mixing occurs in stellar interiors. By studying their abundances in open cluster stars, variables such as age and chemical composition are fixed. Studies have shown that the abundances of these light elements are much lower than models of stellar evolution predict. While the reason for this underabundance is not yet fully understood, one possibility is that convection in stellar interiors can 'overshoot' into regions where radiation is normally the dominant mode of energy transport. Open clusters and the astronomical distance scale M11, the Wild Duck Cluster is a very rich cluster located towards the center of the Milky Way. Determining the distances to astronomical objects is crucial to understanding them, but the vast majority of objects are too far away for their distances to be directly determined. Calibration of the astronomical distance scale relies on a sequence of indirect and sometimes uncertain measurements relating the closest objects, for which distances can be directly measured, to increasingly distant objects. Open clusters are a crucial step in this sequence. The closest open clusters can have their distance measured directly by one of two methods. First, the parallax (the small change in apparent position over the course of a year caused by the Earth moving from one side of its orbit around the Sun to the other) of stars in close open clusters can be measured, like other individual stars. Clusters such as the Pleiades, Hyades and a few others within about 500 light years are close enough for this method to be viable, and results from the Hipparcos position-measuring satellite yielded accurate distances for several clusters. The other direct method is the so-called moving cluster method. This relies on the fact that the stars of a cluster share a common motion through space. Measuring the proper motions of cluster members and plotting their apparent motions across the sky will reveal that they converge on a vanishing point. The radial velocity of cluster members can be determined from Doppler shift measurements of their spectra, and once the radial velocity, proper motion and angular distance from the cluster to its vanishing point are known, simple trigonometry will reveal the distance to the cluster. The Hyades are the best known application of this method, which reveals their distance to be 46.3 parsecs. Hanson R.B. (1975), A study of the motion, membership, and distance of the Hyades cluster, Astronomical Journal, v. 80, p. 379–401 Once the distances to nearby clusters have been established, further techniques can extend the distance scale to more distant clusters. By matching the main sequence on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for a cluster at a known distance with that of a more distant cluster, the distance to the more distant cluster can be estimated. The nearest open cluster is the Hyades: the stellar association consisting of most of the Plough stars is at about half the distance of the Hyades, but is a stellar association rather than an open cluster as the stars are not gravitationally bound to each other. The most distant known open cluster in our galaxy is Berkeley 29, at a distance of about 15,000 parsecs. Open clusters are also easily detected in many of the galaxies of the Local Group. Accurate knowledge of open cluster distances is vital for calibrating the period-luminosity relationship shown by variable stars such as cepheid and RR Lyrae stars, which allows them to be used as standard candles. These luminous stars can be detected at great distances, and are then used to extend the distance scale to nearby galaxies in the Local Group. See also Stellar associations Moving groups Open cluster family Open cluster remnant Star clusters References Further reading External links The Jewel Box (also known as NGC 4755 or Kappa Crucis Cluster) - open cluster in the Crux constellation @ SKY-MAP.ORG Open Star Clusters @ SEDS Messier pages A general overview of open clusters Open and globular clusters overview The moving cluster method Open Clusters - Information and amateur observations Clickable table of Messier objects including open clusters | Open_cluster |@lemmatized pleiades:7 one:12 famous:1 open:66 cluster:158 group:12 thousand:7 star:84 form:20 giant:8 molecular:12 cloud:25 still:4 loosely:1 gravitationally:4 bind:5 contrast:1 globular:8 tightly:2 gravity:2 find:8 spiral:4 irregular:3 galaxy:24 active:1 formation:16 occur:2 usually:3 less:2 hundred:2 million:14 year:21 old:6 become:8 disrupt:2 close:11 encounter:4 gas:19 orbit:2 galactic:10 center:2 well:1 lose:3 member:13 internal:2 young:6 may:5 contain:8 within:5 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3,695 | Relax_(song) | "Relax" is the debut single by British dance group Frankie Goes to Hollywood, released in the UK by ZTT Records in 1983. The song was later included on the album Welcome to the Pleasuredome (1984). Although fairly inauspicious upon initial release, "Relax" finally reached number one in the UK singles chart on 24 January 1984, ultimately becoming one of the most controversial and most commercially successful records of the entire decade. The single eventually sold a reported 1.91 million copies in the UK alone, making it the seventh best-selling UK single of all time. Following the release of the group's second single, "Two Tribes", "Relax" rallied from a declining UK chart position during June 1984 to climb back up the UK charts and re-attain number two spot behind "Two Tribes" at number one, representing simultaneous chart success by a single act unprecedented since the early 1960s. Upon release in the United States in late 1984, "Relax" repeated its slow UK progress, reaching number 67 upon initial release, but eventually reaching number 10 in March 1985. The song won Best British Single at the 1985 Brit Awards, and has been described as "the gay anthem of the 1980s." http://www.songmeanings.net/songs/view/103392/ Background and recording ZTT Records signed Frankie Goes to Hollywood after producer-turned-ZTT cofounder Trevor Horn saw the band play on the television show The Tube, where the group played an early version of "Relax". Horn described the original version of "Relax" as "More a jingle than a song", but he preferred to work with songs that weren't professionally finished because he could then "fix them up" in his own style. Reynolds, p. 377 Once the band was signed, ZTT co-founder Paul Morley mapped out the marketing campaign fashioned as a "strategic assault on pop". Morley opted to tackle the biggest possible themes in the band's singles ("sex, war, religion"), of which "Relax" would be the first, and emphasised the shock impact of Frankie members Holly Johnson and Paul Rutherford's open homosexuality in the packaging and music videos. Reynolds, p. 379 Horn dominated the recording of "Relax" in his effort for perfectionism. The band were overawed and intimidated by Horn's reputation, and thus were too nervous to make suggestions. Johnson said in his autobiography, "Whatever he said we went along with". When attempts to record with the full band proved unsatisfactory, Horn hired former Ian Dury backing band the Blockheads for the sessions. Those sessions were later deemed to be not modern sounding enough. Horn then constructed a more electronic-based version of the song with keyboardist by session musician Andy Richards and with rhythm programming assistance from J. J. Jeczalik of Art of Noise. Horn developed this version of the recording in his West London studio while the band remained in their hometown of Liverpool. Ultimately lead vocalist Johnson was the only band member to perform on the record; the only contribution by the other members was a sample crafted from the sound of the rest of the band jumping into a swimming pool. Horn explained years later, "I was just . . . Look, 'Relax' had to be a hit." Despite the band's absence from the record, Horn said, "I could never have done these records in isolation. There was no actual playing by the band, but the whole feeling came from the band." Horn completed the recording having spent £70,000 in studio time. Reynolds, p. 380 Release and controversy Morley intentionally courted scandal with the promotion of "Relax". ZTT initiated the ad campaign for "Relax" with two quarter-page ads in the British music press. The first ad featured images of Rutherford in a sailor cap and a leather vest, and Johnson with a shaved head and rubber gloves. The images were accompanied by the phrase "ALL THE NICE BOYS LOVE SEA MEN" and declared "Frankie Goes to Hollywood are coming . . . making Duran Duran lick the shit off their shoes . . . Nineteen inches that must be taken always." The second ad promised "theories of bliss, a history of Liverpool from 1963 to 1983, a guide to Amsterdam bars". Reynolds, p. 381 On Thursday 5 January, Frankie Goes to Hollywood performed "Relax" on the BBC flagship TV chart show, Top Of The Pops, and in less than a week, the song had risen to number 6 in the UK singles chart. On 11 January 1984, Radio 1 disc jockey Mike Read expressed on air his distaste for both the record's suggestive sleeve (designed by Anne Yvonne Gilbert) and its lyrics. Perhaps Read's decision was based on his interpretation of the song's lyrics as being sexually explicit: "Relax, don't do it, when you want to sock it to it, Relax don't do it, when you want to come." He announced his refusal to play the record, not knowing that the BBC had just decided that the song was not to be played on the BBC anyway. In support of their DJ, BBC Radio banned the single from its shows a reported two days later (although certain prominent night-time BBC shows - including those of Kid Jensen and John Peel - continued to play the record, as they saw fit, throughout 1984). . The now-banned "Relax" rose to number 2 in the charts by 17 January, and hit the number one spot on 24 January. By this time, the BBC Radio ban had extended to Top of the Pops as well, which displayed a still picture of the group during its climactic Number One announcement, before airing a performance by a non-Number One artist. This went on for the five weeks that "Relax" was at number one. The single remained on the charts for a record consecutive forty-two weeks. It would rise up from a declining chart position to number two during the UK summer of 1984 whilst Frankie's follow-up single "Two Tribes" held the UK number one spot. The ban became an embarrassment for the BBC, especially given that UK commercial radio stations were still playing the song. Later in 1984 the ban was lifted and "Relax" featured on both the Christmas Day edition of Top of the Pops and Radio 1's rundown of the best-selling singles of the year. The track was re-issued in 1993, first of a string of Frankie Goes to Hollywood singles to be re-issued in this year. It debuted at a high number six on the UK singles chart and peaked at number five the next week. The song is sampled in the film Zoolander, in which it is the trigger for the main character to assassinate the Prime Minister of Malaysia. Original 1983–84 mixes Relax "The Last Seven Inches"Although the 7-inch version of the single remained unchanged throughout its initial release (a mix generally known as "Relax (Move)"), promotional 7-inch records featuring a substantially different mix of "Relax" (entitled either "The Last Seven Inches" or "Warp Mix" due to the fact it is a compilation of other versions) were the subject of a limited 1984 release. Three principal 12-inch remixes of "Relax" were eventually created by producer Trevor Horn: One of the reasons we did all the remixes was that the initial 12-inch version of 'Relax' contained something called 'The Sex Mix', which was 16 minutes long and didn't even contain a song. It was really Holly Johnson just jamming, as well as a bunch of samples of the group jumping in the swimming pool and me sort of making disgusting noises by dropping stuff into buckets of water! We got so many complaints about it -- particularly from gay clubs, who found it offensive -- that we cut it in half and reduced it down to eight minutes, by taking out some of the slightly more offensive parts [this became the "New York Mix"]. Then we got another load of complaints, because the single version wasn't on the 12-inch -- I didn't see the point in this at the time, but I was eventually put straight about it. Horn attested that visits to New York's Paradise Garage club led to the creation of the final "Relax (U.S. Mix)", which ultimately replaced the original "Sex Mix"/"New York Mix" releases: It was only when I went to this club and heard the sort of things they were playing that I really understood about 12-inch remixes. Although I myself had already had a couple of big 12-inch hits, I'd never heard them being played on a big sound system, and so I then went back and mixed 'Relax' again and that was the version which sold a couple of million over here [in the UK]. Relax picture 12" diskThe original 12-inch version of "Relax", labeled "Sex Mix", ran for over sixteen minutes, and is broadly as described by Horn above. The subsequent "New York Mix" was an 8-minute-plus edit of the "Sex Mix", and can only be distinguished by having 12ISZTAS1 etched on the vinyl. The final 12-inch mix, containing no elements from the foregoing versions, was designated the "U.S. Mix", and ran for approximately seven minutes twenty seconds. This was the most commonly available 12-inch version of "Relax" during its worldwide 1984 chart success. The UK cassette single featured as the title track a unique amalgam of excerpts from the "Sex Mix", "U.S. Mix" , "Move" and an instrumental version of "Move". Since virtually all of the UK "Relax" 12-inch singles were labeled "Sex Mix", a method of differentiating between versions by reference to the record's matrix numbers necessarily became de rigueur for collectors of Frankie Goes to Hollywood releases (and ultimately collectors of ZTT records in general). "Relax (Come Fighting)" was the version of the song included on the Welcome to the Pleasuredome album. This is ostensibly a variant of the 7-inch "Move" mix, but readily distinguishable from it in many ways, of which the most obvious are the fade-in (virtually no fade-in and the vocal is always central on the album track), plus a prominent reverbed-kick-drum sound during the introduction and third sung chorus (completely missing from the album version). The "Come Fighting" version also shares with the later "1993 Classic Mix" reissue (which is almost identical to the album version) a certain post-production sheen (greater stereo separation of parts, more strategic uses of reverb, etc.) that is absent from the original 1983 7-inch single mix. The original airing of Relax on The Tube, before the band were signed to ZTT, featured another verse that was edited from all the released versions, "In heaven everything is fine, you've got yours and I've got mine", presumably removed as it was taken directly from the David Lynch film Eraserhead. B-sides The 7-inch featured "One September Monday", an interview between ZTT's Paul Morley, Holly Johnson and Paul Rutherford. During the interview, Holly revealed that the group's name derived from a page of the New Yorker magazine, headlined "Frankie Goes to Hollywood" and featuring Frank Sinatra "getting mobbed by teenyboppers". On all of the original 12-inch releases, the B-side featured a cover of "Ferry 'Cross the Mersey", followed by a brief dialogue involving Rutherford attempting to sign on, and an a cappella version of the title track's chorus, segueing into an instrumental version of "Relax", known as "From Soft to Hard". "From Soft to Hard" has the same structure as the 7-inch "Move" mix, but is not simply an instrumental of this mix. The UK cassette single included "Ferry 'Cross the Mersey" and interview sections not included on "One September Monday". Videos The first official video for "Relax", directed by Bernard Rose which was set in a S&M themed gay nightclub, was allegedly banned by MTV and the BBC, prompting the recording of a second video, directed by Godley and Creme in early 1984, featuring the group performing with the help of "laser beams". However, after the second video was made the song was banned completely by the BBC, meaning that neither video was ever broadcast on any BBC music programmes. In addition, a version including footage from the Brian De Palma film Body Double as well as a live version, directed by David Mallet, also made the rounds at MTV. Currently, VH1 Europe only plays the original video in nighttime, while a concert performance with clips from the former plays during the day. Track listings All discographical information pertains to original UK releases only unless noted "Relax" written by Peter Gill/Johnson/Mark O'Toole "One September Monday" credited to Gill/Johnson/Morley/Brian Nash/O'Toole/Rutherford "Ferry 'Cross the Mersey" written by Gerry Marsden 7": ZTT / ZTAS 1 (UK) "Relax" (move) - 3:52 "One September Monday" - 4:47 also released as a picture disc bb(P ZTAS 1) 12": ZTT / 12 ZTAS 1 "Relax" (sex mix) (16:24) "Ferry 'Cross the Mersey" - 4:03 "Relax" (from soft to hard) - 4:21 12": ZTT / 12ISZTAS 1 "Relax" (New York mix) (8:20) "Ferry 'Cross the Mersey" - 4:03 "Relax" (from soft to hard) - 4:21 "New York mix" is an edit of "Sex mix" 12": ZTT / 12 ZTAS 1 "Relax" (U.S. mix) - 7:20 "Ferry 'Cross the Mersey" - 4:03 "Relax" (from soft to hard) - 4:21 12": ZTT / 200 068-6 "Relax" (Disco mix) (6:15) "Ferry 'Cross the Mersey" - 4:03 "Relax" (from soft to hard) - 4:21 "Disco mix" (aka "The Greek Disco Mix") is a combination of "Relax (move)" and the "New York Mix" 12": Island / 0-96975 "Relax" (U.S. mix) - 7:20 "Relax" (move) - 3:52 "Relax" (from soft to hard) - 4:21 "U.S. Mix" labelled as "Long version" "Move" labelled as "7" Version" "from soft to hard" labelled as "Instrumental" also released on MC in Canada (Island / ISC-69750) MC: ZTT / CTIS 102 "From Soft To Hard - From Dry To Moist" "The Party Trick" (acting dumb) - 0:36 "The Special Act" (adapted from the sex mix) -7:46 "The US Mix" (come dancing) - 4:38 "The Single" (the act) - 3:55 "Later On" (from One September Monday) - 1:36 "Ferry Across The Mersey (...and here I'll stay)" - 4:06 Charts ChartPeakpositionUK Singles Chart1German Singles Charts1Italian Singles Charts1Swiss Singles Chart 1Norwegian Singles Chart 2Austrian Singles Chart 4Swedish Singles Chart 4Billboard Hot 100 10French Singles Chart 21Australian Singles Chart 5New Zealand Singles Chart 35 Re-issues The title track has periodically been reissued as a single in a number of remix forms. 1993 re-issues CD: ZTT / FGTH1CD "Relax" - 3:55 "Relax" (MCMXCIII) - 3:42 "Relax" (Ollie J. Remix) - 6:38 "Relax" (Jam & Spoon Trip-O-Matic Fairy Tale Remix) - 7:52 "Relax" (Jam & Spoon HI N-R-G Remix) - 7:55 "Relax" (U.S. Mix) - 7:22 2x12": ZTT / SAM 1231 "Relax" (Ollie J. Remix) - 6:38 "Relax" (Trip-Ship Edit) - 6:12 "Relax" (Ollie J's Seven Inches) - 3:30 "Relax" (Jam & Spoon HI N-R-G Remix) - 7:55 "Relax" (Jam & Spoon Trip-O-Matic Fairy Tale Remix) - 7:52 "Relax" (MCMXCIII) - 3:42 UK 12" promo 2001 re-issue CD: Star 69 / STARCD 520 "Relax" (Peter Rauhofer's Doomsday Radio Mix) - 3:45 "Relax" (Peter Rauhofer's Doomsday Club Mix) - 9:47 "Relax" (Saeed & Palash Addictive Journey) - 11:16 "Relax" (Coldcut Remix) - 4:59 "Relax" (Peter Rauhofer's Doomsday Dub) - 6:27 "Relax" (Original New York 12" Mix) - 7:31 "Relax" (Original Radio Mix) - 3:54 Covers Powerman 5000 covered it with Danny Boy for the Zoolander Soundtrack. They made a Music Video as well. Brooklyn Bounce covered it for they 1997 album The Beginning. Bloodhound Gang sampled it in their song Mope. See also List of songs banned by the BBC References Reynolds, Simon. Rip It Up and Start Again: Postpunk 1978–1984. Penguin, 2005. 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3,696 | Community_acquis | The term acquis communautaire, or (EU) acquis (), is used in European Union law to refer to the total body of EU law accumulated thus far. The term is French: acquis means "that which has been acquired", and communautaire means "of the community". Chapters of the acquis During the process of the enlargement of the European Union, the acquis was divided into 31 chapters for the purpose of negotiation between the EU and the candidate member states for the fifth enlargement (the ten that joined in 2004 plus Romania and Bulgaria which joined in 2007). These chapters were: Free movement of goods Free movement of persons Freedom to provide services Free movement of capital Company law Competition policy Agriculture Fisheries Transport policy Taxation Economic and Monetary Union Statistics Social policy and employment Energy Industrial policy Small and medium-sized enterprises<li>Science and research <li>Education and training <li>Telecommunication and information technologies <li>Culture and audio-visual policy <li>Regional policy and coordination of structural instruments <li>Environment <li>Consumers and health protection <li>Cooperation in the field of Justice and Home Affairs <li>Customs union <li>External relations <li>Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) <li>Financial control <li>Financial and budgetary provisions <li>Institutions <li>Others For the negotiations with Croatia and Turkey, the acquis was split up into 35 chapters instead, with the purpose of better balancing between the chapters: dividing the most difficult ones into separate chapters for easier negotiation, uniting some easier chapters, moving some policies between chapters, as well as renaming a few of them in the process: Free movement of goods Freedom of movement for workers Right of establishment and freedom to provide services Free movement of capital Public procurement Company law Intellectual property law Competition policy Financial services Information society and media Agriculture and rural development Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy Fisheries Transport policy Energy Taxation Economic and monetary policy Statistics<li>Social policy and employment(including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men) <li>Enterprise and industrial policy <li>Trans-European networks <li>Regional policy and coordination of structural instruments <li>Judiciary and fundamental rights <li>Justice, freedom and security <li>Science and research <li>Education and culture <li>Environment <li>Consumer and health protection <li>Customs union <li>External relations <li>Foreign, security and defence policy <li>Financial control <li>Financial and budgetary provisions <li>Institutions <li>Other issues Correspondence between chapters of the 5th and the 6th Enlargement: {| border="0" cellpadding="3" |----- ! 5th Enlargement ! 6th Enlargement |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" | 1. Free movement of goods | 1. Free movement of goods |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | 7. Intellectual property law |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" | 2. Free movement of persons | 2. Freedom of movement for workers |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | 3. Right of establishment and freedom to provide services |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" | 3. Freedom to provide services | 3. Right of establishment and freedom to provide services |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | 9. Financial services |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 4. Free movement of capital | 4. Free movement of capital |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 5. Company law | 6. Company law |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" | 6. Competition policy | 8. Competition policy |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | 5. Public procurement |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" | 7. Agriculture | 11. Agriculture and rural development |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | 12. Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 8. Fisheries | 13. Fisheries |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" | 9. Transport policy | 14. Transport policy |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | 21. Trans-European networks (one half of it) |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 10. Taxation | 16. Taxation |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 11. Economic and Monetary Union | 17. Economic and monetary policy |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 12. Statistics | 18. Statistics |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 13. Social policy and employment 19. Social policy and employment(including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men) |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" | 14. Energy | 15. Energy |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | 21. Trans-European networks (one half of it) |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 15. Industrial policy | rowspan="2" valign="middle" | 20. Enterprise and industrial policy |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | 16. Small and medium-sized enterprises |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 17. Science and research | 25. Science and research |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 18. Education and training | rowspan="3" valign="middle" | 26. Education and culture10. Information society and media |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | 19. Telecommunication and information technologies |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | 20. Culture and audio-visual policy |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 21. Regional policy and coordination of structural instruments | 22. Regional policy and coordination of structural instruments |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 22. Environment | 27. Environment |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 23. Consumer and health protection | 28. Consumer and health protection |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" | 24. Cooperation in the field of Justice and Home Affairs | 23. Judiciary and fundamental rights |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | 24. Justice, freedom and security |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 25. Customs union | 29. Customs union |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 26. External relations | 30. External relations |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 27. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) | 31. Foreign, security and defence policy |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 28. Financial control | 32. Financial control |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 29. Financial and budgetary provisions | 33. Financial and budgetary provisions |----- bgcolor="#efefff" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 30. Institutions | 34. Institutions |----- bgcolor="#efefef" | rowspan="1" valign="top" | 31. Others | 35. Other issues |} Such negotiations usually involved agreeing transitional periods before new member states needed to implement the laws of the European Union fully and before they and their citizens acquired full rights under the acquis. Other uses The term is also used to describe laws adopted under the Schengen treaty, prior to its integration into the European Union legal order by the Treaty of Amsterdam, in which case one speaks of the Schengen acquis. The term acquis has been borrowed by the World Trade Organization Appellate Body, in the case Japan - Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages, to refer to the accumulation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and WTO law ("acquis gattien"), though this usage is not well established. It has been used to describe the achievements of the Council of Europe (an international organisation unconnected with the European Union): Section 12, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe Resolution 1290 The Council of Europe’s acquis in standard setting activities in the fields of democracy, the rule of law and fundamental human rights and freedoms should be considered as milestones towards the great European political project, and the European Court of Human Rights should be recognised as the pre-eminent judicial pillar of any future architecture. It has also been applied to the body of "principles, norms and commitments" of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE): Intervention by Ambassador Aleksi Härkönen, Permanent Representative of Finland to the OSCE, Annual Security Review Conference. Another question under debate has been how the Partners and others could implement the OSCE acquis, in other words its principles, norms and commitments on a voluntary basis. The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) introduced the concept of the OECD Acquis in its "Strategy for enlargement and outreach", May 2004. References External links EUR-Lex: European Union Law. JRC-Acquis, Aligned multilingual parallel corpus: 23,000 Acquis-related texts per language, available in 22 languages. Total size: 1 Billion words. Translation Memory of the EU-Acquis: Up to 1 Million translation units each, for 231 language pairs. | Community_acquis |@lemmatized term:4 acquis:16 communautaire:2 eu:4 use:4 european:11 union:12 law:13 refer:2 total:2 body:3 accumulate:1 thus:1 far:1 french:1 mean:2 acquire:2 community:1 chapter:9 process:2 enlargement:6 divide:2 purpose:2 negotiation:4 candidate:1 member:2 state:2 fifth:1 ten:1 join:2 plus:1 romania:1 bulgaria:1 free:10 movement:12 good:5 person:2 freedom:10 provide:5 service:7 capital:4 company:4 competition:4 policy:31 agriculture:4 fishery:4 transport:4 taxation:4 economic:5 monetary:4 statistic:4 social:4 employment:4 energy:4 industrial:4 small:2 medium:4 sized:2 enterprise:4 li:32 science:4 research:4 education:4 training:2 telecommunication:2 information:4 technology:2 culture:3 audio:2 visual:2 regional:4 coordination:4 structural:4 instrument:4 environment:4 consumer:4 health:4 protection:4 cooperation:3 field:3 justice:4 home:2 affair:2 custom:4 external:5 relation:4 common:2 foreign:4 security:8 cfsp:2 financial:10 control:4 budgetary:4 provision:4 institution:4 others:3 croatia:1 turkey:1 split:1 instead:1 balancing:1 difficult:1 one:4 separate:1 easy:2 unite:1 move:1 well:2 rename:1 worker:2 right:8 establishment:3 public:2 procurement:2 intellectual:2 property:2 society:2 rural:2 development:3 food:2 safety:2 veterinary:2 phytosanitary:2 include:2 anti:2 discrimination:2 equal:2 opportunity:2 woman:2 men:2 trans:3 network:3 judiciary:2 fundamental:3 defence:2 issue:2 correspondence:1 border:1 cellpadding:1 bgcolor:39 efefff:22 rowspan:30 valign:30 middle:10 efefef:17 top:20 half:2 usually:1 involve:1 agree:1 transitional:1 period:1 new:1 need:1 implement:2 fully:1 citizen:1 full:1 also:2 describe:2 adopt:1 schengen:2 treaty:2 prior:1 integration:1 legal:1 order:1 amsterdam:1 case:2 speaks:1 borrow:1 world:1 trade:2 organization:2 appellate:1 japan:1 tax:1 alcoholic:1 beverage:1 accumulation:1 general:1 agreement:1 tariff:1 gatt:1 wto:1 gattien:1 though:1 usage:1 establish:1 achievement:1 council:3 europe:4 international:1 organisation:2 unconnected:1 section:1 parliamentary:1 assembly:1 resolution:1 standard:1 setting:1 activity:1 democracy:1 rule:1 human:2 consider:1 milestone:1 towards:1 great:1 political:1 project:1 court:1 recognise:1 pre:1 eminent:1 judicial:1 pillar:1 future:1 architecture:1 apply:1 principle:2 norm:2 commitment:2 co:1 operation:1 osce:3 intervention:1 ambassador:1 aleksi:1 härkönen:1 permanent:1 representative:1 finland:1 annual:1 review:1 conference:1 another:1 question:1 debate:1 partner:1 could:1 word:2 voluntary:1 basis:1 oecd:2 introduce:1 concept:1 strategy:1 outreach:1 may:1 reference:1 link:1 eur:1 lex:1 jrc:1 align:1 multilingual:1 parallel:1 corpus:1 related:1 text:1 per:1 language:3 available:1 size:1 billion:1 translation:2 memory:1 million:1 unit:1 pair:1 |@bigram romania_bulgaria:1 agriculture_fishery:1 policy_cfsp:2 border_cellpadding:1 bgcolor_efefff:22 efefff_rowspan:14 rowspan_valign:30 bgcolor_efefef:17 efefef_rowspan:14 valign_top:20 schengen_treaty:1 alcoholic_beverage:1 trade_gatt:1 gatt_wto:1 pre_eminent:1 external_link:1 |
3,697 | P_versus_NP_problem | Diagram of complexity classes provided that P ≠ NP. The existence of problems outside both P and NP-complete in this case was established by Ladner. R. E. Ladner "On the structure of polynomial time reducibility," J.ACM, 22, pp. 151–171, 1975. Corollary 1.1. ACM site. The relationship between the complexity classes P and NP is an unsolved question in theoretical computer science. It is considered to be the most important problem in the field – the Clay Mathematics Institute has offered a $1 million US prize for the first correct proof. In essence, the question P = NP? asks: if 'yes'-answers to a 'yes'-or-'no'-question can be verified "quickly" (in polynomial time), can the answers themselves also be computed quickly? Consider, for instance, the subset-sum problem, an example of a problem which is "easy" to verify, but whose answer is believed (but not proven) to be "difficult" to compute. Given a set of integers, does some nonempty subset of them sum to 0? For instance, does a subset of the set add up to 0? The answer "yes, because add up to zero", can be quickly verified with a few additions. However, finding such a subset in the first place could take much longer. The information needed to verify a positive answer is also called a certificate. Given the right certificates, "yes" answers to our problem can be verified in polynomial time, so this problem is in NP. An answer to the P = NP question would determine whether problems like the subset-sum problem are as "easy" to compute as to verify. If it turned out P does not equal NP, it would mean that some NP problems are substantially "harder" to compute than to verify. The restriction to yes/no problems is unimportant; the resulting question when more complicated answers are allowed (whether FP = FNP) is equivalent. : "FP = FNP if and only if P = NP". Context of the problem The relation between the complexity classes P and NP is studied in computational complexity theory, the part of the theory of computation dealing with the resources required during computation to solve a given problem. The most common resources are time (how many steps it takes to solve a problem) and space (how much memory it takes to solve a problem). In such analysis, a model of the computer for which time must be analyzed is required. Typically, such models assume that the computer is deterministic (given the computer's present state and any inputs, there is only one possible action that the computer might take) and sequential (it performs actions one after the other). As of 2009, these assumptions are satisfied by all practical computers yet devised. In this theory, the class P consists of all those decision problems (defined below) that can be solved on a deterministic sequential machine in an amount of time that is polynomial in the size of the input; the class NP consists of all those decision problems whose positive solutions can be verified in polynomial time given the right information, or equivalently, whose solution can be found in polynomial time on a non-deterministic machine. Sipser, Michael: Introduction to the Theory of Computation, Second Edition, International Edition, page 270. Thomson Course Technology, 2006. Definition 7.19 and Theorem 7.20. Arguably, the biggest open question in theoretical computer science concerns the relationship between those two classes: Is P equal to NP? In a 2002 poll of 100 researchers, 61 believed the answer is no, 9 believed the answer is yes, 22 were unsure, and 8 believed the question may be independent of the currently accepted axioms, and so impossible to prove or disprove. Formal definitions for P and NP Conceptually, a decision problem is a problem that takes as input some string, and outputs "yes" or "no". If there is an algorithm (say a Turing machine, or a computer program with unbounded memory) which is able to produce the correct answer for any input string of length in at most steps, where and are constants independent of the input string, then we say that the problem can be solved in polynomial time and we place it in the class P. Formally, P is defined as the set of all languages which can be decided by a deterministic polynomial-time Turing machine. That is, P = where and a deterministic polynomial-time Turing machine is a deterministic Turing machine which satisfies the following two conditions: ; and there exists such that O, where and NP can be defined similarly using nondeterministic Turing machines (the traditional way). However, a modern approach to define NP is to use the concept of certificate and verifier. Formally, NP is defined as the set of languages over a finite alphabet that have a verifier that runs in polynomial time, where the notion of "verifier" is defined as follows. Let be a language over a finite alphabet, . if, and only if, there exists a binary relation and a positive integer such that the following two conditions are satisfied: For all , such that and O; and the language over is decidable by a Turing machine in polynomial time. A Turing machine that decides is called a verifier for and a such that is called a certificate of membership of in . In general, a verifier does not have to be polynomial-time. However, for to be in NP, there must be a verifier that runs in polynomial time. Example Let and Clearly, the question of whether a given is a composite is equivalent to the question of whether is a member of . It can be shown that by verifying that satisfies the above definition. also happens to be in P. AKS primality test NP-complete To attack the P = NP question, the concept of NP-completeness is very useful. Informally, the NP-complete problems are the "toughest" problems in NP in the sense that they are the ones most likely not to be in P. NP-complete problems are those NP-hard problems which are in NP, where NP-hard problems are those to which any problem in NP can be reduced in polynomial time. For instance, the decision problem version of the traveling salesman problem is NP-complete, so any instance of any problem in NP can be transformed mechanically into an instance of the traveling salesman problem, in polynomial time. The traveling salesman problem is one of many such NP-complete problems. If any NP-complete problem is in P, then it would follow that P = NP. Unfortunately, many important problems have been shown to be NP-complete and as of 2009, not a single fast algorithm for any of them is known. Based on the definition alone, it's not obvious that NP-complete problems exist. A trivial and contrived NP-complete problem can be formulated as: given a description of a Turing machine M guaranteed to halt in polynomial time, does there exist a polynomial-size input that M will accept? It is in NP because, given an input, it is simple to check whether or not M accepts the input by simulating M; it is NP-hard because the verifier for any particular instance of a problem in NP can be encoded as a polynomial-time machine M that takes the solution to be verified as input. Then the question of whether the instance is a yes or no instance is determined by whether a valid input exists. The first natural problem proven to be NP-complete was the Boolean satisfiability problem. This result came to be known as Cook–Levin theorem; its proof that satisfiability is NP-complete contains technical details about Turing machines as they relate to the definition of NP. However, after this problem was proved to be NP-complete, proof by reduction provided a simpler way to show that many other problems are in this class. Thus, a vast class of seemingly unrelated problems are all reducible to one another, and are in a sense the "same problem". Formal definition for NP-completeness There are many equivalent ways of describing NP-completeness. Let be a language over a finite alphabet . is NP-complete if, and only if, the following two conditions are satisfied: ; and any is polynomial time reducible to (written as ), where if, and only if, the following two conditions are satisfied: There exists such that ; and there exists a polynomial time Turing machine which halts with on its tape on any input . Still harder problems Although it is unknown whether P = NP, problems outside of P are known. A number of succinct problems, that is, problems which operate not on normal input but on a computational description of the input, are known to be EXPTIME-complete. Because it can be shown that P EXPTIME, these problems are outside P, and so require more than polynomial time. In fact, by the time hierarchy theorem, they cannot be solved in significantly less than exponential time. The problem of deciding the truth of a statement in Presburger arithmetic requires even more time. Fischer and Rabin proved in 1974 that every algorithm which decides the truth of Presburger statements has a runtime of at least for some constant c. Here, n is the length of the Presburger statement. Hence, the problem is known to need more than exponential run time. Even more difficult are the undecidable problems, such as the halting problem. They cannot be completely solved by any algorithm, in the sense that for any particular algorithm there is at least one input for which that algorithm will not produce the right answer; it will either produce the wrong answer, finish without giving a conclusive answer, or otherwise run forever without producing any answer at all. Does NP mean "hard" and P mean "easy"? The graph shows time (average of 100 instances in msec using a 933 MHz Pentium III) vs.problem size for knapsack problems for a state-of-the-art specialized algorithm. Quadratic fit suggests that empirical algorithmic complexity for instances with 50–10,000 variables is O((log n)2). The data comes from Pisinger, D. 2003. "Where are the hard knapsack problems?" Technical Report 2003/08, Department of Computer Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark All of the above discussion has assumed that P means "easy" and "not in P" means "hard". This assumption, known as Cobham's thesis, though a common and reasonably accurate assumption in complexity theory, is not always true in practice; the size of constant factors or exponents may have practical importance, or there may be solutions that work for situations encountered in practice despite having poor worst-case performance in theory (this is the case for instance for the simplex algorithm in linear programming). Other solutions violate the Turing machine model on which P and NP are defined by introducing concepts like randomness and quantum computation. Because of these factors, even if a problem is shown to be NP-complete, and even if P ≠ NP, there may still be effective approaches to tackling the problem in practice. There are algorithms for many NP-complete problems, such as the knapsack problem, the travelling salesman problem and the boolean satisfiability problem, that can solve to optimality many real-world instances in reasonable time. The empirical average complexity (time vs. problem size) of such algorithms can be surprisingly low. Why many computer scientists think P ≠ NP According to a poll, many computer scientists believe that P ≠ NP. A key reason for this belief is that after decades of studying these problems, no one has been able to find a polynomial-time algorithm for any of more than 3000 important known NP-complete problems (see List of NP-complete problems). These algorithms were sought long before the concept of NP-completeness was even known (Karp's 21 NP-complete problems, among the first found, were all well-known existing problems at the time they were shown to be NP-complete). Furthermore, the result P = NP would imply many other startling results that are currently believed to be false, such as NP = co-NP and P = PH. It is also intuitively argued that the existence of problems that are hard to solve but for which the solutions are easy to verify matches real-world experience. , point 9. On the other hand, some researchers believe that we are overconfident in P ≠ NP and should explore proofs of P = NP as well. For example, in 2002 these statements were made: Consequences of proof One of the reasons the problem attracts so much attention is the consequences of the answer. A proof of P = NP could have stunning practical consequences, if the proof leads to efficient methods for solving some of the important problems in NP. Various NP-complete problems are fundamental in many fields. There are enormous positive consequences that would follow from rendering tractable many currently mathematically intractable problems. For instance, many problems in operations research are NP-complete, such as some types of integer programming, and the travelling salesman problem, to name two of the most famous examples. Efficient solutions to these problems would have enormous implications for logistics. Many other important problems, such as some problems in Protein structure prediction are also NP-complete; if these problems were efficiently solvable it could spur considerable advances in biology. But such changes may pale in significance compared to the revolution an efficient method for solving NP-complete problems would cause in mathematics itself. According to Stephen Cook, Research mathematicians spend their careers trying to prove theorems, and some proofs have taken decades or even centuries to find after problems have been stated – for instance, Fermat's Last Theorem took over three centuries to prove. A method that is guaranteed to find proofs to theorems, should one exist of a "reasonable" size, would essentially end this struggle. A proof that showed that P ≠ NP, while lacking the practical computational benefits of a proof that P = NP, would also represent a massive advance in computational complexity theory and provide guidance for future research. It would allow one to show in a formal way that many common problems cannot be solved efficiently, so that the attention of researchers can be focused on partial solutions or solutions to other problems. Due to widespread belief in P ≠ NP, much of this focusing of research has already taken place. Results about difficulty of proof The Clay Mathematics Institute million-dollar prize and a huge amount of dedicated research with no substantial results suggest that the problem is difficult. In fact, some of the most fruitful research related to the P = NP problem has been in showing that existing proof techniques are not powerful enough to answer the question, thus suggesting that novel technical approaches are probably required. Essentially all known proof techniques in computational complexity theory fall into one of the following classifications, each of which is known to be insufficient to prove that P ≠ NP: Relativizing proofs: Imagine a world where every algorithm is allowed to make queries to some fixed subroutine called an oracle, and the running time of the oracle is not counted against the running time of the algorithm. Most proofs, especially classical ones, apply uniformly in a world with oracles, regardless of what the oracle does. These proofs are called relativizing. In 1975, Baker, Gill, and Solovay showed that P = NP with respect to some oracles, while P ≠ NP for other oracles. T. P. Baker, J. Gill, R. Solovay. Relativizations of the P =? NP Question. SIAM Journal on Computing, 4(4): 431-442 (1975) Since relativizing proofs can only prove statements that are uniformly true with respect to all possible oracles, this showed that relativizing techniques cannot resolve P = NP. Natural proofs: In 1993, Alexander Razborov and Steven Rudich defined a general class of proof techniques for circuit complexity lower bounds, called natural proofs. At the time, all previously known circuit lower bounds were natural, and circuit complexity was considered a very promising approach for resolving P = NP. However, Razborov and Rudich showed that in order to prove P ≠ NP using a natural proof, one necessarily must also prove an even stronger statement, which is believed to be false. Thus it is unlikely that natural proofs alone can resolve P = NP. Algebrizing proofs: After the Baker-Gill-Solovay result, new non-relativizing proof techniques were successfully used to prove that IP = PSPACE. However, in 2008, Scott Aaronson and Avi Wigderson showed that the main technical tool used in the IP = PSPACE proof, known as arithmetization, was also insufficient to resolve P = NP. S. Aaronson and A. Wigderson. Algebrization: A New Barrier in Complexity Theory, in Proceedings of ACM STOC'2008, pp. 731-740. These barriers are another reason why NP-complete problems are useful: if a polynomial-time algorithm can be demonstrated for an NP-complete problem, this would solve the P = NP problem in a way which is not excluded by the above results. Polynomial-time algorithms No algorithm for any NP-complete problem is known to run in polynomial time. However, there are algorithms for NP-complete problems with the property that if P = NP, then the algorithm runs in polynomial time (although with enormous constants, making the algorithm impractical). The following algorithm, due to Levin, is such an example. It correctly accepts the NP-complete language SUBSET-SUM, and runs in polynomial time if and only if P = NP: // Algorithm that accepts the NP-complete language SUBSET-SUM. // // This is a polynomial-time algorithm if and only if P=NP. // // "Polynomial-time" means it returns "yes" in polynomial time when // the answer should be "yes", and runs forever when it is "no". // // Input: S = a finite set of integers // Output: "yes" if any subset of S adds up to 0. // Runs forever with no output otherwise. // Note: "Program number P" is the program obtained by // writing the integer P in binary, then // considering that string of bits to be a // program. Every possible program can be // generated this way, though most do nothing // because of syntax errors. FOR N = 1...infinity FOR P = 1...N Run program number P for N steps with input S IF the program outputs a list of distinct integers AND the integers are all in S AND the integers sum to 0 THEN OUTPUT "yes" and HALT If, and only if, P = NP, then this is a polynomial-time algorithm accepting an NP-complete language. "Accepting" means it gives "yes" answers in polynomial time, but is allowed to run forever when the answer is "no". Note that this is enormously impractical, even if P = NP. If the shortest program that can solve SUBSET-SUM in polynomial time is b bits long, the above algorithm will try 2b-1 other programs first. Perhaps we want to "solve" the SUBSET-SUM problem, rather than just "accept" the SUBSET-SUM language. That means we want the algorithm to always halt and return a "yes" or "no" answer. , it is unknown whether an algorithm exists that does this in polynomial time. But if there is an algorithm that provably does this in polynomial time, then so does the algorithm that is obtained by replacing the IF statement in the above algorithm with this: IF the program outputs a complete math proof AND each step of the proof is legal AND the conclusion is that S does (or does not) have a subset summing to 0 THEN OUTPUT "yes" (or "no") and HALT Logical characterizations The P = NP problem can be restated in terms of the expressibility of certain classes of logical statements, as a result of work in descriptive complexity. All languages (of finite structures with a fixed signature including a linear order relation) in P can be expressed in first-order logic with the addition of a suitable least fixed point operator (effectively, this, in combination with the order, allows the definition of recursive functions); indeed, (as long as the signature contains at least one predicate or function in addition to the distinguished order relation [so that the amount of space taken to store such finite structures is actually polynomial in the number of elements in the structure]), this precisely characterizes P. Similarly, NP is the set of languages expressible in existential second-order logic — that is, second-order logic restricted to exclude universal quantification over relations, functions, and subsets. The languages in the polynomial hierarchy, PH, correspond to all of second-order logic. Thus, the question "is P a proper subset of NP" can be reformulated as "is existential second-order logic able to describe languages (of finite linearly ordered structures with nontrivial signature) that first-order logic with least fixed point cannot?". The word "existential" can even be dropped from the previous characterization, since P = NP if and only if P = PH (as the former would establish that NP = co-NP, which in turn would imply that NP = PH). See also P (complexity) NP (complexity) NP-complete Game complexity Cobham's thesis List of open problems in computer science Unsolved problems in mathematics Notes Further reading A. S. Fraenkel and D. Lichtenstein, Computing a perfect strategy for n*n chess requires time exponential in n, Proc. 8th Int. Coll. Automata, Languages, and Programming, Springer LNCS 115 (1981) 278–293 and J. Comb. Th. A 31 (1981) 199–214. E. Berlekamp and D. Wolfe, Mathematical Go: Chilling Gets the Last Point, A. K. Peters, 1994. D. Wolfe, Go endgames are hard, MSRI Combinatorial Game Theory Research Worksh., 2000. Neil Immerman. Languages Which Capture Complexity Classes. 15th ACM STOC Symposium, pp.347–354. 1983. External links The Clay Mathematics Institute Millennium Prize Problems Ian Stewart on Minesweeper as NP-complete at The Clay Math Institute Gerhard J. Woeginger. The P-versus-NP page. A list of links to a number of purported solutions to the problem. Some of these links state that P equals NP, some of them state the opposite. It is probable that all these alleged solutions are incorrect. 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3,698 | Charles_F._Hockett | Charles Francis Hockett (January 17, 1916 - November 3, 2000) was an American linguist who developed many influential ideas in American structuralism. He represents the post-Bloomfieldian phase of structuralism often referred to as distributionalism or taxonomic structuralism. In his "Note on Structure" he argues that linguistics can be seen as a game and as a science. A linguist as player has a freedom for experimentation on all the utterances of a language, but no criterion to compare his analysis with other linguists. Late in his career, he was known for his stinging criticism of Chomskyan linguistics which he called "a theory spawned by a generation of vipers". Professional and Academic Career Education At the age of sixteen, Hockett enrolled at Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio where he received a Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts in ancient history. While enrolled at Ohio State, Hockett became interested in the work of Leonard Bloomfield, a leading figure in the field of structural linguistics. Hockett continued his education at Yale University where he studied anthropology and linguistics and received his PhD in anthropology in 1939. While studying at Yale, Hockett studied with several other influential linguists such as Edward Sapir, George P. Murdock, and Benjamin Whorf. Hockett's dissertation was based on his fieldwork in Potawatomi; his paper on Potawatomi syntax was published in Language in 1939. In 1948 his dissertation was published as a series in the International Journal of American Linguistics. Following fieldwork in Kickapoo and Michoacán, Mexico, Hockett did two years of postdoctoral study with Leonard Bloomfield in Chicago and Michigan. Career Hockett began his teaching career in 1946 as an assistant professor of linguistics in the Division of Modern Languages at Cornell University where he was responsible for directing the Chinese language program. In 1957, Hockett became a member of Cornell's anthropology department and continued to teach anthropology and linguistics until he retired to emeritus status in 1982. In 1986, he took up an adjunct post at Rice University in Houston, Texas, where he remained active until his death in 2000. Achievements Charles Hockett held membership among many academic institutions such as the National Academy of Sciences the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Society of Fellows at Harvard University. He served as president of both the Linguistic Society of America and the Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States. In addition to making many contributions to the field of structural linguistics, Hockett also considered such things as Whorfian Theory, jokes, the nature of writing systems, slips of the tongue, and animal communication and their relativeness to speech. Outside the realm of linguistics and anthropology, Hockett practiced musical performance and composition. Hockett composed a full-length opera called The Love of Doña Rosita which was based on a play by Federico García Lorca and premiered at Ithaca College by the Ithaca Opera. Hockett and his wife Shirley were vital leaders in the development of the Cayuga Chamber Orchestra in Ithaca, New York. In appreciation of the Hocketts' hard work and dedication to the Ithaca community, Ithaca College established the Charles F. Hockett Music Scholarship, the Shirley and Chas Hockett Chamber Music Concert Series, and the Hockett Family Recital Hall. Key Contributions Comparative method of Linguistics One of Hockett’s most important contributions was his development of the design-feature approach to comparative linguistics where he attempted to distinguish the similarities and differences among animal communication systems and human language. Hockett initially developed seven features which were published in the 1959 paper “Animal ‘Languages’ and Human Language.” However, after many revisions, he settled on 13 design-features which can be found in the Scientific American article “The Origin of Speech.” Hockett argued that while every communication system has some of the 13 design features, only human, spoken language has all 13 features. In turn, this differentiates human spoken language from animal communication and other human communication systems such as written language. Hockett's 13 Design Features of Language Vocal-Auditory Channel: Much of human language is performed using the vocal tract and auditory channel. Hockett viewed this as an advantage for human primates because it allowed for the ability to participate in other activities while simultaneously communicating through spoken language. Broadcast transmission and directional reception: All human language can be heard if it is within range of another person’s auditory channel. Additionally, a listener has the ability to determine the source of a sound by binaural direction finding. Rapid Fading (transitoriness): Wave forms of human language dissipate over time and do not persist. A hearer can only receive specific auditory information at the time it is spoken. Interchangeability: A person has the ability to both speak and hear the same signal. Anything that a person is able to hear, they have the ability to reproduce through spoken language. Total Feedback: A speaker has the ability to hear themselves speak. Through this, they are able to monitor their speech production and internalize what they are producing through language. Specialization: Human language sounds are specialized for communication. When dogs pant it is to cool themselves off, when humans speak it is to transmit information. Semanticity: This refers to the idea that specific signals can be matched with a specific meaning. Arbitrariness: There is no limitation to what can be communicated about and there is no specific or necessary connection between the sounds used and the message being sent. Discreteness: Phonemes can be placed in distinct categories which differentiate them from one another , such as the distinct sound of /p/ versus /b/. Displacement: The ability to refer to things in space and time and communicate about things that are currently not present. Productivity: The ability to create new and unique meanings of utterances from previously existing utterances and sounds. Traditional Transmission: The idea that human language is not completely innate and acquisition depends in part on the learning of a language. Duality of patterning: Phonic segments (phonemes) are combined to make words, which in turn are combined again to make sentences. While Hockett believed that all communication systems, animal and human alike, share many of these features, only human language contains all of the 13 design features. Additionally, traditional transmission, and duality of patterning are key to human language. Hockett's Design Features and their implications for human language Hockett suggests that the importance of a vocal-auditory channel lies in the fact that the animal can communicate while also performing other tasks, such as eating, or using tools. Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception: An auditory|audible human language signal is sent out in all directions, but is perceived in a limited direction. For example, humans are more proficient in determining the location of a sound source when the sound is projecting directly in front of them as opposed to a sound source projected directly behind them. Rapid Fading of a signal in human communication differs from such things as animal tracks and written language because an utterance does not continue to exist after it has been broadcast. With this in mind, it is important to note that Hockett viewed spoken language as the primary concern for investigation. Written language was seen as being secondary due to its recent evolution in culture. Interchangeability represents a human's ability to act out or reproduce any linguistic message that they are able to comprehend. This differs from many animal communication systems, particularly in regards to mating. For example, humans have the ability to say and do anything that they feel may benefit them in attracting a mate. Sticklebacks on the other hand have different male and female courtship motions; a male cannot replicate a female's motions and vice versa. Total Feedback is important in differentiating a human's ability to internalize their own productions of speech and behavior. This design-feature incorporates the idea that humans have insight into their actions. Specialization is apparent in the anatomy of human speech organs and our ability to exhibit some control over these organs. For example, a key assumption in the evolution of language is that the descent of the larynx has allowed humans to produce speech sounds. Additionally, in terms of control, humans are generally able to control the movements of their tongue and mouth. Dogs however, do not have control over these organs. When dogs pant they are communicating a signal, but the panting is an uncontrollable response reflex of being hot . Semanticity: A specific signal can be matched with a specific meaning within a particular language system. For example, all people that understand English have the ability to make a connection between a specific word and what that word represents or refers to. (Hockett notes that gibbons also show semanticity in their signals, however their calls are far more broad than human language.) Arbitrariness within human language suggests that there is no direct connection between the type of signal (word) and what is being referenced. For example, an animal as large as a cow can be referred to by a very short word . Discreteness: Each basic unit of speech can be categorized and is distinct from other categories. In human language there are only a small set of sound ranges that are used and the differences between these bits of sound are absolute. In contrast, the waggle dance of honeybees is continuous. Displacement refers to the human language system's ability to communicate about things that are not present spatially, temporally, or realistically. For example, humans have the ability to communicate about unicorns and outer space. Productivity: human language is open and productive in the sense that humans have the ability to say things that have never before been spoken or heard. In contrast, apes such as the gibbon have a closed communication system because all of their vocal sounds are part of a finite repertoire of familiar calls. Traditional Transmission:: suggests that while certain aspects of language may be innate, humans acquire words and their native language from other speakers. This is different from many animal communication systems because most animals are born with the innate knowledge and skills necessary for survival. (Example: Honeybees have an inborn ability to perform and understand the waggle dance). Duality of patterning: Humans have the ability to recombine a finite set of phonemes to create an infinite number of words, which in turn can be combined to make an unlimited number of different sentences. Design Feature Representation in other Communication Systems Honeybees Foraging honeybees communicate with other members of their hive when they have discovered a relevant source of pollen, nectar, or water. In an effort relate information in regards to the location and distance of the resources, honeybees participate in a particular figure-eight dance known as the waggle dance. In Charles Hockett's "The Origin of Speech," Hockett determined that the honeybee communication system of the waggle dance holds the following design features: Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception - Through the use of this dance, honeybees are able to send out a signal that informs other members of the hive as to what direction the source of food, or water can be located. Semanticity - Evidence that the specific signals of a communication system can be matched with specific meanings is apparent because other members of the hive are able to locate the food source after a performance of the waggle dance. Displacement - Demonstrated in the foraging honeybees ability to communicate about a resource that is not currently present within the hive. Productivity - waggle dances change based on the direction, amount, and type of resource. Gibbons Gibbons are small apes in the family Hylobatidae. While gibbons share the same kingdom, phylum, class, and order of humans and are relatively close to man, Hockett distinguishes between the Gibbon communication system and human language by noting that Gibbons are devoid of the last four design features. Gibbons possess the first nine design features, but do not possess the last four (displacement, productivity, traditional transmission, and duality of patterning). Displacement, according to Hockett, appears to be lacking in the vocal signaling of apes. Productivity does not exist among Gibbons because if any vocal sound is produced, it is one of a finite set of repetitive and familiar calls. Hockett supports the idea that humans learn language extragenetically through the process of traditional transmission. Hockett distinguishes Gibbons from humans by stating that despite any similarities in communication among a species of apes, we cannot attribute these similarities to acquisition through the teaching and learning (traditional transmission) of signals; the only explanation must be a genetic basis. Finally, duality of patterning explains a human's ability to create multiple meanings from somewhat meaningless sounds. For example, the sounds /t/, /a/, /c/ can be used to create the words cat, tack, and act. Hockett states that no other Hominoid communication system besides human language maintains this ability. Works 1939: Potowatomi Syntax. Language 15: 235-248. 1947: "Peiping phonology", in: Journal of the American Oriental Society, 67, pp. 253-267. [= Martin Joos (ed.), Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, 4th edition. Chicago and London 1966, pp. 217-228]. 1947: "Problems of morphemic analysis", in: Language, 24, pp. 414-41. [= Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, pp. 229-242]. 1948: "Biophysics, linguistics, and the unity of science", in: American Scientist, 36, pp. 558-572. 1950: "Peiping morphophonemics", in: Language, 26, pp. 63-85. [= Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, pp. 315-328]. 1954: "Two models of grammatical description", in: Word, 10, pp. 210-234. [= Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, pp. 386-399]. 1955: A Manual of Phonology. Indiana University Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics 11. 1958: A Course in Modern Linguistics. The Macmillan Company: New York. 1960: "The Origin of Speech". in Scientific American, 203, pp.89-97. 1961: "Linguistic Elements and Their Relation" in Language, 37: 29-53. 1967: The State of the Art. The Haag: Mouton 1973: Man's Place in Nature. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1977: The View From Language. Athens: The University of Georgia Press. 1987: Refurbishing Our Foundations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. References Falk, Julia S. 2003. "Turn to the history of linguistics : Noam Chomsky and Charles Hockett in the 1960s". Historiographia linguistica (international journal for the history of the language sciences) 30/1-2, pp. 129-185. Gair, James W. 2003. [Obituary] Charles F. Hockett. Language. 79:600-613. Hockett, Charles F. (1960), "The Origin of Speech," Scientific American. Fox, Margalit 2003 (Obituary) "Champion of structural linguistics" The New York Times External links Old Professor Hockett: A poem written in honor of Hockett by one of his students during his 1991 visit to Rice University. Linguist List: Obituary of Charles Hockett from the New York Times (November 13, 2000), reproduced on the Linguist List. The NY Times link to the obituary is at NY Times Essays in Honor of Charles F. 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3,699 | Aikido | is a Japanese martial art developed by Morihei Ueshiba as a synthesis of his martial studies, philosophy, and religious beliefs. Aikido is often translated as "the Way of unifying (with) life energy" or as "the Way of harmonious spirit." Ueshiba's goal was to create an art that practitioners could use to defend themselves while also protecting their attacker from injury. Aikido is performed by blending with the motion of the attacker and redirecting the force of the attack rather than opposing it head-on. This requires very little physical energy, as the aikidōka (aikido practitioner) "leads" the attacker's momentum using entering and turning movements. The techniques are completed with various throws or joint locks. Aikido can be categorized under the general umbrella of grappling arts. Aikido derives mainly from the martial art of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, but began to diverge from it in the late 1920s, partly due to Ueshiba's involvement with the Ōmoto-kyō religion. Ueshiba's early students' documents bear the term aiki-jūjutsu. Many of Ueshiba's senior students have different approaches to aikido, depending on when they studied with him. Today aikido is found all over the world in a number of styles, with broad ranges of interpretation and emphasis. However, they all share techniques learned from Ueshiba and most have concern for the well-being of the attacker. This attitude has been at the core of criticisms of aikido and related arts. Etymology and basic philosophy The word "aikido" is formed of three kanji: - ai - joining, harmonizing - ki - spirit, life energy - dō - way, path The term connects the practice of aikido with the philosophical concept of Tao, which can be found in martial arts such as judo and kendo, and in more peaceful arts such as Japanese calligraphy (), flower arranging () and tea ceremony (). The term refers to the martial arts principle or tactic of blending with an attacker's movements for the purpose of controlling their actions with minimal effort. One applies by understanding the rhythm and intent of the attacker to find the optimal position and timing to apply a counter-technique. Historically, was mastered for the purpose of killing; however in aikido one seeks to control an aggressor without causing harm. The founder of aikido declared: "To control aggression without inflicting injury is the Art of Peace." A number of aikido practitioners interpret aikido metaphorically, seeing parallels between aikido techniques and other methods for conflict resolution. These kanji are identical to the Korean versions of the characters that form the word hapkido, a Korean martial art. Although there are no known direct connections between the two arts, it is suspected that the founders of both arts trained in Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu. History Morihei Ueshiba, founder of aikido.Aikido was created by Morihei Ueshiba ( , 14 December 1883–26 April 1969), referred to by some aikido practitioners as ("Great Teacher"). Ueshiba envisioned aikido not only as the synthesis of his martial training, but also an expression of his personal philosophy of universal peace and reconciliation. During Ueshiba's lifetime and continuing today, aikido has evolved from the koryū (old-style martial arts) that Ueshiba studied into a wide variety of expressions by martial artists throughout the world. Initial development Takeda Sokaku Ueshiba developed aikido primarily during the late 1920s through the 1930s through the synthesis of the older martial arts that he had studied. The core martial art from which aikido derives is Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu, which Ueshiba studied directly with Takeda Sokaku, the reviver of that art. Additionally, Ueshiba is known to have studied Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū with Tozawa Tokusaburō in Tokyo in 1901, Gotōha Yagyū Shingan-ryū under Nakai Masakatsu in Sakai from 1903 to 1908, and judo with Kiyoichi Takagi ( , 1894–1972) in Tanabe in 1911. The art of Daitō-ryū is the primary technical influence on aikido. Along with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques, Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons, such as those for the spear (), short staff (), and perhaps the . However, aikido derives much of its technical structure from the art of swordsmanship (). Ueshiba moved to Hokkaidō in 1912, and began studying under Takeda Sokaku in 1915. His official association with Daitō-ryū continued until 1937. However, during the latter part of that period, Ueshiba had already begun to distance himself from Takeda and the Daitō-ryū. At that time Ueshiba was referring to his martial art as "Aiki Budō". It is unclear exactly when Ueshiba began using the name "aikido", but it became the official name of the art in 1942 when the Greater Japan Martial Virtue Society () was engaged in a government sponsored reorganization and centralization of Japanese martial arts. Religious influences Onisaburo Deguchi After Ueshiba left Hokkaidō in 1919, he met and was profoundly influenced by Onisaburo Deguchi, the spiritual leader of the Ōmoto-kyō religion (a neo-Shinto movement) in Ayabe. One of the primary features of Ōmoto-kyō is its emphasis on the attainment of utopia during one's life. This was a great influence on Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy of extending love and compassion especially to those who seek to harm others. Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis on mastering martial arts so that one may receive an attack and harmlessly redirect it. In an ideal resolution, not only is the receiver unharmed, but so is the attacker. In addition to the effect on his spiritual growth, the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry to elite political and military circles as a martial artist. As a result of this exposure, he was able to attract not only financial backing but also gifted students. Several of these students would found their own styles of aikido. International dissemination Aikido was first brought to the West in 1951 by Minoru Mochizuki with a visit to France where he introduced aikido techniques to judo students. He was followed by Tadashi Abe in 1952 who came as the official Aikikai Hombu representative, remaining in France for seven years. Kenji Tomiki toured with a delegation of various martial arts through fifteen continental states of the United States in 1953. Later in that year, Koichi Tohei was sent by Aikikai Hombu to Hawaii, for a full year, where he set up several dojo. This was followed up by several further visits and is considered the formal introduction of aikido to the United States. The United Kingdom followed in 1955; Italy in 1964; Germany and Australia in 1965. Designated "Official Delegate for Europe and Africa" by Morihei Ueshiba, Masamichi Noro arrived in France in September 1961. Today there are aikido dojo available throughout the world. Proliferation of independent organisations The biggest aikido organisation is the Aikikai Foundation which remains under the control of the Ueshiba family. However, aikido has many styles, mostly formed by Morihei Ueshiba's major students. The earliest independent styles to emerge were Yoseikan Aikido, begun by Minoru Mochizuki in 1931, Yoshinkan Aikido founded by Gozo Shioda in 1955, and Shodokan Aikido, founded by Kenji Tomiki in 1967. The emergence of these styles pre-dated Ueshiba's death and did not cause any major upheavals when they were formalized. Shodokan Aikido, however, was controversial, since it introduced a unique rule-based competition that some felt was contrary to the spirit of aikido. After Ueshiba's death in 1969, two more major styles emerged. Significant controversy arose with the departure of the Aikikai Hombu Dojo's chief instructor Koichi Tohei, in 1974. Tohei left as a result of a disagreement with the son of the founder, Kisshomaru Ueshiba , who at that time headed the Aikikai Foundation. The disagreement was over the proper role of ki development in regular aikido training. After Tohei left, he formed his own style, called Shin Shin Toitsu Aikido, and the organization which governs it, the Ki Society (Ki no Kenkyūkai). A final major style evolved from Ueshiba's retirement in Iwama, Ibaraki, and the teaching methodology of long term student Morihiro Saito. It is unofficially referred to as the "Iwama style", and at one point a number of its followers formed a loose network of schools they called Iwama Ryu. Although Iwama style practitioners remained part of the Aikikai until Saito's death in 2002, followers of Saito subsequently split into two groups; one remaining with the Aikikai and the other forming the independent organization the Shinshin Aikishuren Kai, in 2004 around Saito's son Hitohiro Saito. Today, the major styles of aikido are each run by a separate governing organization, have their own in Japan, and have an international breadth. Training In aikido, as in virtually all Japanese martial arts, there are both physical and mental aspects of training. The physical training in aikido is diverse, covering both general physical fitness and conditioning, as well as specific techniques. Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of throws, the first thing most students learn is how to safely fall or roll. The specific techniques for attack include both strikes and grabs; the techniques for defense consist of throws and pins. After basic techniques are learned, students study freestyle defense against multiple opponents, and in certain styles, techniques with weapons. Fitness Physical training goals pursued in conjunction with aikido include controlled relaxation, flexibility, and endurance, with less emphasis on strength training. In aikido, pushing or extending movements are much more common than pulling or contracting movements. This distinction can be applied to general fitness goals for the aikido practitioner. Certain anaerobic fitness activities, such as weight training, emphasize contracting movements. In aikido, specific muscles or muscle groups are not isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, and power. Aikido-related training emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement and balance similar to yoga or pilates. For example, many dojo begin each class with , which may include stretching and break falls. Roles of uke and nage Aikido training is based primarily on two partners practicing pre-arranged forms (kata) rather than freestyle practice. The basic pattern is for the receiver of the technique (uke) to initiate an attack against the thrower ( nage, also referred to as 取り tori, or shite, depending on aikido style), who neutralises this attack with an aikido technique. Both halves of the technique, that of uke and that of nage, are considered essential to aikido training. Both are studying aikido principles of blending and adaptation. Nage learns to blend with and control attacking energy, while uke learns to become calm and flexible in the disadvantageous, off-balance positions in which nage places them. This "receiving" of the technique is called ukemi. Uke continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities (e.g., an exposed side), while nage uses position and timing to keep uke off-balance and vulnerable. In more advanced training, uke will sometimes apply to regain balance and pin or throw nage. refers to the act of receiving a technique. Good ukemi involves a parry or breakfall that is used to avoid pain or injury, such as joint dislocations or atemi. Initial attacks Aikido techniques are usually a defense against an attack; therefore, to practice aikido with their partner, students must learn to deliver various types of attacks. Although attacks are not studied as thoroughly as in striking-based arts, "honest" attacks (a strong strike or an immobilizing grab) are needed to study correct and effective application of technique. Many of the of aikido are often said to resemble cuts from a sword or other grasped object, which may suggest origins in techniques intended for armed combat. Other techniques, which appear to explicitly be punches (tsuki), are also practiced as thrusts with a knife or sword. Kicks are generally reserved for upper-level variations; reasons cited include that falls from kicks are especially dangerous, and that kicks (high kicks in particular) were uncommon during the types of combat prevalent in feudal Japan. Some basic strikes include: a vertical knifehand strike to the head. a diagonal knifehand strike to the side of the head or neck. a punch to the torso. Specific targets include the chest, abdomen, and solar plexus. Same as , and . a punch to the face. Same as . Beginners in particular often practice techniques from grabs, both because they are safer and because it is easier to feel the energy and lines of force of a hold than a strike. Some grabs are historically derived from being held while trying to draw a weapon; a technique could then be used to free oneself and immobilize or strike the attacker who is grabbing the defender. The following are examples of some basic grabs: one hand grabs one wrist. both hands grab one wrist. both hands grab both wrists. Same as . a shoulder grab. "Both-shoulders-grab" is grabbing the (clothing of the) chest. Same as . Basic techniques Diagram of ikkyō, or "first technique". Yonkyō has a similar mechanism of action, although the upper hand grips the forearm rather than the elbow. The following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws and pins. The precise terminology for some may vary between organisations and styles, so what follows are the terms used by the Aikikai Foundation. Note that despite the names of the first five techniques listed, they are not universally taught in numeric order. a control using one hand on the elbow and one hand near the wrist which leverages uke to the ground. This grip also applies pressure into the ulnar nerve at the wrist. a pronating wristlock that torques the arm and applies painful nerve pressure. (There is an adductive wristlock or Z-lock in ura version.) a rotational wristlock that directs upward-spiraling tension throughout the arm, elbow and shoulder. a shoulder control similar to ikkyō, but with both hands gripping the forearm. The knuckles (from the palm side) are applied to the recipient's radial nerve against the periosteum of the forearm bone. visually similar to ikkyō, but with an inverted grip of the wrist, medial rotation of the arm and shoulder, and downward pressure on the elbow. Common in knife and other weapon take-aways. The hand is folded back past the shoulder, locking the shoulder joint. a supinating wristlock-throw that stretches the extensor digitorum. a loosely used term for various types of mechanically unrelated techniques, although they generally do not use joint locks like other techniques. throws in which nage moves through the space occupied by uke. The classic form superficially resembles a "clothesline" technique. beginning with ryōte-dori; moving forward, nage sweeps one hand low ("earth") and the other high ("heaven"), which unbalances uke so that he or she easily topples over. aikido's version of the hip throw. Nage drops his or her hips lower than those of uke, then flips uke over the resultant fulcrum. or a throw that locks the arms against each other (The kanji for "10" is a cross-shape: 十). nage sweeps the arm back until it locks the shoulder joint, then uses forward pressure to throw. Implementations Diagram showing two versions of the ikkyō technique: one moving forward (the omote version) and one moving backward (the ura version). See text for more details. Aikido makes use of body movement (tai sabaki) to blend with uke. For example, an "entering" (irimi) technique consists of movements inward towards uke, while a technique uses a pivoting motion. Additionally, an technique takes place in front of uke, whereas an technique takes place to his side; a technique is applied with motion to the front of uke, and a version is applied with motion towards the rear of uke, usually by incorporating a turning or pivoting motion. Finally, most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture (seiza). Seated techniques are called suwari-waza. Thus, from fewer than twenty basic techniques, there are thousands of possible implementations. For instance, ikkyō can be applied to an opponent moving forward with a strike (perhaps with an ura type of movement to redirect the incoming force), or to an opponent who has already struck and is now moving back to reestablish distance (perhaps an omote-waza version). Specific aikido kata are typically referred to with the formula "attack-technique(-modifier)". For instance, katate-dori ikkyō refers to any ikkyō technique executed when uke is holding one wrist. This could be further specified as katate-dori ikkyō omote, referring to any forward-moving ikkyō technique from that grab. Atemi () are strikes (or feints) employed during an aikido technique. Some view atemi as attacks against "vital points" meant to cause damage in and of themselves. For instance, Gōzō Shioda described using atemi in a brawl to quickly down a gang's leader. Others consider atemi, especially to the face, to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques. A strike, whether or not it is blocked, can startle the target and break his or her concentration. The target may also become unbalanced in attempting to avoid the blow, for example by jerking the head back, which may allow for an easier throw. Many sayings about atemi are attributed to Morihei Ueshiba, who considered them an essential element of technique. Weapons Disarming an attacker using a technique. Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes the short staff (jō), wooden sword (bokken), and knife (tantō). Today, some schools also incorporate firearms-disarming techniques. Both weapon-taking and weapon-retention are sometimes taught, to integrate armed and unarmed aspects, although some schools of aikido do not train with weapons at all. Others, such as the Iwama style of Morihiro Saito, usually spend substantial time with bokken and jō, practised under the names aiki-ken, and aiki-jō, respectively. The founder developed much of empty handed aikido from traditional sword and spear movements, so the practice of these movements is generally for the purpose of giving insight into the origin of techniques and movements, as well as vital practice of these basic building blocks. Multiple attackers and randori Technique performed against two attackers. One feature of aikido is training to defend against multiple attackers, often called taninzudori, or taninzugake. Freestyle (randori, or jiyūwaza) practice with multiple attackers is a key part of most curricula and is required for the higher level ranks. Randori exercises a person's ability to intuitively perform techniques in an unstructured environment. Strategic choice of techniques, based on how they reposition the student relative to other attackers, is important in randori training. For instance, an ura technique might be used to neutralise the current attacker while turning to face attackers approaching from behind. In Shodokan Aikido, randori differs in that it is not performed with multiple persons with defined roles of defender and attacker, but between two people, where both participants attack, defend, and counter at will. In this respect it resembles judo randori. Injuries In applying a technique during training, it is the responsibility of nage to prevent injury to uke by employing a speed and force of application that is commensurate with their partner's proficiency in ukemi. Injuries (especially those to the joints), when they do occur in aikido, are often the result of nage misjudging the ability of uke to receive the throw or pin. Aikido and injuries: special report by Fumiaki Shishida Aiki News 1989;80 (April); partial English translation of article re-printed in Aikido Journal A study of injuries in the martial arts showed that while the type of injuries varied considerably from one art to the other, the differences in overall rates of injury were much less pronounced. Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types of injuries found within aikido although a few deaths from repetitive "shihōnage" have been reported. Mental training Aikido training is mental as well as physical, emphasizing the ability to relax the mind and body even under the stress of dangerous situations. This is necessary to enable the practitioner to perform the bold enter-and-blend movements that underlie aikido techniques, wherein an attack is met with confidence and directness. Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one "must be willing to receive 99% of an opponent's attack and stare death in the face" in order to execute techniques without hesitation. As a martial art concerned not only with fighting proficiency but also with the betterment of daily life, this mental aspect is of key importance to aikido practitioners. Criticisms The most common criticism of aikido is that it suffers from a lack of realism in training. The attacks initiated by uke (and which nage must defend against) have been criticized as being "weak," "sloppy," and "little more than caricatures of an attack." Weak attacks from uke cause a conditioned response from nage, and result in underdevelopment of the strength and conditioning needed for the safe and effective practice of both partners. To counteract this, some styles allow students to become less compliant over time but, in keeping with the core philosophies, this is after having demonstrated proficiency in being able to protect themselves and their training partners. Shodokan Aikido addresses the issue by practising in a competitive format. Such adaptations are debated between styles, with some maintaining that there is no need to adjust their methods because either the criticisms are unjustified, or that they are not training for self-defence or combat effectiveness, but spiritual, fitness or other reasons. Another criticism is that after the end of Ueshiba's seclusion in Iwama from 1942 to the mid 1950s, he increasingly emphasized the spiritual and philosophical aspects of aikido. As a result, strikes to vital points by nage, entering (irimi) and initiation of techniques by nage, the distinction between omote (front side) and ura (back side) techniques, and the practice of weapons, were all deemphasized or eliminated from practice. Lack of training in these areas is thought to lead to an overall loss of effectiveness by some aikido practitioners. Alternately, there are some who criticize aikido practitioners for not placing enough importance on the spiritual practices emphasized by Ueshiba. The premise of this criticism is that "O-Sensei’s aikido was not a continuation and extension of the old and has a distinct discontinuity with past martial and philosophical concepts." That is, that aikido practitioners who focus on aikido's roots in traditional jujutsu or kenjutsu are diverging from what Ueshiba taught. Such critics urge practitioners to embrace the assertion that "[Ueshiba's] transcendence to the spiritual and universal reality was the fundamentals [sic] of the paradigm that he demonstrated." Ki float|This was the kanji for ki until 1946, when it was changed to . The study of ki is a critical component of aikido, and its study defies categorization as either "physical" or "mental" training, as it encompasses both. The original kanji for ki was (shown right), and is a symbolic representation of a lid covering a pot full of rice; the "nourishing vapors" contained within are ki. The character for ki is used in everyday Japanese terms, such as , or . Ki is most often understood as unified physical and mental intention, however in traditional martial arts it is often discussed as "life energy". Gōzō Shioda's Yoshinkan Aikido, considered one of the "hard styles," largely follows Ueshiba's teachings from before World War II, and surmises that the secret to ki lies in timing and the application of the whole body's strength to a single point. In later years, Ueshiba's application of ki in aikido took on a softer, more gentle feel. This was his Takemusu Aiki and many of his later students teach about ki from this perspective. Koichi Tohei's Ki Society centers almost exclusively around the study of the empirical (albeit subjective) experience of ki with students ranked separately in aikido techniques and ki development. Uniforms and ranking Aikido practitioners (commonly called aikidōka outside of Japan), generally progress by promotion through a series of "grades" (kyū), followed by a series of "degrees" (dan), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Most aikido organisations use only white and black belts to distinguish rank, but some use various belt colors. Testing requirements vary, so a particular rank in one organization is not always comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another. rank belt color type kyū white mudansha dan black yūdansha The uniform worn for practicing aikido (aikidōgi) is similar to the training uniform (keikogi) used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick ("judo-style"), and thin ("karate-style") cotton tops are used. Aikido-specific tops are also available with shorter sleeves which reach to just below the elbow. Most aikido systems also add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers called a hakama. In many styles its use is reserved for practitioners with black belt (dan) ranks or for instructors, while others allow all practitioners or female practitioners to wear a hakama regardless of rank. References See also Aikido styles External links AikiWeb Aikido Information—a site on aikido, with essays, forums, gallery, reviews, columns, wiki and other information. AikidoFAQ—an informational aikido website, including articles, tips, and multimedia. Aikido Journal—Online magazine. Provides articles, interviews, and discussion of techniques. Aikido - The way of harmony podcast—Aikido Audio interviews from various Aikido styles. 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