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4,200 | No_wave | No Wave was a short-lived but influential art music, film, performance art, video, and contemporary art scene that had its beginnings during the mid-1970s in New York City. The term No Wave is in part satirical wordplay rejecting the commercial elements of the then-popular New Wave genre—a term imported into the New York contemporary artworld by Diego Cortez in a show he curated called "New York/New Wave" held at the Institute for Art and Urban Resources (1981). Styles and characteristics East Village Eye cover featuring James Chance In many ways, No Wave is not a clearly definable musical genre with consistent features. Various groups drew on such disparate styles as funk, jazz, blues, punk rock, avant garde, and experimental. There are, however, some elements common to most No Wave music, such as abrasive atonal sounds, repetitive driving rhythms, and a tendency to emphasize musical texture over melody—typical of the early downtown music of La Monte Young. No Wave lyrics often focused on nihilism and confrontation. No Wave poster for film by Amos Poe No Wave is often better defined in terms of the artistic environment in which it thrived (the downtown scene of minimalist art) and the character of performances typical to its context. No Wave performances drew heavily on performance art and as a result were often examples of a highly theatrical minimalism in their renditions. In 1978 a series of punk rock influenced loud noise music was held at New York’s Artists’ Space that led to the Brian Eno-produced recording No New York. This recording was the first attempt to define the no wave sound, documenting The Contortions, Teenage Jesus & the Jerks, Mars and DNA. James Chance interview | Pitchfork The Noise Fest was an influential festival of art noise music curated by Thurston Moore of Sonic Youth at the art space White Columns in June 1981. Sonic Youth made their first live appearance at this show. Simon Reynolds, Rip It Up and Start Again: Post-punk 1978-1984 (2006) Penguin Each night three to five acts performed, including Glenn Branca, Rhys Chatham, Jeffrey Lohn, Dog Eat Dog, Built on Guilt, Rudolph Grey, the Avant Squares, Mofungo, Red Decade, Robin Crutchfield's Dark Day, Ad Hoc Rock, Smoking Section, Chinese Puzzle, Avoidance Behaviour, and Sonic Youth. Marc Masters, (2007) No Wave. London, Black Dog Publishing, pp. 170-171 No Wave had a notable influence on noise and industrial bands who formed after, like Big Black, Lev Six, Helmet, and Live Skull. The Theoretical Girls heavily influenced early Sonic Youth, who then emerged from this scene by creating music that eventually reached mass audiences and critical acclaim. Also for new bands like Liars, Ex Models, Neptune, and Erase Errata the influence of the No Wave scene was important. Simon Reynolds, author of Rip It Up and Start Again: Postpunk 1978-1984, wrote: No Wave music inspired the Speed Trials noise rock series organized by Live Skull members in May 1983 at White Columns with the music of The Fall, Beastie Boys, Sonic Youth, Lydia Lunch, Elliot Sharp, Swans and Arto Lindsay. This was followed by the after-hours Speed Club that was fleetingly established at ABC No Rio. Carlo McCormick, The Downtown Book: The New York Art Scene, 1974–1984, Princeton University Press, 2006 No Wave Cinema No Wave Cinema was an underground film movement coming out of Tribeca and the East Village, Manhattan at the time. No Wave filmmakers included: Amos Poe, Eric Mitchell, James Nares, Vivienne Dick, Scott B and Beth B, and Seth Tillett (among others) and led to the Cinema of Transgression and work by Nick Zedd and Richard Kern. No Wave musicians 8-Eyed Spy Glenn Branca Bush Tetras Rhys Chatham James Chance/James White and the Blacks The Contortions Dark Day The Del-Byzanteens DNA Friction Jody Harris Lizzy Mercier Descloux Lydia Lunch Mars Material Rosa Yemen Sonic Youth The Static Swans Teenage Jesus & the Jerks Theoretical Girls Ut 1990s No Wave continues to have a far-reaching impact on the American anti-culture music scene. In a foreword to the book No Wave, Weasel Walter wrote of the movement's ongoing influence, I began to express myself musically in a way that felt true to myself, constantly pushing the limits of idiom or genre and always screaming "Fuck You!" loudly in the process. It's how I felt then and I still feel it now. The ideals behind the (anti-) movement known as No Wave were found in many other archetypes before and just as many afterwards, but for a few years around the late 1970s, the concentration of those ideals reached a cohesive, white-hot focus. Masters, Marc. (2007) No Wave London, UK: Black Dog Publishing In 2004 Scott Crary made a documentary, Kill Your Idols about No Wave. Kill Your Idols (2004) In 2007–2008, three books on the scene were published: Soul Jazz's New York Noise, Soul Jazz Records — New York Noise — Art and Music from the New York Underground 1978-88 Marc Masters' No Wave, No Wave, with a foreword by Weasel Walter (London: Black Dog Publishing, 2007), ISBN 978-1-906155-02-5. and Thurston Moore and Byron Coley's No Wave: Post-Punk. Underground. New York. 1976-1980. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. No Wave Compilations All Guitars (1985) Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine #10, Harvestworks.org Just Another Asshole #5 (1981) compilation LP (CD reissue 1995 on Atavistic # ALP39CD), producers: Barbara Ess & Glenn Branca N.Y. No Wave (2003) ZE France B00009OKOP New York Noise (2003) Soul Jazz B00009OYSE New York Noise, Vol. 2 (2006) Soul Jazz B000CHYHOG New York Noise, Vol. 3 (2006) Soul Jazz B000HEZ5CC Noise Fest Tape (1982) TSoWC, White Columns No New York (1978) Antilles, (2006) Lilith, B000B63ISE Speed Trials (1984) Homestead Records HMS-011 See also ZE Records ABC No Rio Colab Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine (selective issues) Mudd Club Tier 3 Just Another Asshole References Sources Joachim E. Berendt. The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond. Revised by Günther Huesmann, translated by H. and B. Bredigkeit with Dan Morgenstern. Brooklyn: Lawrence Hill Books, 1992. "The Styles of Jazz: From the Eighties to the Nineties," p. 57-59. ISBN 1-556652-098-0 Marc Masters. No Wave. London: Black Dog Publishing, 2007. ISBN 978-1-906155-02-5 Alan Moore and Marc Miller (eds.), ABC No Rio Dinero: The Story of a Lower East Side Art Gallery. New York: Collaborative Projects, 1985 Reynolds, Simon. "Contort Yourself: No Wave New York." Rip It Up and Start Again: Post-punk 1978-84. London: Faber and Faber, Ltd., 2005. Marvin J. Taylor (ed.). The Downtown Book: The New York Art Scene, 1974–1984, foreword by Lynn Gumpert. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006. ISBN 0691122865 External links No Wave at AllMusicGuide New York No Wave Photo Archive Official MySpace page for Kill Your Idols, a documentary about the Cinema of Transgression & the No Wave scene | No_wave |@lemmatized wave:34 short:1 live:4 influential:2 art:12 music:10 film:3 performance:3 video:1 contemporary:2 scene:9 beginning:1 mid:1 new:21 york:18 city:1 term:3 part:1 satirical:1 wordplay:1 reject:1 commercial:1 element:2 popular:1 genre:3 import:1 artworld:1 diego:1 cortez:1 show:2 curated:2 call:1 hold:2 institute:1 urban:1 resource:1 style:3 characteristic:1 east:3 village:2 eye:2 cover:1 feature:2 james:3 chance:3 many:3 way:2 clearly:1 definable:1 musical:2 consistent:1 various:1 group:1 draw:2 disparate:1 funk:1 jazz:8 blue:1 punk:5 rock:4 avant:2 garde:1 experimental:1 however:1 common:1 abrasive:1 atonal:1 sound:2 repetitive:1 driving:1 rhythm:1 tendency:1 emphasize:1 texture:1 melody:1 typical:2 early:2 downtown:4 la:1 monte:1 young:1 lyric:1 often:3 focus:2 nihilism:1 confrontation:1 poster:1 amos:2 poe:2 well:1 define:2 artistic:1 environment:1 thrive:1 minimalist:1 character:1 context:1 performances:1 heavily:2 result:1 example:1 highly:1 theatrical:1 minimalism:1 rendition:1 series:2 influence:5 loud:1 noise:11 artist:1 space:2 lead:2 brian:1 eno:1 produce:1 record:4 recording:1 first:2 attempt:1 document:1 contortion:2 teenage:2 jesus:2 jerk:2 mar:2 dna:2 interview:1 pitchfork:1 fest:2 festival:1 thurston:2 moore:3 sonic:6 youth:6 white:5 column:2 june:1 make:2 appearance:1 simon:3 reynolds:3 rip:3 start:3 post:3 penguin:1 night:1 three:2 five:1 act:1 perform:1 include:2 glenn:3 branca:3 rhys:2 chatham:2 jeffrey:1 lohn:1 dog:6 eat:1 build:1 guilt:1 rudolph:1 grey:1 square:1 mofungo:1 red:1 decade:1 robin:1 crutchfield:1 dark:2 day:2 ad:1 hoc:1 smoke:1 section:1 chinese:1 puzzle:1 avoidance:1 behaviour:1 marc:5 master:4 london:5 black:6 publishing:4 pp:1 notable:1 industrial:1 band:2 form:1 like:2 big:1 lev:1 six:1 helmet:1 skull:2 theoretical:2 girl:2 emerge:1 create:1 eventually:1 reach:3 mass:1 audience:1 critical:1 acclaim:1 also:2 liar:1 ex:1 model:1 neptune:1 erase:1 errata:1 important:1 author:1 postpunk:1 write:2 inspire:1 speed:3 trial:2 organize:1 member:1 may:1 fall:1 beastie:1 boy:1 lydia:2 lunch:2 elliot:1 sharp:1 swan:2 arto:1 lindsay:1 follow:1 hour:1 club:2 fleetingly:1 establish:1 abc:3 rio:3 carlo:1 mccormick:1 book:6 princeton:3 university:2 press:2 cinema:4 underground:3 movement:3 come:1 tribeca:1 manhattan:1 time:1 filmmaker:1 eric:1 mitchell:1 jam:2 naris:1 vivienne:1 dick:1 scott:2 b:3 beth:1 seth:1 tillett:1 among:1 others:1 transgression:2 work:1 nick:1 zedd:1 richard:1 kern:1 musicians:1 spy:1 bush:1 tetras:1 del:1 byzanteens:1 friction:1 jody:1 harris:1 lizzy:1 mercier:1 descloux:1 material:1 rosa:1 yemen:1 static:1 ut:1 continue:1 far:1 impact:1 american:1 anti:2 culture:1 foreword:3 weasel:2 walter:2 ongoing:1 begin:1 express:1 musically:1 felt:2 true:1 constantly:1 push:1 limit:1 idiom:1 always:1 scream:1 fuck:1 loudly:1 process:1 still:1 feel:1 ideal:2 behind:1 know:1 find:1 archetype:1 afterwards:1 year:1 around:1 late:1 concentration:1 cohesive:1 hot:1 uk:1 crary:1 documentary:2 kill:3 idol:3 publish:1 soul:5 isbn:4 byron:1 coley:1 harry:1 n:2 abrams:1 inc:1 compilation:2 guitar:1 tellus:2 audio:2 cassette:2 magazine:2 harvestworks:1 org:1 another:2 asshole:2 lp:1 cd:1 reissue:1 atavistic:1 producer:1 barbara:1 es:1 ze:2 france:1 vol:2 tape:1 tsowc:1 columns:1 antilles:1 lilith:1 homestead:1 hms:1 see:1 colab:1 selective:1 issue:1 mudd:1 tier:1 reference:1 source:1 joachim:1 e:1 berendt:1 ragtime:1 fusion:1 beyond:1 revise:1 günther:1 huesmann:1 translate:1 h:1 bredigkeit:1 dan:1 morgenstern:1 brooklyn:1 lawrence:1 hill:1 eighty:1 ninety:1 p:1 alan:1 miller:1 eds:1 dinero:1 story:1 low:1 side:1 gallery:1 collaborative:1 project:1 contort:1 faber:2 ltd:1 marvin:1 j:1 taylor:1 ed:1 lynn:1 gumpert:1 external:1 link:1 allmusicguide:1 photo:1 archive:1 official:1 myspace:1 page:1 |@bigram punk_rock:2 avant_garde:1 loud_noise:1 brian_eno:1 sonic_youth:6 ad_hoc:1 critical_acclaim:1 start_postpunk:1 beastie_boy:1 n_abrams:1 abrams_inc:1 audio_cassette:2 berendt_jazz:1 eighty_ninety:1 faber_faber:1 princeton_princeton:1 external_link:1 myspace_page:1 |
4,201 | Just_intonation | In music, just intonation is any musical tuning in which the frequencies of notes are related by ratios of whole numbers. Any interval tuned in this way is called a just interval; in other words, the two notes are members of the same harmonic series. Justly tuned intervals are usually written either as ratios, with a colon (for example, 3:2), or as fractions, with a solidus (3 ⁄ 2). Sometimes a technical distinction is made between the two styles, but in general they are equivalent and interchangeable. Although in theory two notes tuned in an arbitrary frequency ratio such as 1024:927 might be said to be justly tuned, in practice only ratios using products of small primes are given the name; more complex ratios are often considered to be rational intonation but not necessarily just intonation. Intervals used are then capable of being more consonant. Just intonation is usually contrasted and compared with equal temperament, the tuning system that is by far the most common in the West, which arranges all notes at multiples of the same basic interval. Equal temperament results in a tuning system where all intervals will have exactly the same character in any key but the intervals themselves are detuned slightly relative to just intonation. Each interval possesses its own degree of detuning. Examples An A-major scale, followed by three major triads, and then a progression of fifths in just intonation. An A-major scale, followed by three major triads, and then a progression of fifths in equal temperament. If you listen to the above file, and then listen to this one, you might be able to hear a slight buzzing in this file. A pair of major thirds, followed by a pair of full major chords. The first in each pair is in equal temperament; the second is in just intonation. Piano sound. A pair of major chords. The first is in equal temperament; the second is in just intonation. The pair of chords is repeated with a transition from equal temperament to just temperament between the two chords. In the equal temperament chords a roughness or beating can be heard at about 4 hz and about 0.8 Hz. In the just intonation triad this roughness is absent. The square waveform makes the difference between equal and just temperaments more obvious. History There were several other systems in use before equal temperament. The Guqin has a musical scale based on harmonic overtone positions. The dots indicate the harmonic positions: 1/8, 1/6, 1/5, 1/4, 1/3, 2/5, 1/2, 3/5, 2/3, 3/4, 4/5, 5/6, 7/8 The harmonic scale of Guqin clarified in the essay 3rd Bridge Helix by Yuri Landman on furious.com . Pythagorean tuning, perhaps the first tuning system to be theorized in the West, The oldest known description of the Pythagorean tuning system appears in Babylonian artifacts. See: West, M.L.. The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts, Music & Letters vol. 75 no. 2 (May 1994). pp. 161-179. , is a system in which all tones can be found using the ratios 3:2 . It is easier to think of this system as a cycle of fifths, but it must be noted that because a series of 12 fifths does not reach the same tone it began with, this system produces wolf fifths in the more distant keys (which were consequently unused). Another system that was popular for keyboards through the Renaissance was meantone temperament Grout, Donald Jay and Claude Palisca. A History of Western Music, sixth edition. W.W. Norton & Company Inc., New York, 2000. p. 349. ISBN 0-393-97527-4 . In this system the simpler ratios of 3:2 and 4:3 were compromised in favour of exact 5:4 (major thirds) ratios. Specifically, the fifth (3:2) was slightly narrowed so that a series of four narrowed fifths would produce 5:4 exactly (at some octave transposition). Again, this system is not circular and produced some unplayable keys. (Some keyboards of the 18th century featured split keys differentiating sharp and flat notes to expand the range of usable keys.) The most common tuning today began as well temperament, which was replaced by the more rigorous equal temperament in the early 20th century. Well temperament largely abandoned just intonation by applying small changes to the intervals so that they became more homogenized and eliminated wolf intervals. In systems of well temperament, and there were many, the goal was to make all keys usable by compromising each of them slightly. Its development was necessary as composers moved toward expression through large harmonic changes (modulation), and required access to a wider realm of tonality. Bach's "Well-Tempered Clavier", a book of compositions in every key, is the most famous example, but the compositions of Chopin, for instance, rely much more on the devices of expression only allowed by well temperament Chopin would also write a set of compositions in every key, his 24 Preludes, which in contrast to Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier, made extensive use of the chromatic modulations characteristic of Romantic music. See: Ibid. p. 579. . Equal temperament is essentially the most homogenized form of well temperament, in that it tunes an actual circle of fifths by narrowing each by the same amount. In equal temperament, every interval is the same as all other intervals of its type. There are no longer pure and "wolf" fifths, or even good and bad fifths, but simply fifths (or thirds, or seconds, et cetera). Equal temperament is not a form of just intonation. Today, the dominance of repertoire composed under well tempered systems, the prominence of the piano in musical training, the lack of just-intonation capable instruments, and the fact that tuning is not normally a significant part of a musician's education have made equal temperament sufficiently more prevalent that alternatives are not often discussed. Despite the obstacles, many today find reasons to pursue just intonation. The purity and stability of its intervals are found quite beautiful by many, but this stability also allows extreme intonational precision as well. The practical study of just intonation can greatly increase one's analytical ability with respect to sound, and yield improvement to musicianship even in well temperament repertoire. In practice it is very difficult to produce true equal temperament. There are instruments such as the piano where tuning is not dependent on the performer, but these instruments are a minority. The main problem with equal temperament is that its intervals must sound somewhat unstable, and thus the performer has to learn to suppress the more stable just intervals in favour of equal tempered ones. This is counterintuitive, and in small groups, notably string quartets, just intonation is often approached either by accident or design because it is much easier to find (and hear) a point of stability than a point of arbitrary instability. Diatonic scale It is possible to tune the familiar diatonic scale or chromatic scale in just intonation in many ways, all of which make certain chords purely tuned and as consonant and stable as possible, and the other chords not accommodated sound considerably less stable. The prominent notes of a given scale are tuned so that their frequencies form ratios of relatively small integers. For example, in the key of G major, the ratio of the frequencies of the notes G to D (a perfect fifth) is 3/2, while that of G to C (a perfect fourth) is 4/3. Three basic intervals can be used to construct any interval involving the prime numbers 2, 3, and 5 (known as 5-limit just intonation): s = 16:15 (Semitone) t = 10:9 (Minor tone) T = 9:8 (Major tone) which combine to form: 6:5 = Ts (minor third) 5:4 = Tt (major third) 4:3 = Tts (perfect fourth) 3:2 = TTts (perfect fifth) 2:1 = TTTttss (octave) A just diatonic scale may be derived as follows. Suppose we insist that the chords F-A-C, C-E-G, and G-B-D be just major triads (then A-C-E and E-G-B are just minor triads, but D-F-A is not). Then we obtain this scale: Note C D E F G A B C Ratio 1/1 9/8 5/4 4/3 3/2 5/3 15/8 2/1 Cents 0.00 203.91 386.31 498.04 701.96 884.36 1088.27 1200.00 Step T t s T t T s Cent step 203.91 182.40 111.73 203.91 182.40 203.91 111.73 The major thirds are correct, and two minor thirds are right, but D-F is not. Another way to do it is as follows. We can insist that the chords D-F-A, A-C-E, and E-G-B be just minor triads (then F-A-C and C-E-G are just major triads, but G-B-D is not). Then we get the following scale: Note A B C D E F G A Ratio 1/1 9/8 6/5 4/3 3/2 8/5 9/5 2/1 Cents 0.00 203.91 315.64 498.04 701.96 813.69 1017.60 1200.00 Step T s t T s T t Cent step 203.91 111.73 182.40 203.91 111.73 203.91 182.40 The major thirds are correct, and two minor thirds are right, but B-D is not. If we compare with the scale above, we see that six notes can be lined up, but one note, D, has changed its value. It is evidently not possible to get all six chords mentioned correct. There are other possibilities; instead of lowering D, we can raise A. But this breaks something else. Twelve tone scale There are several ways to create a just tuning of the twelve tone scale. The oldest known form of tuning, Pythagorean tuning, can produce a twelve tone scale, but it does so by involving ratios of very large numbers, corresponding to natural harmonics very high in the harmonic series that do not occur widely in physical phenomena. This tuning uses ratios involving only powers of 3 and 2, creating a cycle of just perfect fifths, as follows: Note G D A E B F C G D A E B F Ratio Cents588.2790.22792.18294.13996.09498.040.00701.96203.91905.87407.821109.78611.73 Between enharmonic notes at either end of the cycle is a difference of about 24 cents, known as the Pythagorean comma. This twelve tone scale is fairly close to Equal temperament, but it does not offer much advantage for tonal harmony because only the perfect intervals (fourth, fifth, and octave) are simple enough to sound pure. Major thirds, for instance, receive the rather unstable interval of 81/64, sharp (by the ratio of 81:80) of the preferred 5/4. The primary reason for its use is that it is extremely easy to tune, as its building block, the perfect fifth, is the simplest interval after the octave and unison. A twelve tone scale can also be created with intervals that are compounded second third and fifth harmonics, called a five-limit tuning. Only factors 2, 3 and 5 are used in the construction summarized in the table below: Factor 1/(3*3) 1/3 1 3 3*3 5 5/3 A: 5/3 5 E: 5/4 15 B: 15/8 45 F: 45/32 1 1/9 B: 16/9 1/3 F: 4/3 1 C: 1 3 G: 3/2 9 D: 9/8 1/5 1/45 G: 64/45 1/15 D: 16/15 1/5 A: 8/5 3/5 E: 6/5 Starting with C in the centre of this diagram, horizontally a relationship by 3 is applied and vertically by 5. To all fractions outside the range of 1 to 2, powers of 2 are used to bring the tones within the same octave. Between the ends of the chain, F and G, the enharmonic comma is less than 20 cents. This system has the advantage of making available pure thirds (5/4 and 6/5) as well as fifths, but also contains many intervals that are not (e.g. D to A is 40/27 rather than 3/2, or B to D is the Pythagorean 81/64 rather than 5/4) which practically limits modulation to a narrow range of keys. Indian scales In Indian music, the just diatonic scale described above is used, though there are different possibilities for the 6th pitch (Dha), and further modifications may be made to all pitches excepting Sa and Pa. Note Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Ratio 1/1 9/8 5/4 4/3 3/2 5/3 or 27/16 15/8 2/1 Cents0.00203.91386.31498.04701.96 884.36 or 905.871088.271200.00 Both possible scales appear problematic, if one were to look at it in terms of a polyphonic application. The first would have a problem because (27/16)/(5/4) = 27/20, which is a wolf interval, being uncomfortably close to the purer 4:3. However, because Indian music uses melodies over a drone dyad (usually 1/1 and 3/2), these two pitches (27/16 and 5/4) would not be heard sounding together. See Swara and Śruti (music). The alternative, using 5/3 for Dha gives (5/3)/(5/4) = 4/3, and allows these notes to sound together in a consonant fashion, but then introduces another problem as (5/3)/(9/8) = 40/27, which is another wolf interval, this time close to 3/2. These wolf intervals are incompatible with much western music, but in Indian music they are irrelevant. Some accounts of Indian intonation system cite a given 22 Śrutis. According to some musicians, you have a scale of a given 12 pitches and ten in addition (the tonic, Shadja (Sa), and the pure fifth, Pancham (Pa), are inviolate): Note C D D D D E E E E F F F Ratio Cents0.0090.22111.73182.40203.91294.13315.64386.31407.82519.55498.04590.22 Note F G A A A A B B B B C Ratio Cents 609.78701.96792.18813.69884.36905.87996.091017.601088.271109.781200.00 Where we have two ratios for a given letter name, we have a difference of 81:80, which is known as the syntonic comma. You can see the symmetry, looking at it from the tonic, then the octave. (This is just one example of "explaining" a 22-Śruti scale of tones. There are many takes on this, just as there are many ears.) Practical difficulties Some fixed just intonation scales and systems, such as the diatonic scale above, produce wolf intervals. The above scale allows a minor tone to occur next to a semitone which produces the awkward ratio 32:27 for F:D, and still worse, a minor tone next to a fourth giving 40:27 for A:D. Moving D down to 10/9 alleviates these difficulties but creates new ones: G:D becomes 27:20, and B:G becomes 27:16. You can have more frets on a guitar to handle both A's, 9/8 with respect to G and 10/9 with respect to G so that C:A can be played as 6:5 while D:A can still be played as 3:2. 9/8 and 10/9 are less than 1/53 octave apart, so mechanical and performance considerations have made this approach extremely rare. And the problem of how to tune chords such as C-E-G-A-D is left unresolved (for instance, A could be 4:3 below D (making it 9/8, if G is 1) or 4:3 above E (making it 10/9, if G is 1) but not both at the same time, so one of the fourths in the chord will have to be an out-of-tune wolf interval). However the frets may be removed entirely—this, unfortunately, makes in-tune fingering of many chords exceedingly difficult, due to the construction and mechanics of the human hand—and the tuning of most complex chords in just intonation is generally ambiguous. For many instruments tuned in just intonation, you can't change keys without retuning your instrument. For instance, if you tune a piano to just intonation intervals and a minimum of wolf intervals for the key of G, then only one other key (typically E-flat) can have the same intervals, and many of the keys have a very dissonant and unpleasant sound. This makes modulation within a piece, or playing a repertoire of pieces in different keys, impractical to impossible. Synthesizers have proven a valuable tool for composers wanting to experiment with just intonation. Many commercial synthesizers provide the ability to use built-in just intonation scales or to program your own. Wendy Carlos used a system on her 1986 album Beauty in the Beast, where one electronic keyboard was used to play the notes, and another used to instantly set the root note to which all intervals were tuned, which allowed for modulation. On her 1987 lecture album Secrets of Synthesis there are audible examples of the difference in sound between equal temperament and just intonation. Singing The human voice is among the most pitch-flexible instruments in common use. Pitch can be varied with no restraints and adjusted in the midst of performance, without needing to retune (as even with the otherwise flexible string instruments). Although the explicit use of just intonation fell out of favour concurrently with the increasing use of instrumental accompaniment (with its attendant constraints on pitch), most a cappella ensembles naturally tend toward just intonation because of the comfort of its stability. Barbershop quartets are a good example of this. Two exemplary contemporary ensembles that meticulously tune their singing in accordance with just intonation (whenever indicated) are The Hilliard Ensemble and Orlando Consort. Western composers Most composers don't specify how instruments are to be tuned, although historically most have assumed one tuning system which was common in their time; in the 20th century most composers assumed equal temperament would be used. However, a few have specified just intonation systems for some or all of their compositions, including John Adams, David Beardsley, Glenn Branca, Martin Bresnick, Wendy Carlos, Lawrence Chandler, Tony Conrad, Stuart Dempster, Arnold Dreyblatt, Kyle Gann, Kraig Grady, Lou Harrison, Ben Johnston, Elodie Lauten, György Ligeti, Douglas Leedy, Pauline Oliveros, Harry Partch, Robert Rich, Terry Riley, Adam Silverman, James Tenney, Ernesto Rodrigues, Daniel James Wolf, and La Monte Young. Eivind Groven is often considered a just intonation composer but just intonation purists will disagree. His tuning system was in fact schismatic temperament, which is indeed capable of far closer approximations to just intonation consonances than 12-note equal temperament or even meantone temperament, but still alters the pure ratios of just intonation slightly in order to achieve a simpler and more flexible system than true just intonation. Music written in just intonation is most often tonal but need not be; some music of Kraig Grady and Daniel James Wolf uses just intonation scales designed by Erv Wilson explicitly for a consonant form of atonality, and Ben Johnston's Sonata for Microtonal Piano (1964) uses serialism to achieve an atonal result. Composers often impose a limit on how complex the ratios used are: for example, a composer may write in "7-limit JI", meaning that no prime number larger than 7 features in the ratios they use. Under this scheme, the ratio 10/7, for example, would be permitted, but 11/7 would not be, as all non-prime numbers are octaves of, or mathematically and tonally related to, lower primes (example: 12 is a double octave of 3, while 9 is a square of 3). Yuri Landman derived a just intoned musical scale from a initially considered atonal prepared guitar playing technique based on adding a third bridge under the strings. When this bridge is positioned in the noded positions of the harmonic series the volume of the instrument increases and the overtone becomes clear and has a consonant relation to the complementary opposed string part creating a harmonic multiphonic tone 3rd Bridge Helix by Yuri Landman on furious.com . See also Mathematics of musical scales Microtonal music Microtuner Pythagorean interval Semitone List of meantone intervals List of musical intervals Whole-tone scale Regular number Hexany Electronic tuner References External links Art of the States: microtonal/just intonation works using just intonation by American composers The Chrysalis Foundation -- Just Intonation: Two Definitions Dante Rosati's 21 Tone Just Intonation guitar Just Intonation by Mark Nowitzky Just Intonation Explained by Kyle Gann Just Intonation Network A selection of Just Intonation works edited by the Just Intonation Network web published on the Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine project archive at Ubuweb Medieval Music and Arts Foundation Music Novatory - Just Intonation Why does Just Intonation sound so good? Why does our musical scale have twelve notes? The Wilson Archives Barbieri, Patrizio. Enharmonic instruments and music, 1470-1900. 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4,202 | Abbot | St. Dominic of Silos enthroned as abbot (Hispano-Flemish Gothic 15th century) The word abbot, meaning father, is a title given to the head of a monastery in various traditions, including Christianity. The office may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not actually the head of a monastery. The female equivalent is Abbess. Origins The title had its origin in the monasteries of Egypt and Syria, spread through the eastern Mediterranean, and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery. At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, but it was soon restricted by canon law to certain priestly superiors. At times it was applied to various priests, e.g. at the court of the Frankish monarchy the Abbas palatinus ('of the palace') and Abbas castrensis ('of the camp') were chaplains to the Merovingian and Carolingian sovereigns’ court and army respectively. The title "abbot" came into fairly general use in western monastic orders whose members include priests. Monastic history Coptic icon of St. Pachomius, the founder of cenobitic monasticism. Carving of St. Benedict of Nursia, holding an abbot's crozier and his Rule for Monasteries (Münsterschwarzach, Germany). An abbot (from the Hebrew ab, "a father", through the Syriac abba, Latin abbas (genitive form, abbatis), Old English abbad, ; German Abt; French abbé) is the head and chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the East hegumenos or archimandrite. The English version for a female monastic head is abbess. In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well. Saint John Cassian speaks of an abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under him. By the Rule of St Benedict, which, until the reform of was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely recognized. Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception. For the reception of the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church. This rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the ordination of some monks. This innovation was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life, but, before the close of the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become deacons, if not priests. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th century. The ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils. Thus at the first Council of Constantinople, AD 448, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops. The second Council of Nicaea, AD 787, recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders below the diaconate, a power usually reserved to bishops. Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th century. The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of Arles, AD 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received an impulse from Pope Gregory the Great. These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually creating an imperium in imperio, and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his diocese. In the 12th century the abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of Cologne. Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves and sandals. It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p. 453). The first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury. The mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's, Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury, Colchester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, Winchcombe, St Mary's York. Of these the precedence was originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in AD 1154 Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster. To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their pastoral staff should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house. The adoption of certain episcopal insignia (pontificalia) by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran council, AD 1123. In the East abbots, if in priests' orders and with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the second Nicene council, AD 787, to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in AD 1489 permitted by Innocent IV to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit. When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot. In abbeys exempt from the (arch)bishop's diocesan jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to Rome. It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other houses, chiefs of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop. The ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding up the nave, he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his commissary, and placed in his stall. The monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office. He then put on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held, and the bishop or his delegate preached a suitable sermon. The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the canon law. One of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness, and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection. It was sacred duty to execute the abbot's orders, and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered a transgression. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal, are detailed by Cassian and others, e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers. General information Before the late modern era, the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His letters were received kneeling, as were those of the pope and the king. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his permission, reflecting the hierarchical etiquette of families and society. The highest place was assigned to him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. In the West the Rule of St Benedict appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers. This permission opening the door to luxurious living, the council of Aachen, AD 817, decreed that the abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the Rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping. Arms of a Roman Catholic abbot are distinguished by a gold crozier with a veil attached and a black galero with twelve tassels (the galero of a territorial abbot would be green) The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. They sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by celibacy. Thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester, c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting. In magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we read of Whiting, the last abbot of Glastonbury, judicially murdered by Henry VIII, that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of a lesser rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of Cluny and Vendôme were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church. In process of time the title abbot was extended to clerics who had no connection with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king, , or military chaplain of the emperor, It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at Genoa was called . Lay abbots (M. Lat. , , , , or , , or sometimes simply ) were the outcome of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century onwards. The practice of commendation, by which--to meet a contemporary emergency--the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection, early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held in commendam. During the Carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable fiefs or benefices, and by the 10th century, before the great Cluniac reform, the system was firmly established. Even the abbey of St Denis was held in commendam by Hugh Capet. The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of Cloveshoe. These lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as dean (decanus), but also as abbot (abbas legitimas, monasticus, regularis). When the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as late as the 13th century and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of dean. The connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers (abbates milltes) for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the West. John, patriarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the 12th Century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, bencficiarii, for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors. Giraldus Cambrensis reported (Itinerary, ii.iv) the common customs of lay abbots in the late 12th-century Church of Wales: "for a bad custom has prevailed amongst the clergy, of appointing the most powerful people of a parish stewards, or, rather, patrons, of their churches; who, in process of time, from a desire of gain, have usurped the whole right, appropriating to their own use the possession of all the lands, leaving only to the clergy the altars, with their tenths and oblations, and assigning even these to their sons and relations in the church. Such defenders, or rather destroyers, of the church, have caused themselves to be called abbots, and presumed to attribute to themselves a title, as well as estates, to which they have no just claim." In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior. Modern practices In the Roman Catholic Church, abbots continue to be elected by the monks of an abbey to lead them as their religious superior in those orders and monasteries that make use of the term (some orders of monks, as the Carthusians for instance, have no abbots, only priors). A monastery must have been granted the status of an abbey by the Pope, and such monasteries are normally raised to this level after showing a degree of stability -- a certain number of monks in vows, a certain number of years of establishment, a certain firmness to the foundation in economic, vocational and legal aspects. Prior to this, the monastery would be a mere priory, headed by a prior who acts as superior but without the same degree of legal authority that an abbot has. The abbot is a priest, chosen by the monks from among the fully professed monks. Once chosen, he must request blessing: the blessing of an abbot is celebrated by the bishop in whose diocese the monastery is or, with his permission, another abbot or bishop. The ceremony of such a blessing is similar in some aspects to the ordination of a bishop, with the new abbot being presented with the mitre, the ring, and the crosier as symbols of office and receiving the laying on of hands and blessing from the celebrant. Though the ceremony installs the new abbot into a position of legal authority, it does not confer further sacramental authority. Once he has received this blessing, the abbot not only becomes father of his monks in a spiritual sense, but their major superior under canon law, and has the additional authority to confer the ministries of acolyte and lector (formerly, he could confer the minor orders, which are not sacraments, that these ministries have replaced). The abbey is a species of "exempt religious" in that it is, for the most part, answerable to the Pope, or to the abbot primate, rather than to the local bishop. The abbot wears the same habit as his fellow monks, though by tradition he adds to it a pectoral cross. Territorial abbots follow all of the above, but in addition must receive a mandate of authority from the Pope over the territory around the monastery for which they are responsible. Abbatial hierarchy In some monastic families there is a hierarchy of precedence or authority among abbots. In some cases, this is the result of an abbey being considered the "mother" of several "daughter" abbeys founded originally as dependent priories of the "mother." In other cases, abbeys have affiliated in networks known as "congregations." Some monastic families recognize one abbey as the motherhouse of the entire order. The abbot of San Anselmo di Aventino, in Rome, is styled the "abbot primate," and is acknowledged the senior abbot for the Order of St. Benedict (O.S.B.) An abbot president is the head of a congregation (federation) of abbeys within the Order of St. Benedict (for instance, the English Congregation, The American Cassinese Congregation, etc.), or of the Cistercians (O. Cist.) An archabbot is the head of some monasteries which are the motherhouses of other monasteries (for instance, St. Vincent's Archabbey, Latrobe, Pennsylvania) Modern abbots not as superior The title abbé (French; Ital. abate), as commonly used in the Catholic Church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the English "Father" (parallel etymology), being loosely applied to all who have received the tonsure. This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the concordat between Pope Leo X and Francis I (1516), to appoint abbés commendataires to most of the abbeys in France. The expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbés so formed—abbés de cour they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) abbés de sainte espérance, (abbés of holy hope; or the pun, of St. Hope)—came to hold a recognized position. The connection many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the title of abbé, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising celibacy and wearing a distinctive dress—a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbé. The class did not survive the Revolution; but the courtesy title of abbé, having long lost all connection in people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman. Eastern Christian In the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, the Abbot is referred to as the Hegumen. The Superior of a Convent of Nuns is called the Heguménē. The title of Archimandrite (literally the head of the enclosure) used to mean something similar. In the East, the principle set forth in the Code of Justinian still applies, whereby most abbots are immediately subject to the local bishop. Those monasteries which enjoy the status of being stavropegial will be subject only to a primate or his Synod of Bishops and not the local bishop. Though the title "abbot" is not given in the Western Church to any but actual abbots of monasteries today, the title archimandrite is given to "monastics" (i.e., celibate) priests in the East, even when not attached to a monastery, as an honor for service, similar to the title of monsignor in the Western/Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church. In the Orthodox Church, only actual monastics are permitted to be elevated to the rank of Archimandrite. Married priests are elevated to the parallel rank of Archpriest or Protopresbyter. Normally there are no celibate priests who are not monastics in the Orthodox Church, with the exception of married priests who have been widowed. Since the time of Catherine II the ranks of Abbot and Archimandrite have been given as honorary titles in the Russian Church, and may be given to any monastic, even if he does not in fact serve as the superior of a monastery. In Greek practice the title or function of Abbot corresponds to a person who actually serves as the head of a monastery, although the title of the Archimandrite may be given to any celibate priest who could serve as the head of a monastery. Protestant abbots In the German Evangelical Church the German title of Abt (abbot) is sometimes bestowed, like the French abbé, as an honorary distinction, and survives to designate the heads of some monasteries converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations. Of these the most noteworthy is Loccum Abbey in Hanover, founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Loccum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence over all the clergy of Hanover, and was ex officio a member of the consistory of the kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot, prior and the "convent" of Stiftsherren (canons). In the Church of England, the Bishop of Norwich, by royal decree given by Henry VIII, also holds the honorary title of "Abbot of St. Benet." This title hails back to England's separation from the See of Rome, when King Henry, as supreme head of the newly independent church, took over all of the monasteries, mainly for their possessions, except for St. Benet, which he spared because the abbot and his monks possessed no wealth, and lived like simple beggars, disposing the incumbent Bishop of Norwich and seating the abbot in his place, thus the dual title still held to this day. Additionally, at the enthronement of the Archbishop of Canterbury, there is a threefold enthronement, once in the throne the chancel as the diocesan bishop of Canterbury, once in the Chair of St. Augustine as the Primate of All England, and then once in the chapter-house as Titular Abbot of Canterbury. There are several Benedictine Abbeys throughout the Anglican Communion. Most of them have mitred abbots. Abbots in art and literature "The Abbot", from the Dance of Death, by Hans Holbein the Younger "The Abbot" is one of the archetypes traditionally illustrated in scenes of Dance Macabre. The lives of numerous abbots make up a significant contribution to Christian hagiography, one of the most well-known being the Life of St. Benedict of Nursia by St. Gregory the Great. During the years 1106-1107 A.D., a Russian Orthodox Abbot named Daniel made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and recorded his experiences. His diary was much-read throughout Russia, and at least seventy-five manuscript copies survive. Saint Joseph, Abbot of Volokolamsk (1439–1515), wrote a number of influential works against heresy, and about monastic and liturgical discipline, and Christian philanthropy. In the Tales of Redwall series the creatures of Redwall are led by an Abbot or Abbess. These "abbots" are appointed by the brothers and sisters of Redwall to serve as a superior and provide paternal care. Much like real abbots. 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4,203 | Louis_Andriessen | Louis Andriessen (June 6, 1939) is a Dutch composer and pianist based in Amsterdam. He teaches composition at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. He was recipient of the Gaudeamus International Composers Award in 1959. Family and early life Andriessen was born in Utrecht into a musical family, the son of the composer Hendrik Andriessen (1892-1981), brother of composers Jurriaan Andriessen (1925-1996) and Caecilia Andriessen (1931-), and nephew of Willem Andriessen (1887-1964). Andriessen originally studied with his father and Kees van Baaren at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague, before embarking upon two years of study with Italian composer Luciano Berio in Milan and Berlin. His wife was Jeanette Yanikian, a guitarist (1935-2008). They were a couple for over 40 years, and they got married in 1996. John O'Mahony, "Louis the first". The Guardian, 28 September 2002. Style and notable works Andriessen's early works show experimentation with various contemporary trends: post war serialism (Series, 1958), pastiche (Anachronie I, 1966-67), and tape (Il Duce, 1973). His reaction to what he perceived as the conservatism of much of the Dutch contemporary music scene quickly moved him to form a radically alternative musical aesthetic of his own. Since the early 1970s he has refused to write for conventional symphony orchestras and has instead opted to write for his own idiosyncratic instrumental combinations, which often retain some traditional orchestral instruments alongside electric guitars, electric basses, and congas. Andriessen's mature music combines the influences of Igor Stravinsky, jazz and American minimalism. His harmonic writing eschews the consonant modality of much minimalism, preferring post war European dissonance, often crystallised into large blocks of sound. Large scale pieces such as De Staat ['Republic'] (1972-76), for example, are influenced by the energy of the big band music of Count Basie and Stan Kenton and the repetitive procedures of Steve Reich, both combined with bright, clashing dissonances. Andriessen's music is thus anti-Germanic and anti-Romantic, and marks a departure from post war European serialism and its offshoots. He has also played a role in providing alternatives to traditional performance practice techniques, often specifying forceful, rhythmic articulations, and amplified, non-vibrato, singing. Other notable works include Workers Union (1975), a melodically indeterminate piece "for any loud sounding group of instruments"; Mausoleum (1979) for 2 baritones and large ensemble; De Tijd ['Time'] (1979-81) for female singers and ensemble; De Snelheid ['Velocity'] (1982-3), for 3 amplified ensembles; De Materie ['Matter'] (1984-88), a large four-part work for voices and ensemble; collaborations with filmmaker and librettist Peter Greenaway on the film M is for Man, Music, Mozart and the operas Rosa: A Horse Drama (1994) and Writing to Vermeer (1998); and the recent La Passione (2000-02) for female voice, violin and ensemble. Andriessen's music is published by Donemus in the Netherlands and Boosey & Hawkes in the United Kingdom. His recordings appear on the Nonesuch Records label. Andriessen was co-founder of STEIM in Amsterdam in 1969. Ensembles Andriessen helped to found the instrumental groups Orkest de Volharding and Hoketus, both of which performed compositions of the same names. He later became closely involved in the ongoing Schonberg and Asko ensembles. Works The Living Composers Project Rondo Barbaro (1954) for piano Attaca records Sonata (1956) for flute and piano (dedicated to Lucas van Regteren Altena) Donemus catalogue Elegy (1957) for cello and piano Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes Elegy (1957) for double bass and piano (arrangement by Quirijn van Regteren Altena) Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes Nuit d'été (1957) for piano 4 hands Quartet in two movements (1957) for string quartet Donemus catalogue Séries (1958) for 2 pianos Nocturnen (1959) (text by the composer) for 2 sopranos, orchestra (dedicated to Jeanette Yanikian) Percosse (1959) for flute, trumpet, bassoon and percussion Donemus catalogue Prospettive e Retrospettive (1959) for piano Trois Pièces (1961) for piano left hand Aanloop en sprongen (1961) (Rincorsa e salti) for flute, oboe and clarinet in Bb Donemus catalogue Ittrospezione I (1961) for piano 4 hands Joli commentaire (1961) for piano 4 hands Paintings (1961) for one flutist (or recorder player) and one pianist Donemus catalogue Étude pour les timbres (1962) for piano Triplum (1962) for guitar (dedicated to Jeanette Yanikian) Canzone 3 (Utinam) (1962) for voice and piano Donemus catalogue Constructions for a Ballet (1962, revision 2009) for orchestra, including Ondine, timbres voor orkest Dag in de Branding edition 12 Plain-chant (1963) for flute and harp (dedicated to Eugenie van des Grinten and Veronica Reyns) Donemus catalogue Ittrospezione II (1963) for large orchestra Sweet (1964) for alto (treble) recorder (dedicated to Frans Brüggen) Registers (1963) for piano A flower song II (1964) for oboe solo Donemus catalogue A flower song III (1964) for violoncello solo Donemus catalogue Ittrospezione III (concept I) (1964) for 2 pianos and 3 instrumental groups Donemus catalogue Double (1965) for clarinet and piano (dedicated to George Pieterson and Tan Crone) Donemus catalogue Ittrospezione III (Concept II) – Fragment (1965) tenor saxophone ad libitum, 2 pianos (section of Ittrospezione III [Concept II]; may be performed separately) Beatles Songs (1966) (satirical arrangements of four Beatles songs) for female voice and piano Souvenirs d'enfance (1954-1966) for piano. Including amongst others: Nocturne, Ricercare, Allegro Marcato, As you like it, Blokken, Strawinsky, Rondo opus 1, Étude pour les timbres, dotted quarter note = 70 Rage, rage against the dying of the light (1966) for 4 trombones Attaca records Anachronie I (1966-67) for large orchestra The Garden of Ryoan-gi (1967) for 3 electronic organs Worum es ging und worum es geht (1967) (with Misha Mengelberg) for orchestra Donemus catalogue Contra tempus (1967-1968) for large ensemble Donemus catalogue Choralvorspiele (1969) for barrel organ Anachronie II (1969) for oboe, small orchestra (4 horns, harp, piano, strings) Hoe het is (1969) for 52 strings and live electronics Sonate op.2 nr.1 (1969) for piano with interruptions from string quartet (based on Piano Sonata No. 1 by Ludwig van Beethoven) Dag in de Branding edition 12 Reconstructie (1969) (with Reinbert de Leeuw, Misha Mengelberg, Peter Schat, Jan van Vlijmen, libretto by Hugo Claus, Harry Mulisch) Morality opera for soloists, 3 mixed choruses (4 voices each), orchestra (11 winds, 7 brass, 2 guitars, 11 keyboards, 10 strings), live electronics De negen symfonieën van Beethoven (1970) for ice cream bell, orchestra Spektakel (1970) for improvisational ensemble (saxophone [+ bass clarinet], viola, bass guitar, electronic organ [+ piano], percussion [or other instruments]), small orchestra (12 winds, 4 horns, 6 percussion) Vergeet mij niet (1970) (Forget me not) for oboe Donemus catalogue La voile du bonheur (1966-1971) for violin and piano een, twee (1971) for organ, 10 instrumentalists and piano Dag in de Branding edition 12 In Memoriam (1971) for tape Volkslied (1971) for an unlimited amount and kinds of instruments (in all octaves) (based on the Dutch national anthem Wilhelmus van Nassouwe and on The Internationale) Donemus catalogue De Volharding (1972) (Perseverance) for piano and wind instruments (written for Orkest de Volharding) Donemus catalogue Dat gebeurt in Vietnam (1972) (That's going on in Vietnam) for wind ensemble Donemus catalogue Arrangement of Solidaritätslied by Hanns Eisler (1972) for wind ensemble Arrangement of Streikslied by Hanns Eisler (1972) for wind ensemble Arrangement of In C by Terry Riley (1972) for wind ensemble Arrangement of Bereits sprach der Welt by Hanns Eisler (1972) for wind ensemble Arrangement of Tango by Igor Stravinsky (1972) for wind ensemble Arrangement of La création du monde by Darius Milhaud (1972) for wind ensemble Thanh Hoa (1972) (text by Nguyen Thai Mao) for voice and piano Donemus catalogue Canzone 3.Utinam (1972) (text from the Book of Job) for soprano, piano, 1962; Thanh Hoa (text by Nguyen Thay Mao), voice, piano On Jimmy Yancey (1973) for 9 winds, piano and double bass (written for Orkest de Volharding) Donemus catalogue Voor Sater (1973) for wind ensemble Amsterdam Vrij (1973) for wind ensemble Il Duce (1973) for tape The family (1973) for ensemble (film music) Donemus catalogue Melodie (1972-1974) for alto recorder (or other flute) and piano Donemus catalogue Arrangement of Ipanema and Gavea from Saudades do Brasil by Darius Milhaud (1974) for wind ensemble Il Principe (1974) (text by Niccolò Machiavelli) for 2 mixed choruses, 8 winds, 3 horns, tuba, bass guitar, piano Wals (1974) for piano Symfonieën der Nederlanden (1974) for 2 or more symphonic bands (minimum 32 players) Nederland, let op uw schoonheyt (1975) for symphonic band Workers Union (1975) for any loud sounding group of instruments De Staat (1972-76) (text by Plato) for 2 sopranos, 2 mezzo-sopranos, 4 oboes (3rd, 4th + English horn), 4 horns, 4 trumpets, 3 trombones, bass trombone, 2 harps, 2 electric guitars, 4 violas, bass guitar, 2 pianos De Staat (1972-76) for 2 pianos (version of vocal work, transcribed in 1992 by Cees van Zeeland and Gerard Bouwhuis) Mattheus passie (1976) (text by Louis Ferron) Music theatre work for 8 mixed voices, 2 oboes (both + English horn), Hammond organ, string quartet, double bass Hoketus (1975-76) for 2 panpipes, 2 alto saxophones ad libitum, 2 bass guitars, 2 pianos, 2 electric pianos, 2 congas Orpheus (1977) (text by Lodewijk de Boer) Music theatre work for 8 mixed voices, lyricon, electric guitar, bass guitar, synthesizer, percussion Symphonie voor losse snaren (1978) for 12 strings Laat toch vrij die straat (1978) (text by Jaap van der Merwe) for voice and piano Hymne to the Memory of Darius Milhaud (1978) (version of chamber work) Felicitatie (1979) for 3 trumpets Toespraak (1979) for speaker who also plays trombone Donemus catalogue Mausoleum (1979 rev. 1981) (texts by Mikhail Bakunin, Arthur Arnould) for 2 high baritones, orchestra (12 brass, 2 harps, cimbalom, 2 pianos, 2 percussion, minimum 10 strings, bass guitar) Music for the film The Alien (1980) (Rudolf van den Berg) George Sand (1980) (text by Mia Meyer) Music theatre work for 8 mixed voices, 4 pianos Un beau baiser (1980) for mixed chorus Messe des pauvres by Erik Satie, arrangement by Louis Andriessen for choir, 15 solo strings, accordeon, contrabass clarinet and harp (1980) Donemus catalogue Ende (1981) for 2 alto recorders (1 player) (dedicated to Frans Brüggen) Anfang (1981) for sopranino recorder and piano De Tijd (1979-81) (text by St. Augustine of Hippo) for female chorus, percussion ensemble, orchestra (6 flutes, 2 alto flutes, 3 clarinets, contrabass clarinet, 6 trumpets, 2 harps, 2 pianos, Hammond organ, strings, 2 bass guitars) Commentaar (1981) (text by Wilhelm Schön) for voice and piano La voce (1981) (to a text by Cesare Pavese) for cello and voice Disco (1982) for violin and piano Overture to Orpheus (1982) for harpsichord De Snelheid (1982-83 rev. 1984) for 3 amplified ensembles Y después (1983) (text by Federico García Lorca) for voice and piano Menuet voor Marianne (1983) for piano Trepidus (1983) for piano Doctor Nero (1984) Music theatre work Berceuse voor Annie van Os (1985) for piano De Lijn (1986) for 3 flutes Dubbelspoor (1986 rev. 1994) Ballet music for piano, harpsichord, celesta, glockenspiel De Materie (1984-88) (texts from the Plakkaat van Verlatinge, Nicolaes Witsen, David Gorlaeus, Hadewijch, M.H.J. Schoenmaekers, Madame van Domselaer-Middelkoop, Willem Kloos, Marie Curie, Françoise Giroud). Music theatre work for soprano, tenor, 2 female speakers, 8 amplified mixed voices, amplified orchestra (15 winds, 13 brass, harp, 2 electric guitars, 2 pianos [one + electric piano], off-stage upright piano, celesta, 2 synthesizers, 6 percussion, minimum 9 strings, bass guitar. Two of its four sections may be performed separately as concert works: [2] Hadewijch, [3] De Stijl De Toren (1988, rev. 2000) for carillon Nietzsche redet (1989) (text by Friedrich Nietzsche) for speaker, alto flute, English horn, clarinet, bass clarinet, bassoon, 2 violins, viola, 2 celli, double bass, 2 pianos Flora Tristan (1990) for mixed choir a cappella (text by Fleur Bourgonje) Donemus catalogue Facing Death (1990) for amplified string quartet Facing Death (1990) for saxophone quartet (arrangement by Aurelia Saxophone Quartet) Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes Dances (1991) (text by Joan Grant, choreography by Bianca van Dillen) For soprano, small orchestra (amplified harp, amplified piano, percussion, strings). May be performed as a concert work. M is for Man, Music, Mozart (1991) (texts by the composer, Jeroen van der Linden, Peter Greenaway) for female jazz voice, flute (+ piccolo), soprano saxophone, alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, horn, 3 trumpets, 2 trombones, bass trombone, double bass, piano (TV score; may be performed as a concert work with one additional song) Lacrimosa (1991) for 2 bassoons Lacrimosa (1991) for 2 flutes (arrangement by Manuel Zurria) Hout (1991) for tenor saxophone, electric guitar, piano and marimba (+ woodblocks) Romance voor Caecilia (1991) for piano Nadir en Zenit (1992) improvisations on poems by Sybren Polet for voice and piano (+ synthesizer) ...not being sundered (1992) (text by Rainer Maria Rilke) for soprano, flute, cello Song Lines (1992) for 3-6 saxophones Deuxième chorale (1992) for music box The Memory of Roses (1992) for piano (+ toy piano) Chorale (1992) for piano M is Muziek, Monoloog en Moord (1993) (text by Lodewijk de Boer) Music theatre work Lied (1993) for piano Rosa - A Horse Drama: The Death of a Composer (1993-94) (libretto by Peter Greenaway) Opera for 2 sopranos, tenor, 2 baritones, female speaker, 8 mixed voices, orchestra. Een lied van de zee (1994) (text by Hélène Swarth) for female voice Zilver (1994) for flute, clarinet, violin, cello, piano, vibraphone and marimba Base (1994) for piano left hand Odysseus' Women (1995) (text by Homer, choreography by Beppie Blankert) for 2 sopranos, 2 altos, sampler De komst van Willibrord (1995) for carillon To Pauline O (1995) for oboe Machmes Wos (1996) for voice, piano Trilogie van de Laatste Dag (1996-97) (each of its three sections may be performed separately: (i) The Last Day (texts by Lucebert, folksong A Woman and Her Lass) for boy soprano, 4 male voices, orchestra; (ii) TAO (texts by Laozi, Kotaro Takamura) for 4 female voices, piano [+ voice, koto], small orchestra [5 winds, 2 horns, harp, piano (+ celesta), 2 percussion, minimum 14 strings]; (iii) Dancing on the Bones (text by the composer) for children's chorus, orchestra, 1997) De herauten (1997) for 3 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani Not an Anfang (1997) for piano De eerste minnaar (1998) (text by Ton Tellegen) for boy soprano, organ, 1998 (section of music theatre work Oldenbarneveldt; may be performed as a concert work) Tuin van Zink (1998) for viola and live electronics Writing to Vermeer (1997-99) (libretto by Peter Greenaway) Opera for 2 children's voices, 2 sopranos, mezzo-soprano, female chorus, orchestra (7 winds, 2 horns, 2 trumpets [2nd + bass trumpet], 2 harps, 2 electric guitars, cimbalom, 2 pianos, on-stage harpsichord, 2 percussion, minimum 22 strings), CD (music by Michel van der Aa) Woodpecker (1999) for percussion Image de Moreau (1999) for piano Dirck Sweelinck Missed the Prince (1999) for harpsichord Passeggiata in tram in America e ritorno (1999) (text by Dino Campana) for female Italian voice, violin and piano What Shall I Buy You, Son? (2000) for voice, piano Boodschappenlijstje van een gifmengster (2000) (text by the composer) for vocalist (also writes), voice (may be performed as Shopping List of a Poisoner [translated by Nicoline Gatehouse] Inanna's Descent (2000) for mezzo-soprano, piccolo, oboe, violin, piano, 2 percussion ensembles (4-12 total players) The New Math(s) (2000) (text by Hal Hartley) for soprano, transverse flute, violin, marimba, CD (music by Michel van der Aa), 2000 (film score; may be performed as a concert work) Feli-citazione (2000) for piano Passeggiata in tram in America e ritorno (2001) (text by Dino Campana) for female Italian voice, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, electric guitar, electric violin, double bass, piano, percussion, 1998 (also version for voice, flute, horn, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, amplified violin, double bass, piano De vleugels van de herinnering (2001) (text by Larissa Tiginachvili [Dutch translation]) for voice, piano Fanfare om te beginnen (2001) for 6 groups of horns La Passione (2000-02) (text by Dino Campana) for female jazz voice, violin, small orchestra (7 winds, 7 brass, electric guitar, cimbalom, 2 pianos, synthesizer, 2 percussion, 3 violins, bass guitar) Very Sharp Trumpet Sonata (2002) for trumpet Tuin van Eros (Garden of Eros) (2002) for string quartet Klokken voor Haarlem (2002) for piano, celesta, synthesizer, vibraphone (+ glockenspiel) Pupazzetti by Alfredo Casella, arranged by Louis Andriessen for ensemble in 2002-2003 Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes Inanna (2003) texts by Hal Hartley, Theo J.H. Krispijn) for 4 voices, 3 actors, mixed chorus, contrabass clarinet, 4 saxophones, violin, film (by Hal Hartley) Letter from Cathy (2003) (text from a letter by Cathy Berberian to the composer) for female jazz voice, harp, violin, double bass, piano, percussion Tuin van Eros (2003) for violin and piano RUTTMANN Opus II, III, IV (2003) for flute, 3 saxophones, horn, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, double bass, piano (film music for a film of Walter Ruttman, written for the Filmmuseum Biennale 2003) Donemus catalogue 'Haags Hakkûh (The Hague Hacking) (2003) for 2 pianos. Renamed to Haags Hakkûh Stukje (The Hague Hacking Scrap) in 2008. Racconto dall'inferno (2004) (text by Dante Alighieri) for female jazz voice, small orchestra (8 winds, 6 brass, guitar, cimbalom, 2 pianos, 2 percussion, minimum 8 strings, bass guitar). Part II of La Commedia (2004-08). De Opening (2005) for ensemble (combined Orkest De Volharding, ASKO Ensemble, Schoenberg Ensemble) Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes Vermeer Pictures (2005) concert suite for orchestra from Writing to Vermeer (arrangement by Clark Rundell) Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes XENIA (2005) for violin Hymne to the memory of Darius Milhaud for ensemble (1974/2006) Donemus catalogue Hellende Fanfare (Inclined fanfare; Fanfara inclinata) (2006) for voice and ensemble (Text by Dino Campana) Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes Raadsels (Riddle) (2006) for solo violin Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes Johann Sebastian Bach's Prelude in b minor from the Well-Tempered Clavier BWV 866, arranged for string quartet with the first six bars augmented with a viola part by Igor Stravinsky, completed by Louis Andriessen (2006) Attaca records ..miserere... (2006-07) for string quartet Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes The City of Dis or: The Ship of Fools (2007) for voices and ensemble. Part I of La Commedia (2004-08). Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes La Commedia (2004-08). Film opera in five parts (texts by Dante and Vondel and from the Old Testament) Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes Haags Hakkûh (The Hague Hacking) (2008) for two pianos and large ensemble Louis Andriessen at Boosey & Hawkes References Adlington, Robert: De Staat. Hants. (UK): Ashgate (2004). ISBN 0-7546-0925-1 Andriessen, Louis and Elmer Schonberger (trans. Jeff Hamburg): The Apollonian Clockwork: On Stravinsky Amsterdam: Amsterdam UP (reprint, 2006). ISBN 90-5356-856-5 Trochimczyk, Maja (ed.): The Music of Louis Andriessen. London: Routledge (2002). ISBN 0815337892 Zegers, Mirjam (ed.): Trans. Clare Yates. The Art of Stealing Time. Arc Publications. ISBN 1-900072-88-2. Notable students Allison Cameron Graham Fitkin Graeme Koehne Steve Martland Ye Xiaogang John Korsrud Paul Steenhuisen Frank Martinez Jay Alan Yim Rodney Sharman External links Louis Andriessen's Boosey & Hawkes Snapshot Page LondonSinfonietta.org: An Andriessen Glossary Louis Andriessen in conversation with Robert Davidson | Louis_Andriessen |@lemmatized louis:22 andriessen:33 june:1 dutch:4 composer:12 pianist:2 base:4 amsterdam:5 teach:1 composition:2 royal:2 conservatory:2 hague:5 recipient:1 gaudeamus:1 international:1 award:1 family:3 early:3 life:1 bear:1 utrecht:1 musical:2 son:2 hendrik:1 brother:1 jurriaan:1 caecilia:2 nephew:1 willem:2 originally:1 study:2 father:1 kees:1 van:26 baaren:1 embark:1 upon:1 two:4 year:2 italian:3 luciano:1 berio:1 milan:1 berlin:1 wife:1 jeanette:3 yanikian:3 guitarist:1 couple:1 get:1 marry:1 john:2 mahony:1 first:2 guardian:1 september:1 style:1 notable:3 work:19 show:1 experimentation:1 various:1 contemporary:2 trend:1 post:3 war:3 serialism:2 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4,204 | Medicine_man | Yup'ik shaman exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy. Nushagak, Alaska, 1890s. Fienup-Riordan, Ann. (1994). Boundaries & Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, p. 206.) Nushagak, located on Nushagak Bay of the Bering Sea in southwest Alaska, is part of the territory of the Yup'ik, speakers of the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language. "Medicine man" or "Medicine woman" are English terms used to describe Native American healers and spiritual figures. Anthropologists tend to prefer the term "shaman." Role in Native Society The primary function of these "medicine elders" (who are not always male) is to secure the help of the spirit world, including the Great Spirit (Wakan Tanka in the language of the Lakota Sioux), for the benefit of the entire community. Sometimes the help sought may be for the sake of healing disease, sometimes it may be for the sake of healing the psyche, sometimes the goal is to promote harmony between human groups or between humans & nature. So the term "medicine man" is not entirely inappropriate, but it greatly oversimplifies and also skews the depiction of the people whose role in society complements that of the chief. These people are not the Native American equivalent of the Chinese "barefoot doctors", herbalists, nor of the emergency medical technicians who ride rescue vehicles. Keewaydinoquay Peschel described a different function between male medicine men and the women who apprenticed them in the Ojibwa tribes. She spoke of medicine men who depended on the women to identify the herbs and properly process them, who were lost if the women left because they had spent more time on the ceremonial functions and insufficient time on the nuts and bolts of healing. Keewaydinoquay, Stories from My Youth by Keewaydinoquay Peschel and Lee Boisvert To be recognized as the one who performs this function of bridging between the natural world and the spiritual world for the benefit of the community, an individual must be validated in his role by that community. Most medicine men and women study their art either through a medicine society such as the Navajo Blessingway, or the Ani-Stohini/Unami Morning Song Way or apprentice themselves to a teacher for 20-35 years or both. One of the best sources of information on this subject is the story of a Lakota (Sioux) wicasa wakan ("spirit man") named John Fire Lame Deer, recorded with his cooperation in a book called Lame Deer, Seeker of Visions, by Richard Erdoes. Erdoes, Richard. Lame Deer, Seeker of Visions. On a broader scale, Mircea Eliade's Shamanism puts the whole area of religious experience and practice into a broad historical and ethnographic context. Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy by Mircea Eliade (May 1972) Cultural context An Ojibwa medicine man preparing an herbal remedy. The term "medicine people" is commonly used in Native American communities, for example, when Arwen Nuttall (Cherokee) of the National Museum of the American Indian writes, "The knowledge possessed by medicine people is privileged, and it often remains in particular families." National Museum of the American Indian. Do All Indians Live in Tipis? Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2007. ISBN 978-0-06-115301-3. Native Americans tend to be extremely reluctant to discuss issues about medicine or medicine people with non-Indians. In many tribes medicine men are not expected to advertise or introduce themselves as such. As Nuttall writes, "An inquiry to a Native person about religious beliefs or ceremonies is often viewed with suspicion. The 1954 version of Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, reflects the poorly grounded perceptions of the people whose use of the term effectively defined it for the people of that time: "a man supposed to have supernatural powers of curing disease and controlling spirits." In effect, such definitions were not explanations of what these "medicine men" were to their own communities, but instead reported on the consensus of socially and psychologically remote observers when they tried to categorize these individuals. The term "medicine man," like the term "shaman", has been criticized by Native Americans, and various specialists in the fields of religion and anthropology. The term medicine man was also frequently used by Europeans to refer to African shamans, also known as "witch doctors" or "fetish men". 'Medicine man' is also used as slang for a type of cannabis plant which contains an extremely high level of THC. See also Ethnobotany Herbalism Keewaydinoquay Peschel Lame Deer Midewiwin New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans Prehistoric Medicine Shamanism Trance References | Medicine_man |@lemmatized yup:4 ik:4 shaman:5 exorcise:1 evil:1 spirit:5 sick:1 boy:1 nushagak:3 alaska:2 fienup:1 riordan:1 ann:1 boundary:1 passage:1 rule:1 ritual:1 eskimo:1 oral:1 tradition:1 norman:1 ok:1 university:1 oklahoma:1 press:1 p:1 locate:1 bay:1 bering:1 sea:1 southwest:1 part:1 territory:1 speaker:1 central:1 alaskan:1 language:3 medicine:19 man:8 woman:5 english:1 term:8 use:5 describe:2 native:7 american:8 healer:1 spiritual:2 figure:1 anthropologist:1 tend:2 prefer:1 role:3 society:3 primary:1 function:4 elder:1 always:1 male:2 secure:1 help:2 world:4 include:1 great:1 wakan:2 tanka:1 lakota:2 sioux:2 benefit:2 entire:1 community:5 sometimes:3 seek:1 may:3 sake:2 heal:3 disease:2 psyche:1 goal:1 promote:1 harmony:1 human:2 group:1 nature:1 entirely:1 inappropriate:1 greatly:1 oversimplifies:1 also:5 skew:1 depiction:1 people:7 whose:2 complement:1 chief:1 equivalent:1 chinese:1 barefoot:1 doctor:2 herbalist:1 emergency:1 medical:1 technician:1 ride:1 rescue:1 vehicle:1 keewaydinoquay:4 peschel:3 different:1 men:6 apprentice:2 ojibwa:2 tribe:2 speak:1 depend:1 identify:1 herb:1 properly:1 process:1 lose:1 leave:1 spend:1 time:3 ceremonial:1 insufficient:1 nut:1 bolt:1 story:2 youth:1 lee:1 boisvert:1 recognize:1 one:2 perform:1 bridge:1 natural:1 individual:2 must:1 validate:1 study:1 art:1 either:1 navajo:1 blessingway:1 ani:1 stohini:1 unami:1 morning:1 song:1 way:1 teacher:1 year:1 best:1 source:1 information:1 subject:1 wicasa:1 name:1 john:1 fire:1 lame:4 deer:4 record:1 cooperation:1 book:1 call:1 seeker:2 vision:2 richard:2 erdoes:2 broad:2 scale:1 mircea:2 eliade:2 shamanism:3 put:1 whole:1 area:1 religious:2 experience:1 practice:1 historical:1 ethnographic:1 context:2 archaic:1 technique:1 ecstasy:1 cultural:1 prepare:1 herbal:1 remedy:1 commonly:1 example:1 arwen:1 nuttall:2 cherokee:1 national:2 museum:2 indian:4 writes:2 knowledge:1 possess:1 privilege:1 often:2 remain:1 particular:1 family:1 live:1 tipi:1 washington:1 dc:1 smithsonian:1 institution:1 isbn:1 extremely:2 reluctant:1 discuss:1 issue:1 non:1 many:1 expect:1 advertise:1 introduce:1 inquiry:1 person:1 belief:1 ceremony:1 view:1 suspicion:1 version:1 webster:1 new:2 dictionary:1 reflect:1 poorly:1 grounded:1 perception:1 effectively:1 define:1 suppose:1 supernatural:1 power:1 cure:1 control:1 effect:1 definition:1 explanation:1 instead:1 report:1 consensus:1 socially:1 psychologically:1 remote:1 observer:1 try:1 categorize:1 like:1 criticize:1 various:1 specialist:1 field:1 religion:1 anthropology:1 frequently:1 european:1 refer:1 african:1 know:1 witch:1 fetish:1 slang:1 type:1 cannabis:1 plant:1 contain:1 high:1 level:1 thc:1 see:1 ethnobotany:1 herbalism:1 midewiwin:1 age:1 fraud:1 plastic:1 prehistoric:1 trance:1 reference:1 |@bigram yup_ik:4 alaskan_yup:1 lakota_sioux:2 nut_bolt:1 mircea_eliade:2 herbal_remedy:1 washington_dc:1 smithsonian_institution:1 |
4,205 | Leonhard_Euler | Leonhard Paul Euler (15 April 1707 – 18 September 1783) was a pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist who spent most of his life in Russia and Germany. His surname is in English (); the common English pronunciation is generally considered incorrect. Euler made important discoveries in fields as diverse as calculus and graph theory. He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function. He is also renowned for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, and astronomy. Euler is considered to be the preeminent mathematician of the 18th century and one of the greatest of all time. He is also one of the most prolific; his collected works fill 60–80 quarto volumes. A statement attributed to Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Euler's influence on mathematics: "Read Euler, read Euler, he is the master [i.e., teacher] of us all." Euler was featured on the sixth series of the Swiss 10-franc banknote and on numerous Swiss, German, and Russian postage stamps. The asteroid 2002 Euler was named in his honor. He is also commemorated by the Lutheran Church on their Calendar of Saints on 24 May - he was a devout Christian (and believer in biblical inerrancy) who wrote apologetics and argued forcefully against the prominent atheists of his time. Life Early years Old Swiss 10 Franc banknote honoring Euler Euler was born in Basel to Paul Euler, a pastor of the Reformed Church, and Marguerite Brucker, a pastor's daughter. He had two younger sisters named Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena. Soon after the birth of Leonhard, the Eulers moved from Basel to the town of Riehen, where Euler spent most of his childhood. Paul Euler was a friend of the Bernoulli family—Johann Bernoulli, who was then regarded as Europe's foremost mathematician, would eventually be the most important influence on young Leonhard. Euler's early formal education started in Basel, where he was sent to live with his maternal grandmother. At the age of thirteen he matriculated at the University of Basel, and in 1723, received his M.Phil with a dissertation that compared the philosophies of Descartes and Newton. At this time, he was receiving Saturday afternoon lessons from Johann Bernoulli, who quickly discovered his new pupil's incredible talent for mathematics. Euler was at this point studying theology, Greek, and Hebrew at his father's urging, in order to become a pastor, but Bernoulli convinced Paul Euler that Leonhard was destined to become a great mathematician. In 1726, Euler completed his Ph.D. dissertation on the propagation of sound with the title De Sono and in 1727, he entered the Paris Academy Prize Problem competition, where the problem that year was to find the best way to place the masts on a ship. He won second place, losing only to Pierre Bouguer—who is now known as "the father of naval architecture". Euler subsequently won this coveted annual prize twelve times in his career. St. Petersburg Around this time Johann Bernoulli's two sons, Daniel and Nicolas, were working at the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg. In July 1726, Nicolas died of appendicitis after spending a year in Russia, and when Daniel assumed his brother's position in the mathematics/physics division, he recommended that the post in physiology that he had vacated be filled by his friend Euler. In November 1726 Euler eagerly accepted the offer, but delayed making the trip to St Petersburg while he unsuccessfully applied for a physics professorship at the University of Basel. 1957 stamp of the former Soviet Union commemorating the 250th birthday of Euler. The text says: 250 years from the birth of the great mathematician and academician, Leonhard Euler. Euler arrived in the Russian capital on 17 May 1727. He was promoted from his junior post in the medical department of the academy to a position in the mathematics department. He lodged with Daniel Bernoulli with whom he often worked in close collaboration. Euler mastered Russian and settled into life in St Petersburg. He also took on an additional job as a medic in the Russian Navy. The Academy at St. Petersburg, established by Peter the Great, was intended to improve education in Russia and to close the scientific gap with Western Europe. As a result, it was made especially attractive to foreign scholars like Euler. The academy possessed ample financial resources and a comprehensive library drawn from the private libraries of Peter himself and of the nobility. Very few students were enrolled in the academy so as to lessen the faculty's teaching burden, and the academy emphasized research and offered to its faculty both the time and the freedom to pursue scientific questions. The Academy's benefactress, Catherine I, who had continued the progressive policies of her late husband, died on the day of Euler's arrival. The Russian nobility then gained power upon the ascension of the twelve-year-old Peter II. The nobility were suspicious of the academy's foreign scientists, and thus cut funding and caused other difficulties for Euler and his colleagues. Conditions improved slightly upon the death of Peter II, and Euler swiftly rose through the ranks in the academy and was made professor of physics in 1731. Two years later, Daniel Bernoulli, who was fed up with the censorship and hostility he faced at St. Petersburg, left for Basel. Euler succeeded him as the head of the mathematics department. On 7 January 1734, he married Katharina Gsell (1707–1773), a daughter of Georg Gsell, a painter from the Academy Gymnasium. , p. 402. The young couple bought a house by the Neva River. Of their thirteen children, only five survived childhood. Berlin Stamp of the former German Democratic Republic honoring Euler on the 200th anniversary of his death. In the middle, it shows his polyhedral formula . Concerned about the continuing turmoil in Russia, Euler left St. Petersburg on 19 June 1741 to take up a post at the Berlin Academy, which he had been offered by Frederick the Great of Prussia. He lived for twenty-five years in Berlin, where he wrote over 380 articles. In Berlin, he published the two works which he would be most renowned for: the Introductio in analysin infinitorum, a text on functions published in 1748, and the Institutiones calculi differentialis, published in 1755 on differential calculus. In addition, Euler was asked to tutor the Princess of Anhalt-Dessau, Frederick's niece. Euler wrote over 200 letters to her, which were later compiled into a best-selling volume entitled Letters of Euler on different Subjects in Natural Philosophy Addressed to a German Princess. This work contained Euler's exposition on various subjects pertaining to physics and mathematics, as well as offering valuable insights into Euler's personality and religious beliefs. This book became more widely read than any of his mathematical works, and it was published across Europe and in the United States. The popularity of the 'Letters' testifies to Euler's ability to communicate scientific matters effectively to a lay audience, a rare ability for a dedicated research scientist. Despite Euler's immense contribution to the Academy's prestige, he was eventually forced to leave Berlin. This was partly because of a conflict of personality with Frederick, who came to regard Euler as unsophisticated, especially in comparison to the circle of philosophers the German king brought to the Academy. Voltaire was among those in Frederick's employ, and the Frenchman enjoyed a prominent position in the king's social circle. Euler, a simple religious man and a hard worker, was very conventional in his beliefs and tastes. He was in many ways the direct opposite of Voltaire. Euler had limited training in rhetoric, and tended to debate matters that he knew little about, making him a frequent target of Voltaire's wit. Frederick also expressed disappointment with Euler's practical engineering abilities: A 1753 portrait by Emanuel Handmann. This portrayal suggests problems of the right eyelid, and possible strabismus. The left eye appears healthy; it was later affected by a cataract. Eyesight deterioration Euler's eyesight worsened throughout his mathematical career. Three years after suffering a near-fatal fever in 1735 he became nearly blind in his right eye, but Euler rather blamed his condition on the painstaking work on cartography he performed for the St. Petersburg Academy. Euler's sight in that eye worsened throughout his stay in Germany, so much so that Frederick referred to him as "Cyclops". Euler later suffered a cataract in his good left eye, rendering him almost totally blind a few weeks after its discovery in 1766. Even so, his condition appeared to have little effect on his productivity, as he compensated for it with his mental calculation skills and photographic memory. For example, Euler could repeat the Aeneid of Virgil from beginning to end without hesitation, and for every page in the edition he could indicate which line was the first and which the last. With the aid of his scribes, Euler's productivity on many areas of study actually increased. He produced on average one mathematical paper every week in the year 1775. Return to Russia Euler's grave at the Alexander Nevsky Lavra The situation in Russia had improved greatly since the accession to the throne of Catherine the Great, and in 1766 Euler accepted an invitation to return to the St. Petersburg Academy and spent the rest of his life in Russia. His second stay in the country was marred by tragedy. A fire in St. Petersburg in 1771 cost him his home, and almost his life. In 1773, he lost his wife of 40 years. Three years after his wife's death Euler married her half sister, Salome Abigail Gsell (1723–1794). , p. 405. This marriage would last until his death. On 18 September 1783, Euler died in St. Petersburg after suffering a brain hemorrhage, and was buried with his wife in the Smolensk Lutheran Cemetery on Vasilievsky Island (the Soviets destroyed the cemetery after transferring Euler's remains to the Orthodox Alexander Nevsky Lavra). His eulogy was written for the French Academy by the French mathematician and philosopher Marquis de Condorcet, and an account of his life, with a list of his works, by Nikolaus von Fuss, Euler's son-in-law and the secretary of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg. Condorcet commented, Contributions to mathematics Euler worked in almost all areas of mathematics: geometry, calculus, trigonometry, algebra, and number theory, as well as continuum physics, lunar theory and other areas of physics. He is a seminal figure in the history of mathematics; if printed, his works, many of which are of fundamental interest, would occupy between 60 and 80 quarto volumes. Euler's name is associated with a large number of topics. Mathematical notation Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions through his numerous and widely circulated textbooks. Most notably, he introduced the concept of a function and was the first to write f(x) to denote the function f applied to the argument x. He also introduced the modern notation for the trigonometric functions, the letter e for the base of the natural logarithm (now also known as Euler's number), the Greek letter Σ for summations and the letter to denote the imaginary unit. The use of the Greek letter π to denote the was also popularized by Euler, although it did not originate with him. Analysis The development of calculus was at the forefront of 18th century mathematical research, and the Bernoullis—family friends of Euler—were responsible for much of the early progress in the field. Thanks to their influence, studying calculus became the major focus of Euler's work. While some of Euler's proofs are not acceptable by modern standards of mathematical rigour, his ideas led to many great advances. Euler is well-known in analysis for his frequent use and development of power series, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such as Notably, Euler discovered the power series expansions for e and the inverse tangent function. His daring (and, by modern standards, technically incorrect) use of power series enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735: A geometric interpretation of Euler's formula Euler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytic proofs. He discovered ways to express various logarithmic functions using power series, and he successfully defined logarithms for negative and complex numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope of mathematical applications of logarithms. He also defined the exponential function for complex numbers, and discovered its relation to the trigonometric functions. For any real number φ, Euler's formula states that the complex exponential function satisfies A special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity, called "the most remarkable formula in mathematics" by Richard Feynman, for its single uses of the notions of addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and equality, and the single uses of the important constants 0, 1, e, i and π. In 1988, readers of the Mathematical Intelligencer voted it "the Most Beautiful Mathematical Formula Ever". In total, Euler was responsible for three of the top five formulae in that poll. See also: De Moivre's formula is a direct consequence of Euler's formula. In addition, Euler elaborated the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma function and introduced a new method for solving quartic equations. He also found a way to calculate integrals with complex limits, foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis, and invented the calculus of variations including its best-known result, the Euler–Lagrange equation. Euler also pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems. In doing so, he united two disparate branches of mathematics and introduced a new field of study, analytic number theory. In breaking ground for this new field, Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series, hyperbolic trigonometric functions and the analytic theory of continued fractions. For example, he proved the infinitude of primes using the divergence of the harmonic series, and he used analytic methods to gain some understanding of the way prime numbers are distributed. Euler's work in this area led to the development of the prime number theorem. Number theory Euler's interest in number theory can be traced to the influence of Christian Goldbach, his friend in the St. Petersburg Academy. A lot of Euler's early work on number theory was based on the works of Pierre de Fermat. Euler developed some of Fermat's ideas, and disproved some of his conjectures. Euler linked the nature of prime distribution with ideas in analysis. He proved that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges. In doing so, he discovered the connection between the Riemann zeta function and the prime numbers; this is known as the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function. Euler proved Newton's identities, Fermat's little theorem, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, and he made distinct contributions to Lagrange's four-square theorem. He also invented the totient function φ(n) which is the number of positive integers less than the integer n that are coprime to n. Using properties of this function, he generalized Fermat's little theorem to what is now known as Euler's theorem. He contributed significantly to the theory of perfect numbers, which had fascinated mathematicians since Euclid. Euler also made progress toward the prime number theorem, and he conjectured the law of quadratic reciprocity. The two concepts are regarded as fundamental theorems of number theory, and his ideas paved the way for the work of Carl Friedrich Gauss. By 1772 Euler had proved that 231 − 1 = 2,147,483,647 is a Mersenne prime. It may have remained the largest known prime until 1867. Caldwell, Chris. The largest known prime by year Geometry Euler line Euler's circle Affine geometry Graph theory Map of Königsberg in Euler's time showing the actual layout of the seven bridges, highlighting the river Pregel and the bridges. In 1736, Euler solved the problem known as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg. The city of Königsberg, Prussia was set on the Pregel River, and included two large islands which were connected to each other and the mainland by seven bridges. The problem is to decide whether it is possible to follow a path that crosses each bridge exactly once and returns to the starting point. It is not: there is no Eulerian circuit. This solution is considered to be the first theorem of graph theory, specifically of planar graph theory. Euler also discovered the formula relating the number of vertices, edges, and faces of a convex polyhedron , and hence of a planar graph. The constant in this formula is now known as the Euler characteristic for the graph (or other mathematical object), and is related to the genus of the object. The study and generalization of this formula, specifically by Cauchy and L'Huillier, is at the origin of topology. Applied mathematics Some of Euler's greatest successes were in solving real-world problems analytically, and in describing numerous applications of the Bernoulli numbers, Fourier series, Venn diagrams, Euler numbers, the constants e and , continued fractions and integrals. He integrated Leibniz's differential calculus with Newton's Method of Fluxions, and developed tools that made it easier to apply calculus to physical problems. He made great strides in improving the numerical approximation of integrals, inventing what are now known as the Euler approximations. The most notable of these approximations are Euler's method and the Euler–Maclaurin formula. He also facilitated the use of differential equations, in particular introducing the Euler-Mascheroni constant: One of Euler's more unusual interests was the application of mathematical ideas in music. In 1739 he wrote the Tentamen novae theoriae musicae, hoping to eventually incorporate musical theory as part of mathematics. This part of his work, however, did not receive wide attention and was once described as too mathematical for musicians and too musical for mathematicians. Physics and astronomy Euler helped develop the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation, which became a cornerstone of engineering. Aside from successfully applying his analytic tools to problems in classical mechanics, Euler also applied these techniques to celestial problems. His work in astronomy was recognized by a number of Paris Academy Prizes over the course of his career. His accomplishments include determining with great accuracy the orbits of comets and other celestial bodies, understanding the nature of comets, and calculating the parallax of the sun. His calculations also contributed to the development of accurate longitude tables. Youschkevitch, A P; Biography in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York 1970–1990). In addition, Euler made important contributions in optics. He disagreed with Newton's corpuscular theory of light in the Opticks, which was then the prevailing theory. His 1740s papers on optics helped ensure that the wave theory of light proposed by Christian Huygens would become the dominant mode of thought, at least until the development of the quantum theory of light. Logic He is also credited with using closed curves to illustrate syllogistic reasoning (1768). These diagrams have become known as Euler diagrams. Baron, M. E.; A Note on The Historical Development of Logic Diagrams. The Mathematical Gazette: The Journal of the Mathematical Association. Vol LIII, no. 383 May 1969. Personal philosophy and religious beliefs Euler and his friend Daniel Bernoulli were opponents of Leibniz's monadism and the philosophy of Christian Wolff. Euler insisted that knowledge is founded in part on the basis of precise quantitative laws, something that monadism and Wolffian science were unable to provide. Euler's religious leanings might also have had a bearing on his dislike of the doctrine; he went so far as to label Wolff's ideas as "heathen and atheistic". Much of what is known of Euler's religious beliefs can be deduced from his Letters to a German Princess and an earlier work, Rettung der Göttlichen Offenbahrung Gegen die Einwürfe der Freygeister (Defense of the Divine Revelation against the Objections of the Freethinkers). These works show that Euler was a devout Christian who believed the Bible to be inspired; the Rettung was primarily an argument for the divine inspiration of scripture. There is a famous anecdote inspired by Euler's arguments with secular philosophers over religion, which is set during Euler's second stint at the St. Petersburg academy. The French philosopher Denis Diderot was visiting Russia on Catherine the Great's invitation. However, the Empress was alarmed that the philosopher's arguments for atheism were influencing members of her court, and so Euler was asked to confront the Frenchman. Diderot was later informed that a learned mathematician had produced a proof of the existence of God: he agreed to view the proof as it was presented in court. Euler appeared, advanced toward Diderot, and in a tone of perfect conviction announced, "Sir, , hence God exists—reply!". Diderot, to whom (says the story) all mathematics was gibberish, stood dumbstruck as peals of laughter erupted from the court. Embarrassed, he asked to leave Russia, a request that was graciously granted by the Empress. However amusing the anecdote may be, it is apocryphal, given that Diderot was a capable mathematician who had published mathematical treatises. ; Selected bibliography The cover page of Euler's Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas. Euler has an extensive bibliography but his best known books include: Elements of Algebra. This elementary algebra text starts with a discussion of the nature of numbers and gives a comprehensive introduction to algebra, including formulae for solutions of polynomial equations. Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748). English translation Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite by John Blanton (Book I, ISBN 0-387-96824-5, Springer-Verlag 1988; Book II, ISBN 0-387-97132-7, Springer-Verlag 1989). Two influential textbooks on calculus: Institutiones calculi differentialis (1755) and Institutionum calculi integralis (1768–1770). Lettres à une Princesse d'Allemagne (Letters to a German Princess) (1768–1772). Available online (in French). English translation, with notes, and a life of Euler, available online from Google Books: Volume 1, Volume 2 Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas maximi minimive proprietate gaudentes, sive solutio problematis isoperimetrici latissimo sensu accepti (1744). The Latin title translates as a method for finding curved lines enjoying properties of maximum or minimum, or solution of isoperimetric problems in the broadest accepted sense. E65 — Methodus… entry at Euler Archives A definitive collection of Euler's works, entitled Opera Omnia, has been published since 1911 by the Euler Commission of the Swiss Academy of Sciences. See also List of topics named after Leonhard Euler Leonhard Euler Telescope References and notes Further reading Lexikon der Naturwissenschaftler, 2000. Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag. Demidov, S.S., 2005, "Treatise on the differential calculus" in Grattan-Guiness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 191-98. Dunham, William (1999) Euler: The Master of Us All, Washington: Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0883853280 Fraser, Craig G., 2005, "Leonhard Euler's 1744 book on the calculus of variations" in Grattan-Guiness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 168-80. Gladyshev, Georgi, P. (2007) “ Leonhard Euler’s methods and ideas live on in the thermodynamic hierarchical theory of biological evolution,” International Journal of Applied Mathematics & Statistics (IJAMAS) 11 (N07), Special Issue on Leonhard Paul Euler’s: Mathematical Topics and Applications (M. T. A.). Heimpell, Hermann, Theodor Heuss, Benno Reifenberg (editors). 1956. Die großen Deutschen, volume 2, Berlin: Ullstein Verlag. Krus, D.J. (2001) "Is the normal distribution due to Gauss? Euler, his family of gamma functions, and their place in the history of statistics," Quality and Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, 35: 445-46. Nahin, Paul (2006) Dr. Euler's Fabulous Formula, New Jersey: Princeton, ISBN 978-06-9111-822-2 Reich, Karin, 2005, " 'Introduction' to analysis" in Grattan-Guiness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 181-90. Richeson, David S. (2008) Euler's Gem: The Polyhedron Formula and the Birth of Topology. Princeton University Press. Sandifer, Edward C. (2007), The Early Mathematics of Leonhard Euler, Mathematical Association of America. IBSN 0883855593 Simmons, J. (1996) The giant book of scientists: The 100 greatest minds of all time, Sydney: The Book Company. Singh, Simon. (1997). Fermat's last theorem, Fourth Estate: New York, ISBN 1-85702-669-1 Thiele, Rüdiger. (2005). The mathematics and science of Leonhard Euler, in Mathematics and the Historian's Craft: The Kenneth O. May Lectures, G. Van Brummelen and M. Kinyon (eds.), CMS Books in Mathematics, Springer Verlag. ISBN 0-387-25284-3. External links Encyclopedia Britannica article How Euler did it contains columns explaining how Euler solved various problems Euler Archive Euler Committee of the Swiss Academy of Sciences References for Leonhard Euler Euler Tercentenary 2007 The Euler Society Leonhard Euler Congress 2007—St. Petersburg, Russia Project Euler Euler Family Tree Euler's Correspondence with Frederick the Great, King of Prussia "Euler - 300th anniversary lecture", given by Robin Wilson at Gresham College, 9 May 2007 (can download as video or audio files) be-x-old:Леанард Ойлер | Leonhard_Euler |@lemmatized leonhard:14 paul:6 euler:141 april:1 september:2 pioneering:1 swiss:6 mathematician:10 physicist:1 spend:4 life:7 russia:10 germany:2 surname:1 english:4 common:1 pronunciation:1 generally:1 consider:3 incorrect:2 make:10 important:4 discovery:2 field:4 diverse:1 calculus:13 graph:6 theory:22 also:22 introduce:9 much:4 modern:5 mathematical:21 terminology:1 notation:3 particularly:1 analysis:7 notion:2 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4,206 | Kim_Milford | Richard Kim Milford (February 7, 1951-June 16, 1988) was an American actor, singer-songwriter, and composer. best known for his acting in musicals such as The Rocky Horror Show and Jesus Christ Superstar. Early life Born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey, Milford grew up in Winnetka, Illinois where he attended New Trier High School. His sister is actress Penelope Milford and brother, Doug, is the co-owner of Artsystems. Career Milford first appeared in summer stock theatre in Chicago at age 10 and at the age of 17 he was in the original staging of Hair on Broadway, playing Woof and Claude. In 1976, he was awarded the Faith and Freedom Award by the Religious Heritage of America for his portrayal of the Prodigal Son in ABC Directories series Round Trip. Milford later performed in the first concert tour of Jesus Christ Superstar playing Jesus and Judas, and in the original American production of The Rocky Horror Show as Rocky with the Roxy Cast Los Angeles also in the Broadway production. He also appeared in the plays Henry Sweet Henry (1967), Your Own Thing, Rockabye Hamlet (1975-76, Laertes), More Than You Deserve, Sunset, and All Bets Off. TV movies In addition to stage work, Milford appeared in the 1975 television movies Song of the Succubus (with Brooke Adams) and Rock-a-Die-Baby (aka Night of the Full Moon) in which he performed music with his band Moon. During the 1970s and 1980s, he had guest roles on Mannix and The Highwayman, and starred in the 1978 feature films Laserblast and Corvette Summer. Jeff Beck Group and songwriting Milford was the front man for his band Moon and briefly became vocalist for second incarnation of The Jeff Beck Group, replacing Clive Chaman from August 1 to September 8 1972. He recorded with his group Moon, who were co-writers with singer Ron Dante Dante was married to Milford's sister Penelope at that time on songs such as, such as "Lovin' Lady", "Jo Anna" and "She's Puttin' Me Through Changes". According to an interview in Viva, Viva, October edition 1974 Milford recorded an album Chain Your Lovers to the Bedposts and a single, "Help is on the Way, Rozea". He recorded the single "Muddy River Water" for (Decca Records), the Sunset soundtrack and appeared on the Roxy Cast album of Rocky Horror Show. . Film music Milford composed the music for Salome, based on the Oscar Wilde play, and also starred in it as Mark Taper Forum, in Los Angeles in 1979. He wrote and performed "My Love is a Rebel" on the soundtrack of Limbo Runnymede films , starring Barry Bostwick. His song "Justice" appeared on the Ciao! Manhattan soundtrack Death On June 16, 1988, Milford died of heart failure following open heart surgery several weeks earlier. He was 37 years old. Discography Albums Chain Your Lovers to the Bedposts Rocky Horror Show Rocky Horror Show Original Los Angeles Cast (1974) Rocky Horror Picture Show 15th Anniversary (1990) Rocky Horror Collection Original Soundtrack (1997) Rocky Horror Collection Original Soundtrack (2005) Singles "Help is on the Way, Rozea" "Muddy River Water" Filmography Film Year Film Role Notes1978 Laserblast Billy Duncan Corvette Summer Wayne Lowry Alternative title: The Hot One Bloodbrothers Butler Alternative title: A Father's Love 1986 Wired to Kill Rooster Alternative title: Booby Trap 1988 Nightmare at Noon Albino's Henchman Alternative title: Death Street USA 1990 Escape Zoka Television Year Title Role Notes 1971 The Mod Squad 1 episode 1974 Mannix Singer 1 episode1975 Rock-A-Die, Baby Television movie Song of the Succubus Television movie Sunshine Eric 1 episode 1986 Crime Story Babe Petro 2 episodes 1988 The Highwayman Cotten 1 episode Notes References Hjort, Chris and Hinman, Doug. Jeff's book : A chronology of Jeff Beck's career 1965-1980 : from the Yardbirds to Jazz-Rock. Rock 'n' Roll Research Press, (2000). ISBN 0-9641005-3-3 External links | Kim_Milford |@lemmatized richard:1 kim:1 milford:11 february:1 june:2 american:2 actor:1 singer:3 songwriter:1 composer:1 best:1 know:1 acting:1 musical:1 rocky:9 horror:8 show:6 jesus:3 christ:2 superstar:2 early:1 life:1 bear:1 glen:1 ridge:1 new:2 jersey:1 grow:1 winnetka:1 illinois:1 attend:1 trier:1 high:1 school:1 sister:2 actress:1 penelope:2 brother:1 doug:2 co:2 owner:1 artsystems:1 career:2 first:2 appear:5 summer:3 stock:1 theatre:1 chicago:1 age:2 original:5 staging:1 hair:1 broadway:2 play:4 woof:1 claude:1 award:2 faith:1 freedom:1 religious:1 heritage:1 america:1 portrayal:1 prodigal:1 son:1 abc:1 directory:1 series:1 round:1 trip:1 later:1 perform:3 concert:1 tour:1 juda:1 production:2 roxy:2 cast:3 los:3 angeles:3 also:3 henry:2 sweet:1 thing:1 rockabye:1 hamlet:1 laertes:1 deserve:1 sunset:2 bet:1 tv:1 movie:4 addition:1 stage:1 work:1 television:4 song:4 succubus:2 brooke:1 adam:1 rock:4 die:3 baby:2 aka:1 night:1 full:1 moon:4 music:3 band:2 guest:1 role:3 mannix:2 highwayman:2 star:3 feature:1 film:5 laserblast:2 corvette:2 jeff:4 beck:3 group:3 songwriting:1 front:1 man:1 briefly:1 become:1 vocalist:1 second:1 incarnation:1 replace:1 clive:1 chaman:1 august:1 september:1 record:4 writer:1 ron:1 dante:2 marry:1 time:1 lovin:1 lady:1 jo:1 anna:1 puttin:1 change:1 accord:1 interview:1 viva:2 october:1 edition:1 album:3 chain:2 lover:2 bedpost:2 single:3 help:2 way:2 rozea:2 muddy:2 river:2 water:2 decca:1 soundtrack:5 compose:1 salome:1 base:1 oscar:1 wilde:1 mark:1 taper:1 forum:1 write:1 love:2 rebel:1 limbo:1 runnymede:1 barry:1 bostwick:1 justice:1 ciao:1 manhattan:1 death:2 heart:2 failure:1 follow:1 open:1 surgery:1 several:1 week:1 earlier:1 year:3 old:1 discography:1 picture:1 anniversary:1 collection:2 filmography:1 billy:1 duncan:1 wayne:1 lowry:1 alternative:4 title:5 hot:1 one:1 bloodbrothers:1 butler:1 father:1 wire:1 kill:1 rooster:1 booby:1 trap:1 nightmare:1 noon:1 albino:1 henchman:1 street:1 usa:1 escape:1 zoka:1 note:2 mod:1 squad:1 episode:4 sunshine:1 eric:1 crime:1 story:1 babe:1 petro:1 cotten:1 reference:1 hjort:1 chris:1 hinman:1 book:1 chronology:1 yardbird:1 jazz:1 n:1 roll:1 research:1 press:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram singer_songwriter:1 rocky_horror:8 jesus_christ:2 los_angeles:3 jeff_beck:3 oscar_wilde:1 booby_trap:1 external_link:1 |
4,207 | International_Atomic_Energy_Agency | The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for military purposes. It was established as an autonomous organization on 29 July 1957. Though established independently of the United Nations under its own international treaty (the IAEA Statute), the IAEA reports to both the General Assembly and the Security Council. The IAEA has its headquarters in Vienna, Austria. Two "Regional Safeguards Offices" are located in Toronto, Canada; and Tokyo, Japan. The IAEA has two liaison offices, located in New York, USA; and Geneva, Switzerland. In addition, it has laboratories in Seibersdorf and Vienna, Austria; Monaco; and Trieste, Italy. Today, the IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical co-operation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology worldwide. The IAEA's programmes encourage the development of the peaceful applications of nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. The organization and its Director General, Mohamed ElBaradei, were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize announced on 7 October 2005. History IAEA headquarters since 1979, Vienna, Austria In 1953, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower envisioned the creation of this international body to control and develop the use of atomic energy, in his "Atoms for Peace" speech before the UN General Assembly. In September 1954 the United States announced to the United Nations General Assembly a plan to create an international agency to take control of the fissile material being used to create nuclear reactors, establishing a kind of nuclear bank, and the United States called for an international scientific conference on all peaceful aspects of atomic energy. By November 1954 it was clear that the Soviet's rejected actual international custody of fissile material, but that a clearing house for nuclear transactions might be possible. From 8 to 20 August 1955 the United Nations held the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in Geneva. In 1956 an IAEA Statute Conference was held to draft foundation documents for the IAEA, and the IAEA Statute was completed at a 1957 conference. In 1986, in response to the Chernobyl disaster, IAEA expanded its nuclear safety efforts. The IAEA was headed by Hans Blix from 1981 to 1997. The current head of the organization is the Egyptian Mohamed ElBaradei. At the 49th General Conference, ElBaradei was confirmed as Director General until 2009. The Agency and Director General Mohamed ElBaradei were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. In Dr. ElBaradei's speech he stated that only 1% of the money spent on developing new weapons would be enough to feed the entire world and that, if we hope to escape self-destruction, then nuclear weapons should have no place in our collective conscience, and no role in our security. Nobel Lecture. Structure and function IAEA headquarters The IAEA's mission is guided by the interests and needs of Member States, strategic plans and the vision embodied in the IAEA Statute (see below). Three main pillars - or areas of work - underpin the IAEA's mission: Safety and Security; Science and Technology; and Safeguards and Verification. The IAEA, as an autonomous organization is not under direct control of any United Nations body, but does report to both the General Assembly and the Security Council. Unlike most other specialized agencies, it does not do most of its work with ECOSOC. The IAEA’s structure and function is defined by its founding document: the IAEA’s Statute (see below). The IAEA has three main bodies: the Board of Governors, the General Conference, and the Secretariat. The Board of Governors is one of two policy making bodies of the IAEA. The Board consists of 13 members designated by the outgoing Board and 22 members elected by the General Conference. The outgoing Board designates the ten members who are the most advanced in atomic energy technology and the remaining three most advanced members from any of the following areas that are not represented by the first ten: North America, Latin America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Africa, Middle East and South Asia, South East Asia, the Pacific, and the Far East. These members are designated for one year terms. The General Conference elects 22 members from the remaining nations to two year terms. Eleven are elected each year. The 22 elected members must also represent a stipulated geographic diversity (Statute). The current Board members are: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Canada, China, Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Ghana, India, Iraq, Ireland, Japan, Lithuania, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Romania, Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States of America, Uruguay (IAEA Board of Governors 2008–2009). The Board, in its five yearly meetings, is responsible for making most of the policy of the IAEA. The Board makes recommendations to the General Conference on IAEA activities and budget, is responsible for publishing IAEA standards and appoints the Director General subject to General Conference approval (IAEA Fundamentals 2005). Board members each receive one vote. Budget matters require a two-thirds majority. All other matters require only a simple majority. The simple majority also has the power to stipulate issues that will thereafter require a two-thirds majority. Two-thirds of all Board members must be present to call a vote (IAEA Board of Governors 1989). The General Conference (GC) is the highest policymaking body of the IAEA. The GC is made up of all 144 member states. The GC meets once a year, typically in September, to approve the actions and budgets passed on from the Board of Governors. The GC also approves the nominee for Director General and requests reports from the Board on issues in question (Statute). Each member receives one vote. Issues of budget, Statute amendment and suspension of a member’s privileges require a two- thirds majority and all other issues require a simple majority. Similar to the Board, the GC can, by simple majority, designate issues to require a two- thirds majority. The GC elects a President at each annual in order to facilitate an effective meeting. The President only serves for the duration of the session (Statute). The main function of the GC is to serve as a forum for debate on current issues and policies. Any of the other IAEA organs, the Director General, the Board and member states can table issues to be discussed by the GC (IAEA Primer). This function of the GC is almost identical to the General Assembly of the United Nations. The Secretariat is the professional and general service staff of the IAEA. The Secretariat is headed by the Director General. The Director General, currently Dr. Mohamed ElBaradei, is responsible for enforcement of the actions passed by the Board of Governors and the GC. The Director General is selected by the Board and approved by the GC for renewable four year terms. The Director General oversees six departments that do the actual work in carrying out the policies of the IAEA: Nuclear Energy, Nuclear Safety and Security, Nuclear Sciences and Applications, Safeguards, Technical Cooperation, and Management. Dr. ElBaradei, together with the IAEA as an institution, won the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize. The IAEA budget is two-part. The regular budget funds most activities of the IAEA and is assessed to each member nation (€280 million in 2007). The Technical Cooperation Fund is funded by voluntary contributions with a general target in the $70 million range. The process of joining the IAEA is fairly simple. A State must notify the Director General of its desire to join. The Director then submits the request to the Board for consideration. If the State is approved by the Board, the GC must then consider the State. When the State receives final approval for membership, it must then submit its signed acceptance of the IAEA’s Statute. The State is considered a member when its acceptance letter is deposited; the IAEA’s other members are subsequently notified of the new member. In 2004 IAEA developed a Programme of Action for Cancer Therapy (PACT). PACT responds to the needs of developing countries to establish, improve, or expand radiotherapy treatment programs and is raising funds to help countries save lives and reduce suffering of cancer victims. The IAEA exists to pursue “safe, secure and peaceful uses of nuclear sciences and technology” (Pillars 2005). The IAEA pursues this mission with three main functions: inspections of existing nuclear facilities to ensure peaceful use, information and standards to ensure the stability of nuclear facilities, and as a hub for the sciences seeking peaceful applications of nuclear technology. Membership IAEA members The Holy See and many of the UN members are parties of the IAEA. Not participating are: Countries that have withdrawn from the IAEA are: (1958–2003) (1974–1994) List of Directors General + Nationality & Name Duration W. Sterling Cole 1957–1961 Sigvard Eklund 1961–1981 Hans Blix 1981–1997 Mohamed ElBaradei 1997 - Present See also IAEA Areas Proliferation Security Initiative Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism Programme of Action for Cancer Therapy Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty United Nations Atomic Energy Commission Global Security Institute Institute of Nuclear Materials Management Programme budgeting. A few institutions tried half-heartedly but only the IAEA went about it seriously. Elagu V. Elaguppillai External links IAEA website NUCLEUS - The IAEA Nuclear Knowledge and Information Portal Official IAEA YouTube channel In Focus : IAEA and Iran IAEA Bulletin History of the International Atomic Energy Agency : the first forty years, David Fischer, 1997, ISBN 92-0-102397-9 A Pictorial History of "Atoms for Peace", ISBN 978-92-0-103807-4 Programme of Action for Cancer Therapy (PACT) - Comprehensive Cancer Control Information and Fighting Cancer in Developing Countries Video Interviews with Diplomats and NGOs from Non-Proliferation Treaty Conferences concerning nuclear non-proliferation Works cited Board of Governors rules Board of Governors Process of becoming a member state of the IAEA Statute of the IAEA IAEA Primer Pillars of nuclear cooperation 2005 Nobel Lecture Radiation Protection of Patients References be-x-old:Міжнароднае агенцтва атамнай энэргіі | International_Atomic_Energy_Agency |@lemmatized international:10 atomic:7 energy:9 agency:5 iaea:55 organization:5 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4,208 | Transport_in_the_Faroe_Islands | Ferries of Strandfaraskip Landsins, with the new vessel Smyril on the left History The general history of the Faroese transportation-system can be summed up into four general periods: 19th century and earlier In the first period stretching from the feudal era into the beginning of the 20th century transportation was made mainly by a combination of rowing boats, walking, carrying, and horse-transport in certain places for upper social classes. The late 19th century onwards In the second period, starting in the late 19th century the ferry-connections start to emerge. First through private initiatives and in the 20th century increasingly transforming into public transport further supplemented by the emerging automobilism, especially during and between the two world wars. After World War II a large part of the Faroe Islands was reachable through a combination of ferries and automobiles — frequently private buses and taxis. The mid 20th century The third period included a modernization of the ferries, introducing the car-ferries, making it possible to drive between the large centres of the country. Soon it would be possible to drive all the way from the capital of Tórshavn to Vágur and Tvøroyri in the south, to Fuglafjørður and Klaksvík in the north and to the airport at Sørvágur in the west. Vágar Airport was built by the British during World War II; it was reopened as a civilian international airport in 1963. During this second period the road network was further extended and supplemented by tunnels to distant valleys and firths such as Hvalba, Sandvík and Norðdepil in the 1960s. Thus the third period stretches from the World War II to around 1970. The late 20th century onwards Entrance to the Norðoyatunnilin at Leirvík "Light Art" inside the Norðoyatunnilin See also: Tunnels of the Faroes The fourth period starts a completely new development. In the 1973 the first solid connections between two islands was established between Norðskáli on Eysturoy and Nesvík on Streymoy. In 1976 the new tunnel between Norðskáli and the rest of Eysturoy was established, and together with the bridge this meant that the two largest islands were suddenly connected into what is now referred to as "Meginlandið" — (the Mainland). In 1975 the causeway between Viðoy and Borðoy was established, and in 1986 a similar one between Borðoy and Kunoy was established, and in 1992 the capital Tórshavn was granted a 1st class connection to the northern parts of the country, creating the infrastructural prerequisites for a new mobile society on the Mainland. The newest developments of the Faroese transportation network are the sub-sea tunnels. In 2002 the tunnel between Streymoy and Vágar — the latter is the airport island — was finished, and in 2006 the Norðoyatunnilin between Eysturoy and Borðoy was finished. A toll (payable at petrol stations) of 170 DKK is charged to drive through these two tunnels, the others are free. Now more than 85% of the Faroese population is mutually reachable by automobile. The Faroe Islands now have a good internal transport system based on roads, ferries, and helicopters. International transport - entirely based on aircraft and ships — (both for passengers and freight) remains difficult due to high costs, low numbers, long distances, and weather-related difficulties - especially in wintertime. The exporting of domestically produced commodities is hence quite expensive. This limits the development of a commodity-based economy. Railways There are no railways on the Faroe Islands due to the difficult landscape, small population and the relatively short distances. Bus services Roads have become the main transport artery of Faroese society. There is an extensive bus network — with red painted Bussleiðin town buses serving Tórshavn and the blue Bygdaleiðir buses linking the rest of the islands. Most buses are modern and were built by the Volvo company. The network of Bygdaleiðir blue rural buses (as well as the ferries) is operated by Strandfaraskip Landsins on behalf of the Faroese government (which provides subsidies). The principal route is Tórshavn-Klaksvík (via the new Norðoyatunnilin tunnel), but other bus routes also serve most villages. Bygdaleiðir means "village routes"; individual buses are largely owned by individuals or small companies - but the timetables, fares, and levels of service are set by Strandfaraskip Landsins and the government. Bussleiðin is the name of the urban bus service (with five routes) operated by the Tórshavn municipality. Since 1 January 2007, buses within Torshavn have been completely free of charge to the public. This is intended as an environmentally-friendly programme making people use public transport instead of their cars. As with Bygdaleiðir, the actual buses are privately owned, but contracted to Bussleiðin. Highways total: 458 km (1995 est.) paved: 450 km unpaved: 8 km Ports and harbours Torshavn Klaksvík Tvøroyri Runavík Fuglafjørður Merchant marine The Norröna of Smyril Line at Tórshavn in 1997. This vessel has since been replaced by the new Norröna. total: 6 ships ( or over) totaling / (1999 est.) ships by type: cargo ship 2, petroleum tanker 1, refrigerated cargo ship 1, roll-on/roll-off 1, short-sea passenger 1. The Faroese ferry company Strandfaraskip Landsins operates a network of ferries (as well as the rural buses). Their largest vessel is the new Smyril, a roll-on/roll-off ferry which maintains the link between Tórshavn and the southern islands. This vessel entered service in 2005. Since the early 1980s Smyril Line has operated a regular international passenger, car and freight service using a large, modern, multi-purpose ferry - the Norröna. The weekly service links the Faroe Islands with Seyðisfjörður in Iceland, Lerwick in the Shetland Islands, Bergen in Norway and Hanstholm in Denmark. From June 2007 the ferry will also call at Scrabster, on the mainland of Scotland. Airports 1 (Vágar Airport) (2005) Airports - with paved runways total: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 See also Map of Transportation net Transport in Denmark Tunnels of the Faroes Smyril Line | Transport_in_the_Faroe_Islands |@lemmatized ferry:12 strandfaraskip:4 landsins:4 new:8 vessel:4 smyril:5 left:1 history:2 general:2 faroese:6 transportation:4 system:2 sum:1 four:1 period:7 century:7 earlier:1 first:3 stretch:2 feudal:1 era:1 beginning:1 make:3 mainly:1 combination:2 row:1 boat:1 walk:1 carry:1 horse:1 transport:7 certain:1 place:1 upper:1 social:1 class:2 late:3 onwards:2 second:2 start:3 connection:3 emerge:2 private:2 initiative:1 increasingly:1 transform:1 public:3 far:2 supplement:2 automobilism:1 especially:2 two:4 world:4 war:4 ii:3 large:5 part:2 faroe:4 island:10 reachable:2 automobile:2 frequently:1 bus:13 taxi:1 mid:1 third:2 include:1 modernization:1 introduce:1 car:3 possible:2 drive:3 centre:1 country:2 soon:1 would:1 way:1 capital:2 tórshavn:7 vágur:1 tvøroyri:2 south:1 fuglafjørður:2 klaksvík:3 north:1 airport:6 sørvágur:1 west:1 vágar:3 build:2 british:1 reopen:1 civilian:1 international:3 road:3 network:5 extended:1 tunnel:8 distant:1 valley:1 firth:1 hvalba:1 sandvík:1 norðdepil:1 thus:1 around:1 entrance:1 norðoyatunnilin:4 leirvík:1 light:1 art:1 inside:1 see:2 also:4 faroes:2 fourth:1 completely:2 development:3 solid:1 establish:4 norðskáli:2 eysturoy:3 nesvík:1 streymoy:2 rest:2 together:1 bridge:1 meant:1 suddenly:1 connect:1 refer:1 meginlandið:1 mainland:3 causeway:1 viðoy:1 borðoy:3 similar:1 one:1 kunoy:1 grant:1 northern:1 create:1 infrastructural:1 prerequisite:1 mobile:1 society:2 sub:1 sea:2 latter:1 finish:2 toll:1 payable:1 petrol:1 station:1 dkk:1 charge:2 others:1 free:2 population:2 mutually:1 good:1 internal:1 base:3 helicopter:1 entirely:1 aircraft:1 ship:5 passenger:3 freight:2 remain:1 difficult:2 due:2 high:1 cost:1 low:1 number:1 long:1 distance:2 weather:1 related:1 difficulty:1 wintertime:1 exporting:1 domestically:1 produce:1 commodity:2 hence:1 quite:1 expensive:1 limit:1 economy:1 railway:2 landscape:1 small:2 relatively:1 short:2 service:6 become:1 main:1 artery:1 extensive:1 red:1 painted:1 bussleiðin:3 town:1 serve:2 blue:2 bygdaleiðir:4 link:3 modern:2 volvo:1 company:3 rural:2 well:2 operate:4 behalf:1 government:2 provide:1 subsidy:1 principal:1 route:4 via:1 village:2 mean:1 individual:2 largely:1 timetable:1 fare:1 level:1 set:1 name:1 urban:1 five:1 municipality:1 since:3 january:1 within:1 torshavn:2 intend:1 environmentally:1 friendly:1 programme:1 people:1 use:2 instead:1 actual:1 privately:1 contract:1 highway:1 total:4 km:3 est:2 pave:2 unpaved:1 port:1 harbour:1 runavík:1 merchant:1 marine:1 norröna:3 line:3 replace:1 type:1 cargo:2 petroleum:1 tanker:1 refrigerate:1 roll:4 maintain:1 southern:1 enter:1 early:1 regular:1 multi:1 purpose:1 weekly:1 seyðisfjörður:1 iceland:1 lerwick:1 shetland:1 bergen:1 norway:1 hanstholm:1 denmark:2 june:1 call:1 scrabster:1 scotland:1 airports:1 runway:1 map:1 net:1 |@bigram faroe_island:4 passenger_freight:1 environmentally_friendly:1 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 merchant_marine:1 petroleum_tanker:1 tanker_refrigerate:1 refrigerate_cargo:1 bergen_norway:1 pave_runway:1 |
4,209 | Jennifer_Lopez | Jennifer Lynn Lopez (born July 24, 1969 ), popularly nicknamed J.Lo, is an American actor, singer, record producer, dancer, fashion designer and television producer. She is the richest person of Latin American descent in Hollywood according to Forbes, and the most influential Hispanic entertainer in the U.S. according to People en Españols list of "100 Most Influential Hispanics". Starting in 1999, Lopez released seven albums, including two number one albums on the Billboard 200 charts and four Billboard Hot 100 number one singles. She won the 2003 American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Female Artist and the 2007 American Music Award for Favorite Latin Artist. She has appeared in numerous films, and has won ALMA Awards for outstanding actress for her work in Selena, Out of Sight, and Angel Eyes. She parlayed her media fame into a fashion line and various perfumes with her celebrity endorsement. Media attention has also focused on her personal life. She has had high-profile relationships with Ojani Noa, Cris Judd, Sean Combs, Ben Affleck, and Marc Anthony. Her first children, fraternal twins named Max and Emme, were born on February 22, 2008. Early life Jennifer Lopez was born and grew up in the South Bronx, New York to Puerto Rican parents Guadalupe Rodríguez, a kindergarten teacher, and David Lopez, a computer specialist. Jennifer Lopez Biography (1970?-). FilmReference.com. Accessed 2007-11-16. She has two siblings, Lynda and Leslie. Lopez spent her entire academic career in Catholic schools, finishing at the all-girls Preston High School, in the Bronx. She financed singing and dancing lessons for herself from the age of 19. After attending Baruch College for one semester, Lopez divided her time between working in a legal office, dance classes, and dance performances in Manhattan night clubs. She had a bit part in the 1987 film My Little Girl. After months of auditioning for dance roles, Lopez was selected as a dancer for various rap music videos, a 1990 episode of Yo! MTV Raps, and as a backup dancer for the New Kids on the Block and their performance of their song "Games" for the American Music Awards in 1991. After being rejected twice, she gained her first regular high-profile job as a "Fly Girl" dancer on the television comedy program In Living Color in 1990. Soon after, Lopez became a backup dancer for Janet Jackson and made an appearance in her 1993 video "That's the Way Love Goes". Film and television Early work Lopez appeared on three short-lived television programs: South Central, Second Chances, and Hotel Malibu. She also appeared in the made-for-television film Nurses on the Line: The Crash of Flight 7. Lopez's first serious screen role was in Gregory Nava's 1995 drama My Family, playing the character of Young Maria in the 1920s. After starring alongside Jimmy Smits and Edward James Olmos in My Family, Lopez starred in the action film Money Train opposite Wesley Snipes and Woody Harrelson. In 1996, she beat out Ashley Judd and Lauren Holly for the supporting role in Francis Ford Coppola's 1996 comedy Jack starring Robin Williams, She then starred opposite Jack Nicholson in Bob Rafelson's well-received noir thriller Blood and Wine. Critical success Lopez's first big break came in 1997, when she was chosen to play the title role in Selena, a biopic of the Tejano pop singer Selena. Despite having previously worked with Nava on Mi Familia, Lopez was subjected to an intense auditioning process before landing the lead role of Selena. She earned widespread praise for her performance, including a Golden Globe Award for "Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy" in 1998, and became the highest-paid Hispanic actress in history with her paycheck of $1 million or more for a film role. Some of her other critically-acclaimed films include Out of Sight, The Cell, An Unfinished Life, and Shall We Dance?. Two independent films produced by Lopez were well-received at film festivals: El Cantante at the Toronto International Film Festival, and Bordertown at the Brussels film festival. Other modestly successful films include The Wedding Planner, Maid in Manhattan, Monster-in-Law, and Enough. Gigli, however, would be a critical and commercial disappointment. In August 2007, Lopez collaborated on the feature film, El Cantante, with her husband singer-actor Marc Anthony. The film is in English, with a creative use of subtitles for songs with Spanish lyrics. On April 10, 2007 Lopez made an appearance as a mentor on American Idol. Lopez also became the executive producer of the eight-episode reality show, DanceLife, which ran on MTV and began on January 15, 2007. Lopez helped select the show's participants and made cameo appearances. She then served as executive producer of a miniseries broadcast on Univisión. Titled after her CD Como Ama Una Mujer, it ran in five episodes from October 30 to November 27, 2007, and starred Christian Borrero and Adriana Cruz. Como Ama Una Mujer Univision.com. Accessed 2008-02-01. Lopez signed a contract as star and executive producer of an unscripted reality series for TLC, a division of Discovery Communications Inc. The series will show the launching of her new fragrance, ap.google.com, Jennifer Lopez to star in a TLC reality series and will not focus on her family. Jennifer Lopez: 'There Is No Reality Show' - omg! news on Yahoo! Box office standing and record sales Lopez is one of the highest-paid actresses in Hollywood and the highest-paid Latin actress in Hollywood history, though she's never had a film grossing over $100 million in the U.S. Lopez appeared in the 2007 Guinness World Records as the most powerful actress. She was on the The Hollywood Reporter'''s list of the top ten actress salaries in 2002, 2003, and 2004. Nicole Kidman Tops The Hollywood Reporter's Annual Actress Salary List. (November 30, 2006). ItsaSurvey.com. Accessed 2007-05-05. She received $15,000,000 for her role in Monster-in-Law. Her top-grossing film domestically is Maid in Manhattan which grossed $94,011,225, and her most successful international film, Shall We Dance?, grossed $112,238,000 at the international box office. Domestically, Shall We Dance? grossed $57,890,460 and a total of $170,128,460 worldwide. Lopez has sold over 48 million albums worldwide. Lopez made the 2007 Forbes magazine's list of The 20 Richest Women In Entertainment, ranking ninth. Her wealth is estimated to be $110 million. Music career On the 6 (1999) Lopez's debut album On the 6, a reference to the 6 subway line she used to take growing up in Castle Hill was released on June 1, 1999, and reached the top ten of the Billboard 200. The album featured the Billboard Hot 100 number-one lead single, "If You Had My Love",, as well as the top ten hit "Waiting for Tonight". The album also featured a Spanish language, Latin-flavored duet "No Me Ames" with Marc Anthony (who later would become her husband.) Though "No Me Ames" never had a commercial release, it reached number one on the U.S. Hot Latin Tracks. On the 6 featured guest artists such as Big Pun and Fat Joe on the track "Feelin' So Good", which had moderate success on the Billboard Hot 100. "Let's Get Loud", the final single, earned Lopez a Grammy Award nomination in the "Best Dance Recording" category in 2001 Grammy Awards. 43rd Grammy Awards - 2001. Rockonthenet.com. Accessed 2007-08-24. "Waiting for Tonight" was nominated for the same category the previous year. 42nd Grammy Awards - 2000. Rockonthenet.com. Accessed 2007-08-24. "No Me Ames" received two nominations at the 2000 Latin Grammy Awards — "Best Pop Duo/Group with Vocal Performance" and "Best Music Video". J. Lo (2001) Lopez's second album, J. Lo, was released on January 23, 2001 and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200. When her film The Wedding Planner achieved number one shortly after, Lopez become the first actress-singer to have a film and an album at number one in the same week. The lead single, "Love Don't Cost a Thing", was her first number-one single in the United Kingdom and took her into the top five on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. She followed it up with "Play" which gave her another top twenty hit on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached number three in the UK. Her next two singles were "I'm Real" and "Ain't It Funny" which were quickly rising up the charts. To capitalize on this, Lopez asked The Inc. Records (then known as Murder Inc.) to remix both songs, which featured rap artists Ja Rule (on both) and Caddillac Tah (on the "Ain't It Funny" remix). Both remixes reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for several weeks. She re-released J. Lo on her thirty-second birthday with the remix of "I'm Real" as a bonus track. Also, "Si Ya Se Acabó" was released in Spain, due to the success "Que Ironia". J to tha L-O!: The Remixes (2002) Following the success of the re-release of J. Lo, Lopez decided to devote an entire album to the remixing effort, releasing J to tha L-O!: The Remixes, on February 5, 2002. This album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, becoming the first remix album in history to debut at the top on the chart. Featured artists on J to tha L-O!: The Remixes included P. Diddy, Fat Joe, and Nas, and the album included rare dance and hip hop remixes of past singles. It is the third all-time biggest-selling remix album in the world, after Michael Jackson's Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix (1997) and Madonna's You Can Dance (1987). This Is Me... Then (2002) On November 26, 2002, Lopez released her third studio album, This Is Me... Then, which reached number two on the Billboard 200 and spawned four singles: "Jenny from the Block" (featuring Jadakiss and Styles P), which reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100; "All I Have" (featuring LL Cool J), which spent multiple weeks at number one; "I'm Glad"; and "Baby I Love U!". The album included a cover of Carly Simon's 1978 "You Belong to Me". The video for "I'm Glad" recreated scenes from the 1983 film Flashdance, leading to a lawsuit over copyright infringement, which was later dismissed. Rebirth (2005) After a year away from the music scene, Lopez released her fourth studio album, Rebirth, on March 1, 2005. Although debuting and peaking at number two on the Billboard 200, the album quickly fell off the charts. It spawned the hit "Get Right", which reached the top fifteen in the U.S. and became her second Platinum hit (after "If You Had My Love"). "Get Right" was also successful in the UK, becoming her second number-one single there. The second single, "Hold You Down", which featured Fat Joe, reached number sixty-four on the U.S. Hot 100; it peaked at number six in the UK and ascended to the top twenty in Australia. Another song, "Cherry Pie", was slated for a release in late 2005, but the plans to make a video were canceled as the album sales were definitely too weak and the promotion budget exceeded. It was released to radio stations in Spain. Rebirth was certified Platinum in the U.S. by the RIAA. Lopez was then featured on LL Cool J's single "Control Myself", which was released on February 1, 2006. It reached number four on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and number two on the UK Singles Chart. It was Lopez's first U.S. top ten hit in three years. Como Ama Una Mujer (2007) Lopez officially released her first full Spanish-language album, called Como Ama una Mujer, on March 27, 2007 in the U.S. and March 23, 2007 in Europe. Her husband, singer Marc Anthony, produced the album with Estefano, except for "Qué Hiciste", which Anthony co-produced with Julio Reyes. The album peaked at number ten on the U.S. Billboard 200, number one on the U.S. Top Latin Albums (for four straight weeks), number one on the U.S. Latin Pop Albums (for seven straight weeks), and number one hundred and thirty-one in the UK. The album did well in Europe peaking at number three on the albums chart, mainly due to the big success in countries like Switzerland, Italy, Spain, France, Belgium, Greece, Germany, Austria, and Portugal. The lead single, "Qué Hiciste" (Spanish for "What Did You Do"), was officially released to radio stations in January 2007. Since then, it has peaked at eighty-six on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Hot Latin Songs and the Hot Dance Club Play. It also went top ten on the European chart. The video for the song was the first Spanish-language video to peak at number one on MTV's Total Request Live daily countdown. The second single released is called "Me Haces Falta" and the third is "Por Arriesgarnos". Lopez won an American Music Award as the Favorite Latin Artist in 2007. Como Ama una Mujer holds the record for the best opening week internet sales for a Spanish album. With Como Ama Una Mujer, Jennifer Lopez is one of the few performers to debut in the top 10 of the Billboard 200 with a Spanish album. Brave (2007) Just over six months later, on October 9, 2007, Lopez released her fifth English studio album (sixth studio album overall). She collaborated with producers Midi Mafia, J. R. Rotem, Lynn and Wade and Ryan Tedder, with Rotem working on some tracks with writing partner Evan "Kidd" Bogart. Earlier, on August 26, 2007, ABC premiered a promo for the fourth season of Desperate Housewives, featuring a snippet of the song "Mile In These Shoes". "Do It Well" was released as the lead single and reached the top 20 in many countries. "Hold It, Don't Drop It" was released as the second single in certain European territories only. The third single was set to be the title track "Brave", and it was even posted on Michael Haussman's official website that filming of the music video for the single had completed. However, neither the single nor the video ever surfaced most likely due to low album sales. 2009-present In February 2009 a new song, "Hooked On You", was circulated on the internet. In March, Lopez went on to publish the follow message on her official website: "I’m always excited about my music and this is one of a few tracks I’m currently working on. I’m flattered by everyone’s interest in the track and really excited for you to hear the real thing! Check back soon for more information on my next release". http://www.jenniferlopez.com/news/hookied-on-you On May 12, 2009 another new recording titled "What Is Love" surfaced. It was produced by D'Mile, written by Wynter Gordon. That day, Gordon mentioned the song on her official MySpace and later clarified what she wrote: "apparently a blogger took this as a dis towards J-Lo. It's not. I respect and admire J-Lo and I was honored for her to cut my song. The "lifetime TV special" comment was directed at the leak. The song was not properly serviced. It's not mixed, mastered, or finished but it's out for public consumption and opinion. That's why I'm angry". http://blogs.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=blog.view&friendId=42163855&blogId=488663855 Later the same day a further recording titled "One Love" leaked, it was also produced by D'Mile. http://www.myfashioncents.com/2009/05/trends-and-news-one-love-by-jennifer.html?cdu=disabled . Concerts 2001: Let's Get Loud "Live In Puerto Rico" Concert 2008: Live In Athens Tours: 2007: Juntos en Concierto Billboard Magazine reported, on July 24, 2007, that Jennifer Lopez and Marc Anthony would "co-headline" a worldwide tour called "Juntos en Concierto" starting in New Jersey on September 29. Jonathan Cohen (July 24, 2007) Lopez, Anthony Confirm Joint Fall Tour Billboard.com. Accessed 2008-02-01. Tickets went on sale August 10. The tour was a mix of her current music, older tunes and Spanish music. In a later press release, Lopez announced a detailed itinerary. The tour launched September 28, 2007 at the Mark G. Etess Arena and ended on November 7, 2007 at the American Airlines Arena in Miami, Florida. Business Lopez launched a clothing line in 2003. Named JLO by Jennifer Lopez, the line included different types of clothing for young women, including jeans, T-shirts, coats, belts, purses, and lingerie, a jewelry line, and an accessory line that includes hats, gloves, and scarves. Lopez participated in the Louis Vuitton Winter 2003 campaign. In 2005, she launched a new clothing line called Sweetface. In late 2007, Lopez retired JLO by Jennifer Lopez and launched a new juniors' line called JustSweet. Her fashion lines have featured at many New York Fashion Week events. Lopez's frequent use of animal fur in her clothing lines and personal wardrobe has brought the scorn of people concerned with animal rights. At the Los Angeles premiere of Monster-in-Law, more than one hundred protesters from People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) held a demonstration to highlight their concerns. On April 12, 2002, Lopez opened a Cuban restaurant in the South Lake district of Pasadena, California named Madre's. A media sensation was creating when during a press shoot for the fancy restaurant, a mysterious man appeared out of the sidelines and gave Lopez a floral arrangement from Ben Affleck, even as then-husband Cris Judd stood next to her. Lopez was widely criticized for what appeared to be infidelity on her part. Lopez has ventured in the perfume industry, with her debut "Glow by J.Lo". In October 2003, Lopez introduced a perfume called "Still", having revisit "Glow" the previous year by creating a limited edition spin-off, "Miami Glow by J.Lo", in homage to her adopted hometown of Miami. Lopez also marketed a "Glow" line of body lotions and bronzing products. For the Christmas season of 2005, she launched another fragrance, "Live by Jennifer Lopez". For 2006 Valentine's Day, "Miami Glow" was replaced by yet another "Glow" spin-off, "Love at First Glow by J.Lo". Her following fragrance, "Live Luxe", was released in August 2006, with "Glow After Dark" following in January 2007. Lopez is a spokesperson for Lux shampoo in Japan, appearing in the product's television commercials. Lopez owns the film and television production company Nuyorican Productions. It was cofounded with her manager Benny Medina, who was supposed to receive half the producing revenue from the company. Lopez split with Medina shortly after the company was founded, but they later restored their business relationship. Lopez has been recognized by People en Español magazine as both the cover subject for the "50 Most Beautiful" issue in 2006 and the "100 Most Influential Hispanics" issue in February 2007. Relationships Ojani Noa Lopez's first marriage was to Cuban-born Ojani Noa on February 22, 1997. Lopez met Noa while he worked as a waiter at a Miami restaurant. They divorced in January 1998. Lopez later employed Noa as the manager of her Pasadena restaurant Madre's in April 2002, but he was fired in October 2002. After Noa sued Lopez over the termination, they drew up a confidentiality agreement. In April 2006, Lopez sued to prevent her ex-husband, Noa, from publishing a book containing personal details about their short marriage, contending it violated their confidentiality agreement. In August 2007, a court-appointed arbitrator issued a permanent injunction forbidding Ojani Noa from "criticizing, denigrating, casting in a negative light or otherwise disparaging" Jennifer Lopez. She was awarded $545,000 in compensatory damages, which included nearly $300,000 in legal fees and almost $48,000 in arbitration costs. Noa was also ordered to hand over all copies of materials related to the book to Lopez or her attorney. Sean Combs Lopez next had a two-and-a-half-year relationship with hip-hop mogul Sean Combs. On December 27, 1999, Lopez and Combs were at Club New York, a midtown Manhattan nightclub, when gunfire erupted between Combs' entourage and another group. Lopez and Combs were being driven away from the scene when they were chased and stopped by the police. A stolen gun was found in the front seat of their vehicle. Lopez was charged with felony gun possession, but the charges were dropped, as she was riding in the back seat at the time. Stress over the trial and pursuit by the press multiplied their problems, and Lopez terminated her involvement with Combs one year later. Lopez was served with a subpoena in June 2008 to testify about the incident in a deposition August 6, 2008 but the deposition did not occur because Lopez had “nothing to contribute to the case”. "HHWorlds.com" - Update: Jennifer Lopez Won't Testify About Club Shooting Involving Diddy & Shyne (August 6, 2008) Cris Judd Her second marriage was to her former backup dancer, Cris Judd. She met Judd while filming the music video for her single "Love Don't Cost a Thing." The two were married on September 29, 2001, at a home in a Los Angeles suburb. Their marriage effectively ended in June 2002, when Lopez began publicly dating Ben Affleck. Noelle Hancock (December 26, 2006). Jennifer Lopez and Cris Judd: The Dance-Off Us (magazine). Accessed 2007-10-29. They were officially divorced in January 2003. Ben Affleck Lopez's relationship with actor Ben Affleck was highly publicized, with the media dubbing the couple "Bennifer". Lopez announced her engagement to Affleck in November 2002, after Affleck gave her a six-carat pink diamond ring worth a reported $1.2 million. Lopez promised interviewers that Affleck was indeed "the one", and that they would soon have a family. The marriage, planned for September 14, 2003 in Santa Barbara, California, was called off just hours before the event. During the week before the scheduled nuptials, Affleck had been seen by press carousing at a strip club in Vancouver with friends. The media blitz intensified when it was Lopez's own sister who called in live radio to tell Lopez where her fiance had been the previous night. Lopez would only respond by saying it was a terrible way to begin the day, finding out about Affleck's behavior in that manner. Publicists announced a permanent split on January 20, 2004. Affleck has refused to speak of his relationship with Lopez, only citing intense media attention as the cause of the break-up. Their relationship was parodied on the South Park episode "Fat Butt and Pancake Head", which aired on April 16, 2003. There was a mild media furor as to whether Lopez would give Affleck back his ring after the break-up. Lopez did return it and it was discreetly placed for sale at the original jewelers. Affleck has since married actress Jennifer Garner on July 1, 2005 and they have a daughter, Violet, born on December 1, 2005. In 2003 Jennifer Lopez and Ben Affleck acted together in the film "Gigli" and in the 2004 film "Jersey Girl". Marc Anthony Lopez and Marc Anthony at the 2006 Time 100 gala event. Shortly after her break-up with Affleck, Lopez was seen with singer Marc Anthony, a longtime friend with whom she had worked in music videos. They had briefly dated in the late 1990s, before his first marriage and her second. Lopez and Anthony were recording a duet together in early 2004, for Lopez's then-upcoming film Shall We Dance?. In October 2003, Anthony became separated, for the second time, from his first wife, former Miss Universe Dayanara Torres, with whom he has two children. Torres filed for divorce three months later. Lopez and Anthony married in a quiet home wedding on June 5, 2004, four days after his divorce from Torres was final. Their ceremony was private and unpublicized. In attendance were an estimated forty close relatives and friends. On the morning of the wedding, however, the media was tipped off and circled her backyard in helicopters. Photographs, alerting the rest of the world, soon followed. Reports fueled rumors that Lopez was pregnant but this was not the case. Lopez's guests had been invited to an "afternoon party" at Lopez's house and had not been made aware that they were actually going to her wedding. The couple had planned not to publicize their marriage early on, allowing more privacy and time together in an otherwise intrusive environment. Days after the wedding, Anthony refused to comment on their marriage during interviews which were scheduled earlier to promote a new album "Amar Sin Mentiras" (To Love Without Lies). In February 2005, Lopez confirmed the marriage, and added that "everyone knows. It's not a secret". A few months later, Anthony's daughter, Ariana, appeared at the end of Lopez's music video "Get Right" as her little sister. Regarding his marriage and family life, Anthony maintains a private and sometimes defensive stance with the media, which has influenced Lopez to set some boundaries with interviewers. On December 29, 2008, Daily News reported that Lopez and Anthony planned to announce their divorce on Valentine's Day. This allegation was put to rest by her publicist stating that "There is no merit to the article". Gina Serpe (December 29, 2008). J.Lo's Marriage Not on the Chopping Block EOnline. Accessed 2009-04-20. Scientology It was reported that Lopez and Anthony were taking professional business meetings at the Church of Scientology Celebrity Centre in Hollywood, California, in late 2006. It was also rumored that Lopez and Anthony became Scientologists during that period with the help of Angelo Pagan, the husband of "King of Queens" actress and Scientologist Leah Remini. Just prior to those reports, Lopez said to NBC, "I'm not a Scientologist, I was raised Catholic. But it's funny the way people come at it. To me it's so strange. These are some of the best people I've ever met in my life." She added, "My dad has been a Scientologist for 20 years. He's the best man that I know in my life and so, it's weird to me that people want to paint it in a negative way." Pregnancy and birth of twins On the last night of their "En Concierto" tour November 7, 2007, before a crowd of fans, Lopez confirmed she was expecting her first child with husband Marc Anthony. The announcement ended months of speculation over the pregnancy. Her father later confirmed on February 5, 2008, she was expecting twins. Lopez gave birth on February 22, 2008 to fraternal twins, a girl and a boy, Emme Maribel Muñiz, and Maximilian "Max" David Muñiz. The twins were introduced in the March 11, 2008 issue of People magazine for which the magazine paid $6 million. Human rights advocacy In May 2001, Lopez attended a White House benefit for UNICEF, where she assisted magician David Copperfield with an illusion which gave the appearance that she had been sawed into six pieces. Diva Dissection, People, June 25, 2001. On February 14, 2007, Lopez received the Artists for Amnesty International award "in recognition of her work as producer and star of Bordertown, a film exposing the ongoing murders of hundreds of women in the border city of Juárez, Mexico". Nobel Peace Prize winner José Ramos-Horta presented the award to Lopez at the Berlin International Film Festival. She also received special recognition and thanks from Norma Andrade, co-founder of Nuestras Hijas de Regreso a Casa A.C. ("May Our Daughters Return Home, Civil Association"), an organization consisting of mothers and families of the murdered women of Juárez. Discography Studio albums 1999: On the 62001: J. Lo2002: This Is Me... Then2005: Rebirth2007: Como Ama una Mujer (Spanish language album) 2007: BraveRemix albums 2002: J to tha L-O!: The Remixes DVDs 2000: Feelin' So Good2003: Let's Get Loud2003: The Reel Me2007: Como Ama Una Mujer'' Number-one singles YearSinglePeak positions USUKCANAUS1999"If You Had My Love"14112001"Love Don't Cost a Thing"3114"I'm Real"/"I'm Real" (Murder Remix)" (featuring Ja Rule)14632002"Ain't It Funny (Murder Remix)" (featuring Ja Rule and Caddillac Tah)1412—"Jenny from the Block" (featuring Styles P and Jadakiss)33152003"All I Have" (featuring LL Cool J)12622005"Get Right"12133TotalNumber-one hits4231 Awards Filmography Films Year Title Role Notes and awards 1987 My Little Girl Myra 1993 Nurses on the Line: The Crash of Flight 7 Rosie Romero 1995 My Family/Mi Familia María Sánchez, in the '30s Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress Money Train Grace Santiago 1996 Jack Miss Márquez 1997 Blood and Wine Gabriela "Gabby" Selena Selena Quintanilla-Pérez MTV Movie Awards Nomination for Breakthrough Performance Golden Globe Awards: nomination for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture-Musical or Comedy ALMA Awards: won Outstanding Actress Lone Star Film & Television Awards: won Best Actress Imagen Foundation Awards: Lasting Image Award Anaconda Terri Flores Saturn Awards: nomination for Best Actress U Turn Grace McKenna 1998 Out of Sight Karen Sisco MTV Movie Awards: 2 nominations for Best Female Performance and Best Kiss - shared with George Clooney Empire Movie Awards: nomination for Best Actress ALMA Awards: won Outstanding Actress Antz Azteca 2000 The Cell Catherine Deane Saturn Awards: nomination for Best Actress 2001 The Wedding Planner Mary Fiore Angel Eyes Sharon Pogue Alma Awards: nomination for Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture 2002 Enough Slim Hiller Maid in Manhattan Marisa Ventura NAACP Image Award: nomination for Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture 2003 Gigli Ricki 2004 Jersey Girl Gertrude Steiney Shall We Dance? Paulina 2005 Monster-in-Law Charlotte "Charlie" Cantilini An Unfinished Life Jean Gilkyson 2007 Bordertown || Lauren Adrian || |- |El Cantante || Puchi || ALMA Awards: nomination for Outstanding Performance of a Lead Latino /a Cast in a Motion Picture Premios Juventud - Nomination for "Best Actress" |- | Feel the Noise || Herself (Cameo) || |- |rowspan="1"| 2010 || The Back-Up Plan'' http://omg.yahoo.com/news/jennifer-lopez-to-visit-fertility-clinic-in-next-movie/16621 Zoe Filming starts May 2009 http://www.jenniferlopez.com/news/jlo%E2%80%99s-expecting-a-baby Television Year Title Role 1991-1993 In Living Color "Fly Girl" 1993-1994 Second Chances Melinda Lopez 1994 South Central Lucille Hotel Malibu Melinda Lopez 2004 Will & Grace Herself References External links Official website | Jennifer_Lopez |@lemmatized jennifer:17 lynn:2 lopez:111 bear:5 july:4 popularly:1 nickname:1 j:20 lo:11 american:8 actor:3 singer:6 record:7 producer:7 dancer:6 fashion:4 designer:1 television:9 rich:2 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4,210 | Isaac_Klein | Isaac Klein (1905-1979) was a prominent rabbi and halakhic authority within Conservative Judaism. Personal life, education, and career Klein was born in Hungary and emigrated with his family to the United States in 1921. He earned a BA from City College in New York in 1931. Although nearing ordination at the Yeshiva University's Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, he transferred to the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTSA), where he was ordained in 1934 and received the advanced Jewish legal degree of Hattarat Hora’ah under the great talmudic scholar Rabbi Professor Louis Ginzberg. He was one of only three people, along with Boaz Cohen and Louis Finkelstein, to ever to receive this degree from JTSA. Klein subsequently earned a PhD from Harvard under the pioneering academic of Judaic studies Harry Wolfson. He married the former Henriette Levine in 1932 and had three daughters, Hannah, Miriam, and Rivke. Devoted to his family, he dedicated his major work, A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice to his children, sons-in-law and 13 grandchildren listing each by name. Klein served as rabbi at Kadimoh Congregation in Springfield, Massachusetts from 1934-1953; Temple Emanu-El, Buffalo, New York, 1953-1968; Temple Shaarey Zedek, Buffalo, (which was created from the merger of Emanu-El with Temple Beth David in 1968), 1968-1972. A beloved Rabbi, he influenced generations of congregants and visiting students and, together with his wife who was an educator, founded Jewish day schools in both Springfield and Buffalo. Despite the difficulties facing a congregational Rabbi raising a family, Klein volunteered for the U.S. Army during World War II as a chaplain, motivated by a cause he saw as clearly right with important implications for the Jewish People. He served over 4 years, rising to the rank of Major and was an advisor to the high commissioner of the Occupation government. He also served on special assignments for Jewish soldiers in the U.S. Army in the 1950s, receiving the simulated rank of Brigadier General for these missions. His experiences in the war are described in his book The Anguish and the Ecstacy of a Jewish Chaplain. Role within Conservative Judaism Klein was a leader of the right-wing of the Conservative movement. He was president of the Rabbinical Assembly, 1958-1960, and a member of its Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, 1948-1979. He was the author of several books, notably, A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice. One of the outstanding halakhists of the movement, he served as a leading member of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards from 1948 until his death in 1979. As a leading authority on halakha he authored many important teshuvot (responsa), many of which were published in his influential "Responsa and Halakhic Studies". From the 1950s to 1970s, he wrote a comprehensive guide to Jewish law which was used to teach halakha at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. In 1979 he assembled this into A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice, which is used widely by laypeople and rabbis within Conservative Judaism. Rabbinic thought The philosophy upon which A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice is written is stated in the foreword: "The premise on which Torah is based is that all aspects of life - leisure no less than business, worship or rites of passage (birth, bar mitzvah, marriage, divorce, death) - are part of the covenant and mandate under which every Jew is to serve God in everything he does. In the eyes of Torah there is, strictly speaking, no such thing as the purely private domain, for even in solitude - be it the privacy of the bath or the unconsciousness of sleep - one has the capacity and the duty to serve God." This message, of life seen in consonance with the dictates of Judaism, permeates many pages of the book. Rabbi Louis Finkelstein, distinguished scholar of the Jewish Theological Seminary, wrote: "There are those who would think that we have but two alternatives, to reject or to accept the law, but in either case to treat it as a dead letter. Both of these alternatives are repugnant to the whole tradition of Judaism. Jewish law must be preserved but it is subject to interpretation by those who have mastered it, and the interpretation placed upon it by duly authorized masters in every generation must be accepted with as much reverence as those which were given in previous generations." This understanding of traditional preservation of the law through its continuous interpretation lies at the heart of Klein's extensive study of Jewish law. Klein's papers are located at the University Archives, State University of New York at Buffalo (see finding aid). The archives include fifteen reels of microfilm. The collection consists of extensive writings by Klein on traditional Jewish practice and law. This includes manuscript material for his books Guide to Jewish Religious Practice (1979), The Ten Commandments in a Changing World (1963), The Anguish and the Ecstasy of a Jewish Chaplain (1974), and his translation of The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah): Book 7, The Book of Agriculture (1979). The collection also contains speeches, sermons, articles, and remarks from the Conservative Jewish viewpoint on subjects such as Jewish medical ethics, dietary laws, adoption, and marriage and divorce. Meeting minutes, annual reports, bulletins, and sermons relating to Klein's rabbinical vocations in Springfield, Massachusetts and Buffalo, New York are also included. The papers contain photographs, wartime letters, and military records of Klein documenting his service in World War II as a director of Jewish religious affairs in Germany. External links About Klein's "A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice" Excerpts from "A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice" Isaac Klein Finding Aid for the Rabbi Isaac Klein Papers, 1925-1979. University Archives, The State University of New York at Buffalo. | Isaac_Klein |@lemmatized isaac:4 klein:14 prominent:1 rabbi:8 halakhic:2 authority:2 within:3 conservative:5 judaism:5 personal:1 life:3 education:1 career:1 bear:1 hungary:1 emigrate:1 family:3 united:1 state:4 earn:2 ba:1 city:1 college:1 new:5 york:5 although:1 nearing:1 ordination:1 yeshiva:1 university:5 elchanan:1 theological:4 seminary:4 transfer:1 jewish:25 america:2 jtsa:2 ordain:1 receive:3 advanced:1 legal:1 degree:2 hattarat:1 hora:1 ah:1 great:1 talmudic:1 scholar:2 professor:1 louis:3 ginzberg:1 one:3 three:2 people:2 along:1 boaz:1 cohen:1 finkelstein:2 ever:1 subsequently:1 phd:1 harvard:1 pioneering:1 academic:1 judaic:1 study:3 harry:1 wolfson:1 marry:1 former:1 henriette:1 levine:1 daughter:1 hannah:1 miriam:1 rivke:1 devote:1 dedicate:1 major:2 work:1 guide:8 religious:8 practice:8 child:1 son:1 law:10 grandchild:1 list:1 name:1 serve:6 kadimoh:1 congregation:1 springfield:3 massachusetts:2 temple:3 emanu:2 el:2 buffalo:6 shaarey:1 zedek:1 create:1 merger:1 beth:1 david:1 beloved:1 influence:1 generation:3 congregant:1 visit:1 student:1 together:1 wife:1 educator:1 found:1 day:1 school:1 despite:1 difficulty:1 face:1 congregational:1 raise:1 volunteer:1 u:2 army:2 world:3 war:3 ii:2 chaplain:3 motivate:1 cause:1 saw:1 clearly:1 right:2 important:2 implication:1 year:1 rise:1 rank:2 advisor:1 high:1 commissioner:1 occupation:1 government:1 also:3 special:1 assignment:1 soldier:1 simulated:1 brigadier:1 general:1 mission:1 experience:1 describe:1 book:6 anguish:2 ecstacy:1 role:1 leader:1 wing:1 movement:2 president:1 rabbinical:2 assembly:1 member:2 committee:2 standard:2 author:2 several:1 notably:1 outstanding:1 halakhists:1 leading:1 death:2 lead:1 halakha:2 many:3 teshuvot:1 responsa:2 publish:1 influential:1 write:3 comprehensive:1 use:2 teach:1 assemble:1 widely:1 laypeople:1 rabbis:1 rabbinic:1 think:2 philosophy:1 upon:2 foreword:1 premise:1 torah:3 base:1 aspect:1 leisure:1 less:1 business:1 worship:1 rite:1 passage:1 birth:1 bar:1 mitzvah:1 marriage:2 divorce:2 part:1 covenant:1 mandate:1 every:2 jew:1 god:2 everything:1 eye:1 strictly:1 speak:1 thing:1 purely:1 private:1 domain:1 even:1 solitude:1 privacy:1 bath:1 unconsciousness:1 sleep:1 capacity:1 duty:1 message:1 see:2 consonance:1 dictate:1 permeate:1 page:1 distinguish:1 would:1 two:1 alternative:2 reject:1 accept:2 either:1 case:1 treat:1 dead:1 letter:2 repugnant:1 whole:1 tradition:1 must:2 preserve:1 subject:2 interpretation:3 master:2 place:1 duly:1 authorized:1 much:1 reverence:1 give:1 previous:1 understanding:1 traditional:2 preservation:1 continuous:1 lie:1 heart:1 extensive:2 paper:3 locate:1 archive:3 find:2 aid:2 include:3 fifteen:1 reel:1 microfilm:1 collection:2 consist:1 writing:1 manuscript:1 material:1 ten:1 commandment:1 changing:1 ecstasy:1 translation:1 code:1 maimonides:1 mishneh:1 agriculture:1 contain:2 speech:1 sermon:2 article:1 remark:1 viewpoint:1 medical:1 ethic:1 dietary:1 adoption:1 meeting:1 minute:1 annual:1 report:1 bulletin:1 relate:1 vocation:1 photograph:1 wartime:1 military:1 record:1 document:1 service:1 director:1 affair:1 germany:1 external:1 link:1 excerpt:1 |@bigram conservative_judaism:3 theological_seminary:4 louis_ginzberg:1 springfield_massachusetts:2 temple_beth:1 brigadier_general:1 rabbinical_assembly:1 bar_mitzvah:1 ten_commandment:1 maimonides_mishneh:1 mishneh_torah:1 external_link:1 |
4,211 | MOS_Technology_6510 | Image of the innards of a Commodore 64 showing the 6510 CPU (40-pin DIP, lower left). The chip on the right is the 6581 SID. The production week/year (WWYY) of each chip is given below its name. The MOS Technology 6510 is a microprocessor designed by MOS Technology, Inc., and is a modified form of the very successful 6502. The primary change from the 6502 was the addition of an 8-bit general purpose I/O port (only six I/O pins were available in the most common version of the 6510). In addition, the address bus could be made tristate. The 6510 was only widely used in the Commodore 64 home computer (and in significantly smaller numbers in the C64's portable version, the SX-64). In both the C64 and SX-64 the extra pins of the processor were used to control the computer's memory map, and in the C64 also for controlling the electric motor of the Datassette tape recorder. It was possible, by writing the correct bit pattern to the processor at address $01, to completely expose the full 64KB of RAM in the C64, leaving no ROM or I/O hardware exposed. Variants In 1985 MOS produced the 8500, an HMOS version of the 6510. Other than the process change, it is virtually identical to the NMOS version of the 6510. The 8500 was originally designed for use in the modernised C64, the C64C. However in 1985, limited quantities of 8500s were found on older NMOS based C64s. It finally made its official debut in 1987, appearing in a motherboard using the new 85xx HMOS chipset. Pin configuration of the most common variation of the 6510 CPU The 7501/8501 variant of the 6510 was used in Commodore's C16, C116 and Plus/4 home computers, and the 2 MHz-capable 8502 variant was used in the Commodore C128. All these CPUs are opcode compatible (including undocumented opcodes), except the 8502, where some differences concerning the undocumented opcodes have been reported. The Commodore 1551 disk drive used the 6510T, a version of the 6510 with eight I/O lines. The NMI and RDY signals are not available. External links MOS 6510 datasheet (GIF format, zipped) MOS 6510 datasheet (PDF format) MOS 6510 datasheet (Nov. 1982, PDF format) Marat Fayzullin's emulator page (includes downloadable source code for 6502) | MOS_Technology_6510 |@lemmatized image:1 innards:1 commodore:5 show:1 cpu:3 pin:4 dip:1 low:1 leave:2 chip:2 right:1 sid:1 production:1 week:1 year:1 wwyy:1 give:1 name:1 mo:5 technology:2 microprocessor:1 design:2 inc:1 modified:1 form:1 successful:1 primary:1 change:2 addition:2 bit:2 general:1 purpose:1 port:1 six:1 available:2 common:2 version:5 address:2 bus:1 could:1 make:2 tristate:1 widely:1 use:7 home:2 computer:3 significantly:1 small:1 number:1 portable:1 sx:2 extra:1 processor:2 control:2 memory:1 map:1 also:1 electric:1 motor:1 datassette:1 tape:1 recorder:1 possible:1 write:1 correct:1 pattern:1 completely:1 expose:2 full:1 ram:1 rom:1 hardware:1 variant:3 produce:1 hmos:2 process:1 virtually:1 identical:1 nmos:2 originally:1 modernised:1 however:1 limited:1 quantity:1 find:1 old:1 base:1 finally:1 official:1 debut:1 appear:1 motherboard:1 new:1 chipset:1 configuration:1 variation:1 plus:1 mhz:1 capable:1 opcode:1 compatible:1 include:2 undocumented:2 opcodes:2 except:1 difference:1 concern:1 report:1 disk:1 drive:1 eight:1 line:1 nmi:1 rdy:1 signal:1 external:1 link:1 mos:1 datasheet:3 gif:1 format:3 zip:1 pdf:2 nov:1 marat:1 fayzullin:1 emulator:1 page:1 downloadable:1 source:1 code:1 |@bigram pin_dip:1 mo_technology:2 tape_recorder:1 external_link:1 gif_format:1 |
4,212 | Flamsteed_designation | Flamsteed designations for stars are similar to Bayer designations, except that they use numbers instead of Greek letters. Each star is assigned a number and the Latin genitive of the constellation it lies in (see List of constellations for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names). Flamsteed designation contained 2554 stars. The numbers were originally assigned in order of increasing right ascension within each constellation, but due to the effects of precession they are now slightly out of order in some places. This method of designating stars first appeared in a preliminary version of John Flamsteed's Historia coelestis Britannica which was published by Edmond Halley and Isaac Newton in 1712 without Flamsteed's approval. The final version of Flamsteed's catalogue published in 1725 after his death omitted any number designations altogether. The designations gained popularity throughout the eighteenth century, and are now commonly used when no Bayer designation exists; however, where a Bayer designation does exist for a star it is used almost exclusively and the Flamsteed designation is almost never used. Examples of well-known stars which are usually referred to by their Flamsteed numbers include 51 Pegasi (see Extrasolar planet), and 61 Cygni (see Parallax). Flamsteed designations do, however, tend to trump the Bayer designation if the latter contains an extra attached number, so "55 Cancri" is more common than "Rho-1 Cancri". There are examples of stars bearing Flamsteed designations for constellations in which they do not lie, just as there are for Bayer designations, because of the compromises that had to be made when the modern constellation boundaries were drawn up. It should also be noted that Flamsteed's catalogue covered only the stars visible from Great Britain, and therefore stars of the far southern constellations have no Flamsteed numbers. (Two exceptions are the globular cluster 47 Tucanae and the nearby star 82 Eridani, named in a major Southern Hemisphere catalog called Uranometria Argentina by Benjamin Gould.) Some entries in Flamsteed's catalog are errors: for instance, Flamsteed observed Uranus in 1690 but did not recognize it as a planet and entered it into his catalog as "34 Tauri". References See also Star designation Flamsteed objects List of constellations | Flamsteed_designation |@lemmatized flamsteed:14 designation:13 star:11 similar:1 bayer:5 except:1 use:4 number:7 instead:1 greek:1 letter:1 assign:2 latin:1 genitive:2 constellation:8 lie:2 see:4 list:3 form:1 name:2 contain:2 originally:1 order:2 increase:1 right:1 ascension:1 within:1 due:1 effect:1 precession:1 slightly:1 place:1 method:1 designate:1 first:1 appear:1 preliminary:1 version:2 john:1 historia:1 coelestis:1 britannica:1 publish:2 edmond:1 halley:1 isaac:1 newton:1 without:1 approval:1 final:1 catalogue:2 death:1 omit:1 altogether:1 gain:1 popularity:1 throughout:1 eighteenth:1 century:1 commonly:1 exist:2 however:2 almost:2 exclusively:1 never:1 example:2 well:1 know:1 usually:1 refer:1 include:1 pegasi:1 extrasolar:1 planet:2 cygni:1 parallax:1 tend:1 trump:1 latter:1 extra:1 attached:1 cancri:2 common:1 rho:1 bear:1 compromise:1 make:1 modern:1 boundary:1 draw:1 also:2 note:1 cover:1 visible:1 great:1 britain:1 therefore:1 far:1 southern:2 two:1 exception:1 globular:1 cluster:1 tucanae:1 nearby:1 eridani:1 major:1 hemisphere:1 catalog:3 call:1 uranometria:1 argentina:1 benjamin:1 gould:1 entry:1 error:1 instance:1 observe:1 uranus:1 recognize:1 enter:1 tauri:1 reference:1 object:1 |@bigram flamsteed_designation:5 bayer_designation:5 edmond_halley:1 isaac_newton:1 almost_exclusively:1 extrasolar_planet:1 globular_cluster:1 southern_hemisphere:1 |
4,213 | Kordofanian_languages | The Kordofanian languages are a geographic grouping of three to five language families spoken in the Nuba hills of Kordofan Province, Sudan. In 1963 Joseph Greenberg added them to the Niger-Congo family, creating his Niger-Kordofanian proposal. The Kordofanian languages have not been shown to be more distantly related than other branches of Niger-Congo, however, nor have they been shown to constitute a valid group. Today the Kadu family is excluded, and the other four usually included in Niger-Congo proper. Talodi-Heiban The Heiban languages, also called Koalib or Koalib-Moro, and the Talodi languages, also called Talodi-Masakin, are closely related. Gerrit Dimmendaal, 2008. "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent", Language and Linguistics Compass 2/5:842. Rashad The number of Rashad languages, also called Tegali-Tagoi, varies among different descriptions, from two (Williamson & Blench 2000), three (Ethnologue), to eight (Blench ms). Tagoi has a noun-class system like the Atlantic Congo languages—apparently borrowed,—while Tegali does not. Katla languages Roger Blench notes that the Talodi and Heiban languages have the noun-class systems characteristic of the Atlantic-Congo core of Niger-Congo, but that the two Katla languages have no trace of ever having had such a system, whereas the Kadu languages and some of the Rashad languages appear to have acquired noun classes as part of a Sprachbund rather than having inherited them. He concludes that the Kordofanian languages do not form a genealogical group, but that Talodi and Heiban are core Niger-Congo whereas Katla and Rashad form a peripheral branch along the lines of Mande. Kadu languages Since Schadeberg 1981c, the "Tumtum" or Kadu branch is now widely seen as Nilo-Saharan. However, the evidence is slight, and a conservative classification would treat it as an independent family. Bibliography Herman Bell. 1995. The Nuba Mountains: Who Spoke What in 1976?. Being a study of the published results from a major project of the Institute of African and Asian Studies: the Language Survey of the Nuba Mountains. Roger Blench. Unpublished. Kordofanian and Niger-Congo: an evaluation of the evidence. P. A. and D. N. MacDiarmid. 1931. "The languages of the Nuba Mountains." Sudan Notes and Records 14: 149-162. Carl Meinhof. 1915-1919. "Sprachstudien im egyptischen Sudan". Zeitschrift für Kolonialsprachen 9-9. "1. Tagoy." 6: 164-161. "2. Tumale". 6:182-205. "11. Tegele." 7:110-131. "12. Rashad." 7:132. Thilo C. Schadeberg. 1981a. A survey of Kordofanian. SUGIA Beiheft 1-2. Hamburg:Helmut Buske Verlag. Thilo C. Schadeberg. 1981b. "Das Kordofanische". Die Sprachen Afrikas. Band 1: Niger-Kordofanisch, ed. by Bernt Heine, T. C. Schadeberg, Ekkehard Wolff, pp. 117-28 SUGIA Beiheft 1-2. Hamburg:Helmut Buske Verlag. Thilo C. Schadeberg. 1981c. "The classification of the Kadugli language group". Nilo-Saharan, ed. by T. C. Schadeberg and M. Lionel Bender, pp. 291-305. Dordrecht: Foris Publications. Brenda Z. Seligmann. 1910-11. "Note on the language of the Nubas of Southern Kordofan." Zeitschrift für Kolonialsprachen 1:167-188. Roland C. Stevenson. 1956-57. "A survey of the phonetics and grammatical structure of the Nuba Mountains languages, with particular reference to Otoro, Katcha, and Nyimang." Afrika und Übersee 40:73-84, 93-115; 41:27-65, 117-152, 171-196. A. N. Tucker and M. A. Bryan. 1956. The Non-Bantu Languages of North-Eastern Africa. (Handbook of African Languages, Part III.) Oxford University Press: London. A. N. Tucker and M. A. Bryan. 1966. Linguistic Analyses/The Non-Bantu Languages of North-Eastern Africa. (Handbook of African Languages.) Oxford University Press: London. Lorenz Tutschek. 1848. "Über die Tumale-Sprache." Gelehrte Anzeigen, herausgegeben von Mitgliedern der k. bayer. Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nrs. 91-93; Spalten 729-52. (=Bulletin der königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nrs. 29-31.) Lorenz Tutschek. 1848-50. "On the Tumali language". Proceedings of the Philological Society for 1846-47 and 1847-48. Vol 3:239-54. Proceedings of the Philological Society for 1848-49 and 1849-50. Vol. 4:138-9. References External links Katcha-English Dictionary (one of the Kadu languages) The Nuba Mountains Homepage | Kordofanian_languages |@lemmatized kordofanian:6 language:24 geographic:1 grouping:1 three:2 five:1 family:4 speak:2 nuba:6 hill:1 kordofan:2 province:1 sudan:3 joseph:1 greenberg:1 add:1 niger:8 congo:8 create:1 proposal:1 show:2 distantly:1 relate:1 branch:3 however:2 constitute:1 valid:1 group:3 today:1 kadu:5 exclude:1 four:1 usually:1 include:1 proper:1 talodi:5 heiban:4 also:3 call:3 koalib:2 moro:1 masakin:1 closely:1 related:1 gerrit:1 dimmendaal:1 ecology:1 linguistic:2 diversity:1 african:4 continent:1 linguistics:1 compass:1 rashad:5 number:1 tegali:2 tagoi:2 varies:1 among:1 different:1 description:1 two:2 williamson:1 blench:4 ethnologue:1 eight:1 noun:3 class:3 system:3 like:1 atlantic:2 languages:3 apparently:1 borrow:1 katla:3 roger:2 note:3 characteristic:1 core:2 trace:1 ever:1 whereas:2 appear:1 acquire:1 part:2 sprachbund:1 rather:1 inherit:1 conclude:1 form:2 genealogical:1 peripheral:1 along:1 line:1 mande:1 since:1 schadeberg:6 tumtum:1 widely:1 see:1 nilo:2 saharan:2 evidence:2 slight:1 conservative:1 classification:2 would:1 treat:1 independent:1 bibliography:1 herman:1 bell:1 mountain:3 study:2 publish:1 result:1 major:1 project:1 institute:1 asian:1 survey:3 unpublished:1 evaluation:1 p:1 n:3 macdiarmid:1 mountains:2 record:1 carl:1 meinhof:1 sprachstudien:1 im:1 egyptischen:1 zeitschrift:2 für:2 kolonialsprachen:2 tagoy:1 tumale:2 tegele:1 thilo:3 c:6 sugia:2 beiheft:2 hamburg:2 helmut:2 buske:2 verlag:2 das:1 kordofanische:1 die:2 sprachen:1 afrikas:1 band:1 kordofanisch:1 ed:2 bernt:1 heine:1 ekkehard:1 wolff:1 pp:2 kadugli:1 lionel:1 bender:1 dordrecht:1 foris:1 publication:1 brenda:1 z:1 seligmann:1 nubas:1 southern:1 roland:1 stevenson:1 phonetics:1 grammatical:1 structure:1 particular:1 reference:2 otoro:1 katcha:2 nyimang:1 afrika:1 und:1 übersee:1 tucker:2 bryan:2 non:2 bantu:2 north:2 eastern:2 africa:2 handbook:2 iii:1 oxford:2 university:2 press:2 london:2 analysis:1 lorenz:2 tutschek:2 über:1 sprache:1 gelehrte:1 anzeigen:1 herausgegeben:1 von:1 mitgliedern:1 der:4 k:1 bayer:1 akademie:2 wissenschaften:2 nrs:2 spalten:1 bulletin:1 königl:1 tumali:1 proceeding:2 philological:2 society:2 vol:2 external:1 link:1 english:1 dictionary:1 one:1 homepage:1 |@bigram niger_congo:6 distantly_relate:1 closely_related:1 roger_blench:2 nilo_saharan:2 carl_meinhof:1 zeitschrift_für:2 c_schadeberg:5 hamburg_helmut:2 helmut_buske:2 buske_verlag:2 lionel_bender:1 über_die:1 akademie_der:2 der_wissenschaften:2 external_link:1 |
4,214 | Electronic_oscillator | Cross coupled LC oscillator with output on top An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave. A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates an AC waveform at a frequency below ≈20 Hz. This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator. Oscillators designed to produce a high-power AC output from a DC supply are usually called inverters. Types of electronic oscillator There are two main types of electronic oscillator: the harmonic oscillator and the relaxation oscillator. Harmonic oscillator The harmonic, or linear, oscillator produces a sinusoidal output. The basic form of a harmonic oscillator is an electronic amplifier with the output attached to an electronic filter, and the output of the filter attached to the input of the amplifier, in a feedback loop. When the power supply to the amplifier is first switched on, the amplifier's output consists only of noise. The noise travels around the loop, being filtered and re-amplified until it increasingly resembles the desired signal. A piezoelectric crystal (commonly quartz) may take the place of the filter to stabilise the frequency of oscillation, resulting in a crystal oscillator. There are many ways to implement harmonic oscillators, because there are different ways to amplify and filter. For example: Armstrong oscillator Hartley oscillator Colpitts oscillator Clapp oscillator Delay line oscillator Pierce oscillator (crystal) Phase-shift oscillator RC oscillator (Wien Bridge and "Twin-T") Cross-coupled LC oscillator Vačkář oscillator Opto-Electronic Oscillator. Relaxation oscillator The relaxation oscillator is often used to produce a non-sinusoidal output, such as a square wave or sawtooth. The oscillator contains a nonlinear component such as a transistor that periodically discharges the energy stored in a capacitor or inductor, causing abrupt changes in the output waveform. Square-wave relaxation oscillators can be used to provide the clock signal for sequential logic circuits such as timers and counters, although crystal oscillators are often preferred for their greater stability. Triangle-wave or sawtooth oscillators are used in the timebase circuits that generate the horizontal deflection signals for cathode ray tubes in analogue oscilloscopes and television sets. In function generators, this triangle wave may then be further shaped into a close approximation of a sine wave. Other types of relaxation oscillators include the multivibrator and the rotary traveling wave oscillator. See also Crystal oscillator Electronic circuit RLC circuit Voltage-controlled oscillator Injection locked oscillator Ring oscillator Opto-Electronic Oscillator External links The URL http://rubiola.org contains a bunch of information about the oscillator phase noise and frequency stability. A book is available: E. Rubiola, Phase Noise and Frequency Stability in Oscillators Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-521-88677-2. Howstuffworks: oscillator. Oscillator Oddities. Tutorial on Precision Frequency Generation. | Electronic_oscillator |@lemmatized cross:2 couple:2 lc:2 oscillator:43 output:8 top:1 electronic:11 circuit:5 produce:4 repetitive:1 signal:4 often:3 sine:2 wave:8 square:3 low:1 frequency:7 lfo:1 generate:2 ac:2 waveform:2 hz:1 term:1 typically:1 use:4 field:1 audio:2 synthesizer:1 distinguish:1 design:1 high:1 power:2 dc:1 supply:2 usually:1 call:1 inverter:1 type:3 two:1 main:1 harmonic:5 relaxation:5 linear:1 sinusoidal:2 basic:1 form:1 amplifier:4 attach:2 filter:5 input:1 feedback:1 loop:2 first:1 switch:1 consist:1 noise:4 travel:1 around:1 amplify:2 increasingly:1 resemble:1 desired:1 piezoelectric:1 crystal:5 commonly:1 quartz:1 may:2 take:1 place:1 stabilise:1 oscillation:1 result:1 many:1 way:2 implement:1 different:1 example:1 armstrong:1 hartley:1 colpitts:1 clapp:1 delay:1 line:1 pierce:1 phase:3 shift:1 rc:1 wien:1 bridge:1 twin:1 vačkář:1 opto:2 non:1 sawtooth:2 contain:2 nonlinear:1 component:1 transistor:1 periodically:1 discharge:1 energy:1 store:1 capacitor:1 inductor:1 cause:1 abrupt:1 change:1 provide:1 clock:1 sequential:1 logic:1 timer:1 counter:1 although:1 prefer:1 great:1 stability:3 triangle:2 timebase:1 horizontal:1 deflection:1 cathode:1 ray:1 tube:1 analogue:1 oscilloscope:1 television:1 set:1 function:1 generator:1 far:1 shape:1 close:1 approximation:1 include:1 multivibrator:1 rotary:1 traveling:1 see:1 also:1 rlc:1 voltage:1 control:1 injection:1 lock:1 ring:1 external:1 link:1 url:1 http:1 rubiola:2 org:1 bunch:1 information:1 book:1 available:1 e:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 howstuffworks:1 oddity:1 tutorial:1 precision:1 generation:1 |@bigram sine_wave:2 harmonic_oscillator:4 relaxation_oscillator:5 feedback_loop:1 capacitor_inductor:1 cathode_ray:1 rlc_circuit:1 external_link:1 |
4,215 | Political_status_of_the_Palestinian_territories | The Israeli Government-approved barrier route as of July 2006 The political status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip is one of the most violently disputed issues in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Various conferences and negotiations have been conducted to determine the status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip (see "Palestinian territories"). The Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements (the DOP, better known as the Oslo accords), signed in Washington on 13 September 1993, provided for a transitional period not exceeding five years of Palestinian interim self-government in sections of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to recognize the West Bank and Gaza Strip as a ''Single Territorial Unit'as well as to transfer certain powers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority, which includes the Palestinian Legislative Council elected in January 1996, as part of the interim self-governing arrangements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities for the Gaza Strip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4 May 1994 Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area. In other areas of the West Bank, transfer of powers took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28 September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997 Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23 October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharm el-Sheikh Agreement. The DOP provides that Israel will retain responsibility during the transitional period for external security and for internal security and public order of Israeli settlements and citizens. Direct negotiations to determine the permanent status of Gaza and West Bank had begun in September 1999 after a three-year hiatus, but have been derailed by the al-Aqsa Intifada that began in September 2000. In 2003, the Israeli government issued a plan for total withdrawal from the Gaza Strip and part of the northern West Bank by late 2005. This became known as the Disengagement Plan. The Palestinian Authority welcomed this plan, but declared that until final status, it would still consider the Gaza Strip under Israeli occupation. Many Israelis opposed the plan, and tensions were very high in Israel before and after the Disengagement Plan was approved by the Israeli Knesset on February 16, 2005. In June, the Israel Defense Forces and Israeli police forcibly removed all Jews in the Gaza Strip. Israel completed the disengagement on 12 September 2005. Presently, most of the West Bank is administered by Israel though 42% of it is under varying degrees of autonomous rule by the Fatah-run Palestinian Authority. The Gaza Strip is currently under the control of Hamas. See also Gaza Strip West Bank Status of territories captured by Israel West Bank Closures Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt Palestinian National Authority (PA) Proposals for a Palestinian state "Occupied vs. "Disputed" territories 1949 Armistice Agreements with Egypt 1949 Armistice Agreements with Jordan | Political_status_of_the_Palestinian_territories |@lemmatized israeli:8 government:4 approve:2 barrier:1 route:1 july:1 political:1 status:5 west:12 bank:12 gaza:14 strip:13 one:1 violently:1 dispute:2 issue:2 arab:1 conflict:1 various:1 conference:1 negotiation:2 conduct:1 determine:2 see:2 palestinian:8 territory:3 israel:12 plo:5 declaration:1 principle:1 interim:4 self:3 arrangement:2 dop:3 good:1 know:2 oslo:1 accord:1 sign:1 washington:1 september:6 provide:2 transitional:2 period:2 exceed:1 five:1 year:2 section:1 agree:1 recognize:1 single:1 territorial:1 unit:1 well:1 transfer:3 certain:1 power:3 responsibility:3 authority:4 include:1 legislative:1 council:1 elect:1 january:2 part:2 govern:1 jericho:2 take:2 place:2 pursuant:2 may:1 cairo:1 agreement:5 area:2 protocol:1 concern:1 redeployment:1 hebron:1 october:1 wye:1 river:1 memorandum:1 sharm:1 el:1 sheikh:1 retain:1 external:1 security:2 internal:1 public:1 order:1 settlement:1 citizen:1 direct:1 permanent:1 begin:2 three:1 hiatus:1 derail:1 al:1 aqsa:1 intifada:1 plan:5 total:1 withdrawal:1 northern:1 late:1 become:1 disengagement:3 welcome:1 declare:1 final:1 would:1 still:1 consider:1 occupation:3 many:1 oppose:1 tension:1 high:1 knesset:1 february:1 june:1 defense:1 force:1 police:1 forcibly:1 remove:1 jew:1 complete:1 presently:1 administer:1 though:1 vary:1 degree:1 autonomous:1 rule:1 fatah:1 run:1 currently:1 control:1 hamas:1 also:1 capture:1 closure:1 east:1 jerusalem:1 jordan:2 egypt:2 national:1 pa:1 proposal:1 state:1 occupy:1 v:1 armistice:2 |@bigram gaza_strip:13 sharm_el:1 al_aqsa:1 aqsa_intifada:1 disengagement_plan:2 |
4,216 | Helium-3 | This article is about the elemental isotope. For the record label Helium 3, see Muse or A&E Records. Helium-3 (He-3) is a light, non-radioactive isotope of helium with two protons and one neutron, rare on Earth, sought for use in nuclear fusion research. The abundance of helium-3 is thought to be greater on the Moon (embedded in the upper layer of regolith by the solar wind over billions of years) and the solar system's gas giants (left over from the original solar nebula), though still low in quantity (28 ppm of lunar regolith is helium-4 and 0.01 ppm is helium-3). http://www.moonminer.com/Lunar_regolith.html, The estimation of helium-3 probable reserves in lunar regolith It is proposed to be used as a second-generation fusion power source. The helion, the nucleus of a helium-3 atom, consists of two protons but only one neutron, in contrast to two neutrons in ordinary helium. Its existence was first proposed in 1934 by the Australian nuclear physicist Mark Oliphant while based at Cambridge University's Cavendish Laboratory, in an experiment in which fast deuterons were reacted with other deuteron targets (the first demonstration of nuclear fusion). Helium-3, as an isotope, was postulated to be radioactive, until helions from it were accidentally identified as a trace "contaminant" in a sample of natural helium (which is mostly helium-4) from a gas well, by Luis W. Alvarez and Robert Cornog in a cyclotron experiment at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, in 1939. Lawrence and His Laboratory: Episode: A Productive Error Physical properties Due to the lower atomic mass of Helium-3 (3.0160293 amu), it has significantly different properties from Helium-4 (4.0026 amu). Because of the weak induced dipole-dipole interaction between helium atoms, their physical properties are mainly determined by zero point energy (groundstate kinetic energy), and lower mass of Helium-3 causes it to have higher zero point energy, which means Helium-3 can overcome dipole-dipole interaction with less thermal energy than Helium-4. Helium-3 boils at 3.19 kelvin compared to helium-4's 4.23 K, and its critical point is also lower at 3.35 K, compared to helium-4's 5.19 K. It has less than half the density when liquid at its boiling point: 0.059 g/ml compared to helium-4's 0.12473 g/ml at one atmosphere. Its latent heat of vaporization is also considerably lower at 0.026 kJ/mol compared to helium-4's 0.0829 kJ/mol. Teragon's Summary of Cryogen Properties Teragon Research, 2005 Thermodynamic properties Equations of state for 3He are available along the vapor-liquid equilibrium line, Huang Y.H., Chen G.B., Li X.Y. Arp V.D. Density equation for saturated 3He. Int. J. Thermophys., 2005, 26:1-13. Huang Y.H., Chen G.B. A practical vapor pressure equation for helium-3 from 0.01 K to the critical point. Cryogenics, 2006, 46(12): 833-839. the liquid-solid equilibrium line, Huang Y.H., Chen G.B. Melting-pressure and density equations of 3He at temperatures from 0.001 to 30 K. Phys. Rev. B, 2005, 72(18):184513. and the normal compressed liquid and gas phases. Huang Y.H., Chen G.B., and Arp V.D. Debye equation of state for fluid helium-3, J. Chem. Phys., 2006, 125: 1-10. Fusion reactions + Fusion reactions involving Helium-3 Reactants Products Q First Generation Fuels 21H + 21H → 32He + 10n 3.268 MeV 21H + 21H → 31H + 11p 4.032 MeV 21H + 31H → 42He + 10n 17.571 MeV Second Generation Fuel 21H + 32He → 42He + 11p 18.354 MeV Third Generation Fuel 32He + 32He → 42He+ 211p 12.86 MeV Some fusion processes produce highly energetic neutrons which render reactor components radioactive through the continuous bombardment of the reactor's components with emitted neutrons. Because of this bombardment and irradiation, power generation must occur indirectly through thermal means, as in a fission reactor. However, the appeal of helium-3 fusion stems from the nature of its reaction products. Helium-3 itself is non-radioactive. The lone high-energy by-product, the proton can be contained using electric and magnetic fields. The momentum energy of this proton (created in the fusion process), will interact with the containing electromagnetic field; resulting in direct net electricity generation. However, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, side reactions (21H + 21H and 32He+ 32He) will occur, the first of which is not aneutronic. Therefore in practice this reaction is unlikely to ever be completely 'clean', thus negating some of its attraction. Also, due to the higher Coulomb barrier, the temperatures required for 21H + 32He fusion are much higher than those of conventional 2H + 31H (deuterium + tritium) fusion. The amounts of helium-3 needed as a replacement for conventional fuels should not be underestimated. The total amount of energy produced in the 21H + 32He reaction is 18.4 MeV, which corresponds to some 493 megawatt-hours (4.93x108 Wh) per three grams (one mole) of ³He. Even if that total amount of energy could be converted to electrical power with 100% efficiency (a physical impossibility), it would correspond to about 30 minutes of output of a thousand-megawatt electrical plant; a year's production by the same plant would require some 17.5 kilograms of helium-3. The amount of fuel needed for large-scale applications can also be put in terms of total consumption: According to the US Energy Information Administration, "Electricity consumption by 107 million U.S. households in 2001 totaled 1,140 billion kWh" (1.14x1015 Wh). Again assuming 100% conversion efficiency, 6.7 tons of helium-3 would be required just for that segment of one country's energy demand, 15 to 20 tonnes given a more realistic end-to-end conversion efficiency. Neutron detection Helium-3 is a most important isotope in instrumentation for neutron detection. It has a high absorption cross section for thermal neutron beams and is used as a converter gas in neutron detectors. The neutron is converted through the nuclear reaction n + 3He → 3H + 1H + 0.764 MeV into charged particles tritium (T, 3H) and proton (p, 1H) which then are detected by creating a charge cloud in the stopping gas of a proportional counter or a Geiger-Müller tube. A Modular Neutron Detector | Summer 2003| Los Alamos National Laboratory Furthermore, the absorption process is strongly spin-dependent, which allows a spin-polarized helium-3 volume to transmit neutrons with one spin component while absorbing the other. This effect is employed in neutron polarization analysis, a technique which probes for magnetic properties of matter. NCNR Neutron Spin Filters Polarization Analysis using Polarized 3He Cryogenics A helium-3 refrigerator uses helium-3 to achieve temperatures of 0.2 to 0.3 kelvin. A dilution refrigerator uses a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 to reach cryogenic temperatures as low as a few thousandths of a kelvin. Dilution Refrigeration An important property of helium-3, which distinguishes it from the more common helium-4, is that its nucleus is a fermion since it contains an odd number of spin 1/2 particles. Helium-4 nuclei are bosons, containing an even number of spin 1/2 particles. This is a direct result of the addition rules for quantized angular momentum. At low temperatures (about 2.17 K), helium-4 undergoes a phase transition: A fraction of it enters a superfluid phase that can be roughly understood as a type of Bose-Einstein condensate. Such a mechanism is not available for helium-3 atoms, which are fermions. However, it was widely speculated that helium-3 could also become a superfluid at much lower temperatures, if the atoms formed into pairs analogous to Cooper pairs in the BCS theory of superconductivity. Each Cooper pair, having integer spin, can be thought of as a boson. During the 1970s, David Lee, Douglas Osheroff and Robert Coleman Richardson discovered two phase transitions along the melting curve, which was soon realized to be the two superfluid phases of helium-3. The transition to a superfluid occurs at 2.491 millikelvins on the melting curve. They were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery. Tony Leggett won the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on refining understanding of the superfluid phase of helium-3. In zero magnetic field, there are two distinct superfluid phases of 3He, the A-phase and the B-phase. The B-phase is the low-temperature, low-pressure phase which has an isotropic energy gap. The A-phase is the higher temperature, higher pressure phase that is further stabilized by a magnetic field and has two point nodes in its gap. The presence of two phases is a clear indication that 3He is an unconventional superfluid (superconductor), since the presence of two phases requires an additional symmetry, other than gauge symmetry, to be broken. In fact, it is a p-wave superfluid, with spin one, S=1, and angular momentum one, L=1. The ground state corresponds to total angular momentum zero, J=S+L=0 (vector addition). Excited states are possible with non-zero total angular momentum, J>0, which are excited pair collective modes. Because of the extreme purity of superfluid 3He (since all materials except 4He have solidified and sunk to the bottom of the liquid 3He and any 4He has phase separated entirely, this is the most pure condensed matter state), these collective modes have been studied with much greater precision than in any other unconventional pairing system. Manufacturing Due to the rarity of helium-3 on Earth, it is typically manufactured instead of recovered from natural deposits. Helium-3 is a byproduct of tritium decay, and tritium can be produced through neutron bombardment of lithium, boron, or nitrogen targets. Current supplies of helium-3 come, in part, from the dismantling of nuclear weapons where it accumulates; http://afci.lanl.gov/aptnews/aptnews.mar1_98.html approximately 150 kilograms of it have resulted from decay of US tritium production since 1955, most of which was for warheads. IEER: Science for Democratic Action Vol. 5 No. 1 However, the production and storage of huge amounts of the gas tritium is probably uneconomical, as tritium must be produced at the same rate as helium-3, and roughly eighteen times as much of tritium stock is required as the amount of helium-3 produced annually by decay (production rate dN/dt from number of moles or other unit mass of tritium N is N γ = N * [ln2/t½] where the value of t½/(ln2) is about 18 years; see radioactive decay). If commercial fusion reactors were to use helium-3 as a fuel, they would require tens of tons of helium-3 each year to produce a fraction of the world's power, implying the same amount of tritium production, and 18 times this much total tritium stock. Wittenberg 1994 Breeding tritium with lithium-6 consumes the neutron, while breeding with lithium-7 produces a low energy neutron as a replacement for the consumed fast neutron. Note that any breeding of tritium on Earth requires the use of a high neutron flux, which proponents of helium-3 nuclear reactors hope to avoid. Abundance Solar nebula (primordial) abundance One early estimate of the primordial ratio of 3He to 4He in the solar nebula has been the measurement of their ratio in the atmosphere of Jupiter, measured by mass spectrometer of the Galileo atmospheric entry probe. This ratio is about 1:10,000 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996Sci...272..846N , or 100 parts of 3He per million parts of 4He. Terrestrial abundance 3He is a primordial substance in the Earth's mantle, considered to have become entrapped within the Earth during planetary formation. The ratio of 3He to 4He within the Earth's crust and mantle is less than that for assumptions of solar disk composition as obtained from meteorite and lunar samples, with terrestrial materials generally containing lower 3He/4He ratios due to ingrowth of 4He from radioactive decay. 3He is present within the mantle, in the ratio of 200-300 parts of 3He to a million parts of 4He. Ratios of 3He/4He in excess of atmospheric are indicative of a contribution of 3He from the mantle. Crustal sources are dominated by the 4He which is produced by the decay of radioactive elements in the crust and mantle. The ratio of Helium-3 to Helium-4 in natural Earth-bound sources varies greatly. Aldrich, L.T.; Nier, Alfred O. Phys. Rev. 74, 1590 - 1594 (1948). The Occurrence of He3 in Natural Sources of Helium. Page 1592, Tables I and II. Holden, Normen E. 1993. Helium Isotopic Abundance Variation in Nature. copy of paper BNL-49331 "Table II. 3He Abundance of Natural Gas ... 3He in ppm ... Aldrich 0.05 - 0.5 ... Sano 0.46 - 22.7", "Table V. ... of Water ... 3He in ppm ... 1.6 - 1.8 East Pacific ... 0.006 - 1.5 Manitoba Chalk River ... 164 Japan Sea" (Aldrich measured Helium from US wells, Sano that of Taiwan gas ) Samples of the ore Spodumene from Edison Mine, South Dakota were found to contain 12 parts of He-3 to a million parts of Helium-4. Samples from other mines showed 2 parts per million. Helium is also present as up to 7% of some natural gas sources, WebElements Periodic Table: Professional Edition: Helium: key information and large sources have over 0.5 percent (above 0.2 percent makes it viable to extract). Smith, D.M. "any concentration of helium above approximately 0.2 percent is considered worthwhile examining" ... "U.S. government still owns approximately 1 billion nm3 of helium inventory", "Middle East and North Africa ... many very large, helium-rich (up to 0.5 percent) natural gas fields" (nm is "Normal cubic metre") Algeria's annual gas production is assumed to contain 100 million Nm3 and this would contain between 5 and 50 Nm3 of Helium-3 (about 1 to 10 kilograms) using the normal abundance range of 0.5 to 5 ppm. Similarly the US 2002 stockpile of 1 billion Nm3 would have contained about 10 to 100 kilograms of He-3. 3He is also present in the Earth's atmosphere. The natural abundance of 3He in naturally occurring helium gas is 1.38 (1.38 parts per million). The partial pressure of helium in the Earth's atmosphere is about 4 millitorr, and thus helium accounts for 5.2 parts per million of the total pressure (760 torr) in the Earth's atmosphere, and 3He thus accounts for 7.2 parts per trillion of the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere of the Earth has a mass of about 5.14 x 1015metric tons, The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses the mass of 3He in the Earth's atmosphere is the product of these numbers, or 37,000 tons of 3He. 3He is produced on Earth from three sources: lithium spallation, cosmic rays, and decay of tritium (3H). The contribution from cosmic rays is negligible within all except the oldest regolith materials, and lithium spallation reactions are a lesser contributor than the production of 4He by alpha particle emissions. The total amount of helium-3 in the mantle may be in the range of 100 thousand to a million tonnes. However, this mantle helium is not directly accessible. Some of it leaks up through deep-sourced hotspot volcanoes such as those of the Hawaiian islands, but only 300 grams per year is emitted to the atmosphere. Mid-ocean ridges emit another 3 kilogram per year. Around subduction zones, various sources produce helium-3 in natural gas deposits which possibly contain a thousand tonnes of helium-3 (although there may be 25 thousand tonnes if all ancient subduction zones have such deposits). Wittenberg estimated that United States crustal natural gas sources may have only half a tonne total. Wittenberg 1994 Page 3, Table 1. Page 9. Wittenberg cited Anderson's estimate of another 1200 metric tonnes in interplanetary dust particles on the ocean floors. Wittenberg 1994 Page A-1 citing Anderson 1993, "1200 metric tone" In the 1994 study, extracting helium-3 from these sources consumes more energy than fusion would release. Wittenberg 1994 Page A-4 "1 kg (3He), pumping power would be 1.13x10^6MYyr ... fusion power derived ... 19 MWyr" Wittenberg also writes that extraction from US crustal natural gas, consumes ten times the energy available from fusion reactions. Wittenberg 1994 Page A-4 using Table 1 page A-5 of US crustal natural gas Medical lung imaging Polarized helium-3 may be produced directly with lasers of the appropriate power, and with a thin layer of protective Cs metal on the inside of cylinders, the magnetized gas may be stored at pressures of 10 atm for up to 100 hours. When inhaled, mixtures containing the gas can be imaged with an MRI-like scanner which produces breath by breath images of lung ventilation, in real-time. Applications of this experimental technique are just beginning to be explored. Take a deep breath of nuclear spin - CERN Courier Extraterrestrial supplies The Moon's surface contains helium-3 at concentrations on the order of 0.01 ppm. FTI Research Projects :: 3He Lunar Mining A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986, have proposed to explore the moon, mine lunar regolith and using the helium-3 for fusion. Because of the low concentrations of helium-3, any mining equipment would need to process extremely large amounts of regolith (over 100 million tons of regolith to obtain one ton of helium 3), Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics Technical Report WCSAR-TR-AR3-9311-2. and some proposals have suggested that helium-3 extraction be piggybacked onto a larger mining and development operation. The primary objective of Indian Space Research Organization's first lunar probe called Chandrayaan-I, launched on October 22, 2008, was reported in some sources to be mapping the Moon's surface for helium-3-containing minerals. However, this is debatable; no such objective is mentioned in the project's official list of goals, while at the same time, many of its scientific payloads have noted helium-3-related applications. http://www.isro.org/chandrayaan/htmls/objective_scientific.htm http://luna-ci.blogspot.com/2008/11/chandrayaan-1-payload-feature-2-sub-kev.html Cosmochemist and geochemist Ouyang Ziyuan from the Chinese Academy of Sciences who is now in charge of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program has already stated on many occasions that one of the main goals of the program would be the mining of helium-3, from which operation "each year three space shuttle missions could bring enough fuel for all human beings across the world." He asked for the moon-and got it In January 2006, the Russian space company RKK Energiya announced that it considers lunar helium-3 a potential economic resource to be mined by 2020, SPACE.com - Russian Rocket Builder Aims for Moon Base by 2015, Reports Say if funding can be found. Mining gas giants for helium-3 has also been proposed. NASA Technical Memorandum 2006-214122. AIAA–2005–4319. Prepared for the 41st Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit cosponsored by AIAA, ASME, SAE, and ASEE, Tucson, Arizona, July 10–13, 2005. The British Interplanetary Society's hypothetical Project Daedalus interstellar probe design was fueled by helium-3 mines in the atmosphere of Jupiter, for example. Jupiter's high gravity makes this a less energetically favorable operation than extracting helium-3 from the other gas giants of the solar system, however. Power generation A second-generation approach to controlled fusion power involves combining helium-3 (32He) and deuterium (21H). This reaction produces a helium-4 ion (42He) (like an alpha particle, but of different origin) and a high-energy proton (positively charged hydrogen ion) (11p). The most important potential advantage of this fusion reaction for power production as well as other applications lies in its compatibility with the use of electrostatic fields to control fuel ions and the fusion protons. Protons, as positively charged particles, can be converted directly into electricity, through use of solid-state conversion materials as well as other techniques. Potential conversion efficiencies of 70 percent may be possible, as there is no need to convert proton energy to heat in order to drive turbine-powered Electrical generator. There have been many claims about the capabilities of Helium-3 power plants. According to proponents, fusion power plants operating on deuterium and helium-3 would offer lower capital and operating costs than their competitors due to less technical complexity, higher conversion efficiency, smaller size, the absence of radioactive fuel, no air or water pollution, and only low-level radioactive waste disposal requirements. Recent estimates suggest that about $6 billion in investment capital will be required to develop and construct the first helium-3 fusion power plant. Financial breakeven at today's wholesale electricity prices (5 US cents per kilowatt-hour) would occur after five 1000-megawatt plants were on line, replacing old conventional plants or meeting new demand. The reality is not so clean-cut. The most advanced fusion programs in the world are inertial confinement fusion (such as National Ignition Facility) and magnetic confinement fusion (such as ITER and other tokamaks). In the case of the former, there is no solid roadmap to power generation. In the case of the latter, commercial power generation is not expected until around 2050. In both cases, the type of fusion discussed is the simplest: D-T fusion. The reason for this is the very low Coulomb barrier for this reaction; for D+He-3, the barrier is much higher, and He-3–He-3 higher still. The immense cost of reactors like ITER and National Ignition Facility are largely due to their immense size, yet to scale up to higher plasma temperatures would require reactors far larger still. The 14.7 MeV proton and 3.6 MeV alpha particle from D–He-3 fusion, plus the higher conversion efficiency, means that more electricity is obtained per kilogram than with D-T fusion (17.6 MeV), but not that much more. As a further downside, the rates of reaction for He-3 fusion reactions are not particularly high, requiring a reactor that is larger still or more reactors to produce the same amount of electricity. To attempt to work around this problem of massively large power plants that may not even be economical with D-T fusion, let alone the far more challenging D–He-3 fusion, a number of other reactors have been proposed -- the Fusor, Polywell, Focus fusion, and many more. These generally attempt to achieve fusion in thermal disequilibrium, something that could potentially prove impossible, and consequently, these long-shot programs tend to have trouble garnering funding despite their low budgets. Unlike the "big", "hot" fusion systems, however, if such systems were to work, they could scale to the higher barrier "aneutronic" fuels. However, these systems would scale well enough that their proponents tend to promote p-B fusion, which requires no exotic fuels like He-3. See also Moon Notes and references External links The Nobel Prize in Physics 2003, presentation speech Moon for Sale: A BBC Horizon Documentary on the possibility of Lunar mining for Helium-3 | Helium-3 |@lemmatized article:1 elemental:1 isotope:4 record:2 label:1 helium:92 see:3 muse:1 e:2 light:1 non:3 radioactive:9 two:9 proton:10 one:11 neutron:19 rare:1 earth:13 seek:1 use:14 nuclear:7 fusion:34 research:4 abundance:8 think:2 great:2 moon:8 embed:1 upper:1 layer:2 regolith:7 solar:7 wind:1 billion:5 year:7 system:6 gas:20 giant:3 leave:1 original:1 nebula:3 though:1 still:5 low:17 quantity:1 ppm:6 lunar:9 http:5 www:2 moonminer:1 com:3 html:4 estimation:1 probable:1 reserve:1 propose:5 second:3 generation:10 power:16 source:12 helion:1 nucleus:3 atom:4 consist:1 contrast:1 ordinary:1 existence:1 first:6 australian:1 physicist:1 mark:1 oliphant:1 base:2 cambridge:1 university:1 cavendish:1 laboratory:4 experiment:2 fast:2 deuteron:2 react:1 target:2 demonstration:1 postulate:1 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4,217 | Native_Americans_in_the_United_States | Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States, including parts of Alaska and the island state of Hawaii. They comprise a large number of distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as intact political communities. There has been a wide range of terms used to describe them and no consensus has been reached among indigenous members as to what they collectively prefer to be called. Native Americans have also been known as Indians, American Indians, Aboriginal Americans, Amerindians, Amerinds, Colored, First Americans, Indigenous, Original Americans, Red Indians, or Red Men. Ideologies clashed, Old World diseases ravaged, religious institutions challenged, and technologies were exchanged in what would be one of the greatest meetings of cultures in the history of the world. European colonization of the Americas led to centuries of conflict and adjustment between Old and New World societies. Most of the written historical record about Native Americans was made by Europeans after initial contact. Native Americans lived in hunter/farmer subsistence societies with significantly different value systems than those of the European colonists. The differences in culture between the Native Americans and Europeans, and the shifting alliances among different nations of each culture, led to great misunderstandings and long-lasting cultural conflicts. After the colonies revolted against the United Kingdom and established the United States of America, the ideology of Manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. In the late 18th century, George Washington and Henry Knox conceived of the idea of "civilizing" Native Americans in preparation of American citizenship. Assimilation, (whether voluntary as with the Choctaw, or forced) became a consistent policy through American administrations. In the early decades of the 19th century, Native Americans of the American Deep South were removed from their homelands to accommodate American expansion. By the American Civil War, many Native American nations had been relocated west of the Mississippi River. Major Native American resistance took place in the form of "Indian Wars," which were frequent up until the 1890s. Native Americans today have a unique relationship with the United States of America. They can be found as members of nations, tribes, or bands of Native Americans who have sovereignty or independence from the government of the United States. Their societies and cultures still flourish amidst a larger immigrated American populace of African, Asian, Middle Eastern, and European peoples. Native Americans, who were not already U.S. citizens, were granted citizenship in 1924 by the Congress of the United States. History Pre-Columbian According to the still-debated New World migration model, a migration of humans from Eurasia to the Americas took place via Beringia, a land bridge which formerly connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait. The minimum time depth by which this migration had taken place is confirmed at c. 12,000 years ago, with the upper bound (or earliest period) remaining a matter of some unresolved contention. See Jacobs 2001 for an extensive review of the evidence for migration timings, and Jacobs 2002 for a survey of migration models. These early Paleoamericans soon spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. Jacobs (2002). According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living there since their genesis, described by a wide range of traditional creation accounts. European explorations After 1492 European exploration of the Americas revolutionized how the Old and New Worlds perceived themselves. One of the first major contacts, in what would be called the American Deep South, occurred when conquistador Juan Ponce de León landed in La Florida in April of 1513. Ponce de León was later followed by other Spanish explorers, such as Pánfilo de Narváez in 1528 and Hernando de Soto in 1539. Discovery of the Mississippi by William Henry Powell (1823–1879) is a Romantic depiction of de Soto seeing the Mississippi River for the first time. It hangs in the United States Capitol rotunda. From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Native Americans declined in the following ways: epidemic diseases brought from Europe; Genocide and warfare The Wild Frontier: Atrocities During the American-Indian War at the hands of European explorers and colonists; displacement from their lands; internal warfare, Native Americans - Huron Tribe enslavement; and a high rate of intermarriage. "Indian Mixed-Blood", Frederick W. Hodge, Handbook of American Indians, 1906 Minority Politics in Albuquerque - History Most mainstream scholars believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives because of their lack of immunity to new diseases brought from Europe. Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge Epidemics The Story Of... Smallpox—and other Deadly Eurasian Germs With the rapid declines of some populations and continuing rivalries among their own nations, Native Americans sometimes re-organized to form new cultural groups. European explorers and settlers brought infectious diseases to North America against which the Native Americans had no natural immunity. Chicken pox and measles, though common and rarely fatal among Europeans, often proved deadly to Native Americans. Smallpox proved particularly deadly to Native American populations. Native American History and Cultures, http://www.meredith.edu/nativeam/setribes.htm Susan Squires and John Kincheloe, syllabus for HIS 943A, Meredith College, 2005, accessed September 19, 2006 Epidemics often immediately followed European exploration and sometimes destroyed entire village populations. While precise figures are difficult to determine, some historians estimate that up to 80% of some Native populations died due to European diseases after first contact. Greg Lange,"Smallpox epidemic ravages Native Americans on the northwest coast of North America in the 1770s", HistoryLink.org, Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History, 23 January 2003, accessed 2 June 2008 One theory of Columbian exchange suggests explorers from the Christopher Columbus expedition contracted syphilis from indigenous peoples and carried it back to Europe, where it spread widely. Other researchers believe that the disease existed in Europe and Asia before Columbus and his men returned from exposure to indigenous peoples of the Americas, but that they brought back a more virulent form. (See Syphilis.) In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans. David A. Koplow, Smallpox: The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge Historians believe Mohawk Native Americans were infected after contact with children of Dutch traders in Albany in 1634. The disease swept through Mohawk villages, reaching Native Americans at Lake Ontario in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679, as it was carried by Mohawks and other Native Americans who traveled the trading routes. M. Paul Keesler, "Dutch Children's Disease Kills Thousands of Mohawks", Mohawk: Discovering the Valley of the Crystals, 2004, accessed 2 June 2008 The high rate of fatalities caused breakdowns in Native American societies and disrupted generational exchanges of culture. Similarly, after initial direct contact with European explorers in the 1770s, smallpox rapidly killed at least 30% of Northwest Coast Native Americans. For the next 80 to 100 years, smallpox and other diseases devastated native populations in the region. Puget Sound area populations once as high as 37,000 were reduced to only 9,000 survivors by the time settlers arrived en masse in the mid-19th century. Greg Lange,["Smallpox epidemic ravages Native Americans on the northwest coast of North America in the 1770s", 23 January 2003, HistoryLink.org], The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History, accessed 9 August 2008 Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians. "The first smallpox epidemic on the Canadian Plains: In the fur-traders' words", National Institutes of Health Mountain Man Plain Indian Fur Trade By 1832, the federal government established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832). It was the first program created to address a health problem of American Indians. Review of J. Diane Pearson, "Lewis Cass and the Politics of Disease: The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832", Project Muse, Johns Hopkins University "The Politics of Sovereignty",Wicazo Sa Review: Vol. 18, No. 2, (Autumn, 2003), pp. 9–35, In the sixteenth century Spaniards and other Europeans brought horses to the Americas. The reintroduction of horses resulted in benefits to Native Americans. As they adopted the animals, they began to change their cultures in substantial ways, especially by extending their ranges. Some of the horses escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. (Horses had originated naturally in North America and migrated westward via the Bering Land Bridge to Asia. The early American horse was game for the earliest humans and was hunted to extinction about 7,000 BC, just after the end of the last glacial period.) The re-introduction of the horse to North America had a profound impact on Native American culture of the Great Plains. The tribes trained and used the horses to ride and to carry packs or pull travois, to expand their territories markedly, more easily exchange goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily hunt game. They fully incorporated the use of horses into their societies, including using the horses to conduct warring raids. Foundations for freedom Treaty of Penn with Indians by Benjamin West painted in 1827. For some Europeans, Native American societies reminded them of a conception of a golden age known to them only in folk history. The political theorist Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote that the idea of freedom and democratic ideals was born in the Americas because "it was only in America" that Europeans from 1500 to 1776 knew of societies that were "truly free." The Iroquois nations' political confederacy and democratic government have been credited as influences on the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. Historians debate how much the colonists borrowed from existing Native American forms. Several founding fathers had contact with Native American leaders and had learned about their style of government. Prominent figures such as Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin were more involved with their stronger and larger native neighbor—the Iroquois. Colonials revolt Yamacraw Creek Native Americans meet with the Trustee of the colony of Georgia in England, July 1734, Notice the Native American boy (in a blue coat) and woman (in a red dress) in European clothing. During the American Revolution, the newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for the allegiance of Native American nations east of the Mississippi River. Most Native Americans who joined the struggle sided with the British, hoping to use the American Revolutionary War to halt further colonial expansion onto Native American land. Many native communities were divided over which side to support in the war. The first native community to sign a treaty with the new United States Government was the Lenape. For the Iroquois Confederacy, the American Revolution resulted in civil war. The only Iroquois tribe to ally with the colonials were the Onondaga. Frontier warfare during the American Revolution was particularly brutal, and numerous atrocities were committed by settlers and native tribes alike. Noncombatants suffered greatly during the war. Military expeditions on each side destroyed villages and food supplies to reduce the ability of people to fight, as in frequent raids in the Mohawk Valley and western New York. Wyoming Massacre, Encyclopædia Britannica The largest of these expeditions was the Sullivan Expedition of 1779, in which American colonial troops destroyed more than 40 Iroquois villages to neutralize Iroquois raids in upstate New York. The expedition failed to have the desired effect: Native American activity became even more determined. The British made peace with the Americans in the Treaty of Paris (1783), through which they ceded vast Native American territories to the United States without informing the Native Americans, leading immediately to the Northwest Indian War. The United States initially treated the Native Americans who had fought with the British as a conquered people who had lost their lands. Although many of the Iroquois tribes went to Canada with the Loyalists, others tried to stay in New York and western territories and tried to maintain their lands. Nonetheless, the state of New York made a separate treaty with Iroquois and put up for sale of land that had previously been their territory. The state established a reservation near Syracuse for the Onondagas who had been allies of the colonists. The United States was eager to expand, to develop farming and settlements in new areas, and to satisfy land hunger of settlers from New England and new immigrants. The national government initially sought to purchase Native American land by treaties. The states and settlers were frequently at odds with this policy. Wilcomb E. Washburn, "Indians and the American Revolution", AmericanRevolution.org, History Channel Network, accessed February 23, 2006. Transmuted Native America Benjamin Hawkins, seen here on his plantation, teaches Creek Native Americans how to use European technology. Painted in 1805. European nations sent Native Americans (sometimes against their will) to the Old World as objects of curiosity. They often entertained royalty and were sometimes prey to commercial purposes. Christianization of Native Americans was a charted purpose for some European colonies. United States policy toward Native Americans had continued to evolve after the American Revolution. George Washington and Henry Knox believed that Native Americans were equals but that their society was inferior. Washington formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing" process. Washington had a six-point plan for civilization which included, 1. impartial justice toward Native Americans 2. regulated buying of Native American lands 3. promotion of commerce 4. promotion of experiments to civilize or improve Native American society 5. presidential authority to give presents 6. punishing those who violated Native American rights. Robert Remini, a historian, wrote that "once the Indians adopted the practice of private property, built homes, farmed, educated their children, and embraced Christianity, these Native Americans would win acceptance from white Americans." The United States appointed agents, like Benjamin Hawkins, to live among the Native Americans and to teach them how to live like whites. Assimilation Portrait of Native Americans from the Cherokee, Cheyenne, Choctaw, Comanche, Iroquois, and Muscogee tribes in American attire. Photos dates from 1868 to 1924. In the late eighteenth century, reformers starting with Washington and Knox, The Great Confusion in Indian Affairs: Native Americans and Whites in the Progressive Era, Tom Holm, http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/exholgre.html supported educating native children, in efforts to "civilize" or otherwise assimilate Native Americans to the larger society (as opposed to relegating them to reservations). The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 promoted this civilization policy by providing funding to societies (mostly religious) who worked on Native American improvement. After the American Civil War and Indian wars in the late 19th century, Native American boarding schools were established, which were often run primarily by or affiliated with Christian missionaries. At this time American society thought that Indian children needed to be acculturated to the general society. The boarding school experience often proved traumatic to Native American children, who were forbidden to speak their native languages, taught Christianity and denied the right to practice their native religions, and in numerous other ways forced to abandon their Native American identities and adopt European-American culture. There were documented cases of sexual, physical and mental abuse occurring at these schools. Native Americans as American citizens In 1857, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney expressed that since Native Americans were "free and independent people" that they could become U.S. citizens. Taney asserted that Native Americans could be naturalized and join the "political community" of the United States. The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans. Prior to the passage of the act, nearly two-thirds of Native Americans were already U.S. citizens. The earliest recorded date of Native Americans' becoming U.S. citizens was in 1831 when the Mississippi Choctaw became citizens after the United States Legislature ratified the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. Under article XIV of that treaty, any Choctaw who elected not to move with the Choctaw Nation could become an American citizen when he registered and if he stayed on designated lands for five years after treaty ratification. Through the years, Native Americans became US citizens by: 1. Treaty provision (as with the Mississippi Choctaw) 2. Registration and land allotment under the Dawes Act of February 8, 1887 3. Issuance of Patent in Fee Simple 4. Adopting Habits of Civilized Life 5. Minor Children 6. Citizenship by Birth 7. Becoming Soldiers and Sailors in the U.S. Armed Forces 8. Marriage to a US citizen 9. Special Act of Congress. American expansion justification Native Americans flee from the allegorical representation of Manifest Destiny, Columbia, painted in 1872 by John Gast In July 1845, the New York newspaper editor John L. O’Sullivan coined the phrase “Manifest Destiny,” to explain how the "design of Providence" supported the territorial expansion of the United States. Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, Robert Tignor, Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, Suzanne Marchand, Gyan Prakash, Michael Tsin, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, 2000, pg. 274 Manifest Destiny had serious consequences for Native Americans since continental expansion implicitly meant the occupation of Native American land. Manifest Destiny was an explanation or justification for expansion and westward movement, or, in some interpretations, an ideology or doctrine which helped to promote the process of civilization. Advocates of Manifest Destiny believed that expansion was not only good, but that it was obvious and certain. The term was first used primarily by Jacksonian Democrats in the 1840s to promote the annexation of much of what is now the Western United States (the Oregon Territory, the Texas Annexation, and the Mexican Cession). The age of Manifest Destiny, which came to be known as "Indian Removal", gained ground. Although some humanitarian advocates of removal believed that Native Americans would be better off moving away from whites, an increasing number of Americans regarded the natives as nothing more than "savages" who stood in the way of American expansion. Thomas Jefferson believed that while Native Americans were the intellectual equals of whites, they had to live like the whites or inevitably be pushed aside by them. Jefferson's belief, rooted in Enlightenment thinking, that whites and Native Americans would merge to create a single nation did not last, and he began to believe that the natives should emigrate across the Mississippi River and maintain a separate society. Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 In 1871 Congress added a rider to the Indian Appropriations Act ending United States recognition of additional Indian tribes or independent nations, and prohibiting additional treaties. Resistance Tecumseh was the Shawnee leader of Tecumseh's War who attempted to organize an alliance of Native American tribes throughout North America. Past Notable Native Americans U.S. government authorities entered into numerous treaties during this period but later violated many for various reasons. Other treaties were considered "living" documents whose terms could be altered. Major conflicts east of the Mississippi River include the Pequot War, Creek War, and Seminole Wars. Notably, a multi-tribal army led by Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, fought a number of engagements during the period 1811-12, known as Tecumseh's War. In the latter stages, Tecumseh's group allied with the British forces in the War of 1812 and was instrumental in the conquest of Detroit. St. Clair's Defeat (1791) was the worst U.S. Army defeat by Native Americans in U.S. history. Native American Nations west of the Mississippi were numerous and were the last to submit to U.S. authority. Conflicts generally known as "Indian Wars" broke out between American government and Native American societies. The Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) was one of the greatest Native American victories. Defeats included the Creek War of 1813-14, the Sioux Uprising of 1862, the Sand Creek Massacre (1864) and Wounded Knee in 1890. Ralph K. Andrist. MASSACRE!, American Heritage, April 1962 These conflicts were catalysts to the decline of dominant Native American culture. Removals and reservations The Trail of Tears, painted by Robert Lindneux in 1942 In the nineteenth century, the incessant westward expansion of the United States incrementally compelled large numbers of Native Americans to resettle further west, often by force, almost always reluctantly. Native Americans believed this forced relocation illegal, given the Hopewell Treaty of 1785. Under President Andrew Jackson, United States Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the President to conduct treaties to exchange Native American land east of the Mississippi River for lands west of the river. As many as 100,000 Native Americans relocated to the West as a result of this Indian Removal policy. In theory, relocation was supposed to be voluntary and many Native Americans did remain in the East. In practice, great pressure was put on Native American leaders to sign removal treaties. The most egregious violation of the stated intention of the removal policy took place under the Treaty of New Echota, which was signed by a dissident faction of Cherokees but not the elected leadership. President Jackson rigidly enforced the treaty, which resulted in the deaths of an estimated 4,000 Cherokees on the Trail of Tears. About 17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 enslaved blacks held by Cherokees, were removed from their homes. Carter (III), Samuel (1976). Cherokee sunset: A nation betrayed : a narrative of travail and triumph, persecution and exile. New York: Doubleday, p. 232. Native American Removal forced or coerced the relocation of major Native American groups in the Eastern United States, resulting directly and indirectly in the deaths of tens of thousands. Tribes were generally located to reservations where they could more easily be separated from traditional life and pushed into European-American society. Some southern states additionally enacted laws in the 19th century forbidding non-Native American settlement on Native American lands, with the intention to prevent sympathetic white missionaries from aiding the scattered Native American resistance. see Genocides in history#The Americas Wars Civil War Ely S. Parker was a Union Civil War General who wrote the terms of surrender between the United States and the Confederate States of America. Ely Parker Famous Native Americans Parker was one of two Native Americans to reach the rank of Brigadier General during the Civil War. Many Native Americans served in the military during the Civil War. By fighting with the European-Americans, Native Americans hoped to gain favor with the prevailing government by supporting the war effort. They also believed war service might mean an end to discrimination and relocation from ancestral lands to western territories. While the war raged and African Americans were proclaimed free, the U.S. government continued its policies of assimilation, submission, removal, or extermination of Native Americans. General Ely S. Parker, a member of the Seneca tribe, created the articles of surrender which General Robert E. Lee signed at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. Gen. Parker, who served as Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's military secretary and was a trained attorney, was once rejected for Union military service because of his race. At Appomattox, Lee is said to have remarked to Parker, "I am glad to see one real American here," to which Parker replied, "We are all Americans." World War II Some 44,000 Native Americans served in the United States military during World War II. Described as the first large-scale exodus of indigenous peoples from the reservations since the removals of the 1800s, the international conflict was a turning point in Native American history. Men of native descent were drafted into the military like other American males. Their fellow soldiers often held them in high esteem, in part since the legend of the tough Indian warrior had become a part of the fabric of American historical legend. White servicemen sometimes showed a lighthearted respect toward American Indian comrades by calling them "chief." The resulting increase in contact with the world outside of the reservation system brought profound changes to Native American culture. "The war," said the U.S. Indian commissioner in 1945, "caused the greatest disruption of Native life since the beginning of the reservation era", affecting the habits, views, and economic well-being of tribal members. Bernstein, p. 131 The most significant of these changes was the opportunity—as a result of wartime labor shortages—to find well-paying work. Yet there were losses to contend with as well. Altogether, 1,200 Pueblo people served in World War II; only about half came home alive. In addition many more Navajo served as code talkers for the military in the Pacific. The code they made was never cracked by the Japanese. Native Americans today Portrait of Native Americans from various bands, tribes, and nations from across "Indian country." In 1975 the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act was passed, marking the culmination of 15 years of policy changes. Related to Indian activism, the Civil Rights Movement and community development aspects of social programs of the 1960s, the Act recognized the need of Native Americans for self-determination. It marked the US government's turn away from the policy of termination, the US government encouraged American Indians' efforts at self government and determining their futures. There are 562 federally recognized tribal governments in the United States. These tribes possess the right to form their own government, to enforce laws (both civil and criminal), to tax, to establish requirements for membership, to license and regulate activities, to zone and to exclude persons from tribal territories. Limitations on tribal powers of self-government include the same limitations applicable to states; for example, neither tribes nor states have the power to make war, engage in foreign relations, or coin money (this includes paper currency). Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights point out that the US Federal government's claim to recognize the "sovereignty" of Native American peoples falls short, given that the US still wishes to govern Native American peoples and treat them as subject to US law. True respect for Native American sovereignty, according to such advocates, would require the United States federal government to deal with Native American peoples in the same manner as any other sovereign nation, handling matters related to relations with Native Americans through the Secretary of State, rather than the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Bureau of Indian Affairs reports on its website that its "responsibility is the administration and management of of land held in trust by the United States for American Indians, Indian tribes, and Alaska Natives." Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights believe that it is condescending for such lands to be considered "held in trust" and regulated in any fashion by a foreign power, whether the US Federal Government, Canada, or any other non-Native American authority. According to 2003 United States Census Bureau estimates, a little over one third of the 2,786,652 Native Americans in the United States live in three states: California at 413,382, Arizona at 294,137 and Oklahoma at 279,559. As of 2000, the largest tribes in the U.S. by population were Navajo, Cherokee, Choctaw, Sioux, Chippewa, Apache, Blackfeet, Iroquois, and Pueblo. In 2000, eight of ten Americans with Native American ancestry were of mixed blood. It is estimated that by 2100 that figure will rise to nine out of ten. In addition, there are a number of tribes that are recognized by individual states, but not by the federal government. The rights and benefits associated with state recognition vary from state to state. Some tribal nations have been unable to establish their heritage and obtain federal recognition. The Muwekma Ohlone of the San Francisco bay area are pursuing litigation in the federal court system to establish recognition. Many of the smaller eastern tribes have been trying to gain official recognition of their tribal status. The recognition confers some benefits, including the right to label arts and crafts as Native American and permission to apply for grants that are specifically reserved for Native Americans. But gaining recognition as a tribe is extremely difficult; to be established as a tribal group, members have to submit extensive genealogical proof of tribal descent. Native American struggles amid poverty to maintain life on the reservation or in larger society have resulted in a variety of health issues, some related to nutrition and health practices. The community suffers a disproportionately high rate of alcoholism. , Management of Science of Health . In addition, some studies have found high rates of heart disease, diabetes, drug addiction, mental illness and suicide. Agencies working with Native American communities are trying better to respect their traditions and integrate benefits of Western medicine within their own cultural practices. This Census Bureau map depicts the locations of Native Americans in the United States as of 2000. In July 2000 the Washington state Republican Party adopted a resolution recommending that the federal and legislative branches of the U.S. government terminate tribal governments http://web.archive.org/web/20000902214724/http://www.indiancountry.com/articles/headline-2000-07-12-01.shtml . In 2007 a group of Democratic Party congressmen and congresswomen introduced a bill in the U.S. House of Representatives to "terminate" the Cherokee Nation. http://www.tanasijournal.com/main/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=365&Itemid=1&ed=53 As of 2004, various Native Americans are wary of attempts by others to get control of their reservation lands for natural resources, such as coal and uranium in the West. In the state of Virginia, Native Americans face a unique problem. Virginia has no federally recognized tribes. Some analysts attribute this to work by Walter Ashby Plecker, who as registrar of the state's Bureau of Vital Statistics vigorously applied his own interpretation of the one-drop rule. He served from 1912-1946. In 1920 the state's General Assembly passed a law recognizing only two races: "white" and "colored". Plecker believed that the state's Native Americans had been "mongrelized" by intermarriage with African Americans and, further, that some people with partial black heritage were trying to pass as Indians. To Plecker, anyone with any African heritage had to be classified as colored, regardless of appearance and cultural identification. Plecker pressured local governments into reclassifying all Native Americans in the state as "colored", and gave them lists of family surnames to examine for reclassification based on his interpretation of data and the law. This led to the state's destruction of accurate records related to Native American communities and families. Sometimes different members of the same family were split by classification as "white" or "colored". There was no place for primary identification as Native American. To achieve federal recognition and its benefits, tribes must prove their continuous existence since 1900. The federal government has maintained this requirement, in part because through participation on councils and committees, federally recognized tribes have been adamant about groups' satisfying the same requirements as they did. In the early 21st century, Native American communities remain an enduring fixture on the United States landscape, in the American economy, and in the lives of Native Americans. Communities have consistently formed governments that administer services like firefighting, natural resource management, and law enforcement. Most Native American communities have established court systems to adjudicate matters related to local ordinances, and most also look to various forms of moral and social authority vested in traditional affiliations within the community. To address the housing needs of Native Americans, Congress passed the Native American Housing and Self Determination Act (NAHASDA) in 1996. This legislation replaced public housing, and other 1937 Housing Act programs directed towards Indian Housing Authorities, with a block grant program directed towards Tribes. Societal discrimination, racism and conflicts A discriminatory sign posted above a bar. Mid-20th century. {{cquote|He is ignoble—base and treacherous, and hateful in every way. Not even imminent death can startle him into a spasm of virtue. The ruling trait of all savages is a greedy and consuming selfishness, and in our Noble Red Man it is found in its amplest development. His heart is a cesspool of falsehood, of treachery, and of low and devilish instincts ... The scum of the earth!|20px|20px| Mark Twain, 1870, The Noble Red Man (a satire on James Fenimore Cooper's portrayals) }} Perhaps because the most well-known Native Americans live on reservations relatively isolated from major population centers, universities have conducted relatively little public opinion research on attitudes toward them among the general public. In 2007 the non-partisan Public Agenda organization conducted a focus group study. Most non-Indians admitted they rarely encountered Native Americans in their daily lives. While sympathetic toward Native Americans and expressing regret over the past, most people had only a vague understanding of the problems facing Native Americans today. For their part, Native Americans told researchers that they believed they continued to face prejudice and mistreatment in the broader society. Conflicts between the federal government and Native Americans occasionally erupt into violence. Perhaps the more notable late 20th century event was the Wounded Knee incident in small town South Dakota. During the period of expanding civil rights protests, activist members of the American Indian Movement (AIM) had taken control of Wounded Knee. They were protesting issues related to Indian rights and the nearby Pine Ridge Reservation. On February 27, 1973, federal law enforcement officials and the United States military surrounded the town. In the ensuing confrontation, two members of AIM were killed and one United States Marshal was wounded and paralyzed. Leonard Peltier, an AIM activist and leader of the event, was arrested and charged, and at trial convicted of causing the uprising that resulted in the attack on the US marshal. He was sentenced to life in prison. In 2007, AIM activist John Graham was extradited from Canada to the US to stand trial for killing N.S. Mimaq in 1975. The Native American woman activist was killed years after the Wounded Knee standoff, allegedly for having been an FBI informant at the time. Native American mascots in sports A student acting as Chief Osceola, the Florida State University mascot The use of Native American mascots in sports has become a contentious issue in the United States and Canada. Americans have had a history of "playing Indian" that dates back to at least the 1700s. First Peoples, Colin G. Calloway, 2nd Edition, 2004 Many individuals admire the heroism and romanticism evoked by the classic Native American warrior image, but numerous Native Americans think use of items associated with them as mascots is both offensive and demeaning. No one can control the use of images and words in a free society, and not everyone agrees that certain images are only negative or offensive in meaning. While many universities and professional sports teams no longer use such images without consultation with Native American nations, some lower level schools and sports teams continue to do so. A Washington Redskin helment with logo. In August 2005, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) banned the use of "hostile and abusive" Native American mascots in postseason tournaments. An exception was made to allow the use of tribal names as long as approved by that tribe (such as the Seminole Tribe of Florida's approving use of their name for the team of Florida State University.) The use of Native American-themed team names in U.S. professional sports is widespread. Examples are mascot Chief Wahoo and teams such as the Cleveland Indians and Washington Redskins, considered controversial by some. Depictions by Europeans and Americans Native Americans have been depicted by American artists in various ways at different historical periods. During the sixteenth century, the artist John White made watercolors and engravings of the people native to the southeastern states. John White’s images were, for the most part, faithful likenesses of the people he observed. Later the artist Theodore de Bry used White’s original watercolors to make a book of engravings entitled, A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia. In his book, de Bry often altered the poses and features of White’s figures to make them appear more European. During the period when White and de Bry were working, when Europeans were first coming into contact with native Americans, Europeans were greatly interested in in native American cultures. Their curiosity created demand for a book like de Bry’s. Three centuries later, during the construction of the Capitol building in the early nineteenth century, the U.S. government commissioned a series of four relief panels to crown the doorway of the Rotunda. The reliefs encapsulate a vision of European—Native American relations that had assumed mythic historical proportions by the nineteenth century. The four panels depict: The Preservation of Captain Smith by Pocahontas (1825) by Antonio Capellano, The Landing of the Pilgrims (1825) and The Conflict of Daniel Boone and the Indians (1826–27) by Enrico Causici, and William Penn’s Treaty with the Indians (1827) by Nicholas Gevelot. The reliefs present idealized versions of the Europeans and the native Americans, in which the Europeans appear refined and the natives appear ferocious. The Whig representative of Virginia, Henry A. Wise, voiced a particularly astute summary of how Native Americans would read the messages contained in all four reliefs: “We give you corn, you cheat us of our lands: we save your life, you take ours.” While many nineteenth-century images of native Americans conveyed similarly negative messages, artists such as Charles Bird King sought to express a more balanced image of native Americans. During this time there were writers of fiction who were informed about Native American culture and wrote about it with sympathy. One such writer was Marah Ellis Ryan. In the 20th century, early portrayals of Native Americans in movies and television roles were first depicted by European-Americans dressed in mock traditional attire. Examples included The Last of the Mohicans (1920), Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans (1957), and F Troop (1965-67). In later decades, Native American actors such as Jay Silverheels in The Lone Ranger television series (1949-57) and Iron Eyes Cody came to prominence. Roles of Native Americans were limited and not reflective of Native American culture. In the 1970s some Native Americans roles were improved in movies: Little Big Man (1970), Billy Jack (1971), and The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976) depicted Native Americans in minor supporting roles. In addition to overtly negative depictions, Native people on US television have also been relegated to secondary, subordinate roles. During the years of the series Bonanza (1959-1973), no major or secondary Native characters appeared on a consistent basis. The series The Lone Ranger (1949-1957), Cheyenne (1957-1963), and Law of the Plainsman (1959-1963) had Native characters who were essentially aides to the central White characters. This characterization was also a feature of later television pilots and shows such as How the West Was Won. These programs resembled the “sympathetic” yet contradictory film Dances With Wolves of 1990, in which, according to Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, the narrative choice was to relate the Lakotas story as told through a Euro-American voice, for wide impact among a general audience. Shohat, Ella, and Stam, Robert. Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media. New York: Routledge, 1994 During the 1990s, several major films were released in which Native Americans were portrayed with historical accuracy and a sense of cultural continuity: Dances with Wolves (1990), The Last of the Mohicans (1992), and Geronimo: An American Legend (1993). All employed Native American actors, and had accurate portrayals of culture and languages. In 2004, Co-Producer Guy Perrotta presented the film Mystic Voices: The Story of the Pequot War (2004), a television documentary on the first major war between colonists and Native peoples in the Americas. Perrotta and Charles Clemmons intended to increase public understanding of the significance of this early event. They believed it had significance not only for northeastern Native Peoples and descendants of English and Dutch colonists, but for all Americans today. The producers wanted to make the documentary as historically accurate and as unbiased as possible. They invited a broadly based Advisory Board, and used scholars, Native Americans, and descendants of the colonists to help tell the story. They elicited personal and often passionate viewpoints from contemporary Americans. The production portrayed the conflict as a struggle between different value systems that included not only the Pequots, but a number of Native American tribes, most of which allied with the English. It not only presents facts, but also seeks to help the viewer better understand the people who fought the War. Terminology differences Common usage in the United States The term Native American was originally introduced in the United States by anthropologists as a more accurate term for the indigenous people of the Americas, as distinguished from the people of India. Because of the widespread acceptance of this newer term in and outside of academic circles, some people believe that Indians is outdated or offensive. People from India (and their descendants) who are citizens of the United States are known as Indian Americans or Asian Indians. Criticism of the neologism Native American, however, comes from diverse sources. Some American Indians have misgivings about the term Native American. Russell Means, a famous American Indian activist, opposes the term Native American because he believes it was imposed by the government without the consent of American Indians. He has also argued that this use of the word Indian derives not from a confusion with India but from a Spanish expression En Dio, meaning "in God". Furthermore, some American Indians question the term Native American because, they argue, it serves to ease the conscience of "white America" with regard to past injustices done to American Indians by effectively eliminating "Indians" from the present. Still others (both Indians and non-Indians) argue that Native American is problematic because "native of" literally means "born in," so any person born in the Americas could be considered "native". However, very often the compound "Native American" will be capitalized in order to differentiate this intended meaning from others. Likewise, "native" (small 'n') can be further qualified by formulations such as "native-born" when the intended meaning is only to indicate place of birth or origin. A 1995 US Census Bureau survey found that more American Indians in the United States preferred American Indian to Native American. Nonetheless, most American Indians are comfortable with Indian, American Indian, and Native American, and the terms are often used interchangeably. The traditional term is reflected in the name chosen for the National Museum of the American Indian, which opened in 2004 on the Mall in Washington, D.C.. Recently, the U.S. Census Bureau has introduced the "Asian-Indian" category to avoid ambiguity when sampling the Indian-American population. Gambling industry Gambling has become a leading industry. Casinos operated by many Native American governments in the United States are creating a stream of gambling revenue that some communities are beginning to use as leverage to build diversified economies. Native American communities have waged and prevailed in legal battles to assure recognition of rights to self-determination and to use of natural resources. Some of those rights, known as treaty rights, are enumerated in early treaties signed with the young United States government. Tribal sovereignty has become a cornerstone of American jurisprudence, and at least on the surface, in national legislative policies. Although many Native American tribes have casinos, they are a source of conflict. Most tribes, especially small ones such as the Winnemem Wintu of Redding, California, feel that casinos and their proceeds destroy culture from the inside out. These tribes refuse to participate in the gambling industry. Society, language, and culture Ethno-linguistic classification Cultural regions of North American people at the time of European contact. Far from forming a single ethnic group, Native Americans were divided into several hundred ethno-linguistic groups, most of them grouped into the Na-Dené (Athabaskan), Algic (including Algonquian), Uto-Aztecan, Iroquoian, Siouan-Catawban, Yok-Utian, Salishan and Yuman-Cochimí phyla, besides many smaller groups and several language isolates. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America. The indigenous peoples of North America can be classified as belonging to a number of large cultural areas: Alaska Natives Arctic: Eskimo-Aleut Subarctic: Northern Athabaskan Western United States Californian tribes: Yok-Utian, Pacific Coast Athabaskan, Coast Miwok, Yurok, Palaihnihan Plateau tribes: Interior Salish, Plateau Penutian Great Basin tribes: Uto-Aztecan Pacific Northwest Coast: Pacific Coast Athabaskan, Coast Salish Southwestern tribes: Uto-Aztecan, Yuman, Southern Athabaskan Central United States Plains Indians: Siouan, Plains Algonquian, Southern Athabaskan Eastern United States Northeastern Woodlands tribes: Iroquoian, Central Algonquian, Eastern Algonquian Southeastern tribes: Muskogean, Siouan, Catawban, Iroquoian Of the surviving languages, Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl); Nadene comes in second with approximately 180,200 speakers (148,500 of these are speakers of Navajo). Na-Dené and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to later migrations of the Kickapoo) with two outliers in California (Yurok and Wiyot); Na-Dené spans from Alaska and western Canada through Washington, Oregon, and California to the U.S. Southwest and northern Mexico (with one outlier in the Plains). Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the Southeast; however, many of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from the historical record. Cultural aspects Hopi woman dressing hair of unmarried girl from 1900. Though cultural features, language, clothing, and customs vary enormously from one tribe to another, there are certain elements which are encountered frequently and shared by many tribes.Early hunter-gatherer tribes made stone weapons from around 10,000 years ago; as the age of metallurgy dawned, newer technologies were used and more efficient weapons produced. Prior to contact with Europeans, most tribes used similar weaponry. The most common implements were the bow and arrow, the war club, and the spear. Quality, material, and design varied widely. Native American use of fire both helped provide insects for food and altered the landscape of the continent to help the human population flourish. Large mammals like mammoths and mastodons were largely extinct by around 8,000 B.C. Native Americans switched to hunting other large game, such as bison. The Great Plains tribes were still hunting the bison when they first encountered the Europeans. Acquiring horses from the Spanish and learning to ride in the 17th century greatly altered the natives' culture, changing the way in which they hunted large game. In addition, horses became a central feature of Native lives and a measure of wealth. Organization Zuni girl with pottery jar on her head in 1909 Gens structure Early European American scholars described the Native Americans as having a society dominated by clans or gentes (in the Roman model) before tribes were formed. There were some common characteristics: The right to elect its sachem and chiefs. The right to depose its sachem and chiefs. The obligation not to marry in the gens. Mutual rights of inheritance of the property of deceased members. Reciprocal obligations of help, defense, and redress of injuries. The right to bestow names on its members. The right to adopt strangers into the gens. Common religious rights, query. A common burial place. A council of the gens. Tribal structure Subdivision and differentiation took place between various groups. Upwards of forty stock languages developed in North America, with each independent tribe speaking a dialect of one of those languages. Some functions and attributes of tribes are: The possession of the gentes. The right to depose these sachems and chiefs. The possession of a religious faith and worship. A supreme government consisting of a council of chiefs. A head-chief of the tribe in some instances. Choctaw Eagle Dance, 1835-37, Smithsonian American Art Museum. Society and art The Iroquois, living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called wampum that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and a unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries. Iroquois History. URL accessed on February 23, 2006. Pueblo peoples crafted impressive items associated with their religious ceremonies. Kachina dancers wore elaborately painted and decorated masks as they ritually impersonated various ancestral spirits. Sculpture was not highly developed, but carved stone and wood fetishes were made for religious use. Superior weaving, embroidered decorations, and rich dyes characterized the textile arts. Both turquoise and shell jewelry were created, as were high-quality pottery and formalized pictorial arts. Navajo spirituality focused on the maintenance of a harmonious relationship with the spirit world, often achieved by ceremonial acts, usually incorporating sandpainting. The colors—made from sand, charcoal, cornmeal, and pollen—depicted specific spirits. These vivid, intricate, and colorful sand creations were erased at the end of the ceremony. Agriculture Early maize raised by Native Americans Native American agriculture started about 7,000 years ago in the area of present-day Illinois. The first crop the Native Americans grew was squash. This was the first of several crops the Native Americans learned to domesticate. Others included cotton, sunflower, pumpkins, tobacco, goosefoot, and sump weed. Agriculture in the southwest started around 4,000 years ago when traders brought cultigens from Mexico. Due to the varying climate, some ingenuity was needed for agriculture to be successful. The climate in the southwest ranged from cool, moist mountains regions, to dry, sandy soil in the desert. Some innovations of the time included irrigation to bring water into the dry regions and the selection of seed based on the traits of the growing plants that bore them. In the southwest, they grew beans that were self-supported, much like the way they are grown today. In the east, however, they were planted right by corn in order for the vines to be able to "climb" the cornstalks. The most important crop the Native Americans raised was maize. It was first started in Mesoamerica and spread north. About 2,000 years ago it reached eastern America. This crop was important to the Native Americans because it was part of their everyday diet; it could be stored in underground pits during the winter, and no part of it was wasted. The husk was made into art crafts, and the cob was used as fuel for fires. By 800 A.D. the Native Americans had established three main crops — beans, squash, and corn — called the three sisters. The agriculture gender roles of the Native Americans varied from region to region. In the southwest area, men prepared the soil with hoes. The women were in charge of planting, weeding, and harvesting the crops. In most other regions, the women were in charge of doing everything, including clearing the land. Clearing the land was an immense chore since the Native Americans rotated fields frequently. There is a tradition that Squanto showed the Pilgrims in New England how to put fish in fields to act like a fertilizer, but the truth of this story is debated. Native Americans did plant beans next to corn; the beans would replace the nitrogen which the corn took from the ground, as well as using corn stalks for support for climbing. Indians used controlled fires to burn weeds and clear fields; this would put nutrients back into the ground. If this did not work, they would simply abandon the field to let it be fallow, and find a new spot for cultivation. Europeans in the eastern part of the continent observed that Natives cleared large areas for cropland. Their fields in New England sometimes covered hundreds of acres. Colonists in Virginia noted thousands of acres under cultivation by Native Americans. Native Americans commonly used tools such as the hoe, maul, and dibber. The hoe was the main tool used to till the land and prepare it for planting; then it was used for weeding. The first versions were made out of wood and stone. When the settlers brought iron, Native Americans switched to iron hoes and hatchets. The dibber was a digging stick, used to plant the seed. Once the plants were harvested, women prepared the produce for eating. They used the maul to grind the corn into mash. It was cooked and eaten that way or baked as corn bread. Religion Baptism of Pocahontas was painted in 1840. John Gadsby Chapman depicts Pocahontas, wearing white, being baptized Rebecca by Anglican minister Alexander Whiteaker in Jamestown, Virginia; this event is believed to have taken place in 1613 or 1614. No particular religion or religious tradition is hegemonic among Native Americans in the United States. Most self-identifying and federally recognized Native Americans claim adherence to some form of Christianity, some of these being cultural and religious syntheses unique to the particular tribe. Traditional Native American spiritual rites and ceremonies are maintained by many Americans of both Native and non-Native identity. These spiritualities may accompany adherence to another faith, or can represent a person's primary religious identity. While much Native American spiritualism exists in a tribal-cultural continuum, and as such cannot be easily separated from tribal identity itself, certain other more clearly-defined movements have arisen within "Trad" Native American practitioners, these being identifiable as "religions" in the clinical sense. The Midewiwin Lodge is a traditional medicine society inspired by the oral traditions and prophesies of the Ojibwa (Chippewa) and related tribes. Traditional practices include the burning of sacred herbs (tobacco, sweetgrass, sage, etc.), the sweatlodge, fasting (paramount in "vision quests"), singing and drumming, and the smoking of natural tobacco in a pipe. A practitioner of Native American spiritualities and religions may incorporate all, some or none of these into their personal or tribal rituals. Another significant religious body among Native peoples is known as the Native American Church. It is a syncretistic church incorporating elements of native spiritual practice from a number of different tribes as well as symbolic elements from Christianity. Its main rite is the peyote ceremony. Prior to 1890, traditional religious beliefs included Wakan Tanka. In the American Southwest, especially New Mexico, a syncretism between the Catholicism brought by Spanish missionaries and the native religion is common; the religious drums, chants, and dances of the Pueblo people are regularly part of Masses at Santa Fe's Saint Francis Cathedral. A Brief History of the Native American Church by Jay Fikes. URL accessed on February 22, 2006. Native American-Catholic syncretism is also found elsewhere in the United States. (e.g., the National Kateri Tekakwitha Shrine in Fonda, New York and the National Shrine of the North American Martyrs in Auriesville, New York). Native Americans are the only known ethnic group in the United States requiring a federal permit to practice their religion. The eagle feather law, (Title 50 Part 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations), stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use. Native Americans and non-Native Americans frequently contest the value and validity of the eagle feather law, charging that the law is laden with discriminatory racial preferences and infringes on tribal sovereignty. The law does not allow Native Americans to give eagle feathers to non-Native Americans, a common modern and traditional practice. Many non-Native Americans have been adopted into Native American families, made tribal members and given eagle feathers. Gender roles Dr. Susan La Flesche Picotte was the first Native American woman to become a physician in the United States. Most Native American tribes had traditional gender roles. In some tribes, such as the Iroquois nation, social and clan relationships were matrilineal and/or matriarchal, although several different systems were in use. One example is the Cherokee custom of wives owning the family property. Men hunted, traded and made war, while women gathered plants, cared for the young and the elderly, fashioned clothing and instruments and cured meat. The cradleboard was used by mothers to carry their baby while working or traveling. Gender, Encyclopedia of North American Indians, by Beatrice Medicine. URL accessed on February 99, 2006. However, in some (but not all) tribes a kind of transgender was permitted; see Two-Spirit. At least several dozen tribes allowed polygyny to sisters, with procedural and economic limits. Apart from making home, women had many tasks that were essential for the survival of the tribes. They made weapons and tools, took care of the roofs of their homes and often helped their men hunt bison. , Native American Women, Indians.org. URL accessed on January 11, 2007. In some of the Plains Indian tribes there reportedly were medicine women who gathered herbs and cured the ill. , Medicine Women, Bluecloud.org. URL accessed on January 11, 2007. In some of these tribes such as the Sioux girls were also encouraged to learn to ride, hunt and fight. Zinn, Howard (2005). A People's History of the United States: 1492-present. Harper Perennial Modern Classics. ISBN 0-06-083865-5. Though fighting was mostly left to the boys and men, there had been cases of women fighting alongside them, especially when the existence of the tribe was threatened. , Women in Battle, Bluecloud.org. URL accessed on January 11, 2007. Sports Native American leisure time led to competitive individual and team sports. Early accounts include team games played between tribes with hundreds of players on the field at once. Jim Thorpe, Notah Begay III, and Billy Mills are well known professional athletes. Team based Ball players from the Choctaw and Lakota tribe as painted by George Catlin in the 1830s Native American ball sports, sometimes referred to as lacrosse, stickball, or baggataway, was often used to settle disputes rather than going to war which was a civil way to settle potential conflict. The Choctaw called it ISITOBOLI ("Little Brother of War"); the Onondaga name was DEHUNTSHIGWA'ES ("men hit a rounded object"). There are three basic versions classifed as Great Lakes, Iroquoian, and Southern. The game is played with one or two rackets/sticks and one ball. The object of the game is to land the ball on the opposing team's goal (either a single post or net) to score and prevent the opposing team from scoring on your goal. The game involves as few as twenty or as many as 300 players with no height or weight restrictions and no protective gear. The goals could be from a few hundred feet apart to a few miles; in Lacrosse the field is 110 yards. A Jesuit priest referenced stickball in 1729, and George Catlin painted the subject. Individual based Jim Thorpe was called the "greatest athlete in the world" by king Gustaf V of Sweden Billy Mills crosses the finish line for the 10,000 meter race at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics Ancient art, such as this engraved stone plate from Mississippi, often exhibited a sophisticated and well-developed style Chunke was a game that consisted of a stone shaped disk that was about 1–2 inches in length. The disk was thrown down a corridor so that it could roll past the players at great speed. The disk would roll down the corridor, and players would throw wooden shafts at the moving disk. The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it. U.S. Olympics Jim Thorpe, a Sauk and Fox Native American, was an all-round athlete playing football and baseball in the early 20th century. Future President Dwight Eisenhower injured his knee while trying to tackle the young Thorpe. In a 1961 speech, Eisenhower recalled Thorpe: "Here and there, there are some people who are supremely endowed. My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life, and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw." Botelho, Greg. Roller-coaster life of Indian icon, sports' first star, CNN.com, July 14, 2004, accessed April 23, 2007. In the 1912 Olympics, Thorpe could run the 100-yard dash in 10 seconds flat, the 220 in 21.8 seconds, the 440 in 51.8 seconds, the 880 in 1:57, the mile in 4:35, the 120-yard high hurdles in 15 seconds, and the 220-yard low hurdles in 24 seconds. Jim Thorpe Is Dead On West Coast at 64, The New York Times, March 29, 1953, accessed April 23, 2007. He could long jump 23 ft 6 in and high-jump 6 ft 5 in. He could pole vault 11 feet, put the shot 47 ft 9 in, throw the javelin 163 feet, and throw the discus 136 feet. Thorpe entered the U.S. Olympic trials for both the pentathlon and the decathlon. Billy Mills, a Lakota and USMC officer, won the Gold medal in the 10,000 meter run at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. He was the only American ever to win the Olympic gold in this event. An unknown prior to the Olympics, he had finished second in the U.S. Olympic trials. Music and art Traditional Native American music is almost entirely monophonic, but there are notable exceptions. Native American music often includes drumming and/or the playing of rattles or other percussion instruments but little other instrumentation. Flutes and whistles made of wood, cane, or bone are also played, generally by individuals, but in former times also by large ensembles (as noted by Spanish conquistador de Soto). The tuning of these flutes is not precise and depends on the length of the wood used and the hand span of the intended player, but the finger holes are most often around a whole step apart and, at least in Northern California, a flute was not used if it turned out to have an interval close to a half step. Performers with Native American parentage have occasionally appeared in American popular music, such as Robbie Robertson (The Band), Rita Coolidge, Wayne Newton, Gene Clark, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Blackfoot, Tori Amos, Redbone, and CocoRosie. Some, such as John Trudell, have used music to comment on life in Native America, and others, such as R. Carlos Nakai integrate traditional sounds with modern sounds in instrumental recordings. A variety of small and medium-sized recording companies offer an abundance of recent music by Native American performers young and old, ranging from pow-wow drum music to hard-driving rock-and-roll and rap. The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans in the United States is that of the pow-wow. At pow-wows, such as the annual Gathering of Nations in Albuquerque, New Mexico, members of drum groups sit in a circle around a large drum. Drum groups play in unison while they sing in a native language and dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups in the center. Familiar pow-wow songs include honor songs, intertribal songs, crow-hops, sneak-up songs, grass-dances, two-steps, welcome songs, going-home songs, and war songs. Most indigenous communities in the United States also maintain traditional songs and ceremonies, some of which are shared and practiced exclusively within the community. Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection. Native American contributions include pottery(Native American pottery), paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry, and carvings. Franklin Gritts, was a Cherokee artist, who taught students from many tribes at Haskell Institute (now Haskell Indian Nations University) in the 1940s, the Golden Age of Native American painters. The integrity of certain Native American artworks is now protected by an act of Congress that prohibits representation of art as Native American when it is not the product of an enrolled Native American artist. Economy "The King of the Seas in the Hands of the Makahs," photograph taken in 1910 of Makah Native Americans The Inuit, or Eskimo, prepared and buried large amounts of dried meat and fish. Pacific Northwest tribes crafted seafaring dugouts 40–50 feet long for fishing. Farmers in the Eastern Woodlands tended fields of maize with hoes and digging sticks, while their neighbors in the Southeast grew tobacco as well as food crops. On the Plains, some tribes engaged in agriculture but also planned buffalo hunts in which herds were driven over bluffs. Dwellers of the Southwest deserts hunted small animals and gathered acorns to grind into flour with which they baked wafer-thin bread on top of heated stones. Some groups on the region's mesas developed irrigation techniques, and filled storehouses with grain as protection against the area's frequent droughts. In the early years, as these native peoples encountered European explorers and settlers and engaged in trade, they exchanged food, crafts, and furs for blankets, iron and steel implements, horses, trinkets, firearms, and alcoholic beverages. Barriers to economic development Today, other than tribes successfully running casinos, many tribes struggle. There are an estimated 2.1 million Native Americans, and they are the most impoverished of all ethnic groups. According to the 2000 Census, an estimated 400,000 Native Americans reside on reservation land. While some tribes have had success with gaming, only 40% of the 562 federally recognized tribes operate casinos. According to a 2007 survey by the U.S. Small Business Administration, only 1 percent of Native Americans own and operate a business. Native Americans rank at the bottom of nearly every social statistic: highest teen suicide rate of all minorities at 18.5%, highest rate of teen pregnancy, highest high school drop out rate at 54%, lowest per capita income, and unemployment rates between 50% to 90%. The barriers to economic development on Indian reservations often cited by others and two experts Joseph Kalt and Stephen Cornell of the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development at Harvard University, in their classic report: What Can Tribes Do? Strategies and Institutions in American Indian Economic Development, are as follows (incomplete list, see full Kalt & Cornell report): Lack of access to capital. Lack of human capital (education, skills, technical expertise) and the means to develop it. Reservations lack effective planning. Reservations are poor in natural resources. Reservations have natural resources, but lack sufficient control over them. Reservations are disadvantaged by their distance from markets and the high costs of transportation. Tribes cannot persuade investors to locate on reservations because of intense competition from non-Indian communities. The Bureau of Indian Affairs is inept, corrupt, and/or uninterested in reservation development. Tribal politicians and bureaucrats are inept or corrupt. On-reservation factionalism destroys stability in tribal decisions. The instability of tribal government keeps outsiders from investing. Entrepreneurial skills and experience are scarce. Tribal cultures get in the way. One of the major barriers for overcoming the economic strife is the lack of entrepreneurial knowledge and experience across Indian reservations. “A general lack of education and experience about business is a significant challenge to prospective entrepreneurs,” also says another report on Native American entrepreneurship by the Northwest Area Foundation in 2004. “Native American communities that lack entrepreneurial traditions and recent experiences typically do not provide the support that entrepreneurs need to thrive. Consequently, experiential entrepreneurship education needs to be embedded into school curricula and after-school and other community activities. This would allow students to learn the essential elements of entrepreneurship from a young age and encourage them to apply these elements throughout life.” . One publication devoted to addressing these issues is Rez Biz magazine. Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans Five Indians and a Captive, painted by Carl Wimar, 1855 Interracial relations between Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans is a complex issue that has been mostly neglected with "few in-depth studies on interracial relationships". Europeans relational impact was wide spread and marriages was immediate. One of the first documented cases was recorded in Post-Columbian Mexico where a Spanish man (Hernán Cortés) and a Native American woman (Rebecca/Malinal/Malinche) birthed the first multi-racial Native American. Native American and African relations Although not as significant as contact with Europeans, Africans had some interaction with Native Americans. The earliest record of African and Native American contact occurred in April 1502, when the first Africans were brought to Hispanola to serve as slaves. Muslims in American History : A Forgotten Legacy by Dr. Jerald F. Dirks. ISBN 1-59008-044-0 Page 204. Often Native Americans resented the presence of African Americans. Red, White, and Black, pg. 99. ISBN 0820303089 In one description the "Catawaba tribe in 1752 showed great anger and bitter resentment when an African American came among them as a trader." Red, White, and Black, pg. 99. ISBN 0820303089 The Cherokee had the strongest color prejudice of all Native Americans to gain favor with Europeans. Red, White, and Black, pg. 99, ISBN 0820303089 The hostility has been attributed to European fears of a unified revolt of Native Americans and African Americans: "Whites sought to convince Native Americans that African Americans worked against their best interests." Red, White, and Black, pg. 105, ISBN 0820303089 In 1751, South Carolina law stated: "The carrying of Africans among the Native Americans has all along been thought detrimental, as an intimacy ought to be avoided." Europeans considered both races inferior and made efforts to make both Africans and Native Americans enemies. African Americans were rewarded for fighting in Indian Wars and Native Americans were rewarded if they returned runaway slaves. During the transitional period of Africans becoming the primary race enslaved over Native Americans, both were enslaved at the same time and they shared the common experience of enslavement. They worked together, lived together in communal quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and legends, and in the end they intermarried. Native Americans learned that Africans had what Native Americans considered 'Great Medicine' in their bodies because Africans were virtually immune to European diseases that decimated most native populations. Because of this many tribes encouraged marriage between the two groups, to create stronger, healthier children from the unions. In the eighteenth century, many Native American women did marry freed or runaway African men due to a large decrease in the population of men in Native American villages. In addition, records also show that Native American women actually bought African men, but unknown to European sellers the women freed and married the men into their tribe. It was also beneficial for African men to marry or have children by Native American woman because children born to a mother that was not a slave were free.European colonists often requested the return of any runaway slaves in treaties. In 1726, the British Governor of New York exacted a promise from the Iroquois to return all runaway slaves who had joined up with them. Katz WL 1997 p103 In the mid 1760s, Huron and Delaware Native Americans were also requested to return runaway slaves however no record of slaves being returned occurred. Katz WL 1997 p103 http://lenapedelawarehistory.net/mirror/lifeamong.htm Ads were used to request the return of slaves. Slave ownership was prevalent among a few Native American tribes, especially in the southeast where the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek lived. Though less than 3% of Native Americans owned slaves, bondage practices created destructive divisions among Native Americans. Among the Cherokee, records show that slave holders in the tribe were largely the children of European men that had showed their children the economics of slavery. As European expansion increased more African and Native American marriages became more prominent. Some historians suggest that most African Americans have Native American heritage. A study suggested that few African Americans have Native American heritage. The American Journal of Human Genetics wrote "We analyzed the European genetic contribution to 10 populations of African descent in the United States (Maywood, Illinois; Detroit; New York; Philadelphia; Pittsburgh; Baltimore; Charleston, South Carolina; New Orleans; and Houston) ... mtDNA haplogroups analysis shows no evidence of a significant maternal Amerindian contribution to any of the 10 populations." . However, the study cannot confirm that few African Americans have native ancestry because the tests are not accurate. Based on the work of geneticists, a PBS series on African Americans also noted that while most African Americans are racially mixed, it is relatively rare that they have Native American ancestry. According to the PBS series, the most common "non-black" mix is English and Scots-Irish. Depending on how genetic testing is done, it may not reveal a person's full ancestry. Some critics thought the PBS series did not explain that sufficiently. In addition, genetic markers may appear in other populations. Testing cannot distinguish among separate Native American tribes. Native Americans and assimilation acceptance with Europeans The 1725 return of an Osage bride from a trip to Paris, France. The Osage woman was married to a French soldier. European impact was immediate, widespread, and profound—more than any other race that had contact with Native Americans during the early years of colonization and nationhood. Europeans living among Native Americans were often called "white indians". They "lived in native communities for years, learned native languages fluently, attended native councils, and often fought alongside their native companions." The early male settlers also often married Native American women. Early contact was often charged with tension and emotion, but also had moments of friendship, cooperation, and intimacy. Marriages took place in both English and French colonies between European men and Native women. On April 5, 1614, Pocahontas married Englishman John Rolfe, and they had a child called Thomas Rolfe. Intimate relations among Native American and Europeans were widespread, beginning with the French and Spanish explorers and trappers. For instance, in the early 19th century, the Native American woman Sacagawea, who would help translate for the Lewis and Clark Expedition, was married to French trapper Toussaint Charbonneau. They had a son named Jean Baptiste Charbonneau. This was the most typical pattern among the traders and trappers. Native American males and European American women were often married. A Native American man had to get consent of the parents as long as "he can prove to support her as a white woman in a good home". In the early 1800s, Shawnee Native American Tecumseh and blonde hair & blued eyed Rebbecca Galloway had a inter-racial affair. In the late 19th century, three European-American middle-class female staff married Native American men met during the years when Hampton Institute ran its Indian program. Charles Eastman married his European-American wife Elaine Goodale whom he had met in Dakota Territory when Goodale was social worker and the superintendent of Indian education for the reservations. They had six children together. Blood Quantum Lillian Gross, described as a "Mixed Blood" by the Smithsonian source, was of Native American and European/American heritage. She identified with her Cherokee culture. Intertribal mixing was common among Native American tribes, so individuals could be said to be descended from more than one tribe. Bands or entire tribes occasionally split or merged to form more viable groups in reaction to the pressures of climate, disease and warfare. "Y chromosome study sheds light on Athapaskan migration to southwest US", Eureka Alert, Department of Energy Public Newslist A number of tribes traditionally adopted captives into their group to replace members who had been captured or killed in battle. These captives came from rival tribes and later from European settlers. Some tribes also sheltered or adopted white traders and runaway slaves and Native American-owned slaves. Tribes with long trading histories with Europeans show a higher rate of European admixture, reflecting years of intermarriage between European men and Native American women. "Y chromosome study sheds light on Athapaskan migration to southwest US", Eureka Alert, Department of Energy Public Newslist A number of paths to genetic diversity among Native Americans thus existed. While in recent years some commentators have suggested high rates of admixture between Native Americans and African Americans, genetic genealogists have found lesser frequency. Historian Henry Louis Gates, Jr. cites experts who argue that only 5 percent of African Americans have at least 12.5 percent Native American ancestry (equivalent to one great-grandparent). Of course this means that a greater percentage could have a very small percentage of ancestry, but it also suggests that past estimates of admixture may have been too high. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., In Search of Our Roots: How 19 Extraordinary African Americans Reclaimed Their Past, New York: Crown Publishers, 2009, pp.20-21 As some genetic tests assess only direct male or female ancestors, individuals may not discover Native American ancestry from other ancestors. Among an individual's 64 4xgreat-grandparents, direct testing yields DNA evidence of only two. In addition to limitations if only direct male and female lines are tested, DNA testing cannot be used for determining tribal membership because it can not distinguish among Native American groups. Native American identity has historically been based on culture, not just biology. The Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism (IPCB) notes that:"Native American markers" are not found solely among Native Americans. While they occur more frequently among Native Americans they are also found in people in other parts of the world. Geneticists also state: </blockquote> not all Native Americans have been tested especially with the large number of deaths due to disease such as small pox, it is unlikely that Native Americans only have the genetic markers they have identified, even when their maternal or paternal bloodline does not include a non-Native American.</blockquote> Members of the Creek (Muscogee) Nation in Oklahoma around 1877, including those with some European and African ancestry. Charles Hudson, The Southeastern Indians, 1976, pg. 479 To receive tribal services, a Native American must belong to and be certified by a recognized tribal organization. Each tribal government makes its own rules for citizens or tribal members. The federal government has standards related to services available to certified Native Americans. For instance, Federal scholarships for Native Americans require the student to be enrolled in a federally recognized tribe and have at least one-quarter Native American descent (equivalent to one grandparent), attested by a Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood card. Among tribes, qualification may be based upon a required percentage of Native American "blood", or the "blood quantum" of an individual seeking recognition. To attain certainty, some tribes have begun requiring genealogical DNA testing, but this is usually related to proving parentage or direct descent from a certified member. Ancestry in a Drop of Blood (August 30, 2005), by Karen Kaplan. URL accessed on February 20, 2006 Requirements for tribal membership vary widely by tribe. The Cherokee require documented genealogical descent from a Native American listed on the early 20th century Dawes Rolls. Tribal rules regarding recognition of members who have heritage from multiple tribes are equally diverse and complex. Tribal membership conflicts have led to a number of activist groups, legal disputes and court cases. One example are the Cherokee freedmen, descendants of enslaved African Americans once held by the Cherokees, who were granted citizenship in the Cherokee nation as freedmen after the Civil War, by federal treaty. The Cherokee nation has recently excluded them from the roles unless individuals can prove descent from a Cherokee Indian (not just freedman) on the Dawes Rolls. In the 20th century, some people among white ethnic groups have seemed more interested in claiming descent from Native Americans. Many people have claimed descent from the Cherokee. , see also and Notable Native Americans of the United States Population Mishikinakwa ("Little Turtle")'s forces defeated an American force of nearly 1000 U.S Army soldiers and other casualties at the Battle of the Wabash in 1791. Charles Eastman was one of the first Native Americans to become a Medical Doctor. Indian Achievement Award Charles A. Eastman Chief Seattle was a Suquamish chief who made "one of the most beautiful and profound environmental statements ever made," photo taken in the 1860s Geronimo was a prominent Native American leader of the Chiricahua Apache who defended his people against the encroachment of the United States on their lands for over 25 years Swimmer was a noted Cherokee cultural preservationist In 2006, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that about 1.0 percent of the U.S. population was of American Indian or Alaska Native descent. This population is unevenly distributed across the country. US census Below, all 50 states, as well as the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, are listed by the proportion of residents citing American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry, based on 2006 estimates: Alaska - 13.1% New Mexico - 9.7% South Dakota - 8.6% Oklahoma - 6.8% Montana - 6.3% North Dakota - 5.2% Arizona - 4.5% Wyoming - 2.2% Oregon - 1.8% Washington - 1.5% Nevada - 1.2% Idaho - 1.1% North Carolina - 1.1% Utah - 1.1% Minnesota - 1.0% Colorado - 0.9% Kansas - 0.9% Nebraska - 0.9% Wisconsin - 0.9% Arkansas - 0.8% California - 0.7% Louisiana - 0.6% Maine - 0.5% Michigan - 0.5% Texas - 0.5% Alabama - 0.4% Mississippi - 0.4% Missouri - 0.4% Rhode Island - 0.4% Vermont - 0.4% Florida - 0.3% Delaware - 0.3% Hawaii - 0.3% Iowa - 0.3% New York - 0.3% South Carolina - 0.3% Tennessee - 0.3% Georgia - 0.2% Virginia - 0.2% Connecticut - 0.2% Illinois - 0.2% Indiana - 0.2% Kentucky - 0.2% Maryland - 0.2% Massachusetts - 0.2% New Hampshire - 0.2% New Jersey - 0.2% Ohio - 0.2% West Virginia - 0.2% Pennsylvania - 0.1% District of Columbia - 0.3% Puerto Rico - 0.2% In 2006, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that about less than 1.0 percent of the U.S. population was of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander descent. This population is unevenly distributed across 26 states. Below, are the 26 states that had at least 0.1%. They are listed by the proportion of residents citing Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, based on 2006 estimates: Hawaii - 8.7 Utah - 0.7 Alaska - 0.6 California - 0.4 Nevada - 0.4 Washington - 0.4 Arizona - 0.2 Oregon - 0.2 Alabama - 0.1 Arkansas - 0.1 Colorado - 0.1 Florida - 0.1 Idaho - 0.1 Kentucky - 0.1 Maryland - 0.1 Massachusetts - 0.1 Missouri - 0.1 Montana - 0.1 New Mexico - 0.1 North Carolina - 0.1 Oklahoma - 0.1 South Carolina - 0.1 Texas - 0.1 Virginia - 0.1 West Virginia - 0.1 Wyoming - 0.1 See also American Indian Movement Alaska Natives American Indian College Fund American Indians in Children's Literature Black Indians Civilization Fund Act Classification of Native Americans Company/product names derived from Indigenous peoples Eagle feather law European Contact First Nations Fur trade Gallery of Native Americans with facial hair Genocide reference by L. Frank Baum Indian Campaign Medal Indian Massacres Indian old field Indian Removal Indian Reorganization Act Indian Territory Indigenous peoples of the Americas Inter-Tribal Environmental Council (ITEC) List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas List of Indian reservations in the United States Lists of Native Americans List of pre-Columbian civilizations List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas Medicine man Medicine wheel Mississippian culture Mound builder (people) NAFPS National Museum of the American Indian Native American art Native American Church Native American gambling enterprises Native American languages Native American mascot controversy Native American mythology Native American name controversy Native American pottery Native American tribes in Nebraska Native Americans and World War II One-Drop Rule Osceola Petrosomatoglyph Population history of American indigenous peoples Pre-Columbian Africa-Americas contact theories Residential school Rez Biz magazine Seminole Wars Southeastern Ceremonial Complex Sports team names/mascots derived from Indigenous peoples State recognized tribes Treaties of the United States Trail of Tears Two-Spirit Uncontacted peoples Unrecognized tribes Wíčazo Ša Review Notes References Adams, David Wallace. Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875–1928, University Press of Kansas, 1975. ISBN 0-7006-0735-8 (hbk); ISBN 0-7006-0838-9 (pbk). Bierhorst, John. A Cry from the Earth: Music of North American Indians. ISBN 0-941270-53-X. Deloria, Vine. 1969. Custer Died for Your Sins: an Indian Manifesto. New York: Macmillan. Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (e-CFR), Title 50: Wildlife and Fisheries Part 22-Eagle permits Hirschfelder, Arlene B.; Byler, Mary G.; & Dorris, Michael. Guide to research on North American Indians. American Library Association (1983). ISBN 0-8389-0353-3. Johnston, Eric F. The Life of the Native American, Atlanta, GA: Tradewinds Press (2003). Johnston, Eric. The Life Of the Native. Philadelphia, PA: E.C. Biddle, etc. 1836–44. University of Georgia Library. Jones, Peter N. Respect for the Ancestors: American Indian Cultural Affiliation in the American West. Boulder, CO: Bauu Press (2005). ISBN 0-9721349-2-1. Nichols, Roger L. Indians in the United States & Canada, A Comparative History. University of Nebraska Press (1998). ISBN 0-8032-8377-6. Pohl, Frances K. Framing America. A Social History of American Art. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2002 (pages 54–56 & 105–106 & 110–111) Shanley, Kathryn Winona. "The Paradox of Native American Indian Intellectualism and Literature", Melus, Vol. 29, 2004 Shanley, Kathryn Winona. "The Indians America Loves to Love and Read: American Indian Identity and Cultural Appropriation", American Indian Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 4 (Autumn, 1997), pp. 675–702 doi:10.2307/1185719 Krech, Shepard. The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, New York: W.W. Norton, 1999. 352 p. ISBN 0393047555 Shohat, Ella, and Stam, Robert. Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media. New York: Routledge, 1994. Sletcher, Michael, "North American Indians", in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, 2 vols. Snipp, C.M. American Indians: The first of this land. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1989. Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published), (1978–present). Tiller, Veronica E. (Ed.). Discover Indian Reservations USA: A Visitors' Welcome Guide. Foreword by Ben Nighthorse Campbell. Denver, CO: Council Publications, 1992. ISBN 0-9632580-0-1. External links The Story of the Pequot War documentary on the Pequot War American Indian History and Related Issues American Indians of the Pacific Northwest at the University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections Bonneville Collection of 19th century photographs of Native Americans at University of South Carolina Library's Digital Collections Page Houghton Mifflin Encyclopedia of North American Indians Indian Days of the Long Ago By Thomas L. M’Kenney and James Hall. Publisher: Philadelphia: E.C. Biddle, etc., 1836–44. (searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF) McKenney and Hall Tribes of North America Ndakinna Cultural Center Native American Museum & Cultural Center in Vermont Trail of Tears - The Dream We Dreamed Native American Treaties and Information from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Native American History from the Library of Congress American Memory project | Native_Americans_in_the_United_States |@lemmatized native:371 american:446 united:58 state:89 indigenous:17 people:46 region:9 north:24 america:36 encompass:1 continental:2 include:22 part:14 alaska:9 island:2 hawaii:3 comprise:2 large:19 number:13 distinct:2 tribe:86 ethnic:5 group:25 many:31 survive:1 intact:1 political:4 community:20 wide:5 range:4 term:12 use:42 describe:5 consensus:1 reach:4 among:29 member:17 collectively:1 prefer:2 call:9 also:26 know:10 indian:122 aboriginal:1 amerindian:2 amerind:1 color:6 first:26 original:2 red:9 men:17 ideology:3 clash:1 old:6 world:17 diseases:1 ravage:3 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4,218 | Associative_property | In mathematics, associativity is a property that a binary operation can have. It means that, within an expression containing two or more of the same associative operators in a row, the order that the operations are performed does not matter as long as the sequence of the operands is not changed. That is, rearranging the parentheses in such an expression will not change its value. Consider for instance the equation Even though the parentheses were rearranged (the left side requires adding 5 and 2 first, then adding 1 to the result, whereas the right side requires adding 2 and 1 first, then 5), the value of the expression was not altered. Since this holds true when performing addition on any real numbers, we say that "addition of real numbers is an associative operation." Associativity is not to be confused with commutativity. Commutativity justifies changing the order or sequence of the operands within an expression while associativity does not. For example, is an example of associativity because the parentheses were changed (and consequently the order of operations during evaluation) while the operands 5, 2, and 1 appeared in the exact same order from left to right in the expression. is not an example of associativity because the operand sequence changed when the 2 and 5 switched places. Associative operations are abundant in mathematics, and in fact most algebraic structures explicitly require their binary operations to be associative. However, many important and interesting operations are non-associative; one common example would be the vector cross product. Definition Formally, a binary operation on a set S is called associative if it satisfies the associative law: Using * to denote a binary operation performed on a set An example of multiplicative associativity The evaluation order does not affect the value of such expressions, and it can be shown that the same holds for expressions containing any number of operations. Thus, when is associative, the evaluation order can therefore be left unspecified without causing ambiguity, by omitting the parentheses and writing simply: However, it is important to remember that changing the order of operations does not involve or permit changing the actual operations themselves by moving the operands around within the expression. A very different perspective is obtained by rephrasing associativity using functional notation: : when expressed in this form, associativity becomes less obvious. Examples Some examples of associative operations include the following. In arithmetic, addition and multiplication of real numbers are associative; i.e., Addition and multiplication of complex numbers and quaternions is associative. Addition of octonions is also associative, but multiplication of octonions is non-associative. The greatest common divisor and least common multiple functions act associatively. Because linear transformations are functions that can be represented by matrices with matrix multiplication being the representation of functional composition, one can immediately conclude that matrix multiplication is associative. Taking the intersection or the union of sets: If M is some set and S denotes the set of all functions from M to M, then the operation of functional composition on S is associative: Slightly more generally, given four sets M, N, P and Q, with h: M to N, g: N to P, and f: P to Q, then as before. In short, composition of maps is always associative. Consider a set with three elements, A, B, and C. The following operation: + × A B C A A A A B A B C C A A A is associative. Thus, for example, A(BC)=(AB)C. This mapping is not commutative. Non-associativity A binary operation on a set S that does not satisfy the associative law is called non-associative. Symbolically, For such an operation the order of evaluation does'' matter. Subtraction, division and exponentiation are well-known examples of non-associative operations: In general, parentheses must be used to indicate the order of evaluation if a non-associative operation appears more than once in an expression. However, mathematicians agree on a particular order of evaluation for several common non-associative operations. This is simply a syntactical convention to avoid parentheses. A left-associative operation is a non-associative operation that is conventionally evaluated from left to right, i.e., while a right-associative operation is conventionally evaluated from right to left: Both left-associative and right-associative operations occur; examples are given below. More examples Left-associative operations include the following. Subtraction and division of real numbers: Right-associative operations include the following. Exponentiation of real numbers: The reason exponentiation is right-associative is that a repeated left-associative exponentiation operation would be less useful. Multiple appearances could (and would) be rewritten with multiplication: Non-associative operations for which no conventional evaluation order is defined include the following. Taking the pairwise average of real numbers: Taking the relative complement of sets: Venn diagram of the relative complements (A\B)\C and A\(B\C) The green part in the left Venn diagram represents . The green part in the right Venn diagram represents . Using right-associative notation for material conditional can be motivated e.g. by Curry-Howard correspondence: see e.g. comparison of the first two axioms of the Hilbert-style deduction system with basic combinators of combinatory logic. The study of non-associative structures arises from reasons somewhat different from the mainstream of classical algebra. One area within non-associative algebra that has grown very large is that of Lie algebras. There the associative law is replaced by the Jacobi identity. Lie algebras abstract the essential nature of infinitesimal transformations, and have become ubiquitous in mathematics. They are an example of non-associative algebras. There are other specific types of non-associative structures that have been studied in depth. They tend to come from some specific applications. Some of these arise in combinatorial mathematics. Other examples: Quasigroup, Quasifield, Nonassociative ring. See also Light's associativity test A semigroup is a set with a closed associative binary operation. Commutativity and distributivity are two other frequently discussed properties of binary operations. 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4,219 | Rendering_(computer_graphics) | An image created by using POV-Ray 3.6. Rendering is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of computer programs. The model is a description of three-dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information. The image is a digital image or raster graphics image. The term may be by analogy with an "artist's rendering" of a scene. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output. It is one of the major sub-topics of 3D computer graphics, and in practice always connected to the others. In the graphics pipeline, it is the last major step, giving the final appearance to the models and animation. With the increasing sophistication of computer graphics since the 1970s onward, it has become a more distinct subject. Rendering has uses in architecture, video games, simulators, movie or TV special effects, and design visualization, each employing a different balance of features and techniques. As a product, a wide variety of renderers are available. Some are integrated into larger modeling and animation packages, some are stand-alone, some are free open-source projects. On the inside, a renderer is a carefully engineered program, based on a selective mixture of disciplines related to: light physics, visual perception, mathematics, and software development. In the case of 3D graphics, rendering may be done slowly, as in pre-rendering, or in real time. Pre-rendering is a computationally intensive process that is typically used for movie creation, while real-time rendering is often done for 3D video games which rely on the use of graphics cards with 3D hardware accelerators. Usage When the pre-image (a wireframe sketch usually) is complete, rendering is used, which adds in bitmap textures or procedural textures, lights, bump mapping, and relative position to other objects. The result is a completed image the consumer or intended viewer sees. For movie animations, several images (frames) must be rendered, and stitched together in a program capable of making an animation of this sort. Most 3D image editing programs can do this. Features A rendered image can be understood in terms of a number of visible features. Rendering research and development has been largely motivated by finding ways to simulate these efficiently. Some relate directly to particular algorithms and techniques, while others are produced together. shading — how the color and brightness of a surface varies with lighting texture-mapping — a method of applying detail to surfaces bump-mapping — a method of simulating small-scale bumpiness on surfaces fogging/participating medium — how light dims when passing through non-clear atmosphere or air shadows — the effect of obstructing light soft shadows — varying darkness caused by partially obscured light sources reflection — mirror-like or highly glossy reflection transparency (optics), transparency (graphic) or opacity — sharp transmission of light through solid objects translucency — highly scattered transmission of light through solid objects refraction — bending of light associated with transparency diffraction — bending, spreading and interference of light passing by an object or aperture that disrupts the ray indirect illumination — surfaces illuminated by light reflected off other surfaces, rather than directly from a light source (also known as global illumination) caustics (a form of indirect illumination) — reflection of light off a shiny object, or focusing of light through a transparent object, to produce bright highlights on another object depth of field — objects appear blurry or out of focus when too far in front of or behind the object in focus motion blur — objects appear blurry due to high-speed motion, or the motion of the camera non-photorealistic rendering — rendering of scenes in an artistic style, intended to look like a painting or drawing Techniques Many rendering algorithms have been researched, and software used for rendering may employ a number of different techniques to obtain a final image. Tracing every ray of light in a scene is impractical and would take an enormous amount of time. Even tracing a portion large enough to produce an image takes an inordinate amount of time if the sampling is not intelligently restricted. Therefore, four loose families of more-efficient light transport modelling techniques have emerged: rasterization, including scanline rendering, geometrically projects objects in the scene to an image plane, without advanced optical effects; ray casting considers the scene as observed from a specific point-of-view, calculating the observed image based only on geometry and very basic optical laws of reflection intensity, and perhaps using Monte Carlo techniques to reduce artifacts; radiosity uses finite element mathematics to simulate diffuse spreading of light from surfaces; and ray tracing is similar to ray casting, but employs more advanced optical simulation, and usually uses Monte Carlo techniques to obtain more realistic results at a speed that is often orders of magnitude slower. Most advanced software combines two or more of the techniques to obtain good-enough results at reasonable cost. Another distinction is between image order algorithms, which iterate over pixels of the image plane, and object order algorithms, which iterate over objects in the scene. Generally object order is more efficient, as there are usually fewer objects in a scene than pixels. Scanline rendering and rasterisation A high-level representation of an image necessarily contains elements in a different domain from pixels. These elements are referred to as primitives. In a schematic drawing, for instance, line segments and curves might be primitives. In a graphical user interface, windows and buttons might be the primitives. In 3D rendering, triangles and polygons in space might be primitives. If a pixel-by-pixel (image order) approach to rendering is impractical or too slow for some task, then a primitive-by-primitive (object order) approach to rendering may prove useful. Here, one loops through each of the primitives, determines which pixels in the image it affects, and modifies those pixels accordingly. This is called rasterization, and is the rendering method used by all current graphics cards. Rasterization is frequently faster than pixel-by-pixel rendering. First, large areas of the image may be empty of primitives; rasterization will ignore these areas, but pixel-by-pixel rendering must pass through them. Second, rasterization can improve cache coherency and reduce redundant work by taking advantage of the fact that the pixels occupied by a single primitive tend to be contiguous in the image. For these reasons, rasterization is usually the approach of choice when interactive rendering is required; however, the pixel-by-pixel approach can often produce higher-quality images and is more versatile because it does not depend on as many assumptions about the image as rasterization. The older form of rasterization is characterized by rendering an entire face (primitive) as a single color. Alternatively, rasterization can be done in a more complicated manner by first rendering the vertices of a face and then rendering the pixels of that face as a blending of the vertex colors. This version of rasterization has overtaken the old method as it allows the graphics to flow without complicated textures (a rasterized image when used face by face tends to have a very block-like effect if not covered in complex textures; the faces aren't smooth because there is no gradual color change from one primitive to the next). This newer method of rasterization utilizes the graphics card's more taxing shading functions and still achieves better performance because the simpler textures stored in memory use less space. Sometimes designers will use one rasterization method on some faces and the other method on others based on the angle at which that face meets other joined faces, thus increasing speed and not hurting the overall effect. Ray casting Ray casting is primarily used for realtime simulations, such as those used in 3D computer games and cartoon animations, where detail is not important, or where it is more efficient to manually fake the details in order to obtain better performance in the computational stage. This is usually the case when a large number of frames need to be animated. The resulting surfaces have a characteristic 'flat' appearance when no additional tricks are used, as if objects in the scene were all painted with matte finish. The geometry which has been modeled is parsed pixel by pixel, line by line, from the point of view outward, as if casting rays out from the point of view. Where an object is intersected, the color value at the point may be evaluated using several methods. In the simplest, the color value of the object at the point of intersection becomes the value of that pixel. The color may be determined from a texture-map. A more sophisticated method is to modify the colour value by an illumination factor, but without calculating the relationship to a simulated light source. To reduce artifacts, a number of rays in slightly different directions may be averaged. Rough simulations of optical properties may be additionally employed: a simple calculation of the ray from the object to the point of view is made. Another calculation is made of the angle of incidence of light rays from the light source(s), and from these as well as the specified intensities of the light sources, the value of the pixel is calculated. Another simulation uses illumination plotted from a radiosity algorithm, or a combination of these two. Radiosity Radiosity is a method which attempts to simulate the way in which directly illuminated surfaces act as indirect light sources that illuminate other surfaces. This produces more realistic shading and seems to better capture the 'ambience' of an indoor scene. A classic example is the way that shadows 'hug' the corners of rooms. The optical basis of the simulation is that some diffused light from a given point on a given surface is reflected in a large spectrum of directions and illuminates the area around it. The simulation technique may vary in complexity. Many renderings have a very rough estimate of radiosity, simply illuminating an entire scene very slightly with a factor known as ambiance. However, when advanced radiosity estimation is coupled with a high quality ray tracing algorithim, images may exhibit convincing realism, particularly for indoor scenes. In advanced radiosity simulation, recursive, finite-element algorithms 'bounce' light back and forth between surfaces in the model, until some recursion limit is reached. The colouring of one surface in this way influences the colouring of a neighbouring surface, and vice versa. The resulting values of illumination throughout the model (sometimes including for empty spaces) are stored and used as additional inputs when performing calculations in a ray-casting or ray-tracing model. Due to the iterative/recursive nature of the technique, complex objects are particularly slow to emulate. Prior to the standardization of rapid radiosity calculation, some graphic artists used a technique referred to loosely as false radiosity by darkening areas of texture maps corresponding to corners, joints and recesses, and applying them via self-illumination or diffuse mapping for scanline rendering. Even now, advanced radiosity calculations may be reserved for calculating the ambiance of the room, from the light reflecting off walls, floor and ceiling, without examining the contribution that complex objects make to the radiosity -- or complex objects may be replaced in the radiosity calculation with simpler objects of similar size and texture. If there is little rearrangement of radiosity objects in the scene, the same radiosity data may be reused for a number of frames, making radiosity an effective way to improve on the flatness of ray casting, without seriously impacting the overall rendering time-per-frame. Because of this, radiosity has become the leading real-time rendering method, and has been used from beginning-to-end to create a large number of well-known recent feature-length animated 3D-cartoon films. Ray tracing Spiral Sphere and Julia, Detail, a computer-generated image created by visual artist Robert W. McGregor using only POV-Ray 3.6 and its built-in scene description language. Ray tracing aims to simulate the natural flow of light, interpreted as particles. Often, ray tracing methods are utilized to approximate the solution to the rendering equation by applying Monte Carlo methods to it. Some of the most used methods are Path Tracing, Bidirectional Path Tracing, or Metropolis light transport, but also semi realistic methods are in use, like Whitted Style Ray Tracing, or hybrids. While most implementations let light propagate on straight lines, applications exist to simulate relativistic spacetime effects http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.56.830 . In a final, production quality rendering of a ray traced work, multiple rays are generally shot for each pixel, and traced not just to the first object of intersection, but rather, through a number of sequential 'bounces', using the known laws of optics such as "angle of incidence equals angle of reflection" and more advanced laws that deal with refraction and surface roughness. Once the ray either encounters a light source, or more probably once a set limiting number of bounces has been evaluated, then the surface illumination at that final point is evaluated using techniques described above, and the changes along the way through the various bounces evaluated to estimate a value observed at the point of view. This is all repeated for each sample, for each pixel. In distribution ray tracing, at each point of intersection, multiple rays may be spawned. In path tracing, however, only a single ray or none is fired at each intersection, utilizing the statistical nature of Monte Carlo experiments. As a brute-force method, ray tracing has been too slow to consider for real-time, and until recently too slow even to consider for short films of any degree of quality, although it has been used for special effects sequences, and in advertising, where a short portion of high quality (perhaps even photorealistic) footage is required. However, efforts at optimizing to reduce the number of calculations needed in portions of a work where detail is not high or does not depend on ray tracing features have led to a realistic possibility of wider use of ray tracing. There is now some hardware accelerated ray tracing equipment, at least in prototype phase, and some game demos which show use of real-time software or hardware ray tracing. Optimization Optimizations used by an artist when a scene is being developed Due to the large number of calculations, a work in progress is usually only rendered in detail appropriate to the portion of the work being developed at a given time, so in the initial stages of modeling, wireframe and ray casting may be used, even where the target output is ray tracing with radiosity. It is also common to render only parts of the scene at high detail, and to remove objects that are not important to what is currently being developed. Common optimizations for real time rendering For real-time, it is appropriate to simplify one or more common approximations, and tune to the exact parameters of the scenery in question, which is also tuned to the agreed parameters to get the most 'bang for the buck'. Sampling and filtering One problem that any rendering system must deal with, no matter which approach it takes, is the sampling problem. Essentially, the rendering process tries to depict a continuous function from image space to colors by using a finite number of pixels. As a consequence of the sampling theorem, the scanning frequency must be twice the dot rate, which is proportional to image resolution. In simpler terms, this expresses the idea that an image cannot display details smaller than one pixel. If a naive rendering algorithm is used, high frequencies in the image function will cause ugly aliasing to be present in the final image. Aliasing typically manifests itself as jaggies, or jagged edges on objects where the pixel grid is visible. In order to remove aliasing, all rendering algorithms (if they are to produce good-looking images) must filter the image function to remove high frequencies, a process called antialiasing. Academic core The implementation of a realistic renderer always has some basic element of physical simulation or emulation — some computation which resembles or abstracts a real physical process. The term "physically-based" indicates the use of physical models and approximations that are more general and widely accepted outside rendering. A particular set of related techniques have gradually become established in the rendering community. The basic concepts are moderately straightforward, but intractable to calculate; and a single elegant algorithm or approach has been elusive for more general purpose renderers. In order to meet demands of robustness, accuracy, and practicality, an implementation will be a complex combination of different techniques. Rendering research is concerned with both the adaptation of scientific models and their efficient application. The rendering equation This is the key academic/theoretical concept in rendering. It serves as the most abstract formal expression of the non-perceptual aspect of rendering. All more complete algorithms can be seen as solutions to particular formulations of this equation. Meaning: at a particular position and direction, the outgoing light (Lo) is the sum of the emitted light (Le) and the reflected light. The reflected light being the sum of the incoming light (Li) from all directions, multiplied by the surface reflection and incoming angle. By connecting outward light to inward light, via an interaction point, this equation stands for the whole 'light transport' — all the movement of light — in a scene. The Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function The Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) expresses a simple model of light interaction with a surface as follows: Light interaction is often approximated by the even simpler models: diffuse reflection and specular reflection, although both can be BRDFs. Geometric optics Rendering is practically exclusively concerned with the particle aspect of light physics — known as geometric optics. Treating light, at its basic level, as particles bouncing around is a simplification, but appropriate: the wave aspects of light are negligible in most scenes, and are significantly more difficult to simulate. Notable wave aspect phenomena include diffraction — as seen in the colours of CDs and DVDs — and polarisation — as seen in LCDs. Both types of effect, if needed, are made by appearance-oriented adjustment of the reflection model. Visual perception Though it receives less attention, an understanding of human visual perception is valuable to rendering. This is mainly because image displays and human perception have restricted ranges. A renderer can simulate an almost infinite range of light brightness and color, but current displays — movie screen, computer monitor, etc. — cannot handle so much, and something must be discarded or compressed. Human perception also has limits, and so doesn't need to be given large-range images to create realism. This can help solve the problem of fitting images into displays, and, furthermore, suggest what short-cuts could be used in the rendering simulation, since certain subtleties won't be noticeable. This related subject is tone mapping. Mathematics used in rendering includes: linear algebra, calculus, numerical mathematics, signal processing, monte carlo. Rendering for movies often takes place on a network of tightly connected computers known as a render farm. The current state of the art in 3-D image description for movie creation is the Mental Ray scene description language designed at mental images and the RenderMan shading language designed at Pixar. http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1185817&jmp=abstract&coll=GUIDE&dl=GUIDE (compare with simpler 3D fileformats such as VRML or APIs such as OpenGL and DirectX tailored for 3D hardware accelerators). Other renderers (including proprietary ones) can and are sometimes used, but most other renderers tend to miss one or more of the often needed features like good texture filtering, texture caching, programmable shaders, highend geometry types like hair, subdivision or nurbs surfaces with tesselation on demand, geometry caching, raytracing with geometry caching, high quality shadow mapping, speed or patent-free implementations. Other highly sought features these days may include IPR and hardware rendering/shading. Chronology of important published ideas 1968 Ray casting (Appel, A. (1968). Some techniques for shading machine renderings of solids. Proceedings of the Spring Joint Computer Conference 32, 37–49.) 1970 Scanline rendering (Bouknight, W. J. (1970). A procedure for generation of three-dimensional half-tone computer graphics presentations. Communications of the ACM) 1971 Gouraud shading (Gouraud, H. (1971). Computer display of curved surfaces. IEEE Transactions on Computers 20 (6), 623–629.) 1974 Texture mapping (Catmull, E. (1974). A subdivision algorithm for computer display of curved surfaces. PhD thesis, University of Utah.) 1974 Z-buffering (Catmull, E. (1974). A subdivision algorithm for computer display of curved surfaces. PhD thesis) 1975 Phong shading (Phong, B-T. (1975). Illumination for computer generated pictures. Communications of the ACM 18 (6), 311–316.) 1976 Environment mapping (Blinn, J.F., Newell, M.E. (1976). Texture and reflection in computer generated images. Communications of the ACM 19, 542–546.) 1977 Shadow volumes (Crow, F.C. (1977). Shadow algorithms for computer graphics. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1977) 11 (2), 242–248.) 1978 Shadow buffer (Williams, L. (1978). Casting curved shadows on curved surfaces. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1978) 12 (3), 270–274.) 1978 Bump mapping (Blinn, J.F. (1978). Simulation of wrinkled surfaces. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1978) 12 (3), 286–292.) 1980 BSP trees (Fuchs, H., Kedem, Z.M., Naylor, B.F. (1980). On visible surface generation by a priori tree structures. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1980) 14 (3), 124–133.) 1980 Ray tracing (Whitted, T. (1980). An improved illumination model for shaded display. Communications of the ACM 23 (6), 343–349.) 1981 Cook shader (Cook, R.L., Torrance, K.E. (1981). A reflectance model for computer graphics. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1981) 15 (3), 307–316.) 1983 MIP maps (Williams, L. (1983). Pyramidal parametrics. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1983) 17 (3), 1–11.) 1984 Octree ray tracing (Glassner, A.S. (1984). Space subdivision for fast ray tracing. IEEE Computer Graphics & Applications 4 (10), 15–22.) 1984 Alpha compositing (Porter, T., Duff, T. (1984). Compositing digital images. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1984) 18 (3), 253–259.) 1984 Distributed ray tracing (Cook, R.L., Porter, T., Carpenter, L. (1984). Distributed ray tracing. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1984) 18 (3), 137–145.) 1984 Radiosity (Goral, C., Torrance, K.E., Greenberg D.P., Battaile, B. (1984). Modelling the interaction of light between diffuse surfaces. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1984) 18 (3), 213–222.) 1985 Hemicube radiosity (Cohen, M.F., Greenberg, D.P. (1985). The hemi-cube: a radiosity solution for complex environments. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1985) 19 (3), 31–40.) 1986 Light source tracing (Arvo, J. (1986). Backward ray tracing. SIGGRAPH 1986 Developments in Ray Tracing course notes) 1986 Rendering equation (Kajiya, J. (1986). The rendering equation. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1986) 20 (4), 143–150.) 1987 Reyes rendering (Cook, R.L., Carpenter, L., Catmull, E. (1987). The reyes image rendering architecture. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1987) 21 (4), 95–102.) 1991 Hierarchical radiosity (Hanrahan, P., Salzman, D., Aupperle, L. (1991). A rapid hierarchical radiosity algorithm. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1991) 25 (4), 197–206.) 1993 Tone mapping (Tumblin, J., Rushmeier, H.E. (1993). Tone reproduction for realistic computer generated images. IEEE Computer Graphics & Applications 13 (6), 42–48.) 1993 Subsurface scattering (Hanrahan, P., Krueger, W. (1993). Reflection from layered surfaces due to subsurface scattering. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1993) 27 (), 165–174.) 1995 Photon mapping (Jensen, H.W., Christensen, N.J. (1995). Photon maps in bidirectional monte carlo ray tracing of complex objects. Computers & Graphics 19 (2), 215–224.) 1997 Metropolis light transport (Veach, E., Guibas, L. (1997). Metropolis light transport. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1997) 16 65–76.) 1997 Instant Radiosity (Keller, A. (1997). Instant Radiosity. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1997) 24, 49–56.) 2002 Precomputed Radiance Transfer (Sloan, P., Kautz, J., Snyder, J. (2002). Precomputed Radiance Transfer for Real-Time Rendering in Dynamic, Low Frequency Lighting Environments. Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 2002) 29, 527–536.) See also 2D computer graphics 3D rendering Architectural rendering Global illumination Graphics pipeline Image-based modeling and rendering Painter's algorithm Pre-rendered Raster image processor Radiosity Ray tracing Software rendering Scanline algorithms like Reyes Unbiased rendering Vector graphics VirtualGL Virtual model Virtual studio Volume rendering Z-buffer algorithms Books and summaries Pharr; Humphreys (2004). Physically Based Rendering. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 0-12-553180-X. Shirley; Morley (2003). Realistic Ray Tracing (2nd ed.). AK Peters. ISBN 1-56881-198-5. Dutre; Bala; Bekaert (2002). Advanced Global Illumination. AK Peters. ISBN 1-56881-177-2. Akenine-Moller; Haines (2002). Real-time Rendering (2nd ed.). AK Peters. ISBN 1-56881-182-9. Strothotte; Schlechtweg (2002). Non-Photorealistic Computer Graphics. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1-55860-787-0. Gooch; Gooch (2001). Non-Photorealistic Rendering. AKPeters. ISBN 1-56881-133-0. Jensen (2001). Realistic Image Synthesis Using Photon Mapping. AK Peters. ISBN 1-56881-147-0. Blinn (1996). Jim Blinns Corner - A Trip Down The Graphics Pipeline. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1-55860-387-5. Glassner (1995). Principles Of Digital Image Synthesis. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1-55860-276-3. Cohen; Wallace (1993). Radiosity and Realistic Image Synthesis. AP Professional. ISBN 0-12-178270-0. Foley; Van Dam; Feiner; Hughes (1990). Computer Graphics: Principles And Practice. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-12110-7. Glassner (ed.) (1989). An Introduction To Ray Tracing. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-286160-4. Description of the 'Radiance' system External links Ray tracing & rendering techniques - An ongoing "online book" written by a group of people who worked in world class CG studios, presented as a series of free lessons on ray tracing & other rendering techniques (with C++ source code). SIGGRAPH The ACMs special interest group in graphics — the largest academic and professional association and conference. Ray Tracing News - Ray Tracing News, A newsletter on ray tracing technical matters. http://www.cs.brown.edu/~tor/ List of links to (recent) siggraph papers (and some others) on the web. 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4,220 | Advanced_Micro_Devices | Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD) () is an American multinational semiconductor company based in Sunnyvale, California, that develops computer processors and related technologies for commercial and consumer markets. Its main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors and graphics processors for servers, workstations and personal computers, and processor technologies for handheld devices, digital television, automobiles, game consoles, and other embedded systems applications. AMD is the second-largest global supplier of microprocessors based on the x86 architecture after Intel Corporation, and the third-largest supplier of graphics processing units, behind Intel and Nvidia. It also owns 21 percent of Spansion, a supplier of non-volatile flash memory. In 2007, AMD ranked eleventh among semiconductor manufacturers in terms of revenue. Corporate history AMD headquarters in Sunnyvale. AMD Markham in Canada, formerly ATI headquarters. Advanced Micro Devices was founded on May 1, 1969, by a group of former executives from Fairchild Semiconductor, including Jerry Sanders III, Ed Turney, John Carey, Sven Simonsen, Jack Gifford and three members from Gifford's team, Frank Botte, Jim Giles, and Larry Stenger. The company began as a producer of logic chips, then entered the RAM chip business in 1975. That same year, it introduced a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080 microprocessor. During this period, AMD also designed and produced a series of bit-slice processor elements (Am2900, Am29116, Am293xx) which were used in various minicomputer designs. During this time, AMD attempted to embrace the perceived shift towards RISC with their own AMD 29K processor, and they attempted to diversify into graphics and audio devices as well as EPROM memory. It had some success in the mid-80s with the AMD7910 and AMD7911 "World Chip" FSK modem, one of the first multistandard devices that covered both Bell and CCITT tones at up to 1200 baud half duplex or 300/300 full duplex. While the AMD 29K survived as an embedded processor and AMD spinoff Spansion continues to make industry leading flash memory, AMD was not as successful with its other endeavors. AMD decided to switch gears and concentrate solely on Intel-compatible microprocessors and flash memory. This put them in direct competition with Intel for x86 compatible processors and their flash memory secondary markets. AMD announced a merger with ATI Technologies on July 24, 2006. AMD paid $4.3 billion in cash and 58 million shares of its stock for a total of US$5.4 billion. The merger completed on October 25, 2006 and ATI is now part of AMD. It was reported in December 2006 that AMD, along with its main rival in the graphics industry Nvidia, received subpoenas from the Justice Department regarding possible antitrust violations in the graphics card industry, including the act of fixing prices. In October 2008, AMD stated that it is going to spin off their manufacturing operations in the form of a multibillion-dollar joint venture with Advanced Technology Investment Co., an investment company formed by the government of Abu Dhabi. The new venture is called GlobalFoundries Inc.. This will allow AMD to focus solely on chip design. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/07/technology/07chip.html?bl&ex=1223611200&en=6c2c0d7539595be6&ei=5087%0A Processor market history Early AMD 8080 Processor (AMD AM9080ADC / C8080A), 1977 IBM PC and the x86 architecture In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with Intel, becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of 8086 and 8088 processors. IBM wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its IBM PC, but IBM's policy at the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later produced the Am286 under the same arrangement, but Intel canceled the agreement in 1986 and refused to convey technical details of the i386 part. AMD challenged Intel's decision to cancel the agreement and won in arbitration, but Intel disputed this decision. A long legal dispute followed, ending in 1994 when the Supreme Court of California sided with AMD. Subsequent legal disputes centered on whether AMD had legal rights to use derivatives of Intel's microcode. In the face of uncertainty, AMD was forced to develop "clean room" versions of Intel code. In 1991, AMD released the Am386, its clone of the Intel 386 processor. It took less than a year for the company to sell a million units. Later, the Am486 was used by a number of large original equipment manufacturers, including Compaq, and proved popular. Another Am486-based product, the Am5x86, continued AMD's success as a low-price alternative. However, as product cycles shortened in the PC industry, the process of reverse engineering Intel's products became an ever less viable strategy for AMD. K5, K6 and Athlon AMD's first in-house x86 processor was the K5 which was launched in 1996. The "K" was a reference to "Kryptonite", which from comic book lore, was the only substance (radioactive pieces of his home planet) which could harm Superman, a clear reference to Intel, which dominated in the market at the time, as "Superman". In 1996, AMD purchased NexGen specifically for the rights to their Nx series of x86-compatible processors. AMD gave the NexGen design team their own building, left them alone, and gave them time and money to rework the Nx686. The result was the K6 processor, introduced in 1997. The K7 was AMD's seventh generation x86 processor, making its debut on June 23, 1999, under the brand name Athlon. On October 9, 2001 the Athlon XP was released, followed by the Athlon XP with 512KB L2 Cache on February 10, 2003. Athlon 64, Opteron and Phenom The K8 was a major revision of the K7 architecture, with the most notable features being the addition of a 64-bit extension to the x86 instruction set (officially called AMD64), the incorporation of an on-chip memory controller, and the implementation of an extremely high performance point-to-point interconnect called HyperTransport, as part of the Direct Connect Architecture. The technology was initially launched as the Opteron server-oriented processor. Scott Wasson. "Workstation platforms compared", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., 2003-09-15, Retrieved on 2007-07-29. Shortly thereafter it was incorporated into a product for desktop PCs, branded Athlon 64. Scott Wasson. "AMD's Athlon 64 processor", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., 2003-09-23. Retrieved on 2007-07-29. AMD released the first dual core Opteron, an x86-based server CPU, on April 21, 2005. Scott Wasson. "AMD's dual-core Opteron processors", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., 2005-04-21. Retrieved on 2007-07-29. The first desktop-based dual core processor family — the Athlon 64 X2 — came a month later. Scott Wasson. "AMD's Athlon 64 X2 processors", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., 2005-05-09. Retrieved on 2007-07-29. In early May 2007, AMD had abandoned the string "64" in its dual-core desktop product branding, becoming Athlon X2, downplaying the significance of 64-bit computing in its processors while upcoming updates involved some of the improvements to the microarchitecture, and a shift of target market from mainstream desktop systems to value dual-core desktop systems. AMD has also started to release dual-core Sempron processors in early 2008 exclusively in China, branded as Sempron 2000 series, with lower HyperTransport speed and smaller L2 cache, thus the firm completes its dual-core product portfolio for each market segment. The latest AMD microprocessor architecture, known as K10, became the successor to the K8 microarchitecture. The first processors released on this architecture were introduced on September 10, 2007 consisting of nine quad-core Third Generation Opteron processors. This was followed by the Phenom processor for desktop. K10 processors will come in dual, triple-core, AMD announcement, retrieved September 17, 2007 and quad-core versions with all cores on one single die. Fusion After the merger between AMD and ATI, an initiative codenamed Fusion was announced that merges a CPU and GPU on one chip, including a minimum 16 lane PCI Express link to accommodate external PCI Express peripherals, thereby eliminating the requirement of a northbridge chip completely from the motherboard. AMD will move to a modular design methodology named "M-SPACE", where two new processor cores, codenamed "Bulldozer" and "Bobcat" will be released in the 2009 timeframe. While very little preliminary information exists even in AMD's Technology Analyst Day 2007, both cores are to be built from the ground up. The Bulldozer core focused on 10 watt to 100 watt products, with optimizations for performance-per-watt ratios and HPC applications and includes newly announced XOP, FMA4 and CVT16 instructions , while the Bobcat core will focus on 1 watt to 10 watt products, given that the core is a simplified x86 core to reduce power draw. Both of the cores will be able to incorporate full DirectX compatible GPU core(s) under the Fusion label, or as standalone products as a general purpose CPU. Other platforms and technologies AMD chipsets Before the launch of Athlon 64 processors in 2003, AMD designed chipsets for their processors spanning the K6 and K7 processor generations. The chipsets include the AMD-640, AMD-751 and the AMD-761 chipsets. The situation changed in 2003 with the release of Athlon 64 processors, and AMD chose not to further design its own chipsets for its desktop processors while opening the desktop platform to allow other firms to design chipsets. This is the "Open Platform ATI, VIA and SiS developing their own chipset for Athlon 64 processors and later Athlon 64 X2 and Athlon 64 FX processors, including the Quad FX platform chipset from Nvidia. The initiative went further with the release of Opteron server processors as AMD stopped the design of server chipsets in 2004 after releasing the AMD-8111 chipset, and again opened the server platform for firms to develop chipsets for Opteron processors. As of today, Nvidia and Broadcom are the sole designing firms of server chipsets for Opteron processors. As the company completed the acquisition of ATI Technologies in 2006, the firm gained the ATI design team for chipsets which previously designed the Radeon Xpress 200 and the Radeon Xpress 3200 chipsets. AMD then renamed the chipsets for AMD processors under AMD branding (for instance, the CrossFire Xpress 3200 chipset was renamed as AMD 580X CrossFire chipset). In February 2007, AMD announced the first AMD-branded chipset since 2004 with the release of the AMD 690G chipset (previously under the development codename RS690), targeted at mainstream IGP computing. It was the industry's first to implement a HDMI 1.2 port on motherboards, shipping for more than a million units. While ATI had aimed at releasing an Intel IGP chipset, the plan was scrapped and the inventories of Radeon Xpress 1250 (codenamed RS600, sold under ATI brand) was sold to two OEMs, Abit and AsRock. Although AMD states the firm will still produce Intel chipsets, Intel had not granted the license of FSB to ATI. Considering the rivalry between AMD and Intel, AMD is less likely to release more Intel chipset designs in the foreseeable future. On November 15, 2007, AMD has announced a new chipset series portfolio, the AMD 7-Series chipsets, covering from enthusiast multi-graphics segment to value IGP segment, to replace the AMD 480/570/580 chipsets and AMD 690 series chipsets, marking AMD's first enthusiast multi-graphics chipset. Discrete graphics chipsets were launched on November 15, 2007 as part of the codenamed Spider desktop platform, and IGP chipsets were launched at a later time in Spring 2008 as part of the codenamed Cartwheel platform. AMD will also return to the server chipsets market with the next-generation AMD 800S series server chipsets, scheduled to be released in 2009 timeframe. AMD Live! AMD LIVE! is a platform marketing initiative focusing the consumer electronics segment, with a recently announced Active TV initiative for streaming Internet videos from web video services such as YouTube, into AMD Live! PC as well as connected digital TVs, together with a scheme for an ecosystem of certified peripherals for the ease of customers to identify peripherals for AMD Live! systems for digital home experience, called "AMD Live! Ready". Official Press Release (AMD Live! Ready and Active TV initiative) AMD Quad FX platform The AMD Quad FX platform, being an extreme enthusiast platform, allows two processors to connect through HyperTransport, which is a similar setup to dual-processor (2P) servers, excluding the use of buffered memory/registered memory DIMM modules, and a server motherboard, the current setup includes two Athlon 64 FX FX-70 series processors and a special motherboard. AMD pushed the platform for the surging demands for what AMD calls "megatasking" for true enthusiasts, Official Press Release (AMD Quad FX Platform with Dual Socket Direct Connect Architecture Redefines High-End Computing for Megatasking Enthusiasts) the ability to do more tasks on one single system. The platform refreshes with the introduction of Phenom FX processors and the next-generation RD790 chipset, codenamed "FASN8". Commercial platform The first AMD server/workstation platform after ATI acquisition is scheduled to be released on 2009 timeframe. Codenamed Fiorano, AMD's first multi-processor server platform after ATI acquisition consists of AMD SR5690 + SP5100 server chipsets, supporting 45 nm, codenamed Shanghai Socket F+ processors and registered DDR2 memory. Future update include the Maranello platform supporting 45 nm, codenamed Istanbul, Socket G34 processors with DDR3 memory. On single-processor platform, the codenamed Catalunya platform consists of codenamed Suzuka 45 nm quad-core processor with AMD SR5580 + SP5100 chipset and DDR3 support. AMD Server/Workstation platform roadmap, retrieved October 4, 2008 AMD's x86 virtualization extension to the 64-bit x86 architecture is named AMD Virtualization, also known by the abbreviation AMD-V, and is sometimes referred to by the code name "Pacifica". AMD processors using Socket AM2, Socket S1, and Socket F include AMD Virtualization support. AMD Virtualization is also supported by release two (8200, 2200 and 1200 series) of the Opteron processors. The third generation (8300 and 2300 series) of Opteron processors will see an update in virtualization technology, specifically the Rapid Virtualization Indexing (also known by the development name Nested Page Tables), alongside the Tagged TLB and Device Exclusion Vector (DEV). AMD also promotes the "AMD I/O Virtualization Technology" (also known as IOMMU) for I/O virtualization. The AMD IOMMU specification has been updated to version 1.2. The specification describes the use of a HyperTransport architecture. AMD's commercial initiatives include the following: AMD Trinity, provides support for virtualization, security and management. Key features include AMD-V technology, codenamed Presidio trusted computing platform technology, I/O Virtualization and Open Management Partition. AMD Analyst Day presentation, page 24, retrieved July 14, 2007 AMD Raiden, future clients similar to the Jack PC to be connected through network to a blade server for central management, to reduce client form factor sizes with AMD Trinity features. Torrenza, coprocessors support through interconnects such as HyperTransport as PCI Express (though more focus was at HyperTransport enabled coprocessors), also opening processor socket architecture to other manufacturers, Sun and IBM are among the supporting consortium, with rumoured POWER7 processors would be socket-compatible to future Opteron processors. The move made rival Intel responded with the open of Front Side Bus (FSB) architecture as well as Geneseo, a collaboration project with IBM for coprocessors connected through PCI Express. Note that AMD positioned Torrenza for commercial segment, whilst Intel positioned Geneseo for all segments including consumer desktop segments . Various certified systems programs and platforms: AMD Commercial Stable Image Platform (CSIP), together with AMD Validated Server program, AMD True Server Solutions, AMD Thermally Tested Barebones Platforms and AMD Validated Server Program, providing certified systems for business from AMD. Desktop platforms Starting in 2007, AMD, following Intel, began using codenames for its desktop platforms such as Spider. The platforms, unlike Intel's approach, will refresh every year, putting focus on platform specialization. The platform includes components as AMD processors, chipsets, ATI graphics and other features, but continued to the open platform approach, and welcome components from other vendors such as VIA, SiS, and Nvidia, as well as wireless product vendors. Updates to the platform includes the implemtation of IOMMU I/O Virtualization with 45 nm generation of processors, and the AMD 800 chipset series in 2009. AMD Financial Analyst Day 2007 presentation, presented by Mario Rivas, page 24 of 28. Retrieved December 14, 2007 Embedded systems In February 2002, AMD acquired Alchemy Semiconductor and continued its line of processor in MIPS architecture processors, targets the hand-held and Portable media player markets. On June 13, 2006, AMD officially announced that the Alchemy processor line was transferred to Raza Microelectronics Inc. In August 2003, AMD also purchased the Geode business which was originally the Cyrix MediaGX from National Semiconductor to augment its existing line of embedded x86 processor products. During the second quarter of 2004, it launched new low-power Geode NX processors based on the K7 Thoroughbred architecture with speeds of fanless processors and , and processor with fan, of TDP 25 W. This technology is used in a variety of embedded systems (Casino slot machines and customer kiosks for instance), several UMPC designs in Asia markets, as well as the OLPC XO-1 computer, an inexpensive laptop computer intended to be distributed to children in developing countries around the world. For the past couple of years AMD has been introducing 64-bit processors into its embedded product line starting with the AMD Opteron processor. Leveraging the high throughput enabled through HyperTransport and the Direct Connect Architecture these server class processors have been targeted at high end telecom and storage applications. In 2006 AMD added the AMD Athlon, AMD Turion and Mobile AMD Sempron processors to its embedded product line. Leveraging the same 64-bit instruction set and Direct Connect Architecture as the AMD Opteron but at lower power levels, these processors were well suited to a variety of traditional embedded applications. Throughout 2007 and into 2008 AMD has continued to add both single-core Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors and dual-core AMD Athlon X2 and AMD Turion processors to its embedded product line and now offers embedded 64-bit solutions starting with 8W TDP Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors for fan-less designs up to multi-processor systems leveraging multi-core AMD Opteron processors all supporting longer than standard availability. In April 2007, AMD announced the release of the M690T integrated graphics chipset for embedded designs. This enabled AMD to offer complete processor and chipset solutions targeted at embedded applications requiring high performance 3D and video such as emerging digital signage, kiosk and Point of Sale applications. The M690T was followed by the M690E specifically for embedded applications which removed the TV output, which required Macrovision licensing for OEMs, and enabled native support for dual TMDS outputs, enabling dual independent DVI interfaces. Flash technology While less visible to the general public than its CPU business, AMD is also a global leader in flash memory. In 1993, AMD established a 50-50 partnership with Fujitsu called FASL, and merged into a new company called FASL LLC in 2003. The joint venture firm went public under ticker symbol SPSN in December 2005, with AMD shares drop to 37%. AMD no longer directly participates in the Flash memory devices market now as AMD entered into a non-competition agreement, as of December 21, 2005, with Fujitsu and Spansion, pursuant to which it agreed not to directly or indirectly engage in a business that manufactures or supplies standalone semiconductor devices (including single chip, multiple chip or system devices) containing only Flash memory. Mobile platforms AMD started a platform in 2003 aimed at mobile computing, but, with fewer advertisements and promotional schemes, very little was known about the platform. The platform used mobile Athlon 64 or mobile Sempron processors. As part of the "Better by design" initiative, the open mobile platform, announced February 2007 with announcement of general availability in May 2007, comes together with 65 nm fabrication process Turion 64 X2, and consists of three major components: an AMD processor, graphics from either Nvidia or ATI Technologies which also includes integrated graphics (IGP), and wireless connectivity solutions from Atheros, Broadcom, Marvell, Qualcomm or Realtek. The Puma platform and Turion Ultra processor was released on June 4, 2008. In the future, AMD plans quad-core processors with 3D graphics capabilities (Fusion) to be launched in 2009 as the Eagle platform. Other initiatives 50x15, digital inclusion, with targeted 50% of world population to be connected through Internet via affordable computers by the year of 2015. The Green Grid, founded by AMD together with other founders, such as IBM, Sun and Microsoft, to seek lower power consumption for grids. Intel was notably absent from the consortium when it was founded, and finally joined in early 2007. Codenamed SIMFIRE interoperability testing tool for the Desktop and mobile Architecture for System Hardware (DASH) open architecture. Software Extensions for software parallelism (xSP), aimed at speeding up programs to enable multi-threaded and multi-core processing, announced in Technology Analyst Day 2007. One of the initiatives being discussed since August 2007 is the Light Weight Profiling (LWP), providing internal hardware monitor with runtimes, to observe information about executing process and help the re-design of software to be optimized with multi-core and even multi-threaded programs. Another one is the extension of Streaming SIMD Extension (SSE) instruction set, the SSE5. AMD contributes to open source projects, including working with Sun Microsystems to enhance OpenSolaris and Sun xVM on the AMD platform. AMD also maintains its own Open64 compiler distribution and contributes its changes back to the community. In 2008, AMD released the low-level programming specifications for its GPUs, and works with the X.Org Foundation to develop drivers for AMD graphics cards. Other AMD opensource projects include the AMD Performance Library and the AMD Core Math Library. Technologies from ATI After the takeover of ATI, AMD restructured some of the product lineups from both companies. Some products were being rebranded under the AMD brand, including the Imageon for mobile phones and handheld devices, the Xilleon for consumer electronics (digital TV sets), ATI Xpress chipsets (to AMD chipsets) for AMD processors platform and GPGPU computing line-up FireStream, previously known as AMD Stream Processor. Some others retained the use of ATI branding, including the Radeon line of graphics, and chipsets for Intel processors. Production and fabrication AMD produces their own processors in wholly owned semiconductor Fabrication Plants, called "FABs". AMD uses a "FAB x" naming convention for their production facilities, where "x" is the number of years that have passed between the founding of AMD and the date the FAB opened. At their Fabrication facilities, AMD utilizes a system called Automated Precision Manufacturing (APM). APM is a collection of manufacturing technologies AMD has developed over their history (many of which AMD holds patents for), which are designed to enhance the microprocessor production process, primarily in terms of yield. Much of APM is related to removing the "human equation" from the manufacturing process by isolating in-process wafers in containers that are only exposed to clean room facilities. AMD claims that the technologies that combine to make APM are unique to the industry and make it the foremost semiconductor manufacturer in the world - a fact which is lent some credence by their current agreement with Chartered Semiconductor Manufacturing based in Singapore. AMD currently has a production agreement with foundry Chartered Semiconductor Manufacturing which allows Chartered access to AMD Automated Precision Manufacturing (APM) process technology, in exchange for which Chartered will act as extra production capacity for AMD. Through the acquisition of ATI, AMD also has manufacturing agreements with TSMC to produce ATI's lines of graphics and chipset processors. It is currently unclear how much of ATI's manufacturing needs will be moved to AMD's own fabs and how much will remain outsourced to other foundry companies, but AMD has announced plans for future processors to be outsourced to TSMC, while coincidentally TSMC had announced it had received orders to fabricate x86 processors. AMD Saxony in Dresden, Germany is the major wafer production site. See Silicon Saxony also. AMD's main microprocessor manufacturing and design facilities are located in Dresden, Germany. Additionally, highly integrated microprocessors are manufactured in Taiwan made by third-party manufacturers under strict license from AMD. Between 2003 and 2005, they constructed a second manufacturing plant ( 90 nm process SOI) in the same complex in order to increase the number of chips they can produce, thus becoming more competitive with Intel. The new plant has been named "Fab 36", in recognition of AMD's 36 years of operation, and reached full production in mid-2007. AMD recently announced that they have just completed the conversion of Fab 36 from to 65 nm and have now shifted their focus to the 45 nm conversion. Rick C. Hodgin. "Wrap-up: AMD outlines a bright future at Technology Analyst Day", tgdaily.com, Tigervision Media, 2007-07-26, pp.4. Retrieved on 2007-07-29. AMD has planned expansions in their production capacity. In addition to the completion of Fab 36 in Dresden, AMD is planning to upgrade Fab 30 (adjacent to Fab 36) in Dresden from 90 nm process SOI to a process SOI facility and rename it Fab 38. Originally, Fab 30 was supposed to begin production in late 2007 but AMD recently announced they would slow down the upgrade to reduce capital expenditures. Anton Shilov. "AMD’s Fab 36 Fully Converted to Process Technology AMD. AMD Is Happy with Yields, Including "Barcelona"", xbitlabs.com, X-bit labs, 2007-07-21. Retrieved on 2007-07-29. Because of US$5 billion in long-term debt, during summer of 2008 AMD has tried and failed to sell both Dresden plants for which there has not been buyers Time Working Against AMD's Asset-light Plans Packaging and testing facilities for its microprocessor products are located in Singapore, Malaysia and China. Furthermore, AMD announced plans to open a new $3.2 billion facility at the Luther Forest Technology Campus across the towns of Malta and Stillwater in Saratoga County, New York. This new Fab 4x will likely produce 32 nm process SOI production, with construction taking place from 2009 to 2010. Some speculation exists as to whether this facility will use high-K/metal gate technology that AMD obtained from IBM. John G. Spooner. "AMD to Build Factory in New York", eweek.com, Ziff Davis Publishing Holdings Inc., 2006-06-23. Retrieved on 2007-07-29. In June 2006, Chartered Semiconductor began shipments of manufactured AMD microprocessors, many of which are shipped from Singapore to Taiwanese and Chinese OEM/ODM manufacturing companies that build computers for companies like Lenovo and Dell. Anton Shilov. "AMD Begins Revenue Shipments of Processors Produced by Chartered. AMD Initiates Shipments of Chartered-Built CPUs", xbitlabs.com, X-bit labs, 2006-07-13. Retrieved on 2007-07-29. AMD maintains major design facilities in Fort Collins, CO, Sunnyvale, CA, Austin, TX, Boxborough, MA and Bangalore, India. With the acquisition of ATI Technologies, the company gained ownership over major design facilities in Markham, ON and Santa Clara, CA. Corporate affairs Partnerships AMD utilizes strategic industry partnerships to further its business interests as well as to tackle Intel's dominance and resources. Notably Nvidia's nForce2 chipset generated substantial revenues for Nvidia as a popular enthusiast part. A partnership between AMD and Alpha Processor Inc. developed HyperTransport, a point-to-point interconnect standard which was turned over to an industry standards body for finalization. It is now used in modern AMD processor compatible motherboards. AMD also formed a strategic partnership with IBM, under which AMD gained silicon on insulator (SOI) manufacturing technology, and detailed advice on 90 nm implementation, the partnership was announced by AMD to be extended to 2011 for 32 nm and 22 nm fabrication related technologies. AMD Analyst Day June 2006 Presentation, slide 10 Further, AMD is loosely partnered with end-user companies such as HP, Compaq, ASUS, Alienware, Acer, Evesham Technology, Dell and several others to facilitate processor distribution and sales. On May 18, 2006, Dell announced that it would roll out new servers based on AMD's Opteron chips by years end, thus ending an exclusive relationship with Intel. Dell also began offering AMD Athlon X2 chips in their desktop line-up in September 2006. AMD is also a sponsor of the Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro F1 Team since 2002 and the Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team since 2004, in 2009 AMD also became the jersey sponsor of the USL expansion team Austin Aztex FC. Litigation with Intel AMD has a long history of litigation with former partner and x86 creator Intel. In 1986 Intel broke an agreement it had with AMD to allow them to produce Intel's micro-chips for IBM; AMD filed for arbitration in 1987 and the arbitrator decided in AMD's favor in 1992. Intel disputed this, and the case ended up in the Supreme Court of California. In 1994, that court upheld the arbitrator's decision and awarded damages for breach of contract. In 1990, Intel brought a copyright infringement action alleging illegal use of its 287 microcode. The case ended in 1994 with a jury finding for AMD and its right to use Intel's microcode in its microprocessors through the 486 generation. In 1997, Intel filed suit against AMD and Cyrix Corp. for misuse of the term MMX. AMD and Intel settled, with AMD acknowledging MMX as a trademark owned by Intel, and with Intel granting AMD rights to market the AMD K6 MMX processor. In 2005, following an investigation, the Japan Federal Trade Commission found Intel guilty on a number of violations. On June 27, 2005, AMD won an antitrust suit against Intel in Japan, and on the same day, AMD filed a broad antitrust complaint against Intel in the U.S. Federal District Court in Delaware. The complaint alleges systematic use of secret rebates, special discounts, threats, and other means used by Intel to lock AMD processors out of the global market. Since the start of this action, The Court has issued subpoenas to major computer manufacturers including Acer, Dell, Lenovo, HP and Toshiba. Events and publications Although AMD frequently refuses to provide information about upcoming products and plans, it does hold annual Technology Analyst Days (often shortened to "Analyst Day") to reveal and explain key future technologies, and to present official technology roadmaps. The event held in mid-year is referred to as "Technology Analyst Day", with its main focus on upcoming technologies and trends AMD Technology Analyst Day 2007 page, retrieved December 14, 2007 . The end-of-year event is referred to as "Financial Analyst Day" and focuses on the financial performance of the company through the previous year AMD Financial Analyst Day 2007 page, retrieved December 14, 2007 In addition to these events, AMD also publishes printed media. Publications include the AMD Accelerate and the discontinued AMDEdge. The AMD Accelerate magazine, originally published through Ziff Davis Media, focuses on SME and business applications, while AMD Edge focused on overall technologies from AMD. Since Ziff Davis Media filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, the AMD Accelerate magazine has been published through IDG. AMD also has electronic newsletters to promote its server-oriented Opteron processors and related business solutions. See also Intel Corporation x86 architecture ATI Technologies GlobalFoundries NexGen Nvidia Spansion AMD FireStream Imageon Xilleon 3DNow! Cool'n'Quiet PowerNow! Torrenza HyperTransport AMD CPU sockets List of AMD microprocessors List of AMD CPU microarchitectures List of AMD Athlon microprocessors List of AMD Athlon XP microprocessors List of AMD Athlon 64 microprocessors List of AMD Athlon X2 microprocessors List of AMD Phenom microprocessors List of AMD Duron microprocessors List of AMD Opteron microprocessors List of AMD Sempron microprocessors List of AMD Turion microprocessors Comparison of AMD Chipsets Comparison of ATI graphics processing units Comparison of ATI Chipsets Comparison of AMD Processors References AMD ShangHai Processor AMD: 30 Years of Pursuing the Leader Cpu-collection.de AMD processor images and descriptions AMD goes dual-core Why AMD-MHz don't equal Intel-MHz AMD's most recent conference call transcripts A look at AMD's manufacturing process technologies External links AMD Corporate Website AMD Live! 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4,221 | Nicolai_Abildgaard | Nikolaj Abraham Abildgaard (September 11, 1743 – June 4, 1809), Danish artist, was born in Copenhagen, the son of Søren Abildgaard, an antiquarian draughtsman of repute, and Anne Margrethe Bastholm. Life Training as an artist He trained under a painting master before coming to the new Royal Danish Academy of Art (Det Kongelige Danske Kunstakademi) in Copenhagen, studying under Johan Edvard Mandelberg and Johannes Wiedewelt. He won medallions at the Academy from 1764 to 1767. The large gold medallion from the Academy won in 1767 included a travel stipend, which he waited five years to receive. He assisted Professor Mandelberg of the Academy as an apprentice ca. 1769, painting decorations for the royal palace at Fredensborg. These paintings are classical, influenced by French classical artists such as Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin. Mandelberg had studied in Paris under François Boucher. Student travels Although artists of that time typically traveled to Paris for further study, he chose to travel to Rome, where he stayed during the years 1772-1777. He took a side trip to Naples in 1776 with Jens Juel. His ambitions lay in the genre of history painting. While in Rome, he studied Annibale Carracci's frescoes at the Palazzo Farnese and the paintings of Rafael, Titian, and Michaelangelo. In addition he studied various other artistic disciplines (sculpture, architecture, decoration, wall paintings) and developed his knowledge of mythology, antiquities, anatomy, and perspective. In the company of Swedish sculptor Johan Tobias Sergel and painter Johann Heinrich Füssli, he began to move away from the classicism he had learned at the Academy. He developed an appreciation for the literature of Shakespeare, Homer, and Ossian, the legendary Gaelic poet. He worked with themes from Greek as well as Norse mythology, which placed him at the forefront of Nordic romanticism. He left Rome in June 1777 with the hope of becoming professor at the Academy in Copenhagen. He stopped for a stay in Paris, and arrived in Denmark in December of the same year. An Academic and artistic career His admission into the Academy went quickly, and he was named professor in 1778. He was an academic painter of the neoclassical school. During the years 1777-1794, he was very productive as an artist in addition to his role at the school, where he taught painting, mythology, and anatomy. He produced not only monumental works, but also occasionally smaller pieces, such as vignettes and illustrations. He designed Old Norse costumes. He illustrated the works of Socrates and Ossian. Additionally he did some sculpting, etching, and authoring. He was interested in all manner of mythological, biblical, and literary allusion. Among his students were Asmus Jacob Carstens, sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen, and painters J. L. Lund and Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg, both of whom took over his vacated professorship at the Academy after his death. Eckersberg, who is referred to as the "Father of Danish painting," went on to lay the foundation for the period of art known as the Golden Age of Danish Painting as professor at the same Academy. Cabinet painted in trompe l'oeil fashion by Abildgaard Around 1780 as royal historical painter, Abildgaard was requested by the Danish government to paint large monumental pieces, a history of Denmark, to decorate the entirety of the Knights' Room (Riddersal) at Christiansborg Palace. It was a prestigious and lucrative assignment. The paintings combined not only historical depictions, but also allegorical and mythological elements that glorified and flattered the government. The door pieces depicted in allegory four historical periods in Europe's history. Abilgaard used pictorial allegory like ideograms, to communicate ideas and transmit messages through symbols to a refined public that was initiated into this form of symbology. Abildgaard's professor Johan Edvard Mandelberg supplied the decorations to the room. He married Anna Maria Oxholm on March 23, 1781. He made a failed attempt to be elected to the post of Academy Director in 1787. He was unanimously elected to the post two years later, serving as director during the period 1789-1791. He had the reputation for being a tyrant, and for taking as many of the academy's monumental assignments as possible to himself. He was also known as a religious freethinker and an advocate of political reform. In spite of his service to (and in his artwork the glorification of) the government, he was hardly a great supporter of the monarchy or of the state church. He supported the emancipation of the farmers, and participated in the collection of monies for the Freedom Monument (Frihedsstøtten) in 1792. He contributed a design for the monument, as well as for two of the reliefs at its base. He came into conflict with the authorities often at the end of the 1700s through his published words and satirical drawings. He was excited by the French Revolution, and in 1789-1790 he tried to incorporate these revolutionary ideals into the Knights' Room at Christiansborg Palace. The King rejected his design. His showdowns with the establishment culminated in 1794, when his allegorical painting "Jupiter Weighs the Fate of Mankind" (Jupiter vejer menneskenes skæbne) was exhibited at the Salon. He was politically isolated, cut out of the public debate by censors, and never again received any official assignment. The fire at Christiansborg Palace in February 1794 also had a dampening effect on his career, for seven of the ten monumental paintings he had already delivered to the grandiose project were destroyed. The project was stopped, and so were his earnings. However devastating, the fire also brought him new decorative assignments, and also the opportunity to practice as an architect. He headed the decoration of the Levetzau Palace, now known as Christian VIII's Palace, at Amalienborg (1794-1798), the recently occupied home of King Christian VII of Denmark's half-brother Frederik. His protégé Bertel Thorvaldsen headed the sculptural efforts. He also worked up plans for the rebuilding of Christiansborg Palace, but the assignment did not go to him. At the start of the 1800s his interest in painting was restored, when he painted four scenes from Terence's comedy Andria. This coincided with his second marriage in 1803 to Juliane Marie Ottesen, which was a very happy situation for the aging Abilgaard. The marriage resulted in two sons and a daughter. He bought a lovely little place in the country for the family, Spurveskjul (Sparrow Hideaway). In 1804 he received a commission for a series of painting for the throne room in the new palace, but disagreements between the artist and the crown prince put a halt to this project. He continued, however, to provide the court with designs for furniture and room decorations. He was once again selected to serve as the Academy's director from 1801 until his death in 1809. He is buried in Copenhagen's Assistens Cemetery. Works Though he won immense fame in his own generation and helped lead the way to the period of art known as the Golden Age of Danish Painting, his works are scarcely known outside of Denmark. He was a cold theorist, inspired not by nature but by art. His style was classical, though with a romantic trend. He had a remarkable sense of colour. As a technical painter he attained remarkable success, his tone being very harmonious and even, but the effect, to a foreigner's eye, is rarely interesting. A portrait of him painted by Jens Juel was made into a medallion by his friend Johan Tobias Sergel. August Vilhelm Saabye sculpted a statue of him in 1868 based on contemporary portraits. See also List of Danish painters References KID Kunst Index Danmark ("Art Index Denmark") Danish Biographical Encyclopedia ("Dansk biografisk Leksikion") Weblinks | Nicolai_Abildgaard |@lemmatized nikolaj:1 abraham:1 abildgaard:5 september:1 june:2 danish:8 artist:6 bear:1 copenhagen:4 son:2 søren:1 antiquarian:1 draughtsman:1 repute:1 anne:1 margrethe:1 bastholm:1 life:1 training:1 train:1 painting:13 master:1 come:2 new:3 royal:3 academy:12 art:5 det:1 kongelige:1 danske:1 kunstakademi:1 study:5 johan:4 edvard:2 mandelberg:4 johannes:1 wiedewelt:1 win:3 medallion:3 large:2 gold:1 include:1 travel:4 stipend:1 wait:1 five:1 year:5 receive:3 assist:1 professor:5 apprentice:1 ca:1 paint:6 decoration:5 palace:8 fredensborg:1 classical:3 influence:1 french:2 claude:1 lorrain:1 nicolas:1 poussin:1 paris:3 françois:1 boucher:1 student:2 although:1 time:1 typically:1 choose:1 rome:3 stay:2 take:3 side:1 trip:1 naples:1 jens:2 juel:2 ambition:1 lay:2 genre:1 history:3 annibale:1 carracci:1 fresco:1 palazzo:1 farnese:1 rafael:1 titian:1 michaelangelo:1 addition:2 various:1 artistic:2 discipline:1 sculpture:1 architecture:1 wall:1 develop:2 knowledge:1 mythology:3 antiquity:1 anatomy:2 perspective:1 company:1 swedish:1 sculptor:2 tobias:2 sergel:2 painter:6 johann:1 heinrich:1 füssli:1 begin:1 move:1 away:1 classicism:1 learn:1 appreciation:1 literature:1 shakespeare:1 homer:1 ossian:2 legendary:1 gaelic:1 poet:1 work:6 theme:1 greek:1 well:2 norse:2 place:2 forefront:1 nordic:1 romanticism:1 leave:1 hope:1 become:1 stop:2 arrive:1 denmark:5 december:1 academic:2 career:2 admission:1 go:3 quickly:1 name:1 neoclassical:1 school:2 productive:1 role:1 teach:1 produce:1 monumental:4 also:8 occasionally:1 small:1 piece:3 vignette:1 illustration:1 design:4 old:1 costume:1 illustrate:1 socrates:1 additionally:1 sculpting:1 etch:1 author:1 interested:1 manner:1 mythological:2 biblical:1 literary:1 allusion:1 among:1 asmus:1 jacob:1 carstens:1 bertel:2 thorvaldsen:2 j:1 l:2 lund:1 christoffer:1 wilhelm:1 eckersberg:2 vacated:1 professorship:1 death:2 refer:1 father:1 foundation:1 period:4 know:5 golden:2 age:3 cabinet:1 trompe:1 oeil:1 fashion:1 around:1 historical:3 request:1 government:3 decorate:1 entirety:1 knight:2 room:5 riddersal:1 christiansborg:4 prestigious:1 lucrative:1 assignment:5 combine:1 depiction:1 allegorical:2 element:1 glorify:1 flatter:1 door:1 depict:1 allegory:2 four:2 europe:1 abilgaard:2 use:1 pictorial:1 like:1 ideogram:1 communicate:1 idea:1 transmit:1 message:1 symbol:1 refine:1 public:2 initiate:1 form:1 symbology:1 supply:1 marry:1 anna:1 maria:1 oxholm:1 march:1 make:2 failed:1 attempt:1 elect:2 post:2 director:3 unanimously:1 two:3 later:1 serve:2 reputation:1 tyrant:1 many:1 possible:1 religious:1 freethinker:1 advocate:1 political:1 reform:1 spite:1 service:1 artwork:1 glorification:1 hardly:1 great:1 supporter:1 monarchy:1 state:1 church:1 support:1 emancipation:1 farmer:1 participate:1 collection:1 monies:1 freedom:1 monument:2 frihedsstøtten:1 contribute:1 relief:1 base:2 conflict:1 authority:1 often:1 end:1 publish:1 word:1 satirical:1 drawing:1 excite:1 revolution:1 try:1 incorporate:1 revolutionary:1 ideal:1 king:2 reject:1 showdown:1 establishment:1 culminate:1 jupiter:2 weigh:1 fate:1 mankind:1 vejer:1 menneskenes:1 skæbne:1 exhibit:1 salon:1 politically:1 isolate:1 cut:1 debate:1 censor:1 never:1 official:1 fire:2 february:1 dampening:1 effect:2 seven:1 ten:1 already:1 deliver:1 grandiose:1 project:3 destroy:1 earnings:1 however:2 devastating:1 bring:1 decorative:1 opportunity:1 practice:1 architect:1 head:2 levetzau:1 christian:2 viii:1 amalienborg:1 recently:1 occupy:1 home:1 vii:1 half:1 brother:1 frederik:1 protégé:1 sculptural:1 effort:1 plan:1 rebuilding:1 start:1 interest:1 restore:1 scene:1 terence:1 comedy:1 andria:1 coincide:1 second:1 marriage:2 juliane:1 marie:1 ottesen:1 happy:1 situation:1 result:1 daughter:1 buy:1 lovely:1 little:1 country:1 family:1 spurveskjul:1 sparrow:1 hideaway:1 commission:1 series:1 throne:1 disagreement:1 crown:1 prince:1 put:1 halt:1 continue:1 provide:1 court:1 furniture:1 select:1 bury:1 assistens:1 cemetery:1 though:2 immense:1 fame:1 generation:1 help:1 lead:1 way:1 scarcely:1 outside:1 cold:1 theorist:1 inspire:1 nature:1 style:1 romantic:1 trend:1 remarkable:2 sense:1 colour:1 technical:1 attain:1 success:1 tone:1 harmonious:1 even:1 foreigner:1 eye:1 rarely:1 interesting:1 portrait:2 friend:1 august:1 vilhelm:1 saabye:1 sculpt:1 statue:1 contemporary:1 see:1 list:1 reference:1 kid:1 kunst:1 index:2 danmark:1 biographical:1 encyclopedia:1 dansk:1 biografisk:1 leksikion:1 weblinks:1 |@bigram det_kongelige:1 nicolas_poussin:1 annibale_carracci:1 johann_heinrich:1 norse_mythology:1 literary_allusion:1 trompe_l:1 anna_maria:1 |
4,222 | Dessert | Dessert, as served in a Swiss mountain restaurant Dessert is a course that typically comes at the end of a meal, usually consisting of sweet food but sometimes of a strongly-flavored one, such as some cheeses. The word comes from the French language as dessert and this from Old French desservir, "to clear the table" and "to serve." Common desserts include cakes, cookies, fruits, pastries, ice cream, and candies. The word dessert is most commonly used for this course in U.S., Canada, Australia, and Ireland, while sweet, pudding or afters would be more typical terms in the UK and some other Commonwealth countries, including India. According to Debrett's, pudding is the proper term, dessert is only to be used if the course consists of fruit, and sweet is colloquial. This, of course, reflects the upper-class/upper-middle-class usage. More commonly, the words simply form a class shibboleth; pudding being the upper-class and upper-middle-class word to use for sweet food served after the main course, sweet, afters and dessert being considered non-U. However, dessert is considered slightly better than the other two, owing to many young people, whose parents say pudding, acquiring the word from American media. Watching the English by Kate Fox. ISBN 0-340-81886-7 Class by Jilly Cooper Although the custom of eating fruits and nuts after a meal may be very old, dessert as a standard part of a Western meal is a relatively recent development. Before the rise of the middle class in the 19th-century, and the mechanization of the sugar industry, sweets were a privilege of the aristocracy, or a rare holiday treat. As sugar became cheaper and more readily available, the development and popularity of desserts spread accordingly. Some have a separate final sweet course but mix sweet and savory dishes throughout the meal as in Chinese cuisine, or reserve elaborate dessert concoctions for special occasions. Often, the dessert is seen as a separate meal or snack rather than a course, and may be eaten apart from the meal (usually in less formal settings). Some restaurants specialize in dessert. In colloquial American usage "dessert" has a broader meaning and can refer to anything sweet that follows a meal, including milkshakes and other beverages. Desserts are often eaten with a dessert spoon, intermediate in size between a teaspoon and a tablespoon. References Korea:후식 Chines:甜品 | Dessert |@lemmatized dessert:16 serve:3 swiss:1 mountain:1 restaurant:2 course:7 typically:1 come:2 end:1 meal:7 usually:2 consist:2 sweet:9 food:2 sometimes:1 strongly:1 flavor:1 one:1 cheese:1 word:5 french:2 language:1 old:2 desservir:1 clear:1 table:1 common:1 include:3 cake:1 cooky:1 fruit:3 pastry:1 ice:1 cream:1 candy:1 commonly:2 use:3 u:2 canada:1 australia:1 ireland:1 pudding:4 afters:2 would:1 typical:1 term:2 uk:1 commonwealth:1 country:1 india:1 accord:1 debrett:1 proper:1 colloquial:2 reflect:1 upper:4 class:7 middle:3 usage:2 simply:1 form:1 shibboleth:1 main:1 consider:2 non:1 however:1 slightly:1 well:1 two:1 owe:1 many:1 young:1 people:1 whose:1 parent:1 say:1 acquire:1 american:2 medium:1 watch:1 english:1 kate:1 fox:1 isbn:1 jilly:1 cooper:1 although:1 custom:1 eat:3 nut:1 may:2 standard:1 part:1 western:1 relatively:1 recent:1 development:2 rise:1 century:1 mechanization:1 sugar:2 industry:1 privilege:1 aristocracy:1 rare:1 holiday:1 treat:1 become:1 cheap:1 readily:1 available:1 popularity:1 spread:1 accordingly:1 separate:2 final:1 mix:1 savory:1 dish:1 throughout:1 chinese:1 cuisine:1 reserve:1 elaborate:1 concoction:1 special:1 occasion:1 often:2 see:1 snack:1 rather:1 apart:1 less:1 formal:1 setting:1 specialize:1 broad:1 meaning:1 refer:1 anything:1 follow:1 milkshake:1 beverage:1 spoon:1 intermediate:1 size:1 teaspoon:1 tablespoon:1 reference:1 korea:1 후식:1 chine:1 甜品:1 |@bigram ice_cream:1 fruit_nut:1 |
4,223 | Foreign_relations_of_Guatemala | Guatemala's major diplomatic interests are regional security and, increasingly, regional development and economic integration. The Central American Ministers of Trade meet on a regular basis to work on regional approaches to trade issues. In March 1998, Guatemala joined its Central American neighbors in signing a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA). In 2000 it joined Honduras and El Salvador in signing a free trade agreement with Mexico, which went into effect in 2001. Guatemala also originated the idea for, and is the seat of, the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN). Guatemala participates in several regional groups, particularly those related to the environment and trade. For example, US President Clinton and the Central American presidents signed the CONCAUSA (Conjunto Centroamerica-USA) agreement at the Summit of the Americas in December 1994. CONCAUSA is a cooperative plan of action to promote clean, efficient energy use; conserve the region's biodiversity; strengthen legal and institutional frameworks and compliance mechanisms; and improve and harmonize environmental protection standards. Guatemala has a longstanding claim to a large portion of Belize; the territorial dispute caused problems with the United Kingdom and later with Belize following its 1981 independence from the UK. In December 1989, Guatemala sponsored Belize for permanent observer status in the Organization of American States (OAS). In September 1991, Guatemala recognized Belize's independence and established diplomatic ties, while acknowledging that the boundaries remained in dispute. In anticipation of an effort to bring the border dispute to an end in early 1996, the Guatemalan Congress ratified two long-pending international agreements governing frontier issues and maritime rights. In early 2000, the Guatemalan Foreign Ministry proposed a border settlement that would transfer more than half of Belize's territory to Guatemala. Following a spate of border incidents, both sides agreed during talks under OAS auspices in November 2000 to confidence-building measures to reduce tensions. They followed that with an agreement on opening substantive discussions on the dispute. Notably, both Guatemala and Belize are participating in the confidence building measures, including the Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange Project (for more information see: www.guatemalabelize.com and www.confidence2.org ). Guatemala maintains official relations with the Republic of China (known as "Taiwan") instead of the People's Republic of China. Disputes - international: territory in Belize claimed by Guatemala; precise alignment of boundary in dispute Illicit drugs: transit country for cocaine shipments; minor producer of illicit opium poppy and cannabis for the international drug trade; active eradication program in 1996 effectively eliminated the cannabis crop; proximity to Mexico makes Guatemala a major staging area for drugs (cocaine shipments) See also Diplomatic missions of Guatemala List of diplomatic missions in Guatemala Guatemala-United States relations External links Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Guatemala Legal Opinion on Guatemala's Territorial Claim to Belize andMFA Library and Other Documents and Summary of Legal Opinion of 25 November 2008 Belize/Guatemala ICJ Compromis Signed at OAS in Washington, D.C. on 8 December 2008 and Compromis and Videos and U.S. Congratulations and U.K. Congratulations and Photographs and Compromis for Christmas of 8 December 2008 and Belize Leading Counsel of 19 December 2008 | Foreign_relations_of_Guatemala |@lemmatized guatemala:19 major:2 diplomatic:4 interest:1 regional:4 security:1 increasingly:1 development:1 economic:1 integration:1 central:4 american:5 minister:1 trade:6 meet:1 regular:1 basis:1 work:1 approach:1 issue:2 march:1 join:2 neighbor:1 sign:4 investment:1 framework:2 agreement:5 tifa:1 honduras:1 el:1 salvador:1 free:1 mexico:2 go:1 effect:1 also:2 originate:1 idea:1 seat:1 parliament:1 parlacen:1 participates:1 several:1 group:1 particularly:1 relate:1 environment:1 example:1 u:3 president:2 clinton:1 concausa:2 conjunto:1 centroamerica:1 usa:1 summit:1 america:1 december:5 cooperative:1 plan:1 action:1 promote:1 clean:1 efficient:1 energy:1 use:1 conserve:1 region:1 biodiversity:1 strengthen:1 legal:3 institutional:1 compliance:1 mechanism:1 improve:1 harmonize:1 environmental:1 protection:1 standard:1 longstanding:1 claim:3 large:1 portion:1 belize:11 territorial:2 dispute:6 cause:1 problem:1 united:2 kingdom:1 later:1 follow:3 independence:2 uk:1 sponsor:1 permanent:1 observer:1 status:1 organization:1 state:2 oas:3 september:1 recognize:1 establish:1 tie:1 acknowledge:1 boundary:2 remain:1 anticipation:1 effort:1 bring:1 border:3 end:1 early:2 guatemalan:2 congress:1 ratify:1 two:1 long:1 pending:1 international:3 govern:1 frontier:1 maritime:1 right:1 foreign:2 ministry:2 propose:1 settlement:1 would:1 transfer:1 half:1 territory:2 spate:1 incident:1 side:1 agree:1 talk:1 auspex:1 november:2 confidence:2 building:2 measure:2 reduce:1 tension:1 open:1 substantive:1 discussion:1 notably:1 participate:1 include:1 language:1 exchange:1 project:1 information:1 see:2 www:2 guatemalabelize:1 com:1 org:1 maintain:1 official:1 relation:2 republic:2 china:2 know:1 taiwan:1 instead:1 people:1 precise:1 alignment:1 illicit:2 drug:3 transit:1 country:1 cocaine:2 shipment:2 minor:1 producer:1 opium:1 poppy:1 cannabis:2 active:1 eradication:1 program:1 effectively:1 eliminate:1 crop:1 proximity:1 make:1 stag:1 area:1 mission:2 list:1 external:1 link:1 affair:1 opinion:2 andmfa:1 library:1 document:1 summary:1 icj:1 compromis:3 washington:1 c:1 video:1 congratulation:2 k:1 photograph:1 christmas:1 leading:1 counsel:1 |@bigram el_salvador:1 illicit_drug:1 opium_poppy:1 diplomatic_mission:2 external_link:1 foreign_affair:1 belize_guatemala:1 |
4,224 | Abdur_Rahman_Khan | Abdur Rahman Khan () (b. between 1840 to 1844 - d. October 1, 1901) However, his year of birth is given as 1830 in Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 2 was Emir of Afghanistan from 1880 to 1901. He was the third son of Afzul Khan, and grandson of Dost Mahommed Khan, who had established the Barakzai dynasty in Afghanistan. Abdur Rehman Khan was considered a strong ruler who re-established the writ of the Afghan government in Kabul after the disarray that followed the second Anglo-Afghan war. Background and early career Before his death at Herat, on June 9, 1863, Dost Mahommed had nominated as his successor Shir Ali, his third son, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzul Khan and Azim Khan. At first, the new amir was quietly recognized. But after a few months Afzul Khan raised an insurrection in the northern province, between the Hindu Kush mountains and the Oxus River, where he had been governing when his father died. This began a fierce contest for power between Dost Mahommed's sons, which lasted for nearly five years. In this war, Abdur Rahman became distinguished for ability and daring energy. Although his father, Afzul Khan, who had none of these qualities, came to terms with the Amir Shir Ali, the son's behaviour in the northern province soon excited the amir's suspicion, and Abdur Rahman, when he was summoned to Kabul, fled across the Oxus into Bokhara. Shir Ali threw Afzul Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in southern Afghanistan. The amir had scarcely suppressed it by winning a desperate battle when Abdur Rahman's reappearance in the north was a signal for a mutiny of the troops stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard. After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azim Khan, occupied Kabul (March 1866). The amir Shir Ali marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on May 10, he was deserted by a large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur Rahman released his father, Afzul Khan, from prison in Ghazni, and installed him upon the throne as amir of Afghanistan. Notwithstanding the new amir 's incapacity, and some jealousy between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they again routed Shir Ali's forces, and occupied Kandahar in 1867. When Afzul Khan died at the end of the year, Azim Khan became the new ruler, with Abdur Rahman as his governor in the northern province. But towards the end of 1868 Shir Ali's return, and a general rising in his favour, resulted in Abdur Rahman and Azim Khan's defeat at Tinah Khan on January 3 1869. Both sought refuge in Persia, whence Abdur Rahman placed himself under Russian protection at Samarkand. Azim died in Persia in October 1869. Period of exile Abdur Rahman lived in exile in Tashkent, then part of Russian Turkestan, for eleven years, until the 1879 death of Shir Ali, who had retired from Kabul when the British armies entered Afghanistan. The Russian governor-general at Tashkent sent for Abdur Rahman, and pressed him to try his fortunes once more across the Oxus. In March 1880, a report reached India that Abdur Rahman was in northern Afghanistan; and the governor-general, Lord Lytton, opened communications with him to the effect that the British government were prepared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman as amir of Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some districts adjacent to it. After some negotiations, an interview took place between him and Lepel Griffin, the diplomatic representative at Kabul of the Indian government. Griffin described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners, shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand. Reign Abdur Rahman Khan in 1897 At the durbar on July 22 1880, Abdur Rahman was officially recognized as amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he align his foreign policy with the British. The British evacuation of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881, the British troops also handed over Kandahar to the new amir. However, Ayub Khan, one of Shir Ali's sons, marched upon that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and occupied the place in July. This serious reverse roused the amir, who had not at first displayed much activity. He led a force from Kabul, met Ayub's army close to Kandahar, and the complete victory which he there won forced Ayub Khan to fly into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated on the throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years he consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan, suppressing insurrections by a sharp and relentless use of his despotic authority. The powerful Ghilzai tribe revolted against the severity of his measures, but they were crushed by the end of 1887. In that same year, Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia. In 1888, the amir 's cousin, Ishak Khan, rebelled against him in the north; but these two enterprises came to nothing. In 1885, at the moment when the amir was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, in India, the news came of a skirmish between Russian and Afghan troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the demarcation of the northwestern frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment and the forcible seizure of some debatable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it was not a sufficient reason for calling upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from the southeast. His interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his kingdom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be supported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Indian government made ready for that contingency, the amir 's reserved and circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the implacable severity that too often marked his administration. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much pleasure. An enslaved Hazara man in Amir's Court, pleading for mercy From the end of 1888, the amir spent eighteen months in his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion. Shortly afterwards (in 1892) he succeeded in finally beating down the resistance of the Hazara tribe, who vainly attempted to defend their independence, within their highlands, of the central authority at Kabul. In the late 1880s many of the Hazara tribes revolted against Abdur Rahman, the first ruler to bring the country of Afghanistan under a centralized Afghan government. Consequent on this unsuccessful revolt, numbers of Hazaras fled to Quetta in Balochistan and to the area around Mashhed in northeastern Iran. Most active in the revolt were the Uruzgani, the southernmost of the Hazara tribes. Following their defeat, a considerable number of Uruzgani left the country, as did many Jaghuri, their nearest neighbors to the northeast. The territory, which they abandoned, was occupied by Afghans of the Ghilzai tribe, supported by the Amir as plan for Pashtunization of Afghanistan. By sending Sunni clerics to every village in Hazarajat Abdur Rahman forced the Hazaras to attend Sunni mosques and abandon Shiism. He imposed tougher regulations on Hazaras by forcing them to pay heavy taxes. For instance, from 500 families in Ajristan each well-to-do family was forced to pay 40 Sir (6.7 kg) wheat while the poor ones paid three Afs, each. In Daya Fulad, Zawuli and Sepai districts the state collected Afs. 80,000 and forced the Hazara girls into marriage. In the Shikhali district an estimated 7,000 head of cattle were taken away from Hazaras and 350 men and women of the Jaghori district had been sold at Kabul markets each at the price of 20-21 As. Abdur Rahman's brutal suppression compelled a large number of Hazaras to seek refuge in Iran, India, and Russia. Abdur Rahman could only succeed in subjugating Hazaras and conquering their land when he effectively utilized internal differences within the Hazara community, co-opting sold-out Hazara chiefs into his bureaucratic sales of the enslaved Hazara men, women and children in 1897, the Hazaras remained de facto slaves until King Amanullah declared Afghanistan's independence in 1919. More on Persecution by Abdur Rehman In 1893, Sir Mortimer Durand was deputed to Kabul by the government of India for the purpose of settling an exchange of territory required by the demarcation of the boundary between northeastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss with the amir other pending questions. The amir showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a sure underlying insight into the real situation. The territorial exchanges were amicably agreed upon; the relations between the Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards India. In 1895-96, he conquered Nuristan province (formerly called Kafirstan) and using sword he forcedly converted the people to Islam. In 1895, the amir found himself unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah Khan went in his stead. Amir Abdur Rahman Khan's tomb is located in Kabul. Abdur Rahman died on October 1, 1901, being succeeded by his son Habibullah. He had defeated all enterprises by rivals against his throne; he had broken down the power of local chiefs, and tamed the refractory tribes; so that his orders were irresistible throughout the whole dominion. His government was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed army; it was administered through officials absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage; while the exercise of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable. He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the fiercest and most unruly population in Asia; he availed himself of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like railways and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within his country. His adventurous life, his forcible character, the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure in contemporary Asian politics and will mark his reign as an epoch in the history of Afghanistan. The amir received an annual subsidy from the British government of 18.5 lakh (1.85 million) rupees. He was allowed to import munitions of war. In 1896, he adopted the title of Zia-ul-Millat-Wa-ud Din ("Light of the nation and religion"); and his zeal for the cause of Islam induced him to publish treatises on jihad. His two eldest sons, Habibullah Khan and Nasrullah Khan, were born at Samarkand. His youngest son, Mahomed Omar Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family. See also List of leaders of Afghanistan European influence in Afghanistan The Great Game References External links Article on Amir Abdur Rahman Khan on Islamic Republic Of Afghanistan (.com) Chronology: the reigns of Abdur Rahman Khan and Habibullah, 1881-1919 | Abdur_Rahman_Khan |@lemmatized abdur:30 rahman:28 khan:26 b:1 october:3 however:2 year:6 birth:1 give:3 chamber:1 biographical:1 dictionary:1 isbn:1 page:1 emir:1 afghanistan:20 third:2 son:9 afzul:7 grandson:1 dost:3 mahommed:3 establish:2 barakzai:2 dynasty:1 rehman:2 consider:1 strong:1 ruler:3 writ:1 afghan:8 government:10 kabul:11 disarray:1 follow:3 second:2 anglo:1 war:5 background:1 early:1 career:1 death:2 herat:2 june:1 nominate:1 successor:1 shir:8 ali:8 pass:1 two:3 elder:1 brother:1 azim:5 first:3 new:4 amir:23 quietly:1 recognize:3 month:2 raise:1 insurrection:2 northern:5 province:5 hindu:1 kush:1 mountain:1 oxus:4 river:1 govern:1 father:3 die:4 begin:1 fierce:2 contest:1 power:2 last:1 nearly:1 five:1 become:2 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4,225 | The_Evil_Dead | The Evil Dead (also known as: Evil Dead; The Book of the Dead; Sam Raimi's The Evil Dead; and The Evil Dead, the Ultimate Experience in Grueling Horror) is a 1981 cult classic horror film written and directed by Sam Raimi, starring Bruce Campbell, Ellen Sandweiss and Betsy Baker. The film tells the story of five college students vacationing in an isolated cabin in the woods. Their vacation turns into a nightmare when they find an audiotape that is the key to unlocking evil spirits. The film was extremely controversial for its graphic terror, violence and gore, being initially turned down by almost all U.S. film distributors until a European company finally bought it in the Cannes Film Festival marketplace. It was finally released into theaters on October 15, 1981. Although its budget was just $375,000, the film was a moderate success at the box office, grossing a total of $2,400,000 in the U.S. upon its initial release. The Evil Dead (1981) - Box office / business Despite getting mixed reviews by critics at the time, it is now widely accepted as a classic of the horror genre and has a dedicated worldwide cult following . The film also spawned two sequels entitled: Evil Dead II and Army of Darkness. When the film was re-submitted for a rating in 1994 the MPAA classified it with an NC-17 rating. When the distribution company Elite Entertainment released the film on DVD in 1999 they retained the NC-17 version. Anchor Bay Entertainment has since acquired the DVD rights to the film, and their subsequent releases have surrendered the rating to allow them to release the film unrated. Plot Five Michigan State University students venture into the hills and mountains of Tennessee to spend a weekend in an isolated cabin. There they find the Book of the Dead (a Babylonian and Sumerian text, unrelated to the Egyptian Book of the Dead), otherwise known as the Naturon Demonto (renamed the Necronomicon Ex-Mortis in the sequels). While searching the basement of the cabin, the students find and play a tape recording of demonic incantations from the book, unwittingly resurrecting the slumbering demons that thirst for revenge. The characters are then possessed one by one, beginning with Cheryl (Sandweiss) after she is lured into the forest by the Evil Force at night. Alone and far from the safety of the cabin, the woods come alive in a snake-like fashion and rape her. Cheryl makes it home to the cabin but nobody believes her. Her brother, Ash, then decides to drive her into town where she can stay the night. They discover that the only bridge is completely destroyed and the supports are bent into the shape of a hand. Soon thereafter, Cheryl becomes a demon and stabs Linda in the ankle with a pencil. They lock her in the fruit-cellar, but afterward Shelly becomes possessed and attacks Scotty, who dismembers her with an axe. They wrap the dismembered body-parts in a blanket and bury them, after which Scotty leaves to find a trail out of the woods. Ash goes to check on Linda, but finds that she too has become possessed. Scotty returns, but has suffered massive injuries inflicted by the trees. Before losing consciousness he tells Ash there is a trail in the woods. After Linda tricks Ash by (seemingly) returning to normal, Ash drags her outside. He goes back to check on Scotty, but finds that he died from his injuries. Linda later returns and tries to stab Ash, but she is stabbed through the chest by a dagger. Ash drags her outside to cut her up with a chainsaw, but finds that he cannot bring himself to do it, and simply buries her instead. She rises from the grave and, after a violent struggle, Ash beheads her with a shovel. He returns to find the cellar door flown open. He hears a noise from Shelly and Scott's bedroom. With the shotgun, he goes in to investigate and suspects Cheryl may be in the closet. Cheryl jumps at the window of which a demon had earlier broken through to possess Shelly and tries to take the shotgun from Ash, grabbing at it wildly. Ash shoots her in the chest, but it seems to have no effect. Ash then proceeds to barricade both the front and back doors. He runs back into the cellar to find a box of shotgun shells and experiences a strange series of events including the cellar filling with blood and hearing voices. Cheryl tries to attack Ash through the door, but he shoots her and then barricades the door. Meanwhile, Scotty's dead body suddenly revives to reveal that the evil spirits have now possessed him as well, only to have his eyes gouged out by Ash after a brief struggle. Ash notices that The Book of the Dead has fallen near the fireplace and is starting to burn. Ash notices that Scotty's body is starting to burn as well, giving an allusion that disposal of the book into the fire will also destroy the demons. Before he can reach it, however, Cheryl successfully breaks in through the front door and easily knocks him to the floor. Scotty then pins Ash to the floor while Cheryl grabs a fireplace poker and repeatedly hits Ash in the back with it. Ash manages to grab the book after several attempts, using the necklace he had given to Linda earlier in the film, and throws it directly into the blazing flames just as Cheryl raises the fireplace poker to hit him again. The demons immediately stop, almost completely inanimate, and begin to rot away as dawn breaks, leaving Ash to be the only survivor. He heads outside and stands there for a while, thinking he has survived the ordeal; but the last remaining demon speeds through the forest, breaks its way through the cabin doors, and attacks Ash as the film ends. The credits instantly start to play along with some creepy, yet cheery vaudeville style music that later fades into an echo. Production Raimi and Co. managed to secure a shooting budget of less than $375,000 and with the cast and crew, headed for a wilderness cabin in the woods near Morristown, Tennessee. The movie was shot over a period of about 1.5 years. Raimi used 'Fake Shemps' or 'stand-ins' to replace the actors who had left. One of the only actors loyal to the project from the beginning was Bruce Campbell, who went through torturous circumstances as the character 'Ash.' According to the Evil Dead DVD commentary, he would often return home after a night of shooting in the back of a pick-up truck, as he was usually covered in fake blood made from a mixture of corn syrup, food coloring, and non-dairy coffee creamer. Actors Richard DeManincor (Scott) and Theresa Tilly (Shelly) both went under different "stage names" during the shoot, since they were members of the Screen Actors Guild and wanted to avoid being penalized for participating in a non-union production. They are credited in the credits as "Hal Delrich" for Richard and "Sarah York" for Theresa. According to Bruce Campbell's autobiography, If Chins Could Kill, Richard acquired his stage name by combining his short name with his roommates' names, Hal & Del. Joel Coen served as an assistant editor on the film. Censorship Because of its graphic violence, the original version of the movie was banned in several countries, including Finland, Germany, Iceland and Ireland. The "tree rape" scene in the movie was also described by some as being misogynistic. NDTV. We the People: Should Men all be killed for not being Feminist? In Germany, the movie's release was hindered by public authorities for almost 10 years. Original 1982 cinema and video releases of the movie had been seized, making the movie a hit on the black market video circuit with pirated copies abounding. Several high-profile horror enthusiasts publicly criticized the German ban on the movie, including author Stephen King (who gave it a rave review in the November 1982 issue of Twilight Zone). A heavily edited version was made legally available in 1992. In 2001 an uncut German DVD version was released, but the Berlin-Tiergarten Court ordered seizure of the DVD in April 2002 (Case Number 351 Gs 1749/02). In Finland, The Evil Dead was later released uncut on DVD by Future Film, and rated K-18. In the United Kingdom, the movie was one of the first to be labeled a video nasty in the mid-1980s and was finally released uncut in 2001. Spin-offs There have been a variety of spin-offs and tie-ins including a musical and comic mini-series. Evil Dead: The Musical With the approval of both Sam Raimi and Bruce Campbell, a musical version of the film was staged, enjoying a successful workshop in Toronto and performances at the Just for Laughs Festival in Montreal in 2004. The New York off-Broadway production started previews on October 2, 2006. The official Opening Night performance was November 1, 2006. The show continued with 8 performances per week at the New World Stages until closing February 17, 2007. Evil Dead: The Musical has recently started production in Toronto starting from May 1, 2007 with the run extended from June 23, 2007 to August 4, 2007. On August 4, 2007 it was announced that the show has now been extended for a final time until September 8, 2007, excepting its further extensions to May 3, 2008, June 14, 2008 and August 2, 2008. A production is also scheduled to open at the Campbell Theatre in Martinez, CA on June 13, 2008. A second Canadian production by the Sock 'n Buskin Theatre Company opened on March 12, 2009 for a short run in Ottawa at Kailash Mital Theatre at Carleton University. This version created quite a buzz and was well-received on opening night. Ground Zero Theatre and Hit & Myth Productions will be staging the next production at the Playhouse at Vertigo Theatre Centre in Calgary, Alberta, running May 26, 2009 to June 15, 2009. Comic book In January 2008, Dark Horse Comics began releasing a four part monthly comic book mini-series based on Evil Dead, written by Mark Verheiden, with art by John Bolton, who provided art for the Dark Horse Army of Darkness comic. The comic miniseries has several noticeable differences from the film, such as Cheryl being only a friend of Linda, and not Ash's sister. Dynamite Entertainment has an on-going "Army of Darkness" series and several mini-series and cross-over mini-series, featuring horror characters such as Darkman, the Marvel Zombies and Herbert West. Earlier Incarnations Before The Evil Dead, there was Within the Woods (1978), a movie that had a similar plot to The Evil Dead and also starred Bruce Campbell. The short film was made as a prototype to convince possible investors to fund the feature The Evil Dead. References External links ''The Evil Dead at the Internet Movie Database The Evil Dead review at Yank-Lime Pie The Evil Dead from Deadites Online has a list of "interesting facts" about the movie production. 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4,226 | Kalmia_latifolia | Kalmia latifolia, commonly called Mountain-laurel or Spoonwood, is a flowering plant in the family Ericaceae, native to the eastern United States, from southern Maine south to northern Florida, and west to Indiana and Louisiana. Mountain-laurel is the state flower of Connecticut and Pennsylvania. It is the namesake of the city of Laurel, Mississippi (founded 1882). Growth It is an evergreen shrub growing to 3-9 m tall. The leaves are 3-12 cm long and 1-4 cm wide. Its flowers are star-shaped, ranging from red to pink to white, and occurring in clusters. It blooms between May and June. All parts of the plant are poisonous. Roots are fibrous, matted. The plant is naturally found on rocky slopes and mountainous forest areas. The plant often grows in large thickets, covering large areas of forest floor. In North America it becomes a tree on the mountains of the Carolinas but is a shrub further north. Etymology It is also known as Ivybush, Calico Bush, Spoonwood (because native Americans used to make their spoons out of it), Sheep Laurel, Lambkill and Clamoun. The plant was first recorded in America in 1624, but it was named after Pehr Kalm, who sent samples to Linnaeus in the 18th century. Cultivation and uses The plant was originally brought to Europe as an ornamental plant during the 18th century. It is still widely grown for its attractive flowers. Numerous cultivars have been selected with varying flower color. Does not flourish in a limestone country. This is one of the most satisfactory shrubs for lawn or garden. When in full bloom it is of surpassing beauty, and its bright evergreen leaves make it conspicuous at any time. A little known American use of the plant was in the making of arbors for early wooden-works clocks. Mountain-laurel is a foodplant of last resort for gypsy moth caterpillars, utilized only during outbreaks when moth densities are extremely high. Toxicity Mountain laurel is poisonous to several different animals, including horses, goats, cattle, sheep, and deer, due to andromedotoxin and arbutin. The green parts of the plant, the flowers, twigs, and pollen are all toxic, and symptoms of toxicity begin to appear about 6 hours following ingestion. Poisoning produces anorexia, repeated swallowing, profuse salivation, depression, uncoordination, vomiting, frequent defecation, watering of the eyes, irregular or difficulty breathing, weakness, cardiac distress, convulsions, coma, and eventually death. Autopsy will show gastrointestinal irritation and hemorrhage. Gallery See also List of late spring flowers List of early summer flowers List of plants poisonous to equines References Germplasm Resources Information Network: Kalmia latifolia USDA Plant Profile: Kalmia latifolia Connecticut Botanical Society Profile: Kalmia latifolia Kalmia latifolia images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu | Kalmia_latifolia |@lemmatized kalmia:5 latifolia:5 commonly:1 call:1 mountain:5 laurel:6 spoonwood:2 flowering:1 plant:11 family:1 ericaceae:1 native:2 eastern:1 united:1 state:2 southern:1 maine:1 south:1 northern:1 florida:1 west:1 indiana:1 louisiana:1 flower:7 connecticut:2 pennsylvania:1 namesake:1 city:1 mississippi:1 founded:1 growth:1 evergreen:2 shrub:3 grow:3 tall:1 leaf:2 cm:2 long:1 wide:1 star:1 shaped:1 range:1 red:1 pink:1 white:1 occur:1 cluster:1 bloom:2 may:1 june:1 part:2 poisonous:3 root:1 fibrous:1 mat:1 naturally:1 find:1 rocky:1 slope:1 mountainous:1 forest:2 area:2 often:1 large:2 thicket:1 cover:1 floor:1 north:2 america:2 become:1 tree:1 carolina:1 etymology:1 also:2 know:1 ivybush:1 calico:1 bush:1 american:2 use:3 make:2 spoon:1 sheep:2 lambkill:1 clamoun:1 first:1 record:1 name:1 pehr:1 kalm:1 send:1 sample:1 linnaeus:1 century:2 cultivation:1 originally:1 bring:1 europe:1 ornamental:1 still:1 widely:1 attractive:1 numerous:1 cultivar:1 select:1 vary:1 color:1 flourish:1 limestone:1 country:1 one:1 satisfactory:1 lawn:1 garden:1 full:1 surpass:1 beauty:1 bright:1 conspicuous:1 time:1 little:1 known:1 making:1 arbor:1 early:2 wooden:1 work:1 clock:1 foodplant:1 last:1 resort:1 gypsy:1 moth:2 caterpillar:1 utilize:1 outbreak:1 density:1 extremely:1 high:1 toxicity:2 several:1 different:1 animal:1 include:1 horse:1 goat:1 cattle:1 deer:1 due:1 andromedotoxin:1 arbutin:1 green:1 twig:1 pollen:1 toxic:1 symptom:1 begin:1 appear:1 hour:1 follow:1 ingestion:1 poison:1 produce:1 anorexia:1 repeat:1 swallowing:1 profuse:1 salivation:1 depression:1 uncoordination:1 vomit:1 frequent:1 defecation:1 watering:1 eye:1 irregular:1 difficulty:1 breathing:1 weakness:1 cardiac:1 distress:1 convulsion:1 coma:1 eventually:1 death:1 autopsy:1 show:1 gastrointestinal:1 irritation:1 hemorrhage:1 gallery:1 see:1 list:3 late:1 spring:1 summer:1 equines:1 reference:1 germplasm:1 resource:1 information:1 network:1 usda:1 profile:2 botanical:1 society:1 image:1 bioimages:1 vanderbilt:1 edu:1 |@bigram kalmia_latifolia:5 flowering_plant:1 gypsy_moth:1 goat_cattle:1 cattle_sheep:1 vanderbilt_edu:1 |
4,227 | Cenozoic | Mammals are the dominant terrestrial vertebrates of the Cenozoic. The Cenozoic (also Cænozoic or Cainozoic) Era () (meaning "new life" (Greek (kainos), "new", and (zoe), "life"), is the most recent of the three classic geological eras and covers the period from 65.5 million years ago to the present. It is marked by the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous that saw the demise of the last non-avian dinosaurs and the end of the Mesozoic Era. The Cenozoic era is ongoing. Subdivision The Cenozoic Era is divided into two periods, the Paleogene and Neogene, and they are in turn divided into epochs. The Paleogene consists of the Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene epochs, and the Neogene consists of the Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene epochs, the last of which is ongoing. Historically, the Cenozoic has been divided into periods (or sub-eras) named the Tertiary (Paleocene through Pliocene) and Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene). It is known as the age of mammals. Tectonics Geologically, the Cenozoic is the era when the continents moved into their current positions. Australia-New Guinea split from Gondwana and drifted north and, eventually, adjacent to South-east Asia; Antarctica moved into its current position over the South Pole; the Atlantic Ocean widened and, later in the era, South America became attached to North America. India collided with Asia between 55 and 45 million years ago; Arabia collided with Eurasia, closing the Tethys ocean, around . Climate The Cenozoic Era has been a period of long-term cooling. After the tectonic creation of Drake Passage, when South America fully detached from Antarctica during the Oligocene, the climate cooled significantly due to the advent of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current which brought cool deep Antarctic water to the surface. Warm conditions returned in the Miocene due to uncovered gas hydrates releasing carbon dioxide.ref? When South America became attached to North America creating the Isthmus of Panama, the Arctic region cooled due to the strengthening of the Humboldt and Gulf Stream currentsref? , eventually leading to the Glacial Maximum or the last ice age. Life The Cenozoic Era is the age of new life. During the Cenozoic, mammals diverged from a few small, simple, generalized forms into a diverse collection of terrestrial, marine, and flying animals, giving this period its other name, the Age of Mammals, despite the fact that birds still outnumbered mammals two to one. The Cenozoic is just as much the age of savannas, the age of co-dependent flowering plants and insects, or the age of birds. Grass also played a very important role in this epoch, shaping the evolution of the birds and mammals that fed on it. One group that diversified significantly in the Cenozoic as well were the snakes. Evolving in the Cenozic, the snakes evolved into a huge amount of forms, especially colubrids, following the evolution of their current prey source, the rodents. In the earlier part of the Cenozoic, the world was dominated by the gastornid birds, terrestrial crocodiles like Pristichampsus, and a handful of primitive large mammal groups like uintatheres, mesonychids, and pantodonts. But as the forests began to recede and the climate began to cool, other mammals took over. The cenozoic is full of mammals both strange and familiar, including chalicotheres, oreodonts, whales, primates, entelodonts, saber-toothed cats, mastodons and mammoths, three-toed horses, giant rhinoceross like Indricotherium, and brontotheres. See also Geologic Time Scale K-T Boundary References Bibliography British Caenozoic Fossils, 1975, The Natural History Museum, London. Geologic Time, by Henry Roberts. | Cenozoic |@lemmatized mammal:9 dominant:1 terrestrial:3 vertebrate:1 cenozoic:13 also:3 cænozoic:1 cainozoic:1 era:10 mean:1 new:4 life:4 greek:1 kainos:1 zoe:1 recent:1 three:2 classic:1 geological:1 cover:1 period:5 million:2 year:2 ago:2 present:1 mark:1 cretaceous:2 tertiary:2 extinction:1 event:1 end:2 saw:1 demise:1 last:3 non:1 avian:1 dinosaur:1 mesozoic:1 ongoing:2 subdivision:1 divide:3 two:2 paleogene:2 neogene:2 turn:1 epoch:4 consist:1 paleocene:2 eocene:1 oligocene:2 consists:1 miocene:2 pliocene:2 pleistocene:2 holocene:2 historically:1 sub:1 name:2 quaternary:1 know:1 age:7 tectonics:1 geologically:1 continent:1 move:2 current:4 position:2 australia:1 guinea:1 split:1 gondwana:1 drift:1 north:3 eventually:2 adjacent:1 south:5 east:1 asia:2 antarctica:2 pole:1 atlantic:1 ocean:2 widen:1 later:1 america:5 become:2 attached:1 india:1 collide:2 arabia:1 eurasia:1 close:1 tethys:1 around:1 climate:3 long:1 term:1 cooling:1 tectonic:1 creation:1 drake:1 passage:1 fully:1 detach:1 cool:4 significantly:2 due:3 advent:1 antarctic:2 circumpolar:1 bring:1 deep:1 water:1 surface:1 warm:1 condition:1 return:1 uncovered:1 gas:1 hydrate:1 release:1 carbon:1 dioxide:1 ref:1 attach:1 create:1 isthmus:1 panama:1 arctic:1 region:1 strengthening:1 humboldt:1 gulf:1 stream:1 currentsref:1 lead:1 glacial:1 maximum:1 ice:1 diverge:1 small:1 simple:1 generalized:1 form:2 diverse:1 collection:1 marine:1 fly:1 animal:1 give:1 despite:1 fact:1 bird:4 still:1 outnumber:1 one:2 much:1 savanna:1 co:1 dependent:1 flowering:1 plant:1 insect:1 grass:1 play:1 important:1 role:1 shape:1 evolution:2 feed:1 group:2 diversify:1 well:1 snake:2 evolve:2 cenozic:1 huge:1 amount:1 especially:1 colubrid:1 follow:1 prey:1 source:1 rodent:1 early:1 part:1 world:1 dominate:1 gastornid:1 crocodile:1 like:3 pristichampsus:1 handful:1 primitive:1 large:1 uintathere:1 mesonychids:1 pantodonts:1 forest:1 begin:2 recede:1 take:1 full:1 strange:1 familiar:1 include:1 chalicotheres:1 oreodonts:1 whale:1 primate:1 entelodonts:1 saber:1 toothed:1 cat:1 mastodon:1 mammoth:1 toed:1 horse:1 giant:1 rhinoceros:1 indricotherium:1 brontotheres:1 see:1 geologic:2 time:2 scale:1 k:1 boundary:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 british:1 caenozoic:1 fossil:1 natural:1 history:1 museum:1 london:1 henry:1 robert:1 |@bigram terrestrial_vertebrate:1 cretaceous_tertiary:1 tertiary_extinction:1 avian_dinosaur:1 mesozoic_era:1 cenozoic_era:5 paleocene_eocene:1 eocene_oligocene:1 miocene_pliocene:1 pliocene_pleistocene:1 holocene_epoch:1 atlantic_ocean:1 tethys_ocean:1 antarctic_circumpolar:1 circumpolar_current:1 carbon_dioxide:1 isthmus_panama:1 flowering_plant:1 saber_toothed:1 toothed_cat:1 toed_horse:1 |
4,228 | Gary_Kildall | Gary Arlen Kildall (May 19, 1942 – July 11, 1994) was an American computer scientist and microcomputer entrepreneur who created the CP/M operating system and founded Digital Research, Inc. (DRI). Kildall was one of the first people to see microprocessors as fully capable computers rather than equipment controllers and to organize a company around this concept. He also co-hosted the PBS TV show The Computer Chronicles. Although his career in computing spanned more than two decades, he is mainly remembered in connection with IBM's unsuccessful attempt in 1980 to license CP/M for the IBM PC. Early life Gary Kildall was born and grew up in Seattle, Washington, where his family operated a seafaring school. His father, Joseph Kildall, was a captain of Norwegian heritage. His mother Emma was half-Swedish – Gary's grandmother was born in Långbäck in Skellefteå Municipality but emigrated to Canada at 23 years of age. Gary attended the University of Washington hoping to become a mathematics teacher, but became increasingly interested in computer technology. After receiving his degree, he fulfilled a draft obligation to the United States Navy by teaching at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California. Being within a few hours' drive of Silicon Valley, Kildall heard about the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004. He bought one of the processors and began writing experimental programs for it. To learn more about the processors, he worked at Intel as a consultant on his days off. Kildall briefly returned to UW and finished his doctorate in computer science in 1972, then resumed teaching at NPS. He published a paper that introduced the theory of data-flow analysis used today in optimizing compilers, and he continued to experiment with microcomputers and the emerging technology of floppy disks. Intel lent him systems using the 8008 and 8080 processors, and in 1973 he developed the first high-level programming language for microprocessors, called PL/M. He created CP/M the same year to enable the 8080 to control a floppy drive, combining for the first time all the essential components of a computer at the microcomputer scale. He demonstrated CP/M to Intel, but Intel had little interest and chose to market PL/M instead. Business career CP/M Kildall and his wife Dorothy established a company, originally called "Intergalactic Digital Research" (later renamed as Digital Research, Inc.), to market CP/M through advertisements in hobbyist magazines. Digital Research licensed CP/M for the IMSAI 8080, a popular clone of the Altair 8800. As more manufacturers licensed CP/M, it became a de facto standard and had to support an increasing number of hardware variations. In response Kildall pioneered the concept of a BIOS, a set of simple programs stored in the computer hardware which enabled CP/M to run on different systems without modification. CP/M's quick success took Kildall by surprise, and he was slow to update it for high density floppy disks and hard disks. After hardware manufacturers talked about creating a rival operating system, Kildall started a rush project to develop CP/M 2. By 1981, at the peak of its popularity, CP/M ran on 3,000 different computer models and DRI had $5.4 million in yearly revenues. IBM dealings IBM approached Digital Research in 1980, at Bill Gates' suggestion, to license a forthcoming version of CP/M called CP/M-86 for the IBM PC. Gary left licensing negotiations to Dorothy, as he usually did, while he and colleague Tom Rolander used Gary's private airplane to deliver software to manufacturer Bill Godbout. Before the IBM representatives could explain the purpose of their visit, they insisted that DRI accept a standard non-disclosure agreement that required it not to reveal anything about the meeting and allowed IBM unfettered use of any information that DRI might disclose. On the advice of DRI attorney Gerry Davis, Dorothy refused to sign the agreement without Gary's approval. Gary returned in the afternoon and tried to move the discussion with IBM forward, but accounts disagree on whether he signed the non-disclosure agreement, as well as whether he met with the IBM representatives or was merely at DRI while discussions were in progress. Various reasons have been given for the two companies failing to reach an agreement. DRI, which had only a few products, might have been unwilling to license its main product to IBM for a one-time payment rather than its usual royalty-based plan. Dorothy might have believed that the company could not deliver CP/M-86 on IBM's proposed schedule, as the company was busy developing an implementation of the PL/I programming language for Data General. Or, the IBM representatives might have been annoyed that DRI had spent hours on what they considered a routine formality. According to Kildall, the IBM representatives took the same flight to Florida that night that he and Dorothy took for their vacation, and they negotiated further on the flight, reaching a handshake agreement. IBM lead negotiator Jack Sams insisted that he never met Gary, and an IBM colleague recalled that he said so at the time. He accepted that someone else in his group might have been on the same flight, but noted that he flew back to Seattle to talk with Microsoft again. Sams related the story to Gates, who had already agreed to provide a BASIC interpreter and several other programs for the PC. Gates's impression of the story was that Gary capriciously "went flying," as he would later tell reporters. Sams left Gates with the task of finding a usable operating system, and a few weeks later he proposed using the CP/M clone 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products (SCP). Paul Allen negotiated a licensing deal with SCP, had 86-DOS adapted for IBM's hardware, and IBM shipped it as PC-DOS. Kildall obtained a copy of PC-DOS, examined it, and concluded that it infringed on CP/M. When he asked Gerry Davis what legal options were available, Davis told him that intellectual property law for software was not clear enough to sue. Instead Kildall only threatened IBM with legal action, and IBM responded with a proposal to offer CP/M-86 as an option for the PC in return for a release of liability. Kildall accepted, believing that IBM's new system (like its previous personal computers) would not be a significant commercial success. When the IBM PC was introduced, IBM sold its operating system as an unbundled (but necessary) option. One of the operating system options was PC-DOS, priced at US$40. CP/M-86 shipped a few months later at $240, but sold poorly against DOS. Later work Gary Kildall: mid-1980s. With the loss of the IBM deal, Gary and Dorothy found themselves under pressure to bring in more experienced management, and Gary's influence over the company waned. He worked in various experimental and research projects, such as a version of CP/M with multitasking and an implementation of the Logo programming language. He hoped that Logo, an educational dialect of LISP, would supplant BASIC in education, but it did not. After seeing a demonstration of the Apple Lisa, Kildall oversaw the creation of DRI's own graphical user interface, called Graphical Environment Manager (GEM) Desktop. Novell acquired DRI in 1991 in a deal that netted millions for Kildall. Kildall also pursued computing-related projects outside DRI. In 1983 he started hosting a public television program on the side, called Computer Chronicles, that followed trends in personal computing. He started another company, KnowledgeSet, which adapted optical disk technology for computer use. In 1985 it released the first computer encyclopedia, Grolier's American Academic Encyclopedia. Kildall's final business venture, known as Prometheus Light and Sound and based in Austin, Texas, developed a home PBX system which integrated land-line telephones with mobile phones. Personal life Kildall's colleagues recall him as creative, easygoing, and adventurous. In addition to flying, he loved sports cars, auto racing, and boating, and he had a lifelong love of the sea. Although Kildall preferred to leave the IBM affair in the past and to be known for his work before and afterward, he continually faced comparisons between himself and Bill Gates as well as fading memories of his contributions. A legend grew around the fateful IBM-DRI meeting (encouraged by Gates and various journalists), suggesting that Kildall had irresponsibly taken the day off for a recreational flight, and he tired of constantly having to refute that story. In later years, he had occasional private expressions of bitterness over being upstaged by Microsoft. Kildall was particularly annoyed when the University of Washington asked him, as a distinguished graduate, to attend their computer science program anniversary in 1992, but gave the keynote speech to college dropout Gates. In response he started writing his memoir, Computer Connections. The memoir, which he distributed only to a few friends, expressed his frustration that people did not seem to value elegance in software, and it said of Gates, "He is divisive. He is manipulative. He is a user. He has taken much from me and the industry." In an appendix he called DOS "plain and simple theft" because its first 26 system calls worked the same as CP/M's. He accused IBM of contriving the price difference between PC-DOS and CP/M-86 in order to marginalize CP/M. Harold Evans used the memoir as a source for a chapter about Kildall in the 2004 book They Made America, concluding that Microsoft had robbed Kildall of his inventions. IBM veterans from the PC project disputed the book's description of events, and Microsoft described it as "one-sided and inaccurate." Selling DRI to Novell had made Kildall a wealthy man, and he moved to the West Lake Hills suburb of Austin. His Austin house was a lakeside property, with stalls for several sports cars, plus a video studio in the basement. Kildall owned and flew his own Lear jet and had at least one boat on the lake. While in Austin he also participated in volunteer efforts to assist children with AIDS. In California, he owned a mansion with a panoramic ocean view in Pebble Beach. Death On July 8, 1994, Kildall fell at a Monterey, California restaurant and hit his head. The circumstances of the fall remain unclear, with various sources claiming he fell from a chair, fell down steps, or was assaulted. He checked in and out of the hospital twice, and died three days later at the Community Hospital of Monterey Peninsula. The coroner's report identified the cause of death as blunt force trauma to the head. There was also evidence that he had experienced a heart attack, but an autopsy did not conclusively determine the cause of death. He was buried in Evergreen-Washelli Cemetery in North Seattle. Recognition In March 1995, Kildall was posthumously honored by the Software Publishers Association (now the Software and Information Industry Association) for his contributions to the microcomputer industry: Introduction of operating systems with preemptive multitasking and windowing capabilities and menu-driven user interfaces. Creation of the first diskette track buffering schemes, read-ahead algorithms, file directory caches, and RAM disk emulators. Introduction of a binary recompiler in the 1980s. The first programming language and first compiler specifically for microprocessors. The first microprocessor disk operating system, which eventually sold a quarter of a million copies. The first computer interface for video disks to allow automatic nonlinear playback, presaging today's interactive multimedia. The file system and data structures for the first consumer CD-ROM. The first successful open system architecture by segregating system-specific hardware interfaces in a set of BIOS routines. Following the announcement of Kildall's death, Bill Gates commented that he was "one of the original pioneers of the PC revolution" and "a very creative computer scientist who did excellent work." Notes References List of reference documents (alphabetical by author): Akass, Clive. Interview: Gordon Eubanks, Former Student & CEO of Oblix, Inc., Recollections of Gary Kildall. DigitalResearch.biz. Andrews, Paul. "A Career Spent in Gates' Shadow — Computer Pioneer Dies at 52", Seattle Times, July 14, 1994. "Special Edition: Gary Kildall". The Computer Chronicles TV show, 1995. Eubanks, Gordon. Interview with Daniel S. Morrow. "Gordon Eubanks Oral History (Computerworld Honors Program International Archives).", Cupertino, CA. November 8, 2000. Evans, Harold; Gail Buckland; David Lefer (2004). They Made America: From the Steam Engine to the Search Engine: Two Centuries of Innovators. Little, Brown and Co. ISBN 0-316-27766-5. Freiberger, Paul; Michael Swaine [1984] (2000). Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer, 2nd edition, New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-135892-7. Hamm, Steve; Jay Greene (October 25, 2004). "The Man Who Could Have Been Bill Gates," BusinessWeek. Kildall, Gary (1973). "A Unified Approach to Global Program Optimization". Proceedings of the 1st Annual ACM SIGACT-SIGPLAN Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages. Kirkpatrick, Don (January 12, 1999). comp.os.cpm Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ). Manes, Stephen; Paul Andrews (1992). Gates: How Microsoft's Mogul Reinvented an Industry—and Made Himself the Richest Man in America Doubleday. ISBN 0385420757. Markoff, John. "Gary Kildall, 52, Crucial Player In Computer Development, Dies", New York Times, July 13, 1994, p. D19. Rolander, Tom (July 15, 1994). Eulogy. Tom Rolander's Website and Album. Swaine, Michael (April 1, 1997). "Gary Kildall and Collegial Entrepreneurship". Dr. Dobb's Journal. Wallace, James; Jim Erickson (1993), Hard Drive: Bill Gates and the Making of the Microsoft Empire, ISBN 0-88730-629-2. External links Computer Chronicles - Gary Kildall Special. Documentary Video Originally broadcast in 1995. Digital Research tribute to Dr. Kildall "Kildall, Industry Pioneer" in Microprocessor Report vol 8, no. 10, August 1, 1994 (pdf format) Internet archive of defunct Digital Research website The Gary Kildall Legacy by Sol Libes The man who could have been richer than Bill Gates | Gary_Kildall |@lemmatized gary:20 arlen:1 kildall:39 may:1 july:5 american:2 computer:22 scientist:2 microcomputer:4 entrepreneur:1 create:3 cp:23 operate:4 system:15 founded:1 digital:7 research:8 inc:3 dri:13 one:7 first:13 people:2 see:2 microprocessor:6 fully:1 capable:1 rather:2 equipment:1 controller:1 organize:1 company:7 around:2 concept:2 also:4 co:2 host:2 pbs:1 tv:2 show:2 chronicle:4 although:2 career:3 compute:2 span:1 two:3 decade:1 mainly:1 remember:1 connection:2 ibm:27 unsuccessful:1 attempt:1 license:6 pc:11 early:1 life:2 bear:2 grow:2 seattle:5 washington:3 family:1 seafaring:1 school:2 father:1 joseph:1 captain:1 norwegian:1 heritage:1 mother:1 emma:1 half:1 swedish:1 grandmother:1 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4,229 | Mergers_and_acquisitions | The phrase mergers and acquisitions (abbreviated M&A) refers to the aspect of corporate strategy, corporate finance and management dealing with the buying, selling and combining of different companies that can aid, finance, or help a growing company in a given industry grow rapidly without having to create another business entity. Acquisition An acquisition, also known as a takeover or a buyout, is the buying of one company (the ‘target’) by another. An acquisition may be friendly or hostile. In the former case, the companies cooperate in negotiations; in the latter case, the takeover target is unwilling to be bought or the target's board has no prior knowledge of the offer. Acquisition usually refers to a purchase of a smaller firm by a larger one. Sometimes, however, a smaller firm will acquire management control of a larger or longer established company and keep its name for the combined entity. This is known as a reverse takeover. Another type of acquisition is reverse merger, a deal that enables a private company to get publicly listed in a short time period. A reverse merger occurs when a private company that has strong prospects and is eager to raise financing buys a publicly listed shell company,usually one with no business and limited assets. Achieving acquisition success has proven to be very difficult, while various studies have showed that 50% of acquisitions were unsuccessful. The acquisition process is very complex, with many dimensions influencing its outcome. This model provides a good overview of all dimensions of the acquisition process. Types of acquisition The buyer buys the shares, and therefore control, of the target company being purchased. Ownership control of the company in turn conveys effective control over the assets of the company, but since the company is acquired intact as a going business, this form of transaction carries with it all of the liabilities accrued by that business over its past and all of the risks that company faces in its commercial environment. The buyer buys the assets of the target company. The cash the target receives from the sell-off is paid back to its shareholders by dividend or through liquidation. This type of transaction leaves the target company as an empty shell, if the buyer buys out the entire assets. A buyer often structures the transaction as an asset purchase to "cherry-pick" the assets that it wants and leave out the assets and liabilities that it does not. This can be particularly important where foreseeable liabilities may include future, unquantified damage awards such as those that could arise from litigation over defective products, employee benefits or terminations, or environmental damage. A disadvantage of this structure is the tax that many jurisdictions, particularly outside the United States, impose on transfers of the individual assets, whereas stock transactions can frequently be structured as like-kind exchanges or other arrangements that are tax-free or tax-neutral, both to the buyer and to the seller's shareholders. The terms "demerger", "spin-off" and "spin-out" are sometimes used to indicate a situation where one company splits into two butts, generating a second company separately listed on a stock exchange. Merger In business or economics a merger is a combination of two companies into one larger company. Such actions are commonly voluntary and involve stock swap or cash payment to the target. Stock swap is often used as it allows the shareholders of the two companies to share the risk involved in the deal. A merger can resemble a takeover but result in a new company name (often combining the names of the original companies) and in new branding; in some cases, terming the combination a "merger" rather than an acquisition is done purely for political or marketing reasons. Classifications of mergers Horizontal merger - Two companies that are in direct competition and share the same product lines and markets. Vertical merger - A customer and company or a supplier and company. Think of a cone supplier merging with an ice cream maker. Market-extension merger - Two companies that sell the same products in different markets. Product-extension merger - Two companies selling different but related products in the same market. Conglomeration - Two companies that have no common business areas. Congeneric merger/concentric mergers occur where two merging firms are in the same general industry, but they have no mutual buyer/customer or supplier relationship, such as a merger between a bank and a leasing company. Example: Prudential's acquisition of Bache & Company. There are two types of mergers that are distinguished by how the merger is financed. Each has certain implications for the companies involved and for investors: Purchase Mergers - As the name suggests, this kind of merger occurs when one company purchases another. The purchase is made with cash or through the issue of some kind of debt instrument; the sale is taxable. Acquiring companies often prefer this type of merger because it can provide them with a tax benefit. Acquired assets can be written-up to the actual purchase price, and the difference between the book value and the purchase price of the assets can depreciate annually, reducing taxes payable by the acquiring company. Consolidation Mergers - With this merger, a brand new company is formed and both companies are bought and combined under the new entity. The tax terms are the same as those of a purchase merger. A unique type of merger called a reverse merger is used as a way of going public without the expense and time required by an IPO. The contract vehicle for achieving a merger is a "merger sub". The occurrence of a merger often raises concerns in antitrust circles. Devices such as the Herfindahl index can analyze the impact of a merger on a market and what, if any, action could prevent it. Regulatory bodies such as the European Commission, the United States Department of Justice and the U.S. Federal Trade Commission may investigate anti-trust cases for monopolies dangers, and have the power to block mergers. Accretive mergers are those in which an acquiring company's earnings per share (EPS) increase. An alternative way of calculating this is if a company with a high price to earnings ratio (P/E) acquires one with a low P/E. Dilutive mergers are the opposite of above, whereby a company's EPS decreases. The company will be one with a low P/E acquiring one with a high P/E. The completion of a merger does not ensure the success of the resulting organization; indeed, many mergers (in some industries, the majority) result in a net loss of value due to problems. Correcting problems caused by incompatibility—whether of technology, equipment, or corporate culture— diverts resources away from new investment, and these problems may be exacerbated by inadequate research or by concealment of losses or liabilities by one of the partners. Overlapping subsidiaries or redundant staff may be allowed to continue, creating inefficiency, and conversely the new management may cut too many operations or personnel, losing expertise and disrupting employee culture. These problems are similar to those encountered in takeovers. For the merger not to be considered a failure, it must increase shareholder value faster than if the companies were separate, or prevent the deterioration of shareholder value more than if the companies were separate. Distinction between Mergers and Acquisitions Although they are often uttered in the same breath and used as though they were synonymous, the terms merger and acquisition mean slightly different things. When one company takes over another and clearly established itself as the new owner, the purchase is called an acquisition. From a legal point of view, the target company ceases to exist, the buyer "swallows" the business and the buyer's stock continues to be traded. In the pure sense of the term, a merger happens when two firms, often of about the same size, agree to go forward as a single new company rather than remain separately owned and operated. This kind of action is more precisely referred to as a "merger of equals". Both companies' stocks are surrendered and new company stock is issued in its place. For example, both Daimler-Benz and Chrysler ceased to exist when the two firms merged, and a new company, DaimlerChrysler, was created. In practice, however, actual mergers of equals don't happen very often. Usually, one company will buy another and, as part of the deal's terms, simply allow the acquired firm to proclaim that the action is a merger of equals, even if it is technically an acquisition. Being bought out often carries negative connotations, therefore, by describing the deal euphemistically as a merger, deal makers and top managers try to make the takeover more palatable. A purchase deal will also be called a merger when both CEOs agree that joining together is in the best interest of both of their companies. But when the deal is unfriendly - that is, when the target company does not want to be purchased - it is always regarded as an acquisition. This is challengeable. An acquisition can be either friendly or hostile. An example of a recent friendly takeover was when Microsoft bought Fast Search and Transfer (OSE Stock Exchange, Ticker FAST). CEO of the acquired company (FAST) revealed that they had been working with Microsoft for more than 6 months to get the deal which was announced in January, 2008. Whether a purchase is considered a merger or an acquisition really depends on whether the purchase is friendly or hostile and how it is announced. In other words, the real difference lies in how the purchase is communicated to and received by the target company's board of directors, employees and shareholders. It is quite normal though for M&A deal communications to take place in a so called 'confidentiality bubble' whereby information flows are restricted due to confidentiality agreements (Harwood, 2005). The distinction between "merger" and "acquisition" is described this way t F. Ducoulombier, Candesic Analysis Which slightly differs from the above: Corporate Restructuring is all activities involving expansion or contraction of a firm's operations or changes in its assets or financial structure. Merger: A transaction in which at least one firm ceases to exist and the assets of that firm are transferred to a surviving firm so that only one separate legal entity remains. Acquisition: A transaction in which both firms in the transaction survive but the acquirer increases its percentage ownership in the target. Consolidation: The combination of two or more firms to form a completely new corporation Business valuation The five most common ways to valuate a business are asset valuation, historical earnings valuation, future maintainable earnings valuation, relative valuation (comparable company & comparable transactions), discounted cash flow (DCF) valuation Professionals who valuate businesses generally do not use just one of these methods but a combination of some of them, as well as possibly others that are not mentioned above, in order to obtain a more accurate value. These values are determined for the most part by looking at a company's balance sheet and/or income statement and withdrawing the appropriate information. The information in the balance sheet or income statement is obtained by one of three accounting measures: a Notice to Reader, a Review Engagement or an Audit. Accurate business valuation is one of the most important aspects of M&A as valuations like these will have a major impact on the price that a business will be sold for. Most often this information is expressed in a Letter of Opinion of Value (LOV) when the business is being valuated for interest's sake. There are other, more detailed ways of expressing the value of a business. These reports generally get more detailed and expensive as the size of a company increases, however, this is not always the case as there are many complicated industries which require more attention to detail, regardless of size. Financing M&A Mergers are generally differentiated from acquisitions partly by the way in which they are financed and partly by the relative size of the companies. Various methods of financing an M&A deal exist: Cash Payment by cash. Such transactions are usually termed acquisitions rather than mergers because the shareholders of the target company are removed from the picture and the target comes under the (indirect) control of the bidder's shareholders alone. A cash deal would make more sense during a downward trend in the interest rates. Another advantage of using cash for an acquisition is that there tends to lesser chances of EPS dilution for the acquiring company. But a caveat in using cash is that it places constraints on the cash flow of the company. Financing Financing capital may be borrowed from a bank, or raised by an issue of bonds. Alternatively, the acquirer's stock may be offered as consideration. Acquisitions financed through debt are known as leveraged buyouts if they take the target private, and the debt will often be moved down onto the balance sheet of the acquired company. Hybrids An acquisition can involve a combination of cash and debt or of cash and stock of the purchasing entity. Factoring Factoring can provide the extra to make a merger or sale work. Hybrid can work as ad e-denit. Specialist M&A advisory firms Although at present the majority of M&A advice is provided by full-service investment banks, recent years have seen a rise in the prominence of specialist M&A advisers, who only provide M&A advice (and not financing). These companies are sometimes referred to as Transition Companies, assisting businesses often referred to as "companies in transition." To perform these services in the US, an advisor must be a licensed broker dealer, and subject to SEC (FINRA) regulation. More information on M&A advisory firms is provided at corporate advisory. Motives behind M&A The dominant rationale used to explain M&A activity is that acquiring firms seek improved financial performance. The following motives are considered to improve financial performance: Synergy: This refers to the fact that the combined company can often reduce its fixed costs by removing duplicate departments or operations, lowering the costs of the company relative to the same revenue stream, thus increasing profit margins. Increased revenue or market share: This assumes that the buyer will be absorbing a major competitor and thus increase its market power (by capturing increased market share) to set prices. Cross-selling: For example, a bank buying a stock broker could then sell its banking products to the stock broker's customers, while the broker can sign up the bank's customers for brokerage accounts. Or, a manufacturer can acquire and sell complementary products. Economy of scale: For example, managerial economies such as the increased opportunity of managerial specialization. Another example are purchasing economies due to increased order size and associated bulk-buying discounts. Taxation: A profitable company can buy a loss maker to use the target's loss as their advantage by reducing their tax liability. In the United States and many other countries, rules are in place to limit the ability of profitable companies to "shop" for loss making companies, limiting the tax motive of an acquiring company. Geographical or other diversification: This is designed to smooth the earnings results of a company, which over the long term smoothens the stock price of a company, giving conservative investors more confidence in investing in the company. However, this does not always deliver value to shareholders (see below). Resource transfer: resources are unevenly distributed across firms (Barney, 1991) and the interaction of target and acquiring firm resources can create value through either overcoming information asymmetry or by combining scarce resources. Vertical integration: Vertical integration occurs when an upstream and downstream firm merge (or one acquires the other). There are several reasons for this to occur. One reason is to internalise an externality problem. A common example is of such an externality is double marginalization. Double marginalization occurs when both the upstream and downstream firms have monopoly power, each firm reduces output from the competitive level to the monopoly level, creating two deadweight losses. By merging the vertically integrated firm can collect one deadweight loss by setting the upstream firm's output to the competitive level. This increases profits and consumer surplus. A merger that creates a vertically integrated firm can be profitable. Vertical integration may also be driven by reduction of transaction costs (particularly credit related) and risk mitigation However, on average and across the most commonly studied variables, acquiring firms' financial performance does not positively change as a function of their acquisition activity. Therefore, additional motives for merger and acquisiiton that may not add shareholder value include: Diversification: While this may hedge a company against a downturn in an individual industry it fails to deliver value, since it is possible for individual shareholders to achieve the same hedge by diversifying their portfolios at a much lower cost than those associated with a merger. Manager's hubris: manager's overconfidence about expected synergies from M&A which results in overpayment for the target company. Empire-building: Managers have larger companies to manage and hence more power. Manager's compensation: In the past, certain executive management teams had their payout based on the total amount of profit of the company, instead of the profit per share, which would give the team a perverse incentive to buy companies to increase the total profit while decreasing the profit per share (which hurts the owners of the company, the shareholders); although some empirical studies show that compensation is linked to profitability rather than mere profits of the company. Effects on management A study published in the July/August 2008 issue of the Journal of Business Strategy suggests that mergers and acquisitions destroy leadership continuity in target companies’ top management teams for at least a decade following a deal. The study found that target companies lose 21 percent of their executives each year for at least 10 years following an acquisition – more than double the turnover experienced in non-merged firms. Mergers and Acquisitions Lead to Long-Term Management Turmoil Newswise, Retrieved on July 14, 2008. M&A marketplace difficulties In many states, no marketplace currently exists for the mergers and acquisitions of privately owned small to mid-sized companies. Market participants often wish to maintain a level of secrecy about their efforts to buy or sell such companies. Their concern for secrecy usually arises from the possible negative reactions a company's employees, bankers, suppliers, customers and others might have if the effort or interest to seek a transaction were to become known. This need for secrecy has thus far thwarted the emergence of a public forum or marketplace to serve as a clearinghouse for this large volume of business. In some states, a Multiple Listing Service (MLS) of small businesses for sale is maintained by organizations such as Business Brokers of Florida (BBF). Another MLS is maintained by International Business Brokers Association (IBBA). At present, the process by which a company is bought or sold can prove difficult, slow and expensive. A transaction typically requires six to nine months and involves many steps. Locating parties with whom to conduct a transaction forms one step in the overall process and perhaps the most difficult one. Qualified and interested buyers of multimillion dollar corporations are hard to find. Even more difficulties attend bringing a number of potential buyers forward simultaneously during negotiations. Potential acquirers in an industry simply cannot effectively "monitor" the economy at large for acquisition opportunities even though some may fit well within their company's operations or plans. An industry of professional "middlemen" (known variously as intermediaries, business brokers, and investment bankers) exists to facilitate M&A transactions. These professionals do not provide their services cheaply and generally resort to previously-established personal contacts, direct-calling campaigns, and placing advertisements in various media. In servicing their clients they attempt to create a one-time market for a one-time transaction. Stock purchase or merger transactions involve securities and require that these "middlemen" be licensed broker dealers under FINRA (SEC) in order to be compensated as a % of the deal. Generally speaking, an unlicensed middleman may be compensated on an asset purchase without being licensed. Many, but not all, transactions use intermediaries on one or both sides. Despite best intentions, intermediaries can operate inefficiently because of the slow and limiting nature of having to rely heavily on telephone communications. Many phone calls fail to contact with the intended party. Busy executives tend to be impatient when dealing with sales calls concerning opportunities in which they have no interest. These marketing problems typify any private negotiated markets. Due to these problems and other problems like these, brokers who deal with small to mid-sized companies often deal with much more strenuous conditions than other business brokers. Mid-sized business brokers have an average life-span of only 12–18 months and usually never grow beyond 1 or 2 employees. Exceptions to this are few and far between. Some of these exceptions include The Sundial Group, Geneva Business Services and Robbinex. The market inefficiencies can prove detrimental for this important sector of the economy. Beyond the intermediaries' high fees, the current process for mergers and acquisitions has the effect of causing private companies to initially sell their shares at a significant discount relative to what the same company might sell for were it already publicly traded. An important and large sector of the entire economy is held back by the difficulty in conducting corporate M&A (and also in raising equity or debt capital). Furthermore, it is likely that since privately held companies are so difficult to sell they are not sold as often as they might or should be. Previous attempts to streamline the M&A process through computers have failed to succeed on a large scale because they have provided mere "bulletin boards" - static information that advertises one firm's opportunities. Users must still seek other sources for opportunities just as if the bulletin board were not electronic. A multiple listings service concept was previously not used due to the need for confidentiality but there are currently several in operation. The most significant of these are run by the California Association of Business Brokers (CABB) and the International Business Brokers Association (IBBA) These organizations have effectivily created a type of virtual market without compromising the confidentiality of parties involved and without the unauthorized release of information. One part of the M&A process which can be improved significantly using networked computers is the improved access to "data rooms" during the due diligence process however only for larger transactions. For the purposes of small-medium sized business, these datarooms serve no purpose and are generally not used. M&A failure Reasons for frequent failure of M&A were analyzed by Thomas Straub in "Reasons for frequent failure in mergers and acquisitions - a comprehensive analysis", DUV Gabler Edition, 2007. Despite the goal of performance improvement, results from mergers and acquisitions (M&A) are often disappointing. Numerous empirical studies show high failure rates of M&A deals. Studies are mostly focused on individual determinants. The literature therefore lacks a more comprehensive framework that includes different perspectives.Using four statistical methods, Thomas Straub shows that M&A performance is a multi-dimensional function. For a successful deal, the following key success factors should be taken into account:� Strategic logic which is reflected by six determinants: market similarities, market complementarities, operational similarities, operational complementarities, market power, and purchasing power.� Organizational integration which is reflected by three determinants: acquisition experience, relative size, cultural compatibility.� Financial / price perspective which is reflected by three determinants: acquisition premium, bidding process, and due diligence.All 12 variables are presumed to affect performance either positively or negatively. Post-M&A performance is measured by synergy realization, relative performance (compared to competition), and absolute performance. The Great Merger Movement The Great Merger Movement was a predominantly U.S. business phenomenon that happened from 1895 to 1905. During this time, small firms with little market share consolidated with similar firms to form large, powerful institutions that dominated their markets. It is estimated that more than 1,800 of these firms disappeared into consolidations, many of which acquired substantial shares of the markets in which they operated. The vehicle used were so-called trusts. To truly understand how large this movement was—in 1900 the value of firms acquired in mergers was 20% of GDP. In 1990 the value was only 3% and from 1998–2000 is was around 10–11% of GDP. Organizations that commanded the greatest share of the market in 1905 saw that command disintegrate by 1929 as smaller competitors joined forces with each other. However, there were companies that merged during this time such as DuPont, Nabisco, US Steel, and General Electric that have been able to keep their dominance in their respected sectors today due to growing technological advances of their products, patents, and brand recognition by their customers. The companies that merged were mass producers of homogeneous goods that could exploit the efficiencies of large volume production. However more often than not mergers were "quick mergers". These "quick mergers" involved mergers of companies with unrelated technology and different management. As a result, the efficiency gains associated with mergers were not present. The new and bigger company would actually face higher costs than competitors because of these technological and managerial differences. Thus, the mergers were not done to see large efficiency gains, they were in fact done because that was the trend at the time. Companies which had specific fine products, like fine writing paper, earned their profits on high margin rather than volume and took no part in Great Merger Movement. Short-run factors One of the major short run factors that sparked in The Great Merger Movement was the desire to keep prices high. That is, with many firms in a market, supply of the product remains high. During the panic of 1893, the demand declined. When demand for the good falls, as illustrated by the classic supply and demand model, prices are driven down. To avoid this decline in prices, firms found it profitable to collude and manipulate supply to counter any changes in demand for the good. This type of cooperation led to widespread horizontal integration amongst firms of the era. Focusing on mass production allowed firms to reduce unit costs to a much lower rate. These firms usually were capital-intensive and had high fixed costs. Because new machines were mostly financed through bonds, interest payments on bonds were high followed by the panic of 1893, yet no firm was willing to accept quantity reduction during this period. Long-run factors In the long run, due to the desire to keep costs low, it was advantageous for firms to merge and reduce their transportation costs thus producing and transporting from one location rather than various sites of different companies as in the past. This resulted in shipment directly to market from this one location. In addition, technological changes prior to the merger movement within companies increased the efficient size of plants with capital intensive assembly lines allowing for economies of scale. Thus improved technology and transportation were forerunners to the Great Merger Movement. In part due to competitors as mentioned above, and in part due to the government, however, many of these initially successful mergers were eventually dismantled. The U.S. government passed the Sherman Act in 1890, setting rules against price fixing and monopolies. Starting in the 1890s with such cases as U.S. versus Addyston Pipe and Steel Co., the courts attacked large companies for strategizing with others or within their own companies to maximize profits. Price fixing with competitors created a greater incentive for companies to unite and merge under one name so that they were not competitors anymore and technically not price fixing. Cross-border M&A In a study conducted in 2000 by Lehman Brothers, it was found that, on average, large M&A deals cause the domestic currency of the target corporation to appreciate by 1% relative to the acquirer's. For every $1-billion deal, the currency of the target corporation increased in value by 0.5%. More specifically, the report found that in the period immediately after the deal is announced, there is generally a strong upward movement in the target corporation's domestic currency (relative to the acquirer's currency). Fifty days after the announcement, the target currency is then, on average, 1% stronger. The rise of globalization has exponentially increased the market for cross border M&A. In 1996 alone there were over 2000 cross border transactions worth a total of approximately $256 billion. This rapid increase has taken many M&A firms by surprise because the majority of them never had to consider acquiring the capabilities or skills required to effectively handle this kind of transaction. In the past, the market's lack of significance and a more strictly national mindset prevented the vast majority of small and mid-sized companies from considering cross border intermediation as an option which left M&A firms inexperienced in this field. This same reason also prevented the development of any extensive academic works on the subject. Due to the complicated nature of cross border M&A, the vast majority of cross border actions have unsuccessful results. Cross border intermediation has many more levels of complexity to it then regular intermediation seeing as corporate governance, the power of the average employee, company regulations, political factors customer expectations, and countries' culture are all crucial factors that could spoil the transaction. However, with the weak dollar in the U.S. and soft economies in a number of countries around the world, we are seeing more cross-border bargain hunting as top companies seek to expand their global footprint and become more agile at creating high-performing businesses and cultures across national boundaries. M&A Agility for Global Organizations Even mergers of companies with headquarters in the same country are very much of this type (cross-border Mergers). After all,when Boeing acquires McDonnell Douglas, the two American companies must integrate operations in dozens of countries around the world. This is just as true for other supposedly "single country" mergers, such as the $27 billion dollar merger of Swiss drug makers Sandoz and Ciba-Geigy (now Novartis). Major M&A in the 1990s Top 10 M&A deals worldwide by value (in mil. USD) from 1990 to 1999: Rank YearPurchaserPurchasedTransaction value (in mil. USD) 1 1999Vodafone Airtouch PLC Mannesmann to accept bid - February 3, 2000 Mannesmann183,00021999Pfizer Pfizer and Warner-Lambert agree to $90 billion merger creating the world's fastest-growing major pharmaceutical company Warner-Lambert90,0003 1998Exxon Exxon, Mobil mate for $80B - December 1, 1998 Finance: Exxon-Mobil Merger Could Poison The Well Mobil77,20041998CiticorpTravelers Group73,00051999SBC CommunicationsAmeritech Corporation63,00061999Vodafone GroupAirTouch Communications60,00071998Bell Atlantic Fool.com: Bell Atlantic and GTE Agree to Merge (Feature) July 28, 1998 GTE53,36081998BP http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/finance/fdi/ad2000.html Amoco53,00091999Qwest CommunicationsUS WEST48,000101997WorldcomMCI Communications42,000 Major M&A from 2000 to present Top 9 M&A deals worldwide by value (in mil. USD) since 2000: Rank YearPurchaserPurchasedTransaction value (in mil. USD) 12000 Fusion: America Online Inc. (AOL) Online NewsHour: AOL/Time Warner Merger AOL and Time Warner to merge - January 10, 2000 Time Warner 164,747 22000Glaxo Wellcome Plc.SmithKline Beecham Plc.75,961 32004Royal Dutch Petroleum Co.Shell Transport & Trading Co74,559 42006AT&T Inc. AT&T To Buy BellSouth For $67 Billion, Apparent Bid For Total Control Of Joint Venture Cingular - CBS News AT&T- News Room BellSouth Corporation72,671 52001Comcast CorporationAT&T Broadband & Internet Svcs72,041 62004Sanofi-Synthelabo SAAventis SA60,243 72000Spin-off: Nortel Networks Corporation59,974 82002Pfizer Inc.Pharmacia Corporation59,515 92004JP Morgan Chase & Co Bank One Corp58,761 See also Mergers and acquisitions in United Kingdom law Competition regulator Control premium Corporate advisory Divestiture Factoring (finance) Fairness opinion International Financial Reporting Standards List of bank mergers in United States Management control Merger control Merger integration Merger simulation Second request Shakeout Tulane Corporate Law Institute References Further reading | Mergers_and_acquisitions |@lemmatized phrase:1 merger:85 acquisition:39 abbreviate:1 refers:2 aspect:2 corporate:9 strategy:2 finance:13 management:9 deal:24 buying:3 selling:2 combining:1 different:7 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4,230 | Complexity | In general usage, complexity tends to be used to characterize something with many parts in intricate arrangement. In science there are at this time a number of approaches to characterizing complexity, many of which are reflected in this article. Seth Lloyd of M.I.T. writes that he once gave a presentation which set out 32 definitions of complexity. . Definitions are often tied to the concept of a ‘system’ – a set of parts or elements which have relationships among them differentiated from relationships with other elements outside the relational regime. Many definitions tend to postulate or assume that complexity expresses a condition of numerous elements in a system and numerous forms of relationships among the elements. At the same time, what is complex and what is simple is relative and changes with time. Some definitions key on the question of the probability of encountering a given condition of a system once characteristics of the system are specified. Warren Weaver has posited that the complexity of a particular system is the degree of difficulty in predicting the properties of the system if the properties of the system’s parts are given. In Weaver's view, complexity comes in two forms: disorganized complexity, and organized complexity. Weaver’s paper has influenced contemporary thinking about complexity. . The approaches which embody concepts of systems, multiple elements, multiple relational regimes, and state spaces might be summarized as implying that complexity arises from the number of distinguishable relational regimes (and their associated state spaces) in a defined system. Some definitions relate to the algorithmic basis for the expression of a complex phenomenon or model or mathematical expression, as is later set out herein. [[Image:complexity-map-overview.png|thumb|700px|right|'Map of Complexity Science. *HERE FOR WEB VERSION OF MAP' The web version of this map provides internet links to all the leading scholars and areas of research in complexity science.]] MAP LEGEND. Disorganized complexity vs. organized complexity One of the problems in addressing complexity issues has been distinguishing conceptually between the large number of variances in relationships extant in random collections, and the sometimes large, but smaller, number of relationships between elements in systems where constraints (related to correlation of otherwise independent elements) simultaneously reduce the variations from element independence and create distinguishable regimes of more-uniform, or correlated, relationships, or interactions. Weaver perceived and addressed this problem, in at least a preliminary way, in drawing a distinction between 'disorganized complexity' and 'organized complexity'. In Weaver's view, disorganized complexity results from the particular system having a very large number of parts, say millions of parts, or many more. Though the interactions of the parts in a 'disorganized complexity' situation can be seen as largely random, the properties of the system as a whole can be understood by using probability and statistical methods. A prime example of disorganized complexity is a gas in a container, with the gas molecules as the parts. Some would suggest that a system of disorganized complexity may be compared, for example, with the (relative) simplicity of the planetary orbits – the latter can be known by applying Newton’s laws of motion, though this example involved highly correlated events. Organized complexity, in Weaver's view, resides in nothing else than the non-random, or correlated, interaction between the parts. These non-random, or correlated, relationships create a differentiated structure which can, as a system, interact with other systems. The coordinated system manifests properties not carried by, or dictated by, individual parts. The organized aspect of this form of complexity vis a vis other systems than the subject system can be said to "emerge," without any “guiding hand.” The number of parts does not have to be very large for a particular system to have emergent properties. A system of organized complexity may be understood in its properties (behavior among the properties) through modeling and simulation, particularly modeling and simulation with computers. An example of organized complexity is a city neighborhood as a living mechanism, with the neighborhood people among the system’s parts. Sources and factors of complexity The source of disorganized complexity is the large number of parts in the system of interest, and the lack of correlation between elements in the system. There is no consensus at present on general rules regarding the sources of organized complexity, though the lack of randomness implies correlations between elements. See e.g. Robert Ulanowicz's treatment of ecosystems. Ulanowicz, Robert, "Ecology, the Ascendant Perspective", Columbia, 1997 Consistent with prior statements here, the number of parts (and types of parts) in the system and the number of relations between the parts would have to be non-trivial – however, there is no general rule to separate “trivial” from “non-trivial. Complexity of an object or system is a relative property. For instance, for many functions (problems), such a computational complexity as time of computation is smaller when multitape Turing machines are used than when Turing machines with one tape are used. Random Access Machines allow one to even more decrease time complexity (Greenlaw and Hoover 1998: 226), while inductive Turing machines can decrease even the complexity class of a function, language or set (Burgin 2005). This shows that tools of activity can be an important factor of complexity. Specific meanings of complexity In several scientific fields, "complexity" has a specific meaning : In computational complexity theory, the amounts of resources required for the execution of algorithms is studied. The most popular types of computational complexity are the time complexity of a problem equal to the number of steps that it takes to solve an instance of the problem as a function of the size of the input (usually measured in bits), using the most efficient algorithm, and the space complexity of a problem equal to the volume of the memory used by the algorithm (e.g., cells of the tape) that it takes to solve an instance of the problem as a function of the size of the input (usually measured in bits), using the most efficient algorithm. This allows to classify computational problems by complexity class (such as P, NP ... ). An axiomatic approach to computational complexity was developed by Manuel Blum. It allows one to deduce many properties of concrete computational complexity measures, such as time complexity or space complexity, from properties of axiomatically defined measures. In algorithmic information theory, the Kolmogorov complexity (also called descriptive complexity, algorithmic complexity or algorithmic entropy) of a string is the length of the shortest binary program which outputs that string. Different kinds of Kolmogorov complexity are studied: the uniform complexity, prefix complexity, monotone complexity, time-bounded Kolmogorov complexity, and space-bounded Kolmogorov complexity. An axiomatic approach to Kolmogorov complexity based on Blum axioms (Blum 1967) was introduced by Mark Burgin in the paper presented for publication by Andrey Kolmogorov (Burgin 1982). The axiomatic approach encompasses other approaches to Kolmogorov complexity. It is possible to treat different kinds of Kolmogorov complexity as particular cases of axiomatically defined generalized Kolmogorov complexity. Instead, of proving similar theorems, such as the basic invariance theorem, for each particular measure, it is possible to easily deduce all such results from one corresponding theorem proved in the axiomatic setting. This is a general advantage of the axiomatic approach in mathematics. The axiomatic approach to Kolmogorov complexity was further developed in the book (Burgin 2005) and applied to software metrics (Burgin and Debnath, 2003; Debnath and Burgin, 2003). In information processing, complexity is a measure of the total number of properties transmitted by an object and detected by an observer. Such a collection of properties is often referred to as a state. In physical systems, complexity is a measure of the probability of the state vector of the system. This should not be confused with entropy; it is a distinct mathematical measure, one in which two distinct states are never conflated and considered equal, as is done for the notion of entropy statistical mechanics. In mathematics, Krohn-Rhodes complexity is an important topic in the study of finite semigroups and automata. There are different specific forms of complexity: In the sense of how complicated a problem is from the perspective of the person trying to solve it, limits of complexity are measured using a term from cognitive psychology, namely the hrair limit. Unruly complexity denotes situations that do not have clearly defined boundaries, coherent internal dynamics, or simply mediated relations with their external context, as coined by Peter Taylor. Complex adaptive system denotes systems which have some or all of the following attributes The number of parts (and types of parts) in the system and the number of relations between the parts is non-trivial – however, there is no general rule to separate “trivial” from “non-trivial;” The system has memory or includes feedback; The system can adapt itself according to its history or feedback; The relations between the system and its environment are non-trivial or non-linear; The system can be influenced by, or can adapt itself to, its environment; and The system is highly sensitive to initial conditions. Study of complexity Complexity has always been a part of our environment, and therefore many scientific fields have dealt with complex systems and phenomena. Indeed, some would say that only what is somehow complex – what displays variation without being random – is worthy of interest. The use of the term complex is often confused with the term complicated. In today’s systems, this is the difference between myriad connecting "stovepipes" and effective "integrated" solutions. (Lissack and Roos, 2000) This means that complex is the opposite of independent, while complicated is the opposite of simple. While this has led some fields to come up with specific definitions of complexity, there is a more recent movement to regroup observations from different fields to study complexity in itself, whether it appears in anthills, human brains, or stock markets. One such interndisciplinary group of fields is relational order theories. Complexity topics Complex behaviour The behaviour of a complex system is often said to be due to emergence and self-organization. Chaos theory has investigated the sensitivity of systems to variations in initial conditions as one cause of complex behaviour. One of the main claims in Stephen Wolfram's book A New Kind of Science is that such behaviour can be generated by simple systems, such as the rule 110 cellular automaton. Complex mechanisms Recent developments around artificial life, evolutionary computation and genetic algorithms have led to an increasing emphasis on complexity and complex adaptive systems. Complex simulations In social science, the study on the emergence of macro-properties from the micro-properties, also known as macro-micro view in sociology. The topic is commonly recognized as social complexity that is often related to the use of computer simulation in social science, i.e.: computational sociology. Complex systems Systems theory has long been concerned with the study of complex systems (In recent times, complexity theory and complex systems have also been used as names of the field). These systems can be biological, economic, technological, etc. Recently, complexity is a natural domain of interest of the real world socio-cognitive systems and emerging systemics research. Complex systems tend to be high-dimensional, non-linear and hard to model. In specific circumstances they may exhibit low dimensional behaviour. Complexity in data In information theory, algorithmic information theory is concerned with the complexity of strings of data. Complex strings are harder to compress. While intuition tells us that this may depend on the codec used to compress a string (a codec could be theoretically created in any arbitrary language, including one in which the very small command "X" could cause the computer to output a very complicated string like '18995316'"), any two Turing-complete languages can be implemented in each other, meaning that the length of two encodings in different languages will vary by at most the length of the "translation" language - which will end up being negligible for sufficiently large data strings. These algorithmic measures of complexity tend to assign high values to random noise. However, those studying complex systems would not consider randomness as complexity. Information entropy is also sometimes used in information theory as indicative of complexity. Applications of complexity Computational complexity theory is the study of the complexity of problems - that is, the difficulty of solving them. Problems can be classified by complexity class according to the time it takes for an algorithm - usually a computer program - to solve them as a function of the problem size. Some problems are difficult to solve, while others are easy. For example, some difficult problems need algorithms that take an exponential amount of time in terms of the size of the problem to solve. Take the travelling salesman problem, for example. It can be solved in time (where n is the size of the network to visit - let's say the number of cities the travelling salesman must visit exactly once). As the size of the network of cities grows, the time needed to find the route grows (more than) exponentially. Even though a problem may be computationally solvable in principle, in actual practice it may not be that simple. These problems might require large amounts of time or an inordinate amount of space. Computational complexity may be approached from many different aspects. Computational complexity can be investigated on the basis of time, memory or other resources used to solve the problem. Time and space are two of the most important and popular considerations when problems of complexity are analyzed. There exist a certain class of problems that although they are solvable in principle they require so much time or space that it is not practical to attempt to solve them. These problems are called intractable. There is another form of complexity called hierarchical complexity. It is orthogonal to the forms of complexity discussed so far, which are called horizontal complexity See also Chaos theory Command and Control Research Program Complexity theory (disambiguation page) Cyclomatic complexity Evolution of complexity Game complexity Holism in science Interconnectedness Model of hierarchical complexity Occam's razor Process architecture Programming Complexity Sociology and complexity science Systems theory Variety (cybernetics) References Further reading Greenlaw, N. and Hoover, H.J. Fundamentals of the Theory of Computation, Morgan Kauffman Publishers, San Francisco, 1998 Blum, M. (1967) On the Size of Machines, Information and Control, v. 11, pp. 257-265 Burgin, M. (1982) Generalized Kolmogorov complexity and duality in theory of computations, Notices of the Russian Academy of Sciences, v.25, No. 3, pp.19-23 Mark Burgin (2005), Super-recursive algorithms, Monographs in computer science, Springer. Burgin, M. and Debnath, N. Hardship of Program Utilization and User-Friendly Software, in Proceedings of the International Conference “Computer Applications in Industry and Engineering”, Las Vegas, Nevada, 2003, pp. 314-317 Debnath, N.C. and Burgin, M., (2003) Software Metrics from the Algorithmic Perspective, in Proceedings of the ISCA 18th International Conference “Computers and their Applications”'', Honolulu, Hawaii, pp. 279-282 Meyers, R.A., (2009) "Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science", ISBN 978-0-387-75888-6 External links Quantifying Complexity Theory - classification of complex systems Complexity Measures - an article about the abundance of not-that-useful complexity measures. 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4,231 | Calvin_Coolidge | John Calvin Coolidge, Jr. (July 4, 1872 January 5, 1933) was the 30th President of the United States (1923–1929). A Republican lawyer from Vermont, Coolidge worked his way up the ladder of Massachusetts state politics, eventually becoming governor of that state. His actions during the Boston Police Strike of 1919 thrust him into the national spotlight. Soon after, he was elected as the 29th Vice President in 1920 and succeeded to the Presidency upon the death of Warren G. Harding. Elected in his own right in 1924, he gained a reputation as a small-government conservative. Coolidge restored public confidence in the White House after the scandals of his predecessor's administration, and left office with considerable popularity. McCoy, 420–421; Greenberg, 49–53 As his biographer later put it, "he embodied the spirit and hopes of the middle class, could interpret their longings and express their opinions. That he did represent the genius of the average is the most convincing proof of his strength." Fuess, 500 Many later criticized Coolidge as part of a general criticism of laissez-faire government. McCoy, 418; Greenberg, 146–150; Ferrell, 66–72 His reputation underwent a renaissance during the Ronald Reagan Administration, Sobel, 12–13; Greenberg, 2–3 but the ultimate assessment of his presidency is still divided between those who approve of his reduction of the size of government and those who believe the federal government should be more involved in regulating the economy. Greenberg, 1–7 Family and early life Birth and family history John Calvin Coolidge, Jr. was born in Plymouth, Windsor County, Vermont, on July 4, 1872, the only U.S. President to be born on the Fourth of July. He was the elder of two children of John Calvin Coolidge (1845 1926) and Victoria Josephine Moor (1846 1885). He had a sister, Abigail Grace Coolidge (1875 1890). The Coolidge family had deep roots in New England. His earliest American ancestor, John Coolidge, emigrated from Cambridge, England, around 1630 and settled in Watertown, Massachusetts. Fuess, 12 Coolidge's great-great-grandfather, also named John Coolidge, was an American army officer in the Revolutionary War and was one of the first selectmen of the town of Plymouth Notch. Fuess, 7 Most of Coolidge's ancestors were farmers. The more well-known Coolidges, such as architect Charles Allerton Coolidge and diplomat Archibald Cary Coolidge, were descended from other branches of the family that had stayed in Massachusetts. Coolidge's grandmother Sarah Almeda Brewer had two famous first cousins: Arthur Brown, a United States Senator, and Olympia Brown, a women's suffragist. Coolidge's grandfather Calvin Coolidge held some local government offices in Plymouth and was best remembered as a man with "a fondness for practical jokes". Fuess, 14 Sarah Brewer was also of New England. It is through this ancestor that Coolidge claimed to be descended in part from American Indians, although no evidence for this has been found to establish this claim. McCoy, 5 Coolidge's father was a farmer, but spent some time as a schoolteacher and justice of the peace. Fuess, 16 His mother Victoria (Moor) Coolidge was the daughter of another Plymouth Notch farmer. Fuess, 17 Coolidge's mother was chronically ill- possibly suffering from tuberculosis- and died young in 1885, but Coolidge's father lived to swear him in as President. McCoy, 5; White, 11 Early career and marriage Coolidge as an Amherst undergraduate Western Massachusetts lawyer Coolidge attended Amherst College, where he became a member of the fraternity of Phi Gamma Delta. After graduating from Amherst College, at his father's urging Coolidge moved to Northampton, Massachusetts to take up the practice of law. Avoiding the costly alternative of attending a law school, Coolidge followed the more common practice at the time of apprenticing with a local firm, Hammond & Field and reading law with them. John C. Hammond and Henry P. Field, both Amherst graduates, introduced Coolidge to the law practice in the county seat of Hampshire County. In 1897, Coolidge was admitted to the bar, becoming a country lawyer. With his savings and a small inheritance from his grandfather, Coolidge was able to open his own law office in Northampton in 1898. He practiced transactional law, believing that he served his clients best by staying out of court. As his reputation as a hard-working and diligent attorney grew, local banks and other businesses began to retain his services. Fuess, 74–81; McCoy 22–26 Marriage and family In 1905 Coolidge met and married a fellow Vermonter, Grace Anna Goodhue, a local schoolteacher working at the Clarke School for the Deaf. While Grace was watering flowers outside the school one day in 1903, she happened to look up at the open window of Robert N. Weir's boardinghouse and caught a glimpse of Calvin Coolidge shaving in front of a mirror with nothing on but long underwear and a hat. Sobel, 55 After a more formal introduction sometime later, the two were quickly attracted to each other. They were opposites in personality: she was talkative and fun-loving, while Coolidge was quiet and serious. Greenberg, 58–59 Not long after their marriage, Coolidge handed her a bag with fifty-two pairs of socks in it, all of them full of holes. Grace's reply was "Did you marry me to darn your socks?" Without cracking a smile and with his usual seriousness, Calvin answered, "No, but I find it mighty handy." Telleen, Maurice. The Days Before Yesterday: 75 years ago. The Draft Horse Journal, Autumn, 2001. Retrieved from Internet Archive on 2007-05-18. They had two sons: John Coolidge, born in 1906, and Calvin Coolidge, Jr., born in 1908. White, 65–66 The marriage was, by most accounts, a happy one. Fuess, 89–92; Sobel, 57–58. Some biographers disagree with this rosy portrait, see Ferrell, 21–23 As Coolidge wrote in his Autobiography, "We thought we were made for each other. For almost a quarter of a century she has borne with my infirmities, and I have rejoiced in her graces." Autobiography, 93 Local political office City offices The Republican Party was dominant in New England in Coolidge's time, and he followed Hammond's and Field's example by becoming active in local politics. Sobel, 49–51 Coolidge campaigned locally for Republican presidential candidate William McKinley in 1896, and the next year he was selected to be a member of the Republican City Committee. Sobel, 51 In 1898, he won election to the City Council of Northampton, placing second in a ward where the top three candidates were elected. The position offered no salary, but gave Coolidge experience in the political world. Fuess, 83 In 1899, he declined renomination, running instead for City Solicitor, a position elected by the City Council. He was elected for a one-year term in 1900, and reelected in 1901. Fuess, 84–85 This position gave Coolidge more experience as a lawyer, and paid a salary of $600. In 1902, the city council selected a Democrat for city solicitor, and Coolidge returned to an exclusively private practice. McCoy, 29 Soon thereafter, however, the clerk of courts for the county died, and Coolidge was chosen to replace him. The position paid well, but barred him from practicing law, so he only remained at the job for one year. The next year, 1904, Coolidge met with his only defeat before the voters, losing an election to the Northampton school board. When told that some of his neighbors voted against him because he had no children in the schools he would govern, Coolidge replied "Might give me time!" State legislator and mayor Calvin and Grace Coolidge, about 1918. In 1906 the local Republican committee nominated Coolidge for election to the state House of Representatives. He won a close victory over the incumbent Democrat, and reported to Boston for the 1907 session of the Massachusetts General Court. Sobel, 61 In his freshman term, Coolidge served on minor committees and, although he usually voted with the party, was known as a Progressive Republican, voting in favor of such measures as women's suffrage and the direct election of Senators. Sobel, 62; Fuess, 99 Throughout his time in Boston, Coolidge found himself allied primarily with the western Winthrop Murray Crane faction of the state Republican Party, as against the Henry Cabot Lodge-dominated eastern faction. Sobel, 63–66 In 1907, he was elected to a second term. In the 1908 session, Coolidge was more outspoken, but was still not one of the leaders in the legislature. Sobel, 68–69 Instead of vying for another term in the state house, Coolidge returned home to his growing family and ran for mayor of Northampton when the incumbent Democrat retired. He was well-liked in the town, and defeated his challenger by a vote of 1,597 to 1,409. Sobel, 72 During his first term (1910 to 1911), he increased teachers' salaries and retired some of the city's debt while still managing to effect a slight tax decrease. Fuess, 106–107; Sobel, 74 He was renominated in 1911, and defeated the same opponent by a slightly larger margin. Fuess, 108 Calvin Coolidge as a young legislator In 1911, the State Senator for the Hampshire County area retired and encouraged Coolidge to run for his seat for the 1912 session. He defeated his Democratic opponent by a large margin. Sobel, 76 At the start of that term, Coolidge was selected to be chairman of a committee to arbitrate the "Bread and Roses" strike by the workers of the American Woolen Company in Lawrence, Massachusetts. See also the main article, Lawrence textile strike, for a full description. After two tense months, the company agreed to the workers' demands in a settlement the committee proposed. Fuess, 110–111; McCoy, 45–46 The other major issue for Republicans that year was the party split between the progressive wing, which favored Theodore Roosevelt, and the conservative wing, which favored William Howard Taft. Although he favored some progressive measures, Coolidge refused to bolt the party. Sobel, 79–80; Fuess, 111 When the new Progressive Party declined to run a candidate in his state senate district, Coolidge won reelection against his Democratic opponent by an increased margin. The 1913 session was less eventful, and Coolidge's time was mostly spent on the railroad committee, of which he was the chairman. Fuess, 111–113 Coolidge intended to retire after the 1913 session, as two terms were the norm, but when the President of the State Senate, Levi H. Greenwood, considered running for Lieutenant Governor, Coolidge decided to run again for the Senate in the hopes of being elected as its presiding officer. Fuess, 114–115 Although Greenwood later decided to run for reelection to the Senate, he was defeated and Coolidge was elected, with Crane's help, as the President of a closely divided Senate. Sobel, 80–82 After his election in January 1914, Coolidge delivered a speech entitled Have Faith in Massachusetts, which was later republished as a book. Have Faith in Massachusetts: A Collection of Speeches And Messages by Calvin Coolidge, 1919, ISBN 1417926082. His speech, later much-quoted, summarized Coolidge's philosophy of government. "Do the day's work. If it be to protect the rights of the weak, whoever objects, do it. If it is to help a powerful corporation, do that. Expect to be called a stand-patter, but do not be a stand-patter. Expect to be called a demagogue, but do not be a demagogue. Do not hesitate to be called as revolutionary as science. Do not hesitate to be as reactionary as the multiplication table. Do not expect to build up the weak by pulling down the strong. Do not hurry to legislate. Give administration a chance to catch up with legislation." Have Faith in Massachusetts as delivered by Calvin Coolidge to the Massachusetts State Senate, 1914. Have Faith in Massachusetts, 7–8 Coolidge's speech was well-received and he attracted some admirers on its account. Sobel, 90–92 Towards the end of the term, many of them were proposing his name for nomination to lieutenant governor. After winning reelection to the Senate by an increased margin in the 1914 elections, Coolidge was reelected unanimously to be President of the Senate. Sobel, 90; Fuess, 124 As the 1915 session drew to a close, Coolidge's supporters, led by fellow Amherst alumnus Frank Stearns, encouraged him once again to run for lieutenant governor. This time, he accepted their advice. Sobel, 92–98; Fuess, 133–136 Lieutenant Governor Coolidge entered the primary election for lieutenant governor and was nominated to run alongside gubernatorial candidate Samuel W. McCall. Coolidge was the leading vote-getter in the Republican primary, and balanced the Republican ticket by adding a western presence to McCall's eastern base of support. Fuess, 139–142 McCall and Coolidge won the 1915 election, with Coolidge defeating his opponent by more than 50,000 votes. Fuess, 145 Coolidge's duties as lieutenant governor were few; in Massachusetts, the lieutenant governor does not preside over the state Senate, although Coolidge did become an ex officio member of the governor's cabinet. Fuess, 150; Sobel, 104 As a full-time elected official, Coolidge no longer practiced law after 1916, though his family continued to live in Northampton. Fuess, 151–152 McCall and Coolidge were both reelected in 1916 and again in 1917 (both offices were one-year terms in those days). When McCall decided that he would not stand for a fourth term, Coolidge announced his own intention to run for governor. Sobel, 107–110 Governor of Massachusetts 1918 election Coolidge was unopposed for the Republican nomination for Governor of Massachusetts in 1918. He and his running mate, Channing Cox, a Boston lawyer and Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, ran on the previous administration's record: fiscal conservatism, a vague opposition to Prohibition, support for women's suffrage, and support for American involvement in the First World War. Sobel, 111; McCall, 75–76 The issue of the war proved divisive, especially among Irish- and German-Americans. Sobel, 112 Coolidge was elected by a margin of 16,773 votes over his opponent, Richard H. Long, in the smallest margin of victory of any of his state-wide campaigns. Sobel, 115; McCall, 76 Boston Police Strike In 1919 in response to rumors that policemen of the Boston Police Department planned to form a trade union, Police Commissioner Edwin U. Curtis issued a statement saying that such a move would not be countenanced. In August of that year, the American Federation of Labor issued a charter to the Boston Police Union. Russell, 77–79; Sobel, 129 Curtis said the union's leaders were insubordinate and planned to relieve them of duty, but said that he would suspend the sentence if the union was dissolved by September 4. Russell, 86–87 The mayor of Boston, Andrew Peters, convinced Curtis to delay his action for a few days, but Curtis ultimately suspended the union leaders after a brief delay, on September 8. Russell, 111–113; Sobel, 133–136 "Your assertion that the Commissioner was wrong cannot justify the wrong of leaving the city unguarded. That furnished the opportunity; the criminal element furnished the action. There is no right to strike against the public safety by anyone, anywhere, any time. ... I am equally determined to defend the sovereignty of Massachusetts and to maintain the authority and jurisdiction over her public officers where it has been placed by the Constitution and laws of her people." Telegram from Governor Calvin Coolidge to Samuel Gompers September 15, 1919. Fuess, 226 The following day about three-quarters of the policemen in Boston went on strike. The exact total was 1,117 out of 1,544. Russell, 113 Coolidge had observed the situation throughout the conflict, but had not yet intervened. That night and the next, there was sporadic violence and rioting in the lawless city. Russell, 131–170 Peters, concerned about sympathy strikes, had called up some units of the Massachusetts National Guard stationed in the Boston area and relieved Curtis of duty. Russell, 120 Coolidge, furious that the mayor had called out state guard units, finally acted. Sobel, 141 He called up more units of the National Guard, restored Curtis to office, and took personal control of the police force. Sobel, 142 Curtis proclaimed that none of the strikers would be allowed back to their former jobs, and Coolidge issued calls for a new police force to be recruited. Russell, 182–183 Samuel Gompers That night Coolidge received a telegram from AFL leader Samuel Gompers. "Whatever disorder has occurred", Gompers wrote, "is due to Curtis's order in which the right of the policemen has been denied …" Sobel, 143 Coolidge publicly answered Gompers's telegram with the response that would launch him into the national consciousness (quoted, above left). Newspapers across the nation picked up on Coolidge's statement and he became the newest hero to defenders of the public's safety and security. In the midst of the First Red Scare, many Americans were terrified of the spread of communist revolution, like those that had taken place in Russia, Hungary, and Germany. While Coolidge had lost some friends among organized labor, conservatives across the nation had seen a rising star. 1919 election Coolidge and Cox were renominated for their respective offices in 1919. By this time Coolidge's supporters (especially Stearns) had publicized his actions in the Police Strike around the state and the nation and some of Coolidge's speeches were reissued as a book. He was faced with the same opponent as in 1918, Richard Long, but this time Coolidge defeated him by 125,101 votes, more than seven times his margin of victory from a year earlier. The tally was Coolidge 317,774, Long 192,673. Fuess, 238. His actions in the police strike, combined with the massive electoral victory, led to suggestions that Coolidge should run for President in 1920. Fuess, 239–243; McCoy, 102–113 Legislation and vetoes as governor Governor Coolidge, laying the cornerstone at Suffolk Law School in Boston in August of 1920. By the time Coolidge was inaugurated on January 2, 1919, the First World War had ended, and Coolidge pushed the legislature to give a $100 bonus to Massachusetts veterans. He also signed a bill reducing the work week for women and children from fifty-four hours to forty-eight, saying "we must humanize the industry, or the system will break down." Sobel, 117; Fuess, 195 He signed into law a budget that kept the tax rates the same, while trimming four million dollars from expenditures, thus allowing the state to retire some of its debt. Fuess, 186 Coolidge also wielded the veto pen as governor. His most publicized veto was of a bill that would have increased legislators' pay by 50%. Fuess, 187; McCall, 81 In May 1920, he vetoed a bill that would have allowed the sale of beer or wine of 2.75% alcohol or less, in contravention of the Eighteenth Amendment. Although Coolidge himself was opposed to Prohibition, he felt constrained to veto the bill. "Opinions and instructions do not outmatch the Constitution," he said in his veto message, "Against it, they are void." Fuess, 187–188 Vice Presidency 1920 election At the 1920 Republican Convention most of the delegates were selected by state party conventions, not primaries. As such, the field was divided among many local favorites. Sobel, 152–153 Coolidge was one such candidate, and while he placed as high as sixth in the voting, the powerful party bosses never considered him a serious candidate. After ten ballots, the delegates settled on Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio as their nominee for President. Fuess, 259–260 When the time came to select a Vice Presidential nominee, the party bosses had also made a decision on who they would nominate: Senator Irvine Lenroot of Wisconsin. Fuess, 261 A delegate from Oregon, Wallace McCamant, having read Have Faith in Massachusetts, proposed Coolidge for Vice President instead. The suggestion caught on quickly, and Coolidge found himself unexpectedly nominated. Fuess, 262–264 President Harding and Vice President Coolidge and their wives. The Democrats nominated another Ohioan, James M. Cox, for President and the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Franklin D. Roosevelt, for Vice President. The question of the United States joining the League of Nations was a major issue in the campaign, as was the unfinished legacy of Progressivism. Sobel, 204–212 Harding ran a "front-porch" campaign from his home in Marion, Ohio, but Coolidge took to the campaign trail in the Upper South, New York, and New England. Sobel, 204–207 On November 2, 1920, Harding and Coolidge were victorious in a landslide, winning every state outside the South. ; They also won in Tennessee, the first time a Republican ticket had won a Southern state since Reconstruction. "Silent Cal" The Vice-Presidency did not carry many official duties, but Coolidge was invited by President Harding to attend cabinet meetings, making him the first Vice President to do so. Sobel, 210–211 He gave speeches around the country, but none were especially noteworthy. Sobel, 219; McCoy, 136 As Vice-President, Coolidge and his vivacious wife Grace were invited to quite a few parties, where the legend of "Silent Cal" was born. It was from this time most of the jokes and anecdotes involving Coolidge originate. Although Coolidge was known to be a skilled and effective public speaker, in private he was a man of few words and was therefore commonly referred to as "Silent Cal." A possibly apocryphal story has it that Dorothy Parker, seated next to him at a dinner, said to him, "Mr. Coolidge, I've made a bet against a fellow who said it was impossible to get more than two words out of you." His famous reply: "You lose." Hannaford, 169 It was also Parker who, upon learning that Coolidge had died, reportedly remarked, "How can they tell?" Greenberg, 9 Coolidge often seemed uncomfortable among fashionable Washington society; when asked why he continued to attend so many of their dinner parties, he replied "Got to eat somewhere." Sobel, 217 As President, Coolidge's reputation as a quiet man continued. "The words of a President have an enormous weight," he would later write, "and ought not to be used indiscriminately." Sobel, 243 Coolidge was aware of his stiff reputation; indeed, he cultivated it. "I think the American people want a solemn ass as a President," he once told Ethel Barrymore, "and I think I will go along with them." Greenberg, 60 However, he did hold a then-record number of presidential press conferences, 520 during his presidency. He was the first president to accept follow-up questions at press conferences. Presidency 1923–1929 Coolidge's father, John Calvin Coolidge, Sr Succession to the Presidency On August 2, 1923, President Harding died while on a speaking tour in California. See the main article, Warren Harding#Death in office for a full description Vice-President Coolidge was in Vermont visiting his family home, which did not have electricity or a telephone, when he received word by messenger of Harding's death. Fuess, 308–309 Coolidge dressed, said a prayer, and came downstairs to greet the reporters who had assembled. His father, a notary public, administered the oath of office in the family's parlor by the light of a kerosene lamp at 2:47 a.m. on August 3, 1923; Coolidge then went back to bed. Coolidge returned to Washington the next day, and was re-sworn by Justice Adolph A. Hoehling, Jr. of the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, as there was some confusion over whether a state notary public had the authority to administer the presidential oath. Fuess, 310–315 The National Archives, Prologue Magazine Vol. 32 No. 4 (Winter 2000). Article "Abrupt Transition", by C. L. Arbelbide. Accessed 2009-01-28. Finishing Harding's term The nation did not know what to make of its new President; Coolidge had not stood out in the Harding administration and many had expected him to be replaced on the ballot in 1924. Sobel, 226–228; Fuess, 303–305; Ferrell, 43–51 He appointed C. Bascom Slemp, a Virginia Congressman and experienced federal politician as Secretary to the President (a position equivalent to the modern White House Chief of Staff) Fuess, 320–322 to work jointly with Edward T. Clark, a Massachusetts Republican organizer whom he retained from his vice presidential staff. Although many of Harding's cabinet appointees were scandal-tarred, Coolidge announced that he would not demand any of their resignations, believing that since the people had elected Harding, he should carry on Harding's presidency, at least until the next election. Coolidge signing the Immigration Act and some appropriation bills. General John J. Pershing looks on. He addressed Congress when it reconvened on December 6, 1923, giving a speech that echoed many of Harding's themes, including immigration restriction and the need for the government to arbitrate the coal strikes then ongoing in Pennsylvania. Fuess, 328–329; Sobel, 248–249 The Washington Naval Treaty was proclaimed just one month into Coolidge's term, and was generally well received in the country. In May 1924, the World War I veterans' Bonus Bill was passed over his veto. Fuess, 341 Coolidge signed the Immigration Act later that year, though he appended a signing statement expressing his unhappiness with the bill's specific exclusion of Japanese immigrants. Fuess, 342; Sobel, 269 Just before the Republican Convention began, Coolidge signed into law the Revenue Act of 1924, which decreased personal income tax rates while increasing the estate tax, and creating a gift tax to reinforce the transfer tax system. Sobel, 278–279 1924 election Electoral votes by state, 1924 The Republican Convention was held from June 10–12, 1924 in Cleveland, Ohio; President Coolidge was nominated on the first ballot. Fuess, 345 The convention nominated Frank Lowden of Illinois for Vice President on the second ballot, but he declined via telegram. Fuess, 346 Former Brigadier General Charles G. Dawes, who would win the Nobel Peace Prize in 1925, was nominated on the third ballot; he accepted. John W. DavisThe Democrats held their convention from June 24 to July 9 in New York City. The convention soon deadlocked, and after 103 ballots, the delegates finally agreed on a compromise candidate, John W. Davis, with Charles W. Bryan nominated for Vice President. The Democrats' hopes were buoyed when Robert M. La Follette, Sr., a Republican Senator from Wisconsin, split from the party to form a new Progressive Party. Many believed that the split in the Republican party, like the one in 1912, would allow a Democrat to win the Presidency. Sobel, 300 Shortly after the conventions Coolidge experienced a personal tragedy. Coolidge's younger son, Calvin, Jr., developed a blister from playing tennis on the White House courts. The blister became infected, and Calvin, Jr. died. After that Coolidge became even more withdrawn. He later said that "when he died, the power and glory of the Presidency went with him." Autobiography, 190 In spite of his sadness, Coolidge ran his conventional campaign; he never maligned his opponents (or even mentioned them by name) and delivered speeches on his theory of government, including several that were broadcast over radio. Sobel, 300–301 It was easily the most subdued campaign since 1896, partly because the President was grieving for his son, but partly because Coolidge's style was naturally non-confrontational. Sobel, 302–303 The other candidates campaigned in a more modern fashion, but despite the split in the Republican party, the results were very similar to those of 1920. Coolidge and Dawes won every state outside the South except for Wisconsin, La Follette's home state. Coolidge had a popular vote majority of 2.5 million over his opponents' combined total. , Domestic policy Coolidge, reporters, and cameramen During Coolidge's presidency the United States experienced the period of rapid economic growth known as the "Roaring Twenties." His economic policy has often been misquoted as "generally speaking, the business of the American people is business" (full quotation below, at left). Although some commentators have criticized Coolidge as a doctrinaire laissez-faire ideologue, historian Robert Sobel offers some context based on Coolidge's sense of federalism: "As Governor of Massachusetts, Coolidge supported wages and hours legislation, opposed child labor, imposed economic controls during World War I, favored safety measures in factories, and even worker representation on corporate boards. Did he support these measures while president? No, because in the 1920s, such matters were considered the responsibilities of state and local governments." Sobel, Robert. Coolidge and American Business. John F. Kennedy Library and Museum. Retrieved from 2006-03-08 version in Internet Archive on 2007-05-18. See also Greenberg, 47. "It is probable that a press which maintains an intimate touch with the business currents of the nation is likely to be more reliable than it would be if it were a stranger to these influences. After all, the chief business of the American people is business. They are profoundly concerned with buying, selling, investing and prospering in the world." President Calvin Coolidge's address to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, Washington D.C., January 25, 1925. Hannaford, 42 Coolidge with his Vice President, Charles G. Dawes. Coolidge's taxation policy, and that of his Secretary of the Treasury, Andrew Mellon, was that taxes should be lower and that fewer people should have to pay them. Sobel, 310–311; Greenberg, 127–129 The Congress concurred, and the tax burden on Americans was reduced in Coolidge's term. In addition to these tax cuts, Coolidge proposed reductions in federal expenditures and retiring some of the federal debt. Sobel, 310–311; Fuess, 382–383 To that end, Coolidge declined to sign some of the spending that Congress approved. He vetoed the proposed McNary-Haugen Farm Relief Bill of 1926, designed to allow the federal government to purchase agricultural surpluses and sell them abroad at lowered prices. Coolidge declared that agriculture must stand "on an independent business basis," and said that "government control cannot be divorced from political control." Fuess, 383–384 He favored Herbert Hoover's proposal to modernize agriculture to create profits, instead of manipulating prices. When Congress re-passed the McNary-Haugen bill in 1927, Coolidge vetoed it again. Fuess, 388; Ferrell, 93 "Farmers never have made much money," said Coolidge, the Vermont farmer's son, "I do not believe we can do much about it." Ferrell, 86 Coolidge has often been criticized for his actions during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the worst natural disaster to hit the Gulf Coast until Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Sobel, 315; Barry, 286–287; Greenberg, 132–135 Although he did eventually name Secretary Hoover to a commission in charge of flood relief, Coolidge's lack of interest in federal flood control has been much maligned. Coolidge did not believe that personally visiting the region after the floods would accomplish anything, but would be seen only as political grandstanding, and he did not want to incur the federal spending that flood control would require. McCoy, 330–331 Congress wanted a bill that would place the federal government completely in charge of flood mitigation; Coolidge wanted the property owners to bear much of the costs. Barry, 372–374 When Congress passed a compromise measure in 1928, Coolidge declined to take credit for it and signed the bill in private on May 15. Greenberg, 135 Coolidge advocated against lynching and the Ku Klux Klan, which lost its influence during his term. Alvin S. Felzenberg, "Calvin Coolidge and Race: His Record in Dealing with the Racial Tensions of the 1920s." New England Journal of History 1998 55(1): 83-96. Foreign policy Official White House portrait of Calvin CoolidgeWhile he was not an isolationist, Coolidge was reluctant to enter foreign alliances. Sobel, 342 Coolidge saw the landslide Republican victory of 1920 as a rejection of the Wilsonian idea that the United States should join the League of Nations. McCoy, 184–185 While not completely opposed to the idea, Coolidge believed the League, as then constituted, did not serve American interests, and he did not advocate membership in it. He spoke in favor of the United States joining the Permanent Court of International Justice, provided that the nation would not be bound by advisory decisions. McCoy, 360 The Senate eventually approved joining the Court (with reservations) in 1926. McCoy, 363 The League of Nations accepted the reservations, but suggested some modifications of their own. Greenberg, 114–116 The Senate failed to act; the United States never joined the World Court. Coolidge's best-known initiative was the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, named for Coolidge's Secretary of State, Frank B. Kellogg, and French foreign minister Aristide Briand. The treaty, ratified in 1929, committed signatories including the U.S., the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Japan to "renounce war, as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another." Fuess, 421–423 The treaty did not actually achieve its intended result the outlawry of war but did provide the founding principle for international law after World War II. McCoy, 380–381; Greenberg, 123–124 Coolidge continued the previous administration's policy not to recognize the Soviet Union. McCoy, 181 He also continued the United States' support for the elected government of Mexico against the rebels there, lifting the arms embargo on that country. McCoy, 178–179 He sent his close friend Dwight Morrow to Mexico as the American ambassador. Sobel, 349 Coolidge represented the U.S. at the Pan American Conference in Havana, Cuba, making him the only sitting U.S. President to visit the country. The United States' occupation of Nicaragua and Haiti continued under his administration, but Coolidge withdrew American troops from the Dominican Republic in 1924. Fuess, 414–417; Ferrell, 122–123 1928 Election President Coolidge signed a bill granting Native Americans full U.S. citizenship. Coolidge is shown above on October 22, 1924 holding a ceremonial hat. Coolidge did not seek renomination; he announced his decision to reporters, in writing, with typical terseness: "I do not choose to run for President in 1928." Sobel, 370 After allowing them to take that in, Coolidge elaborated. "If I take another term, I will be in the White House till 1933 … Ten years in Washington is longer than any other man has had it—too long!" White, 361 In his memoirs, Coolidge explained his decision not to run: "The Presidential office takes a heavy toll of those who occupy it and those who are dear to them. While we should not refuse to spend and be spent in the service of our country, it is hazardous to attempt what we feel is beyond our strength to accomplish." Autobiography, 239 After leaving office, he and Grace returned to Northampton, where he wrote his memoirs. The Republicans retained the White House in 1928 in the person of Coolidge's Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover. Coolidge had been lukewarm on the choice of Hoover as his successor; on one occasion he remarked that "for six years that man has given me unsolicited advice—all of it bad." Brandes, ___ Even so, Coolidge had no desire to split the party by publicly opposing the popular Commerce Secretary's nomination. McCoy, 390–391; Wilson, 122–123 The delegates did consider nominating Vice President Charles Dawes to be Hoover's running mate, but the convention selected Senator Charles Curtis instead. Wilson, 125–127 Radio and film A 1938 definitive stamp Despite his reputation as a quiet and even reclusive politician, Coolidge made use of the new medium of radio and made radio history several times while President. He made himself available to reporters, giving 529 press conferences, meeting with reporters more regularly than any President before or since. Greenberg, 7 Coolidge's inauguration was the first presidential inauguration broadcast on radio. On December 6, 1923, he was the first President whose address to Congress was broadcast on radio. Sobel, 252 On February 22, 1924, he became the first President of the United States to deliver a political speech on radio. Calvin Coolidge, the first US President to do a radio address 2-22-1924 | Old Radio Shows.org On August 11, 1924, Lee De Forest filmed Coolidge on the White House lawn by in DeForest's Phonofilm sound-on-film process, becoming the first President to appear in a sound film. The title of the DeForest film was President Coolidge, Taken on the White House Lawn. Coolidge was the only president to have his face on a coin during his lifetime, the sesquicentennial commemorative half dollar of 1926. After his death, he also appeared on a stamp. Major presidential acts Collection of video clips of the president Signed Immigration Act of 1924 Signed Revenue Act of 1924 Signed Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 Signed Judiciary Act of 1925 Signed Revenue Act of 1926 Signed Radio Act of 1927 Signed Revenue Act of 1928 Cabinet Coolidge's cabinet in 1924, outside the White HouseFront row, left to right: Harry Stewart New, John W. Weeks, Charles Evans Hughes, Coolidge, Andrew Mellon, Harlan F. Stone, Curtis D. Wilbur Back row, left to right, James J. Davis, Henry C. Wallace, Herbert Hoover, Hubert Work OFFICENAMETERMPresidentCalvin Coolidge1923–1929Vice PresidentNone1923–1925 Charles G. Dawes1925–1929Secretary of StateCharles Evans Hughes1923–1925 Frank B. Kellogg1925–1929Secretary of the TreasuryAndrew Mellon1923–1929Secretary of WarJohn W. Weeks1923–1925 Dwight F. Davis1925–1929Attorney GeneralHarry M. Daugherty1923–1924 Harlan F. Stone1924–1925 John G. Sargent1925–1929Postmaster GeneralHarry S. New1923–1929Secretary of the NavyEdwin Denby1923–1924 Curtis D. Wilbur1924–1929Secretary of the InteriorHubert Work1923–1928 Roy O. West1928–1929Secretary of AgricultureHenry C. Wallace1923–1924 Howard M. Gore1924–1925 William M. Jardine1925–1929Secretary of CommerceHerbert Hoover1923–1928 William F. Whiting1928–1929Secretary of LaborJames J. Davis1923–1929 Judicial appointments Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone Supreme Court Coolidge appointed one Justice to the Supreme Court of the United States, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925. Stone was Coolidge's fellow Amherst alumnus and was serving as dean of Columbia Law School when Coolidge appointed him to be Attorney General in 1924. He appointed Stone to the Supreme Court in 1925, and the Senate approved the nomination. Fuess, 364 Stone was later appointed Chief Justice by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Other courts In addition to his Supreme Court appointment, Coolidge successfully nominated 17 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 61 judges to the United States district courts. He appointed judges to various specialty courts as well, including Genevieve R. Cline, who became the first woman named to the Federal judiciary when Coolidge placed her on the United States Customs Court in 1928. Jo Freeman, A Room at a Time: How Women Entered Party Politics, 2002: Rowman and Littlefield, p. 216 (ISBN 084769805X) Retirement and death After his presidency, Coolidge served as chairman of the non-partisan Railroad Commission, as honorary president of the Foundation of the Blind, as a director of New York Life Insurance Company, as president of the American Antiquarian Society, and as a trustee of Amherst College. Coolidge Family Papers, 1802–1932, Vermont Historical Society Library. Retrieved on 2007-05-18 Coolidge received an honorary Doctor of Laws from Bates College in Lewiston, Maine. Coolidge addressing a crowd at Arlington National Cemetery's Roman style Memorial Amphitheater in 1924. Coolidge published his autobiography in 1929 and wrote a syndicated newspaper column, "Calvin Coolidge Says," from 1930–1931. Sobel, 403; Ferrell, 201–202 Faced with looming defeat in 1932, some Republicans spoke of rejecting Herbert Hoover as their party's nominee, and instead drafting Coolidge to run, but the former President made it clear that he was not interested in running again, and that he would publicly repudiate any effort to draft him, should it come about. Fuess, 457–459; Greenberg, 153 Hoover was renominated, and Coolidge made several radio addresses in support of him. Fuess, 460 He died suddenly of a heart attack at his home in Northampton, "The Beeches," at 12:45 p.m., January 5, 1933. Greenberg, 154–155 Shortly before his death, Coolidge confided to an old friend: "I feel I am no longer fit in these times." Sobel, 410 Coolidge is buried beneath a simple headstone in Notch Cemetery, Plymouth Notch, Vermont, where the family homestead is maintained as a museum. The State of Vermont dedicated a new visitors' center nearby to mark Coolidge's 100th birthday on July 4, 1972. Calvin Coolidge's "Brave Little State of Vermont speech" is memorialized in the Hall of Inscriptions at the Vermont State House in Montpelier, Vermont. Notes References Primary sources Coolidge, Calvin. Have faith in Massachusetts; a collection of speeches and messages Coolidge, Calvin. The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge (1929), ISBN 0944951031. The Talkative President: The Off-the Record Press Conferences of Calvin Coolidge edited by Howard H. Quint and Robert H. Ferrell (1964) Scholarly sources Barry, John M., Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America (1997), ISBN 0684840022. Brandes, Joseph, Herbert Hoover and Economic Diplomacy. (1962) Ferrell, Robert H., The Presidency of Calvin Coolidge (1998), ISBN 0700608923. Fuess, Claude M., Calvin Coolidge: The Man from Vermont (1940), ISBN 0837193206. Greenberg, David, Calvin Coolidge, The American Presidents Series, (2006), ISBN 0805069577. Hannaford, Peter, The Quotable Calvin Coolidge (2001), ISBN 1884592333. McCoy, Donald, Calvin Coolidge: The Quiet President (1967), ISBN 0945707231. Russell, Francis, A City in Terror: Calvin Coolidge and the 1919 Boston Police Strike (1975), ISBN 0807050334. Silver, Thomas B., Coolidge and the Historians (1983), ISBN 0890890382. Sobel, Robert, Coolidge: An American Enigma (1998), ISBN 0895264102. White, William Allen, A Puritan in Babylon: The Story of Calvin Coolidge (1938), . Wilson, Joan Hoff, Herbert Hoover, Forgotten Progressive (1975), ISBN 0316944165. Other An academic conference on Coolidge was held July 30–31, 1998, at the John F. Kennedy Library to mark the 75th anniversary of his lantern-light homestead inaugural. See also Coolidge, Arizona Coolidge Dam Coolidge effect SS President Coolidge External links Calvin Coolidge: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress Calvin Coolidge birthplace, a Vermont State Historic Site Official White House biography Audio clips of Coolidge's speeches Calvin Coolidge Memorial Foundation Calvin Coolidge Presidential Library & Museum at Forbes Library, Northampton, MA Calvin Coolidge official Commonwealth of Massachusetts Governor Biography Prosperity and Thrift: The Coolidge Era at the Library of Congress Cavlin Coolidge at Findagrave.com Essay on Coolidge, each member of his cabinet and First Lady | Calvin_Coolidge |@lemmatized john:16 calvin:37 coolidge:222 jr:6 july:6 january:5 president:53 united:15 state:42 republican:22 lawyer:5 vermont:12 work:6 way:1 ladder:1 massachusetts:24 politics:3 eventually:3 become:11 governor:18 action:6 boston:12 police:10 strike:11 thrust:1 national:7 spotlight:1 soon:3 elect:11 vice:15 succeed:1 presidency:13 upon:2 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4,232 | Iona | Iona is a small island in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland that has an important place in the history of Christianity in Scotland and is renowned for its tranquility and natural beauty. Its Gaelic name is Ì Chaluim Chille () meaning Saint Columba's Island (formerly anglicised "Icolmkill"), or sometimes just Ì or Idhe. Geography Iona lies approximately one mile (1.6 km) from the coast of Mull. The island is 1 mile wide (1.6 km) and 3.5 miles (5.6 km) long with a resident population of 125. Scotland Census 2001 - anaylser The island's stone base is covered by a layer of basaltic lava. Like other places swept by ocean breezes, there are few trees with most of these being located around the parish church area. Iona's highest point is Dùn Ì (101 m, 331 ft), an Iron Age hill fort dating from 100 BC – 200 AD. Its geographical features include the Bay at the Back of the Ocean and Càrn Cùl ri Éirinn (the Hill/Cairn with its Back to Ireland), said to be adjacent to the beach where St. Columba first landed. History Prior to the 6th century, Iona may already have been a sacred island in the pre-Christian traditions of the Iron Age inhabitants of the Hebrides. Though there is no actual physical evidence for this, it would explain why Columba settled on this particular island. In 563 Saint Columba, also known as Colm Cille, was exiled from his native Ireland as a result of his involvement in the Battle of Cul Dreimhne, Admonan The Life of St. Columba, Founder of Hy ed. William Reeves (1857) University Press for the Irish Archaeological and Celtic Society. pp. 248-50. and founded a monastery on Iona with 12 companions. From there they set about the conversion of pagan Scotland and much of northern England to Christianity. Iona's fame as a place of learning and Christian mission spread throughout Europe and it became a major site of pilgrimage. Iona became a holy island where several kings of Scotland, Ireland and Norway came to be buried. Many believe that the Book of Kells was produced, in whole or in part, on Iona towards the end of the 8th century. A series of Viking raids on the monastery on Iona began in 794, and after its treasures had been plundered many times, Columba’s relics were removed and divided two ways between Scotland and Ireland in 849 as the monastery was abandoned. BBC - Iona - A Beacon of Light Through the Dark Ages A convent for the Order of Benedictine Nuns was established in 1208, with Beathag, daughter of Somerled, as first prioress. The present Benedictine abbey was built in 1203. The monastery itself flourished until the Reformation when buildings were demolished and all but three of the 360 carved crosses destroyed. Travel Scotland Iona Abbey St Mary's Abbey, Iona Enlargement, showing the location of the abbey and monasteries. Iona Abbey, now an ecumenical church, is of particular historical and religious interest to pilgrims and visitors alike. It is the most elaborate and best-preserved ecclesiastical building surviving from the Middle Ages in the Western Isles of Scotland. Though modest in scale in comparison to medieval abbeys elsewhere in Western Europe, it has a wealth of fine architectural detail, and monuments of many periods. In front of the Abbey stands the 9th century St Martin's Cross, one of the best-preserved Celtic crosses in the British Isles, and a replica of the 8th century St John's Cross (original fragments in the Abbey museum). The ancient burial ground, called the Reilig Odhráin (Eng: Oran's "burial place" or "cemetery"), contains the 12th century chapel of St Odhrán (said to be Columba's uncle), restored at the same time as the Abbey itself. It contains a number of medieval grave monuments. The abbey graveyard contains the graves of many early Scottish Kings, as well as kings from Ireland, Norway and France. Iona became the burial site for the kings of Dál Riata and their successors. Notable burials there include: Kenneth I King of Scots Donald II King of Scots Malcolm I King of Scots Duncan I King of Scots Macbeth King of Scots Donald III King of Scots In 1549 an inventory of 48 Scottish, 8 Norwegian and 4 Irish kings was recorded. None of these graves are now identifiable (their inscriptions were reported to have worn away at the end of the 17th century). The graveyard is also the final resting place of John Smith, the former Labour Party leader, who loved Iona. His grave is marked with an epitaph quoting Alexander Pope: "An honest man's the noblest work of God". Walk Of The Month: The island of Iona The Independent 4 June 2006 Other early Christian and medieval monuments have been removed for preservation to the cloister arcade of the Abbey, and the Abbey museum (in the medieval infirmary). The ancient buildings of Iona Abbey are now cared for by Historic Scotland. Other burials Saint Comgan Saint Otteran Saint Failbhe the Little Saint Baithin Saint Failbhe John Smith (UK politician) Iona Community Baile Mòr, Iona village viewed from the Sound of Iona In 1938 George MacLeod founded the Iona Community, an ecumenical Christian community of men and women from different walks of life and different traditions in the Christian church committed to seeking new ways of living the gospel of Jesus in today's world. This community is a leading force in the present Celtic Christianity revival. The Iona Community runs 3 residential centres on the Isle of Iona and on Mull. These are places of welcome and engagement giving a unique opportunity to live together in community with people of every background from all over the world. Weeks at the centres often follow a programme related to the concerns of the Iona Community. Other information Visitors can reach Iona by the 10-minute ferry trip across the Sound of Iona from Fionnphort on Mull. The most common route is via Oban in Argyll and Bute. Regular ferries connect to Craignure on Mull, from where the scenic road runs 37 miles to Fionnphort. Tourist coaches and local bus services meet the ferries. There are very few cars on the island, as they are tightly regulated and vehicular access is not allowed for non-residents, who have to leave their car in Fionnphort. The island is small enough that one generally doesn't need a car. Bike hire is available at the pier, and on Mull. Iona Nunnery survives as a series of exquisitely beautiful 12th-13th century ruins of the church and cloister, and a colourful and peaceful garden. Unlike the rest of the medieval religious buildings, the nunnery was too fragmentary to restore, though its remains are nevertheless the most complete survival of a medieval nunnery in Scotland. Away from the historic buildings, Iona offers enjoyable walks to the north of the island, with pristine white sand beaches, and south and west to the Bay at the Back of the Atlantic. Pebbles of the famous green streaked Iona marble, commercially mined in the 19th century (the quarry and original machinery survive) can be found on the island's beaches. Port Bhan beach on the west side of the island is home of the annual Iona Beach Party. Public Sculpture The 8 tonne Fallen Christ http://www.iona.org.uk/news.php?id=44 sculpture by Ronald Rae was permanently situated outside the Macleod Centre in 2008. See also Clann-an-oistir Dál Riata References Gallery External links Isle of Iona, Scotland (produced on behalf of the Iona Community Council) The Iona Community Computer-generated virtual panorama Summit of Iona Index Official Iona Beach Party website Photo Gallery of Iona by Enrico Martino | Iona |@lemmatized iona:37 small:2 island:13 inner:1 hebrides:2 scotland:11 important:1 place:6 history:2 christianity:3 renowned:1 tranquility:1 natural:1 beauty:1 gaelic:1 name:1 ì:3 chaluim:1 chille:1 meaning:1 saint:7 columba:7 formerly:1 anglicise:1 icolmkill:1 sometimes:1 idhe:1 geography:1 lie:1 approximately:1 one:3 mile:4 km:3 coast:1 mull:5 wide:1 long:1 resident:2 population:1 census:1 anaylser:1 stone:1 base:1 cover:1 layer:1 basaltic:1 lava:1 like:1 sweep:1 ocean:2 breeze:1 tree:1 locate:1 around:1 parish:1 church:4 area:1 high:1 point:1 dùn:1 ft:1 iron:2 age:4 hill:2 fort:1 date:1 bc:1 ad:1 geographical:1 feature:1 include:2 bay:2 back:3 càrn:1 cùl:1 ri:1 éirinn:1 cairn:1 ireland:5 say:2 adjacent:1 beach:6 st:6 first:2 land:1 prior:1 century:8 may:1 already:1 sacred:1 pre:1 christian:5 tradition:2 inhabitant:1 though:3 actual:1 physical:1 evidence:1 would:1 explain:1 settle:1 particular:2 also:3 know:1 colm:1 cille:1 exile:1 native:1 result:1 involvement:1 battle:1 cul:1 dreimhne:1 admonan:1 life:2 founder:1 hy:1 ed:1 william:1 reef:1 university:1 press:1 irish:2 archaeological:1 celtic:3 society:1 pp:1 found:2 monastery:5 companion:1 set:1 conversion:1 pagan:1 much:1 northern:1 england:1 fame:1 learning:1 mission:1 spread:1 throughout:1 europe:2 become:3 major:1 site:2 pilgrimage:1 holy:1 several:1 king:11 norway:2 come:1 bury:1 many:4 believe:1 book:1 kells:1 produce:2 whole:1 part:1 towards:1 end:2 series:2 viking:1 raid:1 begin:1 treasure:1 plunder:1 time:2 relic:1 remove:2 divide:1 two:1 way:2 abandon:1 bbc:1 beacon:1 light:1 dark:1 convent:1 order:1 benedictine:2 nun:1 establish:1 beathag:1 daughter:1 somerled:1 prioress:1 present:2 abbey:13 build:1 flourish:1 reformation:1 building:5 demolish:1 three:1 carve:1 cross:4 destroy:1 travel:1 mary:1 enlargement:1 show:1 location:1 ecumenical:2 historical:1 religious:2 interest:1 pilgrim:1 visitor:2 alike:1 elaborate:1 best:2 preserve:2 ecclesiastical:1 survive:3 middle:1 western:2 isle:4 modest:1 scale:1 comparison:1 medieval:6 elsewhere:1 wealth:1 fine:1 architectural:1 detail:1 monument:3 period:1 front:1 stand:1 martin:1 british:1 replica:1 john:3 original:2 fragment:1 museum:2 ancient:2 burial:5 ground:1 call:1 reilig:1 odhráin:1 eng:1 oran:1 cemetery:1 contain:3 chapel:1 odhrán:1 uncle:1 restore:2 number:1 grave:2 graveyard:2 graf:2 early:2 scottish:2 well:1 france:1 dál:2 riata:2 successor:1 notable:1 kenneth:1 scot:5 donald:2 ii:1 malcolm:1 scots:1 duncan:1 macbeth:1 iii:1 inventory:1 norwegian:1 record:1 none:1 identifiable:1 inscription:1 report:1 wear:1 away:2 final:1 resting:1 smith:2 former:1 labour:1 party:3 leader:1 love:1 mark:1 epitaph:1 quote:1 alexander:1 pope:1 honest:1 man:1 noble:1 work:1 god:1 walk:3 month:1 independent:1 june:1 preservation:1 cloister:2 arcade:1 infirmary:1 care:1 historic:2 comgan:1 otteran:1 failbhe:2 little:1 baithin:1 uk:2 politician:1 community:9 baile:1 mòr:1 village:1 view:1 sound:2 george:1 macleod:2 men:1 woman:1 different:2 commit:1 seek:1 new:1 live:2 gospel:1 jesus:1 today:1 world:2 lead:1 force:1 revival:1 run:2 residential:1 centre:3 welcome:1 engagement:1 give:1 unique:1 opportunity:1 together:1 people:1 every:1 background:1 week:1 often:1 follow:1 programme:1 relate:1 concern:1 information:1 reach:1 minute:1 ferry:3 trip:1 across:1 fionnphort:3 common:1 route:1 via:1 oban:1 argyll:1 bute:1 regular:1 connect:1 craignure:1 scenic:1 road:1 tourist:1 coach:1 local:1 bus:1 service:1 meet:1 car:3 tightly:1 regulate:1 vehicular:1 access:1 allow:1 non:1 leave:1 enough:1 generally:1 need:1 bike:1 hire:1 available:1 pier:1 nunnery:3 exquisitely:1 beautiful:1 ruin:1 colourful:1 peaceful:1 garden:1 unlike:1 rest:1 fragmentary:1 remains:1 nevertheless:1 complete:1 survival:1 offer:1 enjoyable:1 north:1 pristine:1 white:1 sand:1 south:1 west:2 atlantic:1 pebble:1 famous:1 green:1 streak:1 marble:1 commercially:1 mine:1 quarry:1 machinery:1 find:1 port:1 bhan:1 side:1 home:1 annual:1 public:1 sculpture:2 tonne:1 fall:1 christ:1 http:1 www:1 org:1 news:1 php:1 id:1 ronald:1 rae:1 permanently:1 situate:1 outside:1 see:1 clann:1 oistir:1 reference:1 gallery:2 external:1 link:1 behalf:1 council:1 computer:1 generate:1 virtual:1 panorama:1 summit:1 index:1 official:1 website:1 photo:1 enrico:1 martino:1 |@bigram inner_hebrides:1 saint_columba:2 mile_km:2 st_columba:2 book_kells:1 benedictine_abbey:1 dál_riata:2 final_resting:1 resting_place:1 tightly_regulate:1 http_www:1 php_id:1 external_link:1 photo_gallery:1 |
4,233 | Isoroku_Yamamoto | Fleet Admiral (4 April 1884 – 18 April 1943) was the commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet during World War II, a graduate of the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy and a student of the U.S. Naval War College and of Harvard University (1919–1921). Yamamoto held several important posts in the Imperial Japanese Navy, and undertook many of its changes and reorganizations, especially its development of naval aviation. He was the commander-in-chief during the decisive early years of the Pacific War and so was responsible for major battles such as Pearl Harbor and Midway. He died during an inspection tour of forward positions in the Solomon Islands when his aircraft (a G4M Betty bomber) was shot down during an ambush by American P-38 Lightning fighter planes. His death was a major blow to Japanese military morale during World War II. Family background Yamamoto was born as Isoroku Takano () in Nagaoka, Niigata. His father was Sadayoshi Takano, an intermediate samurai of the Nagaoka Domain. "Isoroku" is an old Japanese term meaning "56"; the name referred to his father's age at Isoroku's birth. When he was 10, his father cut his leg 12 times as a symbol of Japanese Samurai. In 1916, Isoroku was adopted into the Yamamoto family (another family of former Nagaoka samurai) and took the Yamamoto name. It was a common practice for Japanese families lacking sons to adopt suitable young men in this fashion to carry on the family name. In 1918, Isoroku married a woman named Reiko with whom he had four children: two sons and two daughters. Early career After graduating from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy in 1904, Yamamoto served on the cruiser Nisshin during the Russo-Japanese War. He was wounded at the Battle of Tsushima, losing two fingers (the index and middle fingers) on his left hand. He returned to the Naval Staff College in 1914, emerging as a lieutenant commander in 1916. 1920s and 1930s Yamamoto was a political dove who was fundamentally opposed to war with the United States by reason of his studies at Harvard University (1919–1921), his tour as an admiral's aide, and his two postings as a naval attaché in Washington, D.C. He was promoted to captain in 1923. In 1924, at the age of 40, he changed his specialty from gunnery to naval aviation. His first command was the cruiser Isuzu in 1928, followed by the aircraft carrier Akagi. Yamamoto was a strong proponent of naval aviation, and (as vice admiral) served as head of the Aeronautics Department before accepting a post as commander of the First Carrier Division. Captain Isoroku Yamamoto with United States Secretary of the Navy Curtis D. Wilbur. He participated in the second London Naval Conference of 1930 as a rear admiral and the 1934 London Naval Conference as a vice admiral, as the government felt that a career military specialist needed to accompany the diplomats to the arms limitations talks. Yamamoto personally opposed the invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the subsequent land war with China (1937), and the 1940 Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. As Deputy Navy Minister, he apologized to United States Ambassador Joseph C. Grew for the bombing of the gunboat USS Panay in December 1937. These issues made him a target of assassination by pro-war militarists. Rank insignia (Admiral) of Isoroku Yamamoto Throughout 1938, many young army and naval officers began to speak publicly against Yamamoto and certain other Japanese admirals such as Yonai and Inouye for their strong opposition towards a Tripartite pact with Nazi Germany for reportedly being against "Japan's natural interests." Edwin P. Hoyt. Yamamoto: The man who planned Pearl Harbor (McGraw-Hill 1990). p.101 Yamamoto himself received a steady stream of hate mail and death threats from Japanese nationalists but his reaction to the prospect of death by assassination was passive and accepting. The Admiral wrote: The Japanese army, annoyed at admiral Yamamoto's unflinching opposition to a Rome-Berlin-Tokyo treaty, dispatched military police to "guard" Yamamoto; this was an attempt by the Army to keep an eye on him. Hoyt, Yamamoto, pp.102–103 He was later reassigned from the Navy Ministry to sea as the Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet on (30 August 1939). This was done as one of the last acts of the then acting Navy Minister Mitsumasa Yonai, under Baron Hiranuma's short-lived administration partly to make it harder for assassins to target Yamamoto; Yonai was certain that if Yamamoto remained ashore, he would be killed before the year (1939) ended. Hoyt, Yamamoto, p.103 1940–41 Yamamoto was promoted to full admiral on 15 November 1940. This in spite of the fact that when General Hideki Tojo was appointed Prime Minister on October 18, 1941, many political observers thought that Yamamoto's career was essentially over. Tojo had been Yamamoto's old opponent from the time when the latter served as Japan's deputy navy minister and Tojo was the prime mover behind Japan's takeover of Manchuria. It was believed that Yamamoto would be appointed to command the Yokosuka Naval Base, "a nice safe demotion with a big house and no power at all." Hoyt, Yamamoto, p.114 After the new Japanese cabinet was announced, however, Yamamoto found himself left alone in his position as Admiral despite his open conflicts with General Tojo and other members of the Army's oligarchy who favoured war with the European powers and America. Two of the main reasons for Yamamoto's political survival were his immense popularity within the navy fleet, where he commanded the respect of his men and officers, and his close relations with the imperial family. Hoyt, Yamamoto, p.115 Emperor Hirohito, like Yamamoto, shared a deep respect for the West. A third reason was probably the acceptance by Japan's naval hierarchy Consequently, Yamamoto stayed in his post. With General Tojo now in charge of Japan's highest political office, it became clear the Army would lead the Navy into a war about which Yamamoto had serious reservations. He wrote to an ultranationalist; This quote was spread by the militarists, minus the last sentence, where it was interpreted in America as a boast that Japan would conquer the entire continental United States. Prange, At Dawn We Slept, p.11 The omitted sentence showed Yamamoto's counsel of caution towards a war that could cost Japan dearly. Nevertheless, Yamamoto accepted the reality of impending war and planned for a quick victory by destroying the US fleet at Pearl Harbor while simultaneously thrusting into the oil and rubber resource rich areas of Southeast Asia, especially the Dutch East Indies, Borneo and Malaya. In naval matters, Yamamoto opposed the building of the super-battleships Yamato and Musashi as an unwise investment of resources. Yamamoto was responsible for a number of innovations in Japanese naval aviation. Although remembered for his association with aircraft carriers due to Pearl Harbor and Midway, Yamamoto did more to influence the development of land-based naval aviation, particularly the G3M and G4M medium bombers. His demand for great range and the ability to carry a torpedo was intended to conform to Japanese conceptions of attriting the American fleet as it advanced across the Pacific in war. The planes did achieve long range, but long-range fighter escorts were not available. These planes were lightly constructed and when fully fueled, they were especially vulnerable to enemy fire. This earned the G4M the sardonic nick-name "the Flying Cigarette Lighter." Yamamoto would eventually die in one of these aircraft. The range of the G3M and G4M contributed to a demand for great range in a fighter aircraft. This partly drove the requirements for the A6M Zero which was as noteworthy for its range as for its maneuverability. Both qualities were again purchased at the expense of light construction and flammability that later contributed to the A6M's high casualty rates as the war progressed. Fleet Admiral Yamamoto, U.S. file photo As Japan moved toward war during 1940, Yamamoto gradually moved toward strategic as well as tactical innovation, again with mixed results. Prompted by talented young officers such as Minoru Genda, Yamamoto approved the reorganization of Japanese carrier forces into the First Air Fleet, a consolidated striking force that gathered Japan's six largest carriers into one unit. This innovation gave great striking capacity, but also concentrated the vulnerable carriers into a compact target; both boon and bane would be realized in war. Yamamoto also oversaw the organization of a similar large land-based organization in the 11th Air Fleet, which would later use the G3M and G4M to neutralize American air forces in the Philippines and sink the British Force "Z". In January 1941, Yamamoto went even further and proposed a radical revision of Japanese naval strategy. For two decades, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred T. Mahan,<ref>Mahan, The Influence of Seapower on History</ref> the Naval General Staff had planned in terms of Japanese light surface forces, submarines and land-based air units whittling down the American Fleet as it advanced across the Pacific until the Japanese Navy engaged it in a climactic "Decisive Battle" in the northern Philippine Sea (between the Ryukyu Islands and the Marianas Islands), with battleships meeting in the traditional exchange between battle lines. Correctly pointing out this plan had never worked even in Japanese war games, and painfully aware of American strategic advantages in military productive capacity, Yamamoto proposed instead to seek a decision with the Americans by first reducing their forces with a preemptive strike, and following it with a "Decisive Battle" sought offensively, rather than defensively. Yamamoto hoped, but probably did not believe, if the Americans could be dealt such terrific blows early in the war, they might be willing to negotiate an end to the conflict. As it turned out, however, the note officially breaking diplomatic relations with the United States was delivered late, and he correctly perceived the Americans would be resolved upon revenge and unwilling to negotiate. Yamamoto's thoughts on this matter were later dramatically encapsulated in the apocryphal "sleeping giant" quote uttered in the movie Tora! Tora! Tora!. The Naval General Staff proved reluctant to go along and Yamamoto was eventually driven to capitalize on his popularity in the fleet by threatening to resign to get his way. Admiral Osami Nagano and the Naval General Staff eventually caved in to this pressure, but only insofar as approving the attack on Pearl Harbor. Surprise attacks have a long military tradition when starting a war, and Japan could see clear to supporting such to give themselves six months to secure the resources of the Netherlands East Indies without the interference of the American navy. The First Air Fleet commenced preparations for the Pearl Harbor Raid, solving a number of technical problems along the way, including how to launch torpedoes in the shallow water of Pearl Harbor and how to craft armor-piercing bombs by machining down battleship gun projectiles. The Attack on Pearl Harbor, December 1941 As Yamamoto had planned, the First Air Fleet of six carriers armed with about 390 planes, commenced hostilities against the Americans on 7 December 1941, launching 353 aircraft against Pearl Harbor in two waves. The attack was a complete success according to the parameters of the mission which sought to sink at least four American battleships and prevent the U.S. Fleet from interfering in Japan's southward advance for at least six months. American aircraft carriers were also considered a choice target, but were not in port at the time of the attack. Fleet Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto In the end, five American battleships were sunk, three damaged, and eleven other cruisers, destroyers and auxiliaries were sunk or seriously damaged. The Japanese lost only 29 aircraft, but suffered damage to more than 111 aircraft. The damaged aircraft were disproportionately dive- and torpedo-bombers, seriously impacting available firepower to exploit the first two waves' success and First Air Fleet Commander Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo withdrew. Yamamoto later lamented Nagumo's failure to seize the initiative to seek out and destroy the American carriers, absent from the harbor, or further bombard various strategically important facilities on Oahu. Nagumo had absolutely no idea where the American carriers might be, and remaining on station while his forces cast about looking for them ran the risk his own force might be found first and attacked while his aircraft were absent searching. Further, his aircraft also lacked appropriate ordnance for attacking the machine tools and drydocks of the shipyard, or even the revetted fuel tanks, whose destruction could have been more serious losses than the fighting ships themselves. In any case, insufficient daylight remained after recovering the aircraft from the first two waves for the carriers to launch and recover a third before dark, and Nagumo's escorting destroyers lacked the fuel capacity for him to loiter long. Much has been made of Yamamoto's hindsight, but (in keeping with Japanese military tradition not to criticize the commander on the spot) Peattie & Evans, Kaigun; Coox, Kobun. he did not punish Nagumo in any way for his withdrawal, which was according to plan. On the political level, the attack was a disaster for Japan, rousing American passions for revenge due to it being a "sneak attack". In fact, the Japanese had begun all their modern wars in this fashion and it was fully expected they would do so again—just not at Pearl Harbor. The shock of the attack coming in an unexpected place, with such devastating results and without the expected "fair play" of a declaration of war galvanized the American public's determination to avenge the attack. When asked by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe in mid-1941 concerning the outcome of a possible war with the United States, Yamamoto made a well-known and prophetic statement: If ordered to fight, "I shall run wild considerably for the first six months or a year but I have utterly no confidence for the second and third years." Harry A. Gailey, The War in the Pacific: From Pearl Harbor to Tokyo Bay, Presidio Press: 1995. p.68 His prediction would be vindicated as Japan easily conquered territories and islands for the first 6 months of the war until it suffered a shattering defeat at the Battle of Midway on June 4–7, 1942, which tilted the balance of power in the Pacific towards the U.S. As a strategic blow intended to prevent American interference in the Netherlands East Indies for six months, the attack was a success, but unbeknownst to Yamamoto, it was a pointless one. The U.S. Navy had abandoned any intention of attempting to charge across the Pacific towards the Philippines at the outset of war in 1935 (in keeping with the evolution of War Plan Orange). In 1937, the U.S. Navy had further determined even fully manning the fleet to wartime levels could not be accomplished in less than six months, and myriad other logistic assets needed to execute a trans-Pacific movement simply did not exist and would require two years to construct after the onset of war. In 1940, U.S. Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Harold Stark had penned "Plan Dog", which emphasized a defensive war in the Pacific while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany first, and consigned Admiral Husband Kimmel's Pacific Fleet to merely keeping the IJN out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia. Moreover, it is in question whether the U.S. would have gone to war at all had Japan only attacked British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. Willmott, Barrier and the Javelin. December 1941 to May 1942 Japan's Aggressor: Admiral Yamamoto, photomechanical print on paper.Time Magazine, December 22, 1941. With the American Fleet largely neutralized at Pearl Harbor, Yamamoto's Combined Fleet turned to the task of executing the larger Japanese war plan devised by the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy General Staff. The First Air Fleet proceeded to make a circuit of the Pacific, striking American, Australian, Dutch and British installations from Wake Island to Australia to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in the Indian Ocean. The 11th Air Fleet caught the American 5th Air Force on the ground in the Philippines hours after Pearl Harbor, and then proceeded to sink the British Force "Z" (battleship HMS Prince of Wales and battlecruiser HMS Repulse) underway at sea. Under Yamamoto's able subordinates, Vice Admirals Ozawa, Kondo and Takahashi, the Japanese swept the inadequate remaining American, British, Dutch and Australian naval assets from the Netherlands East Indies in a series of amphibious landings and surface naval battles that culminated in the Battle of the Java Sea on 27 February 1942. With the occupation of the Netherlands East Indies, and the reduction of the remaining American positions in the Philippines to forlorn hopes on the Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor island, the Japanese had secured their oil- and rubber-rich "Southern Resources Area". Having achieved their initial aims with surprising speed and little loss (albeit against enemies ill-prepared to resist them), the Japanese paused to consider their next moves. Since neither the British nor the Americans were willing to negotiate, their thoughts turned to securing and protecting their newly seized territory, and acquiring more with an eye toward additional conquest and/or attempting to force one or more of their enemies out of the war. Competing plans were developed at this stage, including thrusts to the west against India, the south against Australia and the east against the United States. Yamamoto was involved in this debate, supporting different plans at different times with varying degrees of enthusiasm and for varying purposes, including "horse-trading" for support of his own objectives. Plans included ideas as ambitious as invading India or Australia, as well as seizing Hawaii. These grandiose ventures were inevitably set aside as the Army could not spare enough troops from China for the first two, nor shipping to support the latter two. (Shipping was allocated separately to IJN & IJA, and jealously guarded. Parillo, Japanese Merchant Marine in World War II ) Instead, the Imperial General Staff supported an Army thrust into Burma in hopes of linking up with Indian Nationalists revolting against British rule, and attacks in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands designed to imperil Australia's sea line of communication with the United States. Yamamoto agitated for an offensive Decisive Battle in the east to finish the American fleet, but the more conservative Naval General Staff officers were unwilling to risk it. In the midst of these debates, the Doolittle Raid struck Tokyo and the surrounding areas, galvanizing the threat posed by the American aircraft carriers in the minds of staff officers, and giving Yamamoto an event he could exploit to get his way. The Naval General Staff agreed to Yamamoto's Midway (MI) Operation, subsequent to the first phase of the operations against Australia's link with America, and concurrent with their own plan to seize positions in the Aleutian Islands. Yamamoto rushed planning for the Midway and Aleutians missions, while dispatching a force under Rear Admiral Takeo Takagi, including the Fifth Carrier Division (the large, new carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku), to support the effort to seize the islands of Tulagi and Guadalcanal for seaplane and airplane bases, and the town of Port Moresby on Papua New Guinea's south coast facing Australia. The Port Moresby (MO) Operation proved an unwelcome reverse. Although Tulagi and Guadalcanal were taken, the Port Moresby invasion fleet was compelled to turn back when Takagi clashed with an American carrier task force in the Battle of the Coral Sea in early May. Although the Japanese sank the American carrier Lexington in exchange for a smaller carrier, the Americans damaged the carrier Shōkaku so badly that she required dockyard repairs. Just as importantly, Japanese operational mishaps and American fighters and anti-aircraft fire devastated the dive bomber and torpedo plane elements of both Shōkaku’s and Zuikaku’s air groups. These losses sidelined Zuikaku while she awaited replacement aircraft and aircrews, and saw to tactical integration and training. These two ships would be sorely missed a month later at Midway.References: Dull (1978), Evans & Peattie (1997), Lundstrom (1984), Parillo. The Battle of Midway, June 1942 Yamamoto's plan for MI was an extension of his efforts to knock the U.S. Pacific Fleet out of action long enough for Japan to fortify her defensive perimeter in the Pacific island chains. Yamamoto felt it necessary to seek an early, offensive decisive battle. This plan was long believed to have been to draw American attention—and possibly carrier forces—north from Pearl Harbor by sending his Fifth Fleet (two light carriers, five cruisers, 13 destroyers, and four transports) against the Aleutians, raiding Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island and invading the more distant islands of Kiska and Attu. Recent scholarship John Parshall & Anthony Tully in "Shattered Sword" (2006) using Japanese language documents has revealed it was, rather, an unrelated venture of the Naval General Staff which Yamamoto agreed to conduct concurrently with the Midway operation, in exchange for the latter's approval. While Fifth Fleet attacked the Aleutians, First Mobile Force (4 carriers, 2 battleships, 3 cruisers, and 12 destroyers) would raid Midway and destroy its air force. Once this was neutralized, Second Fleet (1 light carrier, 2 battleships, 10 cruisers, 21 destroyers, and 11 transports) would land 5,000 troops to seize the atoll from the American Marines. The seizure of Midway was expected to draw the American carriers west into a trap where the First Mobile Force would engage and destroy them. Afterward, First Fleet (1 light carrier, 7 battleships, 3 cruisers and 13 destroyers), in conjunction with elements of Second Fleet, would mop up remaining American surface forces and complete the destruction of the Pacific Fleet. To guard against mischance, Yamamoto initiated two security measures. The first was an aerial reconnaissance mission (Operation K) over Pearl Harbor to ascertain if the American carriers were there. The second was a picket line of submarines to detect the movement of the American carriers toward Midway in time for First Mobile Force, First Fleet, and Second Fleet to combine against it. In the event, the first was aborted and the second delayed until after American carriers had sortied. The plan was a compromise and hastily prepared (apparently so it could be launched in time for the anniversary of Tsushima), Bicheno, Hugh. Midway. but appeared well thought out, well organized, and finely timed when viewed from a Japanese viewpoint. Against four carriers, two light carriers, 11 battleships, 16 cruisers and 46 destroyers likely to be in the area of the main battle the Americans could field only three carriers, eight cruisers, and 15 destroyers. The disparity appeared crushing. Only in numbers of carrier decks, available aircraft, and submarines was there near parity between the two sides. Despite various frictions developed in the execution, it appeared—barring something extraordinary—Yamamoto held all the cards. Unfortunately for Yamamoto, something extraordinary had happened. The worst fear of any commander is for an enemy to learn his battle plan in advance, which was exactly what American cryptographers had done, thanks to breaking the Japanese naval code D (known to the U.S. as JN-25). As a result, Admiral Chester Nimitz, the Pacific Fleet commander, was able to circumvent both of Yamamoto's security measures and position his outnumbered forces in the exact position to conduct a devastating ambush. By Nimitz's calculation, his three available carrier decks, plus Midway, gave him rough parity with Nagumo's First Mobile Force. Following a foolish nuisance raid by Japanese flying boats in May, Holmes, Wilfred J. "Jasper". Double-Edged Secrets and Undersea Victory Nimitz dispatched a minesweeper to guard the intended refueling point for Operation K, causing the reconnaissance mission to be aborted and leaving Yamamoto ignorant of whether Pacific Fleet carriers were still at Pearl Harbor. (It remains unclear why Yamamoto permitted the early flight, when pre-attack reconnaissance was essential to the success of MI.) He also dispatched his carriers toward Midway early, and they passed the intended picket line force of submarines en route to their station, negating Yamamoto's back-up security measure. Nimitz's carriers then positioned themselves to ambush the First Mobile Force when it struck Midway. A token cruiser and destroyer force was dispatched toward the Aleutians, but otherwise ignored it. Days before Yamamoto expected American carriers to interfere in the Midway operation, they destroyed the four carriers of the First Mobile Force on 4 June 1942, catching the Japanese carriers at precisely their most vulnerable moment. With his air power destroyed and his forces not yet concentrated for a fleet battle, Yamamoto attempted to maneuver his remaining forces, still strong on paper, to trap the American forces. He was unable to do so because his initial dispositions had placed his surface combatants too far from Midway, Willmott, H.P. Barrier and the Javelin. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute Pres, 1983. and because Admiral Raymond Spruance prudently withdrew to the east in a position to further defend Midway Island, believing (based on a mistaken submarine report) the Japanese still intended to invade. Blair, Clay, Jr. Silent Victory. (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1975). Not knowing that several battleships including the extremely powerful Yamato were on the Japanese order of battle, he did not comprehend the severe risk of a night surface battle, in which his carriers and cruisers would be at a disadvantage. However, his move to the east did avoid the possibility of such a battle taking place. Correctly perceiving that he had lost, Yamamoto aborted the invasion of Midway and withdrew. The defeat ended Yamamoto's six months of success and marked the high tide of Japanese expansion. Yamamoto's plan for MI has been the subject of much criticism. Many commentators state it violated the principle of concentration of force, and was overly complex. Others point out similarly complex Allied operations that were successful, and note the extent to which the American intelligence coup derailed the operation before it began. Had Yamamoto's dispositions not denied Nagumo adequate pre-attack reconnaissance assets, both the American cryptanalytic success and the unexpected appearance of Fletcher's carriers would have been irrelevant. Willmott, H.P. Barrier and the Javelin. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute Pres, 1983. Actions after Midway The Battle of Midway solidly checked Japanese momentum, but the IJN was still a powerful force and capable of regaining the initiative. They planned to resume the thrust with Operation FS aimed at eventually taking Samoa and Fiji to cut the American life-line to Australia. This was expected to short-circuit the threat posed by General Douglas MacArthur and his American and Australian forces in New Guinea. To this end, development of the airfield on Guadalcanal continued and attracted the baleful eye of Yamamoto's opposite number, Admiral Ernest King. King ramrodded the idea of an immediate American counterattack to prevent the Japanese from regaining the initiative through the Joint Chiefs of Staff. This precipitated the American invasion of Guadalcanal and beat the Japanese to the punch, with Marines landing on the island in August 1942 and starting a bitter struggle that lasted until February 1943 and commenced a battle of attrition Japan could ill-afford. Admiral Yamamoto remained in command, retained at least partly to avoid diminishing the morale of the Combined Fleet. However, he had lost face in the Midway defeat and the Naval General Staff were disinclined to indulge further gambles. This reduced Yamamoto to pursuing the classic defensive Decisive Battle strategy he had attempted to overturn. Guadalcanal caught the Japanese over-extended and attempting to support fighting in New Guinea while guarding the Central Pacific and preparing to conduct the Operation FS. The FS operation was abandoned and the Japanese attempted to fight in both New Guinea and Guadalcanal at the same time. Already overextended, they perpetually fell short of success for lack of shipping, lack of troops, and a disastrous inability to coordinate Army and Navy activities. Yamamoto committed Combined Fleet units to a series of small attrition actions that stung the Americans, but suffered losses he could ill-afford in return. Three major efforts to carry the island precipitated a pair of carrier battles that Yamamoto commanded personally at the Eastern Solomons and Santa Cruz Islands in September and October, and finally a wild pair of surface engagements in November, all timed to coincide with Japanese Army pushes. The timing of each major battle was successively derailed when the Army could not hold up its end of the operation. Yamamoto's forces caused considerable loss and damage, but he could never draw the Americans into a decisive fleet action. As a result, the Japanese Navy's strength began to bleed off. There were severe losses of carrier dive-bomber and torpedo-bomber crews in the carrier battles, emasculating the already depleted carrier air groups. Japan could not hope to match the United States in quantities of well-trained replacement pilots, and the quality of both Japanese land-based and naval aviation began declining. Particularly harmful however, were losses of destroyers in the foolish Tokyo Express supply runs. The IJN already faced a shortage of such ships, and their losses further exacerbated Japan's already weakened commerce defense. With Guadalcanal lost in February 1943, there was no further attempt to seek a major battle in the Solomon Islands although smaller attrition battles continued. Yamamoto shifted the load of the air battle from the depleted carriers to the land-based naval air forces. Death To boost morale following the defeat at Guadalcanal, Yamamoto decided to make an inspection tour throughout the South Pacific. On 14 April 1943, the US naval intelligence effort, code-named "Magic", intercepted and decrypted a message containing specific details regarding Yamamoto's tour, including arrival and departure times and locations, as well as the number and types of planes that would transport and accompany him on the journey. Yamamoto, the itinerary revealed, would be flying from Rabaul to Ballalae Airfield, on an island near Bougainville in the Solomon Islands, on the morning of 18 April 1943. U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox to "Get Yamamoto." Knox instructed Admiral Chester W. Nimitz of Roosevelt's wishes. Admiral Nimitz consulted Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr., Commander, South Pacific, then authorized a mission on 17 April to intercept Yamamoto's flight en route and down it. A squadron of P-38 Lightning aircraft were assigned the task as only they possessed the range to intercept and engage. Eighteen hand-picked pilots from three units were informed that they were intercepting an "important high officer" with no specific name given. Yamamoto's last photo alive (April 18, 1943) On the morning of April 18, despite urgings by local commanders to cancel the trip for fear of ambush, Yamamoto's two Mitsubishi G4M fast transport aircraft left Rabaul as scheduled for the 315-mile trip. Shortly after, 18 P-38s with long-range drop tanks took off from Guadalcanal. Sixteen arrived after wave-hopping most of the to the rendezvous point, maintaining radio silence throughout. At 09:34 Tokyo time, the two flights met and a dogfight ensued between the P-38s and the six escorting A6M Zeroes. First Lieutenant Rex T. Barber engaged the first of the two Japanese transports which turned out to be Yamamoto's plane. He targeted the aircraft with gunfire until it began to spew smoke from its left engine. Barber turned away to attack the other transport as Yamamoto's plane crashed into the jungle. The crash site and body of Admiral Yamamoto were found the next day in the jungle north of the then-coastal site of the former Australian patrol post of Buin by a Japanese search and rescue party, led by Army engineer Lieutenant Hamasuna. According to Hamasuna, Yamamoto had been thrown clear of the plane's wreckage, his white-gloved hand grasping the hilt of his katana, still upright in his seat under a tree. Hamasuna said Yamamoto was instantly recognizable, head dipped down as if deep in thought. A post-mortem of the body disclosed that Yamamoto had received two gunshot wounds, one to the back of his left shoulder and another to his left lower jaw that exited above his right eye. Despite the evidence, the question of whether or not the Admiral initially survived the crash has been a matter of controversy in Japan. To cover up the fact that the Allies were reading Japanese code, American news agencies were told that civilian coast-watchers in the Solomon Islands saw Yamamoto boarding a bomber in the area. They did not publicize the names of most of the pilots that attacked Yamamoto's plane because one of them had a brother who was a prisoner of the Japanese, and U.S. military officials feared for his safety. State Funeral for Admiral Yamamoto in Tokyo This proved to be the longest fighter-intercept mission of the war. In Japan it became known as the "Navy A Incident" (海軍甲事件 Kaigun kō-jiken). It raised morale in the United States, and shocked the Japanese who were officially told about the incident only on 21 May 1943. The death of Yamamoto was a major psychological blow for the Japanese nation which had been told of victory after victory even after Midway and Guadalcanal. It also forced the Japanese government to acknowledge that the Americans were quickly rebuilding their military capacity and had begun going on the offensive. Captain Watanabe and his staff cremated Yamamoto's remains at Buin, and the ashes were returned to Tokyo aboard the battleship Musashi, Yamamoto's last flagship. Yamamoto was given a full state funeral on 3 June 1943, where he received, posthumously, the title of Fleet Admiral and awarded the Order of the Chrysanthemum, (1st Class). He was also awarded Nazi Germany's Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords. Part of his ashes were buried in the public cemetery in Tama, Tokyo (多摩霊園), and the remainder at his ancestral burial grounds at the temple of Chuko-ji in Nagaoka City. Personal life While other military leaders avoided the image of being "soft", Yamamoto continued to practice calligraphy. He and his wife, Reiko, had four children: two sons and two daughters. Yamamoto was an avid gambler, enjoying shogi, billiards, bridge, mah jong, poker, and other games that tested his wits and sharpened his mind. He frequently made jokes about moving to Monaco and starting his own casino. He enjoyed the company of geisha, and his wife Reiko revealed to the Japanese public in 1954 that Yamamoto was closer to his favorite geisha Kawai Chiyoko than to her, which stirred some controversy. H-Net Review: Charles C. Kolb <CKolb@neh.gov> on The Pearl Harbor Papers: Inside the Japanese Plans After his death, his funeral procession passed by Kawai's quarters on the way to the cemetery, perhaps with hidden purpose. Davis, Lightning Strike. Yamamoto as a commander Yamamoto is generally regarded as one of the most prominent leaders in the Imperial Japanese Navy for making significant changes to its organization although he was also responsible for several critical defeats. Yamamoto is considered to be an imaginative and brave leader for formulating a plan to launch a pre-emptive attack on US forces in the Pacific Fleet. Having visited and studied at the U.S. Naval War College and Harvard University, he was reluctant to enter into war with the United States. He was aware of the overwhelming industrial capacity of the United States compared to that of Japan, and felt that only a knockout blow would remove the US threat to Japan. He also didn't trust Nazi Germany-somewhat ironically, he became the only non-German to be given the Knights Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords, which was awarded post-humously. He correctly anticipated that the aircraft carrier would play a role in any decisive battle with the United States. Furthermore, he supported increasing the striking range of the air fleets by combining as many as 6 aircraft carriers into one carrier battle group. Additionally, he often assigned capable individuals such as Minoru Genda to form his battle plans. His forces suffered severely in certain areas, with torpedoes from Allied submarines dealing major blows to the Imperial Japanese Navy shipping and causing the war economy of Japan to be starved of resources. The Imperial Japanese Navy's codes were decrypted by the United States, which proved to be a fatal development as it resulted in the biggest direct blow to the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Battle of Midway. The battle proved to be Yamamoto's most prominent defeat—his force lost four aircraft carriers and 228 planes and suffered significant casualties. Decorations The Breast Star of the Order of the Chrysanthemum Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun Paulownia Blossoms First Class Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure Order of the Golden Kite (1st class) Order of the Golden Kite (2nd class) Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords Yamamoto's career promotions Midshipman—14 November 1904 Ensign—31 August 1905 Sublieutenant—28 September 1907 Lieutenant—11 October 1909 Lieutenant Commander—13 December 1915 Commander—1 December 1919 Captain—1 December 1923 Rear Admiral—30 November 1929 Vice Admiral—15 November 1934 Admiral—15 November 1940 Fleet Admiral—18 April 1943 (posthumous) Film portrayals Several motion pictures depict the character of Isoroku Yamamoto. One of the most notable films is the movie Tora! Tora! Tora!. The 1970 film, which depicts the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, is considered by many to be the definitive look at the battle from both sides of the conflict. The film features Japanese actor Sô Yamamura as Yamamoto. He is seen planning the Japanese attack. There is no evidence that Yamamoto said this in reality despite the film calling it a quote. (See Isoroku Yamamoto's sleeping giant quote for further discussion.) The 1960 film, The Gallant Hours depicts the battle of wits between Admirals Halsey and Yamamoto from the time of Guadalcanal to Yamamoto's death. In 1976, the film Midway was released. An epic look at the battle that turned the tide of the war in the Pacific, the film features Toshirô Mifune (star of The Seven Samurai) as Yamamoto. He is depicted planning the attack on Midway Atoll, and sees his plans fall apart as he sees the destruction of all four Japanese carriers during the battle of June 4–6, 1942. Unlike Tora! Tora! Tora!, all the Japanese characters speak in English. Mifune previously portrayed Yamamoto in the 1968 Japanese film Rengo kantai shirei chôkan: Yamamoto Isoroku. The latest film depiction of Yamamoto was in 2001's Pearl Harbor, a Jerry Bruckheimer—produced epic. While mostly focused on the love triangle between American characters, the film does show several scenes depicting the Japanese planning of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Yamamoto is played by Oscar-nominated actor Mako, star of such films as The Sand Pebbles and Conan the Barbarian. One of Yamamoto's most notable quotes in the film is: "A brilliant man would find a way not to fight a war." Yamamoto is also featured in a number of alternate history anime series. He is seen in the TV series Zipang, where he leads the Combined Fleet after seeing the JMSDF destroyer Mirai for the first time. In the 1993 OVA series Konpeki no Kantai (Deep Blue Fleet), the original timeline proceeds until the shootdown. However, instead of dying in the crash, Yamamoto blacks out and suddenly wakes up as his younger self, Isoroku Takano, after the Battle of Tsushima in 1905. His memory from the original timeline intact, Yamamoto uses his knowledge of the Pacific War to make Japan a stronger naval power, even launching a coup d'etat against Hideki Tojo's government. Notes Sources Agawa, Hiroyuki; Bester, John (trans.). The Reluctant Admiral. New York: Kodansha, 1979. ISBN 4-7700-2539-4. A definitive biography of Yamamoto in English. This book explains much of the political structure and events within Japan that lead to the war. Davis, Donald A. Lightning Strike: The Secret Mission to Kill Admiral Yamamoto and Avenge Pearl Harbor. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2005. ISBN 0-312-30906-6. Dull, Paul S. A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941–1945. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1978. ISBN 0-87021-097-1. Evans, David C. and Mark R. Peattie. Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy 1887–1941. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1997. ISBN 0-87021-192-7. Glines, Carroll V. Attack on Yamamoto (1st edition). New York: Crown, 1990. ISBN 0-517-57728-3. Glines documents both the mission to shoot down Yamamoto and the subsequent controversies with thorough research, including personal interviews with all surviving participants and researchers who examined the crash site. Hoyt, Edwin P. Yamamoto: The Man Who Planned Pearl Harbor. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990. ISBN 1-58574-428-X. Lundstrom, John B. The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1984. ISBN 0-87021-189-7. Miller, Edward S. War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897–1945. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1991. ISBN 0-87021-759-3. Peattie, Mark R. Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power, 1909–1941. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2002. ISBN 1-55750-432-6. Prados, John. Combined Fleet Decoded: The Secret History of American Intelligence and the Japanese Navy in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2001. ISBN 1-55750-431-8. Prange, Gordon. At Dawn We Slept. New York: Penguin Books, 1982. ISBN 0-1-006455-09 Ugaki, Matome; Chihaya, Masataka (trans.). Fading Victory: The Diary of Admiral Matome Ugaki, 1941-45''. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8229-5462-1. Provides a high-level view of the war from the Japanese side, from the diaries of Yamamoto's Chief of Staff, Admiral Matome Ugaki. Provides evidence of the intentions of the imperial military establishment to seize Hawaii and to operate against the British navy in the Indian Ocean. Translated by Masataka Chihaya, this edition contains extensive clarifying notes from the U.S. editors derived from U.S. military histories. External links Yamamoto biography From Spartacus Educational World War II Database: Isoroku Yamamoto biography World War II Database: Death of Yamamoto Encyclopaedia Britannica, Isoroku Yamamoto Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Japanese Navy US Naval Historical Center Pacific Wrecks. 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4,234 | Gun_safety | For discussions on politics concerning firearms and gun safety, see Gun politics. For the part of a gun that is called a "safety" or 'safety catch', see Safety (firearms). Gun safety is a collection of rules and recommendations that can be applied when handling firearms. The purpose of gun safety is to eliminate or minimize the risks of unintentional death, injury or damage caused by improper handling of firearms. Gun safety rules and mindset Example of safe firearm handling. The weapon is pointed at the ground and the handler's finger is off the trigger. Gun safety training seeks to instill a certain mindset and appropriate habits, or rules. The mindset is that firearms are inherently dangerous and must always be handled with care. Handlers are taught to treat firearms with respect for their destructive capabilities, and strongly discouraged from playing or toying with firearms, a common cause of accidents. The rules of gun safety follow from this mindset. While there are many variations, the rules introduced by Colonel Jeff Cooper are those most commonly taught during gun safety training: The NRA provides a similar set of rules: The Canadian Firearms Program uses the concept of The Four Firearm ACTS: Treat firearms as if they are loaded This rule is a matter of keeping a certain mindset. The purpose is to create safe handling habits, and to discourage reasoning along the lines of "I know my gun is unloaded so certain unsafe practices are OK". The proposition "the gun is always loaded" is used as a shorthand, even though it may be assumed, or even positively known, that this is not true of a particular firearm. Many firearm accidents result from the handler believing a firearm is emptied, safetied, or otherwise disabled when in fact it is ready to be discharged. Such misunderstandings can arise from a number of sources. Faulty handling of the firearm. A handler may execute the steps of procedures such as loading, firing and emptying in the wrong order or omit steps of the procedures. Misunderstandings about a firearm's status. For instance: A handler may think the safety is on when it is not. A round of ammunition may be in the chamber or in the magazine while the handler thinks it is empty. A handler may receive a firearm and assume it is in a certain state without checking whether that assumption is true. Mechanical failures. Wear, faulty assembly, damage or faulty design of the firearm can cause it not to function as intended. For instance: A safety may have been worn down to a point where it is no longer functioning. Broken parts may have given the firearm a "hair trigger" (a very sensitive trigger). A dented or bent body of the firearm may cause jams or premature discharge of ammunition. Sensitivity to impact may cause a firearm to discharge if dropped or struck against another object. If a handler always treats firearms as capable of being discharged at any time, the handler is more likely to take precautions to prevent an unintentional discharge and to avoid damage or injury if one does occur. Point the muzzle away from non-targets This rule is intended to minimize the damage caused by an unintended discharge. The first rule teaches that a firearm must be assumed to be ready to be discharged. This rule goes beyond that and says "Since the firearm might fire, assume that it will and make sure no harm occurs when it does". A consequence of this rule is that any kind of playing or "toying" with firearms is prohibited. Playfully pointing firearms at people or other non-targets violates this rule. To discourage this kind of behavior, the rule is sometimes alternately stated, "Never point a firearm at anything unless you intend to destroy it." Two natural "safe" directions to point the muzzle are upwards (at the sky) and downwards (at the ground). Both have their advantages and disadvantages. Firing at the ground may result in a ricochet or cause hazardous fragments to be flung at people or material. Aiming upwards eliminates this risk but replaces it with the risk that the bullet may cause damage when it comes down to the ground again. Indeed, several accidents have been caused by discharging firearms into the air. It is also possible that the muzzle will inadvertently be pointed at a non-target such as someone's head or an aircraft. Keep finger off the trigger This rule is intended to prevent an undesired discharge. Normally a firearm is discharged by pressing its trigger. A handler's finger may involuntary move for any of several reasons: being startled; not keeping full attention on body movements: physiological reasons beyond conscious control such as a spasm; stumbling or falling, or being pushed by something (as when trying to holster a handgun with one's finger on the trigger). Handlers are therefore taught to minimize the harmful effects of such a motion, by keeping their finger off the trigger until the muzzle is pointing at the target and the handler wishes to discharge the firearm. The trigger guard and area above the trigger of a firearm presents a natural point for a handler to keep their finger out straight alongside the weapon, so as not to violate this rule (see picture above). A properly indexed trigger finger also helps remind the person holding the firearm of the direction of the muzzle. In popular culture, such as movies and TV shows, this rule is often violated, even by characters who should be trained in gun safety such as military personnel or law enforcement officers. Be sure of your target—and of what is beyond it This rule is intended to eliminate or minimize damage to non-targets when a firearm is intentionally discharged. Unintended damage may occur if a non-target is misidentified as a target, if the target is missed, or if the bullet hits something or someone other than the intended target. Handlers are taught that they must positively identify and verify their target. Additionally, they learn that even when firing at a valid target, unintended targets may still be hit, for three reasons: The bullet may miss the intended target and hit a non-target around or beyond the target. A non-target may pass in front of the target and be hit with a bullet aimed at the target. The bullet may pass through the intended target and hit a non-target beyond it, so called "overpenetration". Therefore, this rule requires a handler to be sure of both the target itself and anything along the avenue of travel to and beyond the target. This may create situations that present dilemmas for a handler. Such situations are for instance a police officer in a riot, a civilian facing a possible intruder at night, or a soldier in a situation where civilians are near the enemy. Indecision or misjudgment of the handler's abilities in such a situation may cause undesired outcomes, such as injury to the handler due to hesitation, or the handler violating rules of engagement and causing unintended damage. Training is used to minimize the risk of such outcomes. Target practice increases the precision with which the handler can discharge the firearm and thus increase the chances that the intended target is hit. Education about terminal ballistics gives the handler knowledge about the characteristics of a bullet after a target is hit. This knowledge coupled with insight into the handler's own capabilities makes it easier for the handler to make appropriate decisions about whether to discharge or not, even if given little time and/or put under severe stress. Ammunition can be chosen to reduce the risk of overpenetration; see Terminal ballistics, Stopping power, and Hollow point bullet. Gun safety for firearms not in use Trigger lock fitted to the trigger of a revolver Gun safety for situations where firearms are not in use are intended to prevent access to and subsequent discharge of a firearm. Preventing access to firearms serves a double purpose in that it also protects the firearm from theft. Gun Safes A Gun safe or gun cabinet is commonly used to physically prevent access to a firearm. Disassembly Access to a functioning firearm can be prevented by keeping the firearm disassembled and the parts stored at separate locations. Ammunition may also be stored away from the firearm. Sometimes this rule is codified in law. For example, Swedish law requires owners of firearms to store the firearms either with the "vital piece" locked up in a safe place or put the entire firearm in a safe or lockable gun rack. Locks There are several types of locks that serve to make it difficult to discharge a firearm. Such locks are commonly designed so that they cannot be forcibly removed without permanently disabling the firearm. Locks are considered less effective than keeping firearms stored in a lockable safe since locks are more easily defeated than approved safes. Effective the year 2000, California created regulations that forced gun locks to be approved by a firearm safety device laboratory via California Penal Code Section 12088. All gun locks under this code must receive extensive tests including saw, pick, pull, and many others testings in order to be approved for the state of California. If a lock passes the requirements then it is said to be California Department of Justice (CADOJ) approved. Trigger locks prevent motion of the trigger. However a trigger lock does not guarantee that the firearm cannot be discharged (see above). Chamber locks aim to block ammunition from being chambered, since most firearms typically cannot be discharged unless the ammunition is in the correct position. Cable locks disallow the use of the firearm by threading a cable through the chamber. Gun safety from secondary dangers While a firearm's primary danger lies in the discharge of ammunition, there are other ways a firearm may be detrimental to the health of the handler and bystanders. Noise When a firearm is discharged it emits a very loud noise, typically close to the handler's ears. This can cause temporary or permanent hearing damage such as tinnitus. Hearing protection is recommended to prevent this. Hot gases and debris A firearm emits hot gases, powder, and other debris when discharged. Some weapons, such as semi-automatic and fully automatic firearms, typically eject spent cartridge casings at high speed. Casings are also dangerously hot when ejected. Any of these may hurt the handler or bystanders through burning or impact damage. Eyes are particularly vulnerable to this type of damage. Eye protection is recommended to prevent this. Toxins and pollutants In recent years the toxic effects of ammunition and firearm cleaning agents have been highlighted. Lead bullets can release lead vapour when discharged. Lead ammunition left in nature may become mobilized by acid rain. Older ammunition may have mercury-based primers. Lead accumulates in shooting range backstops, often as fine powder which is easily inhaled. Indoor ranges require good ventilation to remove pollutants. Indoor and outdoor ranges typically require extensive decontamination when they are decommissioned. Lead, copper and other metals will also be released when a firearm is cleaned. Highly aggressive solvents and other agents used to remove lead and powder fouling may also present a hazard to health. Good ventilation, washing oneself and cleaning the space where the firearm was handled lessens the risk of unnecessary exposure. Misfires Though firearms and their ammunition are made to exacting specifications and tolerances and designed to function reliably, malfunctions of firearms and ammunition do happen. Ammunition-related malfunctions are colloquially known as "misfires", and include failures to discharge (duds), delayed discharge (hang-fires), and incomplete or insufficient discharge (squibs). Mechanical malfunctions are generally referred to as jams, and include failures to feed, extract, or eject a cartridge, to fully cycle after firing, and to lock back when empty (largely a procedural hazard, as "slide lock" is a visual cue that the gun is empty). When a misfire or jam occurs, gun safety dictates that the handler should exercise extreme caution, as a cartridge whose primer has been struck in a misfire or which has been deformed in a jam can discharge unexpectedly. The handler should wait one minute with the firearm pointed in a safe direction, then carefully remove the magazine, extract any misfed or misfired cartridge, and then with the breech open, carefully check to ensure there is not a bullet or other obstruction lodged in the barrel. If there is, and a subsequent round is fired, the gun can fail explosively resulting in serious injury. Impairment Since handling a firearm is a complex task, with possible fatal outcomes if done wrong, gun safety dictates that a firearm should never be handled while under the influence of alcohol or drugs, even legal prescription or over-the-counter drugs. Since such substances may affect a person's judgement already after consuming relatively small amounts, zero tolerance is advocated by gun safety teachers. This is codified in many states' penal codes as a crime of "carrying under the influence", with penalties similar to DWI/DUI. Exhaustion can also constitute a form of impairment, as reaction time, cognitive processing and sensory perception are all impaired by sleep deprivation and/or physical exhaustion. Gun safety therefore discourages using firearms when exhausted. Gun safety for children Children who are generally considered too young to be allowed to handle firearms at all have a different set of rules which can be taught to them: Stop. Don't touch. Leave the area. Tell an adult. The purpose of these rules is to prevent children from inadvertently handling firearms. These rules are part of the Eddie Eagle program developed by the National Rifle Association for preschoolers through 6th graders. Older youth (age may vary per program) may take part in a program for safe rifle handling, such as the ones promoted by these organizations: 4H Shooting Sports Programs Boy Scouts of America Americans for Gun Safety Foundation National Rifle Association Civilian Marksmanship Program History and teachers of gun safety While gun safety in different forms has existed since the creation of firearms, modern gun safety is often credited to Jeff Cooper (1920-2006). Being influential in the modern handling of firearms, he formalised the above mentioned rules of gun safety. In 1902, the English politician and game shooting enthusiast Mark Hanbury Beaufoy wrote some much-quoted verses on gun safety which include many salient points and begin: "If a sportsman true you'd be Listen carefully to me: Never, never, let your gun Pointed be at anyone..." Other teachers of gun safety include Massad Ayoob, Clint Smith, Chuck Taylor, Jim Crews and Ignatius Piazza. External links LOK-IT-UP A public awareness program encouraging the safe storage of firearms. Controversy over exact choice of rules for gun safety (specifically whether or not "the gun is always loaded" is an intelligent rule). NRA Gun Safety Rules. Also deals with issues such as eye and ear protection. Project ChildSafe Canadian page about firearms safety Page about storing firearms in Canada Movie clips of firearm accidents DEA agent accidentally discharges a weapon and wounds himself during gun safety demonstration Urban Legends Reference Pages: Safety First Finger on trigger while tripping results in two accidental discharges Accidental discharge while showing off a gun References | Gun_safety |@lemmatized discussion:1 politics:2 concern:1 firearm:73 gun:41 safety:34 see:5 part:5 call:2 catch:1 firearms:2 collection:1 rule:27 recommendation:1 apply:1 handle:9 purpose:4 eliminate:2 minimize:5 risk:6 unintentional:2 death:1 injury:4 damage:11 cause:11 improper:1 handling:4 mindset:5 example:2 safe:11 weapon:4 point:13 ground:4 handler:28 finger:8 trigger:16 training:3 seek:1 instill:1 certain:4 appropriate:2 habit:2 inherently:1 dangerous:1 must:4 always:4 care:1 teach:4 treat:3 respect:1 destructive:1 capability:2 strongly:1 discourage:4 play:1 toy:2 common:1 accident:4 follow:1 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4,235 | Hesiod | Ancient bronze bust, the so-called Pseudo-Seneca, now conjectured to be an imaginative portrait of Hesiod Hesiod (Greek: Hesiodos) was a Greek oral poet, his date is uncertain but leading scholars (see West, T. W. Allen) agree that Hesiod lived in the latter half of the Eighth-century BCE. Since at least Herodotus's time (Histories, 2.53) Hesiod and Homer have generally been considered the earliest Greek poets whose work has survived, and they are often paired. Scholars disagree about who lived first, and the fourth-century BCE sophist Alcidamas' Mouseion even brought them together in an imagined poetic agon, the Contest of Homer and Hesiod. Aristarchus first argued for Homer's priority, a claim that was generally accepted by later antiquity. M.L. West, "Hesiod", in Oxford Classical Dictionary, second edition (Oxford: University Press, 1970), p.510. Hesiod's writings serve as a major source on Greek mythology, farming techniques, archaic Greek astronomy and ancient time-keeping. Life J. A. Symonds writes that "'Hesiod is also the immediate parent of gnomic verse, and the ancestor of those deep thinkers who speculated in the Attic Age upon the mysteries of human life". J. A. Symonds, Studies of the Greek Poets, p. 166 Some scholars have doubted whether Hesiod alone conceived and wrote the poems attributed to him. For example, Symonds writes that "the first ten verses of the Works and Days are spurious - borrowed probably from some Orphic hymn to Zeus and recognised as not the work of Hesiod by critics as ancient as Pausanias". J. A. Symonds, p. 167 As with Homer, legendary traditions have accumulated around Hesiod. Unlike Homer's case, however, some biographical details have survived: a few details of Hesiod's life come from three references in Works and Days; some further inferences derive from his Theogony. His father came from Cyme in Aeolis, which lay between Ionia and the Troad in Northwestern Anatolia, but crossed the sea to settle at a hamlet near Thespiae in Boeotia named Ascra, "a cursed place, cruel in winter, hard in summer, never pleasant" (Works, l. 640). Hesiod's patrimony there, a small piece of ground at the foot of Mount Helicon, occasioned a pair of lawsuits with his brother Perses, who won both under the same judges. Some scholars have seen Perses as a literary creation, a foil for the moralizing that Hesiod directed to him in Works and Days, but in the introduction to his translation of Hesiod's works, Hugh G. Evelyn-White provides several arguments against this theory. Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Hesiod, The Homeric Hymns and Homerica (Cambridge: Harvard Press, 1964) Volume 57 of the Loeb Classical Library, pp. xivf. Gregory Nagy, on the other hand, sees both Persēs ("the destroyer": / perthō) and Hēsiodos ("he who emits the voice": / hiēmi + / audē) as fictitious names for poetical personae. Gregory Nagy, Greek Mythology and Poetics (Cornell 1990), pp. 36-82. The Muses traditionally lived on Helicon, and, according to the account in Theogony (ll. 22-35), gave Hesiod the gift of poetic inspiration one day while he tended sheep (compare the legend of Cædmon). Hesiod later mentions a poetry contest at Chalcis in Euboea where the sons of one Amiphidamas awarded him a tripod (ll.654-662). Plutarch first cited this passage as an interpolation into Hesiod's original work, based on his identification of Amiphidamas with the hero of the Lelantine War between Chalcis and Eretria, which occurred around 705 BCE. Plutarch assumed this date much too late for a contemporary of Homer, but most Homeric students would now accept it. The account of this contest, followed by an allusion to the Trojan War, inspired the later tales of a competition between Hesiod and Homer. Two different—yet early—traditions record the site of Hesiod's grave. One, as early as Thucydides, reported in Plutarch, the Suda and John Tzetzes, states that the Delphic oracle warned Hesiod that he would die in Nemea, and so he fled to Locris, where he was killed at the local temple to Nemean Zeus, and buried there. This tradition follows a familiar ironic convention: the oracle that predicts accurately after all. The other tradition, first mentioned in an epigram of Chersios of Orchomenus written in the 7th century BCE (within a century or so of Hesiod's death) claims that Hesiod lies buried at Orchomenus, a town in Boeotia. According to Aristotle's Constitution of Orchomenus, when the Thespians ravaged Ascra, the villagers sought refuge at Orchomenus, where, following the advice of an oracle, they collected the ashes of Hesiod and placed them in a place of honour in their agora, beside the tomb of Minyas, their eponymous founder, and in the end came to regard Hesiod too as their "hearth-founder" ( / oikistēs). Later writers attempted to harmonize these two accounts. The legends that accumulated about Hesiod are recorded in several sources: the story "The poetic contest ( / Agōn) of Homer and Hesiod"; Translated in Evelyn-White, Hesiod, pp. 565-597. a vita of Hesiod by the Byzantine grammarian John Tzetzes; the entry for Hesiod in the Suda; two passages and some scattered remarks in Pausanias (IX, 31.3–6 and 38.3–4); a passage in Plutarch Moralia (162b). Works Of the many works attributed to Hesiod, three survive complete and many more in fragmentary state. Our witnesses include Alexandrian papyri, some dating from as early as the 1st century BCE, and manuscripts written from the eleventh century forward. Demetrius Chalcondyles issued the first printed edition (editio princeps) of Works and Days, possibly at Milan, probably in 1493. In 1495 Aldus Manutius published the complete works at Venice. Hesiod's works, especially Works and Days, are from the view of the small independent farmer, while Homer's view is from nobility or the rich. Even with these differences, they share some beliefs regarding work ethic, justice, and consideration of material items. Works and Days Hesiod wrote a poem of some 800 verses, the Works and Days, which revolves around two general truths: labour is the universal lot of Man, but he who is willing to work will get by. Scholars have interpreted this work against a background of agrarian crisis in mainland Greece, which inspired a wave of documented colonisations in search of new land. This work lays out the five Ages of Man, as well as containing advice and wisdom, prescribing a life of honest labour and attacking idleness and unjust judges (like those who decided in favour of Perses) as well as the practice of usury. It describes immortals who roam the earth watching over justice and injustice. Hesiod, Works and Days, line 250: "Verily upon the earth are thrice ten thousand immortals of the host of Zeus, guardians of mortal man. They watch both justice and injustice, robed in mist, roaming abroad upon the earth". (Compare J. A. Symonds, p. 179) The poem regards labor as the source of all good, in that both gods and men hate the idle, who resemble drones in a hive. Works and Days, line 300: "Both gods and men are angry with a man who lives idle, for in nature he is like the stingless drones who waste the labor of the bees, eating without working." Theogony Hesiod and the Muse, by Gustave Moreau "Theogony", a poem which uses the same epic verse-form as the "Works and Days", is also attributed to Hesiod. Despite the different subject matter, most scholars, with some notable exceptions (like Evelyn-White), believe that the two works were written by the same man. As M.L. West writes, "Both bear the marks of a distinct personality: a surly, conservative countryman, given to reflection, no lover of women or life, who felt the gods' presence heavy about him." West, "Hesiod", p. 521. The Theogony concerns the origins of the world (cosmogony) and of the gods (theogony), beginning with Gaia, Chaos and Eros, and shows a special interest in genealogy. Embedded in Greek myth, there remain fragments of quite variant tales, hinting at the rich variety of myth that once existed, city by city; but Hesiod's retelling of the old stories became, according to the fifth-century historian Herodotus, the accepted version that linked all Hellenes. The creation myth in Hesiod has long been held to have Eastern influences, such as the Hittite Song of Kumarbi and the Babylonian Enuma Elis. This cultural crossover would have occurred in the eight and ninth century Greek trading colonies such as Al mIna in North Syria. (For more discussion, read Robin Lane Fox's Travelling Heroes and Walcot's Hesiod and the Near East.) Other writings A short poem traditionally no longer attributed to Hesiod is The Shield of Heracles ( / Aspis Hērakleous). This survives complete; the other works discussed in this section survive only in quotations or papyri copies which are often damaged. Classical authors also attributed to Hesiod a lengthy genealogical poem known as Catalogue of Women or Ehoiae (because sections began with the Greek words ē hoiē 'Or like the one who ...'). It was a mythological catalogue of the mortal women who had mated with gods, and of the offspring and descendants of these unions. Several additional poems were sometimes ascribed to Hesiod: Aegimius Astrice Chironis Hypothecae Idaei Dactyli Wedding of Ceyx Great Works (presumably an expanded Works and Days) Great Eoiae (presumably an expanded Catalogue of Women) Melampodia Ornithomantia Scholars generally classify all these as later examples of the poetic tradition to which Hesiod belonged, not as the work of Hesiod himself. The Shield, in particular, appears to be an expansion of one of the genealogical poems, taking its cue from Homer's description of the Shield of Achilles. "Portrait" Bust The Roman bronze bust of the late first century BCE found at Herculaneum, the so-called Pseudo-Seneca, was first reidentified as a fictitious portrait meant for Hesiod by Gisela Richter, though it had been recognized that the bust was not in fact Seneca since 1813, when an inscribed herm portrait with quite different features was discovered. Most scholars now follow her identification. Gisela Richter (1965). The Portraits of the Greeks. London: Phaidon, I, 58ff; commentators agreeing with Richter include Wolfram Prinz, 1973. "The Four Philosophers by Rubens and the Pseudo-Seneca in Seventeenth-Century Painting" The Art Bulletin 55.3 (September 1973), pp. 410-428. "...one feels that it may just as well have been the Greek writer Hesiod..." and Martin Robertson, in his review eview of G. Richter, The Portraits of the Greeks for The Burlington Magazine 108.756 (March 1966), pp 148-150. "...with Miss Richter, I accept the identification as Hesiod" Notes References Allen, T. W. and Arthur A. Rambaut, 'The Date of Hesiod', The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 35 (1915), 85-99 Buckham, Philip Wentworth, Theatre of the Greeks, 1827. Lamberton, Robert, Hesiod, New Haven : Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0300040687 Murray, Gilbert, A History of Ancient Greek Literature, New York : D. Appleton and Company, 1897. Cf. pp.53 and onward for Hesiod. Peabody, Berkley, The Winged Word: A Study in the Technique of Ancient Greek Oral Composition as Seen Principally Through Hesiod's Works and Days, State University of New York Press, 1975. ISBN 0873950593 Pucci, Pietro, Hesiod and the Language of Poetry, Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977. ISBN 0801817870 Rohde, Erwin, Psyche, 1925. Symonds, John Addington, Studies of the Greek Poets, 1873. Taylor, Thomas, A Dissertation on the Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries, 1791. Selected translations Athanassakis, Apostolos N., Theogony ; Works and days ; Shield / Hesiod; introduction, translation, and notes, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. ISBN 0801829984 Cooke, Hesiod, Works and Days, Translated from the Greek, London, 1728 Frazer, R.M. (Richard McIlwaine), The Poems of Hesiod, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983. ISBN 0806118377 Most, Glenn, translator, Hesiod, 2 vols., Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2006-07. Schlegel, Catherine M., and Henry Weinfield, translators, Theogony and Works and Days, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 2006 Sinclair, Thomas Alan (translator), Hesiodou Erga kai hemerai, London, Macmillan and co., 1932. Tandy, David W., and Neale, Walter C. [translators], Works and Days: a translation and commentary for the social sciences, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. ISBN 0520203836 West, Martin Litchfield (translator), Hesiod Works & Days, Oxford University Press, 1978, ISBN 0-19-814005-3. Edited with Prolegomena and Commentary. Further reading Athanassakis, Apostolos N., [guest editor], Essays on Hesiod I, Ramus: Critical Studies in Greek and Roman Literature, Vol. 21, no 1 (1992), and Essays on Hesiod II, Ramus: Critical Studies in Greek and Roman Literature, Vol. 21, no 2 (1992), La Trobe University and Aureal Publications, Australia. Athanassakis, A.N., Cattle and Honour in Homer and Hesiod, Ramus, v.21, n.2 (1992), pp.156-186. Martin, Richard P., (1992) Hesiod's metanastic poetics, Ramus 21: 11-33 External links Hesiod, [http://www.animalrightshistory.org/library/hesiod/cooke-works-and-days-1.htm Works and Days] Translated from the Greek by Mr. Cooke (London, 1728). A youthful exercise in Augustan heroic couplets by Thomas Cooke (1703–1756), employing the Roman names for all the gods. Web texts taken from Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns and Homerica, edited and translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, published as Loeb Classical Library #57, 1914, ISBN 0-674-99063-3: Scanned text at the Internet Archive, in PDF and DjVu format Perseus Classics Collection: Greek and Roman Materials: Text: Hesiod (Greek texts and English translations for Works and Days, Theogony, and Shield of Heracles with additional notes and cross links.) Versions of the electronic edition of Evelyn-White's English translation edited by Douglas B. Killings, June 1995: Project Gutenberg plain text. Berkeley Digital Library SunSITE: The Online Medieval and Classical Library: Hesiod Sacred Texts: Classics: The Works of Hesiod (Theogony and Works and Days only) [http://www.et-in-arcadia-ego.com Hesiod and the Arcadian theme in the paintings Shepherds of Arcadia - Et in Arcadia Ego | Hesiod |@lemmatized ancient:5 bronze:2 bust:4 call:2 pseudo:3 seneca:4 conjecture:1 imaginative:1 portrait:6 hesiod:70 greek:23 hesiodos:1 oral:2 poet:4 date:4 uncertain:1 leading:1 scholar:8 see:4 west:5 w:3 allen:2 agree:2 live:4 latter:1 half:1 eighth:1 century:10 bce:6 since:2 least:1 herodotus:2 time:2 history:2 homer:11 generally:3 consider:1 early:4 whose:1 work:40 survive:5 often:2 pair:2 disagree:1 first:8 fourth:1 sophist:1 alcidamas:1 mouseion:1 even:2 bring:1 together:1 imagined:1 poetic:4 agon:1 contest:4 aristarchus:1 argue:1 priority:1 claim:2 accept:3 late:4 antiquity:1 l:3 oxford:3 classical:6 dictionary:1 second:1 edition:3 university:9 press:9 p:6 writing:2 serve:1 major:1 source:3 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4,236 | Explosive_material | An explosive material is a material that either is chemically or otherwise energetically unstable or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied by the production of heat and large changes in pressure (and typically also a flash and/or loud noise) upon initiation; this is called the explosion. An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material. Chemical explosives Explosives are classified as low or high explosives according to their rates of burn: low explosives burn rapidly (or deflagrate), while high explosives detonate. While these definitions are distinct, the problem of precisely measuring rapid decomposition makes practical classification of explosives difficult. The chemical decomposition of an explosive may take years, days, hours, or a fraction of a second. The slower processes of decomposition take place in storage and are of interest only from a stability standpoint. Of more interest are the two rapid forms of decomposition, deflagration and detonation. The latter term is used to describe an explosive phenomenon whereby the decomposition is propagated by the explosive shockwave traversing the explosive material. The shockwave front is capable of passing through the high explosive material at great speeds, typically thousands of meters per second. Explosives usually have less potential energy than petroleum fuels, but their high rate of energy release produces the great blast pressure. TNT has a detonation velocity of 6,940 m/s compared to 1,680 m/s for the detonation of a pentane-air mixture, and the 0.34-m/s stoichiometric flame speed of gasoline combustion in air. Explosive force is released in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the explosive. If the surface is cut or shaped, the explosive forces can be focused to produce a greater local effect; this is known as a shaped charge. In a low explosive (which deflagrates), the decomposition is propagated by a flame front which travels much more slowly through the explosive material. The properties of the explosive indicate the class into which it falls. In some cases explosives can be made to fall into either class by the conditions under which they are initiated. In sufficiently large quantities, almost all low explosives can undergo a Deflagration to Detonation Transition (DDT). For convenience, low and high explosives may be differentiated by the shipping and storage classes. Explosive compatibility groupings Explosives warning sign Shipping labels and tags will include UN and national, e.g. USDOT, hazardous material Class with Compatibility Letter, as follows: 1.1 Mass Explosion Hazard 1.2 Non-mass explosion, fragment-producing 1.3 Mass fire, minor blast or fragment hazard 1.4 Moderate fire, no blast or fragment: a consumer firework is 1.4G or 1.4S 1.5 Explosive substance, very insensitive (with a mass explosion hazard) 1.6 Explosive article, extremely insensitive A Primary explosive substance (1.1A) B An article containing a primary explosive substance and not containing two or more effective protective features. Some articles, such as detonator assemblies for blasting and primers, cap-type, are included. (1.1B, 1.2B, 1.4B) C Propellant explosive substance or other deflagrating explosive substance or article containing such explosive substance (1.1C, 1.2C, 1.3C, 1.4C) D Secondary detonating explosive substance or black powder or article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance, in each case without means of initiation and without a propelling charge, or article containing a primary explosive substance and containing two or more effective protective features. (1.1D, 1.2D, 1.4D, 1.5D) E Article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance without means of initiation, with a propelling charge (other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid) (1.1E, 1.2E, 1.4E) F containing a secondary detonating explosive substance with its means of initiation, with a propelling charge (other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid) or without a propelling charge (1.1F, 1.2F, 1.3F, 1.4F) G Pyrotechnic substance or article containing a pyrotechnic substance, or article containing both an explosive substance and an illuminating, incendiary, tear-producing or smoke-producing substance (other than a water-activated article or one containing white phosphorus, phosphide or flammable liquid or gel or hypergolic liquid) (1.1G, 1.2G, 1.3G, 1.4G) H Article containing both an explosive substance and white phosphorus (1.2H, 1.3H) J Article containing both an explosive substance and flammable liquid or gel (1.1J, 1.2J, 1.3J) K Article containing both an explosive substance and a toxic chemical agent (1.2K, 1.3K) L Explosive substance or article containing an explosive substance and presenting a special risk (e.g., due to water-activation or presence of hypergolic liquids, phosphides or pyrophoric substances) needing isolation of each type (1.1L, 1.2L, 1.3L) N Articles containing only extremely insensitive detonating substances (1.6N) S Substance or article so packed or designed that any hazardous effects arising from accidental functioning are limited to the extent that they do not significantly hinder or prohibit fire fighting or other emergency response efforts in the immediate vicinity of the package (1.4S) Exotic explosives In addition to chemical explosives, there exist varieties of more exotic explosive material, and theoretical methods of causing explosions. Examples include nuclear explosives, antimatter and abruptly heating a substance with a high-intensity laser or electric arc. Low explosives A low explosive is usually a mixture of a combustible substance and an oxidant that decomposes rapidly (deflagration), as opposed to most high explosives, which are compounds. Under normal conditions, low explosives undergo deflagration at rates that vary from a few centimeters per second to approximately 400 metres per second. It is possible for them to deflagrate very quickly, producing an effect similar to a detonation. This usually occurs when ignited in a confined space. Low explosives are normally employed as propellants. Included in this group are gun powders, pyrotechnics such as flares and illumination devices . High explosives High explosives normally are employed in mining, demolition, and military warheads. High explosive compounds detonate at rates ranging from 3,000 to 9,000 meters per second, and are, conventionally, subdivided into two explosives classes, differentiated by sensitivity: Primary explosives are extremely sensitive to mechanical shock, friction, and heat, to which they will respond by burning rapidly or detonating. Examples include mercury fulminate, lead styphnate and lead azide. Secondary explosives, also called base explosives, are relatively insensitive to shock, friction, and heat. They may burn when exposed to heat or flame in small, unconfined quantities, but detonation can occur. These are sometimes added in small amounts to blasting caps to boost their power. Dynamite, TNT, RDX, PETN, HMX, and others are secondary explosives. PETN is the benchmark compound; compounds more sensitive than PETN are classed as primary explosives. Some definitions add a third category: Tertiary explosives or blasting agents, are insensitive to shock, they cannot be reliably detonated with practical quantities of primary explosive, and, instead, require an intermediate explosive booster, of secondary explosive, e.g. ammonium nitrate/fuel oil mixture (ANFO) and slurry (wet bag) explosives that are primarily used in large-scale mining and construction. Note that many, if not most, explosive chemical compounds may usefully deflagrate and detonate, and are used in high- and low-explosive compounds. Thus, under the correct conditions, a propellant (for example nitrocellulose) might deflagrate if ignited, or may detonate if initiated with a detonator. Detonation of an explosive charge The explosive train, also called an initiation sequence or firing train, is the sequence of charges that progresses from relatively low levels of energy to initiate the final explosive material or main charge. There are low- and high-explosive trains. Low-explosive trains are as simple as a rifle cartridge, including a primer and a propellant charge. High-explosives trains can be more complex, either two-step (e.g., detonator and dynamite) or three-step (e.g., detonator, booster of primary explosive, and main charge of secondary explosive). Detonators are often made from tetryl and fulminates. Composition of the material An explosive may consist of either a chemically pure compound, such as nitroglycerin, or a mixture of an oxidizer and a fuel, such as black powder. Mixtures of an oxidizer and a fuel An oxidizer is a pure substance (molecule) that in a chemical reaction can contribute some atoms of one or more oxidizing elements, in which the fuel component of the explosive burns. On the simplest level, the oxidizer may itself be an oxidizing element, such as gaseous or liquid oxygen. Black powder: Potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur Flash powder: Fine metal powder (usually aluminium or magnesium) and a strong oxidizer (e.g. potassium chlorate or perchlorate). Ammonal: Ammonium nitrate and aluminium powder. Armstrong's mixture: Potassium chlorate and red phosphorus. This is a very sensitive mixture. It is a primary high explosive in which sulfur is substituted for some or all phosphorus to slightly decrease sensitivity. Sprengel explosives: A very general class incorporating any strong oxidizer and highly reactive fuel, although in practice the name most commonly was applied to mixtures of chlorates and nitroaromatics. ANFO: Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil. Cheddites: Chlorates or perchlorates and oil. Oxyliquits: Mixtures of organic materials and liquid oxygen. Panclastites: Mixtures of organic materials and dinitrogen tetroxide. Chemically pure compounds Some chemical compounds are unstable in that, when shocked, they react, possibly to the point of detonation. Each molecule of the compound dissociates into two or more new molecules (generally gases) with the release of energy. Nitroglycerin: A highly unstable and sensitive liquid. Acetone peroxide: A very unstable white organic peroxide TNT: Yellow insensitive crystals that can be melted and cast without detonation. Nitrocellulose: A nitrated polymer which can be a high or low explosive depending on nitration level and conditions. RDX, PETN, HMX: Very powerful explosives which can be used pure or in plastic explosives. C-4 (or Composition C-4): An RDX plastic explosive plasticized to be adhesive and malleable. The above compositions may describe the majority of the explosive material, but a practical explosive will often include small percentages of other materials. For example, dynamite is a mixture of highly sensitive nitroglycerin with sawdust, powdered silica, or most commonly diatomaceous earth, which act as stabilizers. Plastics and polymers may be added to bind powders of explosive compounds; waxes may be incorporated to make them safer to handle; aluminium powder may be introduced to increase total energy and blast effects. Explosive compounds are also often "alloyed": HMX or RDX powders may be mixed (typically by melt-casting) with TNT to form Octol or Cyclotol. Chemical explosive reaction A chemical explosive is a compound or mixture which, upon the application of heat or shock, decomposes or rearranges with extreme rapidity, yielding much gas and heat. Many substances not ordinarily classed as explosives may do one, or even two, of these things. For example, at high temperatures (> 2000°C) a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen can be made to react with great rapidity and yield the gaseous product nitric oxide; yet the mixture is not an explosive since it does not evolve heat, but rather absorbs heat. N2 + O2 → 2NO - 43,200 calories (or 180 kJ) per mole of N2 For a chemical to be an explosive, it must exhibit all of the following: Rapid expansion (i.e.,. rapid production of gases or rapid heating of surroundings) Evolution of heat Rapidity of reaction Initiation of reaction Evolution of heat The generation of heat in large quantities accompanies every explosive chemical reaction. It is this rapid liberation of heat that causes the gaseous products of reaction to expand and generate high pressures. This rapid generation of high pressures of the released gas constitutes the explosion. It should be noted that the liberation of heat with insufficient rapidity will not cause an explosion. For example, although a pound of coal yields five times as much heat as a pound of nitroglycerin, the coal cannot be used as an explosive because the rate at which it yields this heat is quite slow. Rapidity of reaction Rapidity of reaction distinguishes the explosive reaction from an ordinary combustion reaction by the great speed with which it takes place. Unless the reaction occurs rapidly, the thermally expanded gases will be dissipated in the medium, and there will be no explosion. Again, consider a wood or coal fire. As the fire burns, there is the evolution of heat and the formation of gases, but neither is liberated rapidly enough to cause an explosion. This can be likened to the difference between the energy discharge of a battery, which is slow, and that of a flash capacitor like that in a camera flash, which releases its energy all at once. Initiation of reaction A reaction must be capable of being initiated by the application of shock or heat to a small portion of the mass of the explosive material. A material in which the first three factors exist cannot be accepted as an explosive unless the reaction can be made to occur when desired . Sensitiser A sensitiser is a powdered or fine particulate material that is sometimes used to create voids that aid in the initiation or propagation of the detonation wave. It may be as high-tech as glass beads or as simple as seeds. Military explosives To determine the suitability of an explosive substance for military use, its physical properties must first be investigated. The usefulness of a military explosive can only be appreciated when these properties and the factors affecting them are fully understood. Many explosives have been studied in past years to determine their suitability for military use and most have been found wanting. Several of those found acceptable have displayed certain characteristics that are considered undesirable and, therefore, limit their usefulness in military applications. The requirements of a military explosive are stringent, and very few explosives display all of the characteristics necessary to make them acceptable for military standardization. Some of the more important characteristics are discussed below: Availability and cost In view of the enormous quantity demands of modern warfare, explosives must be produced from cheap raw materials that are nonstrategic and available in great quantity. In addition, manufacturing operations must be reasonably simple, cheap, and safe. Sensitivity Regarding an explosive, this refers to the ease with which it can be ignited or detonated—i.e., the amount and intensity of shock, friction, or heat that is required. When the term sensitivity is used, care must be taken to clarify what kind of sensitivity is under discussion. The relative sensitivity of a given explosive to impact may vary greatly from its sensitivity to friction or heat. Some of the test methods used to determine sensitivity are as follows: Impact Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the distance through which a standard weight must be dropped to cause the material to explode. Friction Sensitivity is expressed in terms of what occurs when a weighted pendulum scrapes across the material (snaps, crackles, ignites, and/or explodes). Heat Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the temperature at which flashing or explosion of the material occurs. Sensitivity is an important consideration in selecting an explosive for a particular purpose. The explosive in an armor-piercing projectile must be relatively insensitive, or the shock of impact would cause it to detonate before it penetrated to the point desired. The explosive lenses around nuclear charges are also designed to be highly insensitive, to minimize the risk of accidental detonation. Stability Stability is the ability of an explosive to be stored without deterioration. The following factors affect the stability of an explosive: Chemical constitution. The very fact that some common chemical compounds can undergo explosion when heated indicates that there is something unstable in their structures. While no precise explanation has been developed for this, it is generally recognized that certain radical groups, nitrite (–NO2), nitrate (–NO3), and azide (–N3), are intrinsically in a condition of internal strain. Increasing the strain by heating can cause a sudden disruption of the molecule and consequent explosion. In some cases, this condition of molecular instability is so great that decomposition takes place at ordinary temperatures. Temperature of storage. The rate of decomposition of explosives increases at higher temperatures. All of the standard military explosives may be considered to have a high degree of stability at temperatures of -10 to +35 °C, but each has a high temperature at which the rate of decomposition rapidly accelerates and stability is reduced.As a rule of thumb, most explosives become dangerously unstable at temperatures exceeding 70 °C. Exposure to the sun. If exposed to the ultraviolet rays of the sun, many explosive compounds that contain nitrogen groups will rapidly decompose, affecting their stability. Electrical discharge. Electrostatic or spark sensitivity to initiation is common to a number of explosives. Static or other electrical discharge may be sufficient to inspire detonation under some circumstances. As a result, the safe handling of explosives and pyrotechnics almost always requires electrical grounding of the operator. Power The term "power" (or more properly, performance) as applied to an explosive refers to its ability to do work. In practice it is defined as the explosive's ability to accomplish what is intended in the way of energy delivery (i.e., fragment projection, air blast, high-velocity jets, underwater shock and bubble energy, etc.). Explosive power or performance is evaluated by a tailored series of tests to assess the material for its intended use. Of the tests listed below, cylinder expansion and air-blast tests are common to most testing programs, and the others support specific applications. Cylinder expansion test. A standard amount of explosive is loaded into a long hollow cylinder, usually of copper, and detonated at one end. Data is collected concerning the rate of radial expansion of the cylinder and maximum cylinder wall velocity. This also establishes the Gurney energy or 2E. Cylinder fragmentation. A standard steel cylinder is loaded with explosive and detonated in a sawdust pit. The fragments are collected and the size distribution analyzed. Detonation pressure (Chapman-Jouguet condition). Detonation pressure data derived from measurements of shock waves transmitted into water by the detonation of cylindrical explosive charges of a standard size. Determination of critical diameter. This test establishes the minimum physical size a charge of a specific explosive must be to sustain its own detonation wave. The procedure involves the detonation of a series of charges of different diameters until difficulty in detonation wave propagation is observed. Infinite-diameter detonation velocity. Detonation velocity is dependent on loading density (c), charge diameter, and grain size. The hydrodynamic theory of detonation used in predicting explosive phenomena does not include diameter of the charge, and therefore a detonation velocity, for an imaginary charge of Infinite diameter. This procedure requires a series of charges of the same density and physical structure, but different diameters, to be fired and the resulting detonation velocities extrapolated to predict the detonation velocity of a charge of infinite diameter. Pressure versus scaled distance. A charge of specific size is detonated and its pressure effects measured at a standard distance. The values obtained are compared with that for TNT. Impulse versus scaled distance. A charge of specific size is detonated and its impulse (the area under the pressure-time curve) measured versus distance. The results are tabulated and expressed in TNT equivalent. Relative bubble energy (RBE). A 5- to 50 kg charge is detonated in water and piezoelectric gauges measure peak pressure, time constant, impulse, and energy. The RBE may be defined as Kx 3 RBE = Ks where K = bubble expansion period for experimental (x) or standard (s) charge. Brisance In addition to strength, explosives display a second characteristic, which is their shattering effect or brisance (from the French meaning to "break"), which is distinguished from their total work capacity. An exploding propane tank may release more chemical energy than an ounce of nitroglycerin, but the tank would probably fragment into large pieces of twisted metal, while a metal casing around the nitroglycerin would be pulverized. This characteristic is of practical importance in determining the effectiveness of an explosion in fragmenting shells, bomb casings, grenades, and the like. The rapidity with which an explosive reaches its peak pressure is a measure of its brisance. Brisance values are primarily employed in France and Russia. The sand crush test is commonly employed to determine the relative brisance in comparison to TNT. No test is capable of directly comparing the explosive properties of two or more compounds; it is important to examine the data from several such tests (sand crush, trauzl, and so forth) in order to gauge relative brisance. True values for comparison will require field experiments. Density Density of loading refers to the mass of an explosive per unit volume. Several methods of loading are available, including pellet loading, cast loading, and press loading; the one used is determined by the characteristics of the explosive. Dependent upon the method employed, an average density of the loaded charge can be obtained that is within 80-99% of the theoretical maximum density of the explosive. High load density can reduce sensitivity by making the mass more resistant to internal friction. However, if density is increased to the extent that individual crystals are crushed, the explosive may become more sensitive. Increased load density also permits the use of more explosive, thereby increasing the power of the warhead. It is possible to compress an explosive beyond a point of sensitivity, known also as "dead-pressing," in which the material is no longer capable of being reliably initiated, if at all. Volatility Volatility, or the readiness with which a substance vaporizes, is an undesirable characteristic in military explosives. Explosives must be no more than slightly volatile at the temperature at which they are loaded or at their highest storage temperature. Excessive volatility often results in the development of pressure within rounds of ammunition and separation of mixtures into their constituents. Stability, as mentioned before, is the ability of an explosive to stand up under storage conditions without deteriorating. Volatility affects the chemical composition of the explosive such that a marked reduction in stability may occur, which results in an increase in the danger of handling. Maximum allowable volatility is 2 ml of gas evolved in 48 hours. Hygroscopicity The introduction of water into an explosive is highly undesirable since it reduces the sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation of the explosive. Hygroscopicity is used as a measure of a material's moisture-absorbing tendencies. Moisture affects explosives adversely by acting as an inert material that absorbs heat when vaporized, and by acting as a solvent medium that can cause undesired chemical reactions. Sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation are reduced by inert materials that reduce the continuity of the explosive mass. When the moisture content evaporates during detonation, cooling occurs, which reduces the temperature of reaction. Stability is also affected by the presence of moisture since moisture promotes decomposition of the explosive and, in addition, causes corrosion of the explosive's metal container. For all of these reasons, hygroscopicity must be negligible in military explosives. Toxicity Due to their chemical structure, most explosives are toxic to some extent. Since the toxic effect may vary from a mild headache to serious damage of internal organs, care must be taken to limit toxicity in military explosives to a minimum. Any explosive of high toxicity is unacceptable for military use. Explosive product gases can also be toxic. Measurement of chemical explosive reaction The development of new and improved types of ammunition requires a continuous program of research and development. Adoption of an explosive for a particular use is based upon both proving ground and service tests. Before these tests, however, preliminary estimates of the characteristics of the explosive are made. The principles of thermochemistry are applied for this process. Thermochemistry is concerned with the changes in internal energy, principally as heat, in chemical reactions. An explosion consists of a series of reactions, highly exothermic, involving decomposition of the ingredients and recombination to form the products of explosion. Energy changes in explosive reactions are calculated either from known chemical laws or by analysis of the products. For most common reactions, tables based on previous investigations permit rapid calculation of energy changes. Products of an explosive remaining in a closed calorimetric bomb (a constant-volume explosion) after cooling the bomb back to room temperature and pressure are rarely those present at the instant of maximum temperature and pressure. Since only the final products may be analyzed conveniently, indirect or theoretical methods are often used to determine the maximum temperature and pressure values. Some of the important characteristics of an explosive that can be determined by such theoretical computations are: Oxygen balance Heat of explosion or reaction Volume of products of explosion Potential of the explosive Oxygen balance (OB%) Oxygen balance is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized. If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to convert all of its carbon to carbon dioxide, all of its hydrogen to water, and all of its metal to metal oxide with no excess, the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance. The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than is needed. The sensitivity, strength, and brisance of an explosive are all somewhat dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to approach their maximums as oxygen balance approaches zero. Heat of explosion When a chemical compound is formed from its constituents, heat may either be absorbed or released. The quantity of heat absorbed or given off during transformation is called the heat of formation. Heats of formations for solids and gases found in explosive reactions have been determined for a temperature of 15 °C and atmospheric pressure, and are normally given in units of kilocalories per gram-molecule. (See table 12-1). A negative value indicates that heat is absorbed during the formation of the compound from its elements; such a reaction is called an endothermic reaction. The arbitrary convention usually employed in simple thermochemical calculations is to take heat contents of all elements as zero in their standard states at all temperatures (standard state being defined as natural or ambient conditions). Since the heat of formation of a compound is the net difference between the heat content of the compound and that of its elements, and since the latter are taken as zero by convention, it follows that the heat content of a compound is equal to its heat of formation in such non-rigorous calculations. This leads to the principle of initial and final state, which may be expressed as follows: "The net quantity of heat liberated or absorbed in any chemical modification of a system depends solely upon the initial and final states of the system, provided the transformation takes place at constant volume or at constant pressure. It is completely independent of the intermediate transformations and of the time required for the reactions." From this it follows that the heat liberated in any transformation accomplished through successive reactions is the algebraic sum of the heats liberated or absorbed in the several reactions. Consider the formation of the original explosive from its elements as an intermediate reaction in the formation of the products of explosion. The net amount of heat liberated during an explosion is the sum of the heats of formation of the products of explosion, minus the heat of formation of the original explosive. The net difference between heats of formations of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction is termed the heat of reaction. For oxidation this heat of reaction may be termed heat of combustion. In explosive technology only materials that are exothermic—that have a heat of reaction that causes net liberation of heat—are of interest. Hence, in this context, virtually all heats of reaction are positive. Reaction heat is measured under conditions either of constant pressure or constant volume. It is this heat of reaction that may be properly expressed as the "heat of explosion." Balancing chemical explosion equations In order to assist in balancing chemical equations, an order of priorities is presented in table 12-1. Explosives containing C, H, O, and N and/or a metal will form the products of reaction in the priority sequence shown. Some observation you might want to make as you balance an equation: The progression is from top to bottom; you may skip steps that are not applicable, but you never back up. At each separate step there are never more than two compositions and two products. At the conclusion of the balancing, elemental nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen are always found in diatomic form. + Table 12-1. Order of Priorities Priority Composition of explosive Products of decomposition Phase of products 1 A metal and chlorine Metallic chloride Solid 2 Hydrogen and chlorine HCl Gas 3 A metal and oxygen Metallic oxide Solid 4 Carbon and oxygen CO Gas 5 Hydrogen and oxygen H2O Gas 6 Carbon monoxide and oxygen CO2 Gas 7 Nitrogen N2 Gas 8 Excess oxygen O2 Gas 9 Excess hydrogen H2 Gas 10 Excess carbon C Solid Example, TNT: C6H2(NO2)3CH3; constituents: 7C + 5H + 3N + 6O Using the order of priorities in table 12-1, priority 4 gives the first reaction products: 7C + 6O → 6CO with one mol of carbon remaining Next, since all the oxygen has been combined with the carbon to form CO, priority 7 results in: 3N → 1.5N2 Finally, priority 9 results in: 5H → 2.5H2 The balanced equation, showing the products of reaction resulting from the detonation of TNT is: C6H2(NO2)3CH3 → 6CO + 2.5H2 + 1.5N2 + C Notice that partial moles are permitted in these calculations. The number of moles of gas formed is 10. The product carbon is a solid. Volume of products of explosion Avogadro's law states that equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules, that is, the molar volume of one gas is equal to the molar volume of any other gas. The molar volume of any gas at 0°C and under normal atmospheric pressure is very nearly 22.4 liters. Thus, considering the nitroglycerin reaction, C3H5(NO3)3 → 3CO2 + 2.5H2O + 1.5N2 + 0.25O2 the explosion of one mole of nitroglycerin produces 3 moles of CO2, 2.5 moles of H2O, 1.5 moles of N2, and 0.25 mole of O2, all in the gaseous state. Since a molar volume is the volume of one mole of gas, one mole of nitroglycerin produces 3 + 2.5 + 1.5 + 0.25 = 7.25 molar volumes of gas; and these molar volumes at 0°C and atmospheric pressure form an actual volume of 7.25 × 22.4 = 162.4 liters of gas. Based upon this simple beginning, it can be seen that the volume of the products of explosion can be predicted for any quantity of the explosive. Further, by employing Charles' Law for perfect gases, the volume of the products of explosion may also be calculated for any given temperature. This law states that at a constant pressure a perfect gas expands 1/273.15 of its volume at 0 °C, for each degree Celsius of rise in temperature. Therefore, at 15 °C (288.15 kelvin) the molar volume of an ideal gas is V15 = 22.414 (288.15/273.15) = 23.64 liters per mole Thus, at 15 °C the volume of gas produced by the explosive decomposition of one mole of nitroglycerin becomes V = (23.64 l/mol)(7.25 mol) = 171.4 l Explosive strength The potential of an explosive is the total work that can be performed by the gas resulting from its explosion, when expanded adiabatically from its original volume, until its pressure is reduced to atmospheric pressure and its temperature to 15 °C. The potential is therefore the total quantity of heat given off at constant volume when expressed in equivalent work units and is a measure of the strength of the explosive. Example of thermochemical calculations The PETN reaction will be examined as an example of thermo-chemical calculations. PETN: C(CH2ONO2)4 Molecular weight = 316.15 g/mol Heat of formation = 119.4 kcal/mol (1) Balance the chemical reaction equation. Using table 12-1, priority 4 gives the first reaction products: 5C + 12O → 5CO + 7O Next, the hydrogen combines with remaining oxygen: 8H + 7O → 4H2O + 3O Then the remaining oxygen will combine with the CO to form CO and CO2. 5CO + 3O → 2CO + 3CO2 Finally the remaining nitrogen forms in its natural state (N2). 4N → 2N2 The balanced reaction equation is: C(CH2ONO2)4 → 2CO + 4H2O + 3CO2 + 2N2 (2) Determine the number of molar volumes of gas per mole. Since the molar volume of one gas is equal to the molar volume of any other gas, and since all the products of the PETN reaction are gaseous, the resulting number of molar volumes of gas (Nm) is: Nm = 2 + 4 + 3 + 2 = 11 Vmolar/mol (3) Determine the potential (capacity for doing work). If the total heat liberated by an explosive under constant volume conditions (Qm) is converted to the equivalent work units, the result is the potential of that explosive. The heat liberated at constant volume (Qmv) is equivalent to the liberated at constant pressure (Qmp) plus that heat converted to work in expanding the surrounding medium. Hence, Qmv = Qmp + work (converted). a. Qmp = Qfi (products) - Qfk (reactants) where: Qf = heat of formation (see table 12-1) For the PETN reaction: Qmp = 2(26.343) + 4(57.81) + 3(94.39) - (119.4) = 447.87 kcal/mol (If the compound produced a metallic oxide, that heat of formation would be included in Qmp.) b. Work = 0.572Nm = 0.572(11) = 6.292 kcal/mol As previously stated, Qmv converted to equivalent work units is taken as the potential of the explosive. c. Potential J = Qmv (4.185 × 106 kg)(MW) = 454.16 (4.185 × 106) 316.15 = 6.01 × 106 J kg This product may then be used to find the relative strength (RS) of PETN, which is d. RS = Pot (PETN) = 6.01 × 106 = 2.21 Pot (TNT) 2.72 × 106 See also Explosives used during WW II Nuclear weapon Weapon Explosive velocity Flame speed Binary explosive Explosives safety Pressure pulse Energetically unstable Orica; largest supplier of commercial explosives References Army Research Office. Elements of Armament Engineering (Part One). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Materiel Command, 1964. Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command. Safety and Performance Tests for Qualification of Explosives. NAVORD OD 44811. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1972. Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command. Weapons Systems Fundamentals. NAVORD OP 3000, vol. 2, 1st rev. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1971. Departments of the Army and Air Force. Military Explosives. Washington, D.C.: 1967. USDOT Hazardous Materials Transportation Placards Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests, and Landscap. 'Occurrence and relevance of organic pollutants in compost, digestate and organic residues', Research for Agriculture and Nature. 8 November 2004. p 52, 91, 182. External links Blaster Exchange - Explosives Industry Portal Explosive information and guides Why high nitrogen density in explosives? The Explosives and Weapons Forum Military Explosives UN hazard classification code Class 1 Hazmat Placards Journal of Energetic Materials | Explosive_material |@lemmatized explosive:180 material:30 either:7 chemically:3 otherwise:1 energetically:2 unstable:7 produce:12 sudden:2 expansion:6 usually:7 accompany:2 production:2 heat:60 large:6 change:4 pressure:26 typically:3 also:12 flash:5 loud:1 noise:1 upon:7 initiation:9 call:5 explosion:29 charge:25 measured:1 quantity:11 chemical:27 explosives:7 classify:1 low:14 high:27 accord:1 rate:8 burn:6 rapidly:7 deflagrate:6 detonate:14 definition:2 distinct:1 problem:1 precisely:1 measure:8 rapid:8 decomposition:13 make:10 practical:4 classification:2 difficult:1 may:30 take:10 year:2 day:1 hour:2 fraction:1 second:6 slow:3 process:2 place:4 storage:5 interest:3 stability:10 standpoint:1 two:10 form:11 deflagration:4 detonation:28 latter:2 term:8 use:23 describe:2 phenomenon:2 whereby:1 propagate:2 shockwave:2 traverse:1 front:2 capable:4 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4,237 | Plant | Green algae from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur, 1904. Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. They include familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. About 350,000 species of plants, defined as seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies, are estimated to exist currently. As of 2004, some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650 are flowering and 18,000 bryophytes (see table below). Green plants, sometimes called metaphytes or viridiplantae, obtain most of their energy from sunlight via a process called photosynthesis. Definition Aristotle divided all living things between plants (which generally do not move), and animals (which often are mobile to catch their food). In Linnaeus' system, these became the Kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Metaphyta or Plantae) and Animalia (also called Metazoa). Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms. However, these are still often considered plants in many contexts, both technical and popular. Informally, other creatures that carry out photosynthesis are called plants as well, but they do not constitute a formal taxon and represent species that are not closely related to true plants. There are around 375,000 species of plants, and each year more are found and described by science. Current definitions of "plant" When the name Plantae or plants is applied to a specific taxon, it is usually referring to one of three concepts. From smallest to largest in inclusiveness, these three groupings are: Land plants, also known as Embryophyta or Metaphyta. As the narrowest of plant categories, this is further delineated below. Green plants - also known as Viridiplantae, Viridiphyta or Chlorobionta - comprise the above Embryophytes, Charophyta (i.e., primitive stoneworts), and Chlorophyta (i.e., green algae such as sea lettuce). It is this clade which is mainly the subject of this article. Archaeplastida - also known as Plantae sensu lato, Plastida or Primoplantae - comprises the green plants above, as well as Rhodophyta (red algae) and Glaucophyta (simple glaucophyte algae). As the broadest plant clade, this comprises most of the eukaryotes that eons ago acquired their chloroplasts directly by engulfing cyanobacteria. Outside of formal scientific contexts, the term "plant" implies an association with certain traits, such as multicellularity, cellulose, and photosynthesis. Many of the classification controversies involve organisms that are rarely encountered and are of minimal apparent economic significance, but are crucial in developing an understanding of the evolution of modern flora. Algae Most algae are no longer classified within the Kingdom Plantae. The algae comprise several different groups of organisms that produce energy through photosynthesis, each of which arose independently from separate non-photosynthetic ancestors. Most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble terrestrial plants, but are classified among the green, red, and brown algae. Each of these algal groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms. The two groups of green algae are the closest relatives of land plants (embryophytes). The first of these groups is the Charophyta (desmids and stoneworts), from which the embryophytes developed. The sister group to the combined embryophytes and charophytes is the other group of green algae,Chlorophyta, and this more inclusive group is collectively referred to as the green plants or Viridiplantae. The Kingdom Plantae is often taken to mean this monophyletic grouping. With a few exceptions among the green algae, all such forms have cell walls containing cellulose, have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b, and store food in the form of starch. They undergo closed mitosis without centrioles, and typically have mitochondria with flat cristae. The chloroplasts of green plants are surrounded by two membranes, suggesting they originated directly from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. The same is true of two additional groups of algae: the Rhodophyta (red algae) and Glaucophyta. All three groups together are generally believed to have a common origin, and so are classified together in the taxon Archaeplastida. In contrast, most other algae (e.g. heterokonts, haptophytes, dinoflagellates, and euglenids) have chloroplasts with three or four surrounding membranes. They are not close relatives of the green plants, presumably acquiring chloroplasts separately from ingested or symbiotic green and red algae. Fungi Fungi were previously included in the plant kingdom, but are now seen to be more closely related to animals. Unlike embryophytes and algae which are generally photosynthetic, fungi are often saprotrophs: obtaining food by breaking down and absorbing surrounding materials. Most fungi are formed by microscopic structures called hyphae, which may or may not be divided into cells but contain eukaryotic nuclei. Fruiting bodies, of which mushrooms are most familiar, are the reproductive structures of fungi. They are not related to any of the photosynthetic groups, but are close relatives of animals. Therefore, the fungi are in a kingdom of their own. Diversity About 350,000 species of plants, defined as seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies, are estimated to exist currently. As of 2004, some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650 are flowering plants, 16,000 bryophytes, 11,000 ferns and 8,000 green algae. +Diversity of living plant divisions Informal group Division name Common name No. of living species Green algae Chlorophyta green algae (chlorophytes) 3,800 Van den Hoek, C., D. G. Mann, & H. M. Jahns, 1995. Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. pages 343, 350, 392, 413, 425, 439, & 448 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). ISBN 0-521-30419-9 Charophyta green algae (desmids & charophytes) 4,000 - 6,000 Van den Hoek, C., D. G. Mann, & H. M. Jahns, 1995. Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. pages 457, 463, & 476. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). ISBN 0-521-30419-9 Bryophytes Marchantiophyta liverworts 6,000 - 8,000 Crandall-Stotler, Barbara. & Stotler, Raymond E., 2000. "Morphology and classification of the Marchantiophyta". page 21 in A. Jonathan Shaw & Bernard Goffinet (Eds.), Bryophyte Biology. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). ISBN 0-521-66097-1 Anthocerotophyta hornworts 100 - 200 Schuster, Rudolf M., The Hepaticae and Anthocerotae of North America, volume VI, pages 712-713. (Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1992). ISBN 0-914-86821-7. Bryophyta mosses 12,000 Pteridophytes Lycopodiophyta club mosses 1,200 Raven, Peter H., Ray F. Evert, & Susan E. Eichhorn, 2005. Biology of Plants, 7th edition. (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company). ISBN 0-7167-1007-2. Pteridophyta ferns, whisk ferns & horsetails 11,000 Seed plants Cycadophyta cycads 160 Gifford, Ernest M. & Adriance S. Foster, 1988. Morphology and Evolution of Vascular Plants, 3rd edition, page 358. (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company). ISBN 0-7167-1946-0. Ginkgophyta ginkgo 1 Taylor, Thomas N. & Edith L. Taylor, 1993. The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants, page 636. (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall). ISBN 0-13-651589-4. Pinophyta conifers 630 Gnetophyta gnetophytes 70 Magnoliophyta flowering plants 258,650 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 2006. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species:Summary Statistics The naming of plants is governed by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature and International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (see cultivated plant taxonomy). Phylogeny A proposed phylogeny of the Plantae after Kenrick and Crane Kenrick, Paul & Peter R. Crane. 1997. The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study. (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press). ISBN 1-56098-730-8. is as follows, with modification to the Pteridophyta from Smith et al. Smith, Alan R., Kathleen M. Pryer, E. Schuettpelz, P. Korall, H. Schneider, & Paul G. Wolf. (2006). "A classification for extant ferns". Taxon 55(3): 705-731. The Prasinophyceae may be a paraphyletic basal group to all green plants. Embryophytes Dicksonia antarctica, a species of tree fern The plants that are likely most familiar to us are the multicellular land plants, called embryophytes. They include the vascular plants, plants with full systems of leaves, stems, and roots. They also include a few of their close relatives, often called bryophytes, of which mosses and liverworts are the most common. All of these plants have eukaryotic cells with cell walls composed of cellulose, and most obtain their energy through photosynthesis, using light and carbon dioxide to synthesize food. About three hundred plant species do not photosynthesize but are parasites on other species of photosynthetic plants. Plants are distinguished from green algae, which represent a mode of photosynthetic life similar to the kind modern plants are believed to have evolved from, by having specialized reproductive organs protected by non-reproductive tissues. Bryophytes first appeared during the early Palaeozoic. They can only survive where moisture is available for significant periods, although some species are desiccation tolerant. Most species of bryophyte remain small throughout their life-cycle. This involves an alternation between two generations: a haploid stage, called the gametophyte, and a diploid stage, called the sporophyte. The sporophyte is short-lived and remains dependent on its parent gametophyte. Vascular plants first appeared during the Silurian period, and by the Devonian had diversified and spread into many different land environments. They have a number of adaptations that allowed them to overcome the limitations of the bryophytes. These include a cuticle resistant to desiccation, and vascular tissues which transport water throughout the organism. In most the sporophyte acts as a separate individual, while the gametophyte remains small. The first primitive seed plants, Pteridosperms (seed ferns) and Cordaites, both groups now extinct, appeared in the late Devonian and diversified through the Carboniferous, with further evolution through the Permian and Triassic periods. In these the gametophyte stage is completely reduced, and the sporophyte begins life inside an enclosure called a seed, which develops while on the parent plant, and with fertilisation by means of pollen grains. Whereas other vascular plants, such as ferns, reproduce by means of spores and so need moisture to develop, some seed plants can survive and reproduce in extremely arid conditions. Early seed plants are referred to as gymnosperms (naked seeds), as the seed embryo is not enclosed in a protective structure at pollination, with the pollen landing directly on the embryo. Four surviving groups remain widespread now, particularly the conifers, which are dominant trees in several biomes. The angiosperms, comprising the flowering plants, were the last major group of plants to appear, emerging from within the gymnosperms during the Jurassic and diversifying rapidly during the Cretaceous. These differ in that the seed embryo (angiosperm) is enclosed, so the pollen has to grow a tube to penetrate the protective seed coat; they are the predominant group of flora in most biomes today. Fossils A petrified log in Petrified Forest National Park. Plant fossils include roots, wood, leaves, seeds, fruit, pollen, spores, phytoliths, and amber (the fossilized resin produced by some plants). Fossil land plants are recorded in terrestrial, lacustrine, fluvial and nearshore marine sediments. Pollen, spores and algae (dinoflagellates and acritarchs) are used for dating sedimentary rock sequences. The remains of fossil plants are not as common as fossil animals, although plant fossils are locally abundant in many regions worldwide. The earliest fossils clearly assignable to Kingdom Plantae are fossil green algae from the Cambrian. These fossils resemble calcified multicellular members of the Dasycladales. Earlier Precambrian fossils are known which resemble single-cell green algae, but definitive identity with that group of algae is uncertain. The oldest known fossils of embryophytes date from the Ordovician, though such fossils are fragmentary. By the Silurian, fossils of whole plants are preserved, including the lycophyte Baragwanathia longifolia. From the Devonian, detailed fossils of rhyniophytes have been found. Early fossils of these ancient plants show the individual cells within the plant tissue. The Devonian period also saw the evolution of what many believe to be the first modern tree, Archaeopteris. This fern-like tree combined a woody trunk with the fronds of a fern, but produced no seeds. The Coal Measures are a major source of Palaeozoic plant fossils, with many groups of plants in existence at this time. The spoil heaps of coal mines are the best places to collect; coal itself is the remains of fossilised plants, though structural detail of the plant fossils is rarely visible in coal. In the Fossil Forest at Victoria Park in Glasgow, Scotland, the stumps of Lepidodendron trees are found in their original growth positions. The fossilized remains of conifer and angiosperm roots, stems and branches may be locally abundant in lake and inshore sedimentary rocks from the Mesozoic and Caenozoic eras. Sequoia and its allies, magnolia, oak, and palms are often found. Petrified wood is common in some parts of the world, and is most frequently found in arid or desert areas where it is more readily exposed by erosion. Petrified wood is often heavily silicified (the organic material replaced by silicon dioxide), and the impregnated tissue is often preserved in fine detail. Such specimens may be cut and polished using lapidary equipment. Fossil forests of petrified wood have been found in all continents. Fossils of seed ferns such as Glossopteris are widely distributed throughout several continents of the southern hemisphere, a fact that gave support to Alfred Wegener's early ideas regarding Continental drift theory. Life processes Growth Most of the solid material in a plant is taken from the atmosphere. Through a process known as photosynthesis, plants use the energy in sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, plus water, into simple sugars. These sugars are then used as building blocks and form the main structural component of the plant. Chlorophyll, a green-colored, magnesium-containing pigment is essential to this process; it is generally present in plant leaves, and often in other plant parts as well. Plants rely on soil primarily for support and water (in quantitative terms), but also obtain compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other crucial elemental nutrients. For the majority of plants to grow successfully they also require oxygen in the atmosphere and around their roots for respiration. However, some plants grow as submerged aquatics, using oxygen dissolved in the surrounding water, and a few specialized vascular plants, such as mangroves, can grow with their roots in anoxic conditions. The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. Factors affecting growth The genotype of a plant affects its growth, for example selected varieties of wheat grow rapidly, maturing within 110 days, whereas others, in the same environmental conditions, grow more slowly and mature within 155 days. Robbins, W.W., Weier, T.E., et al., Botany:Plant Science, 3rd edition , Wiley International, New York, 1965. Growth is also determined by environmental factors, such as temperature, available water, available light, and available nutrients in the soil. Any change in the availability of these external conditions will be reflected in the plants growth. Biotic factors (living organisms) also affect plant growth. Plants compete with other plants for space, water, light and nutrients. Plants can be so crowded that no single individual makes normal growth. Many plants rely on birds and insects to effect pollination. Grazing animals may affect vegetation. Soil fertility is influenced by the activity of bacteria and fungi. Bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes and insects can parasitise plants. Some plant roots require an association with fungi to maintain normal activity (mycorrhizal association). Simple plants like algae may have short life spans as individuals, but their populations are commonly seasonal. Other plants may be organized according to their seasonal growth pattern: Annual: live and reproduce within one growing season. Biennial: live for two growing seasons; usually reproduce in second year. Perennial: live for many growing seasons; continue to reproduce once mature. Among the vascular plants, perennials include both evergreens that keep their leaves the entire year, and deciduous plants which lose their leaves for some part of it. In temperate and boreal climates, they generally lose their leaves during the winter; many tropical plants lose their leaves during the dry season. The growth rate of plants is extremely variable. Some mosses grow less than 0.001 mm/h, while most trees grow 0.025-0.250 mm/h. Some climbing species, such as kudzu, which do not need to produce thick supportive tissue, may grow up to 12.5 mm/h. Plants protect themselves from frost and dehydration stress with antifreeze proteins, heat-shock proteins and sugars (sucrose is common). LEA (Late Embryogenesis Abundant) protein expression is induced by stresses and protects other proteins from aggregation as a result of desiccation and freezing. Internal distribution Vascular plants differ from other plants in that they transport nutrients between different parts through specialized structures, called xylem and phloem. They also have roots for taking up water and minerals. The xylem moves water and minerals from the root to the rest of the plant, and the phloem provides the roots with sugars and other nutrient produced by the leaves. Campbell, Reece, Biology, 7th edition, Pearson/Benjamin Cummings, 2005 Ecology The photosynthesis conducted by land plants and algae is the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all ecosystems. Photosynthesis radically changed the composition of the early Earth's atmosphere, which as a result is now 21% oxygen. Animals and most other organisms are aerobic, relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to relatively rare anaerobic environments. Plants are the primary producers in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of the food web in those ecosystems. Many animals rely on plants for shelter as well as oxygen and food. Land plants are key components of the water cycle and several other biogeochemical cycles. Some plants have coevolved with nitrogen fixing bacteria, making plants an important part of the nitrogen cycle. Plant roots play an essential role in soil development and prevention of soil erosion. Distribution Plants are distributed worldwide in varying numbers. While they inhabit a multitude of biomes and ecoregions, few can be found beyond the tundras at the northernmost regions of continental shelves. At the southern extremes, plants have adapted tenaciously to the prevailing conditions. (See Antarctic flora.) Plants are often the dominant physical and structural component of habitats where they occur. Many of the Earth's biomes are named for the type of vegetation because plants are the dominant organisms in those biomes, such as grasslands and forests. Ecological relationships The Venus flytrap, a species of carnivorous plant. Numerous animals have coevolved with plants. Many animals pollinate flowers in exchange for food in the form of pollen or nectar. Many animals disperse seeds, often by eating fruit and passing the seeds in their feces. Myrmecophytes are plants that have coevolved with ants. The plant provides a home, and sometimes food, for the ants. In exchange, the ants defend the plant from herbivores and sometimes competing plants. Ant wastes provide organic fertilizer. The majority of plant species have various kinds of fungi associated with their root systems in a kind of mutualistic symbiosis known as mycorrhiza. The fungi help the plants gain water and mineral nutrients from the soil, while the plant gives the fungi carbohydrates manufactured in photosynthesis. Some plants serve as homes for endophytic fungi that protect the plant from herbivores by producing toxins. The fungal endophyte, Neotyphodium coenophialum, in tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) does tremendous economic damage to the cattle industry in the U.S. Various forms of parasitism are also fairly common among plants, from the semi-parasitic mistletoe that merely takes some nutrients from its host, but still has photosynthetic leaves, to the fully parasitic broomrape and toothwort that acquire all their nutrients through connections to the roots of other plants, and so have no chlorophyll. Some plants, known as myco-heterotrophs, parasitize mycorrhizal fungi, and hence act as epiparasites on other plants. Many plants are epiphytes, meaning they grow on other plants, usually trees, without parasitizing them. Epiphytes may indirectly harm their host plant by intercepting mineral nutrients and light that the host would otherwise receive. The weight of large numbers of epiphytes may break tree limbs. Many orchids, bromeliads, ferns and mosses often grow as epiphytes. Bromeliad epiphytes accumulate water in leaf axils to form phytotelmata, complex aquatic food webs. Howard Frank, Bromeliad Phytotelmata, October 2000 A few plants are carnivorous, such as the Venus flytrap and sundew. They trap small animals and digest them to obtain mineral nutrients, especially nitrogen. Importance Potato plant. Potatoes spread to the rest of the world after European contact with the Americas in the late 1400s and early 1500s and have since become an important field crop. Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill. A section of a Yew branch showing 27 annual growth rings, pale sapwood and dark heartwood, and pith (centre dark spot). The dark radial lines are small knots. The study of plant uses by people is termed economic botany or ethnobotany; some consider economic botany to focus on modern cultivated plants, while ethnobotany focuses on indigenous plants cultivated and used by native peoples. Human cultivation of plants is part of agriculture, which is the basis of human civilization. Plant agriculture is subdivided into agronomy, horticulture and forestry. Food Much of human nutrition depends on land plants, either directly or indirectly. Human nutrition depends to a large extent on cereals, especially maize (or corn), wheat and rice. Other staple crops include potato, cassava, and legumes. Human food also includes vegetables, spices, and certain fruits, nuts, herbs, and edible flowers. Beverages produced from plants include coffee, tea, wine, beer and alcohol. Sugar is obtained mainly from sugar cane and sugar beet. Cooking oils and margarine come from maize, soybean, rapeseed, safflower, sunflower, olive and others. Food additives include gum arabic, guar gum, locust bean gum, starch and pectin. Livestock animals including cows, pigs, sheep, and goats are all herbivores; and feed primarily or entirely on cereal plants, particularly grasses. Nonfood products Wood is used for buildings, furniture, paper, cardboard, musical instruments and sports equipment. Cloth is often made from cotton, flax or synthetic fibers derived from cellulose, such as rayon and acetate. Renewable fuels from plants include firewood, peat and many other biofuels. Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels derived from plants. Medicines derived from plants include aspirin, taxol, morphine, quinine, reserpine, colchicine, digitalis and vincristine. There are hundreds of herbal supplements such as ginkgo, Echinacea, feverfew, and Saint John's wort. Pesticides derived from plants include nicotine, rotenone, strychnine and pyrethrins. Drugs obtained from plants include opium, cocaine and marijuana. Poisons from plants include ricin, hemlock and curare. Plants are the source of many natural products such as fibers, essential oils, dyes, pigments, waxes, tannins, latex, gums, resins, alkaloids, amber and cork. Products derived from plants include soaps, paints, shampoos, perfumes, cosmetics, turpentine, rubber, varnish, lubricants, linoleum, plastics, inks, chewing gum and hemp rope. Plants are also a primary source of basic chemicals for the industrial synthesis of a vast array of organic chemicals. These chemicals are used in a vast variety of studies and experiments. Aesthetic uses Thousands of plant species are cultivated to beautify the human environment as well as to provide shade, modify temperatures, reduce windspeed, abate noise, provide privacy, and prevent soil erosion. People use cut flowers, dried flowers and house plants indoors. Outdoors, they use lawn grasses, shade trees, ornamental trees, shrubs, vines, herbaceous perennials and bedding plants. Images of plants are often used in art, architecture, humor, language, and photography; and on textiles, money, stamps, flags and coats of arms. Living plant art forms include topiary, bonsai, ikebana and espalier.Ornamental plants have sometimes changed the course of history, as in tulipomania. Plants are the basis of a multi-billion dollar per year tourism industry which includes travel to arboretums, botanical gardens, historic gardens, national parks, tulip festivals, rainforests, forests with colorful autumn leaves and the National Cherry Blossom Festival.Venus flytrap, sensitive plant and resurrection plant are examples of plants sold as novelties. Scientific and cultural uses Tree rings are an important method of dating in archeology and serve as a record of past climates. Basic biological research has often been done with plants, such as the pea plants used to derive Gregor Mendel's laws of genetics. Space stations or space colonies may one day rely on plants for life support. Plants are used as national and state emblems, including state trees and state flowers. Ancient trees are revered and many are famous. Numerous world records are held by plants. Plants are often used as memorials, gifts and to mark special occasions such as births, deaths, weddings and holidays. Plants figure prominently in mythology, religion and literature. The field of ethnobotany studies plant use by indigenous cultures which helps to conserve endangered species as well as discover new medicinal plants. Gardening is the most popular leisure activity in the U.S. Working with plants or horticulture therapy is beneficial for rehabilitating people with disabilities. Certain plants contain psychotropic chemicals which are extracted and ingested, including tobacco, cannabis (marijuana), and opium. Negative effects Weeds are plants that grow where people do not want them. People have spread plants beyond their native ranges and some of these introduced plants become invasive, damaging existing ecosystems by displacing native species. Invasive plants cause billions of dollars in crop losses annually by displacing crop plants, they increase the cost of production and the use of chemical means to control them affects the environment. Plants may cause harm to people. Plants that produce windblown pollen invoke allergic reactions in people who suffer from hay fever. A wide variety of plants are poisonous. Several plants cause skin irritations when touched, such as poison ivy. Certain plants contain psychotropic chemicals, which are extracted and ingested or smoked, including tobacco, cannabis (marijuana), cocaine and opium, causing damage to health or even death. Both illegal and legal drugs derived from plants have negative effects on the economy, affecting worker productivity and law enforcement costs. Some plants cause allergic reactions in people and animals when ingested, while other plants cause food intolerances that negatively affect health. See also Biosphere Botany Evolutionary history of plants Garden Greenhouse Houseplant Leaf Sensor Paleobotany Phytopathology Plant cell Plant defense against herbivory Plant perception (paranormal) Plant perception (physiology) Rapid plant movement References Further reading General Evans, L. T. (1998). Feeding the Ten Billion - Plants and Population Growth. Cambridge University Press. Paperback, 247 pages. ISBN 0-521-64685-5. Kenrick, Paul & Crane, Peter R. (1997). The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-730-8. Raven, Peter H., Evert, Ray F., & Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2. Taylor, Thomas N. & Taylor, Edith L. (1993). The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-651589-4. Trewavas, A. (2003). Aspects of Plant Intelligence, Annals of Botany 92: 1-20. Species estimates and counts International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (2004). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Prance, G. T. (2001). Discovering the Plant World. Taxon 50: 345-359. External links Answers to several questions from curious kids about plants Index Nominum Algarum Interactive Cronquist classification Plant Photo Gallery of Japan - Flavon's Wild herb and Alpine plants Plant Picture Gallery Plant Resources of Tropical Africa www.prota.org - PROTA’s mission Tree of Life Botanical and vegetation databases African Plants Initiative database Australia Chilean plants at Chilebosque e-Floras (Flora of China, Flora of North America and others) Flora Europaea Flora of Central Europe Flora of North America List of Japanese Wild Plants Online Meet the Plants-National Tropical Botanical Garden Native Plant Information Network PlantFiles - 150,000 plants United States Department of Agriculture | Plant |@lemmatized green:23 algae:33 ernst:1 haeckel:1 kunstformen:1 der:1 natur:1 plant:201 live:7 organism:9 belong:1 kingdom:8 plantae:9 include:26 familiar:3 tree:15 herb:3 bush:1 grass:3 vine:2 fern:16 moss:4 specie:22 define:3 seed:17 bryophyte:10 ally:3 estimate:3 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4,238 | Geography_of_Hong_Kong | The geography of Hong Kong primarily consists of three main territories: Hong Kong Island, Kowloon Peninsula, and the New Territories. The geography of Hong Kong is varied and is home to various physical geographical features. The name "Hong Kong", literally meaning "fragrant harbour", is derived from the area around present-day Aberdeen on Hong Kong Island, where fragrant wood products and fragrant incense were once traded Visit Hong Kong: Volume 1, Spring, 2004 (p.14), University of Hong Kong English Centre. . The narrow body of water separating Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula, Victoria Harbour, is one of the deepest natural maritime ports in the world. Overview Hong Kong and its 260 territorial islands and peninsulas are located in the South China Sea, at the mouth of the Pearl River Delta. The Kowloon Peninsula to the south of Boundary Street and the New Territories to the north of Hong Kong Island were added to Colonial Hong Kong in 1860 and 1898 respectively. The body of water between Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula is Victoria Harbour, one of the deepest maritime ports in the world. The landscape of Hong Kong is fairly hilly to mountainous with steep slopes. The highest point in the territory is Tai Mo Shan, at a height of 958 metres The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, United States. Last updated 23-01-2007. . Lowlands exist in the northwestern part of the New Territories. Hong Kong is 60 km east of Macau on the opposite side of the Pearl River estuary. It has a land border with Shenzhen to the north. Of the territory's 1,092 square kilometres, less than 25 percent is developed. The remaining land is reserved as country parks and nature reserves. Geographical information Districts of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region: 1. Islands; 2. Kwai Tsing; 3. North; 4. Sai Kung; 5. Sha Tin; 6. Tai Po; 7. Tsuen Wan; 8. Tuen Mun; 9. Yuen Long; 10. Kowloon City; 11. Kwun Tong; 12. Sham Shui Po; 13. Wong Tai Sin; 14. Yau Tsim Mong; 15. Central and Western; 16. Eastern; 17. Southern; 18. Wan Chai Location Location of Hong Kong with respect to the Pearl River Delta Hong Kong is located in eastern Asia, on the southeast coast of the People's Republic of China, facing the South China Sea. Area Total: 1,092 km² Land: 1,042 km² Water: 50 km² Figures published by the United States Central Intelligence Agency. Land boundaries Hong Kong borders the city of Shenzhen in Guangdong Province (which is not labeled on this map). The map also shows Hong Kong's maritime boundaries. Total: 30 km Border city: Shenzhen Special Economic Zone, Guangdong Province Figures published by the United States Central Intelligence Agency</small> Coastline Total: 733 km Maritime claims:Territorial sea: 3 nm <small>Figures published by the United States Central Intelligence Agency Islands Hong Kong has 262 islands Travelling to Hong Kong - Travel Health Service, HKSAR. Retrieved on 16 February 2007. including Hong Kong Island, Lantau Island, Cheung Chau, Lamma Island, Peng Chau and Tsing Yi Island. Climate Hong Kong's climate is subtropical and monsoonal with cool dry winters and hot wet summers. As of 2006, its annual average rainfall is 2,214 mm, though about 80% of the rain falls between May and September. It is occasionally affected by tropical cyclones between May and November, most often from July to September. The mean temperature of Hong Kong ranges from 17 °C in January to 29 °C in July. Hong Kong Survey & Mapping Office, Lands Department. Hong Kong Guide 2007 [map]. Notes on Hong Kong, p. 411. ISBN 962-567-174-9. January and February are more cloudy, with occasional cold fronts followed by dry northerly winds. It is not uncommon for temperatures to drop below 10 °C in urban areas. Sub-zero temperatures and frost occur at times on high ground and in the New Territories. March and April can be pleasant although there are occasional spells of high humidity. Fog and drizzle are common on high ground which is exposed to the southeast. May to August are hot and humid with occasional showers and thunderstorms. Afternoon temperatures often exceed 31 °C whereas at night, temperatures generally remain around 26 °C with high humidity. In November and December there are pleasant breezes, plenty of sunshine and comfortable temperatures. Climate of Hong Kong Hong Kong Observatory. Retrieved on 1 Sep 2007. Terrain Hong Kong's terrain is hilly and mountainous with steep slopes. There are lowlands in the northern part of Hong Kong. A significant amount of land in Hong Kong, especially on the Hong Kong Island and the Kowloon peninsula, is reclaimed. Extreme points The lowest elevation in Hong Kong is in South China Sea (0 m) while the highest elevation is at Tai Mo Shan (958 m) in Tsuen Wan, the New Territories. Land Northernmost: Shenzhen River Easternmost: Ping Chau Southernmost: Tau Lo Chau Westernmost: Peaked Hill Principal peaks of Hong Kong Map showing Hong Kong and surrounding cities Tai Mo Shan - 958 m, Tsuen Wan Lantau Peak (Fung Wong Shan) - 934 m, on Lantau Island Sunset Peak (Tai Tung Shan) - 869 m, on Lantau Island Sze Fong Shan - 785 m Lin Fa Shan - 766 m, on Lantau Island Nei Lak Shan - 751 m, on Lantau Island Yi Tung Shan - 747 m, on Lantau Island Ma On Shan - 702 m The Hunch Backs (Ngau Ngak Shan) - 674 m Grassy Hill - 647 m Wong Leng - 639 m Buffalo Hill - 606 m West Buffalo Hill - 604 m Kowloon Peak (Fei Ngo Shan) - 602 m Shun Yeung Fung - 591 m Tiu Shau Ngam - 588 m Kai Kung Leng - 585 m Castle Peak - 583 m Lin Fa Shan, Tsuen Wan - 578 m Tate's Cairn (Tai Lo Shan) - 577 m Victoria Peak, the highest point on Hong Kong Island, at 552 m is the 24th highest peak in Hong Kong. Natural resources The natural resources of Hong Kong can be divided into three main categories: Metalliferous minerals and non-metalliferous industrial minerals in the onshore area; Quarried rock and building stone; Offshore sand deposits. Despite its small size, Hong Kong has a relatively large number of mineral occurrences. Some mineral deposits have been exploited commercially. Metalliferous mineral occurrences are grouped into four broad categories: tin-tungsten-molybdenum mineralisation, copper-lead-zinc mineralisation, iron mineralisation and placer deposits of tin and gold. Mesozoic igneous activity is largely responsible for this diversity of mineral deposits and the mineral concentrations have been variably enhanced by hydrothermal activity associated with faulting. Concentrations of non-metalliferous minerals that have been commercially exploited include kaolin clay, feldspar, quartz, beryl and graphite. For many years, granite and volcanic rocks have been quarried locally for road base metal, riprap, armour stone and asphalt, although the main purpose now is for concrete aggregates. At present, there are three quarries operating in Hong Kong. These are principally in granite and are located at Lam Tei, Shek O and Anderson Road. All the quarries are in the process of rehabilitation and have a life expectancy of between two to eight years. Offshore sand bodies have been dredged for aggregate sand and reclamation fill in Hong Kong has grown as the rate of urban development has increased. Land use Arable land: 5.05% Permanent crops: 1.01% Other: 93.94% (2001 est.) ''Figures published by the United States Central Intelligence Agency Natural hazards Tropical cyclones frequent Hong Kong during the summer months between June and August typically. Landslides are common after a rainstorm. Environmental issues Air and water pollution from rapid urbanisation Extinction of natural species Introduction of exotic species See also Country parks and conservation in Hong Kong Beaches of Hong Kong Rivers of Hong Kong List of bays in Hong Kong List of areas of Hong Kong Geography of China Geology of Hong Kong References External links Climate of Hong Kong The Lands Department of the Government of Hong Kong Waterfalls in Hong Kong "Hong Kong in Figures 2006 Edition", Census and Statistics Department, HKSAR. 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4,239 | Nicene_Creed | Icon depicting Emperor Constantine (center) and the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea (325) as holding the Nicene Creed in its 381 form. The Nicene Creed (Latin: ) is the creed or profession of faith (Greek: ) that is most widely used in Christian liturgy. It is called Nicene () because, in its original form, it was adopted in the city of Nicaea by the first ecumenical council, which met there in 325. The Nicene Creed has been normative to the Anglican and Roman Catholic Eucharistic rite as well as Eastern Orthodoxy liturgy. Jeffrey, David L. A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1992. ISBN 0802836348 It is given high importance in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Assyrian Church of the East, Oriental Orthodox churches, the Roman Catholic Church, including the Eastern Catholic Churches, the Old Catholic Church, the Lutheran Church, the Anglican Communion, and almost all branches of Protestantism, including the Reformed churches, the Presbyterian Church, and the Methodist Church. For current English translations of the Nicene Creed, see English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use. Nomenclature There are several designations for the two forms of the Nicene creed, some with overlapping meanings: Nicene Creed can refer to the original version adopted at the First Council of Nicaea (325), to the revised version adopted by the First Council of Constantinople (381), to the later Latin version that includes the phrase "Deum de Deo" and "Filioque", and to the Armenian version. Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed can stand for the revised version of Constantinople (381) or to the later Latin and Armenian versions. Icon/Symbol of the Faith is the usual designation for the revised version of Constantinople 381 in the Orthodox churches, where this is the only creed used in the liturgy. Profession of Faith of the 318 Fathers refers specifically to the version of Nicea 325 (traditionally, 318 bishops took part at the First Council of Nicea). Profession of Faith of the 150 Fathers refers specifically to the version of Constantinople 381 (traditionally, 150 bishops took part at the First Council of Constantinople) In musical settings, particularly when singing in Latin, this Creed is usually referred to by its first word, Credo. History The purpose of a creed is to act as a yardstick of correct belief. The creeds of Christianity have been drawn up at times of conflict about doctrine: acceptance or rejection of a creed served to distinguish believers and deniers of a particular doctrine or set of doctrines. For that reason a creed was called in Greek a σύμβολον, a word that meant half of a broken object which, when placed together with the other half verified the bearer's identity. The Greek word passed through Latin "symbolum" into English "symbol", which only later took on the meaning of an outward sign of something. Symbol. c.1434, "creed, summary, religious belief," from L.L. symbolum "creed, token, mark," from Gk. symbolon "token, watchword" (applied c.250 by Cyprian of Carthage to the Apostles' Creed, on the notion of the "mark" that distinguishes Christians from pagans), from syn- "together" + stem of ballein "to throw." The sense evolution is from "throwing things together" to "contrasting" to "comparing" to "token used in comparisons to determine if something is genuine." Hence, "outward sign" of something. The meaning "something which stands for something else" first recorded 1590 (in "Faerie Queene"). Symbolic is attested from 1680. (symbol. Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. Accessed: 24 March 2008). The Nicene Creed was adopted in the face of the Arian controversy. Arius, a Libyan preacher, had declared that although Jesus Christ was divine, God had actually created him, and there was a time when he was not. This made Jesus less than the Father and contradicted the doctrine of the Trinity. Collins. M, The Story of Christianity, Dorling Kindersley, 1999, p60 Arius's teaching provoked a serious crisis. The Nicene Creed of 325 explicitly affirms the divinity of Jesus, applying to him the term "God". The 381 version speaks of the Holy Spirit as worshipped and glorified with the Father and the Son. The Athanasian Creed describes in much greater detail the relationship between Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The Apostles' Creed, not formulated in reaction to Arianism, makes no explicit statements about the divinity of the Son and the Holy Spirit, but, in the view of many who use it, the doctrine is implicit in it. The original Nicene Creed of 325 The original Nicene Creed was first adopted in 325 at the First Council of Nicaea. At that time, the text ended after the words "We believe in the Holy Spirit", after which an anathema was added. cf. Philip Schaff's The Seven Ecumenical Councils - The Nicene Creed] and Creeds of Christendom: § 8. The Nicene Creed</ref> The Coptic Church has the tradition that the original creed was authored by Pope Athanasius I of Alexandria. F. J. A. Hort and Adolf Harnack argued that the Nicene creed was the local creed of Caesarea (an important center of Early Christianity) brought to the council by Eusebius of Caesarea. J.N.D. Kelly sees as its basis a baptismal creed of the Syro-Phoenician family, related to (but not dependent on) the creed cited by Cyril of Jerusalem and to the creed of Eusebius. Soon after the Council of Nicaea, new formulae of faith were composed, most of them variations of the Nicene Symbol, to counter new phases of Arianism. The Catholic Encyclopedia identifies at least four before the Council of Sardica (341), where a new form was presented and inserted in the Acts of the Council, though it was not agreed on. The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381 The second Ecumenical Council in 381 added the section that follows the words "We believe in the Holy Spirit" (without the words "and the Son" relative to the procession of the Spirit); cf. Schaff's Seven Ecumenical Councils: Second Ecumenical: The Holy Creed Which the 150 Holy Fathers Set Forth... hence the name "Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed", referring to the Creed as modified in Constantinople. This is the received text of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Schaff's Creeds: Forma Recepta Ecclesiæ Orientalis. A.D. 381, Schaff's Creeds: Forma Recepta, Ecclesiæ Occidentalis with the exception that in its liturgy it changes verbs from the plural by which the Fathers of the Council collectively professed their faith to the singular of the individual Christian's profession of faith. Byzantine Rite Eastern Catholic Churches use exactly the same form of the Creed, since the Catholic Church teaches that it is wrong to add "and the Son" to the Greek verb "ἐκπορευόμενον", but correct to add it to the Latin "qui procedit", which does not have precisely the same meaning. The Father as the Source of the Whole Trinity The third Ecumenical Council (Council of Ephesus of 431) reaffirmed the 325 version It was the original 325 version, not that of 381, that was recited at the Council of Ephesus (The Third Ecumenical Council. The Council of Ephesus, p. 202). of the Nicene Creed and declared that "it is unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different () Faith as a rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with the Holy Ghost in Nicæa"(i.e. the 325 version) Canon VII of the Council of Ephesus This statement has been interpreted as a prohibition against changing this creed or composing others, but not all accept this interpretation. Excursus on the Words This question must be considered against the background of long and continuous controversy in the Church concerning the nature of the Trinity, and of Jesus in particular; and the debate over whether a creed proclaimed by an Ecumenical Council is definitive or subject to change. Comparison between Creed of 325 and Creed of 381 The following table displays side by side the earlier (325) and later (381) forms of this Creed in the English translation given in Schaff's Creeds of Christendom, which indicates by [square brackets] the portions of the 325 text that were omitted or moved in 381, and uses italics to indicate what phrases, absent in the 325 text, were added in 381. The following table presents in the same way the texts of the two Councils, as given in the original Greek language on the Web site Symbolum Nicaeno-Constantinopolitanum - Greek: First Council of Nicea (325) First Council of Constantinople (381) First Council of Nicea (325) First Council of Constantinople (381) We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible. We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father [the only-begotten; that is, of the essence of the Father, God of God], Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds (æons), Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; By whom all things were made [both in heaven and on earth]; by whom all things were made; Who for us men, and for our salvation, came down and was incarnate and was made man; who for us men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man; He suffered, and the third day he rose again, ascended into heaven; he was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered, and was buried, and the third day he rose again, according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father; From thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead. from thence he shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end. And in the Holy Ghost. And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father, who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified, who spake by the prophets. In one holy catholic and apostolic Church; we acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.[But those who say: 'There was a time when he was not;' and 'He was not before he was made;' and 'He was made out of nothing,' or 'He is of another substance' or 'essence,' or 'The Son of God is created,' or 'changeable,' or 'alterable'—they are condemned by the holy catholic and apostolic Church.] The Filioque controversy In the late sixth century, the Latin-speaking churches of Western Europe added the words "and the Son" (Filioque) to the description of the procession of the Holy Spirit, in what Easterners have argued is a violation of Canon VII of the Third Ecumenical Council, since the words were not included in the text by either the Council of Nicaea or that of Constantinople. For a different view, see e.g. Excursus on the Words πίστιν ἑτέραν The Vatican has recently argued that while these words would indeed be heretical if associated with the Greek verb ἐκπορεύεσθαι of the text adopted by the Council of Constantinople, The Roman Catholic Church does not permit the addition of these words to the Creed recited in Greek and so with the word ἐκπορευόμενον they are not heretical when associated with the Latin verb procedere, which corresponds instead to the Greek verb προιέναι, with which some of the Greek Fathers also associated the same words. Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity: The Greek and the Latin Traditions regading the Procession of the Holy Spirit (scanned image of the English translation on L'Osservatore Romano of 20 September 1995); also text with Greek letters transliterated and text omitting two sentences at the start of the paragraph that it presents as beginning with "The Western tradition expresses first ..." The phrase "and the Son" (Filioque in Latin) was first used in Toledo, Spain in 589 with the purpose of countering the Arian heresy of the Visigothic nobility of Spain. The practice spread then to France, the territory of the Franks, who had adopted the Catholic faith in 496, in contrast to the other Germanic kingdoms, who followed Arianism. The Conversion of Clovis This led to controversy with envoys of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V at a synod held at Gentilly in 767.<ref>Hinson, E. Glenn, [http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=cY1SymrAGeEC The Church Triumphant, Mercer University Press (1995), ISBN 0865544360, p.315; see also [http://newadvent.org/cathen/06073a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. Filioque] In the time of Emperor Charlemagne, a council at Aachen in 809 approved the addition, Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), s.v. Filioque but Pope Leo III opposed adding "Filioque" to the Creed, while approving the doctrine, and had two heavy silver shields made and displayed in St Peter's, containing the original text of the Creed of 381 in both Greek and Latin. An Agreed Statement of the North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation, 25 October 2003 The dispute over the Filioque clause was one of the reasons for the East-West Schism. It became controversial in the 10th century, when Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, used this clause in his conflict with the Pope. He accused the West of having fallen into heresy and thereby turned the Filioque clause into a doctrinal issue of contention between East and West. In Rome, the Filioque clause first appeared in 1014 in the coronation liturgy of Emperor Henry II by Pope Benedict VIII and was officially added to the Latin creed in 1274 by the Second Council of Lyon, which effected a short-lived reunion between East and West. "Filioque" is not the only phrase in the Latin text that is not in the Greek of the Council of Constantinople: "Deum de Deo" (God from God) is another such phrase. The Armenian text (see below) has many more additions, specifying more precisely the belief of the Church: examples are the phrase "By whom He took body, soul, and mind, and everything that is in man, truly and not in semblance", the specification that Jesus ascended into heaven and is to come again "with the same body", and the amplification of "who spoke by the prophets" into "Who spoke through the Law, prophets, and Gospels; Who came down upon the Jordan, preached through the apostles, and lived in the saints." In 1978, the Anglican Communion's Lambeth Conference requested "... that all member Churches of the Anglican Communion should consider omitting the Filioque from the Nicene Creed, and that the Anglican-Orthodox Joint Doctrinal Commission through the Anglican Consultative Council should assist them in presenting the theological issues to their appropriate synodical bodies and should be responsible for any necessary consultation with other Churches of the Western tradition." Resolutions from 1978: Resolution 35 (see item 3) In 1988, the conference "ask(ed) that further thought be given to the Filioque clause, recognising it to be a major point of disagreement (with the Orthodox) ... recommending to the provinces of the Anglican Communion that in future liturgical revisions the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed be printed without the Filioque clause." Resolutions from 1988: Resolution 6 (see item 5) This recommendation was not renewed in the 1998 and 2008 Lambeth Conferences and has not been implemented. See, for instance, The Nicene Creed - texts Views on the importance of this creed The Nicene Creed has been regarded as a touchstone of true Christian faith, though not a complete expression of it. When the word "symbol" meant a "token for identification (by comparison with a counterpart)", See etymology given in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000 the Nicene Creed was given, in Greek and Latin, the name "symbol of faith", a name still used even in languages in which "symbol" no longer has that meaning. The Church of the New Jerusalem, the Jehovah's Witnesses, and similar groups, accept the Christian Scriptures in whole or in part, but reject post-Apostolic statements such as the Nicene Creed. They consider themselves Christians, an identification contested by others who consider acceptance of the Nicene Creed a key part of Christianity. Are Mormons Christians? Are Mormons Christian? Are Mormons Christians? While not necessarily rejecting the Nicene Creed as erroneous, some evangelical Christians, on the basis of their sola scriptura view, consider it as in no way authoritative, since it is not part of the Bible, and do not recite it in their services. In the Roman Rite Mass, the "profession of faith" is made by using either the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed or the Apostles' Creed, jointly referred to as "the Symbol or Profession of Faith or Creed", while the second is described as "the baptismal Symbol of the Roman Church, known as the Apostles' Creed". Ordo Missae, 18-19 In the liturgies of the ancient Churches of Eastern Christianity (Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, Assyrian Church of the East) and the Eastern Catholic Churches), the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed is used, never the Apostles' Creed. Ancient liturgical versions Greek text The Creed was originally written in Greek, owing to the location of the two councils. Though the councils' texts have "" (we believe ... confess ... await), the Creed that the Churches of Byzantine tradition use in their liturgy has "" (I believe ... confess ... await), accentuating the personal nature of recitation of the Creed. Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America: Liturgical Texts. Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America. Η ΘΕΙΑ ΛΕΙΤΟΥΡΓΙΑ. Church of Greece. Latin version Credo in unum Deum, Patrem omnipoténtem, Factórem cæli et terræ, Visibílium ómnium et invisibílium. Et in unum Dóminum Iesum Christum, Fílium Dei Unigénitum, Et ex Patre natum ante ómnia sæcula. Deum de Deo, lumen de lúmine, Deum verum de Deo vero, Génitum, non factum, consubstantiálem Patri: Per quem ómnia facta sunt. Qui propter nos hómines et propter nostram salútem Descéndit de cælis. Et incarnátus est de Spíritu Sancto Ex María Vírgine, et homo factus est. Crucifíxus étiam pro nobis sub Póntio Piláto; Passus, et sepúltus est, Et resurréxit tértia die, secúndum Scriptúras, Et ascéndit in cælum, sedet ad déxteram Patris. Et íterum ventúrus est cum glória, Iudicáre vivos et mórtuos, Cuius regni non erit finis. Et in Spíritum Sanctum, Dóminum et vivificántem: Qui ex Patre Filióque procédit. Qui cum Patre et Fílio simul adorátur et conglorificátur: Qui locútus est per prophétas. Et unam, sanctam, cathólicam et apostólicam Ecclésiam. Confíteor unum baptísma in remissiónem peccatorum. Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum, Et vitam ventúri sæculi. Amen. Missale Romanum The Latin text adds "Deum de Deo" and "Filioque" to the Greek. On the latter see The Filioque Controversy above. Inevitably also, the overtones of the terms used, such as "" (pantokratora) and "omnipotentem" differ ("pantokratora" meaning Ruler of all; "omnipotentem" meaning omnipotent, Almighty). The implications of this for the interpretation of "" and "qui ... procedit" was the object of the study The Greek and the Latin Traditions regarding the Procession of the Holy Spirit published by the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity in 1996. Again, the terms "" and "consubstantialem", translated as "of one being" or "consubstantial", have different overtones, being based respectively on Greek (stable being, immutable reality, substance, essence, true nature), and Latin substantia (that of which a thing consists, the being, essence, contents, material, substance). "Credo", which in classical Latin is used with the accusative case of the thing held to be true (and with the dative of the person to whom credence is given), Lewis & Short is here used three times with the preposition "in", a literal translation of the Greek "" (in unum Deum ..., in unum Dominum ..., in Spiritum Sanctum ...), and once in the classical preposition-less construction (unam, sanctam, catholicam et apostolicam Ecclesiam). Church Slavonic Version Church Slavonic textTransliteration into modern Russian alphabet 300Px Верую во единаго Бога Отца, Вседержителя, Творца небу и земли, видимым же всем и невидимым. И во единаго Господа Иисуса Христа, Сына Божия, Единороднаго, Иже от Отца рожденнаго прежде всех век; Света от Света, Бога истинна от Бога истинна, рожденна, несотворенна, единосущна Отцу, Имже вся быша. Нас ради человек и нашего ради спасения сшедшаго с небес и воплотившагося от Духа Свята и Марии Девы, и вочеловечшася. Распятаго же за ны при Понтийстем Пилате, и страдавша, и погребенна. И воскресшаго в третий день по Писанием. И возшедшаго на небеса, и седяща одесную Отца. И паки грядущаго со славою судити живым и мертвым, Егоже Царствию не будет конца. И в Духа Святаго, Господа животворящаго, Иже от Отца исходящаго, Иже со Отцем и Сыном спокланяема и сславима, глаголавшего пророки. Во едину Святую, Соборную и Апостольскую Церковь. Исповедую едино крещение во оставление грехов. Чаю воскресения мертвых, и жизни будущаго века. Аминь. English translation of the Armenian version We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, the maker of heaven and earth, of things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the begotten of God the Father, the Only-begotten, that is of the essence of the Father. God of God, Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten and not made; of the very same nature of the Father, by Whom all things came into being, in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible. Who for us humanity and for our salvation came down from heaven, was incarnate, was made human, was born perfectly of the holy virgin Mary by the Holy Spirit. By whom He took body, soul, and mind, and everything that is in man, truly and not in semblance. He suffered, was crucified, was buried, rose again on the third day, ascended into heaven with the same body, [and] sat at the right hand of the Father. He is to come with the same body and with the glory of the Father, to judge the living and the dead; of His kingdom there is no end. We believe in the Holy Spirit, in the uncreated and the perfect; Who spoke through the Law, prophets, and Gospels; Who came down upon the Jordan, preached through the apostles, and lived in the saints. We believe also in only One, Universal, Apostolic, and [Holy] Church; in one baptism in repentance, for the remission, and forgiveness of sins; and in the resurrection of the dead, in the everlasting judgement of souls and bodies, and the Kingdom of Heaven and in the everlasting life. Text in Armenian, with transliteration and English translation English translations For English translations of the Nicene Creed, which of necessity are more recent than the original Greek and the Latin and Armenian versions, see English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use. References See also Apostles' Creed Athanasian Creed English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church Homoousian Bibliography A. E. Burn, The Council of Nicaea (1925) G. Forell, Understanding the Nicene Creed (1965) External links Extensive discussion of the texts of the First Council of Nicea Philip Schaff, Creeds of Christendom Volume I: Nicene Creed Athanasius, De Decretis or Defence of the Nicene Definition Line-by-Line Roman Catholic Explanation of the Nicene Creed Nicene Creed in languages of the world Essays on the Nicene Creed from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library Modern English translations of the documents produced at Nicaea | Nicene_Creed |@lemmatized icon:2 depict:1 emperor:4 constantine:2 center:2 father:27 first:18 council:40 nicaea:8 hold:2 nicene:35 creed:80 form:6 latin:20 profession:6 faith:13 greek:24 widely:1 use:18 christian:13 liturgy:7 call:2 original:9 adopt:7 city:1 ecumenical:9 meet:1 normative:1 anglican:7 roman:6 catholic:16 eucharistic:1 rite:3 well:1 eastern:8 orthodoxy:2 jeffrey:1 david:1 l:4 dictionary:4 biblical:1 tradition:7 english:14 literature:1 wm:1 b:1 eerdmans:1 publish:2 isbn:3 give:7 high:1 importance:2 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4,240 | Politics_of_Gibraltar | Gibraltar is represented in the European Union, having been the only British overseas territory which joined the EC under the British Treaty of Accession (1973). The Government of Spain continues with an irredentist territorial claim to Gibraltar, which was ceded in perpetuity to the British Crown in 1713 by the article X of the Treaty of Utrecht. In a referendum held in 2002, a proposal for shared sovereignty was overwhelmingly rejected by the Gibraltar electorate with 99.5% voting against. The Referendum 2002 The sovereignty issue remains an important factor in local politics. Gibraltar has a number of political parties which have developed to address local issues. Gibraltar's political activity takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic, whereby the Chief Minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Gibraltar is an British overseas territory of the United Kingdom, with full internal self-government under its 2006 Constitution. The preamble to that Constitution repeated from the 1969 Constitution states that "Her Majesty's Government will never enter into arrangements under which the people of Gibraltar would pass under the sovereignty of another state against their freely and democratically expressed wishes." The 1969 constitution Executive branch Head of state, Elizabeth II. As an overseas territory of the UK, the head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor of Gibraltar. The UK retains responsibility for defence, foreign relations, internal security and financial stability. |Queen |Elizabeth II | |6 February 1952 |- |Governor |Sir Robert Fulton KBE | |2006 |- |Chief Minister |Peter Caruana QC |GSD |17 May 1996 |} Government Chief Minister, Peter Caruana. The Government of Gibraltar is elected for a term of four years. The head of Government is the Chief Minister, currently Peter Caruana. There are three political parties currently represented in the Gibraltar Parliament: Gibraltar Social Democrats; Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party; and Gibraltar Liberal Party. The present Chief Minister is the Hon Peter Caruana, QC, of the Gibraltar Social Democrats (GSD), who have been in office since May 17, 1996, and were returned to power in elections held on February 10, 2000, November 27, 2003 and October 11, 2007. The Leader of the Opposition is the Hon Joe Bossano, of the Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party (GSLP), which is in coalition with the Gibraltar Liberal Party (GLP) of Dr Joseph Garcia. All parties support Gibraltar's right to self-determination, and reject any concessions on the issue of sovereignty. Legislature The Gibraltar Parliament Building at John Mackintosh Square. The Gibraltar Parliament (previously the House of Assembly) consists of seventeen elected members, and the Speaker. Under the electoral system of partial bloc voting used since 1969, voters must choose ten candidates, who need necessarily not be from the same party but usually are. The winning candidates are then chosen by simple plurality; consequently, a party seeking to form a government stands ten candidates, and the party that forms the government is usually successful in having all ten of its candidates elected; the remaining seats are usually won by the 'best loser' which then forms the opposition. The last election was held on October 11, 2007. Governor Governor, Sir Robert Fulton. Queen Elizabeth II is represented by the Governor and Commander-in-Chief, presently Lieutenant General Sir Robert Fulton KBE (appointed 2006). The Governor appoints the leader of the largest party in the unicameral parliament, as Chief Minister. The Governor is not involved in the day-to-day administration of Gibraltar, and his role is largely as a ceremonial head of state. The Governor is responsible for matters of defence and security. Political parties and general elections 2003 elections Since the 2003 election the Reform Party has dissolved, with the party leader and others now involved in Friends of the Earth (Gibraltar). The Labour Party has merged with the Gibraltar Social Democrats. 2007 elections A new party,New Gibraltar Democracy has announced it will contest the next election. New Gibraltar Democracy advocates the imposition of more checks and balances on the exercise of power by the local government. It objects to proposed new constitutional reforms which, it says would give even more unfettered powers to the executive. NGD claims that the two main parties are out of touch with people's expectations and make up for their lack of ideas through Orwellian style propaganda. In June 2006 the Progressive Democratic Party (PDP) was formed and announced it will be presenting a full slate of candidates and enters the political arena as "a fresh, positive and modern alternative," to both the ruling Gibraltar Social Democrats and the Opposition GSLP/Liberals. The Progressive Democratic Party declares it is founded on several basic pillars; A fundamental belief and respect for democracy, social justice and equality; Adherence to the inalienable and unqualified right to self-determination of the people of Gibraltar; The promotion of liberty, social and economic responsibility; The enhancement of individual and collective freedoms; A belief in fair, open and continually accountable government; The desire to foster sustainable development, public participation and the enhancement of the quality of life of the people of Gibraltar. European Parliament election 2004 Until recently, Gibraltar had not voted in elections for the European Parliament, although its membership of the European Union meant it was affected by European Union law. This changed in the 2004 European Parliament election, when Gibraltar was included as part of the South West England region, as its electorate of 20,740 is too small to justify a single seat. This was the first UK election in which Gibraltar participated. The Conservative Party took 69.52% of the vote, which has generally been interpreted as a protest against the handling of Gibraltar by the Labour Party. Conservative landslide The Conservatives also campaigned more strongly, with the support of the Gibraltar branch of the party and a visit from the party leader Michael Howard. Constitutional reform Select Committee proposals In 1999, the Government of Gibraltar established a Select Committee on Constitutional Reform, to consider how the 1969 Constitution should be reformed. In March 2006, Jack Straw, the UK Foreign Secretary announced in the British House of Commons that the details of a new constitution had been agreed. There are some differences between the draft constitution and the one to which the UK agreed, namely that the Governor's title will remain unchanged, and that the Police Authority will remain independent of the Government of Gibraltar. 2006 Constitution In December 2006 Gibraltar was granted a new constitution, providing a modern constitutional relationship between Gibraltar and the United Kingdom, not based on colonialism. The constitution does not in any way diminish British sovereignty of Gibraltar, and the United Kingdom retains its full internal responsibility for Gibraltar, including Gibraltar’s external relations and defence, and the Member State responsible for Gibraltar in the European Union. Writing to the Spanish Foreign Minister, Jack Straw stated: "My own view [is] that the label "colonial" is misleading and anachronistic in this context; regardless of the United Nations dimension. As Peter Caruana and I said in our joint statement on Monday, the new Constitution provides for "a modern and mature" relationship between the UK and Gibraltar. I do not think that this description would apply to any relationship based on colonialism." After several months of political wrangling, the Gibraltar Government published the draft Constitution Order, which includes the existing preamble promising that there would be no transfer of sovereignty against the wishes of the Gibraltarians and a new addition explaining the status . "Whereas Gibraltar is part of Her Majesty’s dominions and Her Majesty’s Government have given assurances to the people of Gibraltar that Gibraltar will remain part of Her Majesty’s dominions unless and until an Act of Parliament otherwise provides, and furthermore that Her Majesty’s Government will never enter into arrangements under which the people of Gibraltar would pass under the sovereignty of another state against their freely and democratically expressed wishes: "And whereas the people of Gibraltar have in a referendum held on [date] freely approved and accepted the Constitution annexed to this Order which gives the people of Gibraltar that degree of self-government which is compatible with British Sovereignty of Gibraltar and with the fact that the UK remains fully responsible for Gibraltar’s external relations. Based on this wording and the Statement of the Minister for Europe in the House of Commons, the Gibraltar Opposition now support the new Constitution . The proposal was put to the people in a referendum and approved. The constitution took effect in 2007 and 29 January declared a public holiday in celebration. Integration with the UK A group in Gibraltar has campaigned in favour of a far closer relationship with the UK, in the form of devolved integration or incorporation into the UK itself. This is similar to the offer made to Malta in 1955. The Rock would be represented in the British House of Commons, while retaining internal self-government. This would be a similar status to France's overseas departments and to Spain's North African enclaves, Ceuta and Melilla, claimed by Morocco. One of Spain's arguments in rejecting comparisons between Gibraltar and these territories is that they are part of Spain, whereas Gibraltar is a British overseas territory and not part of the UK. Anomalous Spanish enclaves However, the British Foreign Office rejected the idea in 1976, along with independence, on the grounds that any further constitutional reform or decolonisation would have to take into account the so-called "Spanish dimension". Many in Gibraltar, including the present Government, have also argued against integration on the grounds that it would mean the surrendering of many existing powers of self-government. While there is still considerable emotional attachment to the idea of Gibraltar being British, its citizens want to participate in the new Europe of the future. Speech by The Chief Minister Condominium The idea of a condominium, with sovereignty shared between the UK and Spain has even less support in Gibraltar. The suggestion was made by a UK politician on a BBC television programme about Gibraltar in the 1980s, and attended by Fernando Moran, prior to becoming foreign minister of Spain and re-opening the land frontier. The suggestion was for a status similar to that of Andorra, in which Queen Elizabeth II and King Juan Carlos would be joint heads of state, in the same way that President of France and the Spanish Bishop of Urgell are Co-Princes of Andorra. This would give Spain a symbolic constitutional role in Gibraltar, but would not go far enough for Spain towards effective Spanish control of the Rock. Even a symbolic role would be a step too far for most Gibraltarians. United Nations Gibraltar was caught unawares when the whole issue of the relationship between The Rock and the UK, as well as the question of Spain was brought before the United Nations Committee on Decolonization, otherwise known as the Committee of 24, in 1963. Resolution 2231, which recalls UN Resolution 1514 (XV) (which guarantees the right of self determination of all peoples), states that Considering that any colonial situation which partially or completely destroys the national unity and territorial integrity of a country is incompatible with the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, which forms part of the Spanish claim. It also urges United Kingdom and Spain to overcome their differences, respecting the "interests" of the people of Gibraltar and declares the 1967 referendum being a "contravention of the provisions of Resolution 2231. Resolution 2353 (XXII) was supported by seventy-three countries (mainly Latin American, Arab, African and Eastern European countries), rejected by nineteen (United Kingdom and the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations), while twenty-seven countries abstained (Western Europe and the United States). Since then and up to the present time, representatives of Gibraltar have regularly petitioned the UNC24 and the UNC4, although no progress has been achieved. The Committees regularly roll out their 'consensus resolution' C4 resolution on Gibraltar which: (a) Urges both Governments, while listening to the interests and aspirations of Gibraltar, to reach, in the spirit of the statement of 27 November 1984, a definitive solution to the question of Gibraltar, in the light of relevant resolutions of the General Assembly and applicable principles, and in the spirit of the Charter of the United Nations; (b) Welcomes the ongoing successful implementation of the first package of measures concluded at the Tripartite Forum for Dialogue on Gibraltar. Unwilling to tear the delicate skin of Spain’s historic position over Gibraltar, Britain is nonetheless gently pointing an already more pragmatic Spanish Government down the path of consensual politics over Gibraltar. Gibraltar Government view 2008 The commitment of the British Government is not to hold the talks envisaged by the above resolution without the consent of the Gibraltarians. The UK Government will never - "never" is a seldom-used word in politics - enter into an agreement on sovereignty without the agreement of the Government of Gibraltar and their people. In fact, we will never even enter into a process without that agreement. The word "never" sends a substantial and clear commitment and has been used for a purpose. We have delivered that message with confidence to the peoples and the Governments of Gibraltar and Spain. It is a sign of the maturity of our relationship now that that is accepted as the UK's position. Answer to Q257 at the FAC hearing The effective stalemate has led Peter Caruana to conclude that attending future meetings of the Committee of 24 is a pointless exercise. Speech by the Chief Minister, 2008 Relations with Spain In a referendum on September 10, 1967, the people of Gibraltar voted by 12,138 to 44 to reject the transfer of sovereignty to Spain and to remain under British sovereignty. This day is now celebrated as Gibraltar's National Day. In a referendum organised by the Government of Gibraltar on November 7, 2002, voters overwhelmingly rejected the principle that Spain and the United Kingdom should share sovereignty over Gibraltar, by 17,900 votes to 187 on a turnout of almost 88% Referendum result . Unlike most other British territories, Gibraltar has not been offered independence by the UK. It has been suggested that this is on the grounds that the Treaty of Utrecht, under which Spain ceded the territory to the British Crown, states that, if the British Crown should ever wish to dispose of Gibraltar, it must first be offered to Spain. However, the Government of Gibraltar has pointed out at the UN that Article 103 of the UN Charter overrules and annuls this "reversionary clause". Neither the United Kingdom nor Spain seem keen to test the legal status of Article X of the Treaty of Utrecht in court. The remaining parts of the treaty that regulated such things as the slave trade, and the transfer of Minorca to the British, have become obsolete. Spain argues that Gibraltar's status is an anachronism, and that it should become an autonomous community of Spain, similar to Catalonia or the Basque Country. It also argues that the principle of territorial integrity, not self-determination applies, drawing parallels with the British handover of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China in 1997. However, at the same time, successive Spanish governments have refused to countenance the handover of their north African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla to Morocco. The Junta de Andalucia (Andalucia's elected regional government) believes that Gibraltar should be integrated into its regional autonomy. The Gibraltarians continue to assert that they are British not Spanish Gibraltar Chronicle . At the same time, the British Government continues to state that there can be no change in the status of Gibraltar without their democratic consent Statement in the UK Parliament . The Gibraltar Government has asked the UN Committee of 24 to refer the issues to the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion, but Spain has lobbied against this. The Government of Gibraltar has also invited the Committee to visit the territory, but so far, despite no objection from the United Kingdom, they have not done so Peter Caruana at the United Nations . The 2006 constitution further increases the level of self-government in the territory, and the colonial status of Gibraltar is now considered to be over. In a letter Letter from Emyr Jones Parry to the United Nations describing this, the British Ambassador states that "I do not think that this description would apply to any relationship based on colonialism." Pressure groups In addition to the parties there are a number of pressure groups active in Gibraltar, not aligned to any political party. Gibraltar Women's Association The Gibraltar Women's Association was founded on the 15 February 1966, by Mrs Mariola Summerfield and Mrs Angela Smith. It was originally known as the Gibraltar Housewives Association, and subsequently, in the early eighties it was changed to the Gibraltar Women's Association keeping in with more modern times that not all women were solely housewives. Equality Rights Group GGR Probably one of the most interesting social phenomena in Gibraltar was the launch in September 2000 by Felix Alvarez of an organisation, initially named GGR (Gib Gay Rights) but which has developed into a wider human rights platform in Gibraltar and is now widely known as Equality Rights Group GGR . The open and challenging campaigns this NGO has put to the fore of Gibraltar issues has meant that it has become established as a leading Gibraltar human rights organisation. GGR widens scope Although it still defends sexual minorities it is also highly active on issues regarding the disabled, British residents' rights, and issues regarding the protection of children against sex abuse amongst others. This has encouraged other sectors of the community to bring forward their issues in an equally forthright manner; for example the growth of Gibraltar's environmentalist and disabilities movements. In a way, this NGO phenomenon is perhaps the most interesting political development in Gibraltar since the foundation of the Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights (AACR) in the 1940s as a result of the WWII experience. Environmental Safety Group "The ESG is a registered Gibraltar charity which works to safeguard the Environment of Gibraltar and the Bay area, including air, land and marine aspects. The group campaigns to protect local ecology from pollution and contamination and to promote public safety in all matters relating to the welfare of our community." Gibraltar Local Disability Movement The Gibraltar Local Disability Movement (GLDM) was established in 1985 to improve the lives of disabled people in Gibraltar, promote equal opportunities and tackle discrimination. The movement ceased to be active for several years during the 1990s and early 2000s, but was reactivated in 2005 to address the situation for disabled people in Gibraltar, which did not see great improvement for several years. Although the 2006 Equal Opportunities Act protects disabled people in Gibraltar from discrimination, Gibraltar remains behind the UK and other countries on issues such as disability allowances and wheelchair access to both private and government buildings. www.disability.gi Voice of Gibraltar Group The 2002 Referendum Campaign The VOGG is a long running group which has the objective of defending the rights of Gibraltarians against external threats. It engages in public debate, and protest action where appropriate. As a non-political pressure group, its members represent a wide cross section of the community. It was particularly active in canvassing a "no" note in the 2002 referendum, when it toured the housing estates with a loudspeaker van and invited guests from all parties to address residents, culminating with the Chief Minister at Convent Place, after the result was announced. Integration With Britain Movement The Integration With Britain Movement (IWBM) is a pressure group advocating further integration with the United Kingdom. They aim for Gibraltar to attain a state of devolved integration similar to that pertaining in Scotland and Wales. They are led by Joe Caruana and are successors to the defunct Integration With Britain Party (IWBP). References External links Gibraltar Government website The Gibraltar Social Democrats The Gibraltar Socialist Labour party The Progressive Democrats History of the Eurovote Issue CityMayors article The Conservative Party branch in Gibraltar Friends of the Earth, Gibraltar The Gibraltar Local Disability Movement The Womens Association Environmental Safety Group Equality Rights - GGR The Voice of Gibraltar Group | Politics_of_Gibraltar |@lemmatized gibraltar:113 represent:6 european:8 union:4 british:22 overseas:5 territory:9 join:1 ec:1 treaty:5 accession:1 government:37 spain:21 continue:3 irredentist:1 territorial:3 claim:4 cede:2 perpetuity:1 crown:3 article:4 x:2 utrecht:3 referendum:10 hold:5 proposal:3 share:3 sovereignty:13 overwhelmingly:2 reject:7 electorate:2 voting:2 issue:11 remain:9 important:1 factor:1 local:7 politics:3 number:2 political:9 party:30 develop:2 address:3 activity:1 take:4 place:2 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:2 democratic:4 whereby:1 chief:10 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4,241 | Lawyer | A lawyer, according to Black's Law Dictionary, is "a person learned in the law; as an attorney, counsel or solicitor; a person licensed to practice law." Henry Campbell Black, Black's Law Dictionary, 5th ed. (St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1979), 799. Law is the system of rules of conduct established by the sovereign government of a society to correct wrongs, maintain stability, and deliver justice. Working as a lawyer involves the practical application of abstract legal theories and knowledge to solve specific individualized problems, or to advance the interests of those who retain (i.e., hire) lawyers to perform legal services. The role of the lawyer varies significantly across legal jurisdictions, and so it can be treated here in only the most general terms. Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr. & Angelo Dondi, Legal Ethics: A Comparative Study (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8047-4882-9), 20-23. John Henry Merryman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America, 3rd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007), 102-103. More information is available in country-specific articles (see below). Terminology In practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer; as a result, the meaning of the term "lawyer" may vary from place to place. Hazard, 22-23. In New Zealand and Australia the word "lawyer" is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors (whether in private practice or practising as corporate in-house counsel) but not people who do not practice the law. In Canada, the word "lawyer" only refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or have qualified as civil law notaries in the province of Quebec. Common law lawyers in Canada may also be known as "barristers and solicitors", but should not be referred to as "attorneys", since that term has a different meaning in Canadian usage. However, in Quebec, civil law advocates (or avocats in French) often call themselves "attorney" and sometimes "barrister and solicitor". In England, "lawyer" is used loosely to refer to a broad variety of law-trained persons. It includes practitioners such as barristers, solicitors, legal executives and licensed conveyancers; and people who are involved with the law but do not practise it on behalf of individual clients, such as judges, court clerks, and drafters of legislation. In India, the term "lawyer" is often colloquially used, but the official term is "advocate" as prescribed under the Advocates Act, 1961. Advocates Act, 1961, s. 2. In Scotland, the word "lawyer" refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors. In a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term generally refers to attorneys who may practice law; it is never used to refer to patent agents Carl W. Battle, The Patent Guide: A Friendly Guide to Protecting and Profiting from Patents (New York: Allworth Press, 1997), 49. or paralegals. David G. Cooper and Michael J. Gibson, Introduction to Paralegal Studies, 2nd ed.(Clifton Park: Thomson Delmar Learning, 1998), 4. Other nations tend to have comparable terms for the analogous concept. Responsibilities In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Richard L. Abel, "Lawyers in the Civil Law World," in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 1-53 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 4. Merryman, 105-109. These countries do not have "lawyers" in the American sense, insofar as that term refers to a single type of general-purpose legal services provider; Walter O. Reyrauch, The Personality of Lawyers (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964), 27. rather, their legal professions consist of a large number of different kinds of law-trained persons, known as jurists, of which only some are advocates who are licensed to practice in the courts. Jon T. Johnsen, "The Professionalization of Legal Counseling in Norway," in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 54-123 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 91. Kahei Rokumoto, "The Present State of Japanese Practicing Attorneys: On the Way to Full Professionalization?" in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 160-199 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 164. Merryman, 105. It is difficult to formulate accurate generalizations that cover all the countries with multiple legal professions, because each country has traditionally had its own peculiar method of dividing up legal work among all its different types of legal professionals. Hazard, 21-33. Notably, England, the mother of the common law jurisdictions, emerged from the Dark Ages with similar complexity in its legal professions, but then evolved by the 19th century to a single dichotomy between barristers and solicitors. An equivalent dichotomy developed between advocates and procurators in some civil law countries, though these two types did not always monopolize the practice of law as much as barristers and solicitors, in that they always coexisted with civil law notaries. Benoit Bastard and Laura Cardia-Vonèche, "The Lawyers of Geneva: an Analysis of Change in the Legal Profession," trans. by Richard L. Abel, in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 295-335 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 297. Carlos Viladás Jene, "The Legal Profession in Spain: An Understudied but Booming Occupation," in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 369-379 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 369. Vittorio Olgiati and Valerio Pocar, "The Italian Legal Profession: An Institutional Dilemma," in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 336-368 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 338. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a single type of lawyer. Bastard, 299, and Hazard, 45. Harry W. Arthurs, Richard Weisman, and Frederick H. Zemans, "Canadian Lawyers: A Peculiar Professionalism," in Lawyers in Society: The Common Law World, vol. 1, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 123-185 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 124. David Weisbrot, "The Australian Legal Profession: From Provincial Family Firms to Multinationals," in Lawyers in Society: The Common Law World, vol. 1, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 244-317 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 250. Georgina Murray, "New Zealand Lawyers: From Colonial GPs to the Servants of Capital," in Lawyers in Society: The Common Law World, vol. 1, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 318-368 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 324. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, a civil law country, merged together its jurists in 1990 and 1991 in response to Anglo-American competition. Anne Boigeol, "The Rise of Lawyers in France," in Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe, eds. Lawrence M. Friedman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, 185-219 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 208. In countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Oral argument in the courts Arguing a client's case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the traditional province of the barrister in England, and of advocates in some civil law jurisdictions. Hazard, 30-32. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved. In England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts. Richard L. Abel, The Legal Profession in England and Wales (London: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 116. In countries like the United States that have fused legal professions, there are trial lawyers who specialize in trying cases in court, but trial lawyers do not have a de jure monopoly like barristers. In some countries, litigants have the option of arguing pro se, or on their own behalf. It is common for litigants to appear unrepresented before certain courts like small claims courts; indeed, many such courts do not allow lawyers to speak for their clients, in an effort to save money for all participants in a small case. See, e.g., Cal. Code. Civ. Proc. § 116.530 (preventing attorneys from appearing in small claims court except as parties or witnesses). In other countries, like Venezuela, no one may appear before a judge unless represented by a lawyer. Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, "The Venezuelan Legal Profession: Lawyers in an Inegalitarian Society," in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 380-399 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 387. The advantage of the latter regime is that lawyers are familiar with the court's customs and procedures, and make the legal system more efficient for all involved. Unrepresented parties often damage their own credibility or slow the court down as a result of their inexperience. Gordon Kent, "Lawyerless Litigants: Is Justice Being Served?" Edmonton Journal, 27 January 2002, A1. Alan Feuer, "Lawyering by Laymen: More Litigants Are Taking a Do-It-Yourself Tack," New York Times, 22 January 2001, B1. Research and drafting of court papers Often, lawyers brief a court in writing on the issues in a case before the issues can be orally argued. They may have to perform extensive research into relevant facts and law while drafting legal papers and preparing for oral argument. In England, the usual division of labour is that a solicitor will obtain the facts of the case from the client and then brief a barrister (usually in writing). Fiona Boyle, Deveral Capps, Philip Plowden, Clare Sandford, A Practical Guide to Lawyering Skills, 3rd ed. (London: Cavendish Publishing, 2005), 47-50. The barrister then researches and drafts the necessary court pleadings (which will be filed and served by the solicitor) and orally argues the case. See Abel, England and Wales, 56 and 141. In Spain, the procurator merely signs and presents the papers to the court, but it is the advocate who drafts the papers and argues the case. Jene, 369. In some countries, like Japan, a scrivener or clerk may fill out court forms and draft simple papers for lay persons who cannot afford or do not need attorneys, and advise them on how to manage and argue their own cases. Rokumoto, 164. Advocacy (written and oral) in administrative hearings In most developed countries, the legislature has granted original jurisdiction over highly technical matters to executive branch administrative agencies which oversee such things. As a result, some lawyers have become specialists in administrative law. In a few countries, there is a special category of jurists with a monopoly over this form of advocacy; for example, France formerly had conseil juridiques (who were merged into the main legal profession in 1991). Anne Boigeol, "The French Bar: The Difficulties of Unifying a Divided Profession," in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 258-294 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 263; and Boigeol, "The Rise of Lawyers," 206. In other countries, like the United States, lawyers have been effectively barred by statute from certain types of administrative hearings in order to preserve their informality. Richard L. Abel, American Lawyers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 132. See, e.g., Hines v. Lowrey, (upholding limitation on attorneys' fees in veterans' benefits cases to $10). Client intake and counseling (with regard to pending litigation) An important aspect of a lawyer's job is developing and managing relationships with clients (or the client's employees, if the lawyer works in-house for a government or corporation). The client-lawyer relationship often begins with an intake interview where the lawyer gets to know the client personally, discovers the facts of the client's case, clarifies what the client wants to accomplish, shapes the client's expectations as to what actually can be accomplished, begins to develop various claims or defenses, and explains his or her fees to the client. Paul J. Zwier & Anthony J. Bocchini, Fact Investigation: A Practical Guide to Interviewing, Counseling, and Case Theory Development (Louisville, CO: National Institute for Trial Advocacy, 2000), 13-44. John H. Freeman, Client Management for Solicitors (London: Cavendish Publishing Ltd., 1997), 266-274. In England, only solicitors were traditionally in direct contact with the client. Abel, England and Wales, 1 and 141. The solicitor retained a barrister if one was necessary and acted as an intermediary between the barrister and the client. J. R. Spencer and Richard M. Jackson, Jackson's Machinery of Justice, 8th ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 336. In most cases a barrister would be obliged, under what is known as the "cab rank rule", to accept instructions for a case in an area in which they held themselves out as practising, at a court at which they normally appeared and at their usual rates. R.E. Megarry, Lawyer and Litigant in England (London: Stevens and Sons, 1962), 32. Maureen Paton, "Cab-rank exits," The Times, 9 October 2001, 1. This brief article explains the uneasy tension between solicitors and barristers, and the loopholes that have developed. For example, a barrister need not accept a case if the fee is too low or the barrister is just too busy. Legal advice Legal advice is the application of abstract principles of law to the concrete facts of the client's case in order to advise the client about what they should do next. In many countries, only a properly licensed lawyer may provide legal advice to clients for good consideration, even if no lawsuit is contemplated or is in progress. Arthurs, 125; Johnsen, 74; and Pérez-Perdomo, "Venezuelan Legal Profession," 387. Erhard Blankenburg and Ulrike Schultz, "German Advocates: A Highly Regulated Profession," in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 124-159 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 124. Joaquim Falcão, "Lawyers in Brazil," in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 400-442 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 401. Therefore, even conveyancers and corporate in-house counsel must first get a license to practice, though they may actually spend very little of their careers in court. Failure to obey such a rule is the crime of unauthorized practice of law. Justine Fischer and Dorothy H. Lackmann, Unauthorized Practice Handbook: A Compilation of Statutes, Cases, and Commentary on the Unauthorized Practice of Law (Buffalo: William S. Hein Company, 1990), 30-35. In other countries, jurists who hold law degrees are allowed to provide legal advice to individuals or to corporations, and it is irrelevant if they lack a license and cannot appear in court. Abel, England and Wales, 185; Bastard, 318. Kees Schuyt, "The Rise of Lawyers in the Dutch Welfare State," in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 200-224 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 201. Some countries go further; in England and Wales, there is no general prohibition on the giving of legal advice. Stephen J. McGarry, Multidisciplinary Practices and Partnerships: Lawyers, Consultants, and Clients, § 1.06[1] (New York: Law Journal Press, 2002), 1-29. Sometimes civil law notaries are allowed to give legal advice, as in Belgium. Luc Huyse, "Legal Experts in Belgium," in Lawyers in Society: The Civil Law World, vol. 2, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 225-257 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 227. In many countries, non-jurist accountants may provide what is technically legal advice in tax and accounting matters. Murray, 325; and Rokumoto, 164. Protecting intellectual property In virtually all countries, patents, trademarks, industrial designs and other forms of intellectual property must be formally registered with a government agency in order to receive maximum protection under the law. The division of such work among lawyers, licensed non-lawyer jurists/agents, and ordinary clerks or scriveners varies greatly from one country to the next. Lee Rousso, "Japan's New Patent Attorney Law Breaches Barrier Between The 'Legal' And 'Quasi-Legal' Professions: Integrity Of Japanese Patent Practice At Risk?" 10 Pac. Rim L. & Pol'y 781, 783-790 (2001). Negotiating and drafting contracts In some countries, the negotiating and drafting of contracts is considered to be similar to the provision of legal advice, so that it is subject to the licensing requirement explained above. Arthurs, 125; and Pérez-Perdomo, "Venezuelan Legal Profession," 387. In others, jurists or notaries may negotiate or draft contracts. Huyse, 227. Lawyers in some civil law countries traditionally deprecated "transactional law" or "business law" as beneath them. French law firms developed transactional departments only in the 1990s when they started to lose business to international firms based in the United States and the United Kingdom (where solicitors have always done transactional work). Boigeol, "The Rise of Lawyers," 206. Conveyancing Conveyancing is the drafting of the documents necessary for the transfer of real property, such as deeds and mortgages. In some jurisdictions, all real estate transactions must be carried out by a lawyer (or a solicitor where that distinction still exists). Abel, England and Wales, 176; Hazard, 90-93; Murray, 325; and Pérez-Perdomo, "Venezuelan Legal Profession," 387. Such a monopoly is quite valuable from the lawyer's point of view; historically, conveyancing accounted for about half of English solicitors' income (though this has since changed), Abel, England and Wales, 177. and a 1978 study showed that conveyancing "accounts for as much as 80 percent of solicitor-client contact in New South Wales." Weisbrot, 292. In most common law jurisdictions outside of the United States, this monopoly arose from an 1804 law s. 14 Stamp Act 1804 that was introduced by William Pitt the Younger as a quid pro quo for the raising of fees on the certification of legal professionals such as barristers, solicitors, attorneys and notaries. Brian Abel-Smith and Robert Stevens, Lawyers and the Courts: A Sociological Study of the English Legal System, 1750-1965 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 23. In others, the use of a lawyer is optional and banks, title companies, or realtors may be used instead. Weisbrot, 251. In some civil law jurisdictions, real estate transactions are handled by civil law notaries. Arthurs, 125; Huyse, 227; and Schuyt, 201. In England and Wales a special class of legal professional–the licensed conveyancer–is also allowed to carry out conveyancing services for reward. Simon Domberger and Avrom Sherr, "The Impact of Competition on Pricing and Quality of Legal Services," in The Regulatory Challenge, eds. Matthew Bishop, John Kay, Colin Mayer, 119-137 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 121-122. Carrying out the intent of the deceased In many countries, only lawyers have the legal authority to draft wills, trusts, and any other documents that ensure the efficient disposition of a person's property after death. In some civil law countries this responsibility is handled by civil law notaries. In the United States, the estates of the deceased must generally be administered by a court through probate. American lawyers have a profitable monopoly on dispensing advice about probate law (which has been heavily criticized). Ralph Warner & Stephen Elias, Fed Up with the Legal System: What's Wrong & How to Fix It (Berkeley: Nolo Press, 1994), 11. Prosecution and defense of criminal suspects In many civil law countries, prosecutors are trained and employed as part of the judiciary; they are law-trained jurists, but may not necessarily be lawyers in the sense that the word is used in the common law world. Hazard, 34-35; Huyse, 227; Merryman, 105, and Schuyt, 201. In common law countries, prosecutors are usually lawyers holding regular licenses who simply happen to work for the government office that files criminal charges against suspects. Criminal defense lawyers specialize in the defense of those charged with any crimes. Larry J. Siegel and Joseph J. Senna, Introduction to Criminal Justice, 10th ed. (Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), 311-325. Education The educational prerequisites to becoming a lawyer vary greatly from country to country. In some countries, law is taught by a faculty of law, which is a department of a university's general undergraduate college. Lawrence M. Friedman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, "Latin Legal Cultures in the Age of Globalization," in Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe, eds. Lawrence M. Friedman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, 1-19 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 6. Law students in those countries pursue a Master or Bachelor of Laws degree. In some countries it is common or even required for students to earn another bachelor's degree at the same time. Nor is the LL.B the sole obstacle; it is often followed by a series of advanced examinations, apprenticeships, and additional coursework at special government institutes. Abel, England and Wales, 45-59; Rokumoto, 165; and Schuyt, 204. In other countries, particularly the United States, law is primarily taught at law schools. In the United States Wayne L. Anderson and Marilyn J. Headrick, The Legal Profession: Is it for you? (Cincinnati: Thomson Executive Press, 1996), 52-53. and countries following the American model, (such as Canada Anonymous, "Careers in the legal profession offer a variety of opportunities: While we may not think about it often, the legal system affects us every day," The Telegram, 14 April 2004, D8. with the exception of the province of Quebec) law schools are graduate/professional schools where a bachelor's degree is a prerequisite for admission. Most law schools are part of universities but a few are independent institutions. Law schools in the United States (and some in Canada and elsewhere) award graduating students a J.D. (Juris Doctor/Doctor of Jurisprudence) (as opposed to the Bachelor of Laws) as the practitioner's law degree. Many schools also offer post-doctoral law degrees such as the LL.M (Legum Magister/Master of Laws), or the S.J.D. (Scientiae Juridicae Doctor/Doctor of the Science of Law) for students interested in advancing their knowledge and credentials in a specific area of law. Christen Civiletto Carey and Kristen David Adams, The Practice of Law School: Getting In and Making the Most of Your Legal Education (New York: ALM Publishing, 2003), 525. The methods and quality of legal education vary widely. Some countries require extensive clinical training in the form of apprenticeships or special clinical courses. Hazard, 127-129; Merryman, 103; and Olgiati, 345. Others do not, like Venezuela. Pérez-Perdomo, "Venezuelan Legal Profession," 384. A few countries prefer to teach through assigned readings of judicial opinions (the casebook method) followed by intense in-class cross-examination by the professor (the Socratic method). Robert H. Miller, Law School Confidential: A Complete Guide to the Law School Experience, By Students, for Students (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 2000), 25-27. Anderson, 4-10. Many others have only lectures on highly abstract legal doctrines, which forces young lawyers to figure out how to actually think and write like a lawyer at their first apprenticeship (or job). Blankenburg, 132; Friedman and Pérez-Perdomo, 6; Hazard, 124-128; and Olgiati, 345. Sergio Lopez-Ayllon and Hector Fix-Figaro, " 'Faraway, So Close!' The Rule of Law and Legal Change in Mexico: 1970-2000," in Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe, eds. Lawrence M. Friedman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, 285-351 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 324. Herbert Hausmaninger, "Austrian Legal Education," 43 S. Tex. L. Rev. 387, 388 and 400 (2002). Depending upon the country, a typical class size could range from five students in a seminar to five hundred in a giant lecture room. In the United States, law schools maintain small class sizes, and as such, grant admissions on a more limited and competitive basis. Miller, 42-60. Some countries, particularly industrialized ones, have a traditional preference for full-time law programs, Abel, American Lawyers, 57; Miller, 25; and Murray, 337. while in developing countries, students often work full- or part-time to pay the tuition and fees of their part-time law programs. Falcão, 410. J.S. Gandhi, "Past and Present: A Sociological Portrait of the Indian Legal Profession," in Lawyers in Society: The Common Law World, vol. 1, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 369-382 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 375. Law schools in developing countries share several common problems, such as an overreliance on practicing judges and lawyers who treat teaching as a part-time hobby (and a concomitant scarcity of full-time law professors); Lopez-Ayllon, 324. Eliane Botelho Junqueira, "Brazil: The Road of Conflict Bound for Total Justice," in Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe, eds. Lawrence M. Friedman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, 64-107 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 89. incompetent faculty with questionable credentials; Junqueira, 89. and textbooks that lag behind the current state of the law by two or three decades. Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, "Venezuela, 1958-1999: The Legal System in an Impaired Democracy," in Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe, eds. Lawrence M. Friedman and Rogelio Perez-Perdomo, 414-478 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 459. For example, a 1997 study found that not a single law school in Venezuela had bothered to integrate any part of the Convention on Children's Rights into its curriculum, even though Venezuela had signed the treaty in 1990 and subsequently modified its domestic laws to bring them into compliance. Rather than embark on curriculum reform, Venezuelan law schools now offer special postgraduate courses so that recent graduates can bring their legal knowledge up-to-date with current law. Earning the right to practice law Some jurisdictions grant a "diploma privilege" to certain institutions, so that merely earning a degree or credential from those institutions is the primary qualification for practicing law. Abel, American Lawyers, 62. Mexico allows anyone with a law degree to practice law. Lopez-Ayllon, 330. However, in a large number of countries, a law student must pass a bar examination (or a series of such examinations) before receiving a license to practice. Hazard, 127, 129, & 133; Miller, 335-341. Alan A. Paterson, "The Legal Profession in Scotland: An Endangered Species or a Problem Case for Market Theory?" in Lawyers in Society: The Common Law World, vol. 1, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 76-122 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 89. In a handful of U.S. states, one may become an attorney (a so-called country lawyer) by simply "reading law" and passing the bar examination, without having to attend law school first (although very few people actually become lawyers that way). G. Jeffrey MacDonald, "The self-made lawyer: Not every attorney goes to law school," The Christian Science Monitor, 3 June 2003, 13. Some countries require a formal apprenticeship with an experienced practitioner, while others do not. Hazard, 129 & 133. For example, a few jurisdictions still allow an apprenticeship in place of any kind of formal legal education (though the number of persons who actually become lawyers that way is increasingly rare). Weisbrot, 266. Career structure U.S. President Abraham Lincoln is a famous example of a lawyer-turned-politician. The career structure of lawyers varies widely from one country to the next. Common law/civil law In most common law countries, especially those with fused professions, lawyers have many options over the course of their careers. Besides private practice, they can always aspire to becoming a prosecutor, government counsel, corporate in-house counsel, administrative law judge, judge, arbitrator, law professor, or politician. Abel, American Lawyers, 167-175; Abel, England and Wales, 214; Arthurs, 131; Gandhi, 374; Merryman, 102, and Weisbrot, 277. There are also many non-legal jobs which legal training is good preparation for, such as corporate executive, government administrator, investment banker, entrepreneur, or journalist. Anderson, 124-131. In developing countries like India, a large majority of law students never actually practice, but simply use their law degree as a foundation for careers in other fields. Gandhi, 374. In most civil law countries, lawyers generally structure their legal education around their chosen specialty; the boundaries between different types of lawyers are carefully defined and hard to cross. After one earns a law degree, career mobility may be severely constrained. Merryman, 102-105. For example, unlike their American counterparts, Although it is common for former American judges to return to private practice, it is highly controversial for them to suggest that they still retain any judicial powers (for example, by wearing judicial robes in advertisements). Brad McElhinny, "Workman criticized for using robe in ad: Group files State Bar complaint about the way former justice seeks clients," Charleston Daily Mail, 3 February 2005, 1A. it is difficult for German judges to leave the bench and become advocates in private practice. Blankenburg, 133. Another interesting example is France, where for much of the 20th century, all magistrates were graduates of an elite professional school for judges. Although the French magistracy has begun experimenting with the Anglo-American model of appointing judges from accomplished advocates, the few advocates who have actually joined the bench this way are looked down upon by their colleagues who have taken the traditional route to magistracy. Boigeol, "The Rise of Lawyers," 202. In a few civil law countries, such as Sweden, Bernard Michael Ortwein II, "The Swedish Legal System: An Introduction," 13 Ind. Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. 405, 440-445 (2003). the legal profession is not rigorously bifurcated and everyone within it can easily change roles and arenas. Specialization In many countries, lawyers are general practitioners who will take almost any kind of case that walks in the door. Hazard, 39-43; Olgiati, 353. In others, there has been a tendency since the start of the 20th century for lawyers to specialize early in their careers. Abel, American Lawyers, 122. Michael H. Trotter, Profit and the Practice of Law: What's Happened to the Legal Profession (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1997), 50. In countries where specialization is prevalent, many lawyers specialize in representing one side in one particular area of the law; thus, it is common in the United States to hear of plaintiffs' personal injury attorneys. Herbert M. Kritzer, "The fracturing legal profession: the case of plaintiffs' personal injury lawyers," 8 Int'l J. Legal Prof. 225, 228-231 (2001). Organization Lawyers in private practice generally work in specialized businesses known as law firms, Anderson, 111-117. with the exception of English barristers. The vast majority of law firms worldwide are small businesses that range in size from 1 to 10 lawyers. Hazard, 39. The United States, with its large number of firms with more than 50 lawyers, is an exception. Junqueira, 92. According to this source, as of 2003, there were 901 law firms with more than 50 lawyers in the United States. The United Kingdom and Australia are also exceptions, as the UK, Australia and the U.S. are now home to several firms with more than 1,000 lawyers after a wave of mergers in the late 1990s. Notably, barristers in England and Wales and some states in Australia do not work in "law firms". Those who offer their services to the general public—as opposed to those working "in house"—are required to be self-employed. Gary Slapper and David Kelly, The English Legal System, 7th ed. (London: Cavendish Publishing Ltd., 2004), 550. Most work in groupings known as "sets" or "chambers", where some administrative and marketing costs are shared. An important effect of this different organizational structure is that there is no conflict of interest where barristers in the same chambers work for opposing sides in a case, and in some specialised chambers this is commonplace. Professional associations and regulation Mandatory licensing and membership in professional organizations In some jurisdictions, either the judiciary Weisbrot, 264. or the Ministry of Justice Johnsen, 86. directly supervises the admission, licensing, and regulation of lawyers. Other jurisdictions, by statute, tradition, or court order, have granted such powers to a professional association which all lawyers must belong to. Boigeol, “The French Bar,” 271; Merryman, 106, and Junqueira, 89. In the U.S., such associations are known as mandatory, integrated, or unified bar associations. In the Commonwealth of Nations, similar organizations are known as Inns of Court, bar councils or law societies. Abel, England and Wales, 127 and 243-249; Arthurs, 135; and Weisbrot, 279. In civil law countries, comparable organizations are known as Orders of Advocates, Bastard, 295; and Falcão, 401. Chambers of Advocates, Blankenburg, 139. Colleges of Advocates, Jene, 370. Faculties of Advocates, Paterson, 79. or similar names. Generally, a nonmember caught practicing law may be liable for the crime of unauthorized practice of law. Arthurs, 143. In common law countries with divided legal professions, barristers traditionally belong to the bar council (or an Inn of Court) and solicitors belong to the law society. In the English-speaking world, the largest mandatory professional association of lawyers is the State Bar of California, with 200,000 members. Some countries admit and regulate lawyers at the national level, so that a lawyer, once licensed, can argue cases in any court in the land. This is common in small countries like New Zealand, Japan, and Belgium. Murray, 339; Rokumoto, 163; and Schuyt, 207. Others, especially those with federal governments, tend to regulate lawyers at the state or provincial level; this is the case in the United States, Abel, American Lawyers, 116. Canada, Arthurs, 139. Australia, Weisbrot, 244. and Switzerland, Bastard, 299. to name a few. Brazil is the most well-known federal government that regulates lawyers at the national level. Falcão, 404. Some countries, like Italy, regulate lawyers at the regional level, Olgiati, 343. and a few, like Belgium, even regulate them at the local level (that is, they are licensed and regulated by the local equivalent of bar associations but can advocate in courts nationwide). Huyse, 239. In Germany, lawyers are admitted to regional bars and may appear for clients before all courts nationwide with the exception of the Federal Court of Justice of Germany (Bundesgerichtshof or BGH); oddly, securing admission to the BGH's bar limits a lawyer's practice solely to the supreme federal courts and the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany. Howard D. Fisher, The German Legal System and Legal Language, 3rd ed. (London: Routledge Cavendish, 2002), 208-209. Generally, geographic limitations can be troublesome for a lawyer who discovers that his client's cause requires him to litigate in a court beyond the normal geographic scope of his license. Although most courts have special pro hac vice rules for such occasions, the lawyer will still have to deal with a different set of professional responsibility rules, as well as the possibility of other differences in substantive and procedural law. Some countries grant licenses to non-resident lawyers, who may then appear regularly on behalf of foreign clients. Others require all lawyers to live in the jurisdiction or to even hold national citizenship as a prerequisite for receiving a license to practice. But the trend in industrialized countries since the 1970s has been to abolish citizenship and residency restrictions. For example, the Supreme Court of Canada struck down a citizenship requirement on equality rights grounds in 1989, Andrews v. Law Society of British Columbia, [1989] 1 S.C.R. 143. and similarly, American citizenship and residency requirements were struck down as unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1973 and 1985, respectively. Abel, American Lawyers, 68. The European Court of Justice made similar decisions in 1974 and 1977 striking down citizenship restrictions in Belgium and France. Mary C. Daly, "Ethical and Liability Issues in International Legal Practice," in Comparative Law Yearbook of International Business, vol. 17, eds. Dennis Campbell and Susan Cotter, 223-268 (London: Kluwer Law International, 1995), 233. Who regulates lawyers A key difference among countries is whether lawyers should be regulated solely by an independent judiciary and its subordinate institutions (a self-regulating legal profession), For a classic explanation of the self-regulating legal profession, see the Preamble to the ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct, ¶¶ 10-13. or whether lawyers should be subject to supervision by the Ministry of Justice in the executive branch. In most civil law countries, the government has traditionally exercised tight control over the legal profession in order to ensure a steady supply of loyal judges and bureaucrats. That is, lawyers were expected first and foremost to serve the state, and the availability of counsel for private litigants was an afterthought. Abel, Civil Law World, 10; Johnsen, 70; Olgiati, 339; and Rokumoto, 161. Even in civil law countries like Norway which have partially self-regulating professions, the Ministry of Justice is the sole issuer of licenses, and makes its own independent re-evaluation of a lawyer's fitness to practice after a lawyer has been expelled from the Advocates' Association. Brazil is an unusual exception in that its national Order of Advocates has become a fully self-regulating institution (with direct control over licensing) and has successfully resisted government attempts to place it under the control of the Ministry of Labor. Falcão, 423. Maria da Gloria Bonelli, "Lawyers' Associations and the Brazilian State, 1843-1997," 28 Law & Soc. Inquiry 1045, 1065 (2003). Of all the civil law countries, Communist countries historically went the farthest towards total state control, with all Communist lawyers forced to practice in collectives by the mid-1950s. Kandis Scott, "Decollectivization and Democracy: Current Law Practice in Romania," 36 Geo. Wash. Int'l L. Rev. 817, 820. (2004). Timothy J. Tyler, "Judging the Past: Germany's Post-Unification Lawyers' Admissions Review Law," 29 Tex. Int'l L.J. 457, 472 (1994). China is a prime example: technically, the People's Republic of China did not have lawyers, and instead had only poorly-trained, state-employed "legal workers," prior to the enactment of a comprehensive reform package in 1996 by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. Michael J. Moser, "Globalization and Legal Services in China: Current Status and Future Directions," in The Internationalization of the Practice of Law, eds. Jens I. Drolhammer and Michael Pfeifer, 127-136 (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001), 128-129. In contrast, common law lawyers have traditionally regulated themselves through institutions where the influence of non-lawyers, if any, was weak and indirect (despite nominal state control). Abel, American Lawyers, 142-143; Abel, England and Wales, 29; and Arthurs, 148. Such institutions have been traditionally dominated by private practitioners who opposed strong state control of the profession on the grounds that it would endanger the ability of lawyers to zealously and competently advocate their clients' causes in the adversarial system of justice. Arthurs, 138; and Weisbrot, 281. However, the concept of the self-regulating profession has been criticized as a sham which serves to legitimize the professional monopoly while protecting the profession from public scrutiny. Abel, American Lawyers, 246-247. Disciplinary mechanisms have been astonishingly ineffective, and penalties have been light or nonexistent. Abel, American Lawyers, 147; Abel, England and Wales, 135 and 250; Arthurs, 146; Hazard, 135; Paterson, 104; and Weisbrot, 284. Richard L. Abel, English Lawyers Between Market and State: The Politics of Professionalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 374-375. William T. Gallagher, "Ideologies of Professionalism and the Politics of Self-Regulation in the California State Bar," 22 Pepp. L. Rev. 485, 490-491 (1995). Voluntary associations of lawyers Lawyers are always free to form voluntary associations of their own, apart from any licensing or mandatory membership that may be required by the laws of their jurisdiction. Like their mandatory counterparts, such organizations may exist at all geographic levels. Abel, England and Wales, 132-133. In American English, such associations are known as voluntary bar associations. Arthurs, 141. The largest voluntary professional association of lawyers in the English-speaking world is the American Bar Association. In some countries, like France and Italy, lawyers have also formed trade unions. Boigeol, “The French Bar,” 274; and Olgiati, 344. Cultural perception of lawyers Hostility towards the legal profession is a widespread phenomenon. The legal profession was abolished in Prussia in 1780 and in France in 1789, though both countries eventually realized that their judicial systems could not function efficiently without lawyers. Blankenburg, 126; and Boigeol, “The French Bar,” 272. Complaints about too many lawyers were common in both England and the United States in the 1840s Abel, England and Wales, 37. Gerald W. Gawalt, "Sources of Anti-Lawyer Sentiment in Massachusetts, 1740-1840," in Essays in Nineteenth-Century American Legal History, ed. Wythe Holt, 624-648 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976), 624-625. According to this source, the strong anti-lawyer sentiment of the period was rather ironic, since lawyers were actually so scarce in the American colonies that a 1715 Massachusetts law forbade litigants from retaining two lawyers because of the risk of depriving one's opponent of counsel. Germany in the 1910s, Blankenburg, 127. and in Australia, Weisbrot, 246. Canada, Arthurs, 128. the United States, Marc Galanter, "Predators and Parasites: Lawyer-Bashing and Civil Justice, " 28 Ga. L. Rev. 633, 644-648 (1994). Stephen D. Easton, "Fewer Lawyers? Try Getting Your Day in Court," Wall Street Journal, 27 November 1984, 1. This article rebuts the common complaint of too many lawyers in the U.S. by pointing out that it is virtually impossible for a plaintiff to prevail in the vast majority of countries with less lawyers, like Japan, because there are simply not enough lawyers or judges to go around. Even wrongful death cases with clear evidence of fault can drag on for decades in Japan. Thus, any reduction in the number of lawyers would result in reduced enforcement of individual rights. Gerry Spence, With Justice For None: Destroying An American Myth (New York: Times Books, 1989), 27-40 and Scotland Paterson, 76. in the 1980s. Public distrust of lawyers reached record heights in the United States after the Watergate scandal. Jerold Auerbach, Unequal Justice: Lawyers and Social Change in Modern America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 301. In the aftermath of Watergate, legal self-help books became popular among those who wished to solve their legal problems without having to deal with lawyers. For examples of legal self-help books written by lawyers which concede that the profession has a bad image, see Mark H. McCormack, The Terrible Truth About Lawyers (New York: Beech Tree Books, 1987), 11; Kenneth Menendez, Taming the Lawyers (Santa Monica, CA, Merritt Publishing, 1996), 2; and Stuart Kahan and Robert M. Cavallo, Do I Really Need A Lawyer? (Radnor, PA: Chilton Book Company, 1979), 2. Lawyer jokes (already a perennial favorite) also soared in popularity in English-speaking North America as a result of Watergate. Gayle White, "So, a lawyer, a skunk and a catfish walk into a bar...: No shortage of jokes," National Post, 27 May 2006, FW8. In 1989, American legal self-help publisher Nolo Press published a 171-page compilation of negative anecdotes about lawyers from throughout human history. Andrew Roth & Jonathan Roth, Devil's Advocates: The Unnatural History of Lawyers (Berkeley: Nolo Press, 1989), ix. In Adventures in Law and Justice (2003), legal researcher Bryan Horrigan dedicated a chapter to "Myths, Fictions, and Realities" about law and illustrated the perennial criticism of lawyers as "amoral [...] guns for hire" Bryan Horrigan, "Myths, Fictions, and Realities" (chap. 2), in Adventures in Law and Justice: Exploring Big Legal Questions in Everyday Life, Law at Large, 55–82 (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2003, ISBN 0-86840-572-8), 55 & 62–66. Bierce is quoted p. 64. with a quote from Ambrose Bierce's satirical The Devil's Dictionary (1911) that summarized the noun as: "LAWYER, n. One skilled in circumvention of the law." Ambrose Bierce, "Lawyer", in The Devil's Dictionary (1911), electronic entry at Dict.org. Also found quoted in many legal books. More generally, in Legal Ethics: A Comparative Study (2004), law professor Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr. with Angelo Dondi briefly examined the "regulations attempting to suppress lawyer misconduct" and noted that their similarity around the world was paralleled by a "remarkable consistency" in certain "persistant grievances" about lawyers that transcends both time and locale, from the Bible to medieval England to dynastic China. Hazard, 60. The authors then generalized these common complaints about lawyers as being classified into five "general categories" as follows: Compensation Lawyers are paid for their work in a variety of ways. In private practice, they may work for an hourly fee according to a billable hour structure, Anderson, 111-112. a contingency fee Herbert M. Kritzer, Risks, Reputations, and Rewards: Contingency Fee Legal Practice in the United States (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), 258-259. According to this source, contingency fees (or de facto equivalents) are allowed, as of 2004, in Canada, England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, the Dominican Republic, Greece, France, Brazil, Japan, and, of course, the United States. (usually in cases involving personal injury), or a lump sum payment if the matter is straightforward. Normally, most lawyers negotiate a written fee agreement up front and may require a non-refundable retainer in advance. In many countries there are fee-shifting arrangements by which the loser must pay the winner's fees and costs; the United States is the major exception, See Fleischmann Distilling Corp. v. Maier Brewing Co., (reviewing history of the American Rule). although in turn, its legislators have carved out many exceptions to the so-called "American Rule" of no fee shifting. Lawyers working directly on the payroll of governments, nonprofits, and corporations usually earn a regular annual salary. Anderson, 120-121. In many countries, with the notable exception of Germany, Matthias Kilian and Francis Regan, "Legal expenses insurance and legal aid—two sides of the same coin? The experience from Germany and Sweden," 11 Int'l J. Legal Prof. 233, 239 (2004). According to this article, pro bono arrangements are illegal in Germany. lawyers can also volunteer their labor in the service of worthy causes through an arrangement called pro bono (for the common good). Abel, American Lawyers, 129-130. Traditionally such work was performed on behalf of the poor, but in some countries it has now expanded to many other causes such as the environment. In some countries, there are legal aid lawyers who specialize in providing legal services to the indigent. Abel, American Lawyers, 133. Arthurs, 161; Murray, 342; Pérez-Perdomo, 392; Schuyt, 211; and Weisbrot, 288. France and Spain even have formal fee structures by which lawyers are compensated by the government for legal aid cases on a per-case basis. Boigeol, “The French Bar,” 280; and Jene, 376. A similar system, though not as extensive or generous, operates in Australia, Canada, as well as South Africa. In other countries, legal aid specialists are practically nonexistent. This may be because non-lawyers are allowed to provide such services; in both Italy and Belgium, trade unions and political parties provide what can be characterized as legal aid services. Olgiati, 354, and Huyse, 240. Some legal aid in Belgium is also provided by young lawyer apprentices subsidized by local bar associations (known as the pro deo system), as well as consumer protection nonprofit organizations and Public Assistance Agencies subsidized by local governments. Huyse, 240-241. In Germany, mandatory fee structures have enabled widespread implementation of affordable legal expense insurance. Blankenburg, 143. History 16th century painting of a civil law notary, by Flemish painter Quentin Massys. A civil law notary is roughly analogous to a common law solicitor, except that, unlike solicitors, civil law notaries do not practice litigation to any degree. Ancient Greece The earliest people who could be described as "lawyers" were probably the orators of ancient Athens (see History of Athens). However, Athenian orators faced serious structural obstacles. First, there was a rule that individuals were supposed to plead their own cases, which was soon bypassed by the increasing tendency of individuals to ask a "friend" for assistance. Robert J. Bonner, Lawyers and Litigants in Ancient Athens: The Genesis of the Legal Profession (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1927), 202. However, around the middle of the fourth century, the Athenians disposed of the perfunctory request for a friend. Bonner, 204. Second, a more serious obstacle, which the Athenian orators never completely overcame, was the rule that no one could take a fee to plead the cause of another. This law was widely disregarded in practice, but was never abolished, which meant that orators could never present themselves as legal professionals or experts. Bonner, 206. They had to uphold the legal fiction that they were merely an ordinary citizen generously helping out a friend for free, and thus they could never organize into a real profession—with professional associations and titles and all the other pomp and circumstance—like their modern counterparts. Bonner, 208-209. Therefore, if one narrows the definition to those men who could practice the legal profession openly and legally, then the first lawyers would have to be the orators of ancient Rome. Hazard, 18. Early Ancient Rome A law enacted in 204 BC barred Roman advocates from taking fees, but the law was widely ignored. John A. Crook, Law and Life of Ancient Rome (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967), 90. The ban on fees was abolished by Emperor Claudius, who legalized advocacy as a profession and allowed the Roman advocates to become the first lawyers who could practice openly—but he also imposed a fee ceiling of 10,000 sesterces. Crook, 90. Crook cites Tacitus, Annals VI, 5 and 7 for this point. For more information about the complex political affair that forced Emperor Claudius to decide this issue, see The Annals of Tacitus, Book VI (Franklin Center, PA: The Franklin Library, 1982), 208. This was apparently not much money; the Satires of Juvenal complain that there was no money in working as an advocate. Crook, 91. Like their Greek contemporaries, early Roman advocates were trained in rhetoric, not law, and the judges before whom they argued were also not law-trained. Crook, 87. But very early on, unlike Athens, Rome developed a class of specialists who were learned in the law, known as jurisconsults (iuris consulti). Crook, 88. Jurisconsults were wealthy amateurs who dabbled in law as an intellectual hobby; they did not make their primary living from it. They gave legal opinions (responsa) on legal issues to all comers (a practice known as publice respondere). Crook, 89. Roman judges and governors would routinely consult with an advisory panel of jurisconsults before rendering a decision, and advocates and ordinary people also went to jurisconsults for legal opinions. Thus, the Romans were the first to have a class of people who spent their days thinking about legal problems, and this is why their law became so "precise, detailed, and technical." Late Ancient Rome During the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire, jurisconsults and advocates were unregulated, since the former were amateurs and the latter were technically illegal. Crook, 90. Any citizen could call himself an advocate or a legal expert, though whether people believed him would depend upon his personal reputation. This changed once Claudius legalized the legal profession. By the start of the Byzantine Empire, the legal profession had become well-established, heavily regulated, and highly stratified. A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey, vol. 1 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964), 507. The centralization and bureaucratization of the profession was apparently gradual at first, but accelerated during the reign of Emperor Hadrian. Fritz Schulz, History of Roman Legal Science (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946), 113. At the same time, the jurisconsults went into decline during the imperial period. Schulz, 113. In the words of Fritz Schulz, "by the fourth century things had changed in the eastern Empire: advocates now were really lawyers." Schulz, 268. For example, by the fourth century, advocates had to be enrolled on the bar of a court to argue before it, they could only be attached to one court at a time, and there were restrictions (which came and went depending upon who was emperor) on how many advocates could be enrolled at a particular court. Jones, 508-510. By the 380s, advocates were studying law in addition to rhetoric (thus reducing the need for a separate class of jurisconsults); in 460, Emperor Leo imposed a requirement that new advocates seeking admission had to produce testimonials from their teachers; and by the sixth century, a regular course of legal study lasting about four years was required for admission. Jones, 512-513. Claudius's fee ceiling lasted all the way into the Byzantine period, though by then it was measured at 100 solidi. Jones, 511. Of course, it was widely evaded, either through demands for maintenance and expenses or a sub rosa barter transaction. The latter was cause for disbarment. The notaries (tabelliones) appeared in the late Roman Empire. Like their modern-day descendants, the civil law notaries, they were responsible for drafting wills, conveyances, and contracts. Jones, 515. They were ubiquitous and most villages had one. In Roman times, notaries were widely considered to be inferior to advocates and jurisconsults. Roman notaries were not law-trained; they were barely literate hacks who wrapped the simplest transactions in mountains of legal jargon, since they were paid by the line. Jones, 516. Middle Ages After the fall of the western Empire and the onset of the Dark Ages, the legal profession of Western Europe collapsed. As James Brundage has explained: "[by 1140], no one in Western Europe could properly be described as a professional lawyer or a professional canonist in anything like the modern sense of the term 'professional.' " James A. Brundage, "The Rise of the Professional Jurist in the Thirteenth Century," 20 Syracuse J. Int'l L. & Com. 185 (1994). However, from 1150 onward, a small but increasing number of men became experts in canon law but only in furtherance of other occupational goals, such as serving the Roman Catholic Church as priests. Brundage, 185-186. From 1190 to 1230, however, there was a crucial shift in which some men began to practice canon law as a lifelong profession in itself. Brundage, 186-187. The legal profession's return was marked by the renewed efforts of church and state to regulate it. In 1231 two French councils mandated that lawyers had to swear an oath of admission before practicing before the bishop's courts in their regions, and a similar oath was promulgated by the papal legate in London in 1237. Brundage, 188. During the same decade, Frederick II, the emperor of the Kingdom of Sicily, imposed a similar oath in his civil courts. Brundage, 188-189. By 1250 the nucleus of a new legal profession had clearly formed. Brundage, 190. The new trend towards professionalization culminated in a controversial proposal at the Second Council of Lyon in 1275 that all ecclesiastical courts should require an oath of admission. Brundage, 189. Although not adopted by the council, it was highly influential in many such courts throughout Europe. The civil courts in England also joined the trend towards professionalization; in 1275 a statute was enacted that prescribed punishment for professional lawyers guilty of deceit, and in 1280 the mayor's court of the city of London promulgated regulations concerning admission procedures, including the administering of an oath. John Hamilton Baker, An Introduction to British Legal History, 3rd ed. (London: Butterworths, 1990), 179. Titles Generally speaking, the modern practice is for lawyers to avoid use of any title, although formal practice varies across the world. Historically lawyers in most European countries were addressed with the title of doctor, and countries outside of Europe have generally followed the practice of the European country which had policy influence through "modernization" or "colonialization." The first university degrees, starting with the law school of the University of Bologna (or glossators) in the 11th century, were all law degrees and doctorates. Herbermann, et al. (1915). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Encyclopedia Press. Accessed May 26, 2008. García y García, A. (1992). "The Faculties of Law," A History of the University in Europe, London: Cambridge University Press. Accessed May 26, 2008. Degrees in other fields did not start until the 13th century, but the doctor continued to be the only degree offered at many of the old universities until the 20th century. Therefore, in many of the southern European countries, including Portugal, Spain and Italy, E.g. Portugal: Alves Periera Teixeira de Sousa. Accessed February 16, 2009; Italy Studio Misuraca, Franceschin and Associates. Accessed February 16, 2009. lawyers have traditionally been addressed as “doctor,” a practice which was transferred to many countries in South America Peru: Hernandez & Cia. Accessed February 16, 2009; Brazil: Abdo & Diniz. Accessed February 16, 2009 (see Spanish or Portuguese profile pages); Argentina: Lareo & Paz. Accessed February 16, 2009. (including Macau in China). Macau: Macau Lawyers Association. Accessed February 16, 2009 Because the law degrees are no longer doctorate level degrees, the formal “doctor” title for lawyers is either seen as archaic or incorrect, although it is still a legal title in Italy and in use in many countries outside of Europe. Regio Decreto 4 giugno 1938, n.1269, Art. 48. (in Italian). Accessed February 10, 2009. The title of doctor has never been used to address lawyers in England or other common law countries (with the exception of the United States). This is because until 1846 lawyers in England were not required to have a university degree and were trained by other attorneys by apprenticeship or in the Inns of Court. Stein, R. (1981). The Path of Legal Education from Edward to Langdell: A History of Insular Reaction, Pace University School of Law Faculty Publications, 1981, 57 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 429, pp. 430, 432, 434, 436 Since law degrees started to become a requirement for lawyers in England, the degree awarded has been the undergraduate LL.B. Even though most lawyers in the United States do not use any titles, the law degree in that country is the Juris Doctor, a professional doctorate degree, Association of American Universities Data Exchange. Glossary of Terms for Graduate Education. Accessed May 26, 2008; National Science Foundation (2006). "Time to Degree of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients," "InfoBrief, Science Resource Statistics" NSF 06-312, 2006, p. 7. (under "Data notes" mentions that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); San Diego County Bar Association (1969). "Ethics Opinion 1969-5". Accessed May 26, 2008. (under "other references" discusses differences between academic and professional doctorate, and statement that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); University of Utah (2006). University of Utah – The Graduate School – Graduate Handbook. Accessed May 28, 2008. (the J.D. degree is listed under doctorate degrees); German Federal Ministry of Education. "U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher Education". Accessed May 26, 2008. (report by the German Federal Ministry of Education analysing the Chronicle of Higher Education from the U.S. and stating that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); Encyclopedia Britannica. (2002). "Encyclopedia Britannica", 3:962:1a. (the J.D. is listed among other doctorate degrees). and some J.D. holders in the United States use the title of "Doctor" in professional American Bar Association. Model Code of Professional Responsibility, Disciplinary Rule 2-102(E). Cornell University Law School, LLI. Accessed February 10, 2009. Peter H. Geraghty. Are There Any Doctors Or Associates In the House?. American Bar Association, 2007. and academic situations. E.g. University of Montana School of Business Administration. Profile of Dr. Michael Harrington. University of Montana, 2006. See also Distance Learning Discussion Forums. New wrinkle in the "Is the JD a doctorate?" debate. Distance Learning Discussion Forums, 2003-2005. In countries where holders of the first law degree traditionally use the title of doctor (e.g. Peru, Brazil, Macau, Portugal, Argentina, and Italy), E.g. Peru: Hernandez & Cia. Accessed February 16, 2009; Brazil: Abdo & Diniz. Accessed February 16, 2009 (see Spanish or Portuguese profile pages); Macau: Macau Lawyers Association. Accessed February 16, 2009; Portugal: Alves Periera Teixeira de Sousa. Accessed February 16, 2009; Argentina: Lareo & Paz. Accessed February 16, 2009; and Italy Studio Misuraca, Franceschin and Associates. Accessed February 16, 2009. J.D. holders who are attorneys will often use the title of doctor as well. E.g. Dr. Ronald Charles Wolf. Accessed February 16, 2009. Florida Bar News. Debate over 'doctor of law' title continues. Florida Bar Association, July 1, 2006. It is not uncommon for English-language lawyers, especially in the United States, to use the honorific suffix "Esq." (for "Esquire"), irrespective of whether the lawyer is male or female. See the "Esquire" article in the English Wikipedia, particularly the "United States" section in that article. In many Asian countries, the proper title for a lawyer is simply, "lawyer", but holders of the Juris Doctor degree are also called "博士" (doctor). Google Translate; The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary. (2002). Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Beijing.; Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (Chinese-English). (2006). Pearson Education, Hong Kong, 2006. Also see The Morrison & Foerster law firm website, one of the largest law firms in Asia and the United States, for an example of usage. See also Ambulance chaser (derogatory) Advocate Advokat Attorney at law Barrister, pupil barrister Corporate lawyer Counsel Counsellor Court dress Esquire Fiduciary Law broker Law firm Legal Executive considered a lawyer in England and Wales Legalese Licensed Conveyancer considered a lawyer in England and Wales and Australia List of jurists Notary public Scrivener Practice of law Prosecutor Public defender Rules lawyer (derogatory) Shyster (derogatory) Solicitor, trainee solicitor St. Ivo of Kermartin (patron saint of lawyers) Notes External links Internation Bar Association | Lawyer |@lemmatized lawyer:202 accord:6 black:3 law:184 dictionary:6 person:7 learn:4 attorney:16 counsel:8 solicitor:26 license:15 practice:49 henry:2 campbell:2 ed:35 st:3 paul:2 west:1 publish:2 co:3 system:14 rule:13 conduct:2 establish:2 sovereign:1 government:14 society:22 correct:1 wrong:2 maintain:2 stability:1 deliver:1 justice:17 work:17 involve:4 practical:3 application:2 abstract:3 legal:127 theory:3 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4,242 | Omnipotence | Omnipotence (from Latin: Omni Potens: "all power") is unlimited power. Monotheistic religions generally attribute omnipotence to only the deity of whichever faith is being addressed. In the philosophies of most Western monotheistic religions, omnipotence is often listed as one of a deity's characteristics among many, including omniscience, omnipresence, and omnibenevolence. Meanings of omnipotence Between people of different faiths, or indeed between people of the same faith, the term omnipotent has been used to connote a number of different positions. These positions include, but are not limited to, the following: A deity is able to do anything that is logically possible for it to do For example, Aquinas Summa Theologica . A deity is able to do anything that it chooses to do eg St Augustine City of God . A deity is able to do anything that is in accord with its own nature (thus, for instance, if it is a logical consequence of a deity's nature that what it speaks is truth, then it is not able to lie). Hold that it is part of a deity's nature to be consistent and that it would be inconsistent for said deity to go against its own laws unless there was a reason to do so. This is a consistent theme of Polkinghorne's work, see eg Polkinghorne's Science and Religion. A deity is able to do anything that corresponds with its omniscience and therefore with its worldplan A deity is able to do absolutely anything, even the logically impossible. Under many philosophical definitions of the term "deity", senses 2, 3 and 4 can be shown to be equivalent. However, on all understandings of omnipotence, it is generally held that a deity is able to intervene in the world by superseding the laws of physics, since they are not part of its nature, but the principles on which it has created the physical world. However many modern scholars (such as John Polkinghorne) hold that it is part of a deity's nature to be consistent and that it would be inconsistent for a deity to go against its own laws unless there were an overwhelming reason to do so. Scholastic definition Thomas Aquinas acknowledged difficulty in comprehending a deity's power. Aquinas wrote that while "all confess that God is omnipotent...it seems difficult to explain in what God's omnipotence precisely consists." In the scholastic understanding, omnipotence is generally understood to be compatible with certain limitations upon a deity's power, as opposed to implying infinite abilities. There are certain things that even an omnipotent deity cannot do. Medieval theologians drew attention to some fairly trivial examples of restrictions upon the power of a deity. The statement "a deity can do anything" is only sensible with an assumed suppressed clause, "that implies the perfection of true power." This standard scholastic answer allows that creaturely acts such as walking can be performed by humans but not by a deity. Rather than an advantage in power, human acts such as walking, sitting or giving birth were possible only because of a defect in human power. The ability to 'sin', for example, is not a power but a defect or an infirmity. In response to questions of a deity performing impossibilities (such as making square circles) Aquinas says that "Nothing which implies contradiction falls under the omnipotence of God." In recent times, C. S. Lewis has adopted a scholastic position in the course of his work The Problem of Pain. Lewis follows Aquinas' view on contradiction: Rejection or limitation of omnipotence Some monotheists reject the view that a deity is or could be omnipotent, or take the view that, by choosing to create creatures with freewill, a deity has chosen to limit divine omnipotence. In Conservative and Reform Judaism, and some movements within Protestant Christianity, including process theology and open theism, deities are said to act in the world through persuasion, and not by coercion (for open theism, this is a matter of choice--a deity could act miraculously, and perhaps on occasion does so--while for process theism it is a matter of necessity--creatures have inherent powers that a deity cannot, even in principle, override). Deities are manifested in the world through inspiration and the creation of possibility, not necessarily by miracles or violations of the laws of nature. The rejection of omnipotence often follows from either philosophical or scriptural considerations, discussed below. Philosophical grounds Process theology rejects unlimited omnipotence on a philosophical basis, arguing that omnipotence as classically understood would be less than perfect, and is therefore incompatible with the idea of a perfect deity. The idea is grounded in Plato's oft-overlooked statement that "Being is power." From this premise, Charles Hartshorne argues further that: The argument can be stated as follows: 1) If a being exists, then it must have some active tendency 2) If a being has some active tendency, then it has some power to resist its creator 3) If a being has the power to resist its creator, then the creator does not have absolute power For example, though someone might control a lump of jelly-pudding almost completely, the inability of that pudding to stage any resistance renders that person's power rather unimpressive. Power can only be said to be great if it is over something that has defenses and its own agenda. If a deity's power is to be great, it must therefore be over beings that have at last some of their own defenses and agenda. Thus, if a deity does not have absolute power, it must therefore embody some of the characteristics of power, and some of the characteristics of persuasion. This view is known as dipolar theism. The most popular works espousing this point are from Harold Kushner (in Judaism). The need for a modified view of omnipotence was also articulated by Alfred North Whitehead in the early 20th century and expanded upon by the aforementioned philosopher Charles Hartshorne. Hartshorne proceeded within the context of the theological system known as process theology. Scriptural grounds In the Authorized King James Version of the Bible, as well as several other versions, in Revelation 19:6 it is stated "...the Lord God omnipotent reigneth" (the original Greek word is παντοκράτωρ, "all-mighty" Strong's Greek Dictionary: 3841. pantokrator (pan-tok-rat'-ore) ). Although much of the narrative of the Old Testament describes the Christian God as interacting with creation primarily through persuasion, and only occasionally through force. In New Testament text Paul's assertion implies that 'God's power is limited to portraying only truth'. . Thus, it is argued, there is no scriptural reason to adhere to omnipotence, and the adoption of the doctrine is merely a result of the synthesis of Hellenic and early Christian thought. However, it could further be argued that the ability to conflict with truth is not an appropriate representation of accepted definitions of power, which negates the assertion that a deity does not have infinite powers. Many other verses in the Christian bible do assert omnipotence of its deity without actually using the word itself. There are several mentions of the Christian deity being referred to as simply "Almighty", showing that the Christian bible supports the belief of an omnipotent deity. Some such verses are listed below: Psalms 33:8-9: Let all the earth fear the LORD: let all the inhabitants of the world stand in awe of him. For he spoke, and it was done; he commanded, and it stood fast. Genesis 17:1: And when Abram was ninety years old and nine, the LORD appeared to Abram, and said unto him, I am the Almighty God; walk before me, and be thou perfect. (The Hebrew word used here is "shadday" Strong's Hebrew Dictionary: 7706. Shadday (shad-dah'-ee) ) Jeremiah 32:27: Behold, I am the LORD, the God of all flesh: is there any thing too hard for me? At his command a storm arose and covered the sea. (Psalm 107:25) Paradoxes of omnipotence Belief that a deity can do absolutely anything can be thought to yield certain logical paradoxes. A simple example goes as follows: Can a deity create a rock so heavy that even the deity itself cannot lift it? If so, then the rock is now unliftable, limiting the deity's power. But if not, then the deity is still not omnipotent because it cannot create that rock. This question cannot be answered using formal logic due to its self-referential nature. See liar paradox and Godel's incompleteness theorem. This problem led in the High Middle Ages to developing the concept of mathematical infinity, and laid the basis for infinitesimal calculus. Combining omnipotence with omniscience can yield the difficulty of whether or not a deity can pose a question to which the deity would not know the answer. Augustine, in his City of God, argued that a deity could not do anything that would make it non-omnipotent: For He is called omnipotent on account of His doing what He wills, not on account of His suffering what He wills not; for if that should befall Him, He would by no means be omnipotent. Wherefore, He cannot do some things for the very reason that He is omnipotent. City of God, Book 5, Chapter 10 Thus Augustine argued that a deity could not do anything or create any situation that would in effect limit the omnipotence of itself. Others have argued that (alluding to C.S. Lewis' argument above), that when talking about omnipotence, referencing "a rock so heavy that a deity cannot lift it" is nonsense just as much as referencing "a square circle." So asking "Can a deity create a rock so heavy that even he cannot lift it?" is just as much nonsense as asking "Can a deity draw a square circle?" Therefore the question (and therefore the perceived paradox) is meaningless. Another such response is that by definition an omnipotent being is set free from the grip of what is logically possible. An omnipotent being therefore would not be subject to what is logically possible. In this sense, an omnipotent being could create a rock that even itself could not lift, then lift it. An omnipotent being could also not exist and exist at the same time at any time. A being with knowledge of the concept of omnipotence could then see that omnipotence is by no way limited by logic. Furthermore arguments in relation to a deity as a creator have been made that a creator of logic itself would not be subject to its creation and thus again could create a rock that even itself could not lift, then lift it. Uncertainty and other views All the above stated claims of power are each based on scriptual grounds and upon empirical human perception. This perception is limited to our senses. The power of a deity is related to its existence; for more info on the proof on the existence of God and methods see Existence of God.There are however other ways of perception like: reason, intuition, revelation, divine inspiration, religious experience, mystical states, and historical testimony. According to the Hindu philosophy the essence of God or Brahman can never be understood or known since Brahman is beyond both existence and non-existence, transcending and including time, causation and space, and thus can never be known in the same material sense as one traditionally 'understands' a given concept or object. brahmano hi pratisthaham, Bhagavad Gita 14.27 So presuming there is a god-like entity consciently taking actions, we cannot comprehend the limits of a deity's powers. Since this article deals on the all power of a deity, it would be logic to assign deities to both sexes. Since having only one sex would make a deity less powerful and thus no longer all-powerful. This article is also not (only) on omnipotence of the biblical God, there are other monotheistic religions who consider their God having both sexes (Shaktism, Shaivism, Vaishnavism). These aspects are not meant literally, but are aspects of divinity to illustrate a duality just as the Tao in Taoism consists of Yin and Yang. Also an anthropocentric perspective seems at odds with many philosophers, such as Plato, Aristotle, Spinoza, Leibniz, etc,. Since the current laws of physics are only known to be valid in this universe, it is possible that the laws of physics are different in parallel universes, giving a God-like entity, more power. If the number of universes is unlimited, then the power of a certain God-like entity is also unlimited, since the laws of physics may be different in other universes, and accordingly String Theory and Parallel universes making this entity omnipotent. Unfortunately concerning a multiverse there is a lack of empirical correlation. To the extreme there are theories about realms beyond this multiverse (Nirvana, Chaos, Nothingness). Also trying to develop a theory to explain, assign or reject omnipotence on grounds of logic has little merit, since being omnipotent would mean the omnipotent being is above logic. A view supported by René Descartes Descartes' Ontological Argument He issues this idea in his Meditations on First Philosophy. Allowing assumption that a deity exists, further debate may be provoked that said deity is consciously taking actions. It could be concluded from an emanationism Catholic view on emationism Hindu view on emationism point of view, that all actions and creations by a deity are simply flows of divine energy (the flowing Tao in conjunction with qi is often seen as a river Tao Te Ching Chapter LXI Verse 140 |Comments on the Tao Te Ching ; Dharma (Buddhism) the law of nature discovered by Buddha has no beginning or end.) Pantheism and/or panentheism sees the universe/multiverse as 'the body of God', making 'God' everybody and everything. So if one does something, actually 'God' is doing it. We are 'God's' means according to this view. In the Taoist religious or philosophical tradition, the Tao is in some ways equivalent to a deity or the logos. The Tao is understood to have inexhaustible power, yet that power is simply another aspect of its weakness. Notes References Augustine, City of God and Christian Doctrine C.S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain Charles Hartshorne, Man's Vision of God Plato, Sophist Tertullian, Against Praxeas Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica Friends "The One With George Stephanopoulos" See also Problem of evil External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry "Does God Observe the Law of Contradiction? ... Should We?" by Richard Pratt, professor of Old Testament at Reformed Theological Seminary Omnipotence and Free Will in Judaism Problems with Divine Omnipotence | Omnipotence |@lemmatized omnipotence:26 latin:1 omni:1 potens:1 power:31 unlimited:4 monotheistic:3 religion:4 generally:3 attribute:1 deity:56 whichever:1 faith:3 address:1 philosophy:4 western:1 often:3 list:2 one:5 characteristic:3 among:1 many:5 include:4 omniscience:3 omnipresence:1 omnibenevolence:1 meaning:1 people:2 different:4 indeed:1 term:2 omnipotent:18 use:4 connote:1 number:2 position:3 limit:8 following:1 able:7 anything:9 logically:4 possible:5 example:5 aquinas:6 summa:2 theologica:2 choose:3 eg:2 st:1 augustine:4 city:4 god:26 accord:3 nature:8 thus:7 instance:1 logical:2 consequence:1 speak:2 truth:3 lie:1 hold:3 part:3 consistent:3 would:12 inconsistent:2 say:6 go:3 law:9 unless:2 reason:5 theme:1 polkinghorne:3 work:3 see:7 science:1 correspond:1 therefore:7 worldplan:1 absolutely:2 even:7 impossible:1 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4,243 | Carolyn_Beug | Carolyn Ann Mayer-Beug (1953–September 11 2001) was a filmmaker and video producer from Santa Monica, California. She was killed at the age of 48 in the crash of American Airlines Flight 11 in the September 11, 2001 attacks. She won an award for the Van Halen music video to their song "Right Now," which she produced. At the time of her death, Carolyn Beug was working on a children's book about Noah's Ark which was to be told from Noah's wife's point of view. On the plane with her was her mother, Mary Alice Wahlstrom. Beug was survived by her twin eighteen-year-old daughters Lauren and Lindsey Mayer-Beug, her 13-year-old son, Nicky, and her husband, John Beug, a senior vice president in charge of filmed production for Warner Brothers' record division. She was returning home from taking her daughters to college at the Rhode Island School of Design. Beug also directed two Dwight Yoakum videos "Ain't That Lonely Yet" (which was filmed in Los Angeles, California the day of the 1993 World Trade Center bombings) and "Thousand Miles from Nowhere." She lived in a Tudor-style home in the North 25th Street neighborhood. She hosted an annual backyard barbecue for the Santa Monica High School girls track team, which her daughters captained. Carolyn was a Latter-day Saint. External links Internet Movie Database profile Van Halen News Desk article | Carolyn_Beug |@lemmatized carolyn:3 ann:1 mayer:2 beug:6 september:2 filmmaker:1 video:2 producer:1 santa:2 monica:2 california:2 kill:1 age:1 crash:1 american:1 airline:1 flight:1 attack:1 win:1 award:1 van:2 halen:2 music:1 song:1 right:1 produce:1 time:1 death:1 work:1 child:1 book:1 noah:2 ark:1 tell:1 wife:1 point:1 view:1 plane:1 mother:1 mary:1 alice:1 wahlstrom:1 survive:1 twin:1 eighteen:1 year:2 old:2 daughter:3 lauren:1 lindsey:1 son:1 nicky:1 husband:1 john:1 senior:1 vice:1 president:1 charge:1 filmed:1 production:1 warner:1 brother:1 record:1 division:1 return:1 home:2 take:1 college:1 rhode:1 island:1 school:2 design:1 also:1 direct:1 two:1 dwight:1 yoakum:1 videos:1 lonely:1 yet:1 film:1 los:1 angeles:1 day:2 world:1 trade:1 center:1 bombing:1 thousand:1 mile:1 nowhere:1 live:1 tudor:1 style:1 north:1 street:1 neighborhood:1 host:1 annual:1 backyard:1 barbecue:1 high:1 girl:1 track:1 team:1 captain:1 latter:1 saint:1 external:1 link:1 internet:1 movie:1 database:1 profile:1 news:1 desk:1 article:1 |@bigram santa_monica:2 monica_california:1 van_halen:2 noah_ark:1 vice_president:1 rhode_island:1 los_angeles:1 external_link:1 |
4,244 | Gas_giant | Our solar system's four gas giants against the Sun's limb, to scale A gas giant (sometimes also known as a Jovian planet after the planet Jupiter, or giant planet) is a large planet that is not primarily composed of rock or other solid matter. There are four gas giants in our Solar System: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Many extrasolar gas giants have been identified orbiting other stars. Gas giants can be subdivided into different types. The "traditional" gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, are composed primarily of hydrogen and helium. Uranus and Neptune are sometimes considered a separate subclass called ice giants, as they are mostly composed of water, ammonia, and methane; the hydrogen and helium in Uranus and Neptune is mostly in the outermost region. Among extrasolar planets, Hot Jupiters are gas giants that orbit very close to their stars and thus have a very high surface temperature; perhaps due to the relative ease of detecting them, Hot Jupiters are currently the most common form of extrasolar planet known. Gas giants are commonly described as lacking a solid surface, although a more accurate description is to say that they lack a clearly-defined surface. Although they have rocky or metallic cores - in fact, such a core is thought to be required for a gas giant to form - the majority of the mass of Jupiter and Saturn is hydrogen and helium. In the planet's upper layers, these elements are gaseous, as they are on Earth, but further down in the planet's interior, they become compressed into liquids or solids, which become denser toward the core. Similarly, although the majority of Uranus and Neptune is icy, the extreme heat and pressure of these planets' interiors put the ices into less familiar physical states. Therefore, one cannot "land on" gas giants in a traditional sense. Terms such as diameter, surface area, volume, surface temperature, and surface density may refer only to the outermost layer visible from space. Relative masses of the gas giants of the Solar System Common features The four solar system gas giants share a number of features. All have atmospheres that are mostly hydrogen and helium and that blend into the liquid interior at pressures greater than the critical pressure. On Jupiter and Saturn there is no clear boundary between atmosphere and body, but on Uranus and Neptune some models show that the boundary could indeed be sharp. In this regard, our four gas giants exemplify the classic "matter phase-gradient" in the materials sciences. They have very hot interiors, ranging from about 7,000 kelvin (K) for Uranus and Neptune to over 20,000 K for Jupiter. This great heat means that beneath their atmospheres the planets are most likely entirely fluid (liquid or supercritical). Thus, when discussions refer to a "rocky core," one should not picture a ball of solid rock. Rather, what is meant is a region in which the concentration of heavier elements such as iron and nickel is greater than that in the rest of the planet. West bands or stripes are prominent on Jupiter, muted on Saturn and Neptune, and barely detectable on Uranus. All four planets are accompanied by elaborate systems of rings and moons. Saturn's rings are the most spectacular and were the only ones known before the 1970s. , Jupiter has the largest number of known moons with sixty-three. Belt-zone circulation The bands seen in the Jovian atmosphere are due to counter-circulating streams of material called zones and belts, encircling the planet parallel to its equator. The zones are the lighter bands, and are at higher altitudes in the atmosphere. They have internal updraft, and are high-pressure regions. The belts are the darker bands. They are lower in the atmosphere, and have internal downdraft. They are low-pressure regions. These structures are somewhat analogous to high- and low-pressure cells in Earth's atmosphere, but they have a much different structure — latitudinal bands that circle the entire planet, as opposed to small confined cells of pressure. This appears to be a result of the rapid rotation and underlying symmetry of the planet. There are no oceans or landmasses to cause local heating, and the rotation speed is much faster than it is on Earth. There are smaller structures as well; spots of different sizes and colors. On Jupiter, the most noticeable of these features is the Great Red Spot, which has been present for at least 300 years. These structures are huge storms. Some such spots are thunderheads as well. Astronomers have observed lightning from a number of them. Jupiter and Saturn Jupiter and Saturn consist mostly of hydrogen and helium, with heavier elements making up between 3 and 13 percent of the mass. The Interior of Jupiter, Guillot et al., in Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere, Bagenal et al., editors, Cambridge University Press, 2004 Their structures are thought to consist of an outer layer of molecular hydrogen, surrounding a layer of liquid metallic hydrogen, with a probable rocky core. The outermost portion of the hydrogen atmosphere is characterized by many layers of visible clouds that are mostly composed of water and ammonia. The metallic hydrogen layer makes up the bulk of each planet, and is described as "metallic" because the great pressure turns hydrogen into an electrical conductor. The core is thought to consists of heavier elements at such high temperatures (20,000 K) and pressures that their properties are poorly understood. Uranus and Neptune Uranus and Neptune have distinctly different interior compositions from Jupiter and Saturn. Models of their interior begin with a hydrogen-rich atmosphere that extends from the cloud-tops down to about 85% of Neptune's radius and 80% of Uranus'. Below this point is predominantly "icy", composed of water, methane and ammonia. There is also some rock and gas but various proportions of ice/rock/gas could mimic pure ice so the exact proportions are unknown. Very hazy atmosphere layers with a small amount of methane gives them aquamarine colors such as baby blue and ultramarine colors respectively. Both have magnetic fields that are sharply inclined to their axes of rotation. Unlike the other gas giants, Uranus has an extreme tilt that causes its seasons to be severely pronounced. Extrasolar gas giants Because of the limited techniques currently available to detect extrasolar planets, many of those found to date have been of a size associated, in our solar system, with gas giants. Because these large planets are inferred to share more in common with Jupiter than with the other gas giant planets some have claimed that "Jovian planet" is a more accurate term for them. Many of the extrasolar planets are much closer to their parent stars and hence much hotter than gas giants in the solar system, making it possible that some of those planets are a type not observed in our solar system. Considering the relative abundances of the elements in the universe (approximately 98% hydrogen and helium) it would be surprising to find a predominantly rocky planet more massive than Jupiter. On the other hand previous models of planetary system formation suggested that gas giants would be inhibited from forming as close to their stars as have many of the new planets that have been observed. Terminology The term gas giant was coined in 1952 by the science fiction writer James Blish. Arguably it is somewhat of a misnomer, since throughout most of the volume of these planets all the components (other than solid materials in the core) are above the critical point and therefore there is no distinction between liquids and gases. Fluid planet would be a more accurate term. Jupiter is an exceptional case, having metallic hydrogen near the center, but much of its volume is hydrogen, helium and traces of other gases above their critical points. The observable atmospheres of any of these planets (at less than unit optical depth) are quite thin compared to the planetary radii, only extending perhaps one percent of the way to the center. Thus the observable portions are gaseous (in contrast to Mars and Earth, which have gaseous atmospheres through which the crust may be seen). The rather misleading term has caught on because planetary scientists typically use "rock", "gas", and "ice" as shorthands for classes of elements and compounds commonly found as planetary constituents, irrespective of what phase they appear in. In the outer solar system, hydrogen and helium are "gases"; water, methane, and ammonia are "ices"; and silicates and metals are rock. When deep planetary interiors are considered, it may not be far off to say that, by "ice" astronomers mean oxygen and carbon, by "rock" they mean silicon, and by "gas" they mean hydrogen and helium. The alternative term Jovian planet refers to the Roman god Jupiter—a form of which is Jovis, hence Jovian—and was intended to indicate that all of these planets were similar to Jupiter. However, the many ways in which Uranus and Neptune differ from Jupiter and Saturn have led some to use the term only for the latter two. With this terminology in mind, some astronomers are starting to refer to Uranus and Neptune as "ice giants" to indicate the apparent predominance of the "ices" (in liquid form) in their interior composition. See also Appearance of extrasolar planets Chthonian planet Hot Jupiter Planetary system Solar System Terrestrial planet Brown dwarf, occupy the mass range between that of large gas giant planets and the lowest mass stars Notes References Episode "Giants" on The Science Channel TV show Planets SPACE.com: Q&A: The IAU's Proposed Planet Definition 16 August 2006 2:00 am ET BBC News: Q&A New planets proposal Wednesday, 16 August 2006, 13:36 GMT 14:36 UK External links SPACE.com: Q&A: The IAU's Proposed Planet Definition 16 August 2006 2:00 am ET BBC News: Q&A New planets proposal Wednesday, 16 August 2006, 13:36 GMT 14:36 UK Gas Giants in Science Fiction: List | Gas_giant |@lemmatized solar:9 system:12 four:5 gas:29 giant:26 sun:1 limb:1 scale:1 sometimes:2 also:3 know:3 jovian:5 planet:37 jupiter:23 large:4 primarily:2 compose:5 rock:7 solid:5 matter:2 saturn:10 uranus:13 neptune:12 many:6 extrasolar:7 identify:1 orbit:2 star:5 subdivide:1 different:4 type:2 traditional:2 hydrogen:16 helium:9 consider:3 separate:1 subclass:1 call:2 ice:9 mostly:5 water:4 ammonia:4 methane:4 outermost:3 region:4 among:1 hot:5 close:2 thus:3 high:5 surface:6 temperature:3 perhaps:2 due:2 relative:3 ease:1 detect:2 currently:2 common:3 form:5 commonly:2 describe:2 lack:2 although:3 accurate:3 description:1 say:2 clearly:1 define:1 rocky:4 metallic:5 core:7 fact:1 think:3 require:1 majority:2 mass:5 upper:1 layer:7 element:6 gaseous:3 earth:4 far:2 interior:9 become:2 compress:1 liquid:6 denser:1 toward:1 similarly:1 icy:2 extreme:2 heat:2 pressure:9 put:1 less:2 familiar:1 physical:1 state:1 therefore:2 one:4 cannot:1 land:1 sense:1 term:7 diameter:1 area:1 volume:3 density:1 may:3 refer:3 visible:2 space:3 feature:3 share:2 number:3 atmosphere:12 blend:1 great:5 critical:3 clear:1 boundary:2 body:1 model:3 show:2 could:2 indeed:1 sharp:1 regard:1 exemplify:1 classic:1 phase:2 gradient:1 material:3 science:4 range:2 kelvin:1 k:3 mean:5 beneath:1 likely:1 entirely:1 fluid:2 supercritical:1 discussion:1 picture:1 ball:1 rather:2 concentration:1 heavy:3 iron:1 nickel:1 rest:1 west:1 band:5 stripe:1 prominent:1 mute:1 barely:1 detectable:1 accompany:1 elaborate:1 ring:2 moon:2 spectacular:1 known:1 sixty:1 three:1 belt:3 zone:3 circulation:1 see:3 counter:1 circulate:1 stream:1 encircle:1 parallel:1 equator:1 light:1 altitude:1 internal:2 updraft:1 darker:1 lower:1 downdraft:1 low:3 structure:5 somewhat:2 analogous:1 cell:2 much:5 latitudinal:1 circle:1 entire:1 oppose:1 small:3 confined:1 appear:2 result:1 rapid:1 rotation:3 underlying:1 symmetry:1 ocean:1 landmass:1 cause:2 local:1 heating:1 speed:1 fast:1 well:2 spot:3 size:2 color:3 noticeable:1 red:1 present:1 least:1 year:1 huge:1 storm:1 thunderhead:1 astronomer:3 observe:3 lightning:1 consist:2 make:3 percent:2 guillot:1 et:4 al:2 satellite:1 magnetosphere:1 bagenal:1 editor:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 molecular:1 surround:1 probable:1 portion:2 characterize:1 cloud:2 bulk:1 turn:1 electrical:1 conductor:1 consists:1 property:1 poorly:1 understood:1 distinctly:1 composition:2 begin:1 rich:1 extend:2 top:1 radius:2 point:3 predominantly:2 various:1 proportion:2 mimic:1 pure:1 exact:1 unknown:1 hazy:1 amount:1 give:1 aquamarine:1 baby:1 blue:1 ultramarine:1 respectively:1 magnetic:1 field:1 sharply:1 incline:1 ax:1 unlike:1 tilt:1 season:1 severely:1 pronounced:1 limited:1 technique:1 available:1 find:3 date:1 associate:1 infer:1 planets:2 claim:1 closer:1 parent:1 hence:2 possible:1 abundance:1 universe:1 approximately:1 would:3 surprising:1 massive:1 hand:1 previous:1 planetary:6 formation:1 suggest:1 inhibit:1 new:3 terminology:2 coin:1 fiction:2 writer:1 james:1 blish:1 arguably:1 misnomer:1 since:1 throughout:1 component:1 distinction:1 exceptional:1 case:1 near:1 center:2 trace:1 observable:2 unit:1 optical:1 depth:1 quite:1 thin:1 compare:1 way:2 contrast:1 mar:1 crust:1 misleading:1 catch:1 scientist:1 typically:1 use:2 shorthand:1 class:1 compound:1 constituent:1 irrespective:1 outer:1 silicate:1 metal:1 deep:1 oxygen:1 carbon:1 silicon:1 alternative:1 refers:1 roman:1 god:1 jovis:1 intend:1 indicate:2 similar:1 however:1 differ:1 lead:1 latter:1 two:1 mind:1 start:1 apparent:1 predominance:1 appearance:1 chthonian:1 terrestrial:1 brown:1 dwarf:1 occupy:1 note:1 reference:1 episode:1 channel:1 tv:1 com:2 q:4 iau:2 propose:2 definition:2 august:4 bbc:2 news:2 proposal:2 wednesday:2 gmt:2 uk:2 external:1 link:1 list:1 |@bigram jupiter_saturn:8 saturn_uranus:1 uranus_neptune:10 ammonia_methane:1 extrasolar_planet:5 outermost_layer:1 et_al:2 poorly_understood:1 methane_ammonia:2 magnetic_field:1 science_fiction:2 james_blish:1 bbc_news:2 external_link:1 |
4,245 | Einhard | Einhard as scribe Einhard (also Eginhard or Einhart) (c. 775 – March 14, 840 in Seligenstadt, Germany) was a Frankish courtier, a dedicated servant of Charlemagne, of whom he wrote his famous biography, Vita Karoli Magni, and Louis the Pious. Public Life Einhard was from the eastern German-speaking part of the Frankish Kingdom. Born into a family of relatively low status, his parents sent him to be educated by the monks of Fulda - one of the most impressive centres of learning in the Frankish lands - perhaps due to his small stature (Einhard referred to himself as a "tiny manlet") which restricted his riding and sword-fighting ability, Einhard concentrated his energies towards scholarship and especially to the mastering of Latin. Despite such humble origins, he was accepted into the hugely wealthy court of Charlemagne around 791 or 792. Charlemagne actively sought to amass scholarly men around him and established a royal school led by the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin. Alcuin evidently was a talented builder and construction manager, because Charlemagne put him in charge of the completion of several palace complexes including Aachen and Ingelheim. Despite the fact that Einhard was on intimate terms with Charlemagne, he never achieved office in his reign. In 814, on Charlemagne's death his son Louis the Pious made Einhard his private secretary. Einhard retired from court during the time of the disputes between Louis and his sons in the spring of 830. Private Life Einhard was married to Emma who, in common with many lay-women of the period, little is known of. Though undoubtedly devoted to her, Einhard wrote nothing of his wife until her death on 13 December 835 when he wrote to a friend that he was reminded of her loss in ‘every day, in every action, in every undertaking, in all the administration of the house and household, in everything needing to be decided upon and sorted out in my religious and earthly responsibilities’. From Einhard’s letter of April 836 to Lupus of Ferrieres quoted by Julia Smith, 'Einhard', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, March 2003, pp. 55-77, p. 55. There is a possibility that their marriage bore a son, Vussin. Their marriage also appears exceptionally liberal for the period with Emma as active, if not more so, as Einhard in the handling of their property. Ibid., p. 58. In the later years of their marriage, in common with many other couples of the age, Emma and Einhard abstainted from sexual relations, choosing instead to focus their attentions on their many religious commitments. Religious Beliefs Einhard made numerous references to himself as a "sinner", a description of himself that shows his Augustinian influenced world view. Ibid., pp.60-61. To assuage such feelings of guilt he erected churches at both of his estates in Michelstadt and Mulinheim. In Michelstadt he also saw fit to build a basilica completed in 827 and then sent a servant, Ratleic, to Rome with an end to find relics for the new building. Once in Rome, Ratleic robbed a catacomb of the bones of the Martyrs Marcellinus and Peter and had them translated to Michelstadt. Once there, the relics made it known they were unhappy with their new tomb and thus had to be moved again to Mulinheim. Once established there, they proved to be miracle workers. Although unsure as to why these saints should choose such a "sinner" as their patron, Einhard nonetheless set about ensuring they continued to receive a resting place fitting of their honour. Ibid., p. 67. It has been contended that in the last decade of his life Einhard's strong religious beliefs led to him retiring to a monastery. However, his letters from this period show his maintained contact with those he had met in court and Julia Smith has claimed the tone of these letters are not as religious in character as would have been expected from a member of the church. Ibid., p. 69. After his death he was buried in Mulinheim (today Seligenstadt) with his wife Emma, near his beloved saints Peter and Marcellinus. Local lore Local lore from Seligenstadt portrays Einhard as the lover of Emma, one of Charlemagne's daughters, and has the couple elope from court. Charlemagne found them at Seligenstadt (then called Obermühlheim) and forgave them. This account is used to explain the name "Seligenstadt" by a folk etymology. The story has been popularised by poet Wilhelm Busch. Spessart: Der hessische Spessart | Freizeit | hr Works Einhard wrote a number of works, the most famous of which was produced at the request of Charlemagne's son and successor Louis the Pious. Most notable of these is his biography of Charlemagne, the Vita Karoli Magni, "The Life of Charlemagne" (c. 817–836), which provides much direct information about Charlemagne's life and character. In composing this he relied heavily upon the Annals of the Frankish Kingdom. Einhard's literary model was the classical work of the Roman historian Suetonius, the Lives of the Caesars. His work was written as a praise of Charlemagne, whom he regarded as a foster-father and to whom he was a debtor "in life and death". The work thus contains an understandable degree of bias, Einhard taking care to exculpate Charlemagne in some matters, not mention others, and to gloss over certain issues which would be of embarrassment to Charlemagne, such as the morality of his daughters. However, it is from this work that historians gain a picture of Charlemagne as a powerful warrior king whose great belief in God led to many reverential visits to Rome. See also Royal Frankish Annals References External links Vita Karoli Magni -- Einhard's Life of Charlemagne, Latin text at The Latin Library Early Lives of Charlemagne -- Einhard's Life of Charlemage and an anonymous monk of St. Gall's Life of Charlemagne. 1922 English translation by Arthur James Grant, London : Chatto & Windus, via Internet Archive. Life of Charlemagne -- Einhard's Life of Charlemagne, 19th century English translation by Samuel Epes Turner Einhard at the Catholic Encyclopedia Einhard-Preis Literature prize awarded by the Einhard-Foundation of Seligenstadt to authors for writing an outstanding biography Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes | Einhard |@lemmatized einhard:27 scribe:1 also:4 eginhard:1 einhart:1 c:2 march:2 seligenstadt:6 germany:1 frankish:5 courtier:1 dedicated:1 servant:2 charlemagne:21 write:6 famous:2 biography:3 vita:3 karoli:3 magni:3 louis:4 pious:3 public:1 life:13 eastern:1 german:1 speak:1 part:1 kingdom:2 bear:1 family:1 relatively:1 low:1 status:1 parent:1 send:2 educate:1 monk:2 fulda:1 one:2 impressive:1 centre:1 learn:1 land:1 perhaps:1 due:1 small:1 stature:1 refer:1 tiny:1 manlet:1 restrict:1 riding:1 sword:1 fighting:1 ability:1 concentrate:1 energy:1 towards:1 scholarship:1 especially:1 mastering:1 latin:3 despite:2 humble:1 origin:1 accept:1 hugely:1 wealthy:1 court:4 around:2 actively:1 seek:1 amass:1 scholarly:1 men:1 establish:2 royal:3 school:1 lead:3 northumbrian:1 scholar:1 alcuin:2 evidently:1 talented:1 builder:1 construction:1 manager:1 put:1 charge:1 completion:1 several:1 palace:1 complex:1 include:1 aachen:1 ingelheim:1 fact:1 intimate:1 term:1 never:1 achieve:1 office:1 reign:1 death:4 son:4 make:3 private:2 secretary:1 retire:2 time:1 dispute:1 spring:1 marry:1 emma:5 common:2 many:4 lay:1 woman:1 period:3 little:1 know:1 though:1 undoubtedly:1 devote:1 nothing:1 wife:2 december:1 friend:1 remind:1 loss:1 every:3 day:1 action:1 undertaking:1 administration:1 house:1 household:1 everything:1 needing:1 decide:1 upon:2 sort:1 religious:5 earthly:1 responsibility:1 letter:3 april:1 lupus:1 ferrieres:1 quote:1 julia:2 smith:2 transaction:1 historical:1 society:1 pp:2 p:4 possibility:1 marriage:3 bore:1 vussin:1 appear:1 exceptionally:1 liberal:1 active:1 handling:1 property:1 ibid:4 late:1 year:1 couple:2 age:1 abstainted:1 sexual:1 relation:1 choose:2 instead:1 focus:1 attention:1 commitment:1 belief:3 numerous:1 reference:2 sinner:2 description:1 show:2 augustinian:1 influenced:1 world:1 view:1 assuage:1 feeling:1 guilt:1 erect:1 church:2 estate:1 michelstadt:3 mulinheim:3 saw:1 fit:1 build:1 basilica:1 complete:1 ratleic:2 rome:3 end:1 find:2 relic:2 new:2 building:1 rob:1 catacomb:1 bone:1 martyr:1 marcellinus:2 peter:2 translate:1 known:1 unhappy:1 tomb:1 thus:2 move:1 prove:1 miracle:1 worker:1 although:1 unsure:1 saint:2 patron:1 nonetheless:1 set:1 ensure:1 continue:1 receive:1 resting:1 place:1 fitting:1 honour:1 contend:1 last:1 decade:1 strong:1 monastery:1 however:2 maintain:1 contact:1 meet:1 claim:1 tone:1 character:2 would:2 expect:1 member:1 bury:1 today:1 near:1 beloved:1 local:2 lore:2 portrays:1 lover:1 daughter:2 elope:1 call:1 obermühlheim:1 forgive:1 account:1 use:1 explain:1 name:1 folk:1 etymology:1 story:1 popularise:1 poet:1 wilhelm:1 busch:1 spessart:2 der:1 hessische:1 freizeit:1 hr:1 work:6 number:1 produce:1 request:1 successor:1 notable:1 provide:1 much:1 direct:1 information:1 compose:1 rely:1 heavily:1 annals:2 literary:1 model:1 classical:1 roman:1 historian:1 suetonius:1 caesar:1 praise:1 regard:1 foster:1 father:1 debtor:1 contain:1 understandable:1 degree:1 bias:1 take:1 care:1 exculpate:1 matter:1 mention:1 others:1 gloss:1 certain:1 issue:1 embarrassment:1 morality:1 historians:1 gain:1 picture:1 powerful:1 warrior:1 king:1 whose:1 great:1 god:1 reverential:1 visit:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 text:1 library:1 early:1 charlemage:1 anonymous:1 st:1 gall:1 english:2 translation:2 arthur:1 james:1 grant:1 london:1 chatto:1 windus:1 via:1 internet:1 archive:1 century:1 samuel:1 epes:1 turner:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 preis:1 literature:1 prize:1 award:1 foundation:1 author:1 outstanding:1 opera:1 omnia:1 migne:1 patrologia:1 latina:1 analytical:1 index:1 |@bigram vita_karoli:3 karoli_magni:3 louis_pious:3 feeling_guilt:1 resting_place:1 folk_etymology:1 wilhelm_busch:1 rely_heavily:1 external_link:1 london_chatto:1 chatto_windus:1 opera_omnia:1 omnia_migne:1 migne_patrologia:1 patrologia_latina:1 |
4,246 | Demographics_of_Malta | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Malta, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographics of Malta, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. Malta is the most densely populated country in the EU and one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with about 1,265 inhabitants per square kilometre (3,000 per square mile). This compares with about 32 per square kilometre (85 per square mile) for the United States. A census (held every 10 years) was held in November 2005. Inhabited since prehistoric times, Malta was first colonized by Sicilians. Subsequently, Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs in 870 CE The Arabs in Malta / G. Wettinger. In: Malta : Studies of its Heritage and History / ed. Mid-Med Bank (Malta, 1986), pp. 87-104. , Normans, Spanish, French and the British have influenced Maltese life and culture to varying degrees. Most of the foreign community in Malta, predominantly active or retired British nationals and their dependents, is centred on Sliema and surrounding modern suburbs. Malta has seen emigration of a large portion of their people to live elsewhere, and Maltese communities exist throughout Europe (esp. Maltese laborers who relocated in Italy, Spain, Germany, France, Sweden, the Netherlands, Greece and the United Kingdom), while larger Maltese immigrant communities are in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Brazil, Gibraltar, the United States and to a smaller extant, Puerto Rico. Roman Catholicism is established by law as the religion of Malta with 98%; however, full liberty of conscience and freedom of worship is guaranteed, and a number of faiths have places of worship on the island (extremely small sects, a combined total of 2% of the people are Protestants, Eastern Orthodox, Muslims and Jews). Malta has two official languages--Maltese (a Semitic language derived from Siculo-Arabic and heavily influenced by Sicilian and Italian), and English. Both languages are compulsory subjects in Maltese primary and secondary schools. A large portion of the population is also fluent in Italian, which was, until 1936, the national language of Malta. The literacy rate has reached 93%, compared to 63% in 1946. Schooling is compulsory until age 16. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 400,214 (2006 est.) Largest Cities: Birkirkara Mosta Qormi Żabbar San Pawl il-Baħar Sliema San Ġwann Rabat Żejtun Naxxar Age structure: 0-14 years: 17.1% (male 35,264; female 33,368) 15-64 years: 69.1% (male 139,890; female 136,767) 65 years and over: 13.7% (male 23,554; female 31,371) (2006 est.) Population growth rate: 0.42% (2006 est.) Birth rate: 10.22 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate: 8.1 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate: 2.05 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate: 3.86 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 79.01 years male: 76.83 years female: 81.31 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.5 children born/woman (2006 est.) Nationality: noun: Maltese (singular and plural) adjective: Maltese Ethnic groups: Populstat.info Maltese - 95.3% British - 1.6% Others - 3.1% Religions: Roman Catholic 98% Languages: Maltese (official), English (official) Literacy: definition: age 10 and over can read and write total population: 92.8% male: 92% female: 93.6% (2003 est.) See also Malta Culture of Malta Maltese people Maltese Italians Aging of Europe References | Demographics_of_Malta |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:12 malta:14 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 data:1 fao:1 year:11 number:2 inhabitant:2 thousand:1 densely:2 populated:2 country:2 eu:1 one:1 world:3 per:4 square:4 kilometre:2 mile:2 compare:2 united:3 state:2 census:1 hold:2 every:1 november:1 inhabit:1 since:1 prehistoric:1 time:1 first:1 colonize:1 sicilian:2 subsequently:1 phoenician:1 roman:3 byzantine:1 arab:2 ce:1 g:1 wettinger:1 study:1 heritage:1 history:1 ed:1 mid:1 med:1 bank:1 pp:1 norman:1 spanish:1 french:1 british:3 influence:2 maltese:12 life:2 culture:2 vary:1 degree:1 foreign:1 community:3 predominantly:1 active:1 retired:1 national:2 dependent:1 centre:1 sliema:2 surround:1 modern:1 suburb:1 see:2 emigration:1 large:4 portion:2 people:3 live:2 elsewhere:1 exist:1 throughout:1 europe:2 esp:1 laborer:1 relocate:1 italy:1 spain:1 germany:1 france:1 sweden:1 netherlands:1 greece:1 kingdom:1 immigrant:1 australia:1 canada:1 new:1 zealand:1 brazil:1 gibraltar:1 small:2 extant:1 puerto:1 rico:1 catholicism:1 establish:1 law:1 religion:2 however:1 full:1 liberty:1 conscience:1 freedom:1 worship:2 guarantee:1 faith:1 place:1 island:1 extremely:1 sect:1 combined:1 total:5 protestant:1 eastern:1 orthodox:1 muslim:1 jew:1 two:1 official:3 language:5 semitic:1 derive:1 siculo:1 arabic:1 heavily:1 italian:3 english:2 compulsory:2 subject:1 primary:1 secondary:1 school:1 also:2 fluent:1 literacy:2 rate:7 reach:1 schooling:1 age:4 cia:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 est:11 city:1 birkirkara:1 mosta:1 qormi:1 żabbar:1 san:2 pawl:1 il:1 baħar:1 ġwann:1 rabat:1 żejtun:1 naxxar:1 structure:1 male:10 female:10 growth:1 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 singular:1 plural:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 populstat:1 info:1 others:1 catholic:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 densely_populated:2 square_kilometre:2 puerto_rico:1 roman_catholicism:1 eastern_orthodox:1 maltese_semitic:1 siculo_arabic:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 singular_plural:1 literacy_definition:1 |
4,247 | List_of_Internet_top-level_domains | The following is a list of currently existing Internet Top-level domains (TLDs). See top-level domain for information on the concept. While the following list should be correct, there is a more definitive list on the IANA website. gTLD Entity Notes .aero air-transport industry Must verify eligibility for registration; only those in various categories of air-travel-related entities may register. .asia Asia-Pacific region This is a TLD for companies, organizations, and individuals based in the region of Asia, Australia, and the Pacific. .biz business This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register; however, registrations may be challenged later if they are not by commercial entities in accordance with the domain's charter. .cat Catalan This is a TLD for websites in the Catalan language or related to Catalan culture. .com commercial This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. .coop cooperatives The .coop TLD is limited to cooperatives as defined by the Rochdale Principles. .edu educational The .edu TLD is limited to accredited postsecondary institutions (nearly all 2 and 4-year colleges and universities in the U.S. and increasingly overseas, e.g., Australia and China). .gov U.S. governmental The .gov TLD is limited to U.S. governmental entities and agencies (mostly but not exclusively federal). .info information This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. .int international organizations The .int TLD is strictly limited to organizations, offices, and programs which are endorsed by a treaty between two or more nations. .jobs companies The .jobs TLD is designed to be added after the names of established companies with jobs to advertise. At this time, owners of a "company.jobs" domain are not permitted to post jobs of third party employers. .mil U.S. military The .mil TLD is limited to use by the U.S. military. .mobi mobile devices Must be used for mobile-compatible sites in accordance with standards. .museum museums Must be verified as a legitimate museum. .name individuals, by name This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register; however, registrations may be challenged later if they are not by individuals (or the owners of fictional characters) in accordance with the domain's charter. .net network This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. .org organization This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. .pro professions Currently, .pro is reserved for licensed or certified lawyers, accountants, physicians and engineers in France, Canada, UK and the U.S. A professional seeking to register a .pro domain must provide their registrar with the appropriate credentials. .tel Internet communication services .travel travel and tourism industry related sites Must be verified as a legitimate travel-related entity. ccTLD Country/dependency/region Notes .ac .ad .ae .af .ag .ai .al .am .an .ao .aq Defined as per the Antarctic Treaty as everything south of latitude 60°S. .ar .as .at .au Includes Ashmore and Cartier Islands and Coral Sea Islands. .aw .ax .az .ba .bb .bd .be .bf .bg .bh .bi .bj .bm .bn .bo .br .bs .bt .bv Not in use (Norwegian dependency; see .no). .bw .by .bz .ca Subject to Canadian Presence Requirements (see .ca). .cc (Australian territory: do not confuse with Cocos islands in Guam). .cd Formerly Zaire. .cf .cg .ch (Confoederatio Helvetica, Confédération helvétique) .ci .ck .cl Domain registrations require local presence in Chile. .cm A local entity/company in Cameroon is required to register a domain name. .cn Mainland China only: Hong Kong and Macau use separate TLDs. .co .cr .cu .cv .cx .cy .cz .de (Deutschland) .dj .dk .dm .do .dz (Dzayer) .ec .ee (Eesti) Only available for Estonia registered brands and companies. .eg .er .es (España) .et .eu Restricted to institutions (under the .europa.eu subdomain), companies, and individuals in the European Union (or in other overseas or autonomous regions of member countries). .fi .fj .fk .fm Used for some radio related websites outside Micronesia, notably Last.fm .fo .fr Can only be used by organisations or persons with a presence in France (including overseas). .ga .gb Seldom used; the primary ccTLD used is .uk for United Kingdom. .gd .ge .gf (See also .fr). .gg .gh .gi .gl .gm .gn .gp Still used for Saint-Barthélemy and Saint-Martin (see also .fr). .gq .gr .gs .gt .gu .gw .gy .hk Special administrative region of the People's Republic of China. .hm .hn .hr (Hrvatska) .ht .hu .id .ie (Éire) Only available for Ireland registered brands and companies. Foreign companies can register if doing business in Ireland or provide TM. .il .im .in Under INRegistry since April 2005 (except: gov.in, mil.in, ac.in, edu.in, res.in). .io .iq .ir .is (Ísland) .it Restricted to companies and individuals in the European Union. .je .jm .jo .jp .ke .kg .kh (Khmer, former Kâmpŭchea) .ki .km .kn .kp Also known as "Democratic People's Republic of Korea" (or DPRK). .kr .kw .ky .kz .la (Currently being marketed as the unofficial domain for Los Angeles). .lb Must be registered with a company in Lebanon to register .lc .li .lk .lr .ls .lt .lu .lv .ly .ma .mc .md .me .mg .mh .mk .ml .mm .mn .mo Special administrative region of the People's Republic of China. .mp .mq (See also .fr). .mr .ms .mt .mu .mv .mw .mx .my Must be registered with a company in Malaysia to register. .mz .na .nc (See also .fr). .ne .nf .ng .ni .nl First official country TLD that was assigned to a country. .no Must be registered with a company in Norway to register. .np .nr .nu Commonly used by Danish, Dutch and Swedish websites, because in those languages 'nu' means “now”. .nz .om .pa .pe .pf With Clipperton Island (See also .fr). .pg .ph .pk .pl .pm .pn .pr .ps PA-controlled West Bank and Gaza Strip. .pt Only available for Portuguese registered brands and companies. .pw .py .qa .re (See also .fr) .ro .rs (See also former .yu still in use). .ru (See also former .su still in use). .rw .sa .sb .sc .sd .se .sg .sh .si .sj and Islands Not in use (Norwegian dependencies; see .no). .sk .sl .sm .sn .so .sr .st .su former Still in use. .sv .sy .sz .tc .td .tf Seldom used (see also .fr). .tg .th .tj .tk Also used as a free domain service to the public. .tl Old code .tp is still in use. .tm .tn .to .tp ISO code has changed to TL; .tl is now assigned but .tp is still in use. .tr .tt .tv Much used by television broadcasters. Also sold as advertising domains. .tw , Republic of China Used in the Republic of China, namely Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu. .tz .ua .ug .uk .us (Commonly used by U.S. State and local governments instead of .gov TLD). .uy .uz .va .vc .ve .vg .vi .vn .vu .wf (See also .fr). .ws Formerly Western Samoa. .ye .yt (See also .fr). .yu Now used for Serbia and Montenegro. .za (Zuid-Afrika). .zm .zw IDNA TLD The IDNA TLDs have been added for the purpose of testing the use of IDNA at the top level, and are likely to be temporary. Each of the eleven TLDs encodes a word meaning "test" in some language. See the ICANN announcement of 15 October 2007 and the IDN TLD evaluation gateway. Language Word .xn--0zwm56d simplified Chinese (Han script) 测试. (ICANN’s example.test: http://例子.测试/) .xn--11b5bs3a9aj6g Hindi (Devanagari script) परीक्षा. (ICANN’s example.test: http://उदाहरण.परीक्षा/) .xn--80akhbyknj4f Russian (Cyrillic script) испытание. (ICANN’s example.test: http://пример.испытание/) .xn--9t4b11yi5a Korean (Hangul script) 테스트. (ICANN’s example.test: http://실례.테스트/) .xn--deba0ad Yiddish (Hebrew script) טעסט. (ICANN’s example.test: http://בײַשפּיל.טעסט/) .xn--g6w251d traditional Chinese (Han script) 測試. (ICANN’s example.test: http://例子.測試/) .xn--hgbk6aj7f53bba Persian (Arabic script) آزمایشی. (ICANN’s example.test: http://مثال.آزمایشی/) .xn--hlcj6aya9esc7a Tamil (Tamil script) பரிட்சை. (ICANN’s example.test: http://உதாரணம்.பரிட்சை/) .xn--jxalpdlp Greek (Greek script) δοκιμή. (ICANN’s example.test: http://παράδειγμα.δοκιμή/) .xn--kgbechtv Arabic (Arabic script) إختبار. (ICANN’s example.test: http://مثال.إختبار/) .xn--zckzah Japanese (Kanji, Hiragana, Katakana scripts) テスト. (ICANN’s example.test : http://例え.テスト/) Other Entity Notes .arpa Address and Routing Parameter Area This is an internet infrastructure TLD. See also Generic top-level domain Country code top-level domain Proposed top-level domain ISO 3166-1 alpha-2, the standard for two-letter country codes which most ccTLDs are based on External links IANA's information on TLDs IANA's information on ccTLDs The Internet Domain Survey | List_of_Internet_top-level_domains |@lemmatized following:2 list:3 currently:3 exist:1 internet:4 top:6 level:6 domain:15 tlds:5 see:17 information:4 concept:1 correct:1 definitive:1 iana:3 website:4 gtld:1 entity:13 note:3 aero:1 air:2 transport:1 industry:2 must:8 verify:3 eligibility:1 registration:4 various:1 category:1 travel:4 related:2 may:3 register:19 asia:3 pacific:2 region:6 tld:19 company:14 organization:4 individual:5 base:2 australia:2 biz:1 business:2 open:6 person:7 permit:7 however:2 challenge:2 later:2 commercial:2 accordance:3 charter:2 cat:1 catalan:3 language:4 relate:3 culture:1 com:1 coop:2 cooperatives:1 limit:5 cooperative:1 define:2 rochdale:1 principle:1 edu:3 educational:1 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kong_macau:1 europa_eu:1 saint_barthélemy:1 barthélemy_saint:1 los_angeles:1 clipperton_island:1 gaza_strip:1 serbia_montenegro:1 devanagari_script:1 क_ष:2 cyrillic_script:1 hiragana_katakana:1 external_link:1 |
4,248 | Misandry | Misandry (IPA ) is hatred (or contempt) of men or boys. It is parallel to misogyny, the hatred of women. Misandry (μισανδρία) comes from Greek misos (μῖσος, "hatred") and anēr, andros (ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός; "man"). Misandry in literature Misandry in ancient Greek literature Classics professor Froma Zeitlin of Princeton University discussed misandry in her article titled "Patterns of Gender in Aeschylean Drama: Seven against Thebes and the Danaid Trilogy." She writes: Misandry and literary criticism In his book, Gender and Judaism: The transformation of tradition, Harry Brod, a Professor of Philosophy and Humanities in the Department of Philosophy and Religion at the University of Northern Iowa, writes: Julie M. Thompson, a feminist author, connects misandry with envy of men, in particular "penis envy", a term coined by Sigmund Freud in 1908, in his theory of female sexual development. Emphasis added. Julie M. Thompson, Mommy Queerest: Contemporary Rhetorics of Lesbian Maternal Identity, (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002). Kate Millet, feminist author of Sexual Politics, proposes a much broader social envy, that involves the penis only by association. "Confronted with so much concrete evidence of the male's superior status, sensing on all sides the depreciation in which they are held, girls envy not the penis, but only what the penis gives one social pretensions to." Kate Millet, Sexual Politics, (New York: Doubleday, 1970), p. 187. Misandry and feminism In My Enemy, My Love (1992), Judith Levine classifies these stereotypes of men as targets of women's misandry within intimate relationships: Infants: the Mama's Boy, the Babbler, the Bumbler and the Invalid Betrayers: the Seducer, the Slave, the Abandoner and the Abductor Beasts: the Brute, the Pet, the Pervert, the Prick and the Killer Valerie Solanas, a radical feminist, provides an example of misandry in her SCUM Manifesto: Conservative discourse on misandry Christina Hoff Sommers, a conservative commentator, argues that feminism has a "corrosive paradox" and that no group of women can wage war on men without at the same time denigrating the women who respect those men. Wendy McElroy, an individualist feminist and Fox News commentator, The Independent Institute argues that some feminists "have redefined the view of the movement of the opposite sex" as "a hot anger toward men seems to have turned into a cold hatred." She argues that men as a class are considered irreformable, all men are considered rapists, and marriage, rape and prostitution are seen as the same. McElroy states "a new ideology has come to the forefront... radical or gender, feminism", one that has "joined hands with [the] political correctness movement that condemns the panorama of western civilization as sexist and racist: the product of 'dead white males.'" Conservative pundit Charlotte Hays argues "that the anti-male philosophy of radical feminism has filtered into the culture at large is incontestable; indeed, this attitude has become so pervasive that we hardly notice it any longer." Hays, Charlotte. 'The Worse Half'. National Review 11 March, 2002. Analogies to other forms of bigotry Masculist writer and frequent speaker at the Cato Institute find.cato.org Warren Farrell compares dehumanizing stereotyping of men to dehumanization of the Vietnamese people as "gooks." Religious Studies professors Paul Nathanson and Katherine Young make similar comparisons in their three-book series Beyond The Fall Of Man, "The same problem that long prevented mutual respect between Jews and Christians, the teaching of contempt, now prevents mutual respect between men and women." which treats misandry as a form of prejudice and discrimination that has become institutionalized in North American society. Nathanson and Young credit "ideological feminism" for imposing misandry on culture. "[ideological feminism,] one form of feminism — one that has had a great deal of influence, whether directly or indirectly, on both popular culture and elite culture—is profoundly misandric." Their book Spreading Misandry (2001) analyzes "pop cultural artifacts and productions from the 1990s" from movies to greeting cards for what they consider contains pervasive messages of hatred toward men. Legalizing Misandry (2005) the second in the series, gives similar attention to laws in North America. See also Boys are stupid, throw rocks at them! Female chauvinism Men's movement Men's rights References Footnotes Bibliography Hoff Summers, Christina, Who Stole Feminism: How Women Have Betrayed Women, 1994. Farrell, Warren. The Myth of Male Power. Berkley Trade, 2001. ISBN 0-425-18144-8 Ferguson, Frances and R. Howard Bloch. Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. ISBN 9780520065444 Levine, Judith. My Enemy, my Love: Man-hating and ambivalence in women's lives. 1992. Schwartz, Howard. The Revolt of the Primitive: An Inquiry into the Roots of Political Correctness. Revised Edition. Transaction Publishers, 2003. ISBN 0765805375 External links article critical of the use of the term antimisandry.com | Misandry |@lemmatized misandry:16 ipa:1 hatred:5 contempt:2 men:13 boy:2 parallel:1 misogyny:2 woman:8 μισανδρία:1 come:2 greek:2 miso:1 μῖσος:1 anēr:1 andros:1 ἀνήρ:1 ἀνδρός:1 man:3 literature:2 ancient:1 classic:1 professor:3 froma:1 zeitlin:1 princeton:1 university:4 discuss:1 article:2 title:1 pattern:1 gender:3 aeschylean:1 drama:1 seven:1 thebe:1 danaid:1 trilogy:1 write:2 literary:1 criticism:1 book:3 judaism:1 transformation:1 tradition:1 harry:1 brod:1 philosophy:3 humanity:1 department:1 religion:1 northern:1 iowa:1 julie:2 thompson:2 feminist:5 author:2 connect:1 envy:4 particular:1 penis:4 term:2 coin:1 sigmund:1 freud:1 theory:1 female:2 sexual:3 development:1 emphasis:1 add:1 mommy:1 queerest:1 contemporary:1 rhetoric:1 lesbian:1 maternal:1 identity:1 amherst:1 massachusetts:1 press:2 kate:2 millet:2 politics:2 propose:1 much:2 broad:1 social:2 involve:1 association:1 confront:1 concrete:1 evidence:1 male:4 superior:1 status:1 sense:1 side:1 depreciation:1 hold:1 girl:1 give:2 one:4 pretension:1 new:2 york:1 doubleday:1 p:1 feminism:8 enemy:2 love:2 judith:2 levine:2 classify:1 stereotype:2 target:1 within:1 intimate:1 relationship:1 infant:1 mama:1 babbler:1 bumbler:1 invalid:1 betrayer:1 seducer:1 slave:1 abandoner:1 abductor:1 beast:1 brute:1 pet:1 pervert:1 prick:1 killer:1 valerie:1 solanas:1 radical:3 provide:1 example:1 scum:1 manifesto:1 conservative:3 discourse:1 christina:2 hoff:2 sommers:1 commentator:2 argue:4 corrosive:1 paradox:1 group:1 wage:1 war:1 without:1 time:1 denigrate:1 respect:3 wendy:1 mcelroy:2 individualist:1 fox:1 news:1 independent:1 institute:2 redefine:1 view:1 movement:3 opposite:1 sex:1 hot:1 anger:1 toward:2 seem:1 turn:1 cold:1 class:1 consider:3 irreformable:1 rapist:1 marriage:1 rape:1 prostitution:1 see:2 state:1 ideology:1 forefront:1 join:1 hand:1 political:2 correctness:2 condemn:1 panorama:1 western:1 civilization:1 sexist:1 racist:1 product:1 dead:1 white:1 pundit:1 charlotte:2 hay:2 anti:1 filter:1 culture:4 large:1 incontestable:1 indeed:1 attitude:1 become:2 pervasive:2 hardly:1 notice:1 longer:1 bad:1 half:1 national:1 review:1 march:1 analogy:1 form:3 bigotry:1 masculist:1 writer:1 frequent:1 speaker:1 cato:2 find:1 org:1 warren:2 farrell:2 compare:1 dehumanize:1 dehumanization:1 vietnamese:1 people:1 gook:1 religious:1 study:1 paul:1 nathanson:2 katherine:1 young:2 make:1 similar:2 comparison:1 three:1 series:2 beyond:1 fall:1 problem:1 long:1 prevent:2 mutual:2 jew:1 christian:1 teaching:1 treat:1 prejudice:1 discrimination:1 institutionalize:1 north:2 american:1 society:1 credit:1 ideological:2 impose:1 great:1 deal:1 influence:1 whether:1 directly:1 indirectly:1 popular:1 elite:1 profoundly:1 misandric:1 spread:1 analyze:1 pop:1 cultural:1 artifact:1 production:1 movie:1 greet:1 card:1 contains:1 message:1 legalize:1 second:1 attention:1 law:1 america:1 also:1 boys:1 stupid:1 throw:1 rock:1 chauvinism:1 right:1 reference:1 footnote:1 bibliography:1 summer:1 steal:1 betray:1 myth:1 power:1 berkley:1 trade:1 isbn:3 ferguson:1 france:1 r:1 howard:2 bloch:1 misanthropy:1 berkeley:1 california:1 hating:1 ambivalence:1 life:1 schwartz:1 revolt:1 primitive:1 inquiry:1 root:1 revise:1 edition:1 transaction:1 publisher:1 external:1 link:1 critical:1 use:1 antimisandry:1 com:1 |@bigram hatred_contempt:1 sigmund_freud:1 christina_hoff:1 hoff_sommers:1 wendy_mcelroy:1 political_correctness:2 cato_institute:1 warren_farrell:1 directly_indirectly:1 schwartz_howard:1 external_link:1 |
4,249 | Endothermic | In thermodynamics, the word endothermic "within-heating" describes a process or reaction that absorbs energy in the form of heat. Its etymology stems from the Greek prefix endo-, meaning “inside” and the Greek suffix –thermic, meaning “to heat”. The opposite of an endothermic process is an exothermic process, one that releases energy in the form of heat. The term “endothermic” was coined by Marcellin Berthelot. The concept is frequently applied in physical sciences to e.g. chemical reactions, where thermal energy (heat) is converted to chemical bond energy. Overview Endothermic, also incorrectly known as endergonic, refers to a chemical reaction in which a system receives heat from the surroundings: Q > 0 When this occurs at constant pressure: ∆H > 0and constant volume: ∆U > 0'' If the surroundings do not supply heat (e.g., when the system is adiabatic), an endothermic transformation leads to a decrease in the temperature of the system. Endothermic processes Some examples of endothermic processes are: Exothermic - Endothermic examples Depressurising a pressure can A chemical cold pack consisting primarily of ammonium nitrate and water. Melting of ice vaporisation of water Implications for chemical reactions Chemical endothermic reactions need heat to be performed. In a thermochemical reaction that is endothermic, the heat is placed on the reactants side (heat is necessary for and absorbed during the reaction). See also Exothermic Endergonic Endergonic reaction Exergonic Exergonic reaction References External links Endothermic Definition - MSDS Hyper-Glossary School experiment | Endothermic |@lemmatized thermodynamics:1 word:1 endothermic:11 within:1 heating:1 describe:1 process:5 reaction:9 absorb:2 energy:4 form:2 heat:9 etymology:1 stem:1 greek:2 prefix:1 endo:1 meaning:1 inside:1 suffix:1 thermic:1 mean:1 opposite:1 exothermic:3 one:1 release:1 term:1 coin:1 marcellin:1 berthelot:1 concept:1 frequently:1 apply:1 physical:1 science:1 e:2 g:2 chemical:6 thermal:1 convert:1 bond:1 overview:1 also:2 incorrectly:1 know:1 endergonic:3 refers:1 system:3 receive:1 surroundings:2 q:1 occur:1 constant:2 pressure:2 h:1 volume:1 u:1 supply:1 adiabatic:1 transformation:1 lead:1 decrease:1 temperature:1 example:2 depressurise:1 cold:1 pack:1 consist:1 primarily:1 ammonium:1 nitrate:1 water:2 melting:1 ice:1 vaporisation:1 implication:1 need:1 perform:1 thermochemical:1 place:1 reactant:1 side:1 necessary:1 see:1 exergonic:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 definition:1 msds:1 hyper:1 glossary:1 school:1 experiment:1 |@bigram marcellin_berthelot:1 ammonium_nitrate:1 endothermic_reaction:1 external_link:1 |
4,250 | Kitasato_ShibasaburÅ%8D | Baron was a Japanese physician and bacteriologist. He is remembered as the co-discoverer of the infectious agent of bubonic plague in Hong Kong in 1894, almost simultaneously with Alexandre Yersin. Biography Kitasato was born in Okuni village, Higo Province, (present-day Oguni Town, Kumamoto prefecture, Kyūshū). He was educated at Kumamoto Medical School and Tokyo Imperial University. He studied under Dr. Robert Koch in University of Berlin from 1885 to 1891. In 1889, he was the first person to grow the tetanus bacillus in pure culture, and in 1890 cooperated with Emil von Behring in developing a serum therapy for tetanus using this pure culture. He also worked on antitoxins for diphtheria and anthrax. Kitasato and Behring demonstrated the value of antitoxin in preventing disease by producing a passive immunity to tetanus in an animal that received graded injections of blood serum from another animal infected with the disease. After returning to Japan in 1891 he founded the Institute for Study of Infectious Diseases with the assistance of Fukuzawa Yukichi. One of his early assistants was August von Wassermann. Kitasato demonstrated how dead cultures can be used in vaccination. He also studied the mode of infection in tuberculosis. He traveled to Hong Kong in 1894 at the request of the Japanese government during an outbreak of the bubonic plague, and successfully identified the bacterium causing the disease; his results were not as widely disseminated as Yersin's, however,Yersin was for many years given primary credit for the discovery, and the bacterium was named after him. Four years later, Kitasato and his student Kiyoshi Shiga were able to isolate and describe the organism that caused dysentery. When the Institute for Infectious Diseases was incorporated into Tokyo Imperial University in 1914, he resigned in protest and founded the Kitasato Institute (the forerunner of Kitasato University), which he headed for the rest of his life. In September 1921 Dr. Kitasato founded, together with several medical scientists, the Sekisen Ken-onki Corporation with the intention of manufacturing the most reliable clinical thermometer possible. The company was later renamed Terumo Corporation. He also was the first dean of Medicine at Keio University, first president of the Japan Medical Association, and served on the House of Peers. He was ennobled with the title of danshaku (baron) in the kazoku peerage system in 1924. See also Kitasato flask, laboratory glassware named on his honor. References Sri Kantha, S. A Centennial review; the 1890 Tetanus antitoxin paper of von Behring and Kitasato and the related developments. Keio Journal of Medicine, March 1991, 40(1): 35-39. Sri Kantha, S. The legacy of von Behring and Kitasato. Immunology Today, Sept.1992, 13(9): 374. Kyle, Robert A. Shibasaburo Kitasato-Japanese bacteriologist. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 1999 Orent, Wendy. Plague: The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World's Most Dangerous Disease. Free Press 2004, ISBN 0-7432-3685-8 Porter, Roy. Blood and Guts: A Short History of Medicine. W. W. Norton & Company; Reprint edition (June 2004). ISBN 0-393-32569-5 External links Kitasato University homepage Portraits of Modern Japanese Historical Figures | Kitasato_ShibasaburÅ%8D |@lemmatized baron:2 japanese:4 physician:1 bacteriologist:2 remember:1 co:1 discoverer:1 infectious:3 agent:1 bubonic:2 plague:3 hong:2 kong:2 almost:1 simultaneously:1 alexandre:1 yersin:3 biography:1 kitasato:12 bear:1 okuni:1 village:1 higo:1 province:1 present:1 day:1 oguni:1 town:1 kumamoto:2 prefecture:1 kyūshū:1 educate:1 medical:3 school:1 tokyo:2 imperial:2 university:6 study:3 dr:2 robert:2 koch:1 berlin:1 first:3 person:1 grow:1 tetanus:4 bacillus:1 pure:2 culture:3 cooperate:1 emil:1 von:4 behring:4 develop:1 serum:2 therapy:1 use:2 also:4 work:1 antitoxin:3 diphtheria:1 anthrax:1 demonstrate:1 value:1 prevent:1 disease:6 produce:1 passive:1 immunity:1 animal:2 receive:1 graded:1 injection:1 blood:2 another:1 infect:1 return:1 japan:2 found:3 institute:3 assistance:1 fukuzawa:1 yukichi:1 one:1 early:1 assistant:1 august:1 wassermann:1 demonstrated:1 dead:1 vaccination:1 mode:1 infection:1 tuberculosis:1 travel:1 request:1 government:1 outbreak:1 successfully:1 identify:1 bacterium:2 cause:2 result:1 widely:1 disseminate:1 however:1 many:1 year:2 give:1 primary:1 credit:1 discovery:1 name:2 four:1 later:2 student:1 kiyoshi:1 shiga:1 able:1 isolate:1 describe:1 organism:1 dysentery:1 incorporate:1 resign:1 protest:1 forerunner:1 head:1 rest:1 life:1 september:1 together:1 several:1 scientist:1 sekisen:1 ken:1 onki:1 corporation:2 intention:1 manufacture:1 reliable:1 clinical:1 thermometer:1 possible:1 company:2 rename:1 terumo:1 dean:1 medicine:3 keio:2 president:1 association:1 serve:1 house:1 peer:1 ennoble:1 title:1 danshaku:1 kazoku:1 peerage:1 system:1 see:1 flask:1 laboratory:1 glassware:1 honor:1 reference:1 sri:2 kantha:2 centennial:1 review:1 paper:1 related:1 development:1 journal:1 march:1 legacy:1 immunology:1 today:1 sept:1 kyle:1 shibasaburo:1 mayo:1 clinic:1 proceeding:1 orent:1 wendy:1 mysterious:1 past:1 terrify:1 future:1 world:1 dangerous:1 free:1 press:1 isbn:2 porter:1 roy:1 gut:1 short:1 history:1 w:2 norton:1 reprint:1 edition:1 june:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 portrait:1 modern:1 historical:1 figure:1 |@bigram bubonic_plague:2 hong_kong:2 von_behring:3 passive_immunity:1 infectious_disease:2 outbreak_bubonic:1 sri_kantha:2 mayo_clinic:1 w_norton:1 external_link:1 |
4,251 | Agnes_of_Merania | Agnes Maria of Andechs-Merania (died 1201), queen of France, was the daughter of Bertold IV (died 1204), who was Count of Andechs, a castle and territory near Ammersee, Bavaria and from 1183 duke of Merania (Istria). Her mother was Agnes of Rochlitz. She is called Marie by some of the French chroniclers. In June 1196 Agnes married Philip II of France, who had repudiated his second wife Ingeborg of Denmark in 1193. Pope Innocent III espoused the cause of Ingeborg; but Philip did not submit until 1200, when, nine months after interdict had been added to excommunication, he consented to a separation from Agnes. She died broken-hearted in July of the next year, at the castle of Poissy, and was buried in the Convent of St Corentin, near Nantes. Her two children by Philip II, Philip, count of Clermont (d. 1234), and Mary, who married Philip I of Namur, were legitimized by the pope in 1201 at the request of the king. Little is known of the personality of Agnes, beyond the remarkable influence which she seems to have exercised over Philip II. She has been made the heroine of a tragedy by François Ponsard, Agnès de Méranie. Her sister Hedwig of Andechs married Henry I, duke of Silesia and was canonized as Saint Hedwig in 1267. Another sister, Gertrude married Andrew II of Hungary and was the mother of St. Elizabeth of Hungary. References | Agnes_of_Merania |@lemmatized agnes:5 maria:1 andechs:3 merania:2 died:2 queen:1 france:2 daughter:1 bertold:1 iv:1 count:2 castle:2 territory:1 near:2 ammersee:1 bavaria:1 duke:2 istria:1 mother:2 rochlitz:1 call:1 marie:1 french:1 chronicler:1 june:1 marry:3 philip:6 ii:4 repudiate:1 second:1 wife:1 ingeborg:2 denmark:1 pope:2 innocent:1 iii:1 espouse:1 cause:1 submit:1 nine:1 month:1 interdict:1 add:1 excommunication:1 consent:1 separation:1 die:1 broken:1 hearted:1 july:1 next:1 year:1 poissy:1 bury:1 convent:1 st:2 corentin:1 nantes:1 two:1 child:1 clermont:1 mary:1 namur:1 legitimize:1 request:1 king:1 little:1 know:1 personality:1 beyond:1 remarkable:1 influence:1 seem:1 exercise:1 make:1 heroine:1 tragedy:1 françois:1 ponsard:1 agnès:1 de:1 méranie:1 sister:2 hedwig:2 married:1 henry:1 silesia:1 canonize:1 saint:1 another:1 gertrude:1 andrew:1 hungary:2 elizabeth:1 reference:1 |@bigram pope_innocent:1 broken_hearted:1 canonize_saint:1 |
4,252 | Conditional_probability | Conditional probability is the probability of some event A, given the occurrence of some other event B. Conditional probability is written P(A|B), and is read "the probability of A, given B". Joint probability is the probability of two events in conjunction. That is, it is the probability of both events together. The joint probability of A and B is written or Marginal probability is then the unconditional probability P(A) of the event A; that is, the probability of A, regardless of whether event B did or did not occur. If B can be thought of as the event of a random variable X having a given outcome, the marginal probability of A can be obtained by summing (or integrating, more generally) the joint probabilities over all outcomes for X. For example, if there are two possible outcomes for X with corresponding events B and B', this means that . This is called marginalization. In these definitions, note that there need not be a causal or temporal relation between A and B. A may precede B or vice versa or they may happen at the same time. A may cause B or vice versa or they may have no causal relation at all. Notice, however, that causal and temporal relations are informal notions, not belonging to the probabilistic framework. They may apply in some examples, depending on the interpretation given to events. Conditioning of probabilities, i.e. updating them to take account of (possibly new) information, may be achieved through Bayes' theorem. In such conditioning, the probability of A given only initial information I, P(A|I), is known as the prior probability. The updated conditional probability of A, given I and the outcome of the event B, is known as the posterior probability, P(A|B,I). Introduction Consider the simple scenario of rolling two fair six-sided dice, labelled die 1 and die 2. Define the following three events: A: Die 1 lands on 3. B: Die 2 lands on 1. C: The dice sum to 8. The prior probability of each event describes how likely the outcome is before the dice are rolled, without any knowledge of the roll's outcome. For example, die 1 is equally likely to fall on each of its 6 sides, so P(A) = 1/6. Similarly P(B) = 1/6. Likewise, of the 6 × 6 = 36 possible ways that a pair of dice can land, just 5 result in a sum of 8 (namely 2 and 6, 3 and 5, 4 and 4, 5 and 3, and 6 and 2), so P(C) = 5/36. Some of these events can both occur at the same time; for example events A and C can happen at the same time, in the case where die 1 lands on 3 and die 2 lands on 5. This is the only one of the 36 outcomes where both A and C occur, so its probability is 1/36. The probability of both A and C occurring is called the joint probability of A and C and is written , so . On the other hand, if die 2 lands on 1, the dice cannot sum to 8, so . Now suppose we roll the dice and cover up die 2, so we can only see die 1, and observe that die 1 landed on 3. Given this partial information, the probability that the dice sum to 8 is no longer 5/36; instead it is 1/6, since die 2 must land on 5 to achieve this result. This is called the conditional probability, because it is the probability of C under the condition that A is observed, and is written P(C | A), which is read "the probability of C given A." Similarly, P(C | B) = 0, since if we observe die 2 landed on 1, we already know the dice can't sum to 8, regardless of what the other die landed on. On the other hand, if we roll the dice and cover up die 2, and observe die 1, this has no impact on the probability of event B, which only depends on die 2. We say events A and B are statistically independent or just independent and in this case In other words, the probability of B occurring after observing that die 1 landed on 3 is the same as before we observed die 1. Intersection events and conditional events are related by the formula: In this example, we have: As noted above, , so by this formula: On multiplying across by P(A), In other words, if two events are independent, their joint probability is the product of the prior probabilities of each event occurring by itself. Definition Given a probability space and two events with P(B) > 0, the conditional probability of A given B is defined by If then is undefined (see Borel–Kolmogorov paradox for an explanation). However it is possible to define a conditional probability with respect to a σ-algebra of such events (such as those arising from a continuous random variable). See conditional expectation for more information. Derivation The following derivation is taken from Grinstead and Snell's Introduction to Probability. Grinstead and Snell's Introduction to Probability, p. 142 Let be the original sample space, with elementary outcomes or elementary events , and the probability operation given as , for example . Suppose event has occurred and an altered probability is to be assigned to the elementary events to reflect the fact that has occurred. For all we want to make sure that the intuitive result is true. Also, without further information provided, we can be certain that the relative magnitude of probabilities is conserved: . This requirement leads us to state: where , i.e. is a positive constant or scaling factor to reflect the above requirement. Since we know has occurred, we can state which allows us to say: From the above we obtain: This leads us to state the following: Now for an event and since : Statistical independence Two random events A and B are statistically independent if and only if Thus, if A and B are independent, then their joint probability can be expressed as a simple product of their individual probabilities. Equivalently, for two independent events A and B with non-zero probabilities, and In other words, if A and B are independent, then the conditional probability of A, given B is simply the individual probability of A alone; likewise, the probability of B given A is simply the probability of B alone. . Mutual exclusivity Two events A and B are mutually exclusive if and only if . Then . Therefore, if P(B) > 0 then is defined and equal to 0. The conditional probability fallacy The conditional probability fallacy is the assumption that P(A|B) is approximately equal to P(B|A). The mathematician John Allen Paulos discusses this in his book Innumeracy (p. 63 et seq.), where he points out that it is a mistake often made even by doctors, lawyers, and other highly educated non-statisticians. It can be overcome by describing the data in actual numbers rather than probabilities. The relation between P(A|B) and P(B|A) is given by Bayes' theorem: In other words, one can only assume that P(A|B) is approximately equal to P(B|A) if the prior probabilities P(A) and P(B) are also approximately equal. An example In the following constructed but realistic situation, the difference between P(A|B) and P(B|A) may be surprising, but is at the same time obvious. In order to identify individuals having a serious disease in an early curable form, one may consider screening a large group of people. While the benefits are obvious, an argument against such screenings is the disturbance caused by false positive screening results: If a person not having the disease is incorrectly found to have it by the initial test, they will most likely be quite distressed until a more careful test shows that they do not have the disease. Even after being told they are well, their lives may be affected negatively. The magnitude of this problem is best understood in terms of conditional probabilities. Suppose 1% of the group suffer from the disease, and the rest are well. Choosing an individual at random, Suppose that when the screening test is applied to a person not having the disease, there is a 1% chance of getting a false positive result, i.e. Finally, suppose that when the test is applied to a person having the disease, there is a 1% chance of a false negative result, i.e. Now, one may calculate the following: The fraction of individuals in the whole group who are well and test negative: The fraction of individuals in the whole group who are ill and test positive: The fraction of individuals in the whole group who have false positive results: The fraction of individuals in the whole group who have false negative results: Furthermore, the fraction of individuals in the whole group who test positive: Finally, the probability that an individual actually has the disease, given that the test result is positive: In this example, it should be easy to relate to the difference between the conditional probabilities P(positive | ill) (which is 99%) and P(ill | positive) (which is 50%): the first is the probability that an individual who has the disease tests positive; the second is the probability that an individual who tests positive actually has the disease. With the numbers chosen here, the last result is likely to be deemed unacceptable: half the people testing positive are actually false positives. Second type of conditional probability fallacy Another type of fallacy is interpreting conditional probabilities of events (or a series of events) as (unconditional) probabilities, or seeing them as being in the same order of magnitude. A conditional probability of an event and its (total) probability are linked with each other through the formula of total probability, but without additional information one of them says little about the other. The fallacy to view P(A|B) as P(A) or as being close to P(A) is often related with some forms of statistical bias but it can be subtle. Here is an example: One of the conditions for the legendary wild-west hero Wyatt Earp to have become a legend was having survived all the duels he survived. Indeed, it is reported that he was never wounded, not even scratched by a bullet. The probability of this to happen is very small, contributing to his fame because events of very small probabilities attract attention. However, the point is that the degree of attention depends very much on the observer. Somebody impressed by a specific event (here seeing a "hero") is prone to view effects of randomness differently from others which are less impressed. In general makes not much sense to ask after observation of a remarkable series of events "What is the probability of this?", because this is a conditional probability upon observation. The distinction between conditional and unconditional probabilities can be intricate if the observer who asks "What is the probability?" is himself/herself outcome of a random selection. The name "Wyatt Earp effect" was coined in an article "Der Wyatt Earp Effekt" (in German) showing through several examples its subtlety and impact in various scientific domains. Conditioning on a random variable There is also a concept of the conditional probability of an event given a discrete random variable. Such a conditional probability is a random variable in its own right. Suppose X is a random variable that can be equal either to 0 or to 1. As above, one may speak of the conditional probability of any event A given the event X = 0, and also of the conditional probability of A given the event X = 1. The former is denoted P(A|X = 0) and the latter P(A|X = 1). Now define a new random variable Y, whose value is P(A|X = 0) if X = 0 and P(A|X = 1) if X = 1. That is This new random variable Y is said to be the conditional probability of the event A given the discrete random variable X: According to the "law of total probability", the expected value of Y is just the marginal (or "unconditional") probability of A. More generally still, it is possible to speak of the conditional probability of an event given a sigma-algebra. See conditional expectation. See also Likelihood function Posterior probability Probability theory Monty Hall problem Prosecutor's fallacy Conditioning (probability) Conditional expectation Joint probability distribution Conditional probability distribution Bayes' Theorem References F. Thomas Bruss Der Wyatt-Earp-Effekt oder die betoerende Macht kleiner Wahrscheinlichkeiten (in German), Spektrum der Wissenschaft (German Edition of Scientific American), Vol 2, 110–113, (2007). | Conditional_probability |@lemmatized conditional:27 probability:79 event:41 give:20 occurrence:1 b:40 write:4 p:33 read:2 joint:7 two:8 conjunction:1 together:1 marginal:3 unconditional:4 regardless:2 whether:1 occur:7 think:1 random:12 variable:9 x:13 outcome:9 obtain:2 sum:6 integrate:1 generally:2 example:10 possible:4 corresponding:1 mean:1 call:3 marginalization:1 definition:2 note:2 need:1 causal:3 temporal:2 relation:4 may:11 precede:1 vice:2 versa:2 happen:3 time:4 cause:2 notice:1 however:3 informal:1 notion:1 belong:1 probabilistic:1 framework:1 apply:3 depend:3 interpretation:1 conditioning:3 e:4 update:1 take:2 account:1 possibly:1 new:3 information:6 achieve:2 bayes:3 theorem:3 initial:2 know:4 prior:4 updated:1 posterior:2 introduction:3 consider:2 simple:2 scenario:1 roll:5 fair:1 six:1 side:2 dice:9 label:1 die:20 define:5 following:5 three:1 land:11 c:10 describe:2 likely:4 without:3 knowledge:1 equally:1 fall:1 similarly:2 likewise:2 way:1 pair:1 result:10 namely:1 case:2 one:7 occurring:2 hand:2 cannot:1 suppose:6 cover:2 see:7 observe:6 partial:1 longer:1 instead:1 since:4 must:1 condition:3 already:1 impact:2 say:4 statistically:2 independent:7 word:4 intersection:1 relate:3 formula:3 multiply:1 across:1 product:2 space:2 undefined:1 borel:1 kolmogorov:1 paradox:1 explanation:1 respect:1 σ:1 algebra:2 arise:1 continuous:1 expectation:3 derivation:2 grinstead:2 snell:2 let:1 original:1 sample:1 elementary:3 operation:1 altered:1 assign:1 reflect:2 fact:1 want:1 make:3 sure:1 intuitive:1 true:1 also:5 provide:1 certain:1 relative:1 magnitude:3 conserve:1 requirement:2 lead:2 u:3 state:3 positive:13 constant:1 scale:1 factor:1 allow:1 statistical:2 independence:1 thus:1 express:1 individual:12 equivalently:1 non:2 zero:1 simply:2 alone:2 mutual:1 exclusivity:1 mutually:1 exclusive:1 therefore:1 equal:5 fallacy:6 assumption:1 approximately:3 mathematician:1 john:1 allen:1 paulos:1 discus:1 book:1 innumeracy:1 et:1 seq:1 point:2 mistake:1 often:2 even:3 doctor:1 lawyer:1 highly:1 educate:1 statistician:1 overcome:1 data:1 actual:1 number:2 rather:1 assume:1 construct:1 realistic:1 situation:1 difference:2 surprising:1 obvious:2 order:2 identify:1 serious:1 disease:9 early:1 curable:1 form:2 screen:1 large:1 group:7 people:2 benefit:1 argument:1 screening:3 disturbance:1 false:6 person:3 incorrectly:1 find:1 test:11 quite:1 distress:1 careful:1 show:2 tell:1 well:3 life:1 affect:1 negatively:1 problem:2 best:1 understood:1 term:1 suffer:1 rest:1 choose:2 chance:2 get:1 finally:2 negative:3 calculate:1 fraction:5 whole:5 ill:3 furthermore:1 actually:3 easy:1 first:1 second:2 last:1 deem:1 unacceptable:1 half:1 type:2 another:1 interpret:1 series:2 total:3 link:1 additional:1 little:1 view:2 close:1 bias:1 subtle:1 legendary:1 wild:1 west:1 hero:2 wyatt:4 earp:4 become:1 legend:1 survive:2 duel:1 indeed:1 report:1 never:1 wound:1 scratch:1 bullet:1 small:2 contribute:1 fame:1 attract:1 attention:2 degree:1 much:2 observer:2 somebody:1 impressed:2 specific:1 prone:1 effect:2 randomness:1 differently:1 others:1 less:1 general:1 sense:1 ask:2 observation:2 remarkable:1 upon:1 distinction:1 intricate:1 selection:1 name:1 coin:1 article:1 der:3 effekt:2 german:3 several:1 subtlety:1 various:1 scientific:2 domain:1 concept:1 discrete:2 right:1 either:1 speak:2 former:1 denote:1 latter:1 whose:1 value:2 accord:1 law:1 expected:1 still:1 sigma:1 likelihood:1 function:1 theory:1 monty:1 hall:1 prosecutor:1 distribution:2 reference:1 f:1 thomas:1 bruss:1 oder:1 betoerende:1 macht:1 kleiner:1 wahrscheinlichkeiten:1 spektrum:1 wissenschaft:1 edition:1 american:1 vol:1 |@bigram conditional_probability:22 random_variable:9 vice_versa:2 bayes_theorem:3 posterior_probability:2 dice_roll:1 roll_dice:2 σ_algebra:1 conditional_expectation:3 mutually_exclusive:1 et_seq:1 wyatt_earp:4 expected_value:1 probability_distribution:2 |
4,253 | Free_trade_area | This is article is on free international trade. For information on special economic zones within countries, see Free trade zone. Free trade area is a designated group of countries that have agreed to eliminate tariffs, quotas and preferences on most (if not all) goods and services traded between them. It can be considered the second stage of economic integration. Countries choose this kind of economic integration form if their economical structures are complementary. If they are competitive, they will choose customs union. Description Unlike a customs union, members of a free trade area do not have the same policies with respect to non-members, meaning different quotas and customs. To avoid evasion (through re-exportation) the countries use the system of certification of origin most commonly called rules of origin, where there is a requirement for the minimum extent of local material inputs and local transformations adding value to the goods. Goods that don't cover these minimum requirements are not entitled for the special treatment envisioned in the free trade area provisions. Cumulation is the relationship between different FTAs regarding the rules of origin — sometimes different FTAs supplement each other, in other cases there is no cross-cumulation between the FTAs. A free trade area is a result of a free trade agreement (a form of trade pact) between two or more countries. Free trade areas and agreements (FTAs) are cascadable to some degree — if some countries sign agreement to form free trade area and choose to negotiate together (either as a trade bloc or as a forum of individual members of their FTA) another free trade agreement with some external country (or countries) — then the new FTA will consist of the old FTA plus the new country (or countries). Within an industrialized country there are usually few if any significant barriers to the easy exchange of goods and services between parts of that country. For example, there are usually no trade tariffs or import quotas; there are usually no delays as goods pass from one part of the country to another (other than those that distance imposes); there are usually no differences of taxation and regulation. Between countries, on the other hand, many of these barriers to the easy exchange of goods often do occur. It is commonplace for there to be import duties of one kind or another (as goods enter a country) and the levels of sales tax and regulation often vary by country. The aim of a free trade area is to so reduce barriers to easy exchange that trade can grow as a result of specialisation, division of labour, and most importantly via (the theory and practice of) comparative advantage. The theory of comparative advantage argues that in an unrestricted marketplace (in equilibrium) each source of production will tend to specialize in that activity where it has comparative (rather than absolute) advantage. The theory argues that the net result will be an increase in income and ultimately wealth and well-being for everyone in the free trade area. However the theory refers only to aggregate wealth and says nothing about the distribution of wealth. In fact there may be significant losers, in particular among the recently protected industries with a comparative disadvantage. The proponent of free trade can, however, retort that the gains of the gainers exceed the losses of the losers. List of free trade areas This is list of free trade areas between three or more countries, mainly notified to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization and in Force. Every customs union, trade common market and economic and monetary union has also a free trade area. Smaller agreements, that are part of larger one are not listed. AgreementDate (in force)Recent reference AANZFTA — ASEAN+3signed, but yet to be ratified by all countries African Free Trade Zone (AFTZ)signed, but yet to be ratified by all countries Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement (APTA)06/17/76WT/COMTD/N/22 Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA)05/01/07WT/REG233/N/1/Rev.1 Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Agreement (CISFTA)12/30/94WT/REG82/N/1 Dominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA)03/01/06WT/REG211/N/1 Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC)06/24/99WT/COMTD/N/13 European Economic Area (EEA)01/01/58WT/REG138/2 -EC — Andorra07/01/91WT/REG53/M/3 -EC — CARICOM11/01/08WT/REG255/N/1/Rev.1 -EC — OCTs01/01/71WT/REG106/R/B/3 -EC — Switzerland and Liechtenstein01/01/73WT/REG94/R/B/1 -EC — Turkey01/01/96WT/REG22/M/4 Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)07/24/93WT/COMTD/N/21 EFTA — SACU 05/01/08WT/REG256/N/1 Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA) 01/01/98WT/REG223/N/1 Latin American Integration Association (ALADI)03/18/81LI5342 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)01/01/94WT/REG4/W/1 South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA)12/07/95WT/COMTD/N/26 South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement (SPARTECA)01/01/81WT/COMTD/N/29 Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (P4)05/28/06WT/REG229/M/1/Rev.1 External links bilaterals.org - "Everything that's not happening at the WTO"'' fightingftas.org FTAs submitted to the WTO Americas FTAs Singapore official FTA site EFTA official site Australia's FTAs About.com's Pros & Cons of U.S. Free Trade Agreements Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements Notified to the WTO: developed by WorldTradeLaw.net and Bryan Mercurio ptas.mcgill.ca | Free_trade_area |@lemmatized article:1 free:24 international:1 trade:35 information:1 special:2 economic:9 zone:3 within:2 country:19 see:1 area:13 designated:1 group:1 agree:1 eliminate:1 tariff:3 quota:3 preference:1 good:7 service:2 consider:1 second:1 stage:1 integration:3 choose:3 kind:2 form:3 economical:1 structure:1 complementary:1 competitive:1 custom:4 union:4 description:1 unlike:1 member:3 policy:1 respect:1 non:1 mean:1 different:3 avoid:1 evasion:1 exportation:1 use:1 system:1 certification:1 origin:3 commonly:1 call:1 rule:2 requirement:2 minimum:2 extent:1 local:2 material:1 input:1 transformation:1 add:1 value:1 cover:1 entitle:1 treatment:1 envision:1 provision:1 cumulation:2 relationship:1 ftas:7 regard:1 sometimes:1 supplement:1 case:1 cross:1 result:3 agreement:15 pact:1 two:1 cascadable:1 degree:1 sign:2 negotiate:1 together:1 either:1 bloc:1 forum:1 individual:1 fta:4 another:3 external:2 new:2 consist:1 old:1 plus:1 industrialized:1 usually:4 significant:2 barrier:3 easy:3 exchange:3 part:3 example:1 import:2 delays:1 pass:1 one:3 distance:1 impose:1 difference:1 taxation:1 regulation:2 hand:1 many:1 often:2 occur:1 commonplace:1 duty:1 enter:1 level:1 sale:1 tax:1 vary:1 aim:1 reduce:1 grow:1 specialisation:1 division:1 labour:1 importantly:1 via:1 theory:4 practice:1 comparative:4 advantage:3 argue:2 unrestricted:1 marketplace:1 equilibrium:1 source:1 production:1 tend:1 specialize:1 activity:1 rather:1 absolute:1 net:2 increase:1 income:1 ultimately:1 wealth:3 well:1 everyone:1 however:2 refer:1 aggregate:1 say:1 nothing:1 distribution:1 fact:1 may:1 loser:2 particular:1 among:1 recently:1 protect:1 industry:1 disadvantage:1 proponent:1 retort:1 gain:1 gainer:1 exceed:1 loss:1 list:3 three:1 mainly:1 notify:2 general:1 world:1 organization:1 force:2 every:1 common:1 market:1 monetary:2 also:1 small:1 large:1 agreementdate:1 recent:1 reference:1 aanzfta:1 asean:1 yet:2 ratify:2 african:2 aftz:1 asia:2 pacific:3 apta:1 comtd:5 n:11 central:3 european:2 cefta:1 rev:3 commonwealth:1 independent:1 state:2 cisfta:1 dominican:1 republic:1 america:2 dr:1 cafta:1 community:2 africa:1 cemac:1 eea:1 ec:5 r:2 b:2 switzerland:1 west:1 ecowas:1 efta:2 sacu:1 great:1 arab:1 gafta:1 latin:1 american:2 association:1 aladi:1 north:1 nafta:1 w:1 south:2 safta:1 regional:2 cooperation:1 sparteca:1 trans:1 strategic:1 partnership:1 link:1 bilaterals:1 org:2 everything:1 happen:1 wto:3 fightingftas:1 submit:1 singapore:1 official:2 site:2 australia:1 com:1 pro:1 con:1 u:1 bilateral:1 develop:1 worldtradelaw:1 bryan:1 mercurio:1 ptas:1 mcgill:1 ca:1 |@bigram comtd_n:5 agreement_cefta:1 dominican_republic:1 agreement_nafta:1 external_link:1 pro_con:1 |
4,254 | Military_slang | Military slang is an array of colloquial terminology used commonly by military personnel, including slang which is unique to or originates with the armed forces. It often takes the form of abbreviations/acronyms or derivations of the NATO Phonetic Alphabet, or otherwise incorporates aspects of formal military concepts and terms. Military slang is often used to reinforce or reflect (usually friendly and humorous) interservice rivalries. Military slang has often been incorporated into wider usage. Military slang and jargon are distinguishable, as the latter has official currency, while the former is a grassroots phenomenon. Some military slang terms have been come to be considered derogatory to varying degrees and audiences, and attempts have been made to curb their use. See also Grande Armée slang (French Army slang during the Napoleonic Wars) List of U.S. Marine Corps acronyms and expressions List of U.S. Navy acronyms Wiktionary:Appendix:Military slang Wiktionary:Appendix:Canadian military slang Wiktionary:Appendix:U.S. Navy slang External links The Forces Dictionary US Army Slang Compilation of slang from the Royal Navy, by Covey Crump Military Slang Acronyms and Abbreviations – list of expressions used by soldiers | Military_slang |@lemmatized military:10 slang:14 array:1 colloquial:1 terminology:1 use:4 commonly:1 personnel:1 include:1 unique:1 originates:1 armed:1 force:2 often:3 take:1 form:1 abbreviation:2 acronym:3 derivation:1 nato:1 phonetic:1 alphabet:1 otherwise:1 incorporate:2 aspect:1 formal:1 concept:1 term:2 reinforce:1 reflect:1 usually:1 friendly:1 humorous:1 interservice:1 rivalry:1 wider:1 usage:1 jargon:1 distinguishable:1 latter:1 official:1 currency:1 former:1 grassroots:1 phenomenon:1 come:1 consider:1 derogatory:1 vary:1 degree:1 audience:1 attempt:1 make:1 curb:1 see:1 also:1 grande:1 armée:1 french:1 army:2 napoleonic:1 war:1 list:3 u:4 marine:1 corps:1 expression:2 navy:3 acronyms:1 wiktionary:3 appendix:3 canadian:1 external:1 link:1 dictionary:1 compilation:1 royal:1 covey:1 crump:1 soldier:1 |@bigram abbreviation_acronym:1 phonetic_alphabet:1 grande_armée:1 marine_corps:1 wiktionary_appendix:3 external_link:1 acronym_abbreviation:1 |
4,255 | Wild_card_(card_games) | Card games, particularly poker games, may contain one or more cards designated as wild. These may be jokers, or they may be normal ranked and suited cards pressed into wild card duty ("deuces wild" is a common variant). In most cases, the wild card or cards must be agreed upon by all players before the cards are dealt and play commences. There are two common rules regarding wild cards: "fully wild" cards and the "bug". A card that is fully wild can be designated by its holder as any card s/he chooses with no restrictions. Under this rule, for example, a hand with any natural pair and a wild card becomes three of a kind. With wild cards in play, the best possible hand is a five of a kind. The common rule in casinos is that a wild card plays as a bug, which is given the rank of ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a straight, flush, or straight flush. Under this rule, a hand such as K-K-Joker-5-2 is just a pair of kings (with an ace kicker), but any four same-suit cards with a bug make a flush, and a hand such as 7-Joker-5-4-3 makes a straight. Two exceptions to standard poker practice sometimes seen in home games are the double-ace flush rule, and the natural wins rule. The latter rule states that between hands that would otherwise tie, the hand with fewer wild cards wins. This is not common in casinos and should be treated as an exception to standard practice (as is the double-ace flush). There is a tendency among some players to regard wild cards as "impure" or treat wild card games as silly or amateurish. While it is certainly true that a game with too many wild cards can become so random that all skill is lost, the occasional use of wild cards is a good way to add variation to a game and add opportunities for skillful play. In particular, five-card draw is traditionally played with a joker in California (which plays as a bug), and also plays well with deuces fully wild. Seven-card stud plays well with one or two bugs, especially when played high-low split. Other games such as Texas hold 'em and Omaha hold'em do not play well with wild cards. For some players, the problem with wild card games is that the winner is almost always the hand with the most wild cards, making the other cards irrelevant, and making skill less important. Another issue with wild cards is that they distort the hand frequencies. In 5-card stud, the stronger hands are less frequent than the weaker hands; i.e., no pair is most common, followed by one pair, two pair, three of a kind, etc. When you add wild cards, the stronger hands gain frequency while the weaker hands lose frequency. For example, if you have a pair and a wild card, you will always choose three of a kind rather than two pair. This causes three of a kind to be more common than two pair. But if two pair ranks above three of a kind, the two pair will become more common Wild Card Poker Paradox Explanation of the paradox that arises in the ranking of hands when wild cards are introduced to poker . Notes | Wild_card_(card_games) |@lemmatized card:33 game:8 particularly:1 poker:4 may:3 contain:1 one:3 designate:3 wild:24 joker:4 normal:1 rank:3 suit:2 press:1 duty:1 deuces:1 common:7 variant:1 case:1 must:1 agree:1 upon:1 player:3 deal:1 play:10 commences:1 two:8 rule:7 regard:2 fully:3 bug:5 holder:1 choose:2 restriction:1 example:2 hand:13 natural:2 pair:10 become:3 three:5 kind:6 best:1 possible:1 five:2 casino:2 give:1 ace:4 unless:1 different:1 would:2 complete:1 straight:3 flush:5 k:2 king:1 kicker:1 four:1 make:4 exception:2 standard:2 practice:2 sometimes:1 see:1 home:1 double:2 win:2 latter:1 state:1 otherwise:1 tie:1 treat:2 tendency:1 among:1 impure:1 silly:1 amateurish:1 certainly:1 true:1 many:1 random:1 skill:2 lose:2 occasional:1 use:1 good:1 way:1 add:3 variation:1 opportunity:1 skillful:1 particular:1 draw:1 traditionally:1 california:1 also:1 well:3 deuce:1 seven:1 stud:2 especially:1 high:1 low:1 split:1 texas:1 hold:2 em:2 omaha:1 problem:1 winner:1 almost:1 always:2 irrelevant:1 less:2 important:1 another:1 issue:1 distort:1 frequency:3 strong:2 frequent:1 weak:2 e:1 follow:1 etc:1 gain:1 rather:1 cause:1 paradox:2 explanation:1 arise:1 ranking:1 introduce:1 note:1 |@bigram straight_flush:2 ace_flush:2 em_omaha:1 |
4,256 | Abu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani | Illustration from Kitab al-aghani (Book of Songs), 1216-20, by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani, a collection of songs by famous musicians and Arab poets. `Ali ibn al-Husayn ul-Isbahānī (), also known as Abu-l-Faraj or, in the West, as Abulfaraj (897-967) was an Iranian scholar of Arab-Quraysh origin who is noted for collecting and preserving ancient Arabic lyrics and poems in his major work, the Kitāb al-Aghānī. Biography Abu al-Faraj al-Iṣbahānī was born in Isfahan, Persia, but spent his youth and made his early studies in Baghdad, Iraq. He was a direct descendant of the last of the Umayyad caliphs, Marwan II, and was thus connected with the Umayyad rulers in Spain, and seems to have kept up a correspondence with them and to have sent them some of his works. He became famous for his knowledge of early Arabian antiquities. His later life was spent in various parts of the Islamic world, in Aleppo with its governor Sayf ad-Dawlah (to whom he dedicated the Book of Songs), in Ray with the Buwayhid vizier Ibn 'Abbad, and elsewhere. Although he wrote poetry, also an anthology of verses on the monasteries of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and a genealogical work, his fame rests upon his Book of Songs (Kitab al-Aghani). The Book of Songs Kitab al-Aghani (Book of Songs), a collection of poems and songs with the stories of the composers and singers in many volumes from the oldest epoch of Arabic literature down to the 9th cent. Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 5 The poems were put to music, but the musical signs are no longer readable. Because of the accompanying biographical annotations on the authors and composers, the work is an important historical source. It contains a mass of information as to the life and customs of the early Arabs, and is the most valuable authority we have for their pre-Islamic and early Islamic days. See also List of Arab scientists and scholars List of Iranian scientists and scholars References | Abu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani |@lemmatized illustration:1 kitab:3 al:9 aghani:3 book:5 song:7 abu:3 faraj:3 isfahani:1 collection:2 famous:2 musician:1 arab:4 poet:1 ali:1 ibn:2 husayn:1 ul:1 isbahānī:1 also:3 know:1 l:1 west:1 abulfaraj:1 iranian:2 scholar:3 quraysh:1 origin:1 note:1 collect:1 preserve:1 ancient:1 arabic:2 lyric:1 poem:3 major:1 work:4 kitāb:1 aghānī:1 biography:1 iṣbahānī:1 bear:1 isfahan:1 persia:1 spend:2 youth:1 make:1 early:4 study:1 baghdad:1 iraq:1 direct:1 descendant:1 last:1 umayyad:2 caliph:1 marwan:1 ii:1 thus:1 connect:1 ruler:1 spain:1 seem:1 keep:1 correspondence:1 send:1 become:1 knowledge:1 arabian:1 antiquity:1 late:1 life:2 various:1 part:1 islamic:3 world:1 aleppo:1 governor:1 sayf:1 ad:1 dawlah:1 dedicate:1 ray:1 buwayhid:1 vizier:1 abbad:1 elsewhere:1 although:1 write:1 poetry:1 anthology:1 verse:1 monastery:1 mesopotamia:1 egypt:1 genealogical:1 fame:1 rest:1 upon:1 story:1 composer:2 singer:1 many:1 volume:1 old:1 epoch:1 literature:1 cent:1 chamber:1 biographical:2 dictionary:1 isbn:1 page:1 put:1 music:1 musical:1 sign:1 longer:1 readable:1 accompany:1 annotation:1 author:1 important:1 historical:1 source:1 contain:1 mass:1 information:1 custom:1 valuable:1 authority:1 pre:1 day:1 see:1 list:2 scientist:2 reference:1 |@bigram kitab_al:3 ali_ibn:1 umayyad_caliph:1 chamber_biographical:1 biographical_dictionary:1 |
4,257 | Politics_of_Laos | The politics of Laos takes place in a framework of a single-party socialist republic. The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP). The head of state is President Choummaly Sayasone, who also is secretary-general (leader) of the LPRP. The head of government is Prime Minister Bouasone Bouphavanh. Government policies are determined by the party through the all-powerful nine-member Politburo and the 49-member Central Committee. Important government decisions are vetted by the Council of Ministers. Laos' first, French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on May 11, 1947 and declared it to be an independent state within the French Union. The revised constitution of May 11, 1957 omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated on December 3, 1975, when a communist People's Republic was proclaimed. A new constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a "leading role" for the LPRP. The following year, elections were held for a new 85-seat National Assembly with members elected by secret ballot to five-year terms. This National Assembly, which essentially acts as a rubber stamp for the LPRP, approves all new laws, although the executive branch retains authority to issue binding decrees. The most recent elections took place in April 2006. The assembly was expanded to 99 members in 1997 and in 2006 elections had 115. The FY 2000 central government budget plan called for revenue of $180 million and expenditures of $289 million, including capital expenditures of $202 million. In recent years bomb attacks against the government have occurred, coupled with small exchanges of fire, across Laos. A variety of different groups have claimed responsibility including the Committee for Independence and Democracy in Laos and Lao Citizens Movement for Democracy. Executive branch |President |Choummaly Sayasone |LRPP |June 8, 2006 |- |Prime Minister |Bouasone Bouphavanh |LRPP |June 8, 2006 |} The president is elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term. The prime minister and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the president with the approval of the National Assembly for a five-year term. There are also four deputy prime ministers. As of a cabinet reshuffle on June 8, 2006, they are Maj. Gen. Douangchay Phichit (also defense minister), Thongloun Sisoulith (also foreign minister), Somsavat Lengsavad and Maj. Gen. Asang Laoly. The 28-member cabinet also includes Onechanh Thammavong as labour minister, Chaleuan Yapaoher as justice minister, Nam Vignaket as industry and commerce minister, Sitaheng Latsaphone as agriculture minister and Sommath Pholsena as transport minister. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Sapha Heng Xat) has 115 members, elected for a five year term. Political parties and elections Judicial branch People's Supreme Court, the president of the People's Supreme Court is elected by the National Assembly on the recommendation of the National Assembly Standing Committee, the vice president of the People's Supreme Court and the judges are appointed by the National Assembly Standing Committee State leaders President H E Mr Choummaly Sayasone Vice President H E Mr Bounnhang Vorachith Prime Minister H E Dr Bouasone Bouphavanh Deputy Prime Minister and President of State Control Authority H E Major General Asang Laoly Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs H E Dr Thongloun Sisoulith Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of National Defence H E Major General Douangchay Phichith Deputy Prime Minister and Standing Member of Government H E Dr Somsavat Lengsavad Minister of Public Security H E Mr Thongbanh Seng-Aphone Minister of Labour and Social Welfare H E Mrs Onechanh Thammavong Minister of Finance H E Mr Somdy Douangdy Minister of Information and Culture H E Mr Mounkeo Olaboune Minister of Justice H E Dr Chaleun Yiapaoheu President of the National Assembly Mr Thongsing Thammavong Vice-President of the National Assembly Mrs Pany Yathotou Vice-President of the National Assembly Dr Xaysomphone Phomvihane President of Supreme Court Mr Khammy Sayavong Supreme People’s Prosecutor Mr Somphanh Phengkhammy Politburo of the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party : 1.Lt General Choummaly Sayasone, General Secretary of the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party and State President 2.Lt General Samane Vignaket, who is in charge of ideological and cultural works of the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party 3.Mr Thongsing Thammavong, Chairman of the National Assembly 4.Colonel Bounnhang Vorachith, Vice President of Lao People's Democratic Republic, Standing Member of the Secretariat 5.General Sisavath Keobounphanh, President of the Lao Front for National Construction 6.Major General Asang Laoly, Deputy Prime Minister, Head of the Party's Central Inspection Committee 7.Mr Bouasone Bouphavanh, Prime Minister 8.Dr Thongloun Sisoulith, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Head of the Party's Central Foreign Affairs Committee 9.Major General Douangchay Phichith, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of National Defence 10.Mr Somsavat Lengsavad, Standing Deputy Prime Minister 11.Mrs Pany Yathotou, Deputy Chairwoman of the National Assembly Secretariat: 1.Bounnhang Vorachith, State Vice-President, Standing Member of the Secretariat 2.Asang Laoly, Deputy Prime Minister, Head of the Party's Central Inspection Committee 3.Douangchay Phichith, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of National Defence 4.Bunthong Chitmani, Head of the Party's Central Organisation Commission 5.Sombat Yealyheu, Secretary of the Vientiane City Party Committee 6.Thongbanh Sengaphone, Minister of Public Security Party Central Committee Advisor: Khamtai Siphandon Administrative divisions Laos is divided into 16 provinces (khoueng, singular and plural), 1 municipality* (kampheng nakhon, singular and plural), and 1 special zone** (khetphiset, singular and plural): Attapu, Bokeo, Borikhamxay, Champassack, Houaphan, Khammouane, Louang Namtha, Louangphabang, Oudomxay, Phongsaly, Saravane, Savannakhet, Vientiane*, Vientiane, Sayaboury, Saysomboun**, Xekong, Xieng Khouang | Politics_of_Laos |@lemmatized politics:1 lao:12 take:2 place:2 framework:1 single:1 party:14 socialist:1 republic:3 legal:1 political:2 people:10 revolutionary:4 lprp:4 head:6 state:6 president:17 choummaly:4 sayasone:4 also:5 secretary:3 general:9 leader:2 government:6 prime:16 minister:36 bouasone:4 bouphavanh:4 policy:1 determine:1 powerful:1 nine:1 member:9 politburo:2 central:7 committee:9 important:1 decision:1 vet:1 council:2 first:1 french:3 write:1 monarchical:1 constitution:3 promulgate:1 may:2 declare:1 independent:1 within:1 union:2 revised:1 omit:1 reference:1 though:1 close:1 educational:1 health:1 technical:1 tie:1 former:1 colonial:1 power:1 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legislative:1 sapha:1 heng:1 xat:1 judicial:1 supreme:5 court:4 recommendation:1 stand:6 vice:6 judge:1 h:12 e:12 mr:12 bounnhang:3 vorachith:3 dr:6 control:1 major:4 affair:3 defence:3 phichith:3 public:2 security:2 thongbanh:2 seng:1 aphone:1 social:1 welfare:1 finance:1 somdy:1 douangdy:1 information:1 culture:1 mounkeo:1 olaboune:1 chaleun:1 yiapaoheu:1 thongsing:2 mrs:2 pany:2 yathotou:2 xaysomphone:1 phomvihane:1 khammy:1 sayavong:1 prosecutor:1 somphanh:1 phengkhammy:1 lt:2 samane:1 charge:1 ideological:1 cultural:1 work:1 chairman:1 colonel:1 democratic:1 secretariat:3 sisavath:1 keobounphanh:1 front:1 construction:1 inspection:2 chairwoman:1 bunthong:1 chitmani:1 organisation:1 commission:1 sombat:1 yealyheu:1 vientiane:3 city:1 sengaphone:1 advisor:1 khamtai:1 siphandon:1 administrative:1 division:1 divide:1 province:1 khoueng:1 singular:3 plural:3 municipality:1 kampheng:1 nakhon:1 special:1 zone:1 khetphiset:1 attapu:1 bokeo:1 borikhamxay:1 champassack:1 houaphan:1 khammouane:1 louang:1 namtha:1 louangphabang:1 oudomxay:1 phongsaly:1 saravane:1 savannakhet:1 sayaboury:1 saysomboun:1 xekong:1 xieng:1 khouang:1 |@bigram prime_minister:16 constitution_promulgate:1 rubber_stamp:1 lao_lao:1 maj_gen:2 legislative_branch:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:4 vice_president:6 foreign_affair:3 singular_plural:3 |
4,258 | Bayer_designation | A Bayer designation is a stellar designation in which a specific star is identified by a Greek letter, followed by the genitive form of its parent constellation's Latin name. The original list of Bayer designations contained 1,564 stars. Most of the brighter stars were assigned their first systematic names by the German astronomer Johann Bayer in 1603, in his star atlas Uranometria (named after Urania, the Greek Muse of Astronomy, along with Uranus, the Greek god of the sky and heavens). Bayer traveled by sailing ship to various parts of the world, including the southern hemisphere, to make astronomical observations. Bayer assigned a lower-case Greek letter, such as alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), etc, to each star he cataloged, combined with the Latin name of the star’s parent constellation in genitive (possessive) form. (See List of constellations for the genitive forms.) For example, Aldebaran is designated α Tauri (pronounced Alpha Tauri), which means "Alpha of the Bull". (The letters of the Greek alphabet were used in antiquity as numerals, so Bayer's scheme might be regarded as a numbering system.) A single constellation may contain fifty or more stars, but the Greek alphabet has only twenty-four letters of the Greek alphabet; when these ran out, Bayer began using lower-case Latin letters: hence s Carinae (s of the Keel) and d Centauri (d of the Centaur). Within constellations having an extremely large number of stars, Bayer eventually advanced to upper-case Latin letters, as in G Scorpii (G of the Scorpion) and N Velorum (N of the Sails). The last letter used by Bayer was Q. Is Alpha always the brightest star? For the most part, Bayer assigned Greek and Latin letters to stars in order of apparent brightness, from brightest to dimmest, within a particular constellation. The brightest star in a particular constellation was assigned alpha (α), the second brightest beta (β), the third brightest gamma (γ), and so on. Since the brightest star in many constellations is designated as Alpha (α), many people wrongly assume that Bayer meant to put the stars exclusively in order of their brightness, but in his day there was no way to measure stellar brightness precisely. Traditionally, the stars were assigned to one of six magnitude classes, and Bayer's catalog lists all the first-magnitude stars, followed by all the second-magnitude stars, and so on. However within each magnitude class, there was no attempt to arrange stars by relative brightness. Bayer did not always assign Greek and Latin letters to stars in this manner. Bayer sometimes assigned letters to stars according to their location within a constellation (for example: the northern, southern, eastern, or western part of a constellation), according to the order in which a constellation’s stars rise in the east, according to the historical or mythological information on specific stars within a constellation, or according to his own random choosing. Usually the stars were roughly ordered from the head to the feet (or tail) of the figure (like the stars in the Big Dipper). The conclusion is that Alpha (α) is NOT always the brightest star in a constellation; in fact, of the 88 modern constellations, there are at least 30 constellations in which alpha (α) is not the brightest star, and four of those lack an alpha (α) star altogether. (Constellations with no alpha include Vela and Puppis, formerly part of Argo Navis whose alpha is Canopus in Carina (constellation.) Bayer designations in Orion BayerDesignation ApparentMagnitude ProperName α Ori 0.45 Betelgeuse β Ori 0.18 Rigel γ Ori 1.64 Bellatrix δ Ori 2.23 Mintaka ε Ori 1.69 Alnilam ζ Ori 1.70 Alnitak Orion provides a good example of Bayer's method. (Remember that the lower the magnitude, the brighter the star. Additionally a "2nd-magnitude" star has a more precise magnitude between 1.51 and 2.50, inclusive.) Bayer first designated the two 1st-magnitude stars, Betelgeuse and Rigel, as Alpha and Beta, with Betelgeuse (the shoulder) coming ahead of Rigel (the foot), even though the latter is the brighter. He then repeated the procedure for the stars of the 2nd-magnitude. As is evident from the map and chart, he again followed a "top-down" ("north-south") route. The belt of Orion is composed of three bright stars Delta Orionis, Epsilon Orionis and Zeta Orionis, however, the brightest star in the belt is not delta but epsilon. Instead, Bayer named the stars of Orion's belt in the special order in which they rise in the east, first delta (δ), then the middle star epsilon (ε), then zeta (ζ). Various Bayer designation arrangements This "First to Rise in the East" method is done in a number of other instances, even for Castor and Pollux of Gemini. Although Pollux is brighter than Castor, the latter was assigned alpha because it rises in the east ahead of the former. Bayer may also have assigned the stars Castor and Pollux in terms of historical or mythological knowledge. Both historically and mythologically, Castor's name is almost always mentioned first (Castor and Pollux) whenever the twins are mentioned, and that may have compelled him to assign alpha (α) to Castor and beta (β) to Pollux. Although the brightest star in Draco is Eltanin (Gamma Draconis), Thuban was assigned alpha (α) by Bayer because Thuban, in history, was once the North Star 4,000 years ago. Almost every star with a history of being the North Star, including Vega, Alderamin and Polaris, were designated as the alpha (α) of their parent constellations by Bayer. Sometimes, indeed, there's no apparent order, as exemplified by the stars in Libra and Sagittarius, where Bayer assigned designations to stars at random. Revised Bayer designations When the International Astronomical Union (IAU) outlined the official 88 constellations with definite boundaries in 1930, some stars fell on boundaries between them. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) declared that stars and other celestial objects can be assigned to only one constellation. Consequently, these stars that lie very close to constellation boundaries were reassigned to one new official constellation and were given new Bayer designations in the process. Examples include β Tau, formerly γ Aur, and α And, formerly δ Peg. Another star, σ Lib, was formerly known as γ Sco, though it is well inside Libra. A few stars still do not lie (according to the modern constellation boundaries) within the constellation for which they are named. Nonetheless, these designations have proved useful and are widely used today. Bayer designation styles There are two common ways in which Bayer designations can be written. The designation can be written out in full, as in Alpha Canis Majoris or Beta Persei, or a lowercase Greek letter can be used together with the standard 3-letter abbreviation of the constellation, as in α CMa or β Per. Earlier 4-letter abbreviations (such as α CMaj) are rarely used today. Other Bayer Designations The Latin letter extended designations are rarely used, but there are some exceptions such as h Persei (which is actually a star cluster) and P Cygni. Note that uppercase Latin Bayer designations never went beyond Q, and names such as R Leporis and W Ursae Majoris are variable star designations, not Bayer designations. A further complication is the use of numeric superscripts to distinguish between stars with the same Bayer letter. Usually these are double stars (mostly optical doubles rather than true binary stars), but there are some exceptions such as the chain of stars π1, π2, π3, π4, π5 and π6 Orionis. See also Bayer objects Flamsteed designation List of constellations Star catalogue Star designation Table of stars with Bayer designations Variable star designation | Bayer_designation |@lemmatized bayer:33 designation:21 stellar:2 specific:2 star:56 identify:1 greek:10 letter:15 follow:3 genitive:3 form:3 parent:3 constellation:26 latin:8 name:8 original:1 list:4 contain:2 brighter:3 assign:13 first:6 systematic:1 german:1 astronomer:1 johann:1 atlas:1 uranometria:1 urania:1 muse:1 astronomy:1 along:1 uranus:1 god:1 sky:1 heaven:1 travel:1 sail:2 ship:1 various:2 part:4 world:1 include:4 southern:2 hemisphere:1 make:1 astronomical:3 observation:1 low:3 case:3 alpha:17 α:14 beta:5 β:6 gamma:3 γ:5 etc:1 catalog:2 combine:1 possessive:1 see:2 example:4 aldebaran:1 designate:4 tauri:2 pronounced:1 mean:1 bull:1 alphabet:3 use:8 antiquity:1 numeral:1 scheme:1 might:1 regard:1 numbering:1 system:1 single:1 may:3 fifty:1 twenty:1 four:2 run:1 begin:1 hence:1 carina:2 keel:1 centauri:1 centaur:1 within:6 extremely:1 large:1 number:2 eventually:1 advance:1 upper:1 g:2 scorpii:1 scorpion:1 n:2 velorum:1 last:1 q:2 always:4 bright:11 order:6 apparent:2 brightness:4 dimmest:1 particular:2 second:2 brightest:1 third:1 since:1 many:2 people:1 wrongly:1 assume:1 meant:1 put:1 exclusively:1 day:1 way:2 measure:1 precisely:1 traditionally:1 one:3 six:1 magnitude:9 class:2 however:2 attempt:1 arrange:1 relative:1 manner:1 sometimes:2 accord:5 location:1 northern:1 eastern:1 western:1 rise:4 east:4 historical:2 mythological:2 information:1 random:2 choose:1 usually:2 roughly:1 head:1 foot:2 tail:1 figure:1 like:1 big:1 dipper:1 conclusion:1 fact:1 modern:2 least:1 lack:1 altogether:1 vela:1 puppis:1 formerly:4 argo:1 navis:1 whose:1 canopus:1 orion:4 bayerdesignation:1 apparentmagnitude:1 propername:1 ori:6 betelgeuse:3 rigel:3 bellatrix:1 δ:3 mintaka:1 ε:2 alnilam:1 ζ:2 alnitak:1 provide:1 good:1 method:2 remember:1 additionally:1 precise:1 inclusive:1 two:2 shoulder:1 come:1 ahead:2 even:2 though:2 latter:2 repeat:1 procedure:1 evident:1 map:1 chart:1 top:1 north:3 south:1 route:1 belt:3 compose:1 three:1 delta:3 orionis:4 epsilon:3 zeta:2 instead:1 special:1 middle:1 arrangement:1 instance:1 castor:6 pollux:5 gemini:1 although:2 former:1 also:2 term:1 knowledge:1 historically:1 mythologically:1 almost:2 mention:2 whenever:1 twin:1 compel:1 draco:1 eltanin:1 draconis:1 thuban:2 history:2 year:1 ago:1 every:1 vega:1 alderamin:1 polaris:1 indeed:1 exemplify:1 libra:2 sagittarius:1 revise:1 international:2 union:2 iau:2 outline:1 official:2 definite:1 boundary:4 fell:1 declare:1 celestial:1 object:2 consequently:1 lie:2 close:1 reassign:1 new:2 give:1 process:1 tau:1 aur:1 peg:1 another:1 σ:1 lib:1 know:1 sco:1 well:1 inside:1 still:1 nonetheless:1 prove:1 useful:1 widely:1 today:2 style:1 common:1 write:2 full:1 canis:1 majoris:2 persei:2 lowercase:1 together:1 standard:1 abbreviation:2 cma:1 per:1 early:1 cmaj:1 rarely:2 extend:1 exception:2 h:1 actually:1 cluster:1 p:1 cygni:1 note:1 uppercase:1 never:1 go:1 beyond:1 r:1 leporis:1 w:1 ursae:1 variable:2 complication:1 numeric:1 superscript:1 distinguish:1 double:2 mostly:1 optical:1 rather:1 true:1 binary:1 chain:1 flamsteed:1 catalogue:1 table:1 |@bigram bayer_designation:12 southern_hemisphere:1 gamma_γ:2 alpha_beta:1 delta_epsilon:1 castor_pollux:3 beta_persei:1 flamsteed_designation:1 |
4,259 | Frederick_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor | Emperor Frederick III Detail of "Aeneas Piccolomini Introduces Eleonora of Portugal to Frederick III" by Pinturicchio (1454-1513) Frederick III of Habsburg (September 21 1415 – August 19, 1493) was elected as German King as the successor of Albert II in 1440. Born in Innsbruck, he was the son of Duke Ernest the Iron from the Leopoldinian line of the Habsburg family ruling Inner Austria, i.e. Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and of Ernest's wife Cymburgis of Masovia. As an Austrian Habsburg Duke, he became Frederick V in 1424. In 1440 he was elected German king as Frederick IV, and in 1452 crowned Holy Roman Emperor as Frederick III. He married in 1452, at age 37, the 18-year-old Princess Eleonor of Portugal, whose dowry helped him to alleviate his debts and cement his power. In 1442, Frederick allied himself with Rudolf Stüssi, burgomaster of Zürich, against the Old Swiss Confederacy in the Old Zürich War (Alter Zürichkrieg). In 1448, he entered into the Vienna Concordat with the Holy See, which remained in force until 1806 and regulated the relationship between the Habsburgs and the Holy See. Frederick was the last Emperor to be crowned in Rome, being crowned in 1452 by Pope Nicholas V. He opposed the reform of the Holy Roman Empire at that time and was barely able to prevent the electors from electing another king. His politics were hardly spectacular but still successful. His first major opponent was his brother Albert VI, who challenged his rule. He did not manage to win a single conflict on the battlefield, and thus resorted to more subtle plans. He held his nephew Ladislaus Posthumus, the ruler of the Archduchy of Austria, Hungary and Bohemia, (born in 1440) as a prisoner and attempted to extend his guardianship over him in perpetuity to maintain his control over Lower Austria. Ladislaus was freed in 1452 by the Lower Austrian estates. He acted similarly towards his nephew Sigismund of the Tyrolian line of the Habsburg family. Despite those efforts, he failed to gain control over Hungary and Bohemia, and was even defeated by the Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus in 1485, who managed to reside in Vienna until his death five years later. Ultimately, Frederick prevailed in all those conflicts by outliving his opponents and sometimes inheriting their lands, as was the case with his nephew Ladislaus Posthumus, from whom he gained Lower Austria in 1457, and with his brother Albert VI, whom he succeeded in Upper Austria. These conflicts forced him to an anachronistic itinerant existence, as he had to move his court between various places through the years, residing in Graz, Linz and Wiener Neustadt. Wiener Neustadt owes him its castle and the "New Monastery". Still, in some ways his policies were astonishingly successful. In the Siege of Neuss (1474-75), he could force Charles the Bold of Burgundy to give his daughter Mary of Burgundy as wife to Frederick's son Maximilian. With the inheritance of Burgundy, the House of Habsburg began to rise to predominance in Europe. This gave rise to the saying "Let others wage wars, but you, happy Austria, shall marry", which became a motto of the dynasty. The marriage of his daughter Kunigunde of Austria to Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria, was another result of intrigues and deception, but must be counted as a defeat for Frederick. Albert illegally took control of some imperial fiefs and then asked to marry Kunigunde (who lived in Innsbruck, far from her father), offering to give her the fiefs as a dowry. Frederick agreed at first, but after Albert took over yet another fief, Regensburg, Frederick withdrew his consent. On January 2, 1487, however, before Frederick's change of heart could be communicated to his daughter, Kunigunde married Albert. A war was prevented only by intermediation by the Emperor's son, Maximilian. In some smaller matters, Frederick was quite successful: in 1469 he managed to establish bishoprics in Vienna and Wiener Neustadt, a step that no previous Duke of Austria had been able to achieve. At the age of 77, Frederick III died at Linz in a failed attempt to have his left leg amputated. His grave, built by Nikolaus Gerhaert von Leyden, in the Stephansdom in Vienna, is one of the most important works of sculptural art of the late Middle Ages. His amputed leg was buried with him. For the last ten years of Frederick's life, he and Maximilian ruled jointly. Ancestors </center> See also Kings of Germany family tree. He was related to every other king of Germany. |- | width="30%" align="center" rowspan="1"| Preceded by:Albert II | width="40%" align="center" | German King(formally King of the Romans)1440–1493 | width="30%" align="center" rowspan="4"| Succeeded by:Maximilian I |- | width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:Sigismund | width="40%" align="center" | Holy Roman Emperor1452–1493 |- | width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:Ernest the Iron | width="40%" align="center" | Duke of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola1424–1493with Albert VI 1424–1463 |- | width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:Ladislaus Posthumus | width="40%" align="center" | Archduke of Austria1457–1493with Albert VI 1457–1463 | Frederick_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor |@lemmatized emperor:4 frederick:17 iii:5 detail:1 aeneas:1 piccolomini:1 introduces:1 eleonora:1 portugal:2 pinturicchio:1 habsburg:6 september:1 august:1 elect:2 german:3 king:8 successor:1 albert:10 ii:2 bear:2 innsbruck:2 son:3 duke:5 ernest:3 iron:2 leopoldinian:1 line:2 family:3 ruling:1 inner:1 austria:8 e:1 styria:2 carinthia:2 carniola:1 wife:2 cymburgis:1 masovia:1 austrian:2 become:2 v:2 elected:1 iv:2 crown:3 holy:5 roman:4 marry:3 age:3 year:4 old:3 princess:1 eleonor:1 whose:1 dowry:2 help:1 alleviate:1 debt:1 cement:1 power:1 ally:1 rudolf:1 stüssi:1 burgomaster:1 zürich:2 swiss:1 confederacy:1 war:3 alter:1 zürichkrieg:1 enter:1 vienna:4 concordat:1 see:3 remain:1 force:3 regulate:1 relationship:1 last:2 rome:1 pope:1 nicholas:1 oppose:1 reform:1 empire:1 time:1 barely:1 able:2 prevent:2 elector:1 another:3 politics:1 hardly:1 spectacular:1 still:2 successful:3 first:2 major:1 opponent:2 brother:2 vi:4 challenge:1 rule:2 manage:3 win:1 single:1 conflict:3 battlefield:1 thus:1 resort:1 subtle:1 plan:1 hold:1 nephew:3 ladislaus:4 posthumus:3 ruler:1 archduchy:1 hungary:2 bohemia:2 prisoner:1 attempt:2 extend:1 guardianship:1 perpetuity:1 maintain:1 control:3 low:3 free:1 estate:1 act:1 similarly:1 towards:1 sigismund:2 tyrolian:1 despite:1 effort:1 fail:1 gain:2 even:1 defeat:2 hungarian:1 matthias:1 corvinus:1 reside:2 death:1 five:1 later:1 ultimately:1 prevail:1 outlive:1 sometimes:1 inherit:1 land:1 case:1 succeed:2 upper:1 anachronistic:1 itinerant:1 existence:1 move:1 court:1 various:1 place:1 graz:1 linz:2 wiener:3 neustadt:3 owe:1 castle:1 new:1 monastery:1 way:1 policy:1 astonishingly:1 siege:1 neuss:1 could:2 charles:1 bold:1 burgundy:3 give:3 daughter:3 mary:1 maximilian:4 inheritance:1 house:1 begin:1 rise:2 predominance:1 europe:1 say:1 let:1 others:1 wage:1 happy:1 shall:1 motto:1 dynasty:1 marriage:1 kunigunde:3 bavaria:1 result:1 intrigue:1 deception:1 must:1 count:1 illegally:1 take:2 imperial:1 fief:3 ask:1 live:1 far:1 father:1 offering:1 agree:1 yet:1 regensburg:1 withdraw:1 consent:1 january:1 however:1 change:1 heart:1 communicate:1 married:1 intermediation:1 small:1 matter:1 quite:1 establish:1 bishopric:1 step:1 previous:1 achieve:1 die:1 failed:1 left:1 leg:2 amputate:1 grave:1 build:1 nikolaus:1 gerhaert:1 von:1 leyden:1 stephansdom:1 one:1 important:1 work:1 sculptural:1 art:1 late:1 middle:1 amputed:1 bury:1 ten:1 life:1 jointly:1 ancestor:1 center:10 also:1 germany:2 tree:1 relate:1 every:1 width:9 align:9 rowspan:2 precede:4 formally:1 archduke:1 |@bigram styria_carinthia:2 carinthia_carniola:1 austrian_habsburg:1 ladislaus_posthumus:3 austria_hungary:1 matthias_corvinus:1 wiener_neustadt:3 leg_amputate:1 width_align:9 align_center:9 |
4,260 | Freenet | Freenet is a decentralized, censorship-resistant distributed data store originally designed by Ian Clarke. Freenet aims to provide freedom of speech through a peer-to-peer network with strong protection of anonymity. Freenet works by pooling the contributed bandwidth and storage space of member computers to allow users to anonymously publish or retrieve various kinds of information. It can be thought of as a large storage device which uses key based routing similar to a distributed hash table to locate peers' data. When a file is stored in Freenet, a key which can be used to retrieve the file is generated. The storage space is distributed among all connected nodes on Freenet. Freenet has been under continuous development since 2000; a version 1.0 has not yet been released but current builds are functionally usable. The project has already seen a ground-up rewrite for version 0.7, however. Freenet News Released under the GNU General Public License, Freenet is free software. Content Freenet's founders argue that only with true anonymity comes true freedom of speech, and that what they view as the beneficial uses of Freenet outweigh its negative uses. The Philosophy behind Freenet Their view is that free speech, in itself, is not in contradiction with any other consideration — the information is not the crime. Freenet attempts to remove the possibility of any group imposing their beliefs or values on any data. Although many states censor communications to different extents, they all share one commonality in that a body must decide what information to censor and what information to allow. What may be acceptable to one group of people may be considered offensive or even dangerous to another. In essence, the purpose of Freenet is that nobody is allowed to decide what is acceptable. Tolerance for each others' values is encouraged and failing that, the user is asked to turn a blind eye to content which opposes his or her views. One analysis of Freenet files conducted in the year 2000 (before Freenet had proper support for web pages and chat) claimed that the top 3 types of files contained in Freenet were text (37%), audio (21%), and images (14%). 59% of all the text files were drug-related, 71% of all audio files were rock music, and 89% of all images were pornographic. The article qualifies itself with the proviso: "the design of Freenet makes accurate analysis of its content difficult" What's On Freenet? - An analysis of the types of files contained in Freenet (written in 2000). Note that the design of Freenet makes accurate analysis of its content difficult. Due to the nature of Freenet, a typical user may unknowingly host this sort of information, which may hypothetically make them subject to severe civil and criminal penalties. Freenet attempts to prevent this through "plausible deniability", preventing the user from knowing what is on his or her own node and making it difficult to determine if a piece of information is in any given node without causing the distribution of that piece of information throughout the network to change in the process. No court cases have tested any of this to date. Reports of Freenet's use in authoritarian nations is difficult to track due to the very nature of Freenet's goals. One group, Freenet-China, has translated the Freenet software to Chinese and is distributing it within China on CD and floppy disk. Technical design The Freenet file sharing network stores documents and allows them to be retrieved later by an associated key, as is now possible with protocols such as HTTP. The network is designed to be highly survivable, with all internal processes completely anonymized and decentralized across the network. The system has no central servers and is not subject to the control of any one individual or organization. Even the designers of Freenet do not have any control over the overall system. The stored information is encrypted and replicated across participating computers around the world, which are anonymized and intended to be many and continuously-changing. It is theoretically difficult for anyone to find out which participants are hosting a given file, since the contents of each file are encrypted, and may be broken into pieces that are distributed over many different computers. Due to the nature of encryption it is, by mathematical proof, highly impractical for a participant to view files hosted on his or her own system. Distributed storage and caching of data Unlike other p2p networks, Freenet not only transmits data between nodes but actually stores them, working as a huge distributed cache. To achieve this, each node allocates some amount of disk space for data store and cache, typically 10 GB. Information flow in Freenet is different from networks like eMule or BitTorrent: A user wishing to share a file or update a freesite "inserts" the file or HTML page "to the network" After "insertion" is finished, the publisher is free to shut down his node, since the file is stored in the network. It will remain available for other users whether the original publishing node is online or not. Two advantages of this design are high reliability and anonymity. Information remains available even if the publisher node goes offline, and is anonymously spread over many hosting nodes as encrypted blocks, not entire files. Freenet is also not affected by the typical BitTorrent problem, a lack of "seeds", or full copies of a file or torrent. A trade-off is that a node operator has no control over what kind of content is stored on his node. Network The network consists of a number of nodes that pass messages among themselves. Typically, a host computer on the network runs the software that acts as a node, and it connects to other hosts running that same software to form a large distributed network of peer nodes. Some nodes are end user nodes, from which documents are requested and presented to human users. Other nodes serve only to route data. All nodes communicate with each other identically — there are no dedicated "clients" or "servers". It is not possible for a node to rate another node except by its capacity to insert and fetch data associated with a key. This is unlike most other P2P networks where node administrators can employ a ratio system, where users have to share a certain amount of content before they can download. Freenet may also be considered a small world network. The Freenet protocol is intended to be used on a network of complex topology, such as the Internet (Internet Protocol). Each node knows only about some number of other nodes that it can reach directly (its conceptual "neighbors"), but any node can be a neighbor to any other; no hierarchy or other structure is intended. Each message is routed through the network by passing from neighbor to neighbor until it reaches its destination. As each node passes a message to a neighbor, it does not know or care whether the neighbor will forward the message to another node, or is the final destination or original source of the message. This is intended to protect the anonymity of users and publishers. Each node maintains a data store containing documents associated with keys, and a routing table associating nodes with records of their performance in retrieving different keys. Protocol A typical request sequence. The request moves through the network from node to node, backing out of a dead-end (step 3) and a loop (step 7) before locating the desired file. The Freenet protocol uses a key based routing protocol, similar to distributed hash tables. The routing algorithm changed significantly in version 0.7. Prior to version 0.7, Freenet used a heuristic routing algorithm where each node had no fixed location, and routing was based on which node had served a key closest to the key being fetched (in ~ 0.3) or which we estimate would serve it faster (in version 0.5). In either case, new connections were sometimes added to downstream nodes (i.e. the node that answered the request) when requests succeeded, and old nodes were discarded in least recently used order (or something close to it). Oskar Sandberg's research (during the development of version 0.7) shows that this "path folding" is critical, and that a very simple routing algorithm will suffice provided there is path folding. The disadvantage of this is that it is very easy for an attacker to find Freenet nodes, and connect to them, because every node is continually attempting to find new connections. In version 0.7, Freenet supports both 'Opennet' (similar to the old algorithms, but simpler), and 'Darknet' (all node connections are setup manually, so only your friends know your node's IP address). Darknet is less convenient, but much more secure against a distant attacker. This change required major changes in the routing algorithm. Every node has a location, which is a number between 0 and 1. When a key is requested, first the node checks the local data store. If it's not found, the key's hash is turned into another number in the same range, and the request is routed to the node whose location is closest to the key. This goes on until some number of hops is exceeded, there are no more nodes to search, or the data is found. If the data is found, it is cached on each node along the path. So there is no one source node for a key, and attempting to find where it is currently stored will result in it being cached more widely. Essentially the same process is used to insert a document into the network: the data is routed according to the key until it runs out of hops, and if no existing document is found with the same key, it is stored on each node. If older data is found, the older data is propagated and returned to the originator, and the insert "collides". But this only works if the locations are clustered in the right way. Freenet assumes that the Darknet (a subset of the global social network) is a small-world network, and nodes constantly attempt to swap locations (using the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm) in order to minimize their distance to their neighbors. If the network actually is a small-world network, Freenet should find data reasonably quickly; it's to be hoped on the order of hops. However, it does not guarantee that data will be found at all. Eventually, either the document is found or the hop limit is exceeded. The terminal node sends a reply that makes its way back to the originator along the route specified by the intermediate nodes' records of pending requests. The intermediate nodes may choose to cache the document along the way. Besides saving bandwidth, this also makes documents harder to censor as there is no one "source node." Effect Initially, the locations are distributed randomly (whether on Opennet or Darknet). This means that routing of requests is essentially random. But since different nodes have different randomness, they will disagree about where to send a request, given a key. So the data in a newly-started Freenet will be distributed somewhat randomly. As location swapping (on Darknet) and path folding (on Opennet) progress, nodes which are close to one another will increasingly have close locations, and nodes which are far away will have distant locations. Data with similar keys will be stored on the same node. The result is that the network will self-organize into a distributed, clustered structure where nodes tend to hold data items that are close together in key space. There will probably be multiple such clusters throughout the network, any given document being replicated numerous times, depending on how much it is used. This is a kind of "spontaneous symmetry breaking", in which an initially symmetric state (all nodes being the same, with random initial keys for each other) leads to a highly asymmetric situation, with nodes coming to specialize in data that has closely related keys. There are forces which tend to cause clustering (shared closeness data spreads throughout the network), and forces that tend to break up clusters (local caching of commonly used data). These forces will be different depending on how often data is used, so that seldom-used data will tend to be on just a few nodes which specialize in providing that data, and frequently used items will be spread widely throughout the network. This automatic mirroring counteracts the times when web traffic becomes overloaded, and due to a mature network's intelligent routing, a network of size n should only require log(n) time to retrieve a document on average. Keys Keys are hashes: there is no notion of semantic closeness when speaking of key closeness. Therefore there will be no correlation between key closeness and similar popularity of data as there might be if keys did exhibit some semantic meaning, thus avoiding bottlenecks caused by popular subjects. There are two main varieties of keys in use on Freenet, the Content Hash Key (CHK) and the Signed Subspace Key (SSK). A CHK is a SHA-256 hash of a document (after encryption, which itself depends on the hash of the plaintext) and thus a node can check that the document returned is correct by hashing it and checking the digest against the key. This key contains the meat of the data on Freenet. It carries all the binary data building blocks for the content to be delivered to the client for reassembly and decryption. The CHK is unique by nature and provides tamperproof content. A hostile node altering the data under a CHK will immediately be detected by the next node or the client. CHKs also reduce the redundancy of data since the same data will have the same CHK. SSKs are based on public-key cryptography. Currently Freenet uses the DSA algorithm. Documents inserted under SSKs are signed by the inserter, and this signature can be verified by every node to ensure that the data is not tampered with. SSKs can be used to establish a verifiable pseudonymous identity on Freenet, and allow for documents to be updated securely by the person who inserted them. A subtype of the SSK is the Keyword Signed Key, or KSK, in which the key pair is generated in a standard way from a simple human-readable string. Inserting a document using a KSK allows the document to be retrieved and decrypted if and only if the requester knows the human-readable string; this allows for more convenient (but less secure) URIs for users to refer to. Scalability A network is said to be scalable if its performance does not deteriorate even if the network is very large. The scalability of Freenet is being evaluated, but similar architectures have been shown to scale logarithmically. The Small-World Phenomenon: An Algorithmic Perspective — Kleinberg It is believed based on this work that Freenet should find data in around hops on Opennet or on a Darknet which is a small-world network. However, this is only true on a mature network, and the level of churn typical on Freenet, due to nodes not running continually, and due to people trying it out and then leaving, may prevent this. Darknet versus Opennet: goals and controversy Freenet versions prior to 0.7 were based on opennet topology. Freenet 0.7 introduced support for a scalable darknet, where users only connect directly to other users they know and trust. The purpose of this change is to protect users who may be placed at risk simply by using the software, irrespective of what they are using it for. In the new model, users will choose to whom they connect, and only those users will know that they are running the software. Previous darknets, such as WASTE, have been limited to relatively small disconnected networks. The core innovation in Freenet 0.7 is to allow a globally scalable darknet, capable (at least in theory) of supporting millions of users. This is made possible by the fact that human relationships tend to form small-world networks, a property that can be exploited to find short paths between any two people. The work is based on a speech given at DEF CON 13 by Ian Clarke and Swedish mathematician Oskar Sandberg. For much of the development process of Freenet 0.7, there was no Opennet mode, so that users would have to find Darknet connections. This was partly because it simply wasn't implemented, but partly because of developers' hopes that a true F2F network would emerge. However, this did not work out, because in practice most users didn't know anyone else using Freenet, so had to use an IRC channel or a Frost board to find total strangers to connect to. This didn't work well because it produced a very poor network topology, resulting in bad performance, and significantly increased the effort needed to get a new node working. Even after getting some noderefs, some of the people connected to would inevitably leave Freenet, so it was necessary to come back for more. The implementation of Opennet in Freenet 0.7, in late 2007, therefore greatly improved both performance and usability. However, in hostile environments where Opennet may be attacked, it will be necessary to use pure Darknet, so the official advice is to start off with Opennet, and add Friend-to-Friend connections as quickly as possible, eventually turning off opennet mode and becoming invisible. The Freenet wiki contains some in-depth discussion of possible attacks on opennet. FreenetWiki: Attacks on opennet Current development The Freenet 0.7 darknet peers list. Freenet 0.7, released on the 8th of May 2008, is a major re-write incorporating a number of fundamental changes. The most fundamental change is support for darknet operation, described above. Other modifications include switching from TCP to UDP, which allows UDP hole punching along with faster transmission of messages between peers in the network. It is planned that future versions FreenetWiki: FreenetZeroPointEight will support "passive requests" FreenetWiki: Passive Requests (a kind of server push), broadcast streams, FreenetWiki: PublishSubscribeStreams and anonymous "channels" FreenetWiki: OneToOneStreams to a particular node allowing for dynamic content. Applications of this range from Internet Relay Chat to RSS-feeds. Future versions will also feature increased security FreenetWiki: Freenet 0.7 Security via amongst other things onion routing. Freenet 0.7 continues to only support publishing and fetching data. A large number of Freenet users continue to use Freenet 0.5 The Freenet Project — /download-old for various reasons, a common one being distrust of the darknet concept. User produced builds of Freenet are being released within the 0.5 community, the latest being Freenet 0519. While there has been talk of creating a separate fork based on the 0.5 source, no real steps have been taken. Freenet is fundamentally different from other peer-to-peer networks; it is still somewhat more difficult to use and significantly slower. However, after continued use and activity on the network, nodes become faster and more efficient at fetching data. Currently, Freenet cannot be used to create or distribute dynamic content, such as content that utilizes databases and scripting. According to the Freenet Project group, such tradeoffs are expected since Freenet's primary goals are neither ease-of-use nor performance. Although there are plans to support this in the future, it is considered a low priority. Unlike other peer-to-peer networks, Freenet is primarily intended to combat censorship and allow people to communicate freely and with near-total anonymity. There is a primitive (not fully distributed) keyword search function in development, but due to the small size of the network several freesites serve as directories listing published freesites. Upon the creation of a new freesite, the author can add a listing to the directory allowing others to discover the freesite. The directory owners also periodically spider or automatically attempt to retrieve the freesites they list. One of the most famous directories is the Freedom Engine. Related tools and Freenet applications Unlike many other P2P applications, Freenet does not have a single application which provides all functionality. Instead, Freenet has a modular structure: the core application focuses on connecting to the network, and acts as a proxy, providing an open application interface named FCP for other programs to use. Those additional applications use the API to implement services like message boards, file sharing, or online chat. Several applications are distributed with Freenet and installed by the installation wizard together with the Freenet core. Distributed forums in Freenet Message boards (forums) are particularly popular among Freenet users: slow speed is not a problem, content is generated by users themselves so there's no lack of content, and the wish to stay anonymous is natural among forum users. Screenshot of Frost running on Windows. Frost is a well-maintained and popular message board system for Freenet. It uses a web of trust concept as well as public and private keys to prevent excess spam. It is very popular in the area of file sharing and is the most widely used Freenet messaging application. Frost is written in Java. Frost is not currently bundled with Freenet and can be downloaded from Frost home page on Sourceforge. However, because of sustained denial of service attacks since late 2007 (flooding board queues with bogus messages, which are invisible to users but make it almost impossible to find or post real messages), most Frost boards (at least most of the ones included by default) are now inactive. The Freenet Message Board (FMB) is a message board system written in Java, and the original author does not maintain it. However, the community continues to provide several branches which are generally up to date. Freenet Messaging System (FMS) is a new application brought to solve limitations and issues with current messaging protocol of Frost (in particular the denial of service attacks mentioned above). It uses a true web of trust with outbox polling (which may or may not scale, although there have been some improvements to Freenet itself to improve this). It can be downloaded from freesites in Freenet proper. FMS is much less user friendly than Frost, in that you need FMS, a news reader, and a web browser, to use it. Eventually Frost will use a similar mechanism, but this is currently waiting for a Java port of FMS to be completed. Anonymous wikis There are two projects that implement anonymous wiki in Freenet: friki and FreekiWiki. Both projects are under development now. Screenshot of Friki File sharing tools FreemulET is a file sharing application in Freenet, with look and feel similar to the widespread eMule software. FreemulET provides on-demand file sharing and can reinsert only blocks that are actually missing. FreemulET is not bundled but can be downloaded from the FreemulET freesite. Screenshot FreemulET 0.6.29 Thaw is a file sharing application included with Freenet, which is primarily a download manager and tool for browsing and creating file indexes. File indexes can link to one another and thus form a kind of web of download channels. Freesite tools Freenet 0.7 includes a simple tool to upload freesites called jSite, and a blogging engine (capable of publishing either to Freenet or to a web site) based on a fork of Thingamablog. Freenet Utility for Queued Inserts and Downloads (FUQID) is a Microsoft Windows tool typically used to retrieve large splitfiles and to insert non-Freesite content such as binaries, audio, and archives. It is written in Borland Delphi, and it is maintained sporadically. Command line tools are also available. Older tools include the Freesite Insertion Wizard (FIW), which hasn't been ported to 0.7, and the unmaintained Fishtools. Development libraries FCPLib (Freenet Client Protocol Library) aims to be a cross-platform but natively compiled set of C-based functions for storing and retrieving information to and from Freenet. There are routines for storing documents to Freenet from the local disk, and other routines for moving data in memory to and from Freenet. FCPLib is now routinely compiled on the following platforms: Microsoft Windows NT/2K/XP, Debian GNU/Linux, BSD, Solaris, and Mac OS X. The FCPTools are command-line driven programs for inserting and retrieving files with Freenet. They are linked against FCPLib and serve as examples of library use. The Freenet Tools perform roughly the same tasks as FCPTools, however it does not include a client library for use in other projects. The Freenet Tools are written in ANSI C, and runs on Unix-like OSs. Publicity According to CiteSeer, Ian Clarke's "Freenet: A Distributed Anonymous Information Storage and Retrieval System" was the most cited computer science paper of 2000. Freenet has also had significant publicity in the mainstream press, including articles in the New York Times, and coverage on CNN, 60 Minutes II, the BBC, and elsewhere. The mainstream press coverage has been primarily concerned with Freenet's impact on copyright enforcement, rather than Freenet's core goal of freedom of communication. See also Anonymous P2P Crypto-anarchism Cypherpunk distributed file system Entropy (anonymous data store) Freedom of information Friend-to-friend GNUnet I2P Osiris sps Tor (anonymity network) Share - the successor to Winny Perfect Dark - the successor to Share; it employs many of Freenet's principles. References External links The Freenet Project The Official Freenet Wiki 22C3: Lecture on Freenet's new algorithm (on Google Video) An explanation of the Freenet architecture and implementation (as of December 30, 2005) given by Ian Clarke and Oskar Sandberg DEF CON 13 darknet slides by Oskar Sandberg and Ian Clarke Freenet Minihowto | Freenet |@lemmatized freenet:106 decentralize:2 censorship:2 resistant:1 distribute:16 data:38 store:15 originally:1 design:6 ian:5 clarke:5 aim:2 provide:8 freedom:5 speech:4 peer:10 network:44 strong:1 protection:1 anonymity:6 work:8 pool:1 contributed:1 bandwidth:2 storage:5 space:4 member:1 computer:5 allow:12 user:26 anonymously:2 publish:3 retrieve:10 various:2 kind:5 information:13 think:1 large:5 device:1 use:38 key:34 base:10 rout:10 similar:8 hash:8 table:3 locate:2 file:27 generate:3 among:4 connect:8 node:66 continuous:1 development:7 since:7 version:10 yet:1 release:4 current:3 build:2 functionally:1 usable:1 project:7 already:1 see:2 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4,261 | Foot-and-mouth_disease | Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) or hoof-and-mouth disease (Aphtae epizooticae) is a highly contagious and sometimes fatal viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals, including domestic animals such as cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats and pigs, as well as antelope, bison and other wild bovids, and deer. It is caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus. In addition, hedgehogs J. D. McLauchlan, W. M. Henderson 'The Occurrence of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in the Hedgehog under Natural Conditions', The Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 45, No. 4 (Dec., 1947), pp. 474-479 and elephants Canadian Food Inspection Agency - Animal Products - Foot-and-Mouth Disease Hazard Specific Plan are susceptible to the disease. The llama and alpaca may develop mild symptoms but are resistant to the disease and will not pass it on to others of the same species. In laboratory experiments, mice, rats and chicken have been successfully infected by artificial means, but it is not believed that they would contract the disease under natural conditions. Just as humans may spread the disease by carrying the germs on their clothes and body, animals that are not susceptible to the disease may still aid in spreading it. This was the case in Canada in 1952 when an outbreak flared up again after dogs had carried off bones from dead animals. Wolves are thought to play a similar role in the former Soviet Union. Humans are very rarely affected. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is the prototypic member of the Aphthovirus genus in the Picornaviridae family. This picornavirus is the etiological agent of the acute systemic vesicular disease that affects cattle and other animals worldwide. It is a highly variable and transmissible virus. There are seven FMD serotypes: O, A, C, SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3, and Asia-1. These serotypes show some regionality, and the O serotype is most common. History The cause of FMD was first shown to be viral in 1897 by Friedrich Loeffler. He passed the blood of an infected animal through a fine porcelain filter and found that the fluid that was collected could still cause the disease in healthy animals. FMD occurs throughout much of the world, and whilst some countries have been free of FMD for some time, its wide host range and rapid spread represent cause for international concern. After World War II, the disease was widely distributed throughout the world. In 1996, endemic areas included Asia, Africa, and parts of South America; as of August 2007, Chile is disease free, and Uruguay and Argentina have not had an outbreak since 2001. North America, Australia and Japan have been free of FMD for many years. New Zealand has never had a case of foot and mouth disease. http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests-diseases/animals/foot-n-mouth/freedom-statement.htm, official government press release, New Zealand's Freedom From Foot And Mouth Disease, Biosecurity New Zealand, accessdate = 2007-08-06 Most European countries have been recognized as disease free, and countries belonging to the European Union have stopped FMD vaccination. However, in 2001, a serious outbreak of FMD in Britain resulted in the slaughter of many animals, the postponing of the general election for a month, and the cancellation of many sporting events and leisure activities such as the Isle of Man TT. Due to strict government policies on sale of livestock, disinfection of all persons leaving and entering farms and the cancellation of large events likely to be attended by farmers, a potentially economically disastrous epizootic was avoided in the Republic of Ireland, with just one case recorded in Proleek, Co. Louth. In August 2007, FMD was found at two farms in Surrey, England. All livestock were culled and a quarantine erected over the area. There have since been two other suspected outbreaks, although these seem now not to be related to FMD. Clinical signs The incubation period for foot-and-mouth disease virus has a range between 2 and 12 days. The disease is characterised by high fever that declines rapidly after two or three days; blisters inside the mouth that lead to excessive secretion of stringy or foamy saliva and to drooling; and blisters on the feet that may rupture and cause lameness. Adult animals may suffer weight loss from which they do not recover for several months as well as swelling in the testicles of mature males, and in cows, milk production can decline significantly. Though most animals eventually recover from FMD, the disease can lead to myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle) and death, especially in newborn animals. Some infected animals remain asymptomatic, but they nonetheless carry FMD and can transmit it to others. Ruptured oral vesicle in a cow with FMD FMD can be transmitted in a number of ways including close contact animal to animal spread, long-distance aerosol spread and fomites or inanimate objects, typically fodder and motor vehicles. The clothes and skin of animal handlers such as farmers, standing water, and uncooked food scraps and feed supplements containing infected animal products can harbor the virus as well. Cows can also catch FMD from the semen of infected bulls. Control measures include quarantine and destruction of infected livestock, and export bans for meat and other animal products to countries not infected with the disease. Ruptured blisters on the feet of a pig with FMD Foot-and-mouth disease is caused by FMDV, an Aphthovirus of the viral family Picornaviridae. The members of this family are small (25-30 nm), nonenveloped icosahedral viruses that contain single-stranded RNA (ribonucleic acid). When such a virus comes in contact with a host cell, it binds to a receptor site and triggers a folding-in of the cell membrane. Once the virus is inside the host cell, its protein coat dissolves. New viral RNA and components of the protein coat are then synthesized in large quantities and assembled to form new viruses. After assembly, the host cell lyses (bursts) and releases the new viruses. Foot-and-mouth disease infecting humans Humans can be infected with foot-and-mouth disease through contact with infected animals, but this is extremely rare. Some cases were caused by laboratory accidents. Because the virus that causes FMD is sensitive to stomach acid, it cannot spread to humans via consumption of infected meat, except in the mouth before the meat is swallowed. In the UK, the last confirmed human case occurred in 1966 , and only a few other cases have been recorded in countries of continental Europe, Africa, and South America. Symptoms of FMD in humans include malaise, fever, vomiting, red ulcerative lesions (surface-eroding damaged spots) of the oral tissues, and sometimes vesicular lesions (small blisters) of the skin. According to a newspaper report Foot and Mouth disease killed two children in England in 1884, suspectedly due to infected milk. There is another viral disease with similar symptoms, commonly referred to as "hand, foot and mouth disease", that occurs more frequently in humans, especially in young children; the cause, Coxsackie A virus, is different from FMDV. Coxsackie A also belongs to the Picornaviridae family . Coxsackie viruses belong to the Enteroviruses within the Picornaviridae. Because FMD rarely infects humans but spreads rapidly among animals, it is a much greater threat to the agriculture industry than to human health. Farmers around the world can lose huge amounts of money during a foot-and-mouth epizootic, when large numbers of animals are destroyed and revenues from milk and meat production go down. Vaccination Plum Island Animal Disease Center Seven main types of Foot and Mouth Virus are believed to exist http://copus.org.uk/page.asp?id=1253 Foot and Mouth Virus Information . Like other viruses, the FMD virus continually evolves and mutates, thus one of the difficulties in vaccinating against FMD is the huge variation between and even within serotypes. There is no cross-protection between serotypes (meaning that a vaccine for one serotype will not protect against any others) and in addition, two strains within a given serotype may have nucleotide sequences that differ by as much as 30% for a given gene. This means that FMD vaccines must be highly specific to the strain involved. Vaccination only provides temporary immunity that lasts from months to years. Currently, the World Organisation for Animal Health recognizes countries to be in one of three disease states with regards to FMD: FMD present with or without vaccination, FMD-free with vaccination, and FMD-free without vaccination. Countries that are designated FMD-free without vaccination have the greatest access to export markets, and therefore many developed nations, including Canada, the United States, and the UK, work hard to maintain their current FMD-free without vaccination status. There are several reasons cited for restricting export from countries using FMD vaccines. The most important is probably that routine blood tests, relying on antibodies, cannot distinguish between an infected and a vaccinated animal. Canadian Food Inspection Agency Q&A, question 20. http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/heasan/disemala/fmdfie/questionse.shtml This would severely hamper screening of animals used in export products, risking a spread of FMD to importing countries. A widespread preventive vaccination would also conceal the existence of the virus in a country. From there, it could potentially spread to countries without vaccine programs. Lastly, an animal that is infected shortly after being vaccinated can harbour and spread FMD without showing symptoms itself, hindering containment and culling of sick animals as a remedy. Many early vaccines used dead samples of FMD virus to inoculate animals. However, those early vaccines sometimes caused real outbreaks. In the 1970s, scientists discovered that a vaccine could be made using only a single key protein from the virus. The task was to produce such quantities of the protein that could be used in the vaccination. On June 18, 1981, the U.S. government announced the creation of a vaccine targeted against FMD; this was the world's first genetically engineered vaccine. The North American FMD Vaccine Bank is housed at the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (FADDL) at Plum Island Animal Disease Center. The Center, located off the coast of Long Island, NY, is the only place in the United States where scientists can conduct research and diagnostic work on highly contagious animal diseases such as FMD. Because of this limitation US companies working on FMD usually use facilities in other countries where such diseases are endemic. Epidemics US, 1914 The US has had 9 FMD outbreaks since 1870. The most devastating outbreak happened in 1914. It originated from Michigan but it was its entry into the stockyards in Chicago that turned it into an epizootic. 3,500 livestock herds were infected across the US, totaling over 170,000 cattle, sheep and swine. The eradication came at a cost of 4.5 million 1914 USD dollars. A 1924 outbreak in California resulted not only in the slaughter of 109,000 farm animals, but also 22,000 deer. The US saw its latest FMD outbreak in Montebello, California in 1929. This outbreak originated in hogs that had eaten infected meat scraps from a tourist steamship that had stocked meat in Argentina. 3,600 animals were slaughtered and the disease was contained in as little as one month. EDEN http://www.eden.lsu.edu/Issues_View.aspx?IssueID=5f3b1efb-d295-4d8e-9cab-8e3bba3c3824 CRS Report for Congress - Foot and Mouth Disease: A Threat to U.S. Agriculture, Segarra, Rawson. http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RS20890.pdf United Kingdom, 1967 In October 1967, a farmer in Shropshire reported a lame sow, which was later diagnosed with FMD. The source was believed to be remains of legally-imported infected lamb from Argentina and Chile. The virus spread and in total, 442,000 animals were slaughtered and the outbreak had an estimated cost of £370 million. Taiwan, 1997 Taiwan had previous epidemics of FMD in 1913-14 and 1924-29 but had since been spared epidemics Foot-and-mouth virus: A global dilemma http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/02/27/farming.world/index.html , and considered itself free of FMD as late as in the 1990s. On the 19th of March 1997, a swine sow at a farm in Hsinchu prefecture, Taiwan was diagnosed with a strain of FMD which only infects swine. Mortality was high, nearing 100% in the infected flock. The cause of the epidemic was not determined, but the farm was near a port city known for its pig-smuggling industry and illegal slaughterhouses. Smuggled swine or contaminated meat are thus likely sources of the disease. The disease spread fast among swine herds in Taiwan, with 200-300 new farms being infected daily. Causes for this include the high swine density in the area with up to 6,500 hogs per square mile, feeding of pigs with untreated garbage and farm's proximity to slaughterhouses. Other systemic issues like lack of laboratory facilities, slow response and initial lack of a vaccination program contributed. It is also alleged that farmers intentionally introduced FMD to their flocks, because the payment offered to farmers for culled swine was at a time higher than the market value of the swine. A complicating factor is the endemic spread of Swine vesicular disease (SVD) in Taiwan. The symptoms are indistinguishabe from FMD, which may have led to previous mis-diagnosing of FMD as SVD. Laboratory analysis was seldomly used for diagnosis and FMD may thus have gone unnoticed for some time in Taiwan. The swine depopulation was a massive undertaking, with the military contributing substantial manpower. At peak capacity, 200,000 hogs per day were disposed of, mainly by electrocution. Carcasses was disposed of by burning and burial, but burning was avoided in water resource protection area. In April industrial incinerators were running around the clock to dispose of the carcasses. Initially, 40,000 combined vaccines for the strains O1, A24 and Asia were available and administered to zoo animals and valuable breeding hogs. At the end of March, half a million new doses of vaccines for O1 and Asia1 were made available. On the 3rd of May, 13 million doses of O1 vaccine arrived, and both the March and May shipments were distributed free of charge. There was a danger of vaccination crews spreading the disease; therefore, trained farmers were allowed to administer the vaccine under veterinary supervision. Taiwan had previously been the major exporter of pork to Japan and among the top 15 pork producers in the world in 1996. During the outbreak, over 3.8 million swine was destroyed at a cost of $6.9 billion USD. The Taiwanese pig industry was devastated as a result and the export market in ruins. US Department of Agriculture - Foreign Animal Report 1998, p41 http://www.aphis.usda.gov/lpa/pubs/fadrep.pdf In 2007, Taiwan was considered free of FMD, but were still conducting a vaccination program, which restricts the export of meat from Taiwan. United Kingdom, 2001 The epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease in the United Kingdom in the spring and summer of 2001 was caused by the "Type O pan Asia" strain of the disease http://copus.org.uk/page.asp?tip=1&id=1252|title=What is foot and mouth disease? . This episode saw more than 2,000 cases of the disease in farms throughout the British countryside. Around seven million sheep and cattle were killed in an eventually successful attempt to halt the disease. The county of Cumbria was the worst affected area of the country, with 843 cases. By the time the disease was halted by October 2001, the crisis was estimated to have cost Britain £8bn ($16bn) in costs to the agricultural and agricultural support industries and to the outdoor industry. What made this outbreak so serious was the amount of time between infection being present at the first outbreak loci, and the time when countermeasures were put into operation against the disease, such as transport bans and detergent washing of both vehicles and personnel entering livestock areas. However, the extreme overkill of many disease-free animals (80% of culled livestock were clean) was a result of inappropriate poor mathematical modelling that did not reflect the epidemiology of the epidemic. Kitching, Hutber and Thrusfield (2005). The Veterinary Journal, 169 (2), 197-209. The epidemic was probably caused by infected pigs which had been fed garbage that had not been properly heat-sterilized. It is further believed that the garbage contained remains of infected meat which had been illegally imported to Britain. DEFRA - Origin of the UK Foot and Mouth Disease Epidemic 2001 http://www.defra.gov.uk/footandmouth/pdf/fmdorigins1.pdf China, 2005 In April 2005, an Asia-I strain of FMD appeared in the eastern provinces of Shandong and Jiangsu. During April and May, it spread to suburban Beijing, the northern province of Hebei and northwestern autonomous region Xinjiang Uyghur. On the 13th of May, China reported the FMD outbreak to the World Health Organization and the OIE. This was the first time China has publicly admitted to having FMD. Jia Hepeng, China confirms bird flu and foot-and-mouth outbreaks http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readNews&itemid=2122&language=1 Foot-and-mouth Outbreaks Confirmed - china.org.cn China is still reporting FMD outbreaks. In 2007, Reports filed with the OIE documented new or ongoing outbreaks in the provinces of Gansu, Qinghai and Xinjiang. This included reports of domestic yak showing signs of infection. WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health Information Database United Kingdom, 2007 An infection of foot-and-mouth disease in the United Kingdom was confirmed by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, on 3 August 2007, on farmland located in Normandy, Surrey. All livestock in the vicinity were culled on 4 August. A nationwide ban on the movement of cattle and pigs was imposed, with a 3 km (1.9 mile) protection zone placed around the outbreak sites and the nearby virus research and vaccine production establishments, together with a 10 km (6.2 mile) increased surveillance zone. On 4 August, the strain of the virus was identified as an "01 BFS67-like" virus, one linked to vaccines and not normally found in animals, and isolated in the 1967 outbreak. The same strain was used at the nearby Institute for Animal Health and Merial Animal Health Ltd at Pirbright, 2½ miles (4 km) away which is an American/French owned research facility, and was identified as a possible source of infection. On 12 September, a new outbreak of the disease was confirmed in Egham, Surrey, 19km (12 miles) away from the original outbreak "'Pirbright link' to farm outbreak". BBC News. Dated 12 September 2007 , with a second case being confirmed on a nearby farm on 14 September. "Outbreak at second farm confirmed" BBC News On 19 September 2007, there was a suspected case of FMD in Solihull, where a temporary control zone was set up by Defra. Economic and ethical issues Epidemics of foot-and-mouth disease have resulted in the slaughter of millions of animals, despite this being a frequently non-fatal disease for adult animals (2-5% mortality), though young animals can have a high mortality. The Taiwan outbreak that only affected pigs also showed a high mortality for adults. The destruction of animals is primarily to halt further spread, as growth and milk production may be permanently affected, even in animals that have recovered. Due to international efforts to eradicate the disease, infection would also lead to trade bans being imposed on affected countries. Critics of current policies to cull infected herds argue that the financial imperative needs to be balanced against the killing of many animals The UK Foot and Mouth Epidemic of 2001: A Research Resource , especially when a significant proportion of infected animals, most notably those producing milk, would recover from infection and live normal lives, albeit with reduced milk production. On the ethical side, one must also consider that FMD is a painful disease for the affected animals. http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/heasan/disemala/fmdfie/plan/plan-1e.shtml section 1.6.1 The vesicles/blisters are painful in themselves, and restrict both eating and movement. Through ruptured blisters, the animal is at risk from secondary bacterial infections and, in some cases, permanent invalidisation. Warning notice This notice is posted where FMD is suspected and a temporary control zone has been set up by Defra: Failure to comply with this Declaration may be an offence under section 72 or 73 of the Animal Health Act 1981 Note – The declaration of a Temporary Control Zone takes precedence over the previously declared Restricted Zone measures for its duration. A map is attached for ease of reference. Annex 1 The Zone comprises that part of England contained within a circle with a radius of 3 kilometres centred on grid reference SP 1752681268. The grid reference is a British National Grid Reference. Annex 2 1. No person shall move any susceptible animal into or out of the Zone except where the movement is – (a) through the Zone without stopping under a licence authorising movement within the Restricted Zone, granted before the creation of the Zone; or (b) necessary to complete a journey started under a licence authorising movement within the Restricted Zone, granted before the creation of the Zone. 2. No person shall move any susceptible animal from or to premises in the Zone (without leaving the Zone) except to complete a journey started before the creation of the Zone, under the authority of a licence authorising movement within the Restricted Zone granted before the creation of the Zone. 3. The keeper of a susceptible animal in the Zone shall take all such steps as are necessary to prevent it from straying from the premises on which it is kept. References See also Animal viruses Hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) Swine vesicular disease (SVD) External links 2007 Outbreak Foot and Mouth Disease Timeline A Manufactured Plague: The history of Foot-and-mouth Disease in Britain (2004, ISBN 1-84407-080-8) by Abigail Wood, a veterinary researcher at the University of Manchester. Animal viruses Current status of Foot and Mouth worldwide at International des Epizooties Foot-and-mouth disease in man Foot and Mouth Livestock Symptoms Guide and Images In the 1884 outbreak in Britain Intervet International has a site devoted to FMD detailing information about Control, Vaccination, Legal Issues, and Preparation . Levy, Jay A., Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat, and Robert A. Owens. "Picornaviridae." Chap. 2, section 2.2 in Virology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994. News updates on the 2007 UK Foot-and-mouth disease outbreak Iowa State University Department of Veterinary Pathology, Center for Food Security and Public Health, Foot and Mouth Disease United States Animal Health Association FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE The Lab-On-Site Project has more information in Foot and Mouth Disease Virus. | Foot-and-mouth_disease |@lemmatized foot:39 mouth:40 disease:66 fmd:55 hoof:1 aphtae:1 epizooticae:1 highly:4 contagious:2 sometimes:3 fatal:2 viral:5 cloven:1 hoofed:1 animal:58 include:8 domestic:2 cattle:5 water:3 buffalo:1 sheep:3 goat:1 pig:8 well:3 antelope:1 bison:1 wild:1 bovid:1 deer:2 cause:14 virus:27 addition:2 hedgehog:2 j:1 mclauchlan:1 w:1 henderson:1 occurrence:1 natural:2 condition:2 journal:2 hygiene:1 vol:1 dec:1 pp:1 elephant:1 canadian:2 food:5 inspection:4 agency:2 product:4 hazard:1 specific:2 plan:3 susceptible:5 llama:1 alpaca:1 may:14 develop:2 mild:1 symptom:6 resistant:1 pass:2 others:3 specie:1 laboratory:5 experiment:1 mouse:1 rat:1 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4,262 | Emin_Boztepe | Emin Boztepe (born 1963) is a Turkish martial artist . Born in Eskişehir, Turkey, Boztepe started learning martial arts at the age of 14 in Germany, where he moved together with his family in 1966. According to Boztepe, his early days in Germany were not easy due to his Turkish heritage. He was a constant a target for racial insults, and more often than not, verbal abuse would often turn into physical abuse. Martial arts became something of a necessity. His father urged him to begin training, and at age 14 his martial arts training began. Martial Arts Boztepe was attracted to Wing Tsun when he saw a demonstration in Germany. This led him to seek instruction from Keith Kernspecht, the noted European WingTsun master and senior student of Leung Ting. Boztepe has been training in Wing Tsun for over 25 years. In addition to Wing Tsun, Boztepe has trained in tae kwon do, Shotokan karate, Muay Thai, Turkish freestyle wrestling, boxing, and Latosa escrima. He currently bases his self-defense solely on Wing Tsun kung fu and the Latosa Weapons System. Training Boztepe feels that this is one of the most important factors in developing effective self-defense techniques. Although he believes in other forms of training such as bag-training, aerobics, etc. Boztepe feels that nothing can take the place of training with a live partner that fights back. Boztepe emphasizes that training should become a regular routine for any serious Martial Artist. "You can have the best techniques and the best instructors, but if you don't practice regularly and realistically it will not be useful." Boztepe exemplifies this himself by adhering to a strict training schedule. Controversy In the mid 1980s, in an interview for Combat magazine, William Cheung proclaimed himself the Grandmaster of the whole Wing Chun system and heir to Yip Man, adding that the system he learned and taught was a secret style Yip Man taught only to him. He further claimed that this secret system was superior and more effective than the wing chun being taught by anyone else, and he challenged anyone who wanted to prove him wrong on a technical basis. He said that he would "fight anyone anywhere." In 1986 William Cheung was invited to Germany to have a 2-day martial arts seminar. Emin and one of his peers attended the seminar. Emin challenged William Cheung, pointing to an article that contained Cheung's "anyone anywhere" quote. Cheung later stated that challenges between seniors and a lower students were not part of the Wing Chun system. Cheung tried to persuade Boztepe to wait until after the seminar, but Boztepe insisted on fighting immediately. The ensuing confrontation was captured on video, and on published versions of the video it appears that Emin evaded Cheung's initial attack, swept Cheung's feet from under him, and assumed a dominant position on the ground. However, Cheung has disputed the video version, claiming the footage was edited to distort what happened, citing as evidence the video's start in the middle of the fight and with no beginning, and edits in brightness and contrast in certain stages to hide undesirable content. Cheung claims that he fell to the floor due to slippery kung fu slippers that he was still wearing after a photo shoot. The footage shows that after Boztepe took a dominant position, and appears to repeatedly punch Cheung in the face, Cheung claims he blocked every attack while on the floor. Both Cheung and Emin emerged unscathed and unharmed, and the fight has been viewed as an embarrassment to the Wing Chun community. Emin Today In 2002 he broke with his teacher's WingTsun organization over a financial dispute and formed his own organization called Emin Boztepe Martial Arts System or EBMAS External links Official EBMAS webpage | Emin_Boztepe |@lemmatized emin:7 boztepe:14 born:1 turkish:3 martial:8 artist:2 bear:1 eskişehir:1 turkey:1 start:2 learn:2 art:6 age:2 germany:4 move:1 together:1 family:1 accord:1 early:1 day:2 easy:1 due:2 heritage:1 constant:1 target:1 racial:1 insult:1 often:2 verbal:1 abuse:2 would:2 turn:1 physical:1 become:2 something:1 necessity:1 father:1 urge:1 begin:2 training:6 train:4 attract:1 wing:8 tsun:4 saw:1 demonstration:1 lead:1 seek:1 instruction:1 keith:1 kernspecht:1 noted:1 european:1 wingtsun:2 master:1 senior:2 student:2 leung:1 ting:1 year:1 addition:1 tae:1 kwon:1 shotokan:1 karate:1 muay:1 thai:1 freestyle:1 wrestling:1 boxing:1 latosa:2 escrima:1 currently:1 base:1 self:2 defense:2 solely:1 kung:2 fu:2 weapon:1 system:6 feel:2 one:2 important:1 factor:1 develop:1 effective:2 technique:2 although:1 believe:1 form:2 bag:1 aerobics:1 etc:1 nothing:1 take:2 place:1 live:1 partner:1 fight:5 back:1 emphasize:1 regular:1 routine:1 serious:1 best:2 instructor:1 practice:1 regularly:1 realistically:1 useful:1 exemplify:1 adhere:1 strict:1 schedule:1 controversy:1 mid:1 interview:1 combat:1 magazine:1 william:3 cheung:13 proclaim:1 grandmaster:1 whole:1 chun:4 heir:1 yip:2 man:2 add:1 taught:1 secret:2 style:1 teach:2 far:1 claim:4 superior:1 anyone:4 else:1 challenge:3 want:1 prove:1 wrong:1 technical:1 basis:1 say:1 anywhere:2 invite:1 seminar:3 peer:1 attend:1 point:1 article:1 contain:1 quote:1 later:1 state:1 low:1 part:1 try:1 persuade:1 wait:1 insist:1 immediately:1 ensue:1 confrontation:1 capture:1 video:4 publish:1 version:2 appear:2 evade:1 initial:1 attack:2 sweep:1 foot:1 assume:1 dominant:2 position:2 ground:1 however:1 dispute:2 footage:2 edit:1 distort:1 happen:1 cite:1 evidence:1 middle:1 beginning:1 edits:1 brightness:1 contrast:1 certain:1 stage:1 hide:1 undesirable:1 content:1 fell:1 floor:2 slippery:1 slipper:1 still:1 wear:1 photo:1 shoot:1 show:1 repeatedly:1 punch:1 face:1 block:1 every:1 emerge:1 unscathed:1 unharmed:1 view:1 embarrassment:1 community:1 today:1 break:1 teacher:1 organization:2 financial:1 call:1 ebmas:2 external:1 link:1 official:1 webpage:1 |@bigram martial_art:6 shotokan_karate:1 muay_thai:1 kung_fu:2 wing_chun:4 anyone_else:1 external_link:1 |
4,263 | Millerâ%80%93Urey_experiment | The experiment The Miller–Urey experiment (or Urey–Miller experiment) was an experiment that simulated hypothetical conditions thought at the time to be present on the early Earth, and tested for the occurrence of chemical evolution. Specifically, the experiment tested Soviet scientist Alexander Oparin's and J. B. S. Haldane's hypothesis that conditions on the primitive Earth favored chemical reactions that synthesized organic compounds from inorganic precursors. Considered to be the classic experiment on the origin of life, it was conducted in 1952 and published in 1953 by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey at the University of Chicago. Miller states that he made "A more complete analysis of the products" in the 1953 experiment, listing additional results. Published in October 2008, a re-analysis of material from the experiments showed 22 amino acids rather than 5 were created in one apparatus. Experiment and interpretation The experiment used water (H2O), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), and hydrogen (H2). The chemicals were all sealed inside a sterile array of glass tubes and flasks connected in a loop, with one flask half-full of liquid water and another flask containing a pair of electrodes. The liquid water was heated to induce evaporation, sparks were fired between the electrodes to simulate lightning through the atmosphere and water vapor, and then the atmosphere was cooled again so that the water could condense and trickle back into the first flask in a continuous cycle. At the end of one week of continuous operation, Miller and Urey observed that as much as 10–15% of the carbon within the system was now in the form of organic compounds. Two percent of the carbon had formed amino acids that are used to make proteins in living cells, with glycine as the most abundant. Sugars, lipids, and some of the building blocks for nucleic acids were also formed. In an interview, Stanley Miller stated: "Just turning on the spark in a basic pre-biotic experiment will yield 11 out of 20 amino acids." http://www.accessexcellence.org/WN/NM/miller.php As observed in all consequent experiments, both left-handed (L) and right-handed (D) optical isomers were created in a racemic mixture. Chemistry of experiment It is known that at first step in reaction mixture forms hydrogen cyanide (HCN), formaldehyde http://www.geocities.com/capecanaveral/lab/2948/orgel.html Origin of Life on Earth by Leslie E. Orgel http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11860&page=85 Exploring Organic Environments in the Solar System (2007) and other active intermediate compounds (acetylene, cyanoacetylene, etc.): CO2 → CO + [O] (atomic oxygen) CH4 + 2[O] → CH2O + H2O CO + NH3 → HCN + H2O CH4 + NH3 → HCN + 3H2 (BMA process) These compounds then react with the formation of aminoacids (Strecker synthesis) and other biomolecules: CH2O + HCN + NH3 → NH2-CH2-CN + H2O NH2-CH2-CN + 2H2O → NH3 + NH2-CH2-COOH (glycine) Other experiments This experiment inspired many others. In 1961, Juan Oró found that the nucleotide base adenine could be made from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and ammonia in a water solution. His experiment produced a large amount of adenine, which molecules were formed from 5 molecules of HCN. Also, many amino acids are formed from HCN and ammonia under these conditions. Experiments conducted later showed that the other RNA and DNA nucleobases could be obtained through simulated prebiotic chemistry with a reducing atmosphere. There also had been similar electric discharge experiments related to the origin of life contemporaneous with Miller–Urey. An article in The New York Times (March 8, 1953:E9), titled "Looking Back Two Billion Years" describes the work of Wollman (William) M. MacNevin at Ohio State University, before the Miller Science paper was published in May 1953. MacNevin was passing 100,000 volt sparks through methane and water vapor and produced "resinous solids" that were "too complex for analysis." The article describes other early earth experiments being done by MacNevin. It is not clear if he ever published any of these results in the primary scientific literature. K. A. Wilde submitted a paper to Science on December 15, 1952, before Miller submitted his paper to the same journal on February 14, 1953. Wilde's paper was published on July 10, 1953. Wilde used voltages up to only 600 V on a binary mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water in a flow system. He observed only small amounts of carbon dioxide reduction to carbon monoxide, and no other significant reduction products or newly formed carbon compounds. Other researchers were studying UV-photolysis of water vapor with carbon monoxide. They have found that various alcohols, aldehydes and organic acids were synthesized in reaction mixture Synthesis of organic compounds from carbon monoxide and water by UV photolysis . More recent experiments by chemist Jeffrey Bada at Scripps Institution of Oceanography (in La Jolla, CA) were similar to those performed by Miller. However, Bada noted that in current models of early Earth conditions, carbon dioxide and nitrogen (N2) create nitrites, which destroy amino acids as fast as they form. However, the early Earth may have had significant amounts of iron and carbonate minerals able to neutralize the effects of the nitrites. When Bada performed the Miller-type experiment with the addition of iron and carbonate minerals, the products were rich in amino acids. This suggests the origin of significant amounts of amino acids may have occurred on Earth even with an atmosphere containing carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Earth's early atmosphere Some evidence suggests that Earth's original atmosphere might have contained fewer of the reducing molecules than was thought at the time of the Miller–Urey experiment. There is abundant evidence of major volcanic eruptions 4 billion years ago, which would have released carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere. Experiments using these gases in addition to the ones in the original Miller–Urey experiment have produced more diverse molecules. The experiment created a mixture that was racemic (containing both L and D enantiomers) and experiments since have shown that "in the lab the two versions are equally likely to appear. However, in nature, L amino acids dominate; later experiments have confirmed disproportionate amounts of L or D oriented enantiomers are possible. Originally it was thought that the primitive secondary atmosphere contained mostly ammonia and methane. However, it is likely that most of the atmospheric carbon was CO2 with perhaps some CO and the nitrogen mostly N2. In practice gas mixtures containing CO, CO2, N2, etc. give much the same products as those containing CH4 and NH3 so long as there is no O2. The hydrogen atoms come mostly from water vapor. In fact, in order to generate aromatic amino acids under primitive earth conditions it is necessary to use less hydrogen-rich gaseous mixtures. Most of the natural amino acids, hydroxyacids, purines, pyrimidines, and sugars have been produced in variants of the Miller experiment. More recent results may question these conclusions. The University of Waterloo and University of Colorado conducted simulations in 2005 that indicated that the early atmosphere of Earth could have contained up to 40 percent hydrogen—implying a possibly much more hospitable environment for the formation of prebiotic organic molecules. The escape of hydrogen from Earth's atmosphere into space may have occurred at only one percent of the rate previously believed based on revised estimates of the upper atmosphere's temperature. One of the authors, Owen Toon notes: "In this new scenario, organics can be produced efficiently in the early atmosphere, leading us back to the organic-rich soup-in-the-ocean concept... I think this study makes the experiments by Miller and others relevant again." Outgassing calculations using a chondritic model for the early earth complement the Waterloo/Colorado results in re-establishing the importance of the Miller–Urey experiment. However, when oxygen gas is added to this mixture, no organic molecules are formed. Critics of the Miller–Urey hypothesis point out recent research that shows the presence of uranium in sediments dated to 3.7 Ga and indicates it was transported in solution by oxygenated water (otherwise it would have precipitated out). These critics argue that this presence of oxygen precludes the formation of prebiotic molecules via a Miller–Urey-like scenario, attempting to invalidate the hypothesis of abiogenesis. However, the authors of the paper are arguing that this presence of oxygen merely evidences the existence of photosynthetic organisms 3.7 Ga ago (a date about 200 Ma earlier than previous estimates ) a conclusion which while pushing back the time frame in which Miller–Urey reactions and abiogenesis could potentially have occurred, would not preclude them. Though there is somewhat controversial evidence for very small (less than 0.1%) amounts of oxygen in the atmosphere almost as old as Earth's oldest rocks, the authors are not in any way arguing for the existence of an oxygen-rich atmosphere any earlier than previously thought, and they state: ". . . In fact most evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis was present during time periods from which there is evidence for a non-oxygenic atmosphere". Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the solar system, often substituting ultraviolet light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions. The Murchison meteorite that fell near Murchison, Victoria, Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life. Comets and other icy outer-solar-system bodies are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as tholins) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies. The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed. This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the panspermia hypothesis. Recent related studies In recent years, studies have been made of the amino acid composition of the products of "old" areas in "old" genes, defined as those that are found to be common to organisms from several widely separated species, assumed to share only the last universal ancestor (LUA) of all extant species. These studies found that the products of these areas are enriched in those amino acids that are also most readily produced in the Miller–Urey experiment. This suggests that the original genetic code was based on a smaller number of amino acids – only those available in prebiotic nature – than the current one. In 2008, a group of scientists examined 11 vials left over from Miller's experiments of the early 1950s. In addition to the classic experiment, reminiscent of Charles Darwin's envisioned "warm little pond", Miller had also performed more experiments, including one with conditions similar to those of volcanic eruptions. This experiment had a nozzle spraying a jet of steam at the spark discharge. By using high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry, the group found more organic molecules than Miller had. Interestingly, they found that the volcano-like experiment had produced the most organic molecules, 22 amino acids, 5 amines and many hydroxylated molecules, which could have been formed by hydroxyl radicals produced by the electrified steam. The group suggested that volcanic island systems became rich in organic molecules in this way, and that the presence of carbonyl sulfide there could have helped these molecules form peptides. See also Strecker synthesis, amino acid synthesis from aldehydes, ammonia, and HCN. Butlerov's reaction, formation of various sugars (like ribose) from formaldehyde. Abiogenesis, the study of how life on Earth emerged from inanimate organic and inorganic molecules. References External links A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions by Stanley L. Miller A simulation of the Miller–Urey Experiment along with a video Interview with Stanley Miller by Scott Ellis from CalSpace (UCSD) Origin-Of-Life Chemistry Revisited: Reanalysis of famous spark-discharge experiments reveals a richer collection of amino acids were formed. | Millerâ%80%93Urey_experiment |@lemmatized experiment:39 miller:28 urey:14 simulate:3 hypothetical:1 condition:8 think:6 time:5 present:3 early:11 earth:19 test:2 occurrence:1 chemical:4 evolution:1 specifically:1 soviet:1 scientist:2 alexander:1 oparin:1 j:1 b:1 haldane:1 hypothesis:4 primitive:4 favor:1 reaction:6 synthesize:2 organic:14 compound:7 inorganic:2 precursor:1 consider:1 classic:2 origin:6 life:7 conduct:3 publish:5 stanley:4 harold:1 university:4 chicago:1 state:4 make:5 complete:1 analysis:3 product:6 list:1 additional:1 result:4 october:1 material:1 show:4 amino:18 acid:20 rather:1 create:4 one:8 apparatus:1 interpretation:1 use:8 water:13 methane:3 ammonia:5 hydrogen:8 seal:1 inside:1 sterile:1 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4,264 | Bud_Selig | Allan Huber "Bud" Selig (born July 30, 1934 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin) is the Commissioner of Major League Baseball, having served in that capacity since 1992 as the acting commissioner, and as the official commissioner since 1998. Selig Given 3-Year Contract Extension Selig oversaw baseball through the 1994 strike, the introduction of the wild card, interleague play, and the merging of the National and American leagues under the Office of the Commissioner. He was instrumental in organizing the World Baseball Classic in 2006. Selig also introduced revenue sharing. Selig emerges as the best of all of baseball's bosses He is credited for the financial turnaround of baseball during his tenure with a 400 percent increase in the revenue of MLB and annual record breaking attendance. Selig enjoys a high level of support from baseball owners. Retiring? Ousted? Bud Selig’s Contract Extended to 2012 Jerome Holtzman, Major League Baseball's official historian from 1999 until his passing in 2008, believed that Selig was the best commissioner in baseball history. During Selig's term of service, the use of steroids and other performance enhancing drugs became a public issue. The Mitchell Report, commissioned by Selig, concluded that the MLB commissioners, club officials, the Players Association, and the players all share "to some extent in the responsibility for the steroid era." Following the release of the Mitchell Report, Congressman Cliff Stearns called publicly for Selig to step down as commissioner, citing his "glacial response" to the "growing stain on baseball." Selig has pledged on numerous occasions to rid baseball of performance enhancing drugs, and has overseen and instituted many rule changes and penalties to that end. Selig unlikely to penalize Giants execs Assigning blame could be difficult Selig was previously the team owner and team president of the Milwaukee Brewers. As a Milwaukee native, he is credited for keeping baseball in Milwaukee. In 1970, he purchased the Seattle Pilots in bankruptcy court and renamed them the Milwaukee Brewers after a minor league team he had watched in his youth. The Brewers went to the 1982 World Series and won seven organization of the year awards during his tenure. Selig remains a resident of Milwaukee. On January 17, 2008, Selig's contract was extended by the MLB through 2012, at which point he plans to retire. The Official Site of Major League Baseball: News: Major League Baseball News Selig made $14.5 million in the 12-month period ending Oct. 31, 2005. Early life Selig grew up in a Jewish family and eventually graduated from the University of Wisconsin Madison in 1956 with degrees in political science and history. MLB Bio He served 2 years in the armed forces before working with his father who owned a car leasing business in Milwaukee. Selig continues to be involved in the automotive industry, serving as president of the Selig Executive Lease Company. As a young man, Selig watched the Milwaukee Brewers, a minor-league affiliate of the Chicago Cubs of the National League, unrelated to the current incarnation of the Milwaukee Brewers. Bud soon became a Braves fan when the National League franchise moved to his home town of Milwaukee from Boston in 1953. Selig became the team's largest public stockholder. Selig was heartbroken and devastated when he learned that the Braves were going to leave Milwaukee in favor of Atlanta. In 1965, when the Braves left Milwaukee, he divested his stock in the team. Milwaukee Brewers owner As a minority owner of the Milwaukee Braves, Selig founded the organization Teams, Inc, in an attempt to prevent the majority owners (based out of Chicago) from moving the club to a larger television market. This was challenged legally on the basis that no prior team relocations (in the modern era) left a city without a team. Prior movements had all originated in cities which were home to at least two teams. When his quest to keep the team in Milwaukee finally failed after the 1965 season, he changed the group's name to Milwaukee Brewers Baseball Club, Inc., after the minor league baseball team he grew up watching, and devoted himself to returning Major League Baseball to Milwaukee. Selig arranged for major league games to be played at the now demolished Milwaukee County Stadium. The first, a pre-season match between the Chicago White Sox and Minnesota Twins, drew more than 51,000 spectators. Selig followed this up by hosting nine White Sox regular-season games in 1968 and eleven in 1969. Oddly enough, one of the series played in Milwaukee that year was against the expansion Seattle Pilots, the team that would become the Brewers. Those Milwaukee "home" games were phenomenally successful, with the handful of games accounting for about one-third of total White Sox home attendance. Clearly, Milwaukee was hungry for baseball. To satisfy that fanbase, Selig decided to purchase the White Sox (with the intention of moving them to Milwaukee) in 1969. He entered into an agreement to buy the club, but the American League vetoed the sale, preferring to keep an American League team in Chicago to compete with the crosstown Cubs. Selig turned his attention to other franchises. In 1970, he purchased the bankrupt Seattle Pilots franchise, moving them to his hometown and officially renaming the team the Brewers. During Selig's tenure as club president, the Brewers participated in postseason play in 1981, when the team finished first in the American League East during the second half of the season, and in 1982, when the team made it to the World Series, under the leadership of future Hall of Famers Robin Yount and Paul Molitor. Under Selig's watch, the Brewers also won seven Organization of the Year awards. Selig was part of owner's collusion in 1985–1987, resulting in the owners paying $280 million in damages to the players. Upon his assumption of the commissioner's role, Selig transferred his ownership interest in the Brewers to his daughter Wendy Selig-Prieb in order to remove any technical conflicts of interest, though it was widely presumed he maintained some hand in team operations. Although the team has been sold to Los Angeles investor Mark Attanasio, questions remain regarding Selig's past involvement. Selig's defenders point to the poor management of the team after Selig-Prieb took control as proof that Selig was not working behind the scenes. Acting Commissioner (1992–1998) Selig became an increasingly vocal opponent of Commissioner Fay Vincent, and soon became the leader of a group of owners seeking his removal. Selig has never stated that the owners colluded, while Vincent has: Following an 18-9 no-confidence vote, Vincent resigned. Selig had by this time become chairman of the Executive Council of Major League Baseball, and as such became de facto acting commissioner. His first major act was to institute the Wild Card and divisional playoff play, which has created much controversy amongst baseball fans. Those against the Wild Card see it as diminishing the importance of the pennant race and the regular season, with the true race often being for second rather than first place, while those in favor of it view it as an opportunity for teams to have a shot at the playoffs even when they have no chance of a first-place finish in their division, thus maintaining fan interest later in the season. Selig suspended Cincinnati Reds owner Marge Schott for a year in 1993 for repeated prejudicial remarks and actions. The same year, New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner was reinstated from a lifelong suspension that was instituted by Selig's predecessor Fay Vincent. Pete Rose has claimed that he applied for reinstatement over the years and received no such consideration. It should be noted, that Rose along with his close friend and former teammate Mike Schmidt (who is a strong supporter of Rose's reinstatement into baseball), met with Selig in 2002, where Rose privately admitted to Selig (two years before going public with his admission) about betting on baseball. Incidentally, Bud Selig was a close friend of the late Bart Giamatti, who was the commissioner when Rose was first banned from the sport in 1989. As acting commissioner, Selig represented MLB during the 1994 players strike and cancelled the World Series, marking the first time the annual event had not been staged since 1904). Commissioner (1998–present) After a six-year search for a new commissioner, the owners voted to give Selig the title on a permanent basis midway through the 1998 season. During his tenure the game avoided a third work stoppage in 2002, and has seen the implementation of interleague play. Whereas in the past, the National and American Leagues had separate administrative organizations (which, for example, allowed for the introduction of different rules such as the designated hitter), under Selig, Major League Baseball consolidated the administrative functions of the American and National League into the Commissioner's Office in 2000. The last official presidents of the NL and AL were Leonard S. Coleman, Jr. and Dr. Gene Budig respectively. Reaction after September 11, 2001 On September 11, 2001, Selig ordered all baseball games postponed for a week because of the terror attacks on New York and Washington. The games were postponed not only out of respect and mourning for the victims, but also out of concern for the safety and security of fans and players. After a dramatic conclusion of the 2001 World Series, less than 48 hours later, Selig held a vote on contracting two teams, reportedly the Minnesota Twins and Montreal Expos. This action led to Selig (along with former Expos owner Jeffrey Loria) being charged with racketeering and conspiring with Loria to deliberately defraud the Expos minority owners. If found guilty the league could have been liable for $300 million in punitive damages. Selig was eager to settle the case because the judge had previously ruled that the Expos could not be moved or contracted until the case was over. The case eventually went to arbitration and was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum. Changes to the MLB All-Star Game An embarrassing moment for Selig occurred during the All-Star Game in Selig's hometown of Milwaukee. The game was tied 7-7 in the bottom of the 11th inning. Unfortunately, the recent managerial custom of granting some playing time within the regulation nine innings to as many available players as possible meant that the managers had used their entire rosters. To avoid risking the arms of the pitchers who were currently on the mound, Selig declared the game a tie, to the dissatisfaction of the Milwaukee fans. Since then, Selig has tried to reinvigorate the All-Star Game, most notably by awarding the winning league home-field advantage in the World Series. The 2003 All-Star Game had the same U.S. viewership as 2002 (9.5 rating; 17 share) and the ratings declined in 2004 (8.8 rating; 15 share) and 2005 (8.1 rating; 14 share). All-Star Game Television Ratings on Baseball Almanac The American television audience increased in 2006 (9.3 rating; 16 share). SI.com - MLB - 2006 All Star Game - Ratings up for All-Star Game, HR Derby - Wednesday July 12, 2006 6:41PM Disciplinary actions On July 1, 2005, Selig suspended Texas Rangers pitcher Kenny Rogers for 20 games and fined him $50,000. Rogers got in trouble when on June 29, 2005, he purposely grabbed the camera of a cameraman, resulting in one camera falling to the ground. When the cameraman proceeded to pick up his camera, Rogers went back to him in an arguably threatening way. One of the reporters then resumed filming and Rogers smiled and talked to him. While an appeal of his suspension was pending, Rogers appeared at the 2005 All-Star Game in Detroit, where fans loudly booed him. On July 22, 2005, Selig heard Rogers' appeal of his suspension; he decided to uphold the 20 games. However, an independent arbitrator ruled that Selig had exceeded his authority and reduced it to 13 games. Performance-enhancing drugs In 2005, Selig faced Congress on the issue of steroids. After the Congressional hearings in early 2005, and with the scrutiny of the sports and national media upon this issue, Selig put forth a proposal for a stricter performance-enhancing drug testing regime to replace the current system. This proposal also included the banning of amphetamines, a first for the major North American sports leagues. The MLB Players Association and MLB reached an agreement in November on the new policy. In early 2006, Selig was forced to deal with the issue of steroid use. On March 30, 2006, as a response to the controversy of the use of performance-enhancing drugs and the anticipated career home run record to be set by Barry Bonds, Selig asked former senator George Mitchell to lead an independent investigation into the use of steroids in baseball's recent past. Joe Sheehan from Baseball Prospectus wrote that the commission has been focusing "blame for the era exclusively on uniformed personnel", and failing to investigate any role played by team ownership and management. Much controversy surrounded Selig and his involvement in Barry Bonds' all-time home run record chase. For months, speculation surrounded Selig and the possibility that he and Hank Aaron would not attend Bonds' games as he closed in on the record. Selig announced in July 2007 when Bonds was near 755 home runs that he would attend the games. Selig was in attendance for Bonds' record-tying home run against the San Diego Padres, sitting in Padres owner John Moores' private suite. Bud Selig did not attend the San Francisco Giants' baseball game on August 7 when Barry Bonds hit his record-breaking 756th home run; after the event, Selig released a statement congratulating Bonds. On November 15, 2007, attention was brought once again to Barry Bonds as he was indicted by a federal Grand Jury for perjury and obstruction of justice in connection to his testimony before the Grand Jury regarding BALCO, a San Francisco Bay area lab known to be involved in the distribution of steroids to professional athletes. On December 13, 2007, former U.S. Senator George Mitchell released his report on the use of performance-enhancing substances by MLB players. The report names many current and former players who allegedly used performance-enhancing drugs during their career, including Roger Clemens, Andy Pettitte, Miguel Tejada, Eric Gagné, and Paul Lo Duca. Selig has been widely criticized for not taking an active enough role to stem the tide of steroid use in baseball until it had blossomed into a debilitating problem for the industry. Chicago Sun Times columnist Jay Mariotti called Selig the "The Steroids Commissioner." Selig's only legacy: S-T-E-R-O-I-D-S Selig has been called to Congress several times to testify on performance enhancing drug use. Congressman Cliff Stearns said in December 2007 that Selig should resign because of use of performance enhancing drugs in baseball during his tenure. Term of service On December 1, 2006, Selig announced that he would be retiring as commissioner of baseball upon the expiration of his contract in 2009. Selig earned $14.5 million dollars from MLB over the timespan October 31, 2005 to October 31, 2006 . However, on January 17, 2008, Selig's contract was extended by the MLB through 2012, at which point he plans to retire. Notable changes to Major League Baseball Bud Selig helped introduce the following changes to Major League Baseball: Realignment of teams into three divisions per league, and the introduction of playoff wild card teams (1994) Interleague play (1997) Two additional franchises: the Arizona Diamondbacks and the Tampa Bay Devil Rays (1998) Abolition of the National and American League offices and presidencies, and inclusion of all umpiring crews into a common pool for AL and NL games, instead of having separate pools per league Home field advantage in the World Series granted to the winner of the All Star Game in the same season (2003) Stricter Major League Baseball performance-enhancing drug testing policy (2005) World Baseball Classic (2006) Introduction of instant replay in the event of a disputed home run call (2008) During Selig's terms as Executive Council Chairman (from 1992-1998) and Commissioner, new stadiums have opened in Arizona, Atlanta, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Colorado, Detroit, Houston, Milwaukee, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, Arlington, St. Louis, Washington, D.C., Mets, and Yankees, with stadiums scheduled for the Twins and the Marlins in future years. Israel Baseball League Selig and his family served a supportive role on the Advisory Board of the Israel Baseball League during its inaugural season in 2007. In response to issues with the league's financial management, after the season, the Selig family requested that their names be removed from the list of board members. Family Selig is married to his second wife, Sue Selig. He has two daughters from his previous marriage, Wendy Selig-Prieb and Sari Selig-Kramer, as well as a stepdaughter, Lisa Steinman. Selig-Prieb used to work for the Brewers, and Steinman currently works for MLB. He has five granddaughters: Emily Markenson, Alyssa Markenson, Marissa Savitch, Andria Savitch, and Natalie Prieb. References External links Official website MLB.com: Official info Bud Selig Biography by Baseball Almanac Bud Selig at Notable Names Database Video Of MLB Commissioner's Speech On The State Of Baseball , February 8, 2007 "Bud Selig: A baseball hero. Really." - Nicholas Thompson, Slate.com, May 5, 2005 Selig elected Commissioner in unanimous vote | Bud_Selig |@lemmatized allan:1 huber:1 bud:9 selig:90 bear:1 july:5 milwaukee:25 wisconsin:2 commissioner:21 major:13 league:31 baseball:39 serve:4 capacity:1 since:4 acting:1 official:7 give:2 year:11 contract:7 extension:1 oversee:2 strike:2 introduction:4 wild:4 card:4 interleague:3 play:8 merging:1 national:7 american:9 office:3 instrumental:1 organize:1 world:8 classic:2 also:4 introduce:2 revenue:2 share:6 emerges:1 best:2 boss:1 credit:2 financial:2 turnaround:1 tenure:5 percent:1 increase:2 mlb:15 annual:2 record:6 break:2 attendance:3 enjoy:1 high:1 level:1 support:1 owner:15 retire:4 oust:1 extend:3 jerome:1 holtzman:1 historian:1 passing:1 believe:1 history:2 term:3 service:2 use:11 steroid:8 performance:10 enhance:10 drug:9 become:8 public:3 issue:5 mitchell:4 report:4 commission:2 conclude:1 club:5 player:9 association:2 extent:1 responsibility:1 era:3 follow:3 release:3 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4,265 | Danny_Elfman | Daniel Robert "Danny" Elfman (born May 29, 1953) is a Grammy Award-winning American musician, best known for composing music for television and movies, and leading the rock band Oingo Boingo as singer/songwriter from 1976 until its breakup in 1995. He is a frequent collaborator with long-time friend Tim Burton, and has scored all but two of his films. He was nominated for four Academy Awards and won a Grammy Award for Tim Burton's Batman and an Emmy Award for his Desperate Housewives theme. Elfman also wrote the theme for the video game Fable. He is also famous for his role as Jack Skellington's singing voice in The Nightmare Before Christmas. He is the Uncle in-law to actor Jenna Elfman. Biography Early career Elfman was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of Blossom Elfman (née Bernstein), a writer and teacher, and Milton Elfman, a teacher who was in the Air Force. Danny Elfman Biography (1953-) Elfman grew up in a racially mixed community in the Baldwin Hills area of Los Angeles. Danny Elfman 's Music For A Darkened People: Danny Elfman in L.A. Times He spent much of his time in the local movie theatre, adoring the music of such film composers as Bernard Herrmann and Franz Waxman. After dropping out of high school, he followed his brother Richard to France, where he played his violin on the street and performed with Le Grand Magic Circus, an avant-garde musical theater group. Violin in tow, Elfman next journeyed to Africa where he traveled through Ghana, Mali, and Upper Volta, absorbing new musical styles, including the Ghanaian highlife genre which would eventually influence his own music. Elfman contracted malaria during his one-year stay and was often sick. Eventually he returned home to the United States, where his brother was forming a new musical theater group, The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo. The group performed the music for Richard's debut feature film, Forbidden Zone. Danny Elfman composed his first score for the film and played the role of Satan. By the time the movie was completed, they had taken the name Oingo Boingo and begun recording and touring as a rock group. Danny Elfman and Tim Burton In 1985, Tim Burton and Paul Reubens invited Elfman to write the score for their first feature film, Pee-wee's Big Adventure. Elfman was apprehensive at first because of his lack of formal training, but with orchestration assistance from Oingo Boingo guitarist and arranger Steve Bartek, he achieved his goal of emulating the mood of such composers as Nino Rota and Bernard Herrmann. Fanfare Article In the booklet for the first volume of Music for a Darkened Theatre, Burton described the first time he heard his music played by a full orchestra as one of the most thrilling experiences of his life. Elfman immediately developed a rapport with Burton and has gone on to score all but two of Burton's major studio releases: Ed Wood, scored by Howard Shore, which was under production while Elfman and Burton were having a fight, and Sweeney Todd, an adaptation of the 1979 Stephen Sondheim Broadway musical. Burton has said of his relationship with Elfman: "We don't even have to talk about the music. We don't even have to intellectualize – which is good for both of us, we're both similar that way. We're very lucky to connect" (Breskin, 1997). Musical influences He recalls that the first time he became aware of film music was in his youth during a screening of The Day the Earth Stood Still (Robert Wise, 1951). The music was by Bernard Herrmann, and that, he has said, was where his love of film music began (Russell and Young, 2000). Elfman purposefully nodded towards Herrmann's The Day the Earth Stood Still score in Tim Burton's sci-fi spoof Mars Attacks! Other film composers have also proven to be influential, such as Nino Rota and Erich Wolfgang Korngold, the former in Elfman's playful music for Pee-wee's Big Adventure, the latter in his much grander work, Batman. Sometimes his music has a distinctly Russian feel, inspired by the likes of Prokofiev, Stravinsky and Tchaikovsky’s ballet music, while his frequent use of choirs reflects his love of choral music by the likes of Mozart and Carl Orff. Jazz and rock influences from his earlier career are evident in such films as Chicago and To Die For. Hearing damage When asked during a 2007 phone-in interview on XETRA-FM if he ever had any notions of performing in an Oingo Boingo reunion, Elfman immediately rejected the idea and stated that in the last few years with the band he had begun to develop significant and irreversible hearing damage as a result of his continuous exposure to the high noise levels involved in performing in a rock band. He went on to say that he believes his hearing damage is partially due to a genetic predisposition to hearing loss, and that he will never return to the stage for fear of worsening not only his condition but also his bandmates'. Recent works Elfman has recently started working in the classical world, beginning with Serenada Schizophrana for the American Composers Orchestra. It was conducted by John Mauceri on its recording and by Steven Sloane at its premiere at Carnegie Hall in New York City on February 23, 2005. After its premiere, it was recorded in studio and released onto SACD on October 3, 2006. The meeting with Mauceri proved fruitful as the composer was encouraged then to write a new concert piece for Mauceri and the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra. Elfman composed an "overture to a nonexistent musical" and called the piece "The Overeager Overture." Filmography This is a list of films with scores composed by Elfman: Year Film Release Date Director Film Score/Soundtrack 1980 Forbidden Zone March 21, 1980 Richard Elfman Soundtrack (soundtrack with The Mystic Knights of Oingo Boingo) 1982 Fast Times at Ridgemont High August 13, 1982 Amy Heckerling Soundtrack (various artists) 1985 Pee-wee's Big Adventure August 9, 1985 Tim Burton Soundtrack (film score) 1986 Back to School June 13, 1986 Alan Metter Soundtrack (various artists) 1987 Wisdom January 1, 1987 Emilio Estevez, Robert Wise 1988 Beetlejuice March 30, 1988 Tim Burton Soundtrack (film score with Harry Belafonte) Midnight Run July 11, 1988 Martin Brest Big Top Pee-wee July 22, 1988 Randal Kleiser Scrooged November 23, 1988 Richard Donner 1989 Batman June 23, 1989 Tim Burton Soundtrack (film score)1990 Nightbreed February 16, 1990 Clive Barker Dick Tracy June 15, 1990 Warren Beatty Soundtrack (film score) Darkman August 24, 1990 Sam Raimi Soundtrack <small>(film score)<small> Edward Scissorhands December 7, 1990 Tim Burton Soundtrack1992 Article 99 March 13, 1992 Howard Deutch Batman Returns June 19, 1992 Tim Burton 1993 Sommersby February 5, 1993 Jon Amiel Army of Darkness February 19, 1993 Sam Raimi Soundtrack (theme only) The Nightmare Before Christmas October 29, 1993 Henry Selick Soundtrack (film score with various artists) 1994 Black Beauty July 29, 1994 Caroline Thompson Soundtrack (film score)1995 Dolores Claiborne March 24, 1995 Taylor Hackford Dead Presidents October 4, 1995 Alberl Hughes Soundtrack (soundtrack with various artists) To Die For October 6, 1995 Gus Van Sant 1996 Mission: Impossible May 22, 1996 Brian De Palma Soundtrack (soundtrack with various artists) The Frighteners July 19, 1996 Peter Jackson Freeway August 23, 1996 Matthew Bright Extreme Measures September 27, 1996 Michael Apted Mars Attacks! December 13, 1996 Tim Burton 1997 Men in Black July 2, 1997 Barry Sonnenfeld Soundtrack (film score)Soundtrack (soundtrack with various artists) Good Will Hunting December 5, 1997 Gus Van Sant Soundtrack (soundtrack with various artists) 1998 A Simple Plan December 11, 1998 Sam Raimi 1999 Instinct June 4, 1999 Jon Turteltaub Soundtrack (film score) Sleepy Hollow November 19, 1999 Tim Burton Soundtrack (film score)2000 Proof of Life December 8, 2000 Taylor Hackford The Family Man December 22, 2000 Brett Ratner 2001 Planet of the Apes July 27, 2001 Tim Burton 2002 Spider-Man May 3, 2002 Sam Raimi Soundtrack (film score)Soundtrack (soundtrack with various artists) Men in Black II July 3, 2002 Barry Sonnenfeld Red Dragon October 4, 2002 Brett Ratner Chicago December 27, 2002 Rob Marshall Soundtrack (soundtrack with various artists)2003 Hulk June 20, 2003 Ang Lee Big Fish December 10, 2003 Tim Burton 2004 Spider-Man 2 June 30, 2004 Sam Raimi Soundtrack (soundtrack with various artists) 2005 Charlie and the Chocolate Factory July 15, 2005 Tim Burton Soundtrack (film score) Corpse Bride September 23, 2005 Tim Burton Soundtrack (film score with various artists)2006 Deep Sea 3D March 6, 2006 Howard Hall Serenada Schizophrana Nacho Libre June 16, 2006 Jared Hess Soundtrack (soundtrack with various artists) Charlotte's Web December 15, 2006 Gary Winick Soundtrack (film score)2007 Meet the Robinsons March 30, 2007 Steve Anderson Soundtrack (soundtrack with various artists) Spiderman 3 May 1, 2007 Sam Raimi Spiderman 3 Soundtrack (original themes) The Kingdom September 28, 2007 Peter Berg 2008 Standard Operating Procedure April 25, 2008 Errol Morris Soundtrack (film score) Wanted June 27, 2008 Timur Bekmambetov Soundtrack (film score) Hellboy II: The Golden Army July 11, 2008 Guillermo del Toro Milk November 26, 2008 Gus Van Sant 2009 Notorious January 16, 2009 George Tillman, Jr. Soundtrack (soundtrack with various artists) Terminator Salvation May 21, 2009 McG Soundtrack Taking Woodstock August 24, 2009 Ang Lee 9 September 9, 2009 Shane Acker (Themes) The Wolfman November 6, 2009 Joe Johnston 2010 Alice in Wonderland March 19, 2010 Tim Burton 2012 The Umbrella Academy 2012 Alfonso Cuarón He has also written the theme music for several television series, including: 1986: Pee-wee's Playhouse (some episodes) 1986: Sledge Hammer! 1989: Tales from the Crypt 1989: Beetlejuice 1989: The Simpsons 1990: The Flash 1992: Batman: The Animated Series 1997: Perversions of Science 1997: The New Batman/Superman Adventures 1999: Dilbert 2004: Desperate Housewives 2005: Point Pleasant His other work includes: 2004: The opening title theme of the 2004 video game Fable. 2008: Soundtrack to the 2008 video game Lego Batman: The Video Game (various tracks from the soundtrack of the movie: Batman (1989 film)) 2008: The opening title theme as well as major themes of the 2008 video game "Fable II" Elfman was in Finding Kraftland for his agent Richard Kraft. Awards and nominations References External links dannyelfman.info - A site by Danny Elfman fans Official Serenada Schizophrana site Danny Elfman's Music For A Darkened People The Elfman Zone Beyond Insanity- A Danny Elfman and Oingo Boingo website The official Oingo Boingo website A Danny Elfman Biography Danny Elfman podcast interview from Synthesis (magazine) Danny Elfman Interview With Entertainment Weekly | Danny_Elfman |@lemmatized daniel:1 robert:3 danny:12 elfman:34 bear:2 may:5 grammy:2 award:5 win:2 american:2 musician:1 best:1 know:1 compose:4 music:17 television:2 movie:4 lead:1 rock:4 band:3 oingo:8 boingo:8 singer:1 songwriter:1 breakup:1 frequent:2 collaborator:1 long:1 time:7 friend:1 tim:17 burton:22 score:24 two:2 film:29 nominate:1 four:1 academy:2 batman:8 emmy:1 desperate:2 housewife:2 theme:9 also:5 write:4 video:5 game:5 fable:3 famous:1 role:2 jack:1 skellington:1 sing:1 voice:1 nightmare:2 christmas:2 uncle:1 law:1 actor:1 jenna:1 biography:3 early:2 career:2 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4,266 | Major_scale | Major scales In music theory, the major scale or Ionian scale is one of the diatonic scales. It is made up of seven distinct notes, plus an eighth which duplicates the first an octave higher. In solfege these notes correspond to the syllables "Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti, (Do)". The simplest major scale to write or play on the piano is C major, the only major scale not to require sharps or flats, using only the white keys on the piano keyboard: The C major scale. Structure Pattern of whole and half steps A major scale may be seen as two identical tetrachords separated by a whole tone, or whole step, the new set of steps "Whole:Whole:Half:Whole:Whole:Whole:Half"(in Semi-tone 2 2 1 2 2 2 1). Each tetrachord consists of two whole steps followed by a half step. Western scales do not skip any line or space on the staff, and they do not repeat any note with a different accidental. This has the effect of forcing the key signature to feature just sharps or just flats. Named scale degrees 1st – Tonic- key note 2nd – Supertonic 3rd – Mediant 4th – Subdominant 5th – Dominant 6th – Submediant 7th – Leading Tone (or Leading Note) 8th – Tonic ( or Octave) Scales with sharp key signatures Sharp key signatures consist of a number of sharps between one and seven, applied in this order: F C G D A E B. The key note or tonic is immediately above the last sharp in the signature. For example, one sharp (F) in the key signature of a piece in a major key indicates the key of G major, the next note above F. (Six sharps, the last one being E (an enharmonic spelling of F) indicate the key of F major, since F has already been sharped in the key signature.) C maj – 0 sharps G maj – 1 sharp – F D maj – 2 sharps – F, C A maj – 3 sharps – F, C, G E maj – 4 sharps – F, C, G, D B maj – 5 sharps – F, C, G, D, A F maj – 6 sharps – F, C, G, D, A, E C maj – 7 sharps – F, C, G, D, A, E, B This table shows that each scale starting on the fifth scale degree of the previous scale has one new sharp, added in the order given above. Scales with flat key signatures Flat key signatures consist of one to seven flats, applied as: B E A D G C F (same as the order of sharps, but reversed.) The major scale with one flat is F major. In all other flat major scales, the tonic or key note is indicated by the second to last flat. In the major key with four flats, for example, the penultimate flat is A, indicating a key of A major. C maj – 0 flats F maj – 1 flat – B B maj – 2 flats – B, E E maj – 3 flats – B, E, A A maj – 4 flats – B, E, A, D D maj – 5 flats – B, E, A, D, G G maj – 6 flats – B, E, A, D, G, C C maj - 7 flats - B, E, A, D, G, C, F In this case each new scale starts a fifth below (or a fourth above) the previous one. The circle of fifths The circle of fifths provides a useful way of seeing the relationship of the major keys: The numbers inside the circle show the number of sharps or flats in the key signature, with the sharp keys going clockwise, and the flat keys counterclockwise from C major (which has no sharps or flats.) Six sharps or flats make the enharmonically identical keys of F or G . Seven sharps or flats make major keys (C major and C major) that may be more conveniently spelled with five flats or sharps (as D major or B major). Harmonic properties The major scale may predominate the minor scale in Western music because of its unique harmonic properties; in particular the major third is much stronger in the harmonic series (it is the 5th, 10th and 20th harmonic - see below) than the minor third (the 19th harmonic). In other words, the first six notes of the harmonic series provide a consonant major chord, the fourth to sixth of which form a major triad, and seven of the nine notes between the 8th and 16th harmonics (the 7th and 15th overtones) are notes in the major scale in just intonation. See the following: An illustration of the harmonic series as musical notation. The numbers above the harmonic indicate the number of cents it deviates from equal temperament. Red notes are sharp. Blue notes are flat. The major scale allows: three-part major or minor chords, both stable and consonant, on every scale degree but the seventh a diminished fifth within the seventh chord built on the fifth degree, the dominant motion by a minor second from the leading tone to the tonic root motion by perfect fifths, the strongest root motion, from nearly every degree in either direction, the two exceptions being up a perfect fifth from the seventh degree, and down a perfect fifth from the fourth degree See also Minor scale Enharmonic Equal temperament Just intonation Lydian mode Major and minor Music theory Tetrachord External links Proper fingering of the major and minor scales on the piano Listen to and download harmonised Major scale piano MP3s The major and pentatonic scales on the guitar in several positions The major scale for guitar in one position, with derivation | Major_scale |@lemmatized major:34 scale:28 music:3 theory:2 ionian:1 one:9 diatonic:1 make:3 seven:5 distinct:1 note:13 plus:1 eighth:1 duplicate:1 first:2 octave:2 high:1 solfege:1 correspond:1 syllable:1 mi:1 fa:1 sol:1 la:1 ti:1 simple:1 write:1 play:1 piano:4 c:19 require:1 sharp:24 flat:25 use:1 white:1 key:22 keyboard:1 structure:1 pattern:1 whole:9 half:4 step:5 may:3 see:5 two:3 identical:2 tetrachords:1 separate:1 tone:4 new:3 set:1 semi:1 tetrachord:2 consist:3 follow:1 western:2 skip:1 line:1 space:1 staff:1 repeat:1 different:1 accidental:1 effect:1 force:1 signature:9 feature:1 name:1 degree:7 tonic:5 supertonic:1 mediant:1 subdominant:1 dominant:2 submediant:1 lead:3 number:5 apply:2 order:3 f:19 g:14 e:13 b:13 immediately:1 last:3 example:2 piece:1 indicate:5 next:1 six:3 enharmonic:2 spelling:1 since:1 already:1 sharped:1 maj:16 table:1 show:2 start:2 fifth:9 previous:2 add:1 give:1 reverse:1 second:2 four:1 penultimate:1 case:1 fourth:3 circle:3 provide:2 useful:1 way:1 relationship:1 inside:1 go:1 clockwise:1 counterclockwise:1 enharmonically:1 sharps:1 conveniently:1 spell:1 five:1 harmonic:9 property:2 predominate:1 minor:7 unique:1 particular:1 third:2 much:1 strong:2 series:3 word:1 consonant:2 chord:3 sixth:1 form:1 triad:1 nine:1 overtone:1 intonation:2 following:1 illustration:1 musical:1 notation:1 cent:1 deviate:1 equal:2 temperament:2 red:1 blue:1 allows:1 three:1 part:1 stable:1 every:2 seventh:3 diminished:1 within:1 build:1 motion:3 root:2 perfect:3 nearly:1 either:1 direction:1 exception:1 also:1 lydian:1 mode:1 external:1 link:1 proper:1 fingering:1 listen:1 download:1 harmonised:1 pentatonic:1 guitar:2 several:1 position:2 derivation:1 |@bigram diatonic_scale:1 fa_sol:1 maj_sharp:8 maj_flat:8 sharps_flat:1 harmonic_overtone:1 equal_temperament:2 external_link:1 pentatonic_scale:1 |
4,267 | Northern_Mariana_Islands | This article is about the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. For the Mariana Archipelago, see Mariana Islands. For the U.S. Territory of Guam and the Island of Guam, see Guam. The Northern Mariana Islands , officially the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), is a commonwealth in political union with the United States, occupying a strategic region of the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of fifteen islands about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to the Philippines, at . The United States Census Bureau reports the total land area of all islands as 179.01 square miles (463.63 km²). The Northern Mariana Islands has a population of 80,362 (2005 estimate). The official 2000 census count was 69,221. Census Bureau News Only three of the fifteen islands, Saipan, Tinian and Rota, have a significant population. The islands of Agrihan and Alamagan have fewer than ten residents, and the remaining ten islands are unpopulated. The Northern Mariana Islands have the lowest male to female sex ratio in the world with an average of 76 men to every 100 women. CIA - The World Factbook - Field Listing - Sex ratio That is due to the overwhelming female majority of foreign workers, especially in the garment industry. Census shows poorer NMI, Saipan Tribune 2008-04-11 Geology Anatahan The Northern Mariana Islands, together with Guam to the south, compose the Mariana Islands. The southern islands are limestone with level terraces and fringing coral reefs; the northern islands are volcanic, with active volcanoes on Anatahan, Pagan and Agrihan. The volcano on Agrihan has the highest elevation in the islands at 3,166 feet (965 m). About one-fifth of the land is arable, another tenth is pasture. The primary natural resource is fish, some of which are endangered species, which leads to conflict. Also, development has created landfills which have contaminated groundwater on Saipan, which might contribute to disease. Anatahan Volcano is a small volcanic island 80 miles (130 km) north of Saipan and is about 6 miles (9 km) long and 2 miles (3 km) wide. Anatahan began erupting suddenly from its east crater on May 10, 2003, at about 6 p.m. (0800 UTC). Since then it has continued to alternate between eruptive and calm periods. On April 6, 2005, approximately 50,000 cubic meters of ash and rock were ejected, causing a large, black cloud to drift south over Saipan and Tinian. Climate The islands have a tropical marine climate moderated by seasonal northeast trade winds. There is little seasonal temperature variation; the dry season runs from December to June, and the rainy season from July to November and can include typhoons. The Guinness Book of World Records has cited Saipan as having the most equable temperature in the world. net.saipan.com History European Explorers The first European exploration of the area was that led by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, who landed on nearby Guam and claimed the islands for Spain. After being met offshore and accepting the refreshments offered to them by the native Chamorros, the latter then helped themselves to a small boat belonging to Magellan's fleet. This led to a cultural clash because in the old Chamorro culture there was little if any private property and to take something that one needed, such as a boat for fishing, was not considered thievery. The capital Saipan Due to that cultural misunderstanding, around half a dozen locals were killed and a village of 40 homes were burned by the Spanish before the boat was retrieved. The archipelago thus acquired the ignominious name Islas de los Ladrones ("Islands of the Thieves"). Three days after he had arrived, Magellan fled the archipelago under attack--a portentous beginning to its relationship with the Spanish. The islands were then considered by Spain to be annexed, and therefore under their governance, from the Philippines, as part of the Spanish East Indies. The Spanish built a Royal Palace in Guam for the Governor of the Islands. Its remains could still be seen in 2006. Guam was an important stop-over from Mexico for galleons carrying gold and other cargo between the Philippines and Spain. There are several lost sunken Spanish galleons off Guam. In 1668 the islands were renamed by Padre Diego Luis de San Vitores as Las Marianas after Mariana of Austria, widow of Spain's Philip IV. Most of the islands' native population (90%-95%) died out or intermarried with non-Chamorro settlers under Spanish rule, but new settlers, primarily from the Philippines and the Caroline Islands, were brought in to repopulate the islands. Despite this, the Chamorro population did gradually resurge, and Chamorro, Filipino and Carolinian language and ethnic differences remain basically distinct in the Marianas. To facilitate cultural and religious assimilation, Spanish colonists forced the Chamorros to be concentrated on Guam for a period of time. By the time Chamorros were allowed to return to the present-day Northern Marianas, Carolinians (from present-day eastern Yap State and western Chuuk State) had settled in the Marianas. Hence Carolinians and Chamorros are both considered as indigenous to the Northern Marianas and both languages are official in the commonwealth (but not on Guam). German and Japanese possession After the Spanish-American War of 1898, Spain ceded Guam to the United States and sold the rest of the Marianas (along with the Caroline and Marshall Islands) to Germany. Japan declared war on Germany during World War I and invaded the Northern Marianas. In 1919, the League of Nations, precursor of the United Nations, awarded the islands to Japan by mandate. During Japan's occupation, sugar cane became the main industry of the islands, and labor was imported from Japan and associated colonies (especially Okinawa and Korea). Hours after the Attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces from the Marianas launched an invasion of Guam on December 8, 1941. Chamorros from the Northern Marianas, then under Japanese rule for more than two decades, were brought to Guam to assist the Japanese administration. This fact, combined with the harsh treatment of Guamanian Chamorros during the brief 31-month occupation, created a rift between the two populations that would become the main reason Guamanians rejected reunification referendum approved by the Northern Marianas in the 1960s. American acquisition Near the end of World War II, the United States military invaded the Mariana Islands on June 15, 1944, beginning with the Battle of Saipan, which ended on July 9 with the Japanese commander committing seppuku (a traditional Japanese form of ritual suicide). U.S. forces then recaptured Guam beginning July 21 and invaded Tinian (see Battle of Tinian) on July 24, which provided the take off point for the Enola Gay, the plane dropping the atomic bomb on Hiroshima a year later. Rota was left untouched (and isolated) until the Japanese surrender in August 1945, due to its military insignificance. The war did not end for everyone with the signing of the armistice. The last group of Japanese soldiers surrendered on Saipan on December 1, 1945. On Guam, Japanese soldier Shoichi Yokoi hid out in the village of Talofofo until 1972. Between the end of the invasion and the Japanese surrender, the Saipan and Tinian populations were kept in concentration camps. Japanese nationals were eventually repatriated, and the indigenous Chamorro and Carolinians returned to the land. The Commonwealth After Japan's defeat, the islands were administered by the United States as part of the United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands; thus, defense and foreign affairs are the responsibility of the United States. The people of the Northern Mariana Islands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence, but instead to forge closer links with the United States. Negotiations for territorial status began in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in political union with the U.S. was approved in 1975. A new government and constitution went into effect in 1978. Similar to other U.S. territories, the islands do not have representation in the U.S. Senate, but are represented in the U.S. House of Representatives by a delegate (beginning January 2009 for the CNMI) who may vote in committee but not on the House floor. Pacific Magazine: Sablan WIll Stand For NMI Delegate Position Demographics The official 2000 census count was 69,221. Asian 56.3%, Pacific Islander 36.3%, Caucasian 1.8%, other 0.8%, mixed 4.8%. The Northern Mariana Islands have the highest female to male ratio in the world with 0.77 males/female (1.31 females/male). Politics Current Governor Benigno Fitial The Northern Mariana Islands have a presidential representative democratic system, in which the governor is head of government, with a multi-party system. The Northern Mariana Islands are a commonwealth in political union with the United States. Federal funds to the Commonwealth are administered by the Office of Insular Affairs of the U.S. Department of the Interior. Repeating the separation of powers in other U.S. territories and state governments, executive power is exercised by the Governor of the Northern Mariana Islands. Legislative power is vested in the bicameral Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Legislature. Senate President Joseph Mendiola is a founding member of the Outlying Areas Senate Presidents Caucus. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislative branches. However, politics in the Northern Mariana Islands is often "more a function of family relationships and personal loyalties" where the size of one's extended family is more important than a candidate's personal qualifications. Some critics, including the author of Saipan Sucks, charge that this is nepotism carried out within the trappings of democracy. worldcatlibraries.org Political status In 1947, the Northern Mariana Islands became part of the post-World War II United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI). The United States became the TTPI's administering authority under the terms of a trusteeship agreement. In 1976, Congress approved the mutually negotiated Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) in Political Union with the United States. The CNMI Government adopted its own constitution in 1977, and the constitutional government took office in January 1978. The Covenant was fully implemented November 3, 1986, pursuant to Presidential Proclamation no. 5564, which conferred United States citizenship on legally qualified CNMI residents. On December 22, 1990, the United Nations Trusteeship Council terminated the TTPI as it applied to the CNMI and five other of the TTPI's original seven districts (the Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia (Chuuk, Kosrae, Pohnpei and Yap)). Under the Covenant, in general, United States federal law applies to CNMI. However, the CNMI is outside the customs territory of the United States and, although the internal revenue code does apply in the form of a local income tax, the income tax system is largely locally determined. According to the Covenant, the federal minimum wage and federal immigration laws "will not apply to the Northern Mariana Islands except in the manner and to the extent made applicable to them by the Congress by law after termination of the Trusteeship Agreement." doi.gov The CNMI has a United States district court which exercises jurisdiction over the District of the Northern Mariana Islands (DNMI), which is coterminous with the CNMI. The United States District Court for the Northern Mariana Islands was established by act of Congress in 1977 and began operations in January 1978. The court sits on the island of Saipan, but may sit other places within the Commonwealth. The district court has the same jurisdiction as all other United States district courts, including diversity jurisdiction and bankruptcy jurisdiction. Appeals are taken to the Ninth Circuit. The district court's local rules specifically require lawyers to wear shoes to court. DNMI Local Rule 83.3 Since the founding of the CNMI in January 1978 and its qualified residents becoming U.S. citizens in November 1986, the CNMI has been "represented" in the United States (and especially Washington, D.C.) by a Resident Representative, who was elected at-large by CNMI voters and whose office was paid for by the CNMI government. In 2008, Congress enacted , title VII of which established a CNMI delegate's seat. Gregorio Sablan was elected in November 2008 as the first CNMI delegate and took office in the 111th Congress. Economy The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands benefits from substantial subsidies and development assistance from the federal government of the United States. The economy also relies heavily on tourism, especially from Japan, and the rapidly dwindling garment manufacturing sector. The tourism industry has also been dwindling since late 2005. Since late 2006, tourist arrivals fell 15.23 percent (73,000 potential visitors) from the eleven months prior. The Northern Mariana Islands had successfully used its position as a free trade area with the U.S., while at the same time not being subject to the same labor laws. For example, the $3.05 per hour minimum wage in the Commonwealth, which lasted from 1997 to 2007, was lower than in the U.S. and some other worker protections are weaker, leading to lower production costs. That allowed garments to be labeled "Made in USA" without having to comply with all U.S. labor laws. However, the U.S. minimum wage law signed by President Bush on May 25, 2007, will result in stepped increases in the Northern Marianas' minimum wage to reach U.S. level by 2015. The first step (to $3.55) became effective July 25, 2007, and a yearly increase of $0.50 will take effect every May thereafter until the CNMI minimum wage equals the nationwide minimum wage. In the extreme, the island's exemption from U.S. labor laws had led to many alleged exploitations including recent claims of sweatshops, child labor, child prostitution and even forced abortions. A separate immigration system outside of federal U.S. control (scheduled to end on November 28, 2009) has resulted in a large number of Chinese migrant workers (about 15,000 during the peak years) employed in the islands' garment trade. However, the lifting of World Trade Organization restrictions on Chinese imports to the US in 2005 had put the Commonwealth-based trade under severe pressure, leading to a number of recent factory closures. Adding to the U.S.-imposed scheduled wage increases, the garment industry is expected to become extinct by 2009. Agricultural production, primarily of tapioca, cattle, coconuts, breadfruit, tomatoes, and melons exists, but is relatively unimportant in the economy. Exemptions from some federal regulations Although the CNMI is part of the United States, several members of Congress have fought hard to keep labor regulation out of the CNMI. Some extreme labor practices, not common elsewhere in the United States, had occurred. Some of these labor practices include forcing workers to have abortions, as exposed in the March 18, 1998, episode of ABC News' 20/20, and enslaving women and forcing them into prostitution, as in the U.S. Department of Justice conviction of several CNMI traffickers in 1999 attests. In 2005 and 2006, the issue of these regulatory exemptions in the CNMI was brought up during the American political scandals of Congressman Tom DeLay and lobbyist Jack Abramoff. Non-Native Islanders are not allowed to own land, but can lease it. Transportation The islands have over 220 miles (350 km) of highways, three airports with paved runways (one about 9800 feet [3000 m] long; two around 6600 feet (2000 m), three airports with unpaved runways, and one heliport. Education Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Public School System operates public schools in the commonwealth. Islands, island groups and municipalities The islands total . The table gives an overview, with the individual islands from north to south: No. Island Area Population(2000census) Height Highest peak Locationsq mikm²feetmNorthern Islands (Northern Islands Municipality) 1 Farallon de Pajaros (Uracas) - 2 Maug Islands 1) (North Island) 3 Asuncion - 4 Agrihan (Agrigan) 9 2) Mount Agrihan 5 Pagan 3) Mount Pagan 6 Alamagan 6 Alamagan 7 Guguan - 8 Zealandia Bank >0.0 >0.0 - >0 >0 9 Sarigan 4) 10 Anatahan 2) 11 Farallon de Medinilla - Southern Islands (3 municipalities) 12 Saipan 62,392 Mount Tagpochau 13 Tinian 3,540 Kastiyu (Lasso Hill) 14 Aguijan (Agiguan) 5) - Alutom 15 Rota 3 283 Mt. Manira Northern Mariana Islands 69,221 Mount Agrihan 14°08' to 20°33'N,144°54° to 146°04'E 1) Japanese military occupation 1939 to 19442) evacuated 1990 due to volcanic eruptions3) evacuated 1981 due to volcanic eruptions4) formerly inhabited (population of 21 in 1935, but only 2 in 1968)5) part of Tinian Municipality Administratively, the CNMI is divided into four municipalities: The Northern Islands (north of Saipan) form the Northern Islands Municipality. The three main islands of the Southern Islands form the municipalities of Saipan, Tinian, and Rota, with uninhabited Aguijan forming part of Tinian municipality. Because of volcanic threat, the northern islands have been largely evacuated. Human habitation is limited to Agrihan, Pagan, and Alamagan, but population varies due to various economic factors, including children's education. The Census of April 2000 registered just six people in all of the Northern Islands municipality (then residing on Alamagan), and the Northern Islands' mayor office is located in "exile" on Saipan. Saipan, Tinian, and Rota have the only ports and harbors, and are the only permanently populated islands. See also List of Northern Mariana Islands-related topics Notes and references CIA World Factbook 2000. Land areas and population data from United States Census Bureau. Northern Mariana Islands and constituent municipalities, United States Census Bureau </div> External links Government Northern Mariana Islands official government website The CNMI Covenant The CNMI Constitution CNMI Office of Resident Representative Pedro A. Tenorio H.R. 873 - the Northern Mariana Islands Delegate Act H.R. 5550 - The United States-Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Human Dignity Act General information ] News media Saipan Tribune Marianas Variety The Pacific Times Food for Thought - Weekly commentary on CNMI society by KZMI and KCNM manager Harry Blalock Other Northern Mariana Islands Online Encyclopedia Saipan and Tinian locator map Pascal Horst Lehne and Christoph Gäbler: Über die Marianen. Lehne-Verlag, Wohldorf in Germany 1972. be-x-old:Паўночныя Марыянскія Выспы | Northern_Mariana_Islands |@lemmatized article:1 commonwealth:17 northern:41 mariana:32 island:71 archipelago:3 see:5 u:19 territory:6 guam:15 officially:1 cnmi:26 political:6 union:4 united:26 state:27 occupy:1 strategic:1 region:1 western:2 pacific:6 ocean:1 consist:1 fifteen:2 three:6 quarter:1 way:1 hawaii:1 philippine:4 census:8 bureau:4 report:1 total:2 land:6 area:6 square:1 mile:5 population:10 estimate:1 official:4 count:2 news:3 saipan:20 tinian:11 rota:5 significant:1 agrihan:7 alamagan:5 ten:2 resident:5 remain:2 unpopulated:1 low:2 male:4 female:5 sex:2 ratio:3 world:10 average:1 men:1 every:2 woman:2 cia:2 factbook:2 field:1 list:2 due:6 overwhelming:1 majority:1 foreign:2 worker:4 especially:4 garment:5 industry:4 show:1 poor:1 nmi:2 tribune:2 geology:1 anatahan:5 together:1 south:3 compose:1 islands:8 southern:3 limestone:1 level:2 terrace:1 fringe:1 coral:1 reef:1 volcanic:5 active:1 volcano:3 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4,268 | Ivar_Aasen | Ivar Andreas Aasen (August 5, 1813 – September 23, 1896) was a Norwegian philologist, lexicographer, playwright and poet. Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 1 Ivar Aasen Ivar Aasen Aasen was born at Åsen in Ørsta (then Ørsten), in the district of Sunnmøre, on the west coast of Norway. His father, a small peasant-farmer named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826. He was brought up to farmwork, but he assiduously cultivated all his leisure in reading, and when he was eighteen he opened an elementary school in his native parish. In 1833 he entered the household of H. C. Thoresen, the husband of the eminent writer Magdalene Thoresen, in Herøy (then Herø), and there he picked up the elements of Latin. Gradually, and by dint of infinite patience and concentration, the young peasant became master of many languages, and began the scientific study of their structure. About 1841 he had freed himself from all the burden of manual labour, and could occupy his thoughts with the dialect of his native district, Sunnmøre; his first publication was a small collection of folk songs in the Sunnmøre dialect (1843). His remarkable abilities now attracted general attention, and he was helped to continue his studies undisturbed. His Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects (1848) was the result of much labour, and of journeys taken to every part of the country. Aasen's famous Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects appeared in its original form in 1850, and from this publication dates all the wide cultivation of the popular language in Norwegian, since Aasen really did no less than construct, out of the different materials at his disposal, a popular language or definite folke-maal (people's language) for Norway. With certain modifications, the most important of which were introduced later by Aasen himself, but also through a latter policy aiming to merge this Norwegian language with Dano-Norwegian, this language has become Nynorsk ("New Norwegian"), the second of Norway's two official languages (the other being Bokmål, the Dano-Norwegian descendant of the Danish language used in Norway at Aasen's time). An unofficial variety of Norwegian more close to Aasen's language is still found in Høgnorsk ("High Norwegian"). Aasen composed poems and plays in the composite dialect to show how it should be used; one of these dramas, The Heir (1855), was frequently acted, and may be considered as the pioneer of all the abundant dialect-literature of the last half-century of the 1800s, from Vinje to Garborg. Aasen continued to enlarge and improve his grammars and his dictionary. He lived very quietly in lodgings in Oslo (then Christiania), surrounded by his books and shrinking from publicity, but his name grew into wide political favour as his ideas about the language of the peasants became more and more the watch-word of the popular party. Quite early in his career, in 1842, he had begun to receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire attention to his philological investigations; and the Storting (Norwegian parliament), conscious of the national importance of his work, treated him in this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in years. He continued his investigations to the last, but it may be said that, after the 1873 edition of his Dictionary, he added but little to his stores. Aasen holds perhaps an isolated place in literary history as the one man who has invented, or at least selected and constructed, a language which has pleased so many thousands of his countrymen that they have accepted it for their schools, their sermons and their songs. He died in Christiania on September 23, 1896, and was buried with public honours. Ivar Aasen-tunet, an institution devoted to the Nynorsk language, opened in June 2000. Their web page includes most of Aasens' texts, numerous other examples of Nynorsk literature (in Nettbiblioteket), and some articles, also in English, about language history in Norway. External links Christian Sinding's musical setting of three Aasen poems Score from Sibley Music Library Digital Scores collections References | Ivar_Aasen |@lemmatized ivar:5 andreas:1 aasen:14 august:1 september:2 norwegian:11 philologist:1 lexicographer:1 playwright:1 poet:1 chamber:1 biographical:1 dictionary:4 isbn:1 page:2 bear:1 åsen:1 ørsta:1 ørsten:1 district:2 sunnmøre:3 west:1 coast:1 norway:5 father:1 small:2 peasant:3 farmer:1 name:2 jonsson:1 die:2 bring:1 farmwork:1 assiduously:1 cultivate:1 leisure:1 reading:1 eighteen:1 open:2 elementary:1 school:2 native:2 parish:1 enter:1 household:1 h:1 c:1 thoresen:2 husband:1 eminent:1 writer:1 magdalene:1 herøy:1 herø:1 pick:1 element:1 latin:1 gradually:1 dint:1 infinite:1 patience:1 concentration:1 young:1 become:3 master:1 many:2 language:13 begin:2 scientific:1 study:2 structure:1 free:1 burden:1 manual:1 labour:2 could:1 occupy:1 thought:1 dialect:6 first:1 publication:2 collection:2 folk:1 song:2 remarkable:1 ability:1 attract:1 general:1 attention:2 help:1 continue:3 undisturbed:1 grammar:2 result:1 much:1 journey:1 take:1 every:1 part:1 country:1 famous:1 appear:1 original:1 form:1 date:1 wide:2 cultivation:1 popular:3 since:1 really:1 less:1 construct:2 different:1 material:1 disposal:1 definite:1 folke:1 maal:1 people:1 certain:1 modification:1 important:1 introduce:1 later:1 also:2 latter:1 policy:1 aim:1 merge:1 dano:2 nynorsk:3 new:1 second:1 two:1 official:1 bokmål:1 descendant:1 danish:1 use:2 time:1 unofficial:1 variety:1 close:1 still:1 find:1 høgnorsk:1 high:1 compose:1 poem:1 play:1 composite:1 show:1 one:2 drama:1 heir:1 frequently:1 act:1 may:2 consider:1 pioneer:1 abundant:1 literature:2 last:2 half:1 century:1 vinje:1 garborg:1 enlarge:1 improve:1 live:1 quietly:1 lodging:1 oslo:1 christiania:2 surround:1 book:1 shrink:1 publicity:1 grow:1 political:1 favour:1 idea:1 watch:1 word:1 party:1 quite:1 early:1 career:1 receive:1 stipend:1 enable:1 give:1 entire:1 philological:1 investigation:2 storting:1 parliament:1 conscious:1 national:1 importance:1 work:1 treat:1 respect:1 generosity:1 advance:1 year:1 say:1 edition:1 add:1 little:1 store:1 hold:1 perhaps:1 isolated:1 place:1 literary:1 history:2 man:1 invent:1 least:1 select:1 please:1 thousand:1 countryman:1 accept:1 sermon:1 bury:1 public:1 honour:1 tunet:1 institution:1 devote:1 june:1 web:1 include:1 aasens:1 text:1 numerous:1 example:1 nettbiblioteket:1 article:1 english:1 external:1 link:1 christian:1 sinding:1 musical:1 setting:1 three:1 poems:1 score:2 sibley:1 music:1 library:1 digital:1 reference:1 |@bigram chamber_biographical:1 biographical_dictionary:1 ivar_aasen:3 dano_norwegian:2 external_link:1 |
4,269 | Cell_(biology) | Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke from Micrographia which is the origin of the word "cell" being used to describe the smallest unit of a living organism Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is often called the building brick of life. Cell Movements and the Shaping of the Vertebrate Body in Chapter 21 of Molecular Biology of the Cell fourth edition, edited by Bruce Alberts (2002) published by Garland Science. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos. It is also common to describe small molecules such as amino acids as "molecular building blocks". Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are multicellular. (Humans have an estimated 100 trillion or 1014 cells; a typical cell size is 10 µm; a typical cell mass is 1 nanogram.) The largest known cell is an unfertilized ostrich egg cell. In 1835 before the final cell theory was developed, a Czech Jan Evangelista Purkyně observed small "granules" while looking at the plant tissue through a microscope. The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells. All cells come from preexisting cells. Vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. The word cell comes from the Latin cellula, meaning, a small room. The descriptive name for the smallest living biological structure was chosen by Robert Hooke in a book he published in 1665 when he compared the cork cells he saw through his microscope to the small rooms monks lived in. "... I could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were not regular [..] these pores, or cells, [..] were indeed the first microscopical pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention of them before this. . ." – Hooke describing his observations on a thin slice of cork. Robert Hooke General principles Mouse cells grown in a culture dish. These cells grow in large clumps, but each individual cell is about 10 micrometres across Each cell is at least somewhat self-contained and self-maintaining: it can take in nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized functions, and reproduce as necessary. Each cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of these activities. All cells have several different abilities: The Universal Features of Cells on Earth in Chapter 1 of the Alberts textbook (reference #1, above). Reproduction by cell division: (binary fission/mitosis or meiosis). Use of enzymes and other proteins coded for by DNA genes and made via messenger RNA intermediates and ribosomes. Metabolism, including taking in raw materials, building cell components, converting energy, molecules and releasing by-products. The functioning of a cell depends upon its ability to extract and use chemical energy stored in organic molecules. This energy is released and then used in metabolic pathways. Response to external and internal stimuli such as changes in temperature, pH or levels of nutrients. Cell contents are contained within a cell surface membrane that is made from a lipid bilayer with proteins embedded in it. Some prokaryotic cells contain important internal membrane-bound compartments, but eukaryotic cells have a specialized set of internal membrane compartments. Anatomy of cells There are two types of cells: eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are usually independent, while eukaryotic cells are often found in multicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells Diagram of a typical prokaryotic cell The prokaryote cell is simpler than a eukaryote cell, lacking a nucleus and most of the other organelles of eukaryotes. There are two kinds of prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea; these share a similar overall structure. A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions: on the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These are structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and communication between cells; enclosing the cell is the cell envelope - generally consisting of a cell wall covering a plasma membrane though some bacteria also have a further covering layer called a capsule. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, serving as a protective filter. Though most prokaryotes have a cell wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermoplasma (archaea)). The cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and finally bursting (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure against a hypotonic environment. Some eukaryote cells (plant cells and fungi cells) also have a cell wall; inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the cell genome (DNA) and ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. A prokaryotic chromosome is usually a circular molecule (an exception is that of the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease). Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular. Plasmids enable additional functions, such as antibiotic resistance. Eukaryotic cells Diagram of a typical animal (eukaryotic) cell, showing subcellular components. Organelles: (1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosome (4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (6) Golgi apparatus (7) Cytoskeleton (8) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole (11) cytoplasm (12) lysosome (13) centrioles within centrosome Eukaryotic cells are about 10 times the size of a typical prokaryote and can be as much as 1000 times greater in volume. The major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is the presence of a cell nucleus, a membrane-delineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell's DNA. It is this nucleus that gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true nucleus." Other differences include: The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present. The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA. Eukaryotes can move using cilia or flagella. The flagella are more complex than those of prokaryotes. +Table 1: Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells ProkaryotesEukaryotesTypical organismsbacteria, archaeaprotists, fungi, plants, animalsTypical size~ 1-10 µm~ 10-100 µm (sperm cells, apart from the tail, are smaller)Type of nucleusnucleoid region; no real nucleusreal nucleus with double membraneDNAcircular (usually)linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone proteinsRNA-/protein-synthesiscoupled in cytoplasmRNA-synthesis inside the nucleusprotein synthesis in cytoplasmRibosomes50S+30S60S+40SCytoplasmatic structurevery few structureshighly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeletonCell movementflagella made of flagellinflagella and cilia containing microtubules; lamellipodia and filopodia containing actinMitochondrianoneone to several thousand (though some lack mitochondria)Chloroplastsnonein algae and plantsOrganizationusually single cellssingle cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with specialized cellsCell divisionBinary fission (simple division)Mitosis (fission or budding) Meiosis +Table 2: Comparison of structures between animal and plant cellsTypical animal cellTypical plant cellOrganelles Nucleus Nucleolus (within nucleus) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Smooth ER Ribosomes Cytoskeleton Golgi apparatus Cytoplasm Mitochondria Vesicles Lysosomes Centrosome Centrioles Vacuoles Nucleus Nucleolus (within nucleus) Rough ER Smooth ER Ribosomes Cytoskeleton Golgi apparatus (dictiosomes) Cytoplasm Mitochondria Subcellular components The cells of eukaryotes (left) and prokaryotes (right) All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, separates its interior from its environment, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, a salty cytoplasm takes up most of the cell volume. All cells possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. This article will list these primary components of the cell, then briefly describe their function. Cell membrane: A cell's defining boundary The cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane. The plasma membrane in plants and prokaryotes is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of lipids (hydrophobic fat-like molecules) and hydrophilic phosphorus molecules. Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer. It may also be called a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane is said to be 'semi-permeable', in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones. Cytoskeleton: A cell's scaffold The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules. There is a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis. Genetic material Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Most organisms use DNA for their long-term information storage, but some viruses (e.g., retroviruses) have RNA as their genetic material. The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA or RNA sequence. RNA is also used for information transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA) in organisms that use DNA for the genetic code itself. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add specific amino acids during the process of protein translation. Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial chromosome) in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic theory). A human cell has genetic material in the nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 23 pairs of linear DNA molecules called chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production as well as specific tRNAs. Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome. Organelles The human body contains many different organs, such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function. Cells also have a set of "little organs," called organelles, that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions. There are several types of organelles within an animal cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles. Cell nucleus - a cell's information center The cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur. The nucleus is spherical in shape and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing. During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special RNA, called mRNA. This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule. The nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus where ribosome subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm. Diagram of a cell nucleus Mitochondria and Chloroplasts - the power generators Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria play a critical role in generating energy in the eukaryotic cell. Mitochondria generate the cell's energy by the process of oxidative phosphorylation, utilizing oxygen to release energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP. Mitochondria multiply by splitting in two. Organelles that are modified chloroplasts are broadly called plastids, and are involved in energy storage through the process of photosynthesis, which utilizes solar energy to generate carbohydrates and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. Mitochondria and chloroplasts each contain their own genome, which is separate and distinct from the nuclear genome of a cell. Both of these organelles contain this DNA in circular plasmids, much like prokaryotic cells, strongly supporting the evolutionary theory of endosymbiosis; since these organelles contain their own genomes and have other similarities to prokaryotes, they are thought to have developed through a symbiotic relationship after being engulfed by a primitive cell. Endoplasmic reticulum - eukaryotes only The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that will float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface and secretes proteins into the cytoplasm, and the smooth ER, which lacks them. Smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration and release. Golgi apparatus - eukaryotes only The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell. It is particularly important in the processing of proteins for secretion. The Golgi apparatus forms a part of the endomembrane system of eukaryotic cells. Vesicles that enter the Golgi apparatus are processed in a cis to trans direction, meaning they coalesce on the cis side of the apparatus and after processing pinch off on the opposite (trans) side to form a new vesicle in the animal cell.Diagram of an endomembrane system Ribosomes The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules. This is where proteins are produced. Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in prokaryotes). Lysosomes and Peroxisomes - eukaryotes only Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system. These organelles are often called a "suicide bag" because of their ability to detonate and destroy the cell. Centrosome - the cytoskeleton organiser The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell - a key component of the cytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells. Vacuoles Vacuoles store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are often described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which are able to pump water out of the cell if there is too much water. Structures outside the cell wall Capsule It is present only in some bacteria outside the cell wall. It is gelatinous in nature. The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci. Capsules not stained by ordinary stain and can detected by special stain. The capsule is antigenic. The capsule has antiphagocytic function so it determines the virulence of many bacteria. It also plays a role in attachment of the organism to mucous membranes. Flagella Flagella are the organelles of mobility. They arise from cytoplasm and extrude through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread like appendages, protein in nature, formed of flagellin protein (antigenic). They can not be stained by gram stain. They have a special stain. According to their arrangement they may be monotrichate, amphitrichate, lophotrichate, peritrichate. Fimbriae (pili) They are short and thin hair like filaments, formed of protein called pilin (antigenic). Fimbriae are responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific receptors of human cell (adherence). There are special types of pili called (sex pili) involved in the process of conjunction. Cell functions Cell growth and metabolism Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism. Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions. Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into a less chemically-complex sugar molecule called glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a form of energy, via two different pathways. The first pathway, glycolysis, requires no oxygen and is referred to as anaerobic metabolism. Each reaction is designed to produce some hydrogen ions that can then be used to make energy packets (ATP). In prokaryotes, glycolysis is the only method used for converting energy. The second pathway, called the Krebs cycle, or citric acid cycle, occurs inside the mitochondria and is capable of generating enough ATP to run all the cell functions. An overview of protein synthesis.Within the nucleus of the cell (light blue), genes (DNA, dark blue) are transcribed into RNA. This RNA is then subject to post-transcriptional modification and control, resulting in a mature mRNA (red) that is then transported out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm (peach), where it undergoes translation into a protein. mRNA is translated by ribosomes (purple) that match the three-base codons of the mRNA to the three-base anti-codons of the appropriate tRNA. Newly-synthesized proteins (black) are often further modified, such as by binding to an effector molecule (orange), to become fully active. Creation of new cells Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. Eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells. DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, is required every time a cell divides. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job. Protein synthesis Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA. Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation. Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA (mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein-RNA complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the mRNA sequence. The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to transfer RNA (tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome. The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule. Cell movement or motility Cells can move during many processes: such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer metastasis. For wound healing to occur, white blood cells and cells that ingest bacteria move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection. At the same time fibroblasts (connective tissue cells) move there to remodel damaged structures. In the case of tumor development, cells from a primary tumor move away and spread to other parts of the body. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding, adhesion, motor and other proteins. The process is divided into three steps - protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-adhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward. Each of these steps is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J. et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4e. Garland Science. 2002 Ananthakrishnan R, Ehrlicher A. The Forces Behind Cell Movement. Int J Biol Sci 2007; 3:303-317. http://www.biolsci.org/v03p0303.htm Evolution The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on Earth. Origin of the first cell There are three leading hypotheses for the source of small molecules that would make up life in an early Earth. One is that they came from meteorites (see Murchison meteorite). Another is that they were created at deep-sea vents. A third is that they were synthesized by lightning in a reducing atmosphere (see Miller–Urey experiment); although it is not sure Earth had such an atmosphere. There is essentially no experimental data to tell what the first self-replicate forms were. RNA is generally assumed to be the earliest self-replicating molecule, as it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyze chemical reactions (see RNA world hypothesis). But some other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have preceded RNA, like clay or peptide nucleic acid. Cells emerged at least 3.0–3.3 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells were heterotrophs. An important characteristic of cells is the cell membrane, composed of a bilayer of lipids. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA. But the first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could form. Origin of eukaryotic cells The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells. It is almost certain that DNA-bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are what remains of ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing proteobacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively, where the rest of the cell seems to be derived from an ancestral archaean prokaryote cell – a theory termed the endosymbiotic theory. There is still considerable debate about whether organelles like the hydrogenosome predated the origin of mitochondria, or viceversa: see the hydrogen hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cells. Sex, as the stereotyped choreography of meiosis and syngamy that persists in nearly all extant eukaryotes, may have played a role in the transition from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. An 'origin of sex as vaccination' theory suggests that the eukaryote genome accreted from prokaryan parasite genomes in numerous rounds of lateral gene transfer. Sex-as-syngamy (fusion sex) arose when infected hosts began swapping nuclearized genomes containing co-evolved, vertically transmitted symbionts that conveyed protection against horizontal infection by more virulent symbionts. History 1632 – 1723: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek teaches himself to grind lenses, builds a microscope and draws protozoa, such as Vorticella from rain water, and bacteria from his own mouth. 1665: Robert Hooke discovers cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early microscope. 1839: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden elucidate the principle that plants and animals are made of cells, concluding that cells are a common unit of structure and development, and thus founding the cell theory. The belief that life forms are able to occur spontaneously (generatio spontanea) is contradicted by Louis Pasteur (1822 – 1895) (although Francesco Redi had performed an experiment in 1668 that suggested the same conclusion). 1855: Rudolph Virchow states that cells always emerge from cell divisions (omnis cellula ex cellula). 1931: Ernst Ruska builds first transmission electron microscope (TEM) at the University of Berlin. By 1935, he has built an EM with twice the resolution of a light microscope, revealing previously-unresolvable organelles. 1953: Watson and Crick made their first announcement on the double-helix structure for DNA on February 28. 1981: Lynn Margulis published Symbiosis in Cell Evolution detailing the endosymbiotic theory. See also Cell biology Cell culture Cell type Cellular component Cytorrhysis Cytotoxicity Plasmolysis Stem cell Syncytium References External links Inside the Cell Virtual Cell's Educational Animations The Inner Life of A Cell, a flash video showing what happens inside of a cell The Virtual Cell Cells Alive! Journal of Cell Biology The Biology Project > Cell Biology Centre of the Cell online The Image & Video Library of The American Society for Cell Biology, a collection of peer-reviewed still images, video clips and digital books that illustrate the structure, function and biology of the cell. Gall JG, McIntosh JR, eds (2001). Landmark Papers in Cell Biology. Bethesda, MD and Cold Spring Harbor, NY: The American Society for Cell Biology and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 2001. 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4,270 | Anacharsis | "He marvelled that among the Greeks, those who were skillful in a thing vie in competition; those who have no skill, judge" —Diogenes Laertius, of Anacharsis. Anacharsis (, ) was a Scythian philosopher who travelled from his homeland on the northern shores of the Black Sea to Athens in the early 6th century BCE and made a great impression as a forthright, outspoken "barbarian," apparently a forerunner of the Cynics, though none of his works have survived. Life Anacharsis the son of Gnurus, Herodotus, iv. 76; Diogenes Laertius, i. 101; although Lucian, (Scytha) calls him the son of Daucetas. a Scythian chief, was half Greek and from a mixed Hellenistic culture, apparently in the region of the Cimmerian Bosporus. He left his native country to travel in pursuit of knowledge, and came to Athens about 589 BCE, Sosicrates, ap Diogenes Laertius, i. 101 at a time when Solon was occupied with his legislative measures. According to the story recounted by Hermippus, Hermippus, ap Diogenes Laertius, i. 101-2 he arrived at the house of Solon and said, "I have traveled here from afar to make you my friend." Solon replied, "It's better to make friends at home." Thereupon the Scythian replied, "Then it is necessary for you, being at home, to make friends with me." Solon laughed and accepted him as his friend. He cultivated the outsider's knack of seeing the illogic in familiar things. His conversation was droll and frank, and Solon and the Athenians took to him as a sage and philosopher. His rough and free discourse became proverbial among Athenians as 'Scythian discourse'. Diogenes Laertius, i. 101 Anacharsis was the first foreigner (metic) who received the privileges of Athenian citizenship. He was reckoned by some ancient authors as one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Diogenes Laertius, i. 41-2 and it is said that he was initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries of the Great Goddess, a privilege denied to those who did not speak fluent Greek. According to Herodotus, Herodotus, iv, 76; comp. Diogenes Laertius, i. 102 when Anacharsis returned to the Scythians he was killed by his own brother for his Greek ways and especially for the impious attempt to sacrifice to the Mother Goddess Cybele, whose cult was unwelcome among the Scythians. Ideas None of the works ascribed to him in ancient times, if indeed they were written by him, have survived. He was said to have written a book comparing the laws of the Scythians with the laws of the Greeks, as well as work on the art of war. All that remains of his thought is what later tradition ascribes to him. He became famous for the simplicity of his way of living and his acute observations on the institutions and customs of the Greeks. He was said to have compared laws to spiders' webs, which catch small flies, but allow wasps and hornets to escape. He exhorted moderation in everything, saying that the vine bears three clusters of grapes: the first wine, pleasure; the second, drunkenness, the third, disgust. Diogenes Laertius, i. 103 So he became a kind of emblem to the Athenians, who inscribed on his statues: 'Restrain your tongues, your appetites, your passions.' There are ten extant letters ascribed to him, one of which is also quoted by Cicero: Greetings from Anacharsis to Hanno: My clothing is a Scythian cloak, my shoes are the hard soles of my feet, my bed is the earth, my food is only seasoned by hunger - and I eat nothing but milk and cheese and meat. Come and visit me, and you will find me at peace. You want to give me something. But give it to your fellow-citizens instead, or let the immortal gods have it. Pseudo-Anacharsis, Epistle 5, quoted in Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, v. 32 All of the letters are spurious; the first nine probably date from the third century BC, they are usually included among the Cynic epistles, and reflect how the Cynic philosophers viewed him as prefiguring many of their ideas; Abraham J. Malherbe, (1977), The Cynic Epistles: A Study Edition. SBL the tenth letter is quoted by Diogenes Laertius, it is addressed to Croesus, the proverbially rich king of Lydia, it too is spurious: Anacharsis to Croesus: O king of the Lydians, I am come to the country of the Greeks, in order to become acquainted with their customs and institutions; but I have no need of gold, and shall be quite contented if I return to Scythia a better man than I left it. However I will come to Sardis, as I think it very desirable to become a friend of yours. Diogenes Laertius, i. 105 Strabo makes him the (probably legendary) inventor of the anchor with two flukes, and others made him the inventor of the potter's wheel. Diogenes Laertius, i. 105 Revival in the 18th century In 1788 Jean Jacques Barthelemy (1716–95), a highly esteemed classical scholar and Jesuit, published The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece, a learned imaginary travel journal, one of the first historical novels, which a modern scholar has called "the encyclopedia of the new cult of the antique" in the late 18th century; it had a high impact on the growth of philhellenism in France at the time. The book went through many editions, was reprinted in the United States and translated into German and other languages. It later inspired European sympathy for the Greek struggle for independence and spawned sequels and imitations through the 19th century. Notes External links Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers i, 101: brief entry gives many pithy but apocryphal remarks. A witty comparison of the Anacharsis cult with the modern cult of Xena, "Warrior Princess". (See Xena.) Classical references Herodotus iv. 46, 76-7; Lucian, Scytha; Cicero, Tusc. Disp. v. 32; Diogenes Laertius i. 101-5; Athenaeus, iv. 159, x. 428, 437, xiv. 613; Aelian, Varia Historia, v. 7. | Anacharsis |@lemmatized marvel:1 among:4 greek:8 skillful:1 thing:2 vie:1 competition:1 skill:1 judge:1 diogenes:13 laertius:13 anacharsis:10 scythian:8 philosopher:4 travel:5 homeland:1 northern:1 shore:1 black:1 sea:1 athens:2 early:1 century:5 bce:2 make:6 great:2 impression:1 forthright:1 outspoken:1 barbarian:1 apparently:2 forerunner:1 cynic:4 though:1 none:2 work:3 survive:2 life:2 son:2 gnurus:1 herodotus:4 iv:4 although:1 lucian:2 scytha:2 call:2 daucetas:1 chief:1 half:1 mixed:1 hellenistic:1 culture:1 region:1 cimmerian:1 bosporus:1 leave:2 native:1 country:2 pursuit:1 knowledge:1 come:4 sosicrates:1 ap:2 time:3 solon:5 occupy:1 legislative:1 measure:1 accord:2 story:1 recount:1 hermippus:2 arrive:1 house:1 say:5 afar:1 friend:5 reply:1 well:2 home:2 thereupon:1 replied:1 necessary:1 laugh:1 accept:1 cultivate:1 outsider:1 knack:1 see:2 illogic:1 familiar:1 conversation:1 droll:1 frank:1 athenian:4 take:1 sage:2 rough:1 free:1 discourse:2 become:5 proverbial:1 first:4 foreigner:1 metic:1 receive:1 privilege:2 citizenship:1 reckon:1 ancient:2 author:1 one:3 seven:1 greece:2 initiate:1 eleusinian:1 mystery:1 goddess:2 deny:1 speak:1 fluent:1 comp:1 return:2 kill:1 brother:1 way:2 especially:1 impious:1 attempt:1 sacrifice:1 mother:1 cybele:1 whose:1 cult:4 unwelcome:1 idea:2 ascribe:2 indeed:1 write:2 book:2 compare:2 law:3 art:1 war:1 remain:1 thought:1 late:2 tradition:1 ascribes:1 famous:1 simplicity:1 living:1 acute:1 observation:1 institution:2 custom:2 spider:1 web:1 catch:1 small:1 fly:1 allow:1 wasp:1 hornet:1 escape:1 exhort:1 moderation:1 everything:1 vine:1 bear:1 three:1 cluster:1 grape:1 wine:1 pleasure:1 second:1 drunkenness:1 third:2 disgust:1 kind:1 emblem:1 inscribe:1 statue:1 restrain:1 tongue:1 appetite:1 passion:1 ten:1 extant:1 letter:3 also:1 quote:3 cicero:3 greeting:1 hanno:1 clothing:1 cloak:1 shoe:1 hard:1 sol:1 foot:1 bed:1 earth:1 food:1 season:1 hunger:1 eat:1 nothing:1 milk:1 cheese:1 meat:1 visit:1 find:1 peace:1 want:1 give:3 something:1 fellow:1 citizen:1 instead:1 let:1 immortal:1 god:1 pseudo:1 epistle:3 tusculan:1 disputation:1 v:3 spurious:2 nine:1 probably:2 date:1 bc:1 usually:1 include:1 reflect:1 view:1 prefigure:1 many:3 abraham:1 j:1 malherbe:1 study:1 edition:2 sbl:1 tenth:1 address:1 croesus:2 proverbially:1 rich:1 king:2 lydia:1 lydian:1 order:1 acquainted:1 need:1 gold:1 shall:1 quite:1 contented:1 scythia:1 good:1 man:1 however:1 sardis:1 think:1 desirable:1 strabo:1 legendary:1 inventor:2 anchor:1 two:1 fluke:1 others:1 potter:1 wheel:1 revival:1 jean:1 jacques:1 barthelemy:1 highly:1 esteemed:1 classical:2 scholar:2 jesuit:1 publish:1 young:1 learned:1 imaginary:1 journal:1 historical:1 novel:1 modern:2 encyclopedia:1 new:1 antique:1 high:1 impact:1 growth:1 philhellenism:1 france:1 go:1 reprint:1 united:1 state:1 translate:1 german:1 language:1 later:1 inspire:1 european:1 sympathy:1 struggle:1 independence:1 spawn:1 sequel:1 imitation:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 brief:1 entry:1 pithy:1 apocryphal:1 remark:1 witty:1 comparison:1 xena:2 warrior:1 princess:1 reference:1 tusc:1 disp:1 athenaeus:1 x:1 xiv:1 aelian:1 varia:1 historia:1 |@bigram diogenes_laertius:13 ap_diogenes:2 eleusinian_mystery:1 milk_cheese:1 jean_jacques:1 highly_esteemed:1 external_link:1 xena_warrior:1 aelian_varia:1 varia_historia:1 |
4,271 | Branchiopoda | Branchiopoda is a group of primitive and primarily fresh water crustaceans, mostly resembling shrimp. There are over 900 known species worldwide. A few are well-known, including Artemia (brine shrimp, called Sea-Monkeys when marketed as novelties), and Daphnia, both of which are raised as aquarium food or as interesting pets in and of themselves. Branchiopods should not be confused with Brachiopods. In older classifications, the superorder Diplostraca was made up of the two orders Conchostraca and Cladocera. According to newer data, however, these orders may be artificial (at least in their present state) as some of their members seem to have a paraphyletic origin within the Diplostraca. For this reason, the order Conchostraca is no longer used. Although a few species of water flea have adapted to a life in the sea, these crustaceans belong primarily in fresh water. The oldest known species is a 500 million year old fossil fairy shrimp called Rehbachiella kinnekullensis. Fairy shrimps are also seen as the most original and primitive members of the class. Branchiopods in general are equipped with a ventral food groove, useful for suspension and filter feeding. The water current in the ventral food groove, used for breathing and feeding in most species, is produced by a battery of unspecialised legs. This is thought to resemble a very original way of living among the crustaceans. Evolution Adult fairy shrimp, Branchinecta packardi, an anostracan They probably originated in marine environments, but only those who migrated to fresh water survived. The fact that they are especially adapted to temporary pools and waters that are too extreme for other animals to live in (like salt lakes) indicates that they could have sought refuge in these places because they were unable to compete with or evade the more advanced groups of animals evolving in their original habitats. This resulted in a short generation cycle and small body size. The large branchiopods, Anostraca, Notostraca and Conchostraca (even if it the last one seems to be a partially artificial order) are considered to be the most primitive, and most of them are still unable to live in waters where there are fish and other advanced predators, since they are too slow and vulnerable to survive them. A few of them, however, have evolved to cope with this problem well enough to survive, even with predators around them. The small branchiopods, mostly represented by water fleas, have succeeded in becoming zooplankton in such a degree that waters filled with fish and other threats are no longer a problem. Their main defence is their high number thanks to their small size, ability to produce many offspring and short life cycle. Characteristics The number of thoracic segments varies from species to species. The structure of the reproductive, nervous and circulatory systems is primitive compared to other crustaceans. Almost all branchiopods are free-living — there are no sessile species, and only a small number of species is ectoparasitic. They are not adapted to life in the deep sea. Clam shrimp live up to their name as they are often seen burrowed in the mud like mussels at the bottom of temporary ponds. They are so well adapted to this extreme way of life that they are able to reach adulthood within a few days after inundation under optimal conditions. They can reproduce sexually, hermaphroditically or parthenogenetically. L. A. Zenkevich. The Animal Life (Zhizn' Zhivotnykh), Volume 2. Chapter 7 - Phylum Arthropoda. 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4,272 | Military_of_Ecuador | Ecuadorian Armed Forces The Ecuadorian Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas del Ecuador) are part of the public forces and responsible for the preservation of the integrity and national sovereignty of the national territory. It involves participation in the social and economic development of the country and the provision of assistance in the maintenance of internal order. Some mayor tasks include; fighting organised crime, anti-narcotic operations, illegal immigration and FARC insurgency from Colombia . Social development programmes apply the provision of teachers for rural schools through an accord with the Ministry of Education. Environmental protection is also a priority, several programmes were implemented: "National Forestation and Ornamentation", "Lonely Tree", "Green Surveillance", "Fire Plan", "Ecuador Forest" and "Arenillas Military Reserve". The Armed Forces are an essential part of the countries infrastructure and regarded as one of the most respected institutions in Ecuador. A high military presence is maintained along its troubled border with Colombia and Peru, overseas territories include the Galapagos Islands and the "Pedro Vicente Maldonado" Naval Biological Research Station in the Antarctic. Relations with its neighbour Peru have improved since the signing of a Peace Treaty in 1998, however, relations with Colombia have been strained due to a number of cross border raids by Colombian forces on FARC guerrillas . The diplomatic crisis which followed in 2008 continues to affect Ecuadors national defence policy. In 2009 the new administration at the Defence Ministry launched a deep restructurisation within the forces, the spending budget was risen to $920 million, an increase of 25% . Military History Ecuadors military history dates back to its first attempt to secure freedom from Spain in 1811. The rebel forces of the newly declared independent state of Quito attempted to extend their control to other parts of the territory but proved little match for the army dispatched by the Viceroy of Peru. In the Battle of Ibarra in December 1812, Spanish forces easily reasserted control over the contested area. When another independence movement began in 1820, Ecuadorian forces assembled in Guayaquil, combining with contingents of revolutionary soldiers from Colombia commanded by Antonio José de Sucre, a close collaborator of the Venezuelan liberator, Simón Bolívar Palacios . After a successful invasion in the Andean highlands, the rebels scored a decisive victory over the royalist army in 1822 at the Battle of Pichincha. In 1828, as a member along with Colombia and Venezuela of the Confederation of Gran Colombia, Ecuador fought against Peru to block the latter's attempt at annexation. Confederation forces, fewer than half of which were Ecuadorians, gloriously defeated the much larger Peruvian invasion force near Cuenca, at the Battle of Tarqui on 26 February and 27 February 1829. At the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830, most of Ecuadors senior army officers and many of its troops were Venezuelans, as was the countries first president, Juan José Flores. The army of 2,000 men consisted of three infantry battalions and one cavalry regiment. Even as late as 1845, when Juan José Flores was forced from his second term of office, only four of fifteen general officers were Ecuadorian. Non-Ecuadorians comprised most of the officers and non-commissioned officers (NCOs) in the elite cavalry units as well. Upon taking office as president in 1851, General José María Urbina freed the black slaves and recruited many of them into the military; Gen. Azarye was the first African-Ecuadorian senior General. In the 1860's, successive governments attempted to professionalize the Ecuadorian Armed Forces. Gabriel García Moreno, who dominated the political scene from 1860 until 1875, reduced the army in size and depoliticized it. Further improvements occurred during the relatively prosperous period of the 1880s and 1890s under the military dictator Gen. Ignacio de Veintemilla, and successor civilian governments. French officers arrived to provide training on a newly acquired arsenal of weapons. By 1900 the army was able to repel an attack from Colombia which was organised by Ecuadorian political opponents of the government in power. Map of the long lasting territorial dispute between Ecuador and Peru, settled only in 1998. (in Spanish) Photo taken during the Cenepa War in 1995, Ecuadorian Special Forces during a troop relief by helicopter, near the Tiwintza area where fighting was particullary intense. In 1905 the government established military education and training institutions and divided the country into four defense zones. Immediately preceding World War I, the army had nine Infantry battalions, three Cavalry regiments, three Artillery regiments, and three Engineering battalions. It was in the years of 1913 to 1916 that all the work done since the beginning of the century was tested. Following the assassination of Gen. Eloy Alfaro, Crnl. Carlos Concha, a famed and revered field commander started a revolution in the northern province of Esmeraldas. The Civil War had started and the army was slowly destroyed by the insurgency forces. By the year of 1914 Gen. Leonidas Plaza who was the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and acting President had to take personal control of operations and it would take another two years to end the conflict. In these times both, the army and Navy started the development of joined tasks such as amphibious landing operations, earning a lot of experience in this field. By the mid-1920s, it had expanded to fifteen Infantry battalions. Later, under the influence of an Italian military mission, the Infantry was reduced to ten battalions, although each battalion now consisted of four rather than the previous two or three rifle companies. In 1930 the army had a total strength of about 5,500 men of all ranks. Continual political unrest made the forces become more deliberant regarding constitutional issues. Rebellions, uprisings and lack of loyalty of both senior Generals and medium ranking officers made the Ecuadorian forces weak and disorganized. In July 1941, Peru captured areas of the Amazon region which Ecuador claimed as their own, the Ecuadorian Army was ill-prepared for such an invasion. The much larger Peruvian Army of 13,000, supported by a battalion of Czech-manufactured tanks, with artillery and air power, moved quickly into the southern coastal province of El Oro, threatening Guayaquil. The fewer than 1,800 Ecuadorian troops in the area lacked air cover and could offer only limited resistance. Peruvian forces also moved into the Ecuadorian amazon territory without significant opposition. After a campaign lasting only three weeks, an armistice was forced upon Ecuador. The subsequent Rio Protocol in early 1942, which was imposed by the threat of total annihilation, forced the Ecuadorean government to accept Peruvian claims in the amazon region, in exchange for an end of the Peruvian occupation in the Ecuadorean coastal areas. Ecuador declared on Japan late during World War II and began to receive military aid from the United States in 1942. This aid consisted at first of light weapons, mortars, light tanks, and armored scout cars. Under a military assistance agreement with the United States in 1952, the Ecuadorian Armed Forces, which now totaled approximately 15,000 troops, received additional equipment, including howitzers, tanks, and armoured personnel carriers. Revenue coming from the oil discovered in the late 1960s financed the purchase of considerable additional ground forces weaponry as well as fighters for the small Air Force. Occasional clashes with Peru occurred in the border area lost by Ecuador in the 1942 settlement of the Rio Protocol. These clashes flared into an outbreak of serious fighting in January 1981 called the Paquisha War. Peruvian forces attacked Ecuadorian outposts on disputed territory which caused the death of around 200 Ecuadorian soldiers who were attempting to stem the invasion. The Peruvians made effective use of helicopters, air strikes, and commando teams specially trained for jungle operations. The Ecuadorians were driven back to the summit of the Cordillera del Cóndor. In 1983 and again in 1984, shooting incidents occurred when patrols of both countries met yet again on disputed land. The final major military operation was the Cenepa War in which Ecuadorian troops kept an outpost in disputed territory and against all odds managed to push the Peruvians back. Unlike the previous wars, Ecuador finally had air support superior to the Peruvian Air Force. However, forced by external influences the Ecuadorian government had to abort its intentions and sign a Peace Treaty which was based upon the previous Rio Protocol on the 26th October 1998. As a result Ecuador had to renounce the territories of Tumbes, Jaen and Maynas to the Peruvians as well as re-draw their official maps. Military Command Structure The Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces (Comandante en Jefe de las Fuerzas Armadas) is the President of the Republic. He exercises the political leadership of security and national defence and counts on the advice of the National Security Council. The National Security Council (El Consejo de Seguridad Nacional) or N.S.C. is the superior body responsible for the national defence, in charge of issuing the strategic concept of national security, which in turn constitutes the essential instrument to start the planning and decision-making process. It is chaired by the President of the Republic, which is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. It includes the Presidents of the National Congress and the Supreme Court of Justice; the ministers in charge of National Defence, Government and Police, Foreign Affairs, and Economy and Finance; the Chief of the Joint Command, and the Chiefs of the three branches of the Armed Forces. It monitors the fulfillment of the defence policies and the strategic plans elaborated by the Joint Command of the Armed Forces, submitted by the Ministry of National Defence. The N.S.C. constitutes the highest ranking monitoring and crisis management body. The Ministry of Defense (Ministerio de la Defensa National), is the administrative body of the national defence. The Coordinating Minister of Internal and External Security accords the policies and actions that will be adopted by the following institutions as regards internal and external security: the Ministry of Government and Police, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Defence, and the Secretariat General for the Public administration. The Joint Armed Forces Command (El Comando Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas), is the highest planning, preparation and strategic body of military operations. It advises on national defence and is conformed by the The Chief of the Joint Command of the Armed Forces and the Commanders of all three branches of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces: The Army, Navy and the Air Force. Ecuadorian Army Ecuadorian troops armed with M 16 A2 rifles and light mortars, disembarking a Puma helicopter.An Ecuadorian AS 532 Cougar of the Brigada de Aviación del Ejército during an exercise. A Leopard 1 Tank hidden in the bushes, a quantity of 30 Tanks was recently ordered from Chiles second hand stock. The Ecuadorian Army (Ejército Ecuatoriano) is well equipped with reasonably homogeneous material. Its 24,135 soldiers are sensibly deployed in relation to the threat from its neighbours. Ecuador cannot match the material resources of Colombia or Peru, but its military forces have performed well in previous conflicts since 1941. The contemporary Ecuadorian Army is qualitatively one of the best in the region, thanks to its jungle and special forces infantry units, only its capability to fight large armoured units in the coastal region is suspect, given that its armoured arsenal includes only light AMX 13 tanks and Armoured personnel carriers (APC)s. The Army tried to rectify this with large and efficient anti-tank forces which include HOT-equipped helicopters as well as a recent order of 30 Leopard 1 V Main Battle Tanks from Chile . In 2009 new doctrines regarding: border control, anti-narcotic, anti-smuggler and anti-illegal immigration were introduced, altogether with a 5th Military Defence Zone in the North. The Ecuadorian territory is currently divided into four "Military Defence Zones", each zone represents an Army Division. Divisions are units with appropriate support to allow independent operations, therefore each "Military Defence Zone" consists of; Artillery, Army Aviation, Engineers and Logistic Support including; Signals, Medical and Military Police units. The Brigades itself, are not numbered consecutively and carry odd numbers in the series of 1 to 27. 1st Defence Zone Sierra/North (HQ Quito), is the 1st SHYRIS Army Division consisting of: The 11th Armoured Cavalry, 13th Infantry Brigade, 9th Special forces (see below), 23rd Engineer and 25th Logistic Support Brigade as well as two Reserve Infantry Brigades. 2nd Defence Zone Coast/West (HQ Guayaquil), is the 2nd LIBERTAD Army Division consisting of: The 5th Infantry Brigade, an artillery group, a logistic support battalion as well as two Reserve Infantry Brigades which would only come into existence on full mobilization. 3rd Defence Zone Sierra/South (HQ Cuenca, is the 3rd TARQUI Army Division is the most important with three Infantry Brigades (1st, 3rd and 7th) and the 27th Artillery Brigade and again two Reserve Infantry Brigades. 4th Defence Zone Amazon/East (HQ Shell Mera, Puyo), is the 4th AMAZONAS Army Division groups together all three Jungle Brigades (17th, 19th and 21st). Within its Military organization the army operates several detachments worth to be mentioned: The 9th Special Forces Brigade PATRIA, consists of paratroopers, many specialized as Commandos, Operational Free Jumpers, Mountain Warfare, Frogmen, Snipers and Dog guides. It is constituted into four Special Forces groups (Grupos Fuerzas Especiales): GFE 24, GFE 25, GFE 26, GFE 27 and one school unit (Grupo Escuela Comandos), the GEK 9. The GEO (Grupo Especial de Operaciones) is the Counter-terror unit of the army , trained by the US Navy Seals and the British SAS it maintians the highest standards and remains under operational alert 24/7. The Paramilitary units recruited from local tribes. The Shuar, Iwia and Arutuams are modern equipped warriors and experts in Jungle warfare. Their abilities were demonstrated during the Cenepa War with Peru. Currently some of these units are deployed to the northern border area with Colombia, in order to prevent any incursions and to fight FARC presence on Ecuadorian soil. The Army Aviation was formed in 1954, it played a key role during the Paquisha conflict and later the Cenepa War. In 1978 it was re-structured into an Army Aviation Brigade (Brigada de Aviación del Ejército No.15 Paquisha). At present the BAE has its own training facilities for pilots and disposes of 10 "flying groups" (or units). Its large complement of predominantly French helicopter types include around: twenty Gazelle, four AS332B Super Puma, three Lama, two AS350 Ecureuil and some Cougars. In recent years the BAE acquired also five Russian Mi-171 helicopters and considers to order another three Mi 17 in the course of 2009 . The fixed wing fleet consists of: seven Aravas, five Turbo Porter, three MT-7-235 Super Rocket, two T-41D Mescalero, two CASA 235, two CASA C-212-400, one Beechcraft King Air 100, one Cessna Citation, one Buffalo . Ecuadorian Air Force Brand new Ecuadorian Air Force HAL Dhruv helicopters during an Indian Air Show.Ecuadorian Air Force Kfir CE (C.10). Note the refuelling probe and the characteristic longer nose of this variant. An Ecuadorian Mirage FI1JA shown here with a Rafael Python 3 AAM, a Matra Magic 2 AAM, and an external fuel tank. The Ecuadorian Air Force (Fuerza Aérea Ecuatoriana), was officially created on the 27 October 1920. However, like in many other countries, military flying activity started before the formal date of birth of the Air Force. The history of Ecuador is marked by many skirmishes with its neighbour Peru. As a direct result of the 1910 Ecuador-Peru crisis, members of Club de Tiro Guayaquil decided to expand their sporting activities into aviation as well. Renamed Club de Tiro y Aviación they started an aviation school. Cosme Renella, an Italian mechanic and practical pilot, was asked to fly the first aircraft that arrived in November 1912. Surviving a crash during this demonstration flight, Renella was given the rank of a "Capitán". He went later on to fight in Europe during the I World War. Renella became a true ace with as many as 17 combat victories and several distinctions. His efforts within the founding phase of Ecuadorian military aviation are still honoured today by naming the Superior School of Military Aviation (Escuela Superior Militar de Aviación) after him. Aviation did not start in earnest until the early forties when an Ecuadorian mission to the United States resulted in the delivery of an assortment of aircrafts for the Aviation school at Salinas. Three PT-22 Recruit, six Curtiss-Wright CW-22, six Fairchild PT-19 and three North American AT-6A Harvard arrived in March 1942, considerably boosting the capacity of the Aviation School in Salinas, (Escuela de Aviación Salinas). The fifties and sixties saw a further build up of the Air Force, gaining more units and aircrafts. Meanwhile efforts were made in enhancing the facilities at various airbases. In May 1961 the First Air Zone (I Zona Aérea) with its subordinate unit Ala de Transportes No.11 was founded. The Second Air Zone (II Zona Aérea) controlled the units in the southern halve of Ecuador: Ala de Combate No.21 at Taura, Ala de Rescate No.22 at Guayaquil and Ala de Combate No.23 at Manta as well as the Escuela Superior Militar de Aviación at Salinas. The FAE has a personnel of 6,055 and includes their own Air Force Infantry (Infanteria Area) responsible for a variety of tasks; training of Air Force ground personnel, protection of VIPs and Air Force Bases as well as conduct of combat rescue operations. A Commando unit operates within its structure. The Air force has a mixture of types on its inventory, mostly from Western origin. The prime fighters are twelve Mirage F.1 and nine Kfir C2, TC2, C7, C10, CE, all based at Taura with Ala 21, (Jaguar Mk.1 were withdrawn from service). For light attack missions, six Strikemaster Mk.89, 90, twelve A-37B are in use at Manta with Ala 23. These aircrafts do often operate from airfields within the Amazon rainforest. The transport wing uses fiveCE 150L, four HS 748, three DHC-6, two types of the C-130 Hercules and two IAI 201. The rotary wing consists of; twenty three UH-1 Iroquois, seven newly acquired Hal Dhruv, four Fennecs and two Alouette helicopters. Ala 11 has its own 'commercial' branch, like in many other South American countries, the Transporte Aérea Militar Ecuatoriana TAME. Besides the military transport aircraft, they also use one Boeing 727 and Fokker F28 aircraft. Flying to locations off the beaten track, mostly lacking service by a commercial airline, TAME provides an additional service to the people of Ecuador. Presidential transport is the tasking of Ala 11; two Sabreliners and one Embraer Legacy 600. Pilot training is carried out on T-34 Mentor fixed wing trainers and on TH 57 Searanger helicopters . The FAE saw action on several occasions. A history of border disputes with Peru saw escalation in 1981 and 1995. During the last conflict (Cenepa War), the FAE managed to down nine Peruvian aircrafts, among which were one A-37B , two Su-22 and several Mi-8. Besides the conflicts with Peru, believed being subdued by the 26 October 1998 Brasilia peace treaty, the FAE faces the war on drugs, guerilla insurgency as well as humanitarian missions into the amazon region of the country. Supporting such a relatively large airforce of different types must be a burden. Nevertheless, due to the perils of the past and present, the FAE is to maintain a high profile. In 2008 the frequent border conflicts with Colombia escalated into a crisis. Ecuador responded with ordering twenty four Brazilian Super Tucano light combat aircrafts , seven HAL Dhruv helicoperts from India and acquired six modern Chinese JY 11 low altitude radars to reinforce its borders. Ecuadorian Navy Ecuadorian navy FSG Corvette ESMERALDAS (CM 11), equipped with 2 x 3 MM40 Exocet SSM, 1 x 4 Aspide SAM, 1 x 76mm gun, 6 x 324mm ASTI, helicopter on deck (Bell 206), cruises off the coast of Ecuador An Ecuadorian Marine during an amphibious assault exercise (UNITAS), in the background an US Amphibious Assault Vehicle. The roots of the Ecuadorian Navy date back to 1823 whilst forming a part of the Gran Colombian fleet. In 1832 the by then, Ecuadorian congress established officially the "The Ecuadorian Maritime Department". Today, the Ecuadorian Navy (Armada Ecuatoriana) is a compact, efficient and well-balanced force. However, limited funds hinder any mayor acquisitions and the chances of maintaining a strong force within the Pacific Ocean. The navy divides the country into three naval districts: Naval District 1 approximates to the Pacific Coast and Galápagos Islands; Naval District 2 approximates to the centre of the country and consists principally of headquarters and administrative units at Quito; and Naval District 3 corresponds to the river systems of the Amazon region. Most sea-going assets are based at Guayaquil. The Navy has a personnel of 7,258 men and protects a coastline of 2,237 km which reaches far into the Pacific Ocean, including the Galapagos Islands. The Navy consists of the following vessels: 1 School ship The Guayas 2 Condell class frigate (armed with Exocet SSM, Mark 46 torpedos, and AA guns, helicopter deck) 2 Type 209 Submarines (upgraded) 6 Esmeraldas FSG Corvettes (2 x 3 MM40 Exocet SSM, 1 x 4 Aspide SAM, 1 x 76 mm gun, 6 x 324 mm ASTI, helicopter deck ) 3 Lürssen Fast Missile Attack vessels from type Seawolf TNC 45 (armed with Exocet SSM) 4 very light armed, support and re-supply vessels The Navy also incorporates: The Ecudorian Naval Aviation (Aviacióin Naval Ecuatoriana) remains the least effective section of the navy, capable of performing limited maritime patrol missions it consists of fixed wing and a rotary wing element. It includes 12 fixed wing aircraft : four T-35 Pillán, two CASA CN-235, one Beechcraft Super King Air 200, one Beechcraft Super King Air 300, two Beechcraft Super King Air 200 Catpass surveillance aircraft, and two Beechcraft T-34 Mentor trainers. The rotary element consists of eight helicopters : six Bell 206, two Bell 230. It is unclear if the aircraft are operated by escuadrillas or simply divided into an Ala Fija - "fixed wing" and Ala Rotatoria "rotary wing". All aircraft are based at Base Aérea Simón Bolívar in Guayaquil. However, the quantity of missions in support of the other naval units and the coast guard, sees their aircraft deployed to various locations. The most recent acquisition of the ANE are six Elbit Hermes 450 unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) from Israel . These are going to increase the coastal surveillance significantly. The Coast Guard (Cuerpo de Guardacostas de la Armada) became fully operationnal in 1980. Their mission is to control maritime activities on national territory, including all river zones. The objective is the internal security, protection of human life at sea and environmental protection. It disposes of around 250 men and 30 mayor as well as forty smaller, partially very modern patrol vessels . The Naval Infantry Corps (Cuerpo de Infanteria de Marina) maintains a strength of around 1700 well trained Marines, headquartered in Guayaquil. The are equipped with personal and infantry support weapons, including 60 mm and 81 mm mortars, 106 mm recoilless rifles (RCLs) and High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicles. However, it lacks heavy weapons and their amphibious assault and sealift capacity is insufficient. It was formed on 12 November 1962 and is organised into two security battalions, one is based in the Amazon River area (east), the other on the coast (west). There is also a Commando battalion based on the Galápagos Islands. The Ecuadorian Marines are to maintain a high level of alert in order to execute special operations in difficult territory as well as to provide a fast response against amphibious incursions. Local Engagements Ecuadorian War of Independence in 1820 Battle of Pichincha in 1822 Gran Colombia–Peru War in 1829 Ecuadorian-Peruvian war of 1858 Ecuadorian-Colombian War in 1863 Chincha Islands War in 1864 Ecuadorian-Peruvian War in 1941 Paquisha War in 1981 Cenepa War, in 1995 UN Peacekeeping Operations The Ecuadorian Armed Forces provide Military Observers and troops to the United Nations since 1948. In November 2003, an Ecuadorian United Nations Training Centre was established under the name of: (La Unidad Escuela de Misiones de Paz “Ecuador”). As of 2009, Ecuador is deploying over 90 peacekeepers around the globe. 1948 UNIMOGIP United Nations Military Observer Group in Pakistan. 1948 UNIMOGIP United Nations Military Observer Group in India. 1958 UNOGIL Peacekeeping mission in Lebanon. 1961 ONUC Peacekeeping Force in Congo. 1965 DOMREP Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic. 1990 ONUCA United Nations Observer Group in Central America, Nicaragua. 1991 ONUSAL United Nations Observer Group in El Salvador. 1994 MINUGUA United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala. 2003 UNMIL United Nations Observer Group in Liberia. 2004 UNOCI Peacekeeping mission in Côte d'Ivoire. 2004 MINUSTAH, United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti. 2005 UNMIS United Nations Mission in Sudan. 2007 UNMIN United Nations Mission in Nepal. 2008 MINURCAT United Nations Mission in Chad. 2008 MINURCAT Part of a Peacebuilding Commission in the Central African Republic. Trivia The Manta Air Base is currently used by the United States Air Force (USAF) division of the United States Southern Command for operations against illegal drug trafficking in northwestern South America. In 1999, the U.S. signed a ten-year agreement with then Ecuadorean President Jamil Mahuad to station up 475 military personnel at Manta, rent-free. USAF AWACS E-3 and United States Navy P-3 Orion aircraft, supported by about 300 US military personnel, operates from that base to monitor air traffic in the area. The new President Rafael Correa has officially announced that he will not renew the agreement which expires in November 2009. Due to the territorial disputes between Ecuador and Peru, thousands of landmines, both anti-personnel and anti-vehicle, have been laid in Ecuador. According to the Organization of American States (OAS), Ecuador admitted to laying landmines along the border between 1995 and 1998, implicating the country of utilizing anti-personnel mines after signing the Mine Ban Treaty in 1997, but before its entry into force in 1999. The two countries resolved their territorial disputes in 1998. In 2001, both Ecuador and Peru became members of the OAS Mine Action Program and both have been working to destroy remaining landmine stockpiles and removing existing landmines. Landmine casualty data from Ecuador is not entirely accurate; however, according to the U.S. State Department, there were approximately 120 landmine casualties reported in Ecuador between 1995 and 1999. The majority of casualties were suffered by civilians. In 2001, seven landmine casualties and seven accidents were reported. There have been no deminers killed by landmines since humanitarian demining began. In January 2002, Ecuador had reported that it had completed destruction of its mine stockpile of 260,302 anti-personnel landmines. Estimates of destroyed landmines contradict later reports, leaving nearly 1,500 landmines unaccounted for . The Ecuadorian Civilian Space Agency (EXA) Agencia Espacial Civil Ecuatoriana, is the organization in charge of administering and executing the Ecuadorian civilian space program and conducting scientific research on space and planetary sciences. It is a mixed capital non-profit organization, 50% civilian and 50% Ecuadorian government through the Ecuadorian Air Force. It was established on November 1, 2007 and includes the first Ecuadorian trained astronaut, Ronnie Nader, among its staff members. EXA had its first achievement with Project DAEDALUS, on May 6, 2008, during the EXA/FAE-02 mission when they successfully tested a modified Sabreliner T-39 of the Ecuadorian Air Force flown by FAE pilots and adapted with a device created by EXA to generate microgravity by sustaining cybernetically assisted parabolic flight, becoming the first country in Latin America in developing this kind of technology by their own means. See also History of the Ecuadorian–Peruvian territorial dispute Military Governments of Ecuador (1960-1979) 2008 Andean diplomatic crisis Ecuadorian–Peruvian War Military of Colombia Military of Peru External links http://www.midena.gov.ec/ Official site of the Ministry of Defence http://www.cosena.gov.ec/home/index.php Official site of the National Security Council http://www.ejercitodelecuador.mil.ec/ Official site of the Ecuadorian Army http://www.fuerzaaereaecuatoriana.org/ Official site of the Ecuadorin Air Force http://www.escuela-infanteria-aerea.com/ Official Ecuadorian Air Force Infantry site http://www.armada.mil.ec/ Official site of the Ecuadorian Navy http://www.dirnea.org/ Official Ecuadorian Coast Guard site http://www.esdeim.armada.mil.ec/ Official site of the Ecuadorian Marines http://www.esmil.mil.ec/ Superior Military School ELOY ALFARO http://www.esmafae.com.ar/ Official site of ESMA: Superior School of Military Aviation COSME RENNELLA B http://www.essuna.org/ Superior Naval School COMMADANTE RAFEl MORAN VALVERDE http://www.uempe.mil.ec/ United Nations Training Centre "Ecuador" References CIA factbook about Ecuadors Armed Forces. Ecuadorian Armed Forces Almanac from 2004, out-of-date. Study on the most recent Colombo-Ecuadorian border conflict. Ecuador, Landmine Monitor Report 2008. A Comparative Atlas of Defence in Latin America, 2008 Edition on Ecuador. 2008 up-to-date Orbat about Ecuadors aicrafts within the FAE, AEE and ANE Ecuadors Military Special Forces information, partially out-of-date. Ecuador orders 30 Leopard 1 V Tanks from Chile. Ecuadors orders 30 Leopard 1 V Tanks from Chile. Ecuador upgrades its submarines in Chile. Ecuador acquires 7 Hal Dhruv helicopters. Ecuador acquires 7 Hal Dhruv helicopters. Ecuador orders of 24 Super Tucano Light Combat aircraft. Ecuador orders 24 Super Tucano Light Combat aircraft. Ecuador orders 6 Israeli UAV's. Ecuadors intention of buying Israeli UAV's and upgrading some of its Kfir fighters to C10 standard. Ecuador acquires Chinese Radar System for the northern border with Colombia. Ecuadors Military Budget going up by 25% in 2008. New Speed Patrol Boats for the Ecuadorian Coast Guards. Ecuadors new command structure as well as current relationships with its neighbor Colombia. Colombian insurgency in Ecuador. Report of the Cenepa Conflict. The Army Aviation Wing. Aviation spotters about the: FAE, AEE and ANE. South Americas most troubled border. Janes Ecuadorian Navy Report. Argentinian strategy page with up-to-date news about the Ecuadorain Armed Forces. Ecuador upgrades its naval calpabilities by 2 used frigates and new patrol vessels. Ecuador upgrades its naval calpabilities by 2 used frigates and new patrol vessels. Ecuador upgrades on their military hardware. Restructurisation of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces in 2009. Media YOU TUBE, Ecuadors fight against the Colombian FARC guerilla insurgency. YOU TUBE, The 9th Special Forces Brigade, Brigada de Fuerzas Especiales No. 9 "Patria". YOU TUBE, The Ecuadorian Armed Forces. YOU TUBE, The Ecuadorian Ministry of Defence. YOU TUBE, Promotional Ecuadorian Army Clip. YOU TUBE, Ecuadorian Army fighting crime in the border areas. YOU TUBE, Ecuadorian Armed Forces compilation. 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4,273 | French_cuisine | A pot of coq au vin, a well-known French dish French cuisine is a style of cooking derived from the nation of France. It evolved from centuries of social and political change. The Middle Ages brought Guillaume Tirel. The era of the French Revolution, however, saw a move toward fewer spices and more liberal usage of herbs and refined techniques, beginning with François Pierre La Varenne and further developing with Napoleon Bonaparte and other dignitaries, Marie-Antoine Carême. French cuisine was codified in the 20th century by Georges Auguste Escoffier to become the modern version of haute cuisine. Escoffier's major work, however, left out much of the regional character to be found in the provinces of France. Gastro-tourism and the Guide Michelin helped to bring people to the countryside during the 20th century and beyond, to sample this rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of France. Basque cuisine has also been a great influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Ingredients and dishes vary by region. There are many significant regional dishes that have become both national and regional. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country. Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine, playing different roles regionally and nationally with their many variations and Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) (regulated appellation) laws. National cuisine French cuisine has evolved extensively over the centuries. Starting in the Middle Ages, a unique and creative national cuisine began forming. Various social movements, political movements, and the work of great chefs came together to create this movement. Through the years the styles of French cuisine have been given different names, and have been codified by various master-chefs. During their lifetimes these chefs have been held in high regard for their contributions to the culture of the country. The national cuisine developed primarily in the city of Paris with the chefs to French royalty, but eventually it spread throughout the country and was even exported overseas. History Middle Ages John, Duke of Berry enjoying a grand meal. The Duke is sitting with a cardinal at the high table, under a luxurious baldaquin, in front of the fireplace, tended to by several servants including a carver. On the table to the left of the Duke is a golden salt cellar, or nef, in the shape of a ship; illustration from Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, ca 1410. In French medieval cuisine, banquets were common among the aristocracy. Multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a style called service en confusion, or all at once. Food was generally eaten by hand, meats being sliced off large pieces held between the thumb and two fingers. The sauces were highly seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used. Pies were a common banquet item, with the crust serving primarily as a container, rather than as food itself, and it was not until the very end of the Late Middle Ages that the shortcrust pie was developed. Meals often ended with an issue de table, which later evolved into the modern dessert, and typically consisted of dragees (in the Middle Ages meaning spiced lumps of hardened sugar or honey), aged cheese and spiced wine, such as hypocras. Wheaton, 1-7. The ingredients of the time varied greatly according to the seasons and the church calendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey, and other preservatives. Late spring, summer, and fall afforded abundance, while winter meals were more sparse. Livestock was slaughtered at the beginning of winter. Beef was often salted, while pork was salted and smoked. Bacon and sausages would be smoked in the chimney, while the tongue and hams were brined and dried. Cucumbers were brined as well, while greens would be packed in jars with salt. Fruits, nuts and root vegetables would be boiled in honey for preservation. Whale, dolphin and porpoise were considered fish, so during Lent the salted meats of these sea mammals were eaten. Wheaton, 9-12. Artificial freshwater ponds (often called stews) held carp, pike, tench, bream, eel, and other fish. Poultry was kept in special yards, with pigeon and squab being reserved for the elite. Game was highly prized, but relatively rare, and included venison, wild boar, hare, rabbit, and birds. Kitchen gardens provided herbs including some such as tansy, , pennyroyal, and hyssop which are rarely used today. Spices were treasured and very expensive at that time — they included pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and mace. Some spices used then, but no longer today in French cuisine are cubebs, long pepper (both from vines similar to black pepper), grains of paradise, and galengale. Sweet-sour flavors were commonly added to dishes with vinegars and verjus combined with sugar (for the affluent) or honey. A common form of food preparation was to finely cook, pound and strain mixtures into fine pastes and mushes, something believed to be beneficial to make use of nutrients. Wheaton, 13-15. Visual display was prized. Brilliant colors were obtained by the addition of, for example, juices from spinach and the green part of leeks. Yellow came from saffron or egg yolk, while red came from sunflower, and purple came from Crozophora tinctoria or Heliotropium europaeum. Gold and silver leaf were placed on food surfaces and brushed with egg whites. Elaborate and showy dishes were the result, such as tourte parmerienne which was a pastry dish made to look like a castle with chicken-drumstick turrets coated with gold leaf. One of the grandest showpieces of the time was roast swan or peacock sewn back into its skin with feathers intact; the feet and beak being gilded with gold. Since both birds are stringy, and taste unpleasant, the skin and feathers could be kept and filled with the cooked, minced and seasoned flesh of tastier birds, like goose or chicken. Wheaton, 15-16. The most well known French chef of the Middle Ages was Guillaume Tirel, also known as Taillevent. Taillevent worked in numerous royal kitchens during the 14th century. His first position was as a kitchen boy in 1326. He was chef to Philip VI, then the Dauphin who was son of John II. The Dauphin became King Charles V of France in 1364, with Taillevent as his chief cook. His career spanned sixty-six years, and upon his death he was buried in grand style between his two wives. His tombstone represents him in armor, holding a shield with three cooking pots, marmites, on it. Wheaton, 18-21. Ancien régime During the ancien régime Paris was the central hub of culture and economic activity, and as such the most highly skilled culinary craftsmen were to be found there. Markets in Paris such as Les Halles, la Mégisserie, those found along Rue Mouffetard, and similar smaller versions in other cities were very important to the distribution of food. Those that gave French produce its characteristic identity were regulated by the guild system, which developed in the Middle Ages. In Paris, the guilds were regulated by city government as well as by the French crown. A guild restricted those in a given branch of the culinary industry to operate only within that field. Wheaton, 71-72. There were two basic groups of guilds — first, those that supplied the raw materials; butchers, fishmongers, grain merchants, and gardeners. The second group were those that supplied prepared foods; bakers, pastrycooks, saucemakers, poulterers, and caterers. There were also guilds that offered both raw materials and prepared food, such as the charcutiers and rôtisseurs (purveyors of roasted meat dishes). They would supply cooked meat pies and dishes as well as raw meat and poultry. This caused issues with butchers and poulterers, who sold the same raw materials. Wheaton, 72-73. The guilds served as a training ground for those within the industry. The degrees of assistant-cook, full-fledged cook and master chef were conferred. Those who reached the level of master chef were of considerable rank in their individual industry, and enjoyed a high level of income as well as economic and job security. At times, those in the royal kitchens did fall under the guild hierarchy, but it was necessary to find them a parallel appointment based on their skills after leaving the service of the royal kitchens. This was not uncommon as the Paris cooks' guild regulations allowed for this movement. Wheaton, 73. During the 15th and 16th centuries, French cuisine assimilated many new food items from the New World. Although they were slow to be adopted, records of banquets show Catherine de' Medici serving sixty-six turkeys at one dinner. Wheaton, 81. The dish called cassoulet has its roots in the New World discovery of haricot beans, which are central to the dish's creation but had not existed outside of the New World until its exploration by Christopher Columbus. Wheaton, 85. 17th Century - Early 18th Century France's famous Haute cuisine ("high cuisine") has foundations during the 17th century with a chef named La Varenne. As author of works such as Cvisinier françois, he is credited with publishing the first true French cookbook. His book includes the earliest known reference to roux using pork fat. The book contained two sections, one for meat days, and one for fasting. His recipes marked a change from the style of cookery known in the Middle Ages, to new techniques aimed at creating somewhat lighter dishes, and more modest presentations of pies as individual pastries and turnovers. La Varenne also published a book on pastry in 1667 entitled Le Parfait confitvrier (republished as Le Confiturier françois) which similarly updated and codified the emerging haute cuisine standards for desserts and pastries. Wheaton, 114-120. Chef François Massialot, wrote Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois in 1691, during the reign of Louis XIV. The book contains menus served to the royal courts in 1690. Massialot worked mostly as a freelance cook, and was not employed by any particular household. Massialot and many other royal cooks received special privileges by association with the French royalty. They were not subject to the regulation of the guilds, therefore they could cater weddings and banquets without restriction. His book is the first to list recipes alphabetically, perhaps a forerunner of the first culinary dictionary. It is in this book that a marinade is first seen in print, with one type for poultry and feathered game while a second is for fish and shellfish. No quantities are listed in the recipes, which suggests that Massialot was writing for trained cooks. Wheaton, 149-154. The successive updates of Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois include important refinements such as adding a glass of wine to fish stock. Definitions were also added to the 1703 edition. The 1712 edition, retitled Le Nouveau cuisinier royal et bourgeois, was increased to two volumes, and was written in a more elaborate style with extensive explanations of technique. Additional smaller preparations are included in this edition as well, leading to lighter preparations, and adding a third course to the meal. Ragout, a stew still central to French cookery, makes its first appearance as a single dish in this edition as well; prior to that it was listed as a garnish. Wheaton, 155. Marie-Antoine Carême. Late 18th century - 19th century The Revolution was integral to the expansion of French cuisine, because it effectively abolished the guilds. This meant that any one chef could now produce and sell any culinary item he wished. Marie-Antoine Carême was born in 1784, five years before the onset of the Revolution. He spent his younger years working at a pâtisserie until being discovered by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord who would later cook for the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. Prior to his employment with Talleyrand, Carême had become known for his pièces montèes, which were extravagant constructions of pastry and sugar architecture. Mennell, 144-145. More important to Carême's career was his contribution to the refinement of French cuisine. The basis for his style of cooking came from his sauces, which he named mother sauces. Often referred to as fonds, meaning "foundations", these base sauces, espagnole, velouté, and béchamel are still known today. Each of these sauces would be made in large quantities in his kitchen as they were then capable of forming the basis of multiple derivatives. Carême had over one hundred sauces in his repertoire. In his writings, soufflés appear for the first time. Although many of his preparations today seem extravagant, he simplified and codified an even more complex cuisine that had existed beforehand. Central to his codification of the cuisine were Le Maître d'hôtel français (1822), Le Cuisinier parsien (1828) and L'Art de la cuisine française au dix-neuvième siècle (1833-5). Mennell, 144-148. Late 19th century - Early 20th century Georges Auguste Escoffier is commonly acknowledged as the central figure to the modernization of haute cuisine and organizing what would become the national cuisine of France. His influence began with the rise of some of the great hotels in Europe and America during the 1880s - 1890s. The Savoy Hotel owned by César Ritz was an early hotel Escoffier worked at, but much of his influence came during his management of the kitchens in the Carlton from 1898 until 1921. He created a system of "parties" called the brigade system, which separated the professional kitchen into five separate stations. These five stations included the "garde manger" that prepared cold dishes; the "entremettier" prepared starches, vegetables, the "rôtisseur" prepared roasts, grilled and fried dishes; the "saucier" prepared sauces and soups; and the "pâtissier" prepared all pastry and desserts items. This system meant that instead of one person preparing a dish on their own, now multiple cooks would prepare the different components for the dish. An example used is "oeufs au plat Meyerbeer", the prior system would take up to fifteen minutes to prepare the dish, while in the new system, the eggs would be prepared by the entremettier, kidney grilled by the rôtisseur, truffle sauce made by the saucier and thus the dish could be prepared in a shorter time and served quickly in the popular restaurants. Mennell, 157-159. Escoffier also simplified and organized the modern menu and structure of the meal. He published a series of articles in professional journals which outlined the sequence and then finally published his Livre des menus in 1912. This type of service embraced the service à la russe (serving meals in separate courses on individual plates) which Félix Urbain Dubois had made popular in the 1860s. Escoffier's largest contribution was the publication of Le Guide Culinaire in 1903, which established the fundamentals of French cookery. The book was a collaboration with Philéas Gilbert, E. Fetu, A. Suzanne, B. Reboul, Ch. Dietrich, A. Caillat and others. The significance of this is to illustrate the universal acceptance by multiple high-profile chefs to this new style of cooking. Mennell, 159-160. Le Guide Culinaire deemphasized the use of heavy sauces and leaned toward lighter fumets which are the essence of flavor taken from fish, meat and vegetables. This style of cooking looked to create garnishes, sauces whose function is to add to the flavor of the dish, rather than mask flavors like the heavy sauces and ornate garnishes of the past. Escoffier took inspiration for his work from personal recipes in addition to recipes from Carême, Dubois and ideas from Taillevent's Viander, which had a modern version published in 1897. A second source for recipes came from existing peasant dishes that were translated into the refined techniques of haute cuisine. Expensive ingredients would replace the common ingredients making the dishes much less humble. The third source of recipes was Escoffier himself who invented many new dishes, such as pêche Melba and crêpes Suzette. Mennell, 160-162. Escoffier updated Le Guide Culinaire four times during his lifetime, noting in the foreword to the book’s first edition that even with its 5,000 recipes the book should not be considered an “exhaustive” text and that even if it was at the point when he wrote the book, “it would no longer be so tomorrow, because progress marches on each day." Escoffier, Foreword. Mid 20th century - Late 20th century Paul Bocuse. The 60's brought about innovative thought to the French Cuisine, especially because of the contribution of Portuguese immigrants that had come to the country fleeing the forced drafting to the Colonial Wars Portugal was fighting in Africa. Many new dishes were introduced, as well as techniques. This period is also marked by the appearance of the "Nouvelle Cuisine". The term nouvelle cuisine has been used many times in the history of French cuisine. This description was seen in the 1740s of the cuisine from Vincent La Chapelle, François Marin and Menon and even during the 1880s and 1890s to describe Escoffier's cooking. The term came up again however during the 1960s used by two authors Henri Gault and Christian Millau to describe the cooking of Paul Bocuse, Jean Troisgro and Pierre Troisgro, Michel Guérard, Roger Vergé and Raymond Oliver. These chefs were working toward rebelling from the "orthodoxy" of Escoffier's cuisine. Some of the chefs were students of Fernand Point at the Pyramide in Vienne and had left to open their own restaurants. Gault and Millau "discovered the formula" contained in ten characteristics of this new style of cooking. Mennell, 163-164. The first characteristic was a rejection of excessive complication in cooking. Second, the cooking times for most fish, seafood, game birds, veal, green vegetables and pâtés was greatly reduced in an attempt to preserve the natural flavors. Steaming was an important trend from this characteristic. The third characteristic was that the cuisine was made with the freshest possible ingredients. Fourth, large menus were abandoned in favor of shorter menus. Fifth, strong marinades for meat and game ceased to be used. Sixth, they stopped using heavy sauces such as espagnole and béchamel thickened with flour based "roux", in favor of seasoning their dishes with fresh herbs, quality butter, lemon juice, and vinegar. Seventh, they used regional dishes for inspiration instead of haute cuisine dishes. Eighth, new techniques were embraced and modern equipment was often used, Bocuse even used microwave ovens. Ninth, the chefs paid close attention to the dietary needs of their guests through their dishes. Tenth and finally, the chefs were extremely inventive and created new combinations and pairings. Some have speculated that a contributor to nouvelle cuisine was World War II when animal protein was in short supply during the German occupation. Hewitt, 109-110 By the mid-1980s food writers stated that the style of cuisine had reached exhaustion and many chefs began returning to the haute cuisine style of cooking, although much of the lighter presentations and new techniques remained. Common dishes found on a national level There are many dishes that are considered part of the nation's national cuisine today. Many come from haute cuisine in the fine-dining realm, but others are regional dishes that have become a norm across the country. Below are lists of a few of the more common dishes available in France on a national level. Common breads found on a national level Common savory dishes found on a national level Common desserts and pastries found on a national level Common canned food found on the national level Regional cuisine The 22 regions and 96 departments of metropolitan France include Corsica (Corse, lower right). Paris area is expanded (inset at left). French regional cuisine is characterized by its extreme diversity and style. Traditionally, each region of France has its own distinctive cuisine accepted by both its bourgeoisie and peasants and other general citizenry of the regions. Paris • Ile-de-France Paris and Ile-de-France are central regions where almost anything from the country is available as all train lines meet in the city. Over 9,000 restaurants exist in Paris and almost any cuisine can be had here. High-quality Michelin Guide rated restaurants proliferate here. Dominé, 13. Champagne • Lorraine • Alsace Game and ham are popular in Champagne as well as the special sparkling wine simply known as Champagne. Fine fruit preserves are known from Lorraine as well as the famous Quiche Lorraine. Alsace is heavily influenced by the German food culture as such the wines and beers made in the area are similar to the style of bordering Germany. Dominé, 55 List of dishes unique to Lorraine List of dishes unique to Alsace Nord--Pas-de-Calais • Picardy • Normandy • Brittany The coastline supplies many crustaceans, sea bass, monkfish, herring. Normandy has top quality seafood like scallops and sole, while Brittany has a supply of lobster, crayfish and mussels. Normandy is home to a large population of apple trees, which is used in dishes as well as cider and calvados. The northern areas of this region especially Nord, grow ample amounts of wheat, sugar beet and chicory. Thick stews are found often in these northern areas as well. The produce of these northern regions is also considered some of the best in the country including cauliflower and artichokes. Buckwheat grows widely in Brittany as well and is used in the region's galettes called jalet, which is where this dish originated. Dominé, 93. List of dishes unique Nord-Pas-de-Calais (Artois, Flanders, Hainaut)-Picardy List of dishes unique to Normandy List of dishes unique to Brittany The Loire Valley • Central France High quality fruits come from the Loire Valley and central France, including cherries grown for the liqueur Guignolet and the Belle Angevine pears. The strawberries and melons are also of high quality. Fish are seen in the cuisine as well as wild game, lamb, calves, Charolais cattle, Géline fowl, and high quality goat cheeses. Young vegetables are used often in the cuisine as are the specialty mushrooms of the region, champignons de Paris. Vinegars from Orléans are a specialty ingredient used as well. Dominé, 129,132. List of dishes unique to Loire Valley/Central France Burgundy • Franche-Comté Burgundy is known for its wines. Pike, perch, river crabs, snails, poultry from Bresse, Charolais beef or game, redcurrants, blackcurrants, honey cake, Chaource and Epoisses cheese are all specialties of the local cuisine of both Burgundy and Franche-Comté. Kir and Crème de Cassis are popular liquors made from the blackcurrants. Dijon mustard is also a specialty of Burgundy cuisine. Oils are used in the cooking here, types include nut oils and rapeseed oil. Smoked meat and specialties are produced in the Jura Dominé, 153,156,166,185. List of dishes unique to Burgundy Lyon-Rhône-Alpes Fruit and young vegetables are popular in the cuisine from the Rhône valley. Poultry from Bresse, guinea fowels from Drôme and fish from the Dombes lakes and mountain in Rhône-Alpes streams are key to the cuisine as well. Lyon and Savoy supply high quality sausages while the Alpine regions supply their specialty cheeses like Abondance, Reblochon, Tomme and Vacherin. Mères lyonnaises are a particular type of restaurateur relegated to this region that are the regions bistro. Celebrated chefs from this region include Fernand Point, Paul Bocuse, the Troisgros brothers and Alain Chapel. The Chartreuse Mountains are in this region, and the famous liquor Chartreuse is produced in a monastery there. Dominé, 197,230. List of dishes unique to Rhône-Alpes Poitou-Charentes • Limousin Oysters come from the Oléron-Marennes basin while mussels come from the Bay of Aiguillon. High quality produce comes from the regions hinterland, especially goat cheese. This region and in the Vendée is grazing ground for Parthenaise cattle, while poultry is raised in Challans. Poitou and Charente purportedly produce the best butter and cream in France. Cognac is also in the region along the Charente River. Limousin is home to the high quality Limousin cattle as well as high quality sheep. The woodlands offer game, high quality mushrooms. The southern area around Brive draws its cooking influence from Périgord and Auvergne to produce a robust cuisine. Dominé, 237. Bordeaux • Perigord • Gascony • Basque Country Bordeaux is known for its wine, as it is throughout the southwest of France with certain areas offering specialty grapes for its wines. Fishing is popular in the region for the cuisine, sea fishing in the Bay of Biscay, trapping in the Garonne and stream fishing in the Pyrenees. The Pyrenees also support top quality lamb such as the "Agneau de Pauillac" as well as high quality sheep cheeses. Beef cattle in the region include the Blonde d'Aquitaine, Boeuf de Chalosse, Bazardaise, and Garonnaise. High quality free-range chickens, turkey, pigeon, capon, goose and duck prevail in the region as well. Gascony and Perigord cuisines includes high quality [atés, terrines, confits and magrets. This is one of the regions famous for its production of foie gras or fattened goose or duck liver. The cuisine of the region is often heavy and farm based. Armagnac is also from this region as are high quality prunes from Agen. Dominé, 259, 295. Toulouse • Quercy • Aveyron Gers in this region has high quality poultry, while La Montagne Noire and Lacaune area offers high quality hams and dry sausages. White corn is planted heavily in the area both for use in fattening the ducks and geese for foie gras as well as the production of "millas", a cornmeal porridge. Haricot beans are also grown in this area, which are central to the dish Cassoulet. The finest sausage in France is commonly acknowledged to be the saucisse de Toulouse, which also finds its way into their version of Cassoulet of Toulouse. The Cahors area produces a high quality specialty "black wine" as well as high-quality truffles and mushrooms. This region also produces milk-feed lamb. Unpasteurized ewe's milk is used to produce the Roquefort in Aveyron, while Cantal is produced in Laguiole. The Salers cattle produce quality milk for cheese as well as beef items. The volcanic soils create flinty cheeses and superb lentils. Mineral waters are produced in high volume in this region as well. Dominé, 313. List of dishes unique to Aveyron List of dishes unique to Toulouse Roussillon • Languedoc • Cévennes Restaurants are popular in the area known as Le Midi. Oysters come from the Etang de Thau, to be served in the restaurants of Bouzigues, Meze, and Sète. Mussels are commonly seen here in addition to fish specialties of Sète, Bourride, Tielles and Rouille de seiche. In the Languedoc jambon cru, sometimes known as jambon de montagne is produced. High quality Roquefort comes from the brebis (sheep) on the Larzac plateau. The Les Cévennes area offers mushrooms, chestnuts, berries, honey, lamb, game, sausages, pâtés and goat cheeses. Catalan influence can be seen in the cuisine here with dishes like brandade made from a purée of dried cod wrapped in mangold leaves. Snails are plentiful and are prepared in a specific Catalan style known as a cargolade. Wild boar can be found in the more mountainous regions of the Midi. Dominé, 349,360. List of dishes unique to Languedoc Provence • Côte d'Azur The Provence and Côte d'Azur region is rich in quality citrus, vegetables and fruits and herbs – the region is one of the largest suppliers of all these ingredients in France. The region also produces the largest amount of olives, and creates superb olive oil. Lavender is used in many dishes found in Haute Provence. Other important herbs in the cuisine include thyme, sage, rosemary, basil, savory, fennel, marjoram, tarragon, oregano, and bay leaf. Honey is a prized ingredient in the region. Seafood proliferates throughout the coastal area. Goat cheeses, air-dried sausages, lamb, and beef are popular here. Garlic and anchovies are used in many of the region's sauces, and Pastis is found everywhere that alcohol is served. The cuisine uses a large amount of vegetables for lighter preparations. Truffles are commonly seen in Provence during the winter. Thirteen desserts in Provence are the traditional Christmas dessert, Christmas traditions e.g. quince cheese, biscuits, almonds, nougat, apple, and fougasse. Rice is grown in the Camargue, which is the most-northerly rice growing area in Europe, with Camargue red rice being a specialty. Dominé, 387,403,404,410,416. List of dishes unique to Provence/Côte d'Azur Corsica Goats and sheep proliferate on the island of Corsica, and kids and lamb are used to prepare dishes such as "stufato", ragouts and roasts. Cheeses are also produced, with "brocciu" being the most popular. Chestnuts, growing in the Castagniccia forest, are used to produce flour, which is used in turn to make bread, cakes and polenta. The forest provides acorns used to feed the pigs and boars that provide much of the protein for the island's cuisine. Fresh fish and seafood are common. The island's pork is used to make fine hams, sausage and other unique items including coppa (dried rib cut), lonzu (dried pork fillet), figatella, salumu (a dried sausage) salcietta, Panzetta, bacon, figarettu (smoked and dried liverwurst) and prisuttu (farmer's ham). Clementines (which hold an AOC designation), lemons, nectarines and figs are grown there. Candied citron is used in nougats and cakes, while and the aforementioned brocciu and chestnuts are also used in desserts. Corsica offers a variety of wines and fruit liqueurs, including Cap Corse, Patrimonio, Cédratine, Bonapartine, liqueur de myrte, vins de fruit, Rappu, and eau-de-vie de châtaigne. Dominé, 435,441,442. Specialties by season French cuisine varies according to the season. In summer, salads and fruit dishes are popular because they are refreshing and produce is inexpensive and abundant. Greengrocers prefer to sell their fruit and vegetables at lower prices if needed, rather than see them rot in the heat. At the end of summer, mushrooms become plentiful and appear in stews throughout France. The hunting season begins in September and runs through February. Game of all kinds is eaten, often in elaborate dishes that celebrate the success of the hunt. Shellfish are at their peak when winter turns to spring, and oysters appear in restaurants in large quantities. With the advent of deep-freeze and the air-conditioned hypermarché, these seasonal variations are less marked than hitherto, but they are still observed, in some cases due to legal restrictions. Crayfish, for example, have a short season and it is illegal to catch them out of season. Imported crayfish are unrestricted, and many arrive from Pakistan. Moreover, they do not freeze well. Foods An entire foie gras (partly prepared for a terrine). Escargot bourguignon, or escargot cooked with garlic and parsley butter in a shell (with a €0.02 coin as scale). Black Périgord Truffle. Smoked and salted horse meat on a sandwich. The famous fleur de sel from Guérande. French regional cuisines use locally grown vegetables, such as: potatoes haricot verts (A type of French green bean) carrots leeks turnips aubergine (eggplant) courgette (zucchini) Mushrooms, oyster mushrooms, cèpes (porcini) Truffles (Tuber (genus)) shallots Common fruits include: oranges tomatoes tangerines peaches apricots apples pears plums cherries strawberries raspberries redcurrant blackberries grape blackcurrant Meats consumed include: chicken squab turkey duck goose foie gras beef veal pork mutton and lamb rabbit quail horse frog's legs escargot (snails) Eggs are fine quality and often eaten as: omelette hard-boiled with mayonnaise Scrambled plain or haute cuisine preparation Fish and seafood commonly consumed include: cod sardines, canned and fresh tuna, canned and fresh salmon trout mussels herring oysters shrimp calamari Herbs and Seasonings vary by region and include: fleur de sel herbes de Provence tarragon rosemary marjoram lavender thyme fennel sage Fresh fruit and vegetables, as well as fish and meat can be purchased either from supermarkets or specialty shops. Street markets are held on certain days in most localities; some towns have a more permanent covered market enclosing food shops, especially meat and fish retailers. These have better shelter than the periodic street markets. Structure of meals Breakfast Cafés often offer Croissants for breakfast. Le petit déjeuner (breakfast) is often a quick meal consisting of "tartines" (slices) of buttered french bread, croissants or pain au chocolat (a chocolate filled pastry) along with coffee or tea. Children often drink hot chocolate in bowls along with their breakfast. Breakfast of some kind is always served in cafés opening early in the day. Lunch Le déjeuner (lunch) was once a two hour mid-day meal but has recently seen a trend toward the one hour lunch break. In some smaller towns the two hour lunch may still be customary. Sunday lunches are often longer and are taken with the family. Restaurants normally open for lunch at 12:00noon and close at 2:30 pm. Many restaurants close on Saturday and Monday during lunch. In large cities a majority of working people and students eat their lunch at a corporate or school cafeteria, which normally serve complete meals as described above; it is therefore not usual for students to bring their own lunch food. It is common for white-collar workers to be given lunch vouchers as part of their employee benefits. These can be used in most restaurants, supermarkets and traiteurs; however workers having lunch in this way typically do not eat all three dishes of a traditional lunch due to price and time considerations. In smaller cities and towns, some working people leave their workplaces to return home for lunch, generating four rush hours during the day. Finally, an also popular alternative especially among blue-collar workers is to lunch on a sandwich possibly followed with a dessert; both dishes can be found ready-made at bakeries and supermarkets for budget prices. Dinner Le dîner (dinner) often consists of three courses, hors d'oeuvre or entrée (introductory course often soup), plat principal (main course), and a cheese course or dessert, sometimes with a salad offered before the cheese or dessert. Yoghurt may replace the cheese course, while a normal everyday dessert would be fresh fruit. The meal is often accompanied by bread, wine and mineral water. Wine consumption has been dropping recently in young people. Fruit juice consumption has risen from 25.6% in 1996 to 31.6% in 2002. Main meat courses are often served with vegetables along with rice or pasta. Steele, 82. Restaurants often open at 7:30pm for dinner and stop taking orders between the hours of 10:00pm and 11:00 pm. Many restaurants close for dinner on Sundays. Foder's, 342. Drink Traditionally, France has been a culture of wine consumption. This characteristic has lessened with time. The consumption of low-quality wines during meals has been greatly reduced. Beer is especially popular with the young. Other popular alcoholic drinks include pastis, an aniseed flavoured beverage drunk diluted with cold water, or cider. The legal alcohol purchase age is 16. Usually, parents tend to prohibit their children from consuming alcohol before these children reach their early teens. Students and young adults are known to drink heavily during parties, but usually drunkenness is not displayed in public. Public consumption of alcohol is legal, but driving under the influence can result in severe penalties. Dining out History of the restaurant The modern restaurant has its origins in French culture. Prior to the late 18th century, diners who wished to "dine out" would visit their local guild member's kitchen and have their meal prepared for them. However, guild members were limited to producing whatever their guild registry delegated them to. Spang, 8-10. These guild members offered food in their own homes to steady clientele that appeared day-to-day but at set times. The guest would be offered the meal table d'hôte, which is a meal offered at a set price with very little choice of dishes, sometimes none at all. Spang, 30-31. The first steps toward the modern restaurant were locations that offered restorative bouillons, or restaurants — these words being the origin of the name restaurant. This step took place during the 1760s - 1770's. These locations were open at all times of the day, featuring ornate tableware and reasonable prices. These locations were meant more as meal replacements for those who had "lost their appetites and suffered from jaded palates and weak chests." Spang, 34-35. In 1782 Antoine Beauvilliers, pastry chef to the future Louis XVIII, opened one of the most popular restaurants of the time — the Grande Taverne de Londres — in the arcades of the Palais-Royal. Other restaurants were opened by chefs of the time who were leaving the failing monarchy of France, in the period leading up to the French Revolution. It was these restaurants that expanded upon the limited menus of decades prior, and led to the full restaurants that were completely legalized with the advent of the French Revolution and abolition of the guilds. This and the substantial discretionary income of the French Directory's nouveau riche helped keep these new restaurants in business. Spang, 140-144. Places to dine out Restaurant - Over 5,000 in Paris alone, with varying levels of prices and menus. Open at certain times of the day, and normally closed one day of the week. Patrons select items from a printed menu. Some offer regional menus, while others offer a modern styled menu. By law, a prix-fixe menu must be offered, although high-class restaurants may try to conceal the fact. Few French restaurants cater to vegetarians. The Guide Michelin rates many of the better restaurants in this category. Dominé, 30. Bistro(t) - Often smaller than a restaurant and many times using chalk board or verbal menus. Many feature a regional cuisine. Notable dishes include coq au vin, pot-au-feu, confit de canard, calves' liver and entrecôte. Bistrot à Vin - Similar to caberets or tavernes of the past in France. Some offer inexpensive alcoholic drinks, while others take pride in offering a full range of vintage AOC wines. The foods in some are simple, including sausages, ham and cheese, while others offer dishes similar to what can be found in a bistro. A bouchon, Le tablier (the apron), in Vieux Lyon. Bouchon - Found in Lyon, they produce traditional Lyonnaise cuisine, such as sausages, duck pâté or roast pork. The dishes can be quite fatty, and heavily oriented around meat. There are about twenty officially certified traditional bouchons, but a larger number of establishments describing themselves using the term. Boudou Brasserie - French for brewery, these establishments were created in the 1870s by refugees from Alsace-Lorraine. These establishments serve beer, but most serve wines from Alsace such as Riesling, Sylvaner, and Gewürztraminer. The most popular dishes are Sauerkraut and Seafood dishes. In general, a brasserie is open all day, offering the same menu. Les brasseries ont toujours l'avantage d'offrir un service continu tout au long de la journée, d'accueillir les clients après le spectacle et d'être ouvertes sept jours sur sept, quand les restaurants ferment deux jours et demi par semaine. (Brasseries have the advantage of offering uninterrupted service all day, seven days a week, and of being open for the after-theatre crowd, whereas restaurants are closed two and a half days of the week) — (Jean-Claude Ribaut in Le Monde, 8 February 2007) Café - Primarily locations for coffee and alcoholic drinks. Tables and chairs are usually set outside, and prices marked up somewhat en terrasse. The limited foods sometimes offered include croque-monsieur, salads, moules-frites (mussels and pommes frites) when in season. Cafés often open early in the morning and shut down around nine at night. Salon de Thé - These locations are more similar to cafés in the rest of the world. These tearooms often offer a selection of cakes and do not offer alcoholic drinks. Many offer simple snacks, salads, and sandwiches. Teas, hot chocolate, and chocolat à l'ancienne (a popular chocolate drink) offered as well. These locations often open just prior to noon for lunch and then close late afternoon. Bar - Based on the American style, many were built at the beginning of the 20th century. These locations serve cocktails, whiskey, pastis and other alcoholic drinks. Estaminet - Typical of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, these small bars/restaurants used to be a central place for farmers, mine or textile workers to meet and socialize. Alongside the usual beverages (beers and liquors), one could order basic regional dishes, as well as play various indoor games. These estaminets almost disappeared, but are now considered a part of Nord-Pas-de-Calais history, and therefore preserved and promoted. Kitchen and dining room staff Larger restaurants and hotels in France employ extensive staff and are commonly referred to as either the kitchen brigade for the kitchen staff or dining room brigade system for the dining room staff. This system was created by Georges Auguste Escoffier. This structured team system delegates responsibilities to different individuals that specialize in certain tasks. The following is a list of positions held both in the kitchen and dining rooms brigades in France. Dominé, 32. Kitchen brigade Cooks at work. (Kitchen chef) - Responsible for overall management of kitchen. They supervise staff, create menus and new recipes with the assistance of the restaurant manager, make purchases of raw food items, trains apprentices and maintains a sanitary and hygiene environment for the preparation of food. (Deputy kitchen chef) - Receives orders directly from the chef de cuisine for the management of the kitchen and often represents the chef de cuisine when he or she is not present. (Senior chef) - Responsible for managing a given station in the kitchen where they specialize in preparing particular dishes. Those that work in a lesser station are referred to as a demi-chef. (Cook) - This position is an independent one where they usually prepare specific dishes in a station. They may be referred to as a cuisinier de partie. (Junior cook) - Also works in a specific station, but reports directly to the chef de partie and takes care of the tools for the station. (Apprentice) - Many times they are students gaining theoretical and practical training in school and work experience in the kitchen. They perform preparatory work and/or cleaning work. (Dishwasher) - Cleans dishes and utensils and may be entrusted with basic preparatory job. (Pot and pan washer) - In larger restaurants takes care of all the pots and pans instead of the plongeur. Dominé, 33. (Saucemaker/Sauté cook) - Prepares sauces, warm hors d'oeuvres, completes meat dishes and in smaller restaurants may work on fish dishes and prepares sautéed items. This is one of the most respected positions in the kitchen brigade. (Roast cook) - Manages a team of cooks that roasts, broils and deep fries dishes. (Grill cook) - In a larger kitchen this person prepares the grilled foods instead of the rôtisseur. The Culinary Institute of America, 8. (Fry cook) - In larger kitchens this person prepares fried foods instead of the rôtisseur. (Fish cook) - Prepares fish and seafood dishes. (Entrée preparer) - Prepares soups and other dishes not involving meat or fish, including vegetable dishes and egg dishes. (soup cook) - In larger kitchens this person reports to the entremetier and prepares the soups. (Vegetable cook) - In larger kitchen this person also reports to the entremetier and prepares the vegetable dishes. (Pantry supervisor) - responsible for preparation of cold hors d'oeuvres, prepares salads, organizes large buffet displays and prepares charcuterie items. (Spare hand/ roundsman) - Moves throughout kitchen assisting other positions in kitchen (Pastry cook) - Prepares desserts and other meal end sweets and for location without a boulanger also prepares breads and other baked items. They may also prepare pasta for the restaurant. - Prepares candies and petit fours in larger restaurants instead of the pâtissier. - Prepares frozen and cold desserts in larger restaurants instead of the pâtissier. - Prepares show pieces and specialty cakes in larger restaurants instead of the pâtissier. The Culinary Institute of America, 8,9. (Baker) - Prepares bread, cakes and breakfast pastries in larger restaurants instead of the pâtissier. (Butcher) - butchers meats, poultry and sometimes fish. May also be in charge of breading meat and fish items. (Announcer/ expediter) - Takes orders from dining room and distributes them to the various stations. This position may also be performed by the sous-chef de partie. - Prepares the meal served to the restaurant staff. - Performs preparatory and auxiliary work for support in larger restaurants. Dining room brigade (General manager) - Oversees economic and administrative duties for all food related business in large hotels or similar facilities including multiple restaurants, bars, catering and other events. Dominé, 33. (Restaurant manager) - Responsible for the operation of the restaurant dining room which includes managing staff, hiring and firing staff, training of staff and economic duties of the such matters. In larger establishments there may be an assistant to this position who would replace this person in their absence. - Welcomes guests, and seats them at tables. They also supervise the service staff. It is this person that commonly deals with complaints and verifies patron bills. - Commonly in charge of service for the full dining room in larger establishments, this position can be combined into the maître d'hotel position. - The dining room is separated into sections called rangs. Each rang is supervised by this person to coordinate service with the kitchen. - (Back waiter) - Clears plates between courses if there is no commis débarrasseur, fills water glasses and assists the chef de rang. - Clears plates between courses and the table at the end of the meal. - In larger establishments, this person brings the different courses from the kitchen to the table. (Captain) - Explains the menu to the guest and answers any questions. This person often performs the tableside food preparations. This position may be combined with the chef de rang in smaller establishment. (Wine waiter) - Manages wine cellar by purchasing and organizing as well as preparing the wine list. This person also advises the guest on wine choices and serves it. Larger establishments will have a team of sommeliers that are managed by the chef sommelier or chef caviste. (Waiter) - This position found in smaller establishments performs the multiple duties of various positions in the larger restaurants in the service of food and drink to the guest. (Bar manager) - Manages the bar in a restaurant which includes ordering and creating drink menus, they also over see the hiring, training and firing of barmen. Also manages multiple bars in a hotel or other similar establishment. (Bartender) - Serves alcoholic drinks to guests. - Coat room attendant who receives and returns guests coats and hats. (Valet) - Parks guests cars and retrieves them upon the guest exiting the restaurant. Notes Works cited Boudou,ballious Evelyne and Jean-Marc Boudou. Les bonnes recettes des bouchons lyonnais. Seyssinet: Libris, 2003. ISBN 978-2847990027 Dominé, André (ed.). Culinaria France. Cologne: Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbh, 1998. ISBN 978-3833111297 Escoffier, Georges Auguste. Escoffier: The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery. Translated by H. L. Cracknell and R.J. Kaufmann. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2002. ISBN 978-0471290162 Foder's. See It. France. 2nd edition. New York:Foder's Travel Publications, 2006. Hewitt, Nicholas. The Cambridge Companion to Modern French Culture. Cambridge: The Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0521794657 Mennel, Stephan. All Manners of Food: eating and taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to the present. 2nd ed., Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0252064906 Spang Rebecca L., The Invention of the Restaurant. 2nd ed., Harvard University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0674006850 Steele, Ross. The French Way. 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006. The Culinary Institute of America. The Professional Chef. 8th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, INC, 2006. ISBN 978-0764557347 Wheaton, Barbara Ketcham. Savoring the Past: The French Kitchen and Table from 1300 to 1789. New York: First Touchstone, 1996. ISBN 978-0684818573 See also Larousse Gastronomique Le Répertoire de la Cuisine French paradox List of recipes List of French cheeses External links French Recipes and FoodHuge list of authentic French recipes for every skill level, regional foods, and cooking techniques. 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4,274 | Cruiser | , a guided missile cruiser, launched in 1992. A cruiser is a large type of warship, which had its prime period from the late 19th century to the end of the Cold War. The first cruisers were intended for individual raiding and protection missions on the seas. Over the years, the nature and role of the cruiser has changed considerably, and today the cruiser has largely been replaced by destroyers in its roles. Historically a cruiser was not a type of ship but a warship role. Cruisers were ships—often frigates or smaller vessels—which were assigned a role largely independent from the fleet. Typically this might involve missions such as raiding enemy merchant shipping. In the late 19th century the term 'cruiser' came to mean ships designed to fulfill such a role, and from the 1890s to the 1950s a 'cruiser' was a warship larger than a destroyer but smaller than a battleship. For much of 19th century and the first half of the 20th, the cruiser was a navy's long-range "force projection" weapon, while the larger ships stayed nearer to home. Their main role was to attack enemy merchant vessels, so much so that this task came to be called cruiser warfare. Other roles included reconnaissance, and cruisers were often attached to the battlefleet. In the later 20th century, the decline of the battleship left the cruiser as the largest and most powerful surface combatant. However, the role of the cruiser increasingly became one of providing air defence for a fleet, rather than independent cruiser warfare. At the beginning of the 21st century, cruisers were the heaviest surface combatant ships in use, with only five nations (the United States, Russia, France, Italy and Peru) operating these at the time. Following the Italian Navy's 2003 decommissioning of , only four nations currently operate cruisers. Early history The term "cruiser" or "cruizer" The alternative spelling could be found at least as late as 1900: Jackie Fisher wrote "We a require an increase.... in all classes of cruizer" in a letter dated 20th Feb 1900. Mackay, R. Fisher of Kilverstone, p.242 was first commonly used in the 17th century to refer to an independent warship. "Cruiser" meant the purpose or mission of a ship, rather than a category of vessel. However, the term was nonetheless used to mean a smaller, faster warship suitable for such a role. In the 17th century, the ship of the line was generally too large, inflexible and expensive to be dispatched on long-range missions (for instance, to the Americas), and too strategically important to be put at risk of fouling and foundering by continual patrol duties. The Dutch navy was noted for its cruisers in the 17th century, while the British and later French and Spanish later caught up in terms of their numbers and deployment. The British Cruiser and Convoy Acts were an attempt by mercantile interests in Parliament to focus the Navy on commerce defence and raiding with cruisers, rather than the more scarce and expensive ships of the line. Rodger, N. A. M.: The Command of the Ocean, A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815. Allen Lane, London, 2004. ISBN 0-7139-9411-8 During the 18th century the frigate became the pre-eminent type of cruiser. A frigate was a small, fast, long range, lightly armed (single gun-deck) ship used for scouting, carrying dispatches, and disrupting enemy trade. The other principal type of cruiser was the sloop, but many other miscellaneous types of ship were used as well. Steam cruisers During the 19th century, as steam propulsion became the norm, fleets started to use the term 'cruiser' more descriptively to refer to some ironclad warships as well as a miscellany of unarmored frigates, sloops, and corvettes, most of which had mixed steam and sail propulsion. The first ironclads were, because of their single gun decks, still referred to as "frigates", even though they were more powerful than existing ships of the line. The French constructed a number of smaller ironclads for overseas cruising duties, starting with the , commissioned 1865. These were the first armored cruisers. By the 1870s, many other nations had produced ironclads specifically for fast, independent, raiding and patrol. These vessels were referred to as armored cruisers. Until the 1890s armored cruisers were still built with masts for a full sailing rig, to enable them to operate far from friendly coaling stations. Hill, Richard: War at Sea in the Ironclad Age. Cassell, London, 2000. ISBN 0-304-35273-X Unarmored cruising warships, built out of wood, iron, steel or a combination of those materials, remained popular until towards the end of the 19th century. The ironclad's armor often mean that it was limited to a short range under steam, and many ironclads were unsuited to long-range missions or for work in distant colonies. The unarmored cruiser - often a screw sloop or screw frigate - could continue in this role. Even though mid- or late-19th century cruisers typically carried up-to-date guns firing explosive shells, they were unable to face ironclads in combat. This was evidenced by the clash between , a modern British cruiser, and the Peruvian monitor Huáscar. Even though the Peruvian vessel was obsolescent by the time of the encounter, it stood up well to roughly 50 hits from British shells. Steel cruisers In the 1880s naval architects began to use steel as a material for construction and armament. A steel cruiser could be lighter and faster than one built of iron or wood. The Jeune Ecole school of naval doctrine suggested that a fleet of fast unprotected steel cruisers were ideal for commerce raiding, while the torpedo boat would be able to destroy an enemy battleship fleet. Steel also offered the cruiser a way of acquiring the protection needed to survive in combat. Steel armor was considerably stronger, for the same weight, than iron. By putting a relatively thin layer of steel armor above the vital parts of the ship, and by placing the coal bunkers where they might stop shellfire, a useful degree of protection could be achieved without slowing the ship too much. The first protected cruiser was the groundbreaking Chilean ship Esmeralda. Produced by a shipyard at Elswick, in Britain, owned by Armstrong, she inspired a group of protected cruisers produced in the same yard and known as the "Elswick cruisers". Her forecastle, poop deck and the wooden board deck had been removed, replaced with an armored deck. Esmeralda's armament consisted of fore and aft 10-inch (25.4 cm) guns and 6-inch (15.2 cm) guns in the midships positions. It could reach a speed of , and was propelled by steam alone. It also had a displacement of less than 3,000 tons. During the two following decades, this cruiser type came to be the inspiration for combining heavy artillery, high speed and low displacement. Torpedo cruisers The torpedo cruiser was a smaller unarmored cruiser, which emerged in the 1880s-1890s. These ships could reach speed up to and were armed with medium to small calibre guns, as well as torpedoes. These ships were tasked with guard and reconnaissance duties, to repeat signals and all other duties of a fleet, which were suited for smaller vessels. These ships could also function as the flagship of a torpedo boat flotilla. After the 1900s, these ships were usually traded for faster ships with better sea going qualities. Pre-dreadnought armored cruisers Steel also had an impact on the construction and role of armored cruisers. Steel meant that new designs of battleship, later known as pre-dreadnought battleships, would be able to combine firepower and armor with better endurance and speed than ever before. The armored cruisers of the 1890s greatly resembled the battleships of the day; they tended to carry slightly smaller main armament ( rather than 12-inch) and have somewhat thinner armor in exchange for a faster speed (perhaps rather than 18). Because of their similarity, the lines between battleships and armored cruisers became blurred. Cruisers from 1900 to 1914 The German light cruiser , launched in 1908. Shortly after turn of the 20th century there were difficult questions about the design of future cruisers. Modern armored cruisers, almost as powerful as battleships, were also fast enough to outrun older protected and unarmored cruisers. In the Royal Navy, Jackie Fisher cut back hugely on older vessels, including many cruisers of different sorts, calling them 'a miser's hoard of useless junk' that any modern cruiser would sweep from the seas. Battlecruisers HMS Repulse in 1919 The growing size and power of the armored cruiser resulted in the battlecruiser, larger than the armored cruiser with an armament similar to the revolutionary new dreadnought battleship, was the brainchild of British admiral Jackie Fisher. He believed that to ensure British naval dominance in its overseas colonial possessions, a fleet of large, fast, powerfully-armed vessels which would be able to hunt down and mop up enemy cruisers and armored cruisers with overwhelming fire superiority was needed. These vessel came to be known as the battlecruiser, and the first were commissioned into the Royal Navy in 1907. While, in spite of Fisher's lobbying, the concept never came to dominate naval warfare, Britain, Germany and eventually Japan all came to build squadrons of battlecruisers. Light cruisers , a World War I era light cruiser, still serves as a headquarters and training vessel in Belfast. At around the same time as the battlecruiser was developed, the distinction between the armored and the unarmored cruiser finally disappeared. By the British Town class cruiser (1910), it was possible for a small, fast cruiser to carry both belt and deck armor, particularly when turbine engines were adopted. These 'light armored cruisers' began to occupy the traditional cruiser role once it became clear that the battlecruiser squadrons were required to operate with the battle fleet. Flotilla leaders Some light cruisers were built specifically to act as the leaders of flotillas of destroyers. Auxiliary cruisers The auxiliary cruiser was a merchant ship hastily armed with small guns on the outbreak of war. Auxiliary cruisers were used to fill gaps in their long-range lines or provide escort for other cargo ships, although they generally proved to be useless in this role because of their low speed, feeble firepower and lack of armor. In both world wars the Germans also used small merchant ships armed with cruiser guns to surprise Allied merchant ships. Some large liners were armed in the same way. In British service these were known as Armed Merchant Cruisers (AMC). The Germans and French used them in World War I as raiders because of their high speed (around 30 knots (56 km/h)), and they were used again as raiders in World War II by the Germans and Japanese. In both the First World War and in the early part of the Second, they were used as convoy escorts by the British. World War I Cruisers were one of the workhorse types of ship of World War I. Cruisers from 1919-1945 Naval construction in the 1920s and 1930s was limited by international treaties designed to prevent the repetition of the Dreadnought arms race of the early 20th century. The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 placed limits on the construction of ships with a displacement of 10,000 tons or more and an armament of greater than calibre. A number of navies commissioned classes of cruisers at the top end of this limit. The London Naval Treaty in 1930 then formalised the distinction between these 'heavy' cruisers and light cruisers: a 'heavy' cruiser was one with guns of 6.1in calibre or more. The Second London Naval Treaty attempted to reduce the tonnage of new cruisers to 8,000 or less, but this had little impact; Japan and Germany were not signatories, and navies had already begun to evade treaty limitations on warships. Heavy cruisers The heavy cruiser was a type of cruiser, a naval warship designed for long range, high speed and an armament of naval guns roughly 8in in calibre. The first heavy cruisers were built in 1915, although it only became a widespread classification following the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922. The heavy cruiser's immediate precursors were the light cruiser designs of the 1900s and 1910s. Heavy cruisers continued in use until after World War II. The German pocket battleships The German was a series of three panzerschiffe ("armored ships"), a form of heavily armed cruiser, built by the German Reichsmarine in accordance with restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. The class is named after the first ship of this class to be completed (the ). All three ships were launched between 1931 and 1934, and served with Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. The British began referring to the vessels as pocket battleships, in reference to the heavy firepower contained in the relatively small vessels; they were considerably smaller than battleships and battlecruisers, and although their displacement was that of a heavy cruiser, they were armed with guns larger than the heavy cruisers of other nations. Deutschland class ships continue to be called pocket battleships in some circles. The ships were actually two feet longer than the American - although the latter was unusually stubby for a modern battleship. Deutschland class ships were initially classified as panzerschiffe, but the Kriegsmarine reclassified them as heavy cruisers in February 1940. Anti-aircraft cruisers USS Atlanta (CL-51) The development of the anti-aircraft cruiser began in 1935 when the Royal Navy re-armed and . Torpedo tubes and 6-inch (15 cm) low-angle guns were removed from these WWI light cruisers and replaced by ten 4-inch (10 cm) high-angle guns with appropriate fire-control equipment to provide larger warships with protection against high-altitude bombers. Friedman, Norman "Anti-Aircraft Cruisers: The Life of a Class" United States Naval Institute Proceedings January 1965 p.86 A tactical shortcoming was recognized after completing six additional conversions of C class cruisers. Having sacrificed anti-ship weapons for anti-aircraft armament, the converted anti-aircraft cruisers might need protection themselves against surface units. New construction was undertaken to create cruisers of similar speed and displacement with dual-purpose guns. Dual-purpose guns offered good anti-aircraft protection with anti-surface capability for the traditional light cruiser role of defending capital ships from destroyers. The first purpose built anti-aircraft cruiser was the British , completed shortly before the beginning of WWII. The US Navy anti-aircraft cruisers (CLAA) were designed to match capabilities of the Royal Navy. Both Dido and Atlanta carried torpedo tubes. The quick-firing dual-purpose gun anti-aircraft cruiser concept was embraced in several designs completed too late to see combat including and completed in 1948 and 1949, two s completed in 1953, De Grasse and Colbert completed in 1955 and 1959, and , and completed between 1959 and 1961. Friedman, Norman "Anti-Aircraft Cruisers: The Life of a Class" United States Naval Institute Proceedings January 1965 pp.96-97 Most post-WWII cruisers were tasked with air defense roles. In the early 1950s, advances in aviation technology forced the move from anti-aircraft artillery to anti-aircraft missiles. Therefore most cruisers of today are equipped with surface-to-air missiles as their main armament. The modern equivalent of the anti-aircraft cruiser is the guided missile cruiser (CAG/CLG/CG/CGN). Russian Navy cruiser of the , . The cruiser , firing a Tomahawk missile. Later 20th century The rise of air power during World War II dramatically changed the nature of naval combat. Even the fastest cruisers could not steer quickly enough to evade aerial attack, and aircraft now had torpedoes, allowing moderate-range standoff capabilities. This change led to the end of independent operations by single ships or very small task groups, and for the second half of the 20th century naval operations were based around very large fleets able to fend off all but the largest air attacks. This has led most navies to change to fleets designed around ships dedicated to a single role, anti-submarine or anti-aircraft typically, and the large "generalist" ship has disappeared from most forces. The United States Navy, the Russian Navy, and the Peruvian Navy are the only remaining navies which operate cruisers. France operates a single cruiser, , which in the NATO pennant number system is classified as an aircraft carrier, but for training purposes only. In the Soviet Navy, cruisers formed the basis of their combat groups. In the immediate post-war era they built a fleet of large-gun ships, but replaced these fairly quickly with very large ships carrying huge numbers of guided missiles and anti aircraft missiles. The most recent ships of this type, the four Kirovs, were built in the 1970s and 1980s, and, with the exception of the two newest in the class, and , are no longer in service today. Russia also operates one Kara-class and four Slava-class cruisers, plus one Kuznetsov-class carrier which is officially designated as a cruiser. The United States Navy has centered on the aircraft carrier since WWII. The cruisers, built in the 1980s, were originally designed and designated as a class of destroyer, intended to provide a very powerful air-defense in these carrier-centered fleets. The ships were later redesignated largely as a public relations move, in order to highlight the capability of the Aegis combat system the ships were designed around. In the years since the launch of in 1981 the class has received a number of upgrades that have dramatically improved their capabilities for anti-submarine and land attack (using the Tomahawk missile). Like their Soviet counterparts, the modern Ticonderogas can also be used as the basis for an entire battle group. Their cruiser designation was almost certainly deserved when first built, as their sensors and combat management systems enable them to act as 'flagships' for a surface warship flotilla if no carrier is present, but newer ships rated as destroyers and also equipped with AEGIS approach them very closely in capability, and once more blur the line between the two classes. Aircraft cruisers From time to time, some navies have experimented with aircraft-carrying cruisers. One example is the Swedish HMS Gotland. Another variant is the helicopter cruiser. The last example in service was the Soviet Navy's , the last unit of which has been converted to a pure aircraft carrier and sold to India. The Russian Navy's is nominally designated as an aviation cruiser but otherwise resembles a standard medium aircraft carrier, albeit with an SSM battery. The Royal Navy's aircraft-carrying vessels were originally designated 'through-deck cruisers', but have since been designated as small aircraft carriers. Cruisers in service today of the French Navy, the only helicopter cruiser still in service, launched in 1961. , a cruiser of the Peruvian Navy, the only 'traditional' cruiser still in service, launched in 1941. Few cruisers remain operational in the world navies. Those that do are: United States Navy: 22 Naval Vessel Register guided missile cruisers. Russian Navy: Two large missile cruisers (sometimes referred to as battlecruisers due to their size) and three missile cruisers (further one under construction, transferred from Ukrainian Navy to Russian Navy) and two . French Navy: The helicopter cruiser (now used as a training ship). Peruvian Navy: One cruiser, the world's last operational gun cruiser. The US Navy's "cruiser gap" Prior to the introduction of the Ticonderogas, the US Navy used odd naming conventions that left its fleet seemingly without many cruisers, although a number of their ships were cruisers in all but name. From the 1950s to the 1970s, US Navy "cruisers" were large vessels equipped with heavy offensive missiles (including the Regulus nuclear cruise missile) for wide-ranging combat against land-based and sea-based targets. All save one — — were converted from World War II Chicago, Baltimore and Cleveland class cruisers. "Frigates" under this scheme were almost as large as the cruisers and optimized for anti-aircraft warfare, although they were capable anti-surface warfare combatants as well. In the late 1960s, the US government perceived a "cruiser gap" — at the time, the US Navy possessed six ships designated as "cruisers", compared to 19 for the Soviet Union, even though the USN possessed at the time 21 "frigates" with equal or superior capabilities to the Soviet cruisers — because of this, in 1975 the Navy performed a massive redesignation of its forces: CVA/CVAN were redesignated CV/CVN (although and never embarked anti-submarine squadrons). DLG/DLGN (Frigate/Nuclear-powered Frigate) were redesignated CG/CGN (Guided Missile Cruiser/Nuclear-powered Guided Missile Cruiser). Farragut-class guided missile frigates (DLG), being smaller and less capable than the others, were redesignated to DDGs ( was the first ship of this class to be re-numbered; because of this the class is sometimes called the Coontz class); DE/DEG (Ocean Escort/Guided Missile Ocean Escort) were redesignated to FF/FFG (Guided Missile Frigates), bringing the US "Frigate" designation into line with the rest of the world. Also, a series of Patrol Frigates of the , originally designated PFG, were redesignated into the FFG line. The cruiser-destroyer-frigate realignment and the deletion of the Ocean Escort type brought the US Navy's ship designations into line with the rest of the world's, eliminating confusion with foreign navies. In 1980, the Navy's then-building DDG-47 class destroyers were redesignated as cruisers (CG-47 Ticonderoga-class guided missile cruiser) to emphasize the additional capability provided by the ships' Aegis combat systems. See also Protected cruiser Armored cruiser Light cruiser Heavy cruiser Battlecruiser List of cruisers References | Cruiser |@lemmatized guide:8 missile:19 cruiser:149 launch:6 large:18 type:10 warship:11 prime:1 period:1 late:8 century:16 end:4 cold:1 war:15 first:13 intend:2 individual:1 raiding:2 protection:6 mission:5 sea:5 year:2 nature:2 role:16 change:4 considerably:3 today:4 largely:3 replace:4 destroyer:8 historically:1 ship:48 often:4 frigates:1 small:17 vessel:15 assign:1 independent:5 fleet:13 typically:3 might:3 involve:1 raid:3 enemy:5 merchant:6 shipping:1 term:5 come:6 mean:5 design:11 fulfill:1 battleship:13 much:3 half:2 navy:40 long:6 range:9 force:4 projection:1 weapon:2 stay:1 nearer:1 home:1 main:3 attack:4 task:4 call:4 warfare:5 include:4 reconnaissance:2 attach:1 battlefleet:1 decline:1 leave:2 powerful:4 surface:7 combatant:3 however:2 increasingly:1 become:6 one:10 provide:5 air:6 defence:2 rather:5 beginning:2 heavy:15 use:17 five:1 nation:4 united:6 state:6 russia:2 france:2 italy:1 peru:1 operate:7 time:7 follow:3 italian:1 decommissioning:1 four:3 currently:1 early:4 history:2 cruizer:2 alternative:1 spelling:1 could:8 find:1 least:1 jackie:3 fisher:5 write:1 require:2 increase:1 class:24 letter:1 date:2 feb:1 mackay:1 r:1 kilverstone:1 p:2 commonly:1 refer:6 purpose:6 category:1 nonetheless:1 faster:1 suitable:1 line:9 generally:2 inflexible:1 expensive:2 dispatch:2 instance:1 america:1 strategically:1 important:1 put:2 risk:1 foul:1 founder:1 continual:1 patrol:3 duty:4 dutch:1 note:1 british:11 french:5 spanish:1 later:4 catch:1 number:8 deployment:1 convoy:2 act:3 attempt:2 mercantile:1 interest:1 parliament:1 focus:1 commerce:2 scarce:1 rodger:1 n:1 command:1 ocean:4 naval:17 britain:3 allen:1 lane:1 london:4 isbn:2 frigate:14 pre:3 eminent:1 fast:10 lightly:1 arm:10 single:5 gun:18 deck:7 scout:1 carry:6 disrupt:1 trade:2 principal:1 sloop:3 many:5 miscellaneous:1 well:5 steam:5 propulsion:2 norm:1 start:2 descriptively:1 ironclad:8 miscellany:1 unarmored:6 corvette:1 mixed:1 sail:1 still:5 even:5 though:4 exist:1 construct:1 overseas:2 cruising:1 commissioned:1 armored:11 produce:3 specifically:2 build:11 mast:1 full:1 sailing:1 rig:1 enable:2 far:1 friendly:1 coal:2 station:1 hill:1 richard:1 age:1 cassell:1 x:1 cruise:2 wood:2 iron:3 steel:10 combination:1 material:2 remain:3 popular:1 towards:1 armor:12 limit:4 short:1 unsuited:1 work:1 distant:1 colony:1 screw:2 continue:3 mid:1 fire:5 explosive:1 shell:2 unable:1 face:1 combat:9 evidence:1 clash:1 modern:6 peruvian:5 monitor:1 huáscar:1 obsolescent:1 encounter:1 stand:1 roughly:2 hit:1 architect:1 begin:5 construction:6 armament:8 light:11 built:1 jeune:1 ecole:1 school:1 doctrine:1 suggest:1 unprotected:1 ideal:1 torpedo:8 boat:2 would:4 able:4 destroy:1 also:11 offer:2 way:2 acquire:1 need:3 survive:1 strong:1 weight:1 relatively:2 thin:2 layer:1 vital:1 part:2 place:2 bunker:1 stop:1 shellfire:1 useful:1 degree:1 achieve:1 without:2 slow:1 protect:3 groundbreaking:1 chilean:1 esmeralda:2 shipyard:1 elswick:2 armstrong:1 inspire:1 group:4 protected:1 yard:1 know:4 forecastle:1 poop:1 wooden:1 board:1 remove:2 consist:1 fore:1 aft:1 inch:5 cm:4 midships:1 position:1 reach:2 speed:9 propel:1 alone:1 displacement:5 less:3 ton:2 two:7 decade:1 inspiration:1 combine:2 artillery:2 high:5 low:3 cruisers:1 emerge:1 medium:2 calibre:4 guard:1 repeat:1 signal:1 suit:1 function:1 flagship:2 flotilla:4 usually:1 good:3 go:1 quality:1 dreadnought:4 impact:2 new:6 firepower:3 endurance:1 ever:1 greatly:1 resemble:2 day:1 tend:1 slightly:1 somewhat:1 exchange:1 perhaps:1 similarity:1 blurred:1 german:7 shortly:2 turn:1 difficult:1 question:1 future:1 almost:3 enough:2 outrun:1 old:2 royal:5 cut:1 back:1 hugely:1 different:1 sort:1 miser:1 hoard:1 useless:2 junk:1 sweep:1 battlecruisers:4 hms:1 repulse:1 grow:1 size:2 power:3 result:1 battlecruiser:5 similar:2 revolutionary:1 brainchild:1 admiral:1 believe:1 ensure:1 dominance:1 colonial:1 possession:1 powerfully:1 hunt:1 mop:1 overwhelming:1 superiority:1 commission:2 spite:1 lobbying:1 concept:2 never:2 dominate:1 germany:3 eventually:1 japan:2 squadron:3 world:15 era:2 serve:2 headquarters:1 train:1 belfast:1 around:5 develop:1 distinction:2 finally:1 disappear:2 town:1 possible:1 belt:1 particularly:1 turbine:1 engine:1 adopt:1 occupy:1 traditional:3 clear:1 battle:2 leader:2 auxiliary:3 hastily:1 outbreak:1 fill:1 gap:3 escort:5 cargo:1 although:7 prove:1 feeble:1 lack:1 surprise:1 allied:1 liner:1 service:6 armed:1 amc:1 raider:2 knot:1 km:1 h:1 ii:5 japanese:1 second:3 workhorse:1 international:1 treaty:7 prevent:1 repetition:1 race:1 washington:2 great:1 top:1 formalise:1 reduce:1 tonnage:1 little:1 signatory:1 already:1 evade:2 limitation:1 widespread:1 classification:1 immediate:2 precursor:1 pocket:3 battleships:1 series:2 three:3 panzerschiffe:2 form:2 heavily:1 reichsmarine:1 accordance:1 restriction:1 impose:1 versailles:1 name:2 complete:8 kriegsmarine:2 reference:2 contain:1 deutschland:2 circle:1 actually:1 foot:1 longer:2 american:1 latter:1 unusually:1 stubby:1 initially:1 classify:2 reclassify:1 february:1 anti:22 aircraft:25 uss:1 atlanta:2 cl:1 development:1 tube:2 angle:2 wwi:1 ten:1 appropriate:1 control:1 equipment:1 altitude:1 bomber:1 friedman:2 norman:2 life:2 institute:2 proceeding:2 january:2 tactical:1 shortcoming:1 recognize:1 six:2 additional:2 conversion:1 c:1 sacrifice:1 convert:3 unit:2 undertake:1 create:1 dual:3 capability:8 defend:1 capital:1 wwii:3 u:8 claa:1 match:1 dido:1 quick:1 embrace:1 several:1 see:2 de:2 grasse:1 colbert:1 pp:1 post:2 defense:2 advance:1 aviation:2 technology:1 move:2 therefore:1 equip:3 equivalent:1 guided:2 cag:1 clg:1 cg:3 cgn:2 russian:5 tomahawk:2 rise:1 dramatically:2 steer:1 quickly:2 aerial:1 allow:1 moderate:1 standoff:1 lead:2 operation:2 base:3 fend:1 dedicate:1 submarine:3 generalist:1 nato:1 pennant:1 system:4 carrier:8 training:2 soviet:5 basis:2 fairly:1 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others:1 ddgs:1 coontz:1 deg:1 ff:1 ffg:2 bring:2 rest:2 pfg:1 realignment:1 deletion:1 eliminate:1 confusion:1 foreign:1 building:1 ddg:1 emphasize:1 list:1 |@bigram jackie_fisher:3 strategically_important:1 rodger_n:1 pre_eminent:1 ironclad_warship:1 frigate_sloop:1 armored_cruiser:9 jeune_ecole:1 commerce_raiding:1 torpedo_boat:2 thin_layer:1 fore_aft:1 inch_cm:4 pre_dreadnought:2 dreadnought_battleship:2 battlecruiser_squadron:1 auxiliary_cruiser:3 convoy_escort:1 gun_calibre:1 treaty_versailles:1 pocket_battleship:2 battleship_battlecruisers:1 torpedo_tube:2 de_grasse:1 guided_missile:2 tomahawk_missile:2 naming_convention:1 cruise_missile:1 soviet_union:1 cruiser_destroyer:1 |
4,275 | Lubricant | A lubricant (sometimes referred to as "lube") is a substance (often a liquid) introduced between two moving surfaces to reduce the friction between them, improving efficiency and reducing wear. They may also have the function of dissolving or transporting foreign particles and of distributing heat. One of the single largest applications for lubricants, in the form of motor oil, is to protect the internal combustion engines in motor vehicles and powered equipment. Typically lubricants contain 90% base oil (most often petroleum fractions, called mineral oils) and less than 10% additives. Vegetable oils or synthetic liquids such as hydrogenated polyolefins, esters, silicone, fluorocarbons and many others are sometimes used as base oils. Additives deliver reduced friction and wear, increased viscosity, improved viscosity index, resistance to corrosion and oxidation, aging or contamination, etc. Lubricants such as 2-cycle oil are also added to some fuels. Sulfur impurities in fuels also provide some lubrication properties, which has to be taken in account when switching to a low-sulfur diesel; biodiesel is a popular diesel fuel additive providing additional lubricity. Non-liquid lubricants include grease, powders (dry graphite, PTFE, Molybdenum disulfide, tungsten disulfide, etc.), teflon tape used in plumbing, air cushion and others. Dry lubricants such as graphite, molybdenum disulfide and tungsten disulfide also offer lubrication at temperatures (up to 350 °C) higher than liquid and oil-based lubricants are able to operate. Limited interest has been shown in low friction properties of compacted oxide glaze layers formed at several hundred degrees Celsius in metallic sliding systems, however, practical use is still many years away due to their physically unstable nature. Another approach to reducing friction and wear is to use bearings such as ball bearings, roller bearings or air bearings, which in turn require internal lubrication themselves, or to use sound, in the case of acoustic lubrication. In addition to industrial applications, lubricants are used for many other purposes. Other uses include bio-medical applications (e.g. lubricants for artificial joints) and the use of personal lubricant for sexual purposes. Purpose Lubricants perform the following key functions. Keep moving parts apart Reduce friction Transfer heat Carry away contaminants & debris Transmit power Protect against wear Prevent corrosion Seal for gasses Stop the risk of smoke and fire of objects Keep moving parts apart Lubricants are typically used to separate moving parts in a system. This has the benefit of reducing friction and surface fatigue together with reduced heat generation, operating noise and vibrations. Lubricants achieve this by several ways. The most common is by forming a physical barrier i.e. a thin layer of lubricant separates the moving parts. This is termed hydrodynamic lubrication. In cases of high surface pressures or temperatures the fluid film is much thinner and some of the forces are transmitted between the surfaces through the lubricant. This is termed elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication. Reduce friction Typically the lubricant-to-surface friction is much less than surface-to-surface friction in a system without any lubrication. Thus use of a lubricant reduces the overall system friction. Reduced friction has the benefit of reducing heat generation and reduced formation of wear particles as well as improved efficiency. Lubricants may contain additives known as friction modifiers that chemically bind to metal surfaces to reduce surface friction even when there is insufficient bulk lubricant present for hydrodynamic lubrication, e.g. protecting the valve train in a car engine at startup. Transfer heat Both gas and liquid lubricants can transfer heat. However, liquid lubricants are much more effective on account of their high specific heat capacity. Typically the liquid lubricant is constantly circulated to and from a cooler part of the system, although lubricants may be used to warm as well as to cool when a regulated temperature is required. This circulating flow also determines the amount of heat that is carried away in any given unit of time. High flow systems can carry away a lot of heat and have the additional benefit of reducing the thermal stress on the lubricant. Thus lower cost liquid lubricants may be used. The primary drawback is that high flows typically require larger sumps and bigger cooling units. A secondary drawback is that a high flow system that relies on the flow rate to protect the lubricant from thermal stress is susceptible to catastrophic failure during sudden system shut downs. An automotive oil-cooled turbocharger is a typical example. Turbochargers get red hot during operation and the oil that is cooling them only survives as its residence time in the system is very short i.e. high flow rate. If the system is shut down suddenly (pulling into a service area after a high speed drive and stopping the engine) the oil that is in the turbo charger immediately oxidizes and will clog the oil ways with deposits. Over time these deposits can completely block the oil ways, reducing the cooling with the result that the turbo charger experiences total failure typically with seized bearings. Non-flowing lubricants such as greases & pastes are not effective at heat transfer although they do contribute by reducing the generation of heat in the first place. Carry away contaminants and debris Lubricant circulation systems have the benefit of carrying away internally generated debris and external contaminants that get introduced into the system to a filter where they can be removed. Lubricants for machines that regularly generate debris or contaminants such as automotive engines typically contain detergent and dispersant additives to assist in debris and contaminant transport to the filter and removal. Over time the filter will get clogged and require cleaning or replacement, hence the recommendation to change a car's oil filter at the same time as changing the oil. In closed systems such as gear boxes the filter may be supplemented by a magnet to attract any iron fines that get created. It is apparent that in a circulatory system the oil will only be as clean as the filter can make it, thus it is unfortunate that there are no industry standards by which consumers can readily assess the filtering ability of various automotive filters. Poor filtration significantly reduces the life of the machine (engine) as well as making the system inefficient. Transmit power Pascal's law is at the heart of hydrostatic power transmission. Hydraulic fluids comprise a large portion of all lubricants produced in the world. Protect against wear Lubricants prevent wear by keeping the moving parts apart. Lubricants may also contain anti-wear or extreme pressure additives to boost their performance against wear and fatigue. Prevent corrosion Good quality lubricants are typically formulated with additives that form chemical bonds with surfaces to prevent corrosion and rust. Seal for gasses Lubricants will occupy the clearance between moving parts through the capillary force, thus sealing the clearance. This effect can be used to seal pistons and shafts. History Romans used rags dipped in animal fat to lubricate wagon wheels; however the science of lubrication (tribology) really only took off with the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century. General composition Lubricants are generally composed of a majority of base oil and a minority of additives to impart desirable characteristics. Types of lubricants Gas Liquid including emulsions and suspensions Solid Greases Adhesive Gaseous lubricants Gaseous lubricants have a much lower viscosity and higher compressibility compared to liquid lubricants, but the fluid-film principles apply analogeous to gases. Some examples for gaseous lubricants are air (used in fluid bearings), technical gases, steam or liquid-metal vapours. Liquid lubricants Liquid lubricants may be characterized in many different ways. One of the most common ways is by the type of base oil used. Following are the most common types. Lanolin (wool grease, natural water repellant) Water Mineral oils Vegetable (natural oil) Synthetic oils Other liquids Note: although generally lubricants are based on one type of base oil or another, it is quite possible to use mixtures of the base oils to meet performance requirements. Lanolin A natural water repellent, lanolin is derived from sheep wool grease, and is an alternative to the more common petro-chemical based lubricants. This lubricant is also a corrosion inhibitor, protecting against rust, salts, and acids. Water Water can be used on its own, or as a major component in combination with one of the other base oils. Commonly used in engineering processes, such as milling and lathe turning. Mineral oil This term is used to encompass lubricating base oil derived from crude oil. The American Petroleum Institute (API) designates several types of lubricant base oil identified http://www.api.org/certifications/engineoil/pubs/index.cfm as: Group I - Saturates <90% and/or sulphur >0.03%, and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) viscosity index (VI) of 80 to 120 - Manufactured by solvent extraction, solvent or catalytic dewaxing, and hydro-finishing processes. Common Group I base oil are 150SN (solvent neutral), 500SN, and 150BS (brightstok) Group II – Saturates >90% and sulfur <0.03%, and SAE viscosity index of 80 to 120 - Manufactured by hydrocracking and solvent or catalytic dewaxing processes. Group II base oil has superior anti-oxidation properties since virtually all hydrocarbon molecules are saturated. It has water-white color. Group III – Saturates > 90%, sulfur <0.03%, and SAE viscosity index >120 - Manufactured by special processes such as isohydromerization. Can be manufactured from base oil or slax wax from dewaxing process. Group IV – Polyalphaolefins (PAO) Group V – All others not included above Such as naphthenics, PAG, esters, and etc. In North America, Groups III, IV and V are now described as synthetic lubricants, with group III frequently described as synthesised hydrocarbons, or SHCs. In Europe, only Groups IV and V may be classed as synthetics. The lubricant industry commonly extends this group terminology to include: Group I+ with a Viscosity Index of 103 - 108 Group II+ with a Viscosity Index of 113 - 119 Group III+ with a Viscosity Index of >= 140 Can also be classified into three categories depending on the prevailing compositions: - Paraffinic - Naphthenic - Aromatic While lubricants for use in internal combustion engines may solely consist of one of the abovementioned oil groups, it is not desirable in practice. Additives to reduce oxidation, improve lubrication are added to the final product. The main constituent of such lubricant product is called the base oil, base stock. While it is advantageous to have a high-grade base oil in a lubricant, proper selection of the lubricant additives is equally as important. Thus some poorly selected formulation of PAO lubricant may not last as long as more expensive formulation of Group III+ lubricant. Vegetable (natural) oils These are primarily triglyceride esters derived from plants and animals. For lubricant base oil use the vegetable derived materials are preferred. Common ones include high oleic canola oil, castor oil, palm oil, sunflower seed oil and rapeseed oil from vegetable, and Tall oil from animal sources. Many vegetable oils are often hydrolyzed to yield the acids which are subsequently combined selectively to form specialist synthetic esters. Synthetic oils Polyalpha-olefin (PAO) Synthetic esters Polyalkylene glycols (PAG) Phosphate esters Alkylated naphthalenes (AN) Silicate esters Ionic fluids Solid lubricants Teflon or PTFE Teflon or PTFE is typically used as a coating layer on, for example, cooking utensils to provide a non-stick surface. Its usable temperature range up to 350°C and chemical inertness make it a useful additive in special greases. Under extreme pressures, teflon powder or solids is of little value as it is soft and flows away from the area of contact. Ceramic or metal or alloy lubricants must be used then. Non-metals Graphite, hexagonal boron nitride, molybdenum disulfide and tungsten disulfide are examples of materials that can be used as solid lubricants, often to very high temperature. The use of some such materials is sometimes restricted by their poor resistance to oxidation (e.g., molybdenum disulfide can only be used up to 350°C in air, but 1100°C in reducing environments). Metal/alloy Metal alloys, composites and pure metals can be used as grease additives or the sole constituents of sliding surfaces and bearings. Cadmium and Gold are used for plating surfaces which gives them good corrosion resistance and sliding properties, Lead, Tin, Zinc alloys and various Bronze alloys are used as sliding bearings, or their powder can be used to lubricate sliding surfaces alone, or as additives to greases. Other relevant phenomena 'Glaze' formation (high temperature wear) A further phenomenon that has undergone investigation in relation to high temperature wear prevention and lubrication, is that of 'glaze' formation http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/high_temp_wear/mythesis.html . This is the generation of a compacted oxide layer which sinters together to form a crystalline 'glaze' (not the amorphous layer seen in pottery) generally at high temperatures, from metallic surfaces sliding against each other (or a metallic surface against a ceramic surface). Due to the elimination of metallic contact and adhesion by the generation of oxide, friction and wear is reduced. Effectively, such a surface is self-lubricating. As the 'glaze' is already an oxide, it can survive to very high temperatures in air or oxidising environments. However, it is disadvantaged by it being necessary for the base metal (or ceramic) having to undergo some wear first to generate sufficient oxide debris. Additives A large number of additives are used to impart performance characteristics to the lubricants. The main families of additives are: Antioxidants Detergents Anti-wear Metal deactivators Corrosion inhibitors, Rust inhibitors Friction modifiers Extreme Pressure Anti-foaming agents Viscosity index improvers Demulsifying/Emulsifying Stickiness improver, provide adhesive property towards tool surface (in metalworking) Complexing agent (in case of greases) Note that many of the basic chemical compounds used as detergents (example: calcium sulfonate) serve the purpose of the first seven items in the list as well. Usually it is not economically or technically feasible to use a single do-it-all additive compound. Oils for hypoid gear lubrication will contain high content of EP additives. Grease lubricants may contain large amount of solid particle friction modifiers, such as graphite, molybden sulfide, etc. Application by fluid types Automotive Engine oils Petrol (Gasoline) engine oils Diesel engine oils Automatic transmission fluid Gearbox fluids Brake fluids Hydraulic fluids Tractor (one lubricant for all systems) Universal Tractor Transmission Oil - UTTO Super Tractor Oil Universal - STOU - includes engine Other motors 2-stroke engine oils Industrial Hydraulic oils Air compressor oils Gas Compressor oils Gear oils Bearing and circulating system oils Refrigerator compressor oils Steam and gas turbine oils Aviation Gas turbine engine oils Piston engine oils Marine Crosshead cylinder oils Crosshead Crankcase oils Trunk piston engine oils Stern tube lubricants Marketing The global lubricant market is generally competitive with numerous manufacturers and marketers. Overall the western market may be considered mature with a flat to declining overall volumes while there is strong growth in the emerging economies. The lubricant marketers generally--- pursue one or more of the following strategies when pursuing business. Specification: The lubricant is said to meet a certain specification. In the consumer market, this is often supported by a logo, symbol or words that inform the consumer that the lubricant marketer has obtained independent verification of conformance to the specification. Examples of these include the API’s donut logo or the NSF tick mark. The most widely perceived is SAE viscosity specification, like SAE 10W-40. Lubricity specifications are institute and manufacturer based. In the U.S. institute: API S for petrol engines, API C for diesel engines. For 2007 the current specs are API SM and API CJ. Higher second letter marks better oil properties, like lower engine wear supported by tests. In EU the ACEA specifications are used. There are classes A,B,C,E with number following the letter. Japan introduced the JASO specification for motorbike engines. In the industrial market place the specification may take the form of a legal contract to supply a conforming fluid or purchasers may choose to buy on the basis of a manufacturers own published specification. Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) approval: Specifications often denote a minimum acceptable performance levels. Thus many equipment manufacturers add on their own particular requirements or tighten the tolerance on a general specification to meet their particular needs (or doing a different set of tests or using different/own testbed engine). This gives the lubricant marketer an avenue to differentiate their product by designing it to meet an OEM specification. Often, the OEM carries out extensive testing and maintains an active list of approved products. This is a powerful marketing tool in the lubricant marketplace. Text on the back of the motor oil label usually has a list of conformity to some OEM specifications, such as MB, MAN, Volvo, Cummins, VW, BMW or others. Manufactures may have vastly different specifications for the range of engines they make; one may not be completely suitable for some other. Performance: The lubricant marketer claims benefits for the customer based on the superior performance of the lubricant. Such marketing is supported by glamorous advertising, sponsorships of typically sporting events and endorsements. Unfortunately broad performance claims are common in the consumer marketplace, which are difficult or impossible for a typical consumer to verify. In the B2B market place the marketer is normally expected to show data that supports the claims, hence reducing the use of broad claims. Increasing performance, reducing wear and fuel consumption is also aim of the later API, ACEA and car manufacturer oil specifications, so lubricant marketers can back their claims by doing extensive (and expensive) testing. Longevity: The marketer claims that their lubricant maintains its performance over a longer period of time. For example in the consumer market, a typical motor oil change interval is around the 3000-6000 miles (7500-15000 km). The lubricant marketer may offer a lubricant that lasts for 12000 (30000km) miles or more to convince a user to pay a premium. Typically, the consumer would need to check or balance the longer life and any warranties offered by the lubricant manufacturer with the possible loss of equipment manufacturer warranties by not following its schedule. Many car and engine manufacturers support extended drain intervals, but request extended drain interval certified oil used in that case; and sometimes a special oil filter. Example: In older Mercedes-Benz engines and in truck engines one can use engine oil MB 228.1 for basic drain interval. Engine oils conforming with higher specification MB 228.3 may be used twice as long, oil of MB 228.5 specification 3x longer. Note that the oil drain interval is valid for new engine with fuel conforming car manufacturer specification. When using lower grade fuel, or worn engine the oil change interval has to shorten accordingly. In general oils approved for extended use are of higher specification and reduce wear. In the industrial market place the longevity is generally measured in time units and the lubricant marketer can suffer large financial penalties if their claims are not substantiated. Efficiency: The lubricant marketer claims improved equipment efficiency when compared to rival products or technologies, the claim is usually valid when comparing lubricant of higher specification with previous grade. Typically the efficiency is proved by showing a reduction in energy costs to operate the system. Guaranteeing improved efficiency is the goal of some oil test specifications such as API CI-4 Plus for diesel engines. Some car/engine manufacturers also specifically request certain higher efficiency level for lubricants for extended drain intervals. Operational tolerance: The lubricant is claimed to cope with specific operational environment needs. Some common environments include dry, wet, cold, hot, fire risk, high load, high or low speed, chemical compatibility, atmospheric compatibility, pressure or vacuum and various combinations. The usual thermal characteristics is outlined with SAE viscosity given for 100°C, like SAE 30, SAE 40. For low temperature viscosity the SAE xxW mark is used. Both markings can be combined together to form a SAE 0W-60 for example. Viscosity index (VI) marks viscosity change with temperature, with higher VI numbers being more temperature stable. Economy: The marketer offers a lubricant at a lower cost than rivals either in the same grade or a similar one that will fill the purpose for lesser price. (Stationary installations with short drain intervals.) Alternative may be offering a more expensive lubricant and promise return in lower wear, specific fuel consumption or longer drain intervals. (Expensive machinery, un-affordable downtimes.) Environment friendly: The lubricant is said to be environmentally friendly. Typically this is supported by qualifying statements or conformance to generally accepted approvals. Several organizations, typically government sponsored, exist globally to qualify and approve such lubricants by evaluating their potential for environmental harm. Typically, the lubricant manufacturer is allowed to indicate such approval by showing some special mark. Examples include the German “Blue Angel”, European “Daisy” Eco label, Global Eco-Label “GEN mark”, Nordic, “White Swan”, Japanese “Earth friendly mark”; USA “Green Seal”, Canadian “Environmental Choice”, Chinese “Huan”, Singapore “Green Label” and the French “NF Environment mark”. Composition: The marketer claims novel composition of the lubricant which improves some tangible performance over its rivals. Typically the technology is protected via formal patents or other intellectual property protection mechanism to prevent rivals from copying. Lot of claims in this area are simple marketing buzzwords, since most of them are related to a manufacturer specific process naming (which achieves similar results than other ones) but the competition is prohibited from using a trademark. Quality: The marketer claims broad superior quality of its lubricant with no factual evidence. The quality is “proven” by references to famous brand, sporting figure, racing team, some professional endorsement or some similar subjective claim. All motor oil labels wear mark similar to "of outstanding quality" or "quality additives," the actual comparative evidence is always lacking. Disposal and environmental issues It is estimated that 40% of all lubricants are released into the environment. Disposal: Recycling, burning, landfill and discharge into water may achieve disposal of used lubricant. There are typically strict regulations in most countries regarding disposal in landfill and discharge into water as even small amount of lubricant can contaminate a large amount of water. Most regulations permit a threshold level of lubricant that may be present in waste streams and companies spend hundreds of millions of dollars annually in treating their waste waters to get to acceptable levels. Burning the lubricant as fuel, typically to generate electricity, is also governed by regulations mainly on account of the relatively high level of additives present. Burning generates both airborne pollutants and ash rich in toxic materials, mainly heavy metal compounds. Thus lubricant burning takes place in specialized facilities that have incorporated special scrubbers to remove airborne pollutants and have access to landfill sites with permits to handle the toxic ash. Unfortunately, most lubricant that ends up directly in the environment is due to general public discharging it onto the ground, into drains and directly into landfills as trash. Other direct contamination sources include runoff from roadways, accidental spillages, natural or man-made disasters and pipeline leakages. Improvement in filtration technologies and processes has now made recycling a viable option (with rising price of base stock and crude oil). Typically various filtration systems remove particulates, additives and oxidation products and recover the base oil. The oil may get refined during the process. This base oil is then treated much the same as virgin base oil however there is considerable reluctance to use recycled oils as they are generally considered inferior. Basestock fractionally vacuum distilled from used lubricants has superior properties to all natural oils, but cost effectiveness depends on many factors. Used lubricant may also be used as refinery feedstock to become part of crude oil. Again there is considerable reluctance to this use as the additives, soot and wear metals will seriously poison/deactivate the critical catalysts in the process. Cost prohibits carrying out both filtration (soot, additives removal) and re-refining (distilling, isomerisation, hydrocrack, etc.) however the primary hindrance to recycling still remains the collection of fluids as refineries need continuous supply in amounts measured in cisterns, rail tanks. Occasionally, unused lubricant requires disposal. The best course of action in such situations is to return it to the manufacturer where it can be processed as a part of fresh batches. Environment: Lubricants both fresh and used can cause considerable damage to the environment mainly due to their high potential of serious water pollution. Further the additives typically contained in lubricant can be toxic to flora and fauna. In used fluids the oxidation products can be toxic as well. Lubricant persistence in the environment largely depends upon the base fluid, however if very toxic additives are used they may negatively affect the persistence. Lanolin lubricants are non-toxic making them the environmental alternative which is safe for both users and the environment. Societies and industry bodies API American Petroleum Institute STLE Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers NLGI National Lubricating Grease institute SAE Society of Automotive Engineers ILMA Independent lubricant manufacturer association European Automobile Manufacturers Association ACEA Japanese Automotive Standards Organization JASO Major publications Peer reviewed Tribology Transactions Journal of Synthetic Lubricants Trade periodicals Tribology and Lubrication Technology Fuels & Lubes International Oiltrends Lubes n’ Greases Compoundings Chemical Market Review Machinery lubrication See also Castor oil personal lubricant WD-40 References Notes Sources API 1509, Engine Oil Licensing and Certification System, 15th Edition, 2002. Appendix E, API Base Oil Interchangeability Guidelines for Passenger Car Motor Oils and Diesel Engine Oils (revised) Boughton and Horvath, 2003, Environmental Assessment of Used Oil Management Methods, Environmental Science and Technology, V38 I.A. Inman. Compacted Oxide Layer Formation under Conditions of Limited Debris Retention at the Wear Interface during High Temperature Sliding Wear of Superalloys, Ph.D. Thesis (2003), Northumbria University, ISBN 1-58112-321-3 Mercedes-Benz oil recommendations, extracted from factory manuals and personal research Measuring reserve alkalinity and evaluation of wear dependence Testing used oil quality, list of possible measurements Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications, Leslie R. Rudnick, CRC Press. 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4,276 | Knockout | A knockout (also referred to as a K.O.) is a winning criterion in several full-contact combat sports, such as boxing, kickboxing, Muay Thai, mixed martial arts and others sports involving striking. A knockout is usually awarded when one participant is unable to rise from the canvas within a specified period of time, typically because of fatigue, injury (serious or temporarily incapacitating, e.g. a bleeding cut above the eye can blind a fighter), loss of balance, or unconsciousness; that is, the person may literally be knocked out. A technical knockout (also referred to as a T.K.O.) is often declared when the referee or other judges (such as official ring physician, the fighter, or the fighter's cornermen) decide that a fighter cannot continue the match, even though he did not fail the count, or, in many regions, a fighter has been knocked down three times in one round. Sugar, Bert. Boxing. www.owingsmillsboxingclub.com. URL last accessed March 4, 2006. British records refer to TKOs as either "retired", if the fighter refuses to continue, or "R.S.F.", for Referee Stopped Fight. In amateur boxing, a knockout is scored as "RSC," for Referee Stopped Contest. A technical knockout ("Outclassed") can also be declared if a fighter is ahead by 15 points in a bout. A pugilist who is regarded as a hard puncher, and who has racked up a high percentage of knockout victories, or especially spectacular knockouts, are referred to as knockout artists, because it is said "they make an art of knocking people unconscious". Physical characteristics There is actually very little known about what exactly causes a knockout but many agree it has to do with minor trauma to the brain stem. This usually happens when the head rotates sharply, often caused by a strike. A common misconception is that a knockout is caused by compression put on the carotid arteries in the neck restricting blood flow, but this is in fact how a choke out works. Margaret Goodman, MD Ringside and training principles URL last accessed June 20, 2006 A basic principle of boxing is to defend against this vulnerability by keeping both hands raised about the face. A fighter who suffers a concussion and becomes unconscious from a strike with sufficient knockout power is referred to as having been knocked out or kayoed (KO'd). Losing balance without losing consciousness is referred to as being knocked down ("down but not out"). Repeated blows to the head are known to gradually cause permanent brain damage, with Alzheimer's- or Parkinson's-like symptoms, and in severe cases may cause strokes or paralysis. This is commonly known as becoming "punch-drunk". Because of this, many physicians advise against sports involving knockouts. Lieberman, Abraham. Causing Parkinson: Boxing, Brain Injury. www.liebermanparkinsonclinic.com. URL last accessed March 4, 2006. Fighters who lose by knockout (either by ten count or technical) are automatically suspended thirty days, three months if it is the second knockout within three months, or one year if it is the third knockout within one year. In AIBA competition, this does not apply if a fighter loses by a technical knockout outclassed, when a fighter is behind more than 20 points -- 15 for junior levels -- in any round except the final round. As a winning outcome In boxing, a knockout occurs when a fighter is knocked down and does not get up within 10 seconds, as counted by the referee. In mixed martial arts, the definitions of knockouts and technical knockouts vary according to organization and jurisdiction. According to its publicized rules, the Japanese PRIDE FC promotion does not declare 'knockout' as an official type of victory, but rather only technical knockouts when the referee considers a fighter unable to continue. PRIDE FC official website. Pride Rules. www.pridefc.com. URL last accessed March 4 2006. Under New Jersey's Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts, which has become the de facto standard of MMA rules in the United States, a knockout is defined as a "failure to rise from the canvas". New Jersey State Athletic Control Board. Mixed Martial Arts Unified Rules of Conduct Additional Mixed Martial Arts Rules. www.state.nj.us. URL last accessed March 18 2006. In Pancrase, a knockout is declared when the competitor loses consciousness, and a technical knockout when the referee or judges consider a fighter unable to continue the match. Pancrase Hybrid Wrestling official website. Pancrase official rules -2005 Edition-. www.pancrase.co.jp. URL last accessed March 4 2006. Knockdown A knockdown occurs when a fighter touches the floor of the ring with any part of his body other than his feet following a hit. The term is also used if the fighter is hanging on to the ropes, caught between the ropes, or is hanging over the ropes and is unable to fall to the floor and cannot protect him or her self. A knockdown triggers a count by the referee; if the fighter fails the count, then the fight is ended as a K.O. Boxing Terminology Ringside by Gus. URL last accessed June 17, 2008. A flash knockdown is a knockdown where the fighter hits the canvas but recovers quickly enough that a count is not started. See also Concussion Knockout power References | Knockout |@lemmatized knockout:25 also:5 refer:6 k:3 win:2 criterion:1 several:1 full:1 contact:1 combat:1 sport:3 boxing:6 kickboxing:1 muay:1 thai:1 mixed:5 martial:5 art:6 others:1 involve:2 striking:1 usually:2 award:1 one:4 participant:1 unable:4 rise:2 canvas:3 within:4 specified:1 period:1 time:2 typically:1 fatigue:1 injury:2 serious:1 temporarily:1 incapacitating:1 e:1 g:1 bleeding:1 cut:1 eye:1 blind:1 fighter:18 loss:1 balance:2 unconsciousness:1 person:1 may:2 literally:1 knock:6 technical:7 often:2 declare:4 referee:7 judge:2 official:5 ring:2 physician:2 cornermen:1 decide:1 cannot:2 continue:4 match:2 even:1 though:1 fail:2 count:6 many:3 region:1 three:3 round:3 sugar:1 bert:1 www:5 owingsmillsboxingclub:1 com:3 url:7 last:7 access:6 march:5 british:1 record:1 tkos:1 either:2 retire:1 refuse:1 r:1 f:1 stop:2 fight:2 amateur:1 score:1 rsc:1 contest:1 outclass:2 ahead:1 point:2 bout:1 pugilist:1 regard:1 hard:1 puncher:1 rack:1 high:1 percentage:1 victory:2 especially:1 spectacular:1 artist:1 say:1 make:1 people:1 unconscious:2 physical:1 characteristic:1 actually:1 little:1 know:3 exactly:1 cause:6 agree:1 minor:1 trauma:1 brain:3 stem:1 happen:1 head:2 rotate:1 sharply:1 strike:2 common:1 misconception:1 compression:1 put:1 carotid:1 artery:1 neck:1 restrict:1 blood:1 flow:1 fact:1 choke:1 work:1 margaret:1 goodman:1 md:1 ringside:2 training:1 principle:2 accessed:1 june:2 basic:1 defend:1 vulnerability:1 keep:1 hand:1 raise:1 face:1 suffer:1 concussion:2 become:3 sufficient:1 power:2 kayo:1 ko:1 lose:5 without:1 consciousness:2 repeated:1 blow:1 gradually:1 permanent:1 damage:1 alzheimer:1 parkinson:2 like:1 symptom:1 severe:1 case:1 stroke:1 paralysis:1 commonly:1 punch:1 drunk:1 advise:1 lieberman:1 abraham:1 liebermanparkinsonclinic:1 ten:1 automatically:1 suspend:1 thirty:1 day:1 month:2 second:2 year:2 third:1 aiba:1 competition:1 apply:1 behind:1 junior:1 level:1 except:1 final:1 outcome:1 occur:2 get:1 definition:1 vary:1 accord:2 organization:1 jurisdiction:1 publicize:1 rule:7 japanese:1 pride:3 fc:2 promotion:1 type:1 rather:1 consider:2 website:2 pridefc:1 new:2 jersey:2 unify:2 de:1 facto:1 standard:1 mma:1 united:1 state:3 define:1 failure:1 athletic:1 control:1 board:1 conduct:1 additional:1 nj:1 u:1 pancrase:4 competitor:1 hybrid:1 wrestle:1 edition:1 co:1 jp:1 knockdown:5 touch:1 floor:2 part:1 body:1 foot:1 follow:1 hit:2 term:1 use:1 hang:2 rope:3 caught:1 fall:1 protect:1 self:1 trigger:1 end:1 box:1 terminology:1 gu:1 flash:1 recovers:1 quickly:1 enough:1 start:1 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram muay_thai:1 martial_art:5 technical_knockout:6 amateur_boxing:1 carotid_artery:1 de_facto:1 |
4,277 | Aardwolf | The aardwolf (Proteles cristata) is a small, insectivorous hyena-like mammal, native to Eastern and Southern Africa. The name means "earth wolf" in Afrikaans/Dutch. It is also called "maanhaar-jackal" and "protelid". Unlike other hyenas, the diet of the aardwolf almost completely consists of termites, other insect larvae and carrion. The aardwolf is the only surviving species of the subfamily Protelinae. Two subspecies are recognized: Proteles cristatus cristatus of Southern Africa, and Proteles cristatus septentrionalis of eastern and northeastern Africa. "aardwolf." Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 Jan. 2007 Molecular systematics of the Hyaenidae It is usually placed in the Hyaenidae, though formerly separated into a monotypic family, Protelidae. The aardwolf lives in the scrublands of eastern and southern Africa. These are the areas of land covered with stunted trees or shrubs. The aardwolf hides in a burrow during the day and comes out at night to search for food. It is related to hyenas, but unlike its relatives, it does not hunt large prey. This unusual animal is a mass killer-of insects. It feeds mainly on termites and can eat more than 200,000 in a single night, using its long, sticky tongue to collect them. Physical characteristics The aardwolf looks most like the Striped Hyena, but is significantly smaller with a more slender muzzle, sharper ears utilized in the hunt for harvester termites, black vertical stripes on a coat of yellowish fur, and a long, distinct mane down the middle line of the neck and back, which is raised during a confrontation to make the aardwolf's size appear bigger. It is 55–80 cm long, excluding its bushy 20–30 cm tail, stands about 40–50 cm at the shoulder, and weighs between 9 and 14 kg. Its front feet have 5 toes, unlike other hyenas which have four toes. "aardwolf." Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 Jan. 2007 Its teeth and skull are similar to that of the hyena, although the cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects, and its tongue for licking them up. As the aardwolf ages, it will normally lose some of its teeth, though this has little impact on their feeding habits due to the soft nature of the insects they consume. It has two glands at the rear that secrete a musky fluid for marking territory and communicating with other aardwolves. Distribution and habitat The aardwolf lives on open, dry plains and bushland, while avoiding mountainous areas. Due to its specific food requirements, the animal is only found in regions where termites of the family Hodotermitidae occur. Termites of this family depend on dead and withered grass and are most populous in heavily grazed grasslands and savannahs, including farmland. For most of the year, aardwolves spend time in shared territories consisting of up to a dozen dens which are occupied for six weeks at a time. There are two distinct populations: one in Southern Africa, and another in East and Northeast Africa. The species does not occur in the intermediary miombo forests. Behavior Aardwolf from the zoo in San Antonio, Texas Aardwolves are shy and nocturnal, sleeping in underground burrows by day. They usually use existing burrows of aardvarks, Old World porcupines or springhares, despite being capable of creating their own. By night, an aardwolf can consume up to 200,000 harvester termites using its sticky, long tongue. They take special care not to destroy the termite mound or consume the entire colony, which ensures that the termites can rebuild and provide a continuous supply of food. They will often memorise and return to nests to save the trouble of finding a new one. They are also known to feed on other insects, larvae, and eggs, and occasionally small mammals and birds. Unlike other hyenas, aardwolves do not scavenge or kill larger animals. The adult aardwolf is primarily solitary while foraging for food, necessary because of the scarcity and homogeneous distribution of their insect prey. They have often been mistaken for solitary animals. In fact, they live as monogamous pairs, with their young, defending the same territory. Koehler, C., Richardson, P., (1990) Proteles cristatus. Mammalian Species, 363: 1-6. Young aardwolves generally achieve sexual maturity after two years, and the breeding season varies depending on their location, but normally takes place during the autumn or spring. During the breeding season, unpaired male aardwolves will search their own territory as well as others' for a female to mate with. Dominant males will also mate opportunistically with the females of less dominant neighboring aardwolves. This can often result in conflict between two male aardwolves when one has wandered into another's territory. Gestation lasts between 90 and 110 days, producing one to five cubs (most often two or three) during the rainy season, when termites are active. The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den with the mother. After three months, they begin supervised foraging and by four months are normally independent. However, they will often use the same den as their mother until the next breeding season. They can achieve a lifespan of up to 15 years when in captivity. Interaction with humans The aardwolf has taken advantage of the development of agriculture in the continent. They are often considered useful, non-dangerous animals by farmers. However, in some areas the aardwolf is hunted for its fur. Encounters with dogs are another threat. References External links Animal Diversity Web IUCN Hyaenidae Specialist Group Aardwolf pages on hyaenidae.org | Aardwolf |@lemmatized aardwolf:24 proteles:4 cristata:1 small:3 insectivorous:1 hyena:7 like:2 mammal:2 native:1 eastern:3 southern:4 africa:6 name:1 mean:1 earth:1 wolf:1 afrikaans:1 dutch:1 also:3 call:1 maanhaar:1 jackal:1 protelid:1 unlike:4 diet:1 almost:1 completely:1 consist:2 termite:9 insect:6 larva:2 carrion:1 survive:1 specie:3 subfamily:1 protelinae:1 two:6 subspecies:1 recognize:1 cristatus:4 septentrionalis:1 northeastern:1 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 jan:2 molecular:1 systematics:1 hyaenidae:4 usually:2 place:2 though:2 formerly:1 separate:1 monotypic:1 family:3 protelidae:1 live:3 scrubland:1 area:3 land:1 cover:1 stunted:1 tree:1 shrub:1 hide:1 burrow:3 day:3 come:1 night:3 search:2 food:4 relate:1 relative:1 hunt:3 large:2 prey:2 unusual:1 animal:6 mass:1 killer:1 feed:1 mainly:1 eat:2 single:1 use:4 long:4 sticky:2 tongue:3 collect:1 physical:1 characteristic:1 look:1 striped:1 significantly:1 slender:1 muzzle:1 sharp:1 ear:1 utilize:1 harvester:2 black:1 vertical:1 stripe:1 coat:1 yellowish:1 fur:2 distinct:2 mane:1 middle:1 line:1 neck:1 back:1 raise:1 confrontation:1 make:1 size:1 appear:1 big:1 cm:3 exclude:1 bushy:1 tail:1 stand:1 shoulder:1 weigh:1 kg:1 front:1 foot:1 toe:2 four:2 teeth:3 skull:1 similar:1 although:1 cheek:1 specialise:1 lick:1 age:1 normally:3 lose:1 little:1 impact:1 feeding:1 habit:1 due:2 soft:1 nature:1 consume:3 gland:1 rear:1 secrete:1 musky:1 fluid:1 mark:1 territory:5 communicating:1 distribution:2 habitat:1 open:1 dry:1 plain:1 bushland:1 avoid:1 mountainous:1 specific:1 requirement:1 find:2 region:1 hodotermitidae:1 occur:2 depend:2 dead:1 withered:1 grass:1 populous:1 heavily:1 graze:1 grassland:1 savannah:1 include:1 farmland:1 year:3 aardwolves:1 spend:2 time:2 shared:1 dozen:1 den:3 occupy:1 six:2 week:2 population:1 one:4 another:3 east:1 northeast:1 intermediary:1 miombo:1 forest:1 behavior:1 zoo:1 san:1 antonio:1 texas:1 shy:1 nocturnal:1 sleep:1 underground:1 exist:1 aardvark:1 old:1 world:1 porcupines:1 springhares:1 despite:1 capable:1 create:1 take:3 special:1 care:1 destroy:1 mound:1 entire:1 colony:1 ensure:1 rebuild:1 provide:1 continuous:1 supply:1 often:6 memorise:1 return:1 nest:1 save:1 trouble:1 new:1 know:1 fee:1 egg:1 occasionally:1 bird:1 scavenge:1 kill:1 adult:1 primarily:1 solitary:2 forage:1 necessary:1 scarcity:1 homogeneous:1 mistake:1 fact:1 monogamous:1 pair:1 young:2 defend:1 koehler:1 c:1 richardson:1 p:1 mammalian:1 generally:1 achieve:2 sexual:1 maturity:1 breeding:3 season:4 varies:1 location:1 autumn:1 spring:1 unpaired:1 male:3 well:1 others:1 female:2 mate:2 dominant:2 opportunistically:1 less:1 neighboring:1 result:1 conflict:1 wander:1 gestation:1 last:1 produce:1 five:1 cub:1 three:2 rainy:1 active:1 first:1 eight:1 mother:2 month:2 begin:1 supervise:1 foraging:1 independent:1 however:2 next:1 lifespan:1 captivity:1 interaction:1 human:1 advantage:1 development:1 agriculture:1 continent:1 consider:1 useful:1 non:1 dangerous:1 farmer:1 encounter:1 dog:1 threat:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 diversity:1 web:1 iucn:1 specialist:1 group:1 page:1 org:1 |@bigram encyclopædia_britannica:2 molecular_systematics:1 tree_shrub:1 vertical_stripe:1 weigh_kg:1 cheek_teeth:1 san_antonio:1 monogamous_pair:1 sexual_maturity:1 rainy_season:1 external_link:1 |
4,278 | Libido | Libido in its common usage means sexual desire; however, more technical definitions, such as those found in the work of Carl Jung, are more general, referring to libido as the free creative—or psychic—energy an individual has to put toward personal development or individuation. History of the concept Sigmund Freud popularized the term and defined libido as the instinct energy or force, contained in what Freud called the id, the largely unconscious structure of the psyche. Freud pointed out that these libidinal drives can conflict with the conventions of civilized behavior, represented in the psyche by the superego. It is this need to conform to society and control the libido that leads to tension and disturbance in the individual, prompting the use of ego defenses to dissipate the psychic energy of these unmet and mostly unconscious needs into other forms. Excessive use of ego defenses results in neurosis. A primary goal of psychoanalysis is to bring the drives of the id into consciousness, allowing them to be met directly and thus reducing the patient's reliance on ego defenses. According to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, the libido is identified as psychic energy. Duality (opposition) that creates the energy (or libido) of the psyche, which Jung asserts expresses itself only through symbols: "It is the energy that manifests itself in the life process and is perceived subjectively as striving and desire." (Ellenberger, 697) Defined more narrowly, libido also refers to an individual's urge to engage in sexual activity. In this sense, the antonym of libido is destrudo. Libido impairment Sometimes sexual desire can be impaired or reduced. It also may be weak or not be present at all, in occurrences such as asexuality. Factors of reduced libido can be both psychological and physical. Absence of libido may or may not correlate with infertility or impotence. Psychological factors Reduction in libido can occur from psychological causes such as loss of privacy and/or intimacy, stress, distraction or depression. It may also derive from the presence of environmental stressors such as prolonged exposure to elevated sound levels or bright light. Other causes include: depression stress or fatigue childhood sexual abuse, assault, trauma, or neglect body image issues sexual performance anxiety (Yalom, I.D., Love's Executioner and Other Tales of Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books, 1989.) Physical factors Physical factors that can affect libido include: endocrine issues such as hypothyroidism, levels of available testosterone in the bloodstream of both women and men, the effect of certain prescription medications (for example proscar (a.k.a. finasteride) or minoxidil), various lifestyle factors and, according to studies, the attractiveness and biological fitness of one's partner. Psychology Today - The orgasm Wars Inborn lack of sexual desire, often observed in asexual people, can also be considered a physical factor. Lifestyle Being very underweight, severely obese, "Obesity increases risk of erectile dysfunction" or malnourished can cause a low libido due to disruptions in normal hormonal levels. Medications Reduced libido is also often iatrogenic and can be caused by many medications, such as hormonal contraception, SSRIs and other antidepressants, opioids and beta blockers. In some cases iatrogenic impotence or other sexual dysfunction can be permanent, as in PSSD. Testosterone is one of the hormones controlling libido in human beings. Emerging research Warnock JK, Clayton A, Croft H, Segraves R, Biggs FC. Comparison of androgens in women with hypoactive sexual desire disorder: those on combined oral contraceptives (COCs) vs. those not on COCs.. J Sex Med 2006;3:878-882. PMID 16942531. is showing that hormonal contraception methods like "the pill" (which rely on estrogen and progesterone together) are causing low libido in females by elevating levels of Sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG). SHBG binds to sex hormones, including testosterone, rendering them unavailable. Research is showing that even after ending a hormonal contraceptive method, SHBG levels remain elevated and no reliable data exists to predict when this phenomenon will diminish Panzer C, Wise S, Fantini G, Kang D, Munarriz R, Guay A, Goldstein I. Impact of oral contraceptives on sex hormone-binding globulin and androgen levels: a retrospective study in women with sexual dysfunction.. J Sex Med 2006;3:104-113. PMID 16409223. . Some question whether "the pill" and other hormonal methods (Depo-Provera, Norplant, etc) have permanently altered gene expression by epigenetic mechanisms. Left untreated, women with low testosterone levels will experience loss of libido which in turn can often cause relationship stress , and loss of bone and muscle mass throughout their lives. (Low testosterone may also be responsible for certain kinds of depression and low energy states.) Conversely, increased androgen steroids (e.g. testosterone) generally have a positive correlation with libido in both sexes. Menstrual cycle Women's libido is correlated to their menstrual cycle. Many women experience heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation. See also Aphrodisiac Cathexis Coitus reservatus Conatus Death drive Destrudo Eros Id, ego, and super-ego Lust Mortido Perimenopause Self preservation Sexual attraction References Gabriele Froböse, Rolf Froböse, Michael Gross (Translator): Lust and Love: Is it more than Chemistry? Publisher: Royal Society of Chemistry, ISBN 0-85404-867-7, (200 Ellenberger F. Henri (1970). The discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. New York: Basic Books | Libido |@lemmatized libido:20 common:1 usage:1 mean:1 sexual:11 desire:6 however:1 technical:1 definition:1 find:1 work:1 carl:2 jung:3 general:1 refer:2 free:1 creative:1 psychic:3 energy:7 individual:3 put:1 toward:1 personal:1 development:1 individuation:1 history:2 concept:1 sigmund:1 freud:3 popularize:1 term:1 define:2 instinct:1 force:1 contain:1 call:1 id:3 largely:1 unconscious:3 structure:1 psyche:3 point:1 libidinal:1 drive:3 conflict:1 convention:1 civilized:1 behavior:1 represent:1 superego:1 need:2 conform:1 society:2 control:2 lead:1 tension:1 disturbance:1 prompt:1 use:2 ego:5 defense:3 dissipate:1 unmet:1 mostly:1 form:1 excessive:1 result:1 neurosis:1 primary:1 goal:1 psychoanalysis:1 bring:1 consciousness:1 allow:1 meet:1 directly:1 thus:1 reduce:3 patient:1 reliance:1 accord:2 swiss:1 psychiatrist:1 gustav:1 identify:1 duality:1 opposition:1 create:1 assert:1 express:1 symbol:1 manifest:1 life:2 process:1 perceive:1 subjectively:1 striving:1 ellenberger:2 narrowly:1 also:7 urge:1 engage:1 activity:1 sense:1 antonym:1 destrudo:2 impairment:1 sometimes:1 impaired:1 may:5 weak:1 present:1 occurrence:1 asexuality:1 factor:6 reduced:1 psychological:3 physical:4 absence:1 correlate:2 infertility:1 impotence:2 reduction:1 occur:1 cause:6 loss:3 privacy:1 intimacy:1 stress:3 distraction:1 depression:3 derive:1 presence:1 environmental:1 stressor:1 prolonged:1 exposure:1 elevate:2 sound:1 level:7 bright:1 light:1 include:3 fatigue:1 childhood:1 abuse:1 assault:1 trauma:1 neglect:1 body:1 image:1 issue:2 performance:1 anxiety:1 yalom:1 love:2 executioner:1 tale:1 psychotherapy:1 new:2 york:2 basic:2 book:2 affect:1 endocrine:1 hypothyroidism:1 available:1 testosterone:6 bloodstream:1 woman:6 men:1 effect:1 certain:2 prescription:1 medication:3 example:1 proscar:1 k:1 finasteride:1 minoxidil:1 various:1 lifestyle:2 study:2 attractiveness:1 biological:1 fitness:1 one:2 partner:1 psychology:1 today:1 orgasm:1 war:1 inborn:1 lack:1 often:3 observe:1 asexual:1 people:1 consider:1 underweight:1 severely:1 obese:1 obesity:1 increase:2 risk:1 erectile:1 dysfunction:3 malnourish:1 low:5 due:1 disruption:1 normal:1 hormonal:5 iatrogenic:2 many:2 contraception:2 ssri:1 antidepressant:1 opioids:1 beta:1 blocker:1 case:1 permanent:1 pssd:1 hormone:4 human:1 emerge:1 research:2 warnock:1 jk:1 clayton:1 croft:1 h:1 segraves:1 r:2 biggs:1 fc:1 comparison:1 androgen:3 hypoactive:1 disorder:1 combined:1 oral:2 contraceptive:3 cocs:2 v:1 j:2 sex:6 med:2 pmid:2 show:2 method:3 like:1 pill:2 rely:1 estrogen:1 progesterone:1 together:1 female:1 bind:2 globulin:2 shbg:3 render:1 unavailable:1 even:1 end:1 remain:1 elevated:1 reliable:1 data:1 exists:1 predict:1 phenomenon:1 diminish:1 panzer:1 c:1 wise:1 fantini:1 g:2 kang:1 munarriz:1 guay:1 goldstein:1 impact:1 binding:1 retrospective:1 question:1 whether:1 depo:1 provera:1 norplant:1 etc:1 permanently:1 alter:1 gene:1 expression:1 epigenetic:1 mechanism:1 left:1 untreated:1 experience:2 turn:1 relationship:1 bone:1 muscle:1 mass:1 throughout:1 responsible:1 kind:1 state:1 conversely:1 steroid:1 e:1 generally:1 positive:1 correlation:1 menstrual:2 cycle:2 heighten:1 several:1 day:1 immediately:1 ovulation:1 see:1 aphrodisiac:1 cathexis:1 coitus:1 reservatus:1 conatus:1 death:1 eros:1 super:1 lust:2 mortido:1 perimenopause:1 self:1 preservation:1 attraction:1 reference:1 gabriele:1 froböse:2 rolf:1 michael:1 gross:1 translator:1 chemistry:2 publisher:1 royal:1 isbn:1 f:1 henri:1 discovery:1 evolution:1 dynamic:1 psychiatry:1 |@bigram carl_jung:1 sigmund_freud:1 carl_gustav:1 prolonged_exposure:1 prescription_medication:1 erectile_dysfunction:1 hormonal_contraception:2 ssri_antidepressant:1 beta_blocker:1 sexual_dysfunction:2 oral_contraceptive:2 med_pmid:2 menstrual_cycle:2 |
4,279 | Covenant-breaker | A Covenant-breaker or the act of Covenant-breaking is a term used by Bahá'ís to refer to a particular form of heresy. Being declared a Covenant-breaker by the head of the Faith — which since 1963 refers to the elected nine-member Universal House of Justice, the governing body of the Bahá'ís — is somewhat equivalent to Cherem in Judaism, Anathema (or major excommunication) in Christianity and Takfir in Islamic law, i.e. Bahá'ís avoid association with them, even if the Covenant-breaker is a family member. The authority to declare a Bahá'í a Covenant-breaker resides solely with the head of the Bahá'í Faith. Definition Covenant-breaking does not refer to attacks from those who are not Bahá'ís or who have left the Bahá'í Faith out of disagreement with its tenets. Rather it is in reference to internal campaigns of opposition whereby the Covenant-breaker is seen to be as one who is challenging the internal succession of the Faith and thereby causing internal division, or by claiming or supporting an alternate succession of authority or administrative structure. In a letter to an individual dated 23 March 1975, the Universal House of Justice wrote: The term 'Covenant-breaker' or, in Arabic 'naqidin', was first used by `Abdu'l-Bahá to describe the partisans of his brother Mírzá Muhammad `Alí, who challenged his leadership. In `Abdu'l-Bahá's Will and Testament, He appointed Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, called for the eventual election of the Universal House of Justice, and defined in the same manner opposition to these two institutions as Covenant-Breaking. `Abdu'l-Bahá advised all Bahá'ís to shun anyone opposing the Covenant: "...one of the greatest and most fundamental principles of the Cause of God is to shun and avoid entirely the Covenant-breakers, for they will utterly destroy the Cause of God, exterminate His Law and render of no account all efforts exerted in the past." The Will And Testament of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, p 20 Categorization Included categories of people While most Covenant-breakers are involved in schismatic groups, that is not always the case. For example, a Bahá'í who refuses to shun Covenant-breakers is at risk of being named one. One article The Covenant, and Covenant-breaker, by Moojan Momen originally written for the Bahá'í Encyclopedia, characterized Covenant-breakers that have emerged in the course of Bahá'í history as belonging to one of four categories: Leadership challenge: These are persons who dispute the authority and legitimacy of the head of the religion and advance claims either for themselves or for another. The main examples of these are Mírzá Muhammad `Alí and Charles Mason Remey. Dissidence: Those who disagree with the policies and actions of the head of the religion without, however, advancing an alternative claim for leadership. This group consisted mostly of opponents of the Bahá'í administration such as Ruth White and Mirza Ahmad Sohrab. Disobedience: Those who disobey certain direct instructions from the head of the religion. Mostly the instruction in question is to cease to associate with a Covenant-breaker. Examples of this type include most of the descendants of `Abdu'l-Bahá during Shoghi Effendi's time. Apostates who maliciously attack the Bahá'í Faith. Examples include Ávárih and Níkú. Excluded categories of people Shoghi Effendi wrote to the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada in 1957: Beyond this, many other relationships to the Bahá'í Faith exist, both positive and negative. Covenant-breaking does not apply to most of them. The following is a partial list of those who could not rightly be termed Covenant-breakers: Members of other religions or no religion without any particular relationship to the Bahá'í Faith. Followers of Subh-i-Azal, Bahá'u'lláh's half-brother, who are known in modern times as Bayanis are often mistakenly referred to by this label. The appellation seems, however, misapplied. Since Covenant-breaking presumes that one has submitted oneself to a covenant and then broke it, and Bayanis never swore allegiance to Bahá'u'lláh, they cannot therefore be said to have broken his covenant. Bahá'ís who simply leave the religion. (see above) Bahá'ís who, in the estimation of the head of the religion have insufficiently understood the nature of the covenant from the start. These are sometimes "disenrolled" and are considered to have never actually been Bahá'ís, given their fundamental diversion from this core Bahá'í doctrine. External enemies of the Bahá'í Faith. Covenant-Breaking in Shoghi Effendi's immediate family Through the influence of Bahiyyih Khanum, the eldest daughter of Bahá'u'lláh, everyone in the household initially rallied around Shoghi Effendi after the death of `Abdu'l-Bahá. For several years his brother Husayn and several cousins served him as secretaries. The only ones publicly opposing him were Mirza Muhammad-Ali and his followers, who had been declared Covenant-breakers by `Abdu'l-Bahá. Contrary to `Abdu'l-Bahá's specific instruction, certain family members established illicit links with those declared Covenant-breakers by `Abdu'l-Bahá after Bahiyyih Khanum died in 1932, first resulting in the marriage of Shoghi Effendi's eldest sister--Ruhangiz --to a son of Siyyid Ali Afnan, Bahá'u'lláh's son-in-law, and a long-standing enemy of `Abdu'l-Bahá who had declared him a Covenant-breaker. Through Ruhangiz's efforts, Shoghi Effendi's other sister and his cousin Thurayya also married sons of Siyyid Ali Afnan. Presumably being faced with a choice between shunning their family members and being disobedient to `Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, his cousins, aunts and uncles chose the latter. Ruhi Afnan After years of silence on these developments, cables sent by Shoghi Effendi on 2 November 1941 provide background to developments among family members. Ruhi Afnan, Shoghi Effendi's cousin through `Abdu'l-Bahá's daughter Tuba: "Ruhi's sister married Covenant-breaker Faydi whose mother joined and supported arch-enemy Muhammad-`Ali and whose father `Abdu'l-Bahá denounced openly and repeatedly as His deadly enemy. Ruhi's family concurred. Inform all believers all manner communication excommunicated family forbidden." Then in a 1950 cable: "Inform friends that Ruhi, his mother, with Ruha, his aunt, and their families, not content with years of disobedience and unworthy conduct, are now showing open defiance." (Citadel of Faith, p.87) And in 1953: "Treacherous Ruhi Afnan, not content with previous disobedience, correspondence with Mirza Ahmad Sohrab, contact with old Covenant-breakers, sale, in conjunction with other members of family, of sacred property purchased by Founder of Faith, and allowing his sister to marry son of `Abdu'l-Bahá's enemy, is now openly lecturing on Bahá'í movement, claiming to be its exponent and is misrepresenting the teachings and deliberately causing confusion in minds of authorities and the local population. Inform National Assemblies." (Messages to the Bahá'í World - 1950-1957, p.48) Later, Ruhi was presented with a copy of Sohrab's book about his excommunication: "… under ordinary circumstances he would have been very much elated, and therefore thankful to see someone make such records of his services to the Cause, but that the references to the Guardian and the Administration changed his attitude completely. He did not wish to be defended; he felt that he must suffer in silence and be true to the Master’s last will and testament. Then Ruhi Effendi referred to Ahmad as being in the same plight as himself, but reacting differently. He thought this very regrettable." [p. 281] From Gaslight to Dawn 10-19 Munib Shahid Concerning Munib Shahid, Shoghi Effendi's cousin through `Abdu'l-Bahá's daughter Ruha, Shoghi Effendi sent the following cable to the Bahá'í world in November 1944: "Monib Shahid, grandson of both `Abdu'l-Bahá and the King of Martyrs, married according to the Moslem rites the daughter of a political exile who is nephew of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem. This treacherous act of alliance with enemies of the Faith merits condemnation of entire Bahá'í world." (Bahá'í News, No. 172) Husayn Concerning his own brother Husayn, Shoghi Effendi sent the following cable to the Bahá'í world in April 1945: "My faithless brother Husayn, after long period of dishonourable conduct, has abandoned the Master's home to consort with his sister and other Covenant-breakers." (Bahá'í News, No. 174) Riaz Concerning his own brother Riaz, the following cable was sent in December 1951: "With feeling profound concern, grief, indignation, am compelled disclose Bahá'í world recent developments Holy Land furnishing further incontestable proof relationship established old and new Covenant-breakers demonstrating increasing boldness, marked, tragic decline in character and spiritual condition grandchildren `Abdu'l-Bahá. Their shameful attitude and conduct receiving approbation their elders. Evidences multiplying attesting Ruhi's increasing rebelliousness, efforts exerted my eldest sister pave way fourth alliance members family Siyyid Ali involving marriage his granddaughter with Ruha's son and personal contact recently established my own treacherous, despicable brother Riaz with Majdi'd-Din, redoubtable enemy Faith, former henchman Muhammad-'Ali, Archbreaker Bahá'u'lláh's Covenant. Convey information all National Assemblies." (Messages to the Bahá'í World - 1950-1957, p. 16) Mehrangiz He dispatched a cable concerning his younger sister in December 1941: "Sister Mehrangis [Mehrangiz] followed example Ruhi's [Ruhi] sister Justice demands announce believers her expulsion." (Unfolding Destiny, p.149) Resultant groups Most of the groups regarded by the larger group of Bahá'ís as Covenant-breakers originated in the claims of Charles Mason Remey to the Guardianship in 1960. The Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá states that Guardians should be lineal descendants of Bahá'u'lláh, that each Guardian must select his successor during his lifetime, and that the nine Hands of the Cause of God permanently stationed in the holy land must approve the appointment by majority vote. Bahá'ís interpret lineal descendency to mean physical familial relation to Bahá'u'lláh, of which Mason Remey was not. The majority of Bahá'ís accepted the determination of the Hands of the Cause upon the death of Shoghi Effendi, that he died "without having appointed his successor", owing to an absence of a valid descendant of Bahá'u'lláh who could qualify under the terms of `Abdu'l-Bahá's will. Later the Universal House of Justice, first elected in 1963, made a ruling on the subject that it was not possible for another Guardian to be appointed. In 1960 Remey, a Hand of the Cause himself, retracted his earlier position, and claimed to have been coerced. He claimed to be the successor to Shoghi Effendi. He and the small number of Bahá'ís who followed him were expelled from the majority group by the Hands of the Cause. Those close to Remey claimed that he went senile in old age, and by the time of his death he was largely abandoned, with his most prominent followers fighting amongst themselves for leadership. The largest of the remaining followers of Remey, members of the Orthodox Bahá'í Faith, believe that legitimate authority passed from Shoghi Effendi to Mason Remey to Joel Marangella. They, therefore, regard the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, Israel to be illegitimate, and its members and followers to be Covenant-breakers. The present descendants of expelled members of Bahá'u'lláh's family have not specifically been declared Covenant-breakers, though they mostly do not associate themselves with the Bahá'í religion. A small group of Bahá'ís in Northern New Mexico believe that these descendants are eligible for appointment to the Guardianship and are waiting for such a direct descendant of Bahá'u'lláh to arise as the rightful Guardian. There is also a small group in Montana, originally formed around the personality of Leland Jensen, who claimed a status higher than that of the Guardian. His failed apocalyptic predictions and unsuccessful efforts to reestablish the Guardianship and the administration were apparent by his death in 1996. A dispute among Jensen's followers over the identity of the Guardian resulted in another division in 2001. See also Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh Notes References External links The Covenant and Covenant-breaker - Article by Moojan Momen on the history, purpose, and power of the Covenant. Includes history of Covenant breakers, the three categories, and references for further study. | Covenant-breaker |@lemmatized covenant:40 breaker:25 act:2 breaking:6 term:4 use:2 bahá:67 ís:13 refer:4 particular:2 form:2 heresy:1 declare:6 head:6 faith:14 since:2 refers:1 elect:2 nine:2 member:11 universal:5 house:5 justice:6 govern:1 body:1 somewhat:1 equivalent:1 cherem:1 judaism:1 anathema:1 major:1 excommunication:2 christianity:1 takfir:1 islamic:1 law:3 e:1 avoid:2 association:1 even:1 family:11 authority:5 í:24 reside:1 solely:1 definition:1 attack:2 leave:2 disagreement:1 tenet:1 rather:1 reference:4 internal:3 campaign:1 opposition:2 whereby:1 see:4 one:7 challenge:3 succession:2 thereby:1 cause:9 division:2 claim:8 support:2 alternate:1 administrative:1 structure:1 letter:1 individual:1 date:1 march:1 write:3 arabic:1 naqidin:1 first:3 abdu:19 l:19 describe:1 partisan:1 brother:7 mírzá:2 muhammad:5 alí:2 leadership:4 testament:4 appoint:3 shoghi:16 effendi:17 guardian:8 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4,280 | Crouching_Tiger,_Hidden_Dragon | Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon () is a Chinese-language film in the wuxia (chivalric and martial arts) style, released in 2000. A China-Hong Kong-Taiwan-United States co-production, the film was directed by Taiwanese director Ang Lee and featured an international cast of ethnic Chinese actors, including Chow Yun-Fat, Michelle Yeoh, Zhang Ziyi and Chang Chen. The movie was based on the fourth novel in a pentalogy, known in China as the Crane-Iron Pentalogy, by wuxia novelist Wang Dulu. The martial arts and action sequences were choreographed by Yuen Wo Ping, well known for his work in The Matrix and other films. Made on a mere US$15 million budget, with dialogue in Mandarin, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon became a surprise international success. After its US premiere at the Hawaii International Film Festival, it grossed US$128 million in the United States alone, becoming the highest-grossing foreign-language film in American history. It has won over 40 awards. The film won Taiwan the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and three other Academy Awards, and was nominated for six other Academy Awards, including Best Picture. Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon Academy Award Nominations and Wins URL accessed December 30, 2006. The film also won three BAFTAs and two Golden Globes, one for "Best Foreign Film" as well as additional nominations for ten BAFTAs including "Best Picture". Plot The film begins during the historic Qing Dynasty in China, in the 43rd year of Emperor Qianlong's reign (1778). casting annonces musicien communication evenementiel at castingforge.com . Renowned and accomplished Wudang swordsman Li Mu-bai () (Chow Yun-Fat), intent on leaving his warrior life behind, asks friend and confidant Yu Shu-lien () (Michelle Yeoh) to escort his sword, the Green Destiny, to friend Sir Te for safekeeping in Peking, leaving Li Mu-bai time to commemorate the death of his master, murdered long ago by Jade Fox (Cheng Pei-pei), a woman who sought to learn Wudang. In Peking, Shu-lien delivers the sword to Sir Te's estate, where she meets Jen () (Zhang Ziyi), the daughter of Governor Yu, a visiting Manchu aristocrat. Jen, destined for an arranged marriage and yearning for adventure, is fascinated and enchanted by Shu-lien and her warrior lifestyle, and the two quickly form a close bond. Later that evening, a masked thief sneaks onto Sir Te's estate and steals the Green Destiny. The quick, acrobatic thief skillfully avoids the guards while being pursued by Shu-lien across the estate's rooftops and walls. The chase culminates in a frenzied fight through the estate's courtyards before the thief escapes, at which time Shu-lien observes that the thief was trained at Wudang. Mu-bai and Shu-lien trace the theft to Governor Yu's compound and learn that Jade Fox has been posing as Jen's governess for many years to evade the authorities. Jade Fox challenges Inspector Tsai, his daughter May, and Master Bo to a showdown; she easily defeats all 3 of them before Mu-bai arrives and outmaneuvers Jade Fox, but the masked thief reappears and, to Mu-bai's amazement, uses Wudang techniques. After another short confrontation in which Tsai is killed, the thief and Jade Fox escape, and in a confrontation, Jade Fox realizes that Jen (the "thief") has secretly read her Wudang manual and surpassed her in skill. Mu-bai catches the masked Jen attempting to return the Green Destiny, and after defeating her, suggests that she become his apprentice. She refuses and escapes. The dart that prevented Shu-Lien from capturing Jen came from a man named Lo () (Chang Chen), who returns and asks Jen to leave with him. A flashback reveals that Lo is a desert bandit called Dark Cloud who had raided Jen's caravan and stolen her comb. Jen chased after him to get it back; Lo defeated and kidnapped her. However, they eventually fell in love. Lo convinced Jen to return to her family, though not before telling her a legend of a man who jumped off a cliff but did not die. Instead, his wishes came true. Lo has come to Beijing to persuade Jen not to go through with her arranged marriage. However, Jen refuses to leave with him. Soon after, she is married in an elaborate ceremony. Mu-bai and Shu-lien find Lo and tell him to wait for Jen at Wudang Mountain. The day after her wedding, Jen runs away. She is at a crossroads: should she be a court official's wife, the lover of a desert bandit, an outlaw under Jade Fox, or a martial artist under Li Mu-bai? Headstrong, she rejects the path of Shu-lien and Mu-bai, and starts a fight in a restaurant. Jen finds Shu-lien, who tells her that Lo is at Wudang Mountain. Jen is outraged, thinking that Shu-lien is setting her up. Shu-lien is angry at Jen's lack of gratitude, and says that she always knew Jen was the thief, but covered it up for the sake of Jen's family. The two women fight, and it becomes clear that Shu-lien has better technique but Jen has the better sword (the Green Destiny). Mu-bai arrives and pursues Jen into the forest. He again offers to train her and she says that she will accept him as her master if he can take the Green Destiny from her in three moves. To Jen's surprise, Mu-bai snatches the sword from her hand in a single movement. When Jen still refuses to become Mu-bai's pupil, he throws the Green Destiny over a waterfall. Jen chases after the sword, and Mu-bai is too shocked to pursue her. Jen retrieves the sword and is rescued by Jade Fox. She puts Jen into a drugged sleep and leaves her in a cavern. Mu-bai and Shu-lien find her there. Jade Fox suddenly reappears and attacks the others with poisoned dart. Mu-bai blocks all but one needle with his sword. He avenges his master's death by mortally wounding Jade Fox, only to realize that he has been hit with a poisoned dart. With his last breaths, Mu-bai confesses his love for Shu-lien. Shu-lien, heartbroken and furious, picks up the Green Destiny and walks over to Jen who sits in shock waiting for the punishment she knows she deserves. However, Shu-lien, realizing that Jen has a chance at finding the love that she herself never got to enjoy, spares Jen's life and instructs her always to remain true to herself. She then has the Green Destiny returned to Sir Te and leaves Jen to contemplate her advice. Jen goes to Wudang Mountain and spends one last night with Lo, who is waiting for her. The next morning, Lo finds Jen standing on a balcony overlooking the edge of the mountain. In an echo of the legend that they spoke about in the desert, she asks him to make a wish. He complies, wishing them to be together, back in the desert, and Jen leaps into the clouds. Themes and Interpretations Fighting and Submitting to Patriarchy In Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, resistance to gender inequality is a central theme that sets the plot in motion and drives the story forward. In a storyline that begins prior to the timeline of the movie, Jade Fox is denied entry to the Wudan monastery because she is a woman. Intent on learning the secrets of Wudang fighting style, she poisons the master and steals a manual to learn Wudang on her own. The three main female characters represent different points on the spectrum of their relation to patriarchy. There is Jade Fox, whose bitterness against the limitations male-dominated society has set upon her resulted in her open revolt, although with cowardly fighting style (her use of poisonous arrows is the primary example for this). Jen, the young woman at the verge of her wedding is still wavering, battling between her desire to be accepted and respected by her family and society and her wish to be free Kenneth Chan, “The Global Return of the Wu Xia Pian: Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” in Cinema Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4., p. 9 . Both Jade Fox and Jen are regarded as women whose desire to be free has led to out-of control actions that threaten the male-dominated hierarchy Rong Cai, “Gender Imaginations in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon,” positions vol. 13 no.2 (Fall 2005), p. 452 . Finally, there is Shu-lien. Although she lives the life of a warrior, Shu-lien adheres strictly to the moral codes and traditions of the patriarchal society she lives in. She respects male privilege Rong Cai, “Gender Imaginations in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon,” positions vol. 13 no.2 (Fall 2005), p. 455 and constantly attempts to persuade Jen to conform to society’s expectations Rong Cai, “Gender Imaginations in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon,” positions vol. 13 no.2 (Fall 2005), p. 455 . Although she, too, has desires that seem impossible to be fulfilled (her love for Li Mu-Bai), she does not challenge the limitations of this desire and so supports the dominant power structure Rong Cai, “Gender Imaginations in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon,” positions vol. 13 no.2 (Fall 2005), p. 455 . Male supremacy in martial arts is secured by excluding women from its highest forms, Rong Cai, “Gender Imaginations in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon,” positions vol. 13 no.2 (Fall 2005), p. 451 and the weapons used represent this exclusion. In some interpretations, the fact that the sword Green Destiny is passed along men, and is with exception of Jen used only by male figures shows that the sword is a phallic symbol of masculinity and male authority Rong Cai, “Gender Imaginations in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon,” positions vol. 13 no.2 (Fall 2005), p. 450 . Jen’s desire to use the sword, and her theft of it, thus also represents her wish to attain both the freedom and the power Li Mu-Bai has Kenneth Chan, “The Global Return of the Wu Xia Pian: Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” in Cinema Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4., p. 12 . When she steals it, she not only takes possession of an invaluable sword, but poses a direct threat to the male authority and martial hegemony that is associated with the sword Rong Cai, “Gender Imaginations in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon,” positions vol. 13 no.2 (Fall 2005), p. 451 . Shu-lien reacts to the theft by pursuing Jen and attempting to regain the sword for Li Mu-Bai. While she does so in part because she promises to find the sword, and because it belongs to the man she loves, she is again implicitly reaffirming the status quo of male dominance by retrieving the primary representation of male power for them. The deaths of the main characters are similarly considered to be affirmations of the patriarchal structures of society. Most clearly, here is the death of Jade Fox, whose cruelty – a reaction to the confines of women in society – are rewarded with death by Li Mu-Bai, the prime representative of patriarchy in this film. Subsequently, Li Mu-Bai himself dies of the poisonous arrow Jade Fox shot at him. However, this does not signify the death of patriarchy by any means: it can almost be considered a sacrifice in order to bring Jen to her senses Kenneth Chan, “The Global Return of the Wu Xia Pian: Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” in Cinema Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4., p.13 . His death fills Jen with regret, as his attempt to save her put him in danger and ultimately killed him. The film ends with Jen’s suicide, which can be seen as an act of repentance Rong Cai, “Gender Imaginations in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon,” positions vol. 13 no.2 (Fall 2005), p. 456 and punishment for the desires that lead her astray Rong Cai, “Gender Imaginations in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon,” positions vol. 13 no.2 (Fall 2005), p. 456 . The suicide also signifies the hopelessness of Jen’s quest for freedom. She realizes that marriage would confine her, the freedom she attempted killed someone, and her love for Lo would require her to give up the personal freedom she always wanted Kenneth Chan, “The Global Return of the Wu Xia Pian: Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” in Cinema Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4., p. 14 . Poison Poison is also a significant theme in this movie, both literally and figuratively. In the world of martial arts, poison is considered the act of one who is too cowardly and dishonorable to fight; and indeed, the only character that explicitly fits these characteristics is Jade Fox. The poison is a weapon of her bitterness Horace L. Fairlamb, “Romancing the Tao: How Ang Lee Globalized Ancient Chinese Wisdom,” symploke vol. 15, No. 1-2 (2007), p.196 and quest for vengeance: she poisons the master of Wudang, attempts to poison Jen and succeeds in killing Mu Bai. However, the poison is not only of the physical sort: Jade Fox’s tutelage of Jen has left Jen spiritually poisoned, which can be seen in the lying, stealing and betrayal Jen commits. Even though she is the one who initially trained Jen, Jen is never seen to use poison herself. This indicates that there is hope yet to reform her and integrate her into society. Hiding and Revealing The title Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon actually refers to a Chinese proverb which means “talented or dangerous people hidden from view.” In the course of this film, there are many things that are hidden and revealed. Most obviously, the title refers to Jen, who is at first sight an innocent young girl in the house of Yu. She hides her identity as a martial arts fighter. When Li Mu-Bai first encounters her, he seeks to learn who her master is; only later is it revealed that she taught herself the secrets of the Wudang school. This fact was also hidden from her governess, who had taught her the basics of fighting. When it is revealed to Jade Fox, she sees this as a betrayal and attempts to kill Jen. Jade Fox, too, is a dangerous person hidden from view. She conceals herself in the house of Yu to avoid being arrested, and reveals herself only to kill. Finally, there are also Mu-Bai and Shu-lien’s feelings which remained hidden over years, and are only openly admitted when Mu-Bai is dying and they can no longer be fulfilled. Production and marketing Although its Academy Award was presented to Taiwan, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon was in fact an international co-production between companies in four regions: the Chinese company China Film Co-Production Corporation; the American companies Columbia Pictures Film Production Asia, Sony Pictures Classics and Good Machine; the Hong Kong company EDKO Film; and the Taiwanese Zoom Hunt International Productions Company, Ltd; as well as the unspecified United China Vision, and Asia Union Film & Entertainment Ltd., created solely for this film. The film was made in Beijing, with location shooting in the Anhui, Hebei, Jiangsu and Xinjiang provinces of the People's Republic of China. Unlike most Chinese films, this one was supported by American distributors and therefore received marketing typical of Western films. It opened first in China and made its US premiere as the opening film of the 2000 Hawaii International Film Festival. http://www.hawaiireporter.com/story.aspx?f943c058-5936-47dc-ab5c-91df436a68fb The movie was also adapted into a video game. Reception and aftermath Crouching Tiger was very well received in the Western world, receiving critical acclaim and numerous awards. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 97% of critics gave Crouching Tiger positive reviews, based on 141 reviews, while Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 93 out of 100, based on 31 reviews. Some Chinese-speaking viewers were bothered by the accents of the leading actors. Neither Chow (a native Cantonese speaker) nor Yeoh (an overseas Chinese born and raised in Malaysia) speaks Mandarin as a mother tongue. All four main actors spoke with different accents: Chow speaks with a Cantonese accent Interview with Gong Li URL accessed December 30, 2006. ; Yeoh with a Malaysian accent; Chang Chen a Taiwanese accent; and Zhang Ziyi a Beijing accent. Yeoh responded to this complaint in a December 28, 2000 interview with Cinescape. She argued that "My character lived outside of Beijing, and so I didn’t have to do the Beijing accent." When the interviewer, Craig Reid, remarked that "My mother-in-law has this strange Szechuan-Mandarin accent that’s hard for me to understand," Yeoh responded: "Yes, provinces all have their very own strong accents. When we first started the movie, Cheng Pei Pei was going to have her accent, and Chang Zhen was going to have his accent, and this person would have that accent. And in the end nobody could understand what they were saying. Forget about us, even the crew from Beijing thought this was all weird." The film led to a boost in popularity of Chinese wuxia films in the western world, where they were previously little known, and led to films such as House of Flying Daggers and Hero marketed towards western audiences. The film also provided the breakthrough role for Zhang Ziyi's career, who noted that: The film also ranks at number 497 on Empire magazine's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time, and at number 229 on IMDB's user voted Top 250 Films. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0190332/ http://www.empireonline.com/500/1.asp Awards Won ASCAP Film and Television Music Awards: Top Box Office Films (Tan Dun) Academy Awards: Best Foreign Language Film (Taiwan) Best Cinematography (Peter Pau) Best Music, Original Score (Tan Dun) Best Art Direction-Set Decoration (Timmy Yip [art director]) Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films ("Saturn Award"): Best Action/Adventure/Thriller Film Australian Film Institute: Best Foreign Film BAFTA Awards: David Lean Award for Direction (Ang Lee) Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music (Tan Dun) Best Costume Design (Timmy Yip) Bergen International Film Festival: Audience Award (Ang Lee) Bodil Awards: Best Non-American Film Bogey Awards (Germany): Bogey Award Boston Society of Film Critics: Best Foreign Language Film, Best Cinematography (Peter Pau) Broadcast Film Critics Association: Best Foreign Language Film Chicago Film Critics Association: Best Foreign Language Film, Best Cinematography (Peter Pau), Best Original Score (Tan Dun) Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association: Best Foreign Film, Best Cinematography (Peter Pau) Directors Guild of America: Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures (Ang Lee) Film Critics Circle of Australia: Best Foreign Language Film Flanders International Film Festival (Belgium): Georges Delerue Prize (Tan Dun) Florida Film Critics Circle: Best Foreign Language Film, Best Cinematography (Peter Pau) Golden Bauhinia Awards (Hong Kong): Best Picture, Best Supporting Actress (Ziyi Zhang), Golden Bauhinia - Best Director (Ang Lee) Golden Globe Awards: Best Foreign Language Film (Taiwan) Best Director - Motion Picture (Ang Lee) Golden Horse Film Festival (Taiwan): Best Picture (Ang Lee), Best Action Direction (Woo-ping Yuen), Best Editing (Tim Squyres), Best Sound Effects (Eugene Gearty), Best Visual Effects (Leo Lo and Rob Hodgson) Golden Trailer Awards: Best Art and Commerce (for the trailer), Best Romance (for the trailer)Grammy Awards: Best Score Soundtrack Album For A Motion Picture, Television Or Other Visual Media (Tan Dun) Hong Kong Film Awards: Best Picture, Best Supporting Actress (Pei-pei Cheng), Best Director (Ang Lee), Best Cinematography (Peter Pau), Best Original Film Score (Tan Dun), Best Original Film Song (CoCo Lee [performer]), Best Action Choreography (Woo-ping Yuen), Best Sound Design (Eugene Gearty) Hong Kong Film Critics Society Awards: Special Achievement Award (Woo-ping Yuen) Hugo Awards: Best Dramatic Presentation Independent Spirit Awards: Best Feature, Best Supporting Female (Ziyi Zhang), Best Director (Ang Lee) Kansas City Film Critics Circle: Best Foreign Language Film London Film Critics Circle: Best Foreign Language Film Los Angeles Film Critics Association: Best Picture, Best Cinematography (Peter Pau), Best Music Score (Tan Dun), Best Production Design (Timmy Yip) MTV Movie Awards: Best Fight (Ziyi Zhang vs. entire bar) Motion Picture Sound Editors ("Golden Reel Award"): Best Sound Editing - Dialogue & ADR, Domestic Feature Film National Board of Review: Best Foreign Language Film New York Film Critics Circle: Best Cinematographer (Peter Pau) Online Film Critics Society: Best Foreign Language Film, Best Cinematography (Peter Pau) Robert Festival (Denmark): Best Non-American Film Satellite Awards: Best Motion Picture, Foreign Language Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America: Best Script Southeastern Film Critics Association: Best Foreign Language Film Toronto Film Critics Association: Best Picture, Best Supporting Performance - Female (Ziyi Zhang) Toronto International Film Festival: People's Choice Award (Ang Lee) Young Artist Awards: Best Young Actress in an International Film (Ziyi Zhang) Nominations Academy Awards: Best Picture (Murphy) Best Director (Ang Lee) Best Adapted Screenplay (Hui-Ling Wang, James Schamus and Kuo Jung Tsai) Best Costume Design (Timmy Yip) Best Editing (Tim Squyres) Best Original Song (Jorge Calandrelli, Tan Dun [composers] and James Schamus [lyricist] Coco Lee [performer]) - for the song "A Love Before Time" Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films ("Saturn Award"): Best Actor (Yun-Fat Chow), Best Actress (Michelle Yeoh), Best Supporting Actress (Ziyi Zhang), Best Director (Ang Lee), Best Writing (Hui-Ling Wang, James Schamus and Kuo Jung Tsai), Best Music (Tan Dun and Yo-Yo Ma), Best Costumes (Timmy Yip) Amanda Awards (Norway): Best Foreign Feature Film American Cinema Editors ("Eddie Award"): Best Edited Feature Film - Dramatic (Tim Squyres) American Society of Cinematographers: Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Theatrical Releases Art Directors Guild: Excellence in Production Design Award Feature Film - Period or Fantasy FilmsBAFTA Awards: Best Film Best Actress (Michelle Yeoh) Best Supporting Actress (Ziyi Zhang) Best Screenplay - Adapted (James Schamus, Hui-Ling Wang and Kuo Jung Tsai) Best Cinematography (Peter Pau) Best Editing (Tim Squyres) Best Sound (Drew Kunin, Reilly Steele, Eugene Gearty and Robert Fernandez) Best Production Design (Timmy Yip) Best Make Up/Hair (Yun-Ling Man and Siu-Mui Chau) Best Special Visual Effects (Rob Hodgson, Leo Lo, Jonathan F. Styrlund, Bessie Cheuk and Travis Baumann) Blockbuster Entertainment Awards: Favorite Action Team [Internet Only] (Yun-Fat Chow and Michelle Yeoh) British Society of Cinematographers: Best Cinematography Award (Peter Pau) Broadcast Film Critics Association: Best Picture See also A Love Before Time (end-credit title song) Cinema of China Cinema of Hong Kong Cinema of Taiwan New Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon References External links A philosophical discussion of the film Michelle Yeoh: Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon Chinese Culture behind "Hidden Dragon and Crouching Tiger | Crouching_Tiger,_Hidden_Dragon |@lemmatized crouch:15 tiger:24 hidden:22 dragon:22 chinese:10 language:16 film:82 wuxia:3 chivalric:1 martial:7 art:9 style:3 release:2 china:8 hong:6 kong:6 taiwan:7 united:3 state:2 co:3 production:9 direct:2 taiwanese:3 director:10 ang:17 lee:19 feature:6 international:10 cast:2 ethnic:1 actor:4 include:3 chow:6 yun:5 fat:4 michelle:6 yeoh:10 zhang:11 ziyi:11 chang:4 chen:3 movie:7 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4,281 | Mexican_cuisine | An 1836 lithograph after a painting by Carl Nebel of Mexican women making tortillas. Mexican cuisine is a style of food that originated in Mexico. Some dishes have a Spanish or Middle Eastern influence. Mexican cuisine is known for its varied flavors, colorful decoration, and variety of spices and ingredients, many of which are native to the country. National cuisine Chiles en nogada Guacamole |Green and red salsa in molcajetes. When conquistadores arrived in the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City), they found that the people's diet consisted largely of corn-based dishes with chiles and herbs, usually complemented with beans and tomatoes or nopales. The conquistadores eventually combined their imported diet of rice, beef, pork, chicken, wine, garlic and onions with the native indigenous foods of pre-Columbian Mexico, including chocolate, maize, huitlacoche, tomato, vanilla, avocado, guava, papaya, sapote, mamey, pineapple, soursop, jicama, chile pepper, beans, squash, sweet potato, peanut, achiote, turkey and a local variety of fish. Corn is its traditional staple grain, but today, rice is equally important and Mexico's rice harvest is abundant. According to food writer Karen Hursh Graber, the initial introduction of rice to Spain from North Africa in the 4th Century led to the Spanish introduction of rice into Mexico at the port of Veracruz in the 1520s. This, Graber says, created one of the earliest instances of the world's greatest fusion cuisines. Hursh Graber, Diana. "Rice, the Gift of the Other Gods" 2003. In Pueblos or villages, there are also more exotic dishes, cooked in the Aztec or Mayan style (known as comida prehispánica) with ingredients ranging from iguana to rattlesnake, deer, spider monkey, grasshoppers, ant eggs, and other kinds of insects. Common dishes on a national level See List of Mexican cuisine dishes. Regional cuisine Two large jars of aguas frescas. aa On the left is a jar of jamaica and on the right is a jar of horchata. Mexican food varies by region, because of local climate and geography and ethnic differences among the indigenous inhabitants and because these different populations were influenced by the Spaniards in varying degrees. The north of Mexico is known for its beef, goat and ostrich production and meat dishes, in particular the well-known Arrachera cut. Central Mexico's cuisine is largely made up of influences from the rest of the country, but also has its authentics, such as barbacoa, pozole, menudo and carnitas. Southeastern Mexico, on the other hand, is known for its spicy vegetable and chicken-based dishes. The cuisine of Southeastern Mexico also has quite a bit of Caribbean influence, given its geographical location. Seafood is commonly prepared in the states that border the Pacific Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico, the latter having a famous reputation for its fish dishes, a la veracruzana. In modern times, other cuisines of the world have become very popular in Mexico, thus adopting a Mexican fusion. For example, sushi in Mexico is often made with a variety of sauces based on mango or tamarind, and very often served with serrano-chili blended soy sauce, or complimented with habanero and chipotle peppers. mostly using hot spices in many dishes such as menudo and pozole Mexican cuisine outside of Mexico Nachos are most popular outside of Mexico. Authentic Mexican food was adapted and Americanized as "Tex Mex" (Texan-Mexican) cuisine. Mexican cuisine has also had a strong influence on the cuisine of the southwest United States and in California where their version of "Tex-Mex" is sometimes called Cal-Mex. Nachos for example are rarely eaten in Mexico, whereas they are widely popular in the rest of the world. The six regions of Mexico differ greatly in terms of cuisine-style; it is almost as if each region is their own separate country with separate cuisines. In the Yucatan, for instance, a unique, natural sweetness (instead of spiciness) exists in the widely used local produce along with an unusual love for achiote seasoning. In contrast, the Oaxacan region is known for their savory tamales and celebratory moles, while the mountainous regions of the West (Jalisco, etc) are known for goat birria (goat in a spicy tomato-based sauce). Margaritas come in a variety of flavors and colors. While Mexican Restaurants can be found in almost any town throughout North America, and in many cities around the world, restaurants outside the American Southwest often feature nontraditional ingredients, such as grated American-style cheese, "nacho" cheese or tomato-based sauce substitutes for Mexican chile-based sauces or mole. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Colorado, and parts of Florida and Illinois have large expatriate Mexican populations, and a variety of authentic Mexican restaurants can be found in these states. In other areas of the United States and Canada, Mexican dishes and restaurants vary as much as Chinese restaurants and dishes do between China and many locations in the western Hemisphere. The Chimichanga, a deep-fried burrito with origins in Arizona, is a Mexican-inspired dish popular in the United States and in other countries outside of Mexico. New Mexico's long tradition of Mexican settlement and history and native American influence as well, has created a distinct form of New Mexican cuisine. Even though many of the dishes vary from their Mexican counterparts, they are still considered "authentic" or "traditional" for New Mexican cuisine. Both Mexicans and New Mexicans typically find each other's cuisine somewhat similar, yet unfamiliar, and non-traditional, typically missing the true taste that they desire. Rarely are Mexican restaurants specializing in New Mexican cuisine found outside of New Mexico except in the state of Colorado. In Mexico, it is very unusual to put cheese in tacos or tostadas (unless it is the typically Mexican panela cheese). See also Mexican wine Mexican beer Aztec cuisine Enchirito References | Mexican_cuisine |@lemmatized lithograph:1 painting:1 carl:1 nebel:1 mexican:27 woman:1 make:3 tortilla:1 cuisine:20 style:4 food:5 originate:1 mexico:21 dish:13 spanish:2 middle:1 eastern:1 influence:6 know:7 varied:1 flavor:2 colorful:1 decoration:1 variety:5 spice:2 ingredient:3 many:5 native:3 country:4 national:2 chile:4 en:1 nogada:1 guacamole:1 green:1 red:1 salsa:1 molcajetes:1 conquistador:2 arrive:1 aztec:3 capital:1 tenochtitlan:1 city:2 find:5 people:1 diet:2 consist:1 largely:2 corn:2 base:6 herb:1 usually:1 complement:1 bean:2 tomato:4 nopales:1 eventually:1 combine:1 imported:1 rice:6 beef:2 pork:1 chicken:2 wine:2 garlic:1 onion:1 indigenous:2 pre:1 columbian:1 include:1 chocolate:1 maize:1 huitlacoche:1 vanilla:1 avocado:1 guava:1 papaya:1 sapote:1 mamey:1 pineapple:1 soursop:1 jicama:1 pepper:2 squash:1 sweet:1 potato:1 peanut:1 achiote:2 turkey:1 local:3 fish:2 traditional:3 staple:1 grain:1 today:1 equally:1 important:1 harvest:1 abundant:1 accord:1 writer:1 karen:1 hursh:2 graber:3 initial:1 introduction:2 spain:1 north:3 africa:1 century:1 lead:1 port:1 veracruz:1 say:1 create:2 one:1 early:1 instance:2 world:4 great:1 fusion:2 diana:1 gift:1 god:1 pueblo:1 village:1 also:5 exotic:1 cook:1 mayan:1 comida:1 prehispánica:1 range:1 iguana:1 rattlesnake:1 deer:1 spider:1 monkey:1 grasshopper:1 ant:1 egg:1 kind:1 insect:1 common:1 level:1 see:2 list:1 regional:1 two:1 large:2 jar:3 aguas:1 frescas:1 aa:1 left:1 jamaica:1 right:1 horchata:1 varies:1 region:5 climate:1 geography:1 ethnic:1 difference:1 among:1 inhabitant:1 different:1 population:2 spaniard:1 vary:3 degree:1 goat:3 ostrich:1 production:1 meat:1 particular:1 well:2 arrachera:1 cut:1 central:1 rest:2 authentics:1 barbacoa:1 pozole:2 menudo:2 carnitas:1 southeastern:2 hand:1 spicy:2 vegetable:1 quite:1 bit:1 caribbean:1 give:1 geographical:1 location:2 seafood:1 commonly:1 prepare:1 state:6 border:1 pacific:1 ocean:1 gulf:1 latter:1 famous:1 reputation:1 la:1 veracruzana:1 modern:1 time:1 become:1 popular:4 thus:1 adopt:1 example:2 sushi:1 often:3 sauce:5 mango:1 tamarind:1 serve:1 serrano:1 chili:1 blend:1 soy:1 compliment:1 habanero:1 chipotle:1 mostly:1 use:2 hot:1 outside:5 nacho:3 authentic:3 adapt:1 americanize:1 tex:2 mex:3 texan:1 strong:1 southwest:2 united:3 california:2 version:1 sometimes:1 call:1 cal:1 rarely:2 eat:1 whereas:1 widely:2 six:1 differ:1 greatly:1 term:1 almost:2 separate:2 yucatan:1 unique:1 natural:1 sweetness:1 instead:1 spiciness:1 exist:1 produce:1 along:1 unusual:2 love:1 seasoning:1 contrast:1 oaxacan:1 savory:1 tamale:1 celebratory:1 mole:2 mountainous:1 west:1 jalisco:1 etc:1 birria:1 margaritas:1 come:1 color:1 restaurant:6 town:1 throughout:1 america:1 around:1 american:3 feature:1 nontraditional:1 grated:1 cheese:4 substitute:1 texas:1 new:7 arizona:2 colorado:2 part:1 florida:1 illinois:1 expatriate:1 area:1 canada:1 much:1 chinese:1 china:1 western:1 hemisphere:1 chimichanga:1 deep:1 fried:1 burrito:1 origin:1 inspired:1 long:1 tradition:1 settlement:1 history:1 distinct:1 form:1 even:1 though:1 counterpart:1 still:1 consider:1 typically:3 somewhat:1 similar:1 yet:1 unfamiliar:1 non:1 miss:1 true:1 taste:1 desire:1 specialize:1 except:1 put:1 taco:1 tostada:1 unless:1 panela:1 beer:1 enchirito:1 reference:1 |@bigram beef_pork:1 pork_chicken:1 garlic_onion:1 pre_columbian:1 sweet_potato:1 pacific_ocean:1 gulf_mexico:1 soy_sauce:1 tex_mex:2 deep_fried:1 |
4,282 | Hot_or_Not | Hot or Not is a rating site that allows users to rate the attractiveness of photos submitted voluntarily by others. The site also offers a match making engine called 'Meet Me' and an extended profile feature called 'HOTLISTS'. Description Photos are approved by a panel of volunteer moderators, who strive to keep the site "fun, clean, and real". However, in recent times there have been changes to the moderating system, see below. History The site was founded in October 2000 by James Hong and Jim Young, two friends and Silicon Valley-based engineers (both graduated from UC Berkeley), as a technical solution to a disagreement they made one day over a passing woman's attractiveness. The site was originally called "Am I Hot or Not". Within a week of launching, it had reached almost two million page views per day. Within a few months, the site was immediately behind CNET and NBCi on NetNielsen Rating's Top 25 advertising domains. To keep up with rising costs Hong and Young added a matchmaking component to their website called "Meet Me at Hot or Not", i.e. a system of range voting. The matchmaking service has been especially successful and the site continues to generate most of its revenue through subscriptions. In the December 2006 issue of Time Magazine, the founders of YouTube stated that they originally set out to make a version of Hot or Not with Video before developing their more inclusive site. Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook similarly got his start by creating a Hot or Not type site called FaceMash, where he posted photos from Harvard's Facebook for the university's community to rate. Hot or Not was sold for a rumored $20 million on February 8, 2008. HotOrNot Apparently Very Hot: Acquired For $20 Million Annual revenue was estimated at $5 million, with net profits of $2 million. They initially started off $60,000 in debt due to tuition fees James paid for his MBA. YouTube - HotOrNot: From Nothing to $20M in 7 years! On July 31, 2008, Hot or Not launched Hot or Not Gossip and a celebrity rate box (a "hot meter") - a sub division to expand their market which is run by former radio-dj, turned celebrity blogger, Zack Taylor Predecessors and Spin-offs Hot or Not was preceded by the popular RateMyFace, which was launched a year earlier in the summer of 1999, and AmIHot.com, which was launched in January 2000 by MIT freshman Daniel Roy. Despite the head starts of its predecessors, Hot or Not quickly became the most popular. Trademark threats from AmIHot.com eventually forced AmIHotOrNot.com to change its name to HotOrNot.com in 2001 and buy AmIHot.com in 2004. Since AmIHotOrNot.com's launch, the concept has spawned many imitators. The concept always remained the same, but the subject matter varied greatly. The concept has also been integrated with a wide variety of dating and matchmaking systems. In 2007 BecauseImHot.com launched and deleted anyone with a rating below 7 after a voting audit or the first 50 votes (whichever is first). Variations on the Hot or Not concept include voting via a Condorcet method where a candidate is compared with other candidates in a series of pairwise comparisons in order to gauge their popularity. Research In 1883, Francis Galton, cousin of Charles Darwin, devised a technique called composite photography, described in detail in Inquiries in Human Faculty and its Development, which he believed could be used to identify 'types' by appearance, which he hoped would aid medical diagnosis, and even criminology through the identification of typical criminal faces. In short, he wondered if certain groups of people had certain facial characteristics. To find this answer, he created photographic composite images of the faces of vegetarians and criminals to see if there was a typical facial appearance for each. Galton overlaid multiple images of faces onto a single photographic plate so that each individual face contributed roughly equally to a final composite face. While the resultant “averaged” faces did little to allow the a priori identification of either criminals or vegetarians, Galton observed that the composite image was more attractive than the component faces. Similar observations were made in 1886 by Stoddard, who created composite faces of members of the National Academy of Sciences and graduating seniors of Smith College. This phenomenon is now known as averageness-effect, that is the highly physically attractive tend to be indicative of the average traits of the population. Composite images of female faces, grouped by differing "hotness" levels, as rated on hotornot.com In 2005, as an example of using image morphing methodology to study the effects of averageness, imaging researcher Pierre Tourigny created a composite of about 30 faces to find out the current standard of good looks on the Internet (as shown above). On the popular Hot or Not web site, people rate others’ attractiveness on a scale of 1 to 10. An average score based on hundreds or even thousands of individual ratings takes only a few days to emerge. To make this hot or not pallate of morphed images, photos from the site were sorted by rank and used SquirlzMorph to create multi-morph composites from them. Unlike projects like Face of Tomorrow where the subjects are posed for the purpose, the portraits are blurry because the source images are low resolution with differences in posture, hair styles, glasses, etc, so that here images could use only 36 control points for the morphs. Manitou (2006). Hot or Not - Attractiveness Face Scale (composite images), Flicker, May 4. A similar study was done with Miss Universe contestants, as shown in the averageness article, as well as one for age, as shown in youthfulness article. A recent 2006 "hot" or "not" style study, involving 264 women and 18 men, at the Washington University School of Medicine, as published online in the journal Brain Research, indicates that a person's brain determines whether an image is erotic long before the viewer is even aware they are seeing the picture. Moreover, according to these researchers, one of the basic functions of the brain is to classify images into a hot or not type categorization. The study's researchers also discovered that sexy shots induce a uniquely powerful reaction in the brain, equal in effect for both men and women, and that erotic images produced a strong reaction in the hypothalamus. Wittlin, Maggie, “Hot or Not – Women’s brains respond to erotic images as quickly and strongly as men’s”. Seed Magazine – Brain & Behavior, July, 13. See also Rating sites References External links Meet women or men, rate singles at HOT or NOT! 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4,283 | Jeep | Jeep is an automobile marque (and registered trademark) of Chrysler. It is the oldest off-road vehicle (also sport utility vehicle - SUV) brand, with Land Rover coming in second. The original vehicle which first appeared as the prototype Bantam BRC became the primary light 4-wheel-drive vehicle of the US Army and allies during the World War II and postwar period. Many vehicles serving similar military and civilian roles have since been created by many nations. Jeeps were also used by the U.S. Postal Service in the 20th century for mail services. History Origin of the term "jeep" There are many explanations of the origin of the word "jeep," all of which have proven difficult to verify. Probably the most popular notion holds that the vehicle bore the designation "GP" (for "Government Purposes" or "General Purpose"), which was phonetically slurred into the word jeep. However, R. Lee Ermey, on his television series Mail Call, disputes this, saying that the vehicle was designed for specific duties, was never referred to as "General Purpose," and that the name may have been derived from Ford's nomenclature referring to the vehicle as GP (G for government use, and P to designate its wheelbase). "GP" does appear in connection with the vehicle in the TM 9-803 manual, which describes the vehicle as a machine, and the vehicle is designated a "GP" in TM 9-2800, Standard Motor Vehicles, September 1, 1949, but whether the average jeep-driving GI would have been familiar with either of these manuals is open to debate. This account may confuse the jeep with the nickname of another series of vehicles with the GP designation. Electro-Motive Diesel (formerly a division of General Motors), a maker of railroad locomotives, introduced its "General Purpose" line in 1949, using the GP tag. These locomotives are commonly referred to as Geeps, pronounced the same way as "Jeep." Many, including Ermey, suggest that soldiers at the time were so impressed with the new vehicles that they informally named it after Eugene the Jeep, a character in the Popeye cartoons that "could go anywhere." Wordorigins.org It has been said that the word "jeep" was in use during World War I as a designation for army recruits, but no contemporary documentation is known to support this claim. "Jeep" had been used as the name of a small tractor made by Minneapolis-Moline. The term "jeep" would eventually be used as slang to refer to an airplane, a tractor used for hauling heavy equipment, and an autogyro. When the first models of the jeep came to Camp Holabird for tests, the vehicle did not have a name yet. Therefore the soldiers on the test project called it a jeep. Civilian engineers and test drivers who were at the camp during this time were not aware of the military slang term. They most likely were familiar with the character Eugene the Jeep and thought that Eugene was the origin of the name. The vehicle had many other nicknames at this time such as Peep (the term originally used in the Armored Force), Pygmy, and Blitz-Buggy, although because of the Eugene association, Jeep stuck in people's minds better than any other term. Words of the Fighting Forces by Clinton A. Sanders, a dictionary of military slang, published in 1942, in the library at The Pentagon gives this definition: Jeep: A four-wheel drive vehicle of one-half- to one-and-one-half-ton capacity for reconnaissance or other army duty. A term applied to the bantam-cars, and occasionally to other motor vehicles (U.S.A.) in the Air Corps, the Link Trainer; in the armored forces, the ½-ton command vehicle. Also referred to as "any small plane, helicopter, or gadget." Early in 1941, Willys-Overland demonstrated the vehicle's off-road cability by having it drive up the U.S. Capitol steps, driven by Willy's test driver Irving "Red" Haussman, who had recently heard soldiers at Fort Holabird calling it a "jeep." When asked by syndicated columnist Katherine Hillyer for the Washington Daily News (or by a bystander, according to another account) what it was called, Irving answered, "It's a jeep." Katherine Hillyer's article was published nationally on February 20, 1941, and included a picture of the vehicle with the caption: LAWMAKERS TAKE A RIDE- With Senator Meade, of New York, at the wheel, and Representative Thomas, of New Jersey, sitting beside him, one of the Army's new scout cars, known as "jeeps" or "quads", climbs up the Capitol steps in a demonstration yesterday. Soldiers in the rear seat for gunners were unperturbed. This exposure caused all other jeep references to fade, leaving the 4x4 truck with the name. Willys-Overland Inc. was later awarded the sole privilege of owning the name "Jeep" as registered trademark by extension, merely because it originally had offered the most powerful engine. (Compare "mayhem" and "commando" for words which changed their main meanings because of readers misunderstanding newspaper accounts.) The origins of the vehicle: the first jeeps Bantam BRC 40|Bantam BRC 40 Dashboard of World War II era jeep. The first jeep prototype (the Bantam BRC) was built for the Department of the Army by American Bantam in Butler, Pennsylvania, "Invention of the Jeep" Waymark followed by two other competing prototypes produced by Ford and Willys-Overland. The American Bantam Car Company actually built and designed the vehicle that first met the Army's criteria, but its engine did not meet the Army's torque requirements. Plus, the Army felt that the company was too small to supply the number needed and it allowed Willys and Ford to make second attempts on their designs after seeing Bantam's vehicle in action. Quantities (1,500) of each of the three models were then extensively field tested. During the bidding process for 16,000 "jeeps", Willys-Overland's chief engineer Delmar "Barney" Roos made extensive design changes to meet a revised weight specification (a maximum of 2,175 pounds, including oil and water). He was thus able to retain a powerful but comparatively heavy engine,and thus won the initial contract. Willys had designed what would become the standardized jeep, designating it a model MB military vehicle and building it at their plant in Toledo, Ohio. Like American Bantam, Willys-Overland was a small company and, likewise, the military was concerned about their ability to produce large quantities of jeeps. The military was also concerned that Willys-Overland had only one manufacturing facility: something that would make the supply of jeeps more susceptible to sabotage or production stoppages. Based on these two concerns, the U.S. government required that jeeps also be built by the Ford Motor Company, who designated the vehicle as model GPW (G = government vehicle, P designated the 80" wheelbase, and W = the Willys engine design). Willys and Ford, under the direction of Charles E. Sorensen (Vice-President of Ford during World War II), produced more than 600,000 jeeps. Cost per vehicle trended upwards as the war continued from the price under the first contract of a little less than $750. Besides just being a "truck" the jeep was used for many other purposes. The jeep was widely copied around the world, including in France by Delahaye and by Hotchkiss et Cie (after 1954, Hotchkiss manufactured Jeeps under license from Willys), and in Japan by Mitsubishi Motors. There were several versions created, including a railway jeep and an amphibious jeep. As part of the war effort, Jeeps were also supplied to the Soviet Red Army during World War II. During the jeep's service in Korea the name was referred to as "Just Enough Essential Parts" by the troops due to the very basic design. The utilitarian good looks of the original Jeep have been hailed by industrial designers and museum curators alike. The Museum of Modern Art described the Jeep as a masterpiece of functionalist design, and has periodically exhibited the Jeep as part of its collection. Leigh Brown, Patricia, Where Do You Hang The 747?, New York Times, December 13, 1998 MOMA Press Release, The Museum of Modern Art Displays Entire Automotive Collection, page 2 (June 2002) http://www.moma.org/about_moma/press/2002/AUTObodies_6_01_02.pdf In the United States military, the jeep has been supplanted by a number of vehicles (e.g. Ford's M151 MUTT) of which the latest is the High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV or "Humvee"). The M715 Jeep M715 In 1965, Jeep developed the M715 1.25 ton army truck, which served extensively in Vietnam. Today it serves other countries, and is still being produced by Kia under license. The CJ series began back in 1945 with the CJ2A. The name CJ stands for "Civilian Jeep," a bit of trivia that is still argued over. These early Jeeps are commonly referred to as "flatfenders" because their front fenders were flat across the front, even with the grill. Yes, there was such a thing as a CJ-4, and in true Jeep form, there is only one, literally. There is only one 1951 CJ-4 prototype in existence, it's the "missing link" between the flatfendered CJ-2's and 3' and the round-fendered CJ-5. The Jeep marque The marque has gone through many owners, starting in 1941 with Willys, which produced the first Civilian Jeep (CJ). Willys was sold to Kaiser in 1953, which became Kaiser-Jeep in 1963. American Motors (AMC) purchased Kaiser's money-losing Jeep operations in 1970. The utility vehicles complemented AMC's passenger car business by sharing components, achieving volume efficiencies, as well as capitalizing on Jeep's international and government markets. The French automaker Renault began investing in AMC in 1979. However, by 1987, the automobile markets had changed and even Renault itself was experiencing financial troubles. At the same time, Chrysler Corporation wanted to capture the Jeep brand, as well as other assets of AMC. Chrysler bought out AMC in 1987, shortly after the Jeep CJ was replaced with the AMC-designed Jeep Wrangler or YJ. Chrysler merged with Daimler-Benz in 1998 to form DaimlerChrysler. DaimlerChrysler eventually sold most of their interest in Chrysler to a private equity company in 2007. Chrysler and the Jeep division now operate under the name Chrysler Holding LLC. Toledo, Ohio has been the headquarters of the Jeep marque since its inception, and the city has always been proud of this heritage. Although no longer produced in the same factory as the World War II originals, two streets in the vicinity of the old plant are named Willys Parkway and Jeep Parkway. American Motors set up the first automobile-manufacturing joint venture in the People's Republic of China on January 15, 1984 Mann, Jim. (1997). Beijing Jeep: A Case Study of Western Business in China. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3327-X. . The result was Beijing Jeep Corporation, Ltd., in partnership with Beijing Automobile Industry Corporation, to produce the Jeep Cherokee (XJ) in Beijing. Manufacture continued after Chrysler's buyout of AMC. This joint venture is now part of DaimlerChrysler and DaimlerChrysler China Invest Corporation. The original 1984 XJ model was updated and called the "Jeep 2500" toward the end of its production that ended after 2005. Dunne, Timothy. "Can Chrysler Rebound in China?" Business Week, November 2, 2007. Retrieved on January 22, 2008. Jeep vehicles have "model designations" in addition to their common names. Nearly every civilian Jeep until the mid-2000s has an 'xJ' designation, though not all are as well-known as the classic CJ. Chrysler has now changed to an "xK" designation. A division of Chrysler Holdings, the most recent successor company to Willys, now holds trademark status on the name "Jeep" and the distinctive 7-slot front grille design. The original 9-slot grille associated with all WW2 jeeps was designed by Ford for their GPW, and because it weighed less than the original "Slat Grille" of Willys, (an arrangement of flat bars) was incorporated into the "standardized jeep" design. AM General The history of the Humvee has ties with Jeep. In 1971, Jeep's Defense and Government Products Division was turned into AM General, a wholly-owned subsidiary of American Motors Corporation, which also owned Jeep. In 1979, while still owned by American Motors, AM General began the first steps toward designing the High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle. AM General also continued manufacturing the DJ, which Jeep created in 1953. The General Motors Hummer and Chrysler Jeep have been waging battle in US courts over the right to use seven slots in their respective radiator grills. Chrysler Jeep claims it has the exclusive rights to use the seven vertical slits since it is the sole remaining assignee of the various companies since Willys gave their post-war jeeps seven slots instead of Ford's nine-slot design for the Jeep. Off-Road abilities Jeep Wrangler; note the solid front axle. Jeeps have always been known for their off-road capabilities. Toledo-built Jeeps' sales results abroad mirror those in North American market . Today, the Wrangler is the only light-duty vehicle offered in North America with solid axles front and rear. These axles are known for their durability due to their overall strength and lack of rubber boots to get torn on twigs and rocks. Solid-axled vehicles also generally articulate better, especially when traversing ruts. Most Wranglers come with a Dana 35 rear axle and a Dana 30 up front. The upgraded Rubicon model of the Wrangler is equipped with lockers (either air or electric depending on year), Dana 44 axles front and rear with 4.11 gears, a 4:1 transfer case and heavy duty springs. Another plus of solid axle vehicles is they tend to be easier and cheaper to "lift." This "lifting" increases the distance between the center of the axle hub and chassis of the vehicle. By increasing this distance, larger tires can be installed, which will increase the ground clearance of the Jeep, allowing it to traverse even larger and more difficult obstacles. Jeep is also known as a symbol of freedom because of the capacity of going almost everywhere. Many people equip theirs with roll-bars, extra lights, and a winch to pull the vehicle out from the mud or sand when stuck. Useful features of the smaller Jeeps are their short wheelbases, narrow frames, and ample approach, breakover, and departure angles, allowing them to fit places where full-size trucks could never go. Jeeps also feature a removable soft top and doors for days when the weather is nice. The Jeep Wrangler is the only utility vehicle that has a removable top and doors. Jeep events The Jeep Jamboree Jamborees are two-day off-road events held throughout the year in which Jeep owners can bring their friends and families to meet other Jeepers, tour scenic trails, and test the limits of their vehicles. Any Jeep with a low-range transfer case is allowed, although Full Size Jeeps require prior approval. Only registered participants are allowed to take part in the trail rides and activities; no spectators are allowed. Participants can choose to camp at a local campground, stay in a motel, or find other lodging. The day starts off with breakfast, followed by a general meeting that discusses the trail of the day, as well as the driving techniques required. The trail run is concluded by sundown. Camp Jeep Camp Jeep is an annual, three-day, multi-activity oriented event which includes mountain biking, fishing, kayaking, tubing, arts and crafts, and performances by top bands. Children are encouraged to participate as much as adults (events permitting). Man-made obstacle courses are also offered, as well as trail rides (although the latter must be reserved in advance). "Jeep 101" courses are offered for people just getting started in the off-road world, with experienced guides demonstrating proper driving techniques and the vehicles' 4x4 systems. There is no actual camping at Camp Jeep; participants may camp locally or stay at a motel. Jeep Culture Jeep-Willys history in Colombia El Yipao The first Jeeps (M38 or CJ-2A models) arrived to Colombia in 1946 for military purposes. They were imported by the Colombian Ministry of Defense and soon became very popular among Colombian coffee farmers who saw in this vehicle the needed qualities for the difficult roads in the mountainous region of the country. Besides the transportation of coffee, Jeeps are used for transport many other agricultural products, as well as country workers to places previously accessible only to pack animals. Due to this quality, the Jeeps are also known locally in Spanish: "mulitas mecánicas" (or mechanical mules). In the cities of Armenia and Calarca in the department of Quindío, have opened several categories which recognizes and rewards them for competition for the best "yipaos" as told in this region, which owes its progress to this great vehicle. Its exceptional torque-displacement relationship, the distribution of relations in the gearbox, traction in its 4-wheel, and its mechanical simplicity and aesthetics. These vehicles are part of the culture then lots of families engaged in the cultivation of coffee, so you get to customize their fond owners with ornaments and striking accessories that in many occasions including religious images. The understanding of these vehicles is such that the region is stated that all household of a peasant house , sometimes including their members, must be transported by a single Jeep Jeep model list Historical models Historical Jeep models: 1940 Bantam Pilot- Prototype 1940 Bantam BRC-60- Prototype 1940 Willys Quad- Prototype 1940 Ford Pygmy- Prototype 1940 Budd Ford- Prototype 1941 Ford GP 1941 Willys MA 1941 Bantam BRC-40 1942 Willys MB (slat grille) Willys jeep|World War II era Willys jeep 1942-1945 Willys MB (stamped grille) 1942-1945 Ford GPW World War II era jeep built by Ford, using the Willys-Overland design 1942-1943 Ford GPA 1944 Willys MLW-1- Prototype (Never Finished) 1944 Willys MLW-2- Prototype 1944 Agrijeep CJ-1 1944-1945 CJ-2 1945-1949 CJ-2A 1946-1965 Willys Jeep Wagon 1947-1965 Willys Jeep Truck 1948-1950 VJ — Willys Jeepster 1949-1953 CJ-3A 1950 CJ-V35 1950-1955 M-38 (MC) 1950 X-98- Prototype 1950 CJ-4- Prototype 1950 CJ-4M- Prototype 1950 CJ-4MA- Prototypes 1952-1957 M38A1 (MD) 1952-1957 M38A1C 1953-1963 M170 1953-1968 CJ-3B 1953 BC Bobcat- Prototype 1954-1983 CJ-5 1961-1963 Tuxedo Park Mark III 1969 Camper 1969 462 1970 Renegade I 1971 Renegade II 1972-1983 Renegade Models 1973 Super Jeep 1977-1980 Golden Eagle 1977 Golden Eagle California Edition - limited production that were only available through California AMC Dealerships 1980 Golden Hawk 1979 Silver Anniversary CJ-5 Limited Edition - estimated that perhaps only 1,000 were ever built 1955 USAF DJ 1955 M38A1D 1955-1975 CJ-6 1955-1964 DJ-3A Surrey Gala Package 1955-1968 CJ-3B Long- Spain 1956-1965 Jeep Forward Control FC-150 FC-160- Spain, India FC-170 M676 M677 M678 M679 1959-1978 M151 MUTT M151A1 M151A1C M151A2 M718 Ambulance M718A1 Ambulance M825 1960-1968 Jeep M606 1960-1977 Jeep Rural- Brazil 1961-1975 Fleetvan FJ-3 FJ-3A FJ-6 FJ-6A FJ-8 FJ-9 1963-1983 SJ Wagoneer 1963-1986 J-Series Jeep Gladiator Jeep Honcho 1964-1967 CJ-5A/CJ-6A Tuxedo Park 1965-1975 DJ-5 1965-1973 DJ-6 1966-1969 SJ Super Wagoneer 1966-1971 C101- Jeepster Commando 1972-1973 C104— Jeep Commando 1974-1983 SJ Cherokee 1974 Cherokee S in action. S Limited Classic Chief Sport Pioneer Laredo 1967-1975 DJ-5A 1970-1972 DJ-5B 1973-1974 DJ-5C 1975-1976 DJ-5D 1976 DJ- 5E Electruck 1976-1986 CJ-7 1982 — Jamboree Limited Edition (2500 examples) 1977-1978 DJ-5F 1979 DJ-5G 1979 — CJ-5 Silver Anniversary Limited Edition - estimated that perhaps only 1000 were built) 1981-1985 CJ-8 Scrambler 1982 Jeep Scrambler 1981-1985 CJ-10 1982 DJ- 5L 1984-1991 SJ Jeep Grand Wagoneer 1991 Final Edition 1984-2001 XJ Cherokee 1984-2001 — Base "SE" 1984-1988 — Chief 1984-1990 — Pioneer 1985-1992 — Laredo 1987-1992/1998-2001 — Limited 1988-2001 — Sport 1991-1992 — Briarwood 1993-1997 — Country 1996-2001 — Classic 1984-1990 XJ Wagoneer 1984-1985 — Broughwood 1984-1990 — Limited 1986-1992 MJ Comanche 1986 — Custom 1986 — X 1986 — XLS 1987-1992 — Base SE 1987-1990 — Chief 1987-1992 — Laredo 1987-1990 — Pioneer 1987-1992 — SporTruck 1987-1992 — Eliminator 1987-1995 Wrangler YJ 1991-1993 Renegade 1988-1995 Wrangler Long- Venezuela 1993-1998 ZJ Grand Cherokee First generation ZJ 1994 ZJ Laredo Model 1993–1995 – Base SE 1993–1998 – Laredo 1993–1998 – Limited 1995–1997 – Orvis "Limited Edition" 1997–1998 – TSi 1998 - 5.9 Limited 1993 ZJ Jeep Grand Wagoneer 1997-2006 Wrangler TJ 1997 Jeep Wrangler TJ 2002 TJ 2003 TJ Rubicon 2004 TJ Unlimited 2004-2005 - Willys Edition (2004-1997 made, 2005-2001 made) 2004 — Columbia Edition 1999-2004 WJ Grand Cherokee 2002–2003 — Sport 2002–2004 — Special edition 2002–2004 — Overland 2004 — Columbia Edition 2002-2007 KJ Liberty Sport Limited Renegade 2003 Freedom Edition 2004 Columbia Edition Current models The Jeep brand currently produces six models: Jeep Wrangler JK — The current version of the Wrangler, released as a 2007 model. JK Unlimited — The long wheelbase, 4-door version of the 2007 Wrangler. Jeep Grand Cherokee — Large family-oriented SUV. WK — The newest Grand Cherokee, 2005-present ("WK" is the designator for the new Grand Cherokee, it is one of the few non-J-designated Jeeps). 2005–present – Laredo 2005–present – Limited 2006–present – Overland 2006–present – SRT-8 Jeep Liberty — KK — A small SUV (replaced the Cherokee and kept the name outside North America). Jeep Commander — XK — A seven passenger SUV. Jeep Compass — MK — A small crossover SUV based on the Dodge Caliber. Jeep Patriot — MK — A small crossover SUV based on the Dodge Caliber. Concept vehicles 1958 DJ-3A Pickup 1970 XJ001 1970 XJ002 1971 Jeep Cowboy 1977 Jeep II 1986 Cherokee Targa Essentially a Cherokee convertible (later revised as Jeep Freedom). 1987 Comanche ThunderchiefThis vehicle was put into production later as the Comanche Eliminator. 1989 Jeep Rubicon WranglerThis vehicle was later put in production. 1990 Jeep JJEssentially what would later be called the Icon. 1990 Jeep Freedom Essentially a revised Cherokee Targa. 1991 Jeep Wagoneer 2000 Essentially what Jeep thought would be the next generation Wagoneer, but it got discontinued. 1989 Jeep Concept 1 Essentially a ZJ Grand Cherokee. 1993 Jeep Ecco 1997 Jeep Cherokee Casablanca A special edition of Cherokee, never produced. 1997 Jeep Wrangler Ultimate Rescue Essentially a tuned version of a regular TJ Wrangler. Before SEMA. 1997 Fender Jeep Wrangler 1997 Jeep DakarEssentially a fused version of a XJ Cherokee and TJ Wrangler. 1997 Jeep IconWhat Jeep thought would be the next-generation Wrangler. 1999 Jeep Journey 1999 Jeep Jeepster Concept 2000 Jeep Cherokee Total Exposure 2000 Jeep VarsityThis was later put into production as the Compass. 2000 Jeep Commander ConceptThis vehicle was later put into production as the XK. 2000 Jeep Willys 2001 Jeep Willys 2 2002 Jeep Wrangler Tabasco 2002 Jeep Wrangler PatriotThis was a special decal package for the Wrangler X/Sport. 2002 Jeep Wrangler Mountain Biker 2004 Jeep Grand Cherokee (WJ) Concierge 2004 Jeep Treo 2004 Jeep Rescue 2004 Jeep Liberator CRD 2005 Jeep HurricaneFun Fact: this vehicle can turn 360 on its axis. Its engine was later put in the Grand Cherokee (WK) SRT/8. 2005 Jeep Gladiator Concept This vehicle was supposed to be put into production, but Jeep cancelled it. 2005 Jeep Aggressor (the Rezo) 2007 Jeep Barnett 2007 Jeep Trailhawk 2008 Jeep Renegade Jeeps around the world Jeeps have been built and/or assembled around the world by various companies. Jeeps Around the World on The CJ3B Page Argentina - IKA Jeeps 1956-current; now owned by Chrysler Jeeps in Argentina on The CJ3B Page Australia - Willys Motors Australia - 1940s-1980s Jeeps in Australia on The CJ3B Page Belgium - The Troller T4 Brazil - Willys Overland do Brasil, purchased by Ford to become Ford do Brasil - 1957-1985 Jeeps in Brasil on The CJ3B Page and the Troller T4 is a fiberglass Jeep version built in Brazil. Troller was purchased by Ford do Brasil in 2007. Burma/Myanmar - Two Burmese companies produce unlicensed copies of jeeps; Myanmar Jeeps and Chin Dwin Star Jeeps. Canada - Kaiser Jeep - 1959-1969 Kaiser Jeep in Canada 1959-69 on The CJ3B Page China - Beijing Jeep Corporation - 1983 to present as Beijing-Benz DaimlerChrysler Automotive Colombia - Willys Colombia - at least until 1999 Jeeps in Colombia on The CJ3B Page Egypt - Arab Organization for Industrialization subsidiary Arab American Vehicles based in Cairo produces the Jeep Cherokee; the open-top, Wrangler-based Jeep AAV TJL. France - Hotchkiss and Auverland - 1952-1962 Jeeps in France on The CJ3B Page India - Mahindra & Mahindra Limited - 1960s-current Mahindra Jeeps on The CJ3B Page Israel - Automotive Industries which produces the AIL Storm (Sufa) series of Jeep Wrangler-derivatives Italy - 1950s Jeeps in Italy on The CJ3B Page Japan - Mitsubishi Jeeps - 1953-1998 Jeeps in Japan on The CJ3B Page Korea - Asia Motors, Ltd and SsangYong Motor Company. (don't use Jeep name) - 1980s-current Jeeps in Korea on The CJ3B Page Mexico - VAM Jeeps - 1946-1987 Jeeps in Mexico on The CJ3B Page Netherlands - Nederlandse Kaiser-Frazer - 1954-1990s Jeeps in the Netherlands on The CJ3B Page Philippines - Jeepneys Jeepneys of the Philippines on The CJ3B Page ; MD Juan Willys MB. Afp.google.com, Philippine firm brings old WWII jeeps back to life ; "E-jeepneys" or minibuses, LSV (low-speed vehicles) which uses electricity. earthtimes.org, Electric minibuses start commercial operations in Philippines manilastandardtoday.com, Enforcers to drive E-jeeps Portugal - Bravia - 1960s-1980s Spain - VIASA, later sold to Nissan - 1960-1990s Jeeps in Spain on The CJ3B Page Turkey - Tuzla - 1954-1970s Jeeps in Turkey on The CJ3B Page Further reading Hartwell D The Mighty Jeep American Heritage Magazine, Vol 12 No 1, December 1960 See also AMC/Jeep Transmissions American Motors Jeep four wheel drive systems Jeep trail Jeepney SUV and Compact SUV Willys Jeep parade References Jeep, written by Jim Allen, published in 2001 by MBI Publishing Company Standard catalog of JEEP, written by Patrick Foster, published in 2003 by Krause Publications Footnotes External links Jeep Brand official website Autobiography of a Jeep (1943). 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4,284 | Impact_crater | The prominent impact crater Tycho on the Moon. NASA photo. In the broadest sense, the term impact crater can be applied to any depression, natural or manmade, resulting from the high velocity impact of a projectile with larger body. In most common usage, the term is used for the approximately circular depression in the surface of a planet, moon or other solid body in the Solar System, formed by the hyper-velocity impact of a smaller body with the surface. This is in contrast to the pit crater which results from an internal collapse. Impact craters typically have raised rims, and they range from small, simple, bowl-shaped depressions to large, complex, multi-ringed impact basins. Meteor Crater is perhaps the best-known example of a small impact crater on the Earth. The depth of an impact crater can usually be estimated using Hunt's Impact Theorem, assuming that the radius of the impact body is negligible to the size of the crater. Impact craters provide the dominant landforms on many solid Solar System objects including the Moon, Mercury, Callisto, Ganymede and most small moons and asteroids. On other planets and moons that experience more-active surface geological processes, such as Earth, Venus, Mars, Europa, Io and Titan, visible impact craters are less common because they become eroded, buried or transformed by tectonics over time. Where such processes have destroyed most of the original crater topography, the terms impact structure or astrobleme are more commonly used. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth. In the early Solar System, rates of impact cratering were much higher than today. The large multi-ringed impact basins, with diameters of hundreds of kilometers or more, retained for example on Mercury and the Moon, record a period of intense early bombardment in the inner Solar System that ended about 3.8 billion years ago. Since that time, the rate of crater production on Earth has been considerably lower, but it is appreciable nonetheless; Earth experiences from one to three impacts large enough to produce a 20 km diameter crater about once every million years on average. This indicates that there should be far more relatively young craters on the planet than have been discovered so far. Although the Earth’s active surface processes quickly destroy the impact record, about 170 terrestrial impact craters have been identified. These range in diameter from a few tens of meters up to about 300 km, and they range in age from recent times (e.g. the Sikhote-Alin craters in Russia whose creation was witnessed in 1947) to more than two billion years, though most are less than 200 million years old because geological processes tend to obliterate older craters. They are also selectively found in the stable interior regions of continents. Few under sea craters have been discovered because of the difficulty of surveying the sea floor, the rapid rate of change of the ocean bottom, and the subduction of the ocean floor into the Earth's interior by processes of plate tectonics. Impact craters are not to be confused with other landforms that in some cases appear similar, including calderas and ring dikes. History Eugene Shoemaker, pioneer impact crater researcher, here at a stereoscopic microscope used for asteroid discovery Daniel Barringer (1860-1929) was one of the first to identify an impact crater, Meteor Crater in Arizona; to crater specialists the site is referred to as Barringer Crater in his honor. Initially Barringer's ideas were not widely accepted, and even when the origin of Meteor Crater was finally acknowledged, the wider implications for impact cratering as a significant geological process on Earth were not. In the 1920s, the American geologist Walter H. Bucher studied a number of sites now recognized as impact craters in the USA. He concluded they had been created by some great explosive event, but believed that this force was probably volcanic in origin. However, in 1936, the geologists John D. Boon and Claude C. Albritton Jr. revisited Bucher's studies and concluded that the craters that he studied were probably formed by impacts. The concept of impact cratering remained more or less speculative until the 1960s. At this time a number of researchers, most notably Eugene M. Shoemaker, (co-discoverer of the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9), conducted detailed studies of a number of craters and recognized clear evidence that they had been created by impacts, specifically identifying the shock-metamorphic effects uniquely associated with impact events, of which the most familiar is shocked quartz. Armed with the knowledge of shock-metamorphic features, Carlyle S. Beals and colleagues at the Dominion Observatory in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada and Wolf von Engelhardt of the University of Tübingen in Germany began a methodical search for impact craters. By 1970, they had tentatively identified more than 50. Although their work was controversial, the American Apollo Moon landings, which were in progress at the time, provided supportive evidence by recognizing the rate of impact cratering on the Moon. Processes of erosion on the Moon are minimal and so craters persist almost indefinitely. Since the Earth could be expected to have roughly the same cratering rate as the Moon, it became clear that the Earth had suffered far more impacts than could be seen by counting evident craters. Crater formation A laboratory simulation of an impact event and crater formation Impact cratering involves high velocity collisions between solid objects, typically much greater than the velocity of sound in those objects. Such hyper-velocity impacts produce physical effects such as melting and vaporization, that do not occur in familiar sub-sonic collisions. On Earth, ignoring the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere, the lowest impact velocity with an object from space is equal to the gravitational escape velocity of about 11 km/s. The fastest impacts occur at more than 70 km/s, calculated by summing the escape velocity from Earth, the escape velocity from the Sun at the Earth's orbit, and the motion of the Earth around the Sun. The median impact velocity on Earth is about 20 to 25 km/s. Impacts at these high speeds produce shock waves in solid materials, and both impactor and the material impacted are rapidly compressed to high density. Following initial compression, the high-density, over-compressed region rapidly depressurizes, exploding violently, to set in train the sequence of events that produces the impact crater. Impact-crater formation is therefore more closely analogous to cratering by high explosives than by mechanical displacement. Indeed, the energy density of some material involved in the formation of impact craters is many times higher than that generated by high explosives. Since craters are caused by explosions, they are nearly always circular – only very low-angle impacts cause significantly elliptical craters. It is convenient to divide the impact process conceptually into three distinct stages: (1) initial contact and compression, (2) excavation, (3) modification and collapse. In practice, there is overlap between the three processes with, for example, the excavation of the crater continuing in some regions while modification and collapse is already underway in others. Contact and compression In the absence of atmosphere, the impact process begins when the impactor first touches the target surface. This contact accelerates the target and decelerates the impactor. Because the impactor is moving so rapidly, the rear of the object moves a significant distance during the short-but-finite time taken for the deceleration to propagate across the impactor. As a result, the impactor is compressed, its density rises, and the pressure within it increases dramatically. Peak pressures in large impacts exceed 1 TPa to reach values more usually found deep in the interiors of planets, or generated artificially in nuclear explosions. In physical terms, a supersonic shock wave initiates from the point of contact. As this shock wave expands, it decelerates and compresses the impactor, and it accelerates and compresses the target. Stress levels within the shock wave far exceeds the strength of solid materials; consequently, both the impactor and the target close to the impact site are irreversibly damaged. Many crystalline minerals can be transformed into higher-density phases by shock waves; for example, the common mineral quartz can be transformed into the higher-pressure forms coesite and stishovite. Many other shock-related changes take place within both impactor and target as the shock wave passes through, and some of these changes can be used as diagnostic tools to determine whether particular geological features were produced by impact cratering. As the shock wave decays, the shocked region decompresses towards more usual pressures and densities. The damage produced by the shock wave raises the temperature of the material. In all but the smallest impacts this increase in temperature is sufficient to melt the impactor, and in larger impacts to vaporize most of it and to melt large volumes of the target. As well as being heated, the target near the impact is accelerated by the shock wave, and it continues moving away from the impact behind the decaying shock wave. Excavation Contact, compression, decompression, and the passage of the shock wave all occur within a few tenths of a second for a large impact. The subsequent excavation of the crater occurs more slowly, and during this stage the flow of material is largely sub-sonic. During excavation, the crater grows as the accelerated target material moves away from the impact point. The target's motion is initially downwards and outwards, but it becomes outwards and upwards. The flow initially produces an approximately hemispherical cavity. The cavity continues to grow, eventually producing a paraboloid (bowl-shaped) crater in which the centre has been pushed down, a significant volume of material has been ejected, and a topographically elevated crater rim has been pushed up. When this cavity has reached its maximum size, it is called the transient cavity. Herschel Crater on Saturn's moon Mimas The depth of the transient cavity is typically a quarter to a third of its diameter. Ejecta thrown out of the crater does not include material excavated from the full depth of the transient cavity; typically the depth of maximum excavation is only about a third of the total depth. As a result, about one third of the volume of the transient crater is formed by the ejection of material, and the remaining two thirds is formed by the displacement of material downwards, outwards and upwards, to form the elevated rim. For impacts into highly porous materials, a significant crater volume may also be formed by the permanent compaction of the pore space. Such compaction craters may be important on many asteroids, comets and small moons. In large impacts, as well as material displaced and ejected to form the crater, significant volumes of target material may be melted and vaporized together with the original impactor. Some of this impact melt rock may be ejected, but most of it remains within the transient crater, initially forming a layer of impact melt coating the interior of the transient cavity. In contrast, the hot dense vaporized material expands rapidly out of the growing cavity, carrying some solid and molten material within it as it does so. As this hot vapor cloud expands, it rises and cools much like the archetypal mushroom cloud generated by large nuclear explosions. In large impacts, the expanding vapor cloud may rise to many times the scale height of the atmosphere, effectively expanding into free space. Most material ejected from the crater is deposited within a few crater radii, but a small fraction may travel large distances at high velocity, and in large impacts it may exceed escape velocity and leave the impacted planet or moon entirely. The majority of the fastest material is ejected from close to the center of impact, and the slowest material is ejected close to the rim at low velocities to form an overturned coherent flap of ejecta immediately outside the rim. As ejecta escapes from the growing crater, it forms an expanding curtain in the shape of an inverted cone; the trajectory of individual particles within the curtain is thought to be largely ballistic. Small volumes of un-melted and relatively un-shocked material may be spalled at very high relative velocities from the surface of the target and from the rear of the impactor. Spalling provides a potential mechanism whereby material may be ejected into inter-planetary space largely undamaged, and whereby small volumes of the impactor may be preserved undamaged even in large impacts. Small volumes of high-speed material may also be generated early in the impact by jetting. This occurs when two surfaces converge rapidly and obliquely at a small angle, and high-temperature highly shocked material is expelled from the convergence zone with velocities that may be several times larger than the impact velocity. Modification and collapse Weathering may change the aspect of a crater drastically. This mound on Mars' north pole may be the result of an impact crater that was buried by sediment and subsequently re-exposed by erosion. In most circumstances, the transient cavity is not stable: it collapses under gravity. In small craters, less than about 4 km diameter on Earth, there is some limited collapse of the crater rim coupled with debris sliding down the crater walls and drainage of impact melts into the deeper cavity. The resultant structure is called a simple crater, and it remains bowl-shaped and superficially similar to the transient crater. In simple craters, the original excavation cavity is overlain by a lens of collapse breccia, ejecta and melt rock, and a portion of the central crater floor may sometimes be flat. Multi-ringed impact basin Valhalla on Jupiter's moon Callisto Above a certain threshold size, which varies with planetary gravity, the collapse and modification of the transient cavity is much more extensive, and the resulting structure is called a complex crater. The collapse of the transient cavity is driven by gravity, and involves both the uplift of the central region and the inward collapse of the rim. The central uplift is not the result of elastic rebound which is a process in which a material with elastic strength attempts to return to its original geometry; rather the collapse is a process in which a material with little or no strength attempts to return to a state of gravitational equilibrium. Complex craters have uplifted centers, and they have typically broad flat shallow crater floors, and terraced walls. At the largest sizes, one or more exterior or interior rings may appear, and the structure may be labeled an impact basin rather than an impact crater. Complex-crater morphology on rocky planets appears to follow a regular sequence with increasing size: small complex craters with a central topographic peak are called central peak craters, for example Tycho; intermediate-sized craters, in which the central peak is replaced by a ring of peaks, are called peak-ring craters, for example Schrödinger; and the largest craters contain multiple concentric topographic rings, and are called multi-ringed basins, for example Orientale. On icy as opposed to rocky bodies, other morphological forms appear which may have central pits rather than central peaks, and at the largest sizes may contain very many concentric rings – Valhalla on Callisto is the type example of the latter. Identifying impact craters Shocked polymictic breccia from the Azuara impact structure, Spain. Some volcanic features can resemble impact craters, and brecciated rocks are associated with other geological formations besides impact craters. Non-explosive volcanic craters can usually be distinguished from impact craters by their irregular shape and the association of volcanic flows and other volcanic materials. An exception is that impact craters on Venus often have associated flows of melted material. The distinctive mark of an impact crater is the presence of rock that has undergone shock-metamorphic effects, such as shatter cones, melted rocks, and crystal deformations. The problem is that these materials tend to be deeply buried, at least for simple craters. They tend to be revealed in the uplifted center of a complex crater, however. Impacts produce distinctive shock-metamorphic effects that allow impact sites to be distinctively identified. Such shock-metamorphic effects can include: Close-up of shatter cones developed in fine grained dolomite from the Wells Creek crater, USA. A layer of shattered or "brecciated" rock under the floor of the crater. This layer is called a "breccia lens". Shatter cones, which are chevron-shaped impressions in rocks. Such cones are formed most easily in fine-grained rocks. High-temperature rock types, including laminated and welded blocks of sand, spherulites and tektites, or glassy spatters of molten rock. The impact origin of tektites has been questioned by some researchers; they have observed some volcanic features in tektites not found in impactites. Tektites are also drier (contain less water) than typical impactites. While rocks melted by the impact resemble volcanic rocks, they incorporate unmelted fragments of bedrock, form unusually large and unbroken fields, and have a much more mixed chemical composition than volcanic materials spewed up from within the Earth. They also may have relatively large amounts of trace elements that are associated with meteorites, such as nickel, platinum, iridium, and cobalt. Note: it is reported in the scientific literature that some "shock" features, such as small shatter cones, which are often reported as being associated only with impact events, have been found in terrestrial volcanic ejecta. Microscopic pressure deformations of minerals. These include fracture patterns in crystals of quartz and feldspar, and formation of high-pressure materials such as diamond, derived from graphite and other carbon compounds, or stishovite and coesite, varieties of shocked quartz. Craters can also be created from underground nuclear explosions. One of the most crater-pocked sites on the planet is the Nevada Test Site, where a number of craters were purposely made during its years as a center for nuclear weapons testing (see, for example, Operation Plowshare). Lunar crater categorization In 1978, Chuck Wood and Leif Andersson of the Lunar & Planetary Lab devised a system of categorization of lunar impact craters. They used a sampling of craters that were relatively unmodified by subsequent impacts, then grouped the results into five broad categories. These successfully accounted for about 99% of all lunar impact craters. The LPC Crater Types were as follows: ALC — small, cup-shaped craters with a diameter of about 10 km or less, and no central floor. The archetype for this category is 'Albategnius C'. BIO — similar to an ALC, but with small, flat floors. Typical diameter is about 15 km. The lunar crater archetype is Biot. SOS — the interior floor is wide and flat, with no central peak. The inner walls are not terraced. The diameter is normally in the range of 15–25 km. The archetype is Sosigenes. TRI — these complex craters are large enough so that their inner walls have slumped to the floor. They can range in size from 15–50 km in diameter. The archetype crater is Triesnecker. TYC — these are larger than 50 km, with terraced inner walls and relatively flat floors. They frequently have large central peak formations. Tycho is the archetype for this class. Beyond a couple of hundred kilometers diameter, the central peak of the TYC class disappear and they are classed as basins. Lists of craters List of impact craters on Earth List of craters on Mercury List of craters on the Moon List of craters on Mars List of craters on Venus List of geological features on Phobos List of geological features on Jupiter's smaller moons List of craters on Europa List of craters on Ganymede List of craters on Callisto List of geological features on Saturn's smaller moons List of geological features on Mimas List of geological features on Enceladus List of geological features on Tethys List of geological features on Dione List of geological features on Rhea List of geological features on Iapetus List of craters on Puck List of geological features on Miranda List of geological features on Ariel List of craters on Umbriel List of geological features on Titania List of geological features on Oberon List of craters on Triton Notable impact craters on Earth Aorounga Crater (Chad) Barringer Crater, aka Meteor Crater (Arizona, US) Beyenchime-Salaatin crater (Russia, Far East) Bosumtwi crater (Ghana) Chesapeake Bay impact crater (Virginia, US) Chicxulub, Extinction Event Crater (Mexico) Clearwater Lakes (Quebec, Canada) Connolly Basin crater (Western Australia) Deep Bay crater (Saskatchewan, Canada) Gosses Bluff crater (Australia) Haughton impact crater (Nunavut, Canada) Kaali crater (Estonia) Kara-Kul crater (Tajikistan) Kebira crater (Libya/Egypt) Lonar crater (India) Mahuika crater (New Zealand) Manicouagan Reservoir (Quebec, Canada) Manson crater (Iowa, US) Mistastin crater (Labrador, Canada) Morokweng crater (South Africa) Nördlinger Ries (Germany) Panther Mountain (New York, US) Pingualuit crater (Quebec, Canada) Popigai crater, (Siberia) Rio Cuarto craters (Argentina) Rochechouart crater (France) Roter Kamm crater (Namibia) Shoemaker crater (Western Australia) Shunak crater (Kazakhstan) The Siljan Ring (Sweden) Silverpit crater (North Sea off the United Kingdom) Sudbury Basin (Ontario, Canada) Vredefort crater (South Africa) Weaubleau-Osceola impact structure (Missouri, US) Wilkes Land crater (Antarctica) Wolfe Creek Crater (Western Australia) Woodleigh crater (Western Australia) Yarrabubba crater (Western Australia) See the Earth Impact Database, Impact Cratering on Earth a website concerned with over 170 identified impact craters on the Earth. Some extraterrestrial craters Caloris Basin (Mercury) Hellas Basin (Mars) Mare Orientale (Moon) Petrarch crater (Mercury) Skinakas Basin (Mercury) South Pole-Aitken basin (Moon) Herschel crater (Mimas) Largest named craters in the Solar System South Pole-Aitken basin - Moon - Diameter: 2,500 km Hellas Basin - Mars - Diameter: 2,100 km Caloris Basin - Mercury - Diameter: 1,550 km Mare Imbrium - Moon - Diameter: 1,100 km Isidis Planitia - Mars - Diameter: 1,100 km Mare Tranquilitatis - Moon - Diameter: 870 km Argyre Planitia - Mars - Diameter: 800 km Mare Serenitatis - Moon - Diameter: 700 km Mare Nubium - Moon - Diameter: 700 km Beethoven - Mercury - Diameter: 625 km Valhalla - Callisto - Diameter: 600 km, with rings to 4,000 km diameter Hertzsprung - Moon - Diameter: 590 km Turgis - Iapetus - Diameter: 580 km Apollo - Moon - Diameter: 540 km Huygens - Mars - Diameter: 470 km Schiaparelli - Mars - Diameter: 470 km Menrva - Titan - Diameter: 440 km Korolev - Moon - Diameter: 430 km Dostievskij - Mercury - Diameter: 400 km Odysseus - Tethys - Diameter: 400 km Tolstoj - Mercury - Diameter: 390 km Goethe - Mercury - Diameter: 380 km Mare Orientale - Moon - Diameter: 350 km, with rings to 930 km diameter Epigeus - Ganymede - Diameter: 340 km Gertrude - Titania - Diameter: 320 km Asgard - Callisto - Diameter: 300 km, with rings to 1,400 km diameter Vredefort crater - Earth - Diameter: 300 km Mead - Venus - Diameter: 270 km There are approximately twelve more impact craters/basins larger than 300 km on the Moon, five on Mercury, and four on Mars. USGS Astrogeology: Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature Large basins, some unnamed but mostly smaller than 300 km, can also be found on Saturn's moons Dione, Rhea and Iapetus. See also Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event Impact event Impact depth Nemesis Rampart crater Ray system References Charles A. Wood and Leif Andersson, New Morphometric Data for Fresh Lunar Craters, 1978, Proceedings 9th Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf. Bond, J. W., "The development of central peaks in lunar craters", Moon and the Planets, vol. 25, December 1981. Melosh, H.J., 1989, Impact cratering: A geologic process: New York, Oxford University Press, 245 p. Baier, J., Die Auswurfprodukte des Ries-Impakts, Deutschland, in Documenta Naturae, Vol. 162, 2007. ISBN 978-3-86544-162-1 Further reading External links Study of a South Carolina crater The Geological Survey of Canada Crater database, 172 impact structures A recent news report about tektites Aerial Explorations of Terrestrial Meteorite Craters Google Earth Placemarker based on the Geological Survey of Canada Crater database (KML) All 172 confirmed meteor impact sites on earth, viewable in Google Earth (Largest, Most recent, Per continent, Including size indicator) Impact sites, with individual bibliographies Solarviews: Terrestrial Impact Craters Earth Impact Database Giant Crater Found: Tied to Worst Mass Extinction Ever WA Geological Survey Meteorite Impacts in Western Australia Terrestrial Impact Craters Aussie finds meteorite crater on Google Earth be-x-old:Ударны кратэр | Impact_crater |@lemmatized prominent:1 impact:104 crater:158 tycho:3 moon:31 nasa:1 photo:1 broad:3 sense:1 term:5 apply:1 depression:3 natural:1 manmade:1 result:7 high:17 velocity:16 projectile:1 large:27 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4,285 | Probability | Probability, or chance, is a way of expressing knowledge or belief that an event will occur or has occurred. In mathematics the concept has been given an exact meaning in probability theory, that is used extensively in such areas of study as mathematics, statistics, finance, gambling, science, and philosophy to draw conclusions about the likelihood of potential events and the underlying mechanics of complex systems. Interpretations The word probability does not have a consistent direct definition. In fact, there are two broad categories of probability interpretations, whose adherents possess different (and sometimes conflicting) views about the fundamental nature of probability: Frequentists talk about probabilities only when dealing with experiments that are random and well-defined. The probability of a random event denotes the relative frequency of occurrence of an experiment's outcome, when repeating the experiment. Frequentists consider probability to be the relative frequency "in the long run" of outcomes. The Logic of Statistical Inference, Ian Hacking, 1965 Bayesians, however, assign probabilities to any statement whatsoever, even when no random process is involved. Probability, for a Bayesian, is a way to represent an individual's degree of belief in a statement, given the evidence. Etymology The word probability derives from probity, a measure of the authority of a witness in a legal case in Europe, and often correlated with the witness's nobility. In a sense, this differs much from the modern meaning of probability, which, in contrast, is used as a measure of the weight of empirical evidence, and is arrived at from inductive reasoning and statistical inference. The Emergence of Probability: A Philosophical Study of Early Ideas about Probability, Induction and Statistical Inference, Ian Hacking, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 0521685575, 9780521685573 The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-century Philosophy, Daniel Garber, 2003 History The scientific study of probability is a modern development. Gambling shows that there has been an interest in quantifying the ideas of probability for millennia, but exact mathematical descriptions of use in those problems only arose much later. According to Richard Jeffrey, "Before the middle of the seventeenth century, the term 'probable' (Latin probabilis) meant approvable, and was applied in that sense, univocally, to opinion and to action. A probable action or opinion was one such as sensible people would undertake or hold, in the circumstances." Jeffrey, R.C., Probability and the Art of Judgment, Cambridge University Press. (1992). pp. 54-55 . ISBN 0-521-39459-7 Aside from some elementary considerations made by Girolamo Cardano in the 16th century, the doctrine of probabilities dates to the correspondence of Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal (1654). Christiaan Huygens (1657) gave the earliest known scientific treatment of the subject. Jakob Bernoulli's Ars Conjectandi (posthumous, 1713) and Abraham de Moivre's Doctrine of Chances (1718) treated the subject as a branch of mathematics. See Ian Hacking's The Emergence of Probability for a history of the early development of the very concept of mathematical probability. The theory of errors may be traced back to Roger Cotes's Opera Miscellanea (posthumous, 1722), but a memoir prepared by Thomas Simpson in 1755 (printed 1756) first applied the theory to the discussion of errors of observation. The reprint (1757) of this memoir lays down the axioms that positive and negative errors are equally probable, and that there are certain assignable limits within which all errors may be supposed to fall; continuous errors are discussed and a probability curve is given. Pierre-Simon Laplace (1774) made the first attempt to deduce a rule for the combination of observations from the principles of the theory of probabilities. He represented the law of probability of errors by a curve , being any error and its probability, and laid down three properties of this curve: it is symmetric as to the -axis; the -axis is an asymptote, the probability of the error being 0; the area enclosed is 1, it being certain that an error exists. He also gave (1781) a formula for the law of facility of error (a term due to Lagrange, 1774), but one which led to unmanageable equations. Daniel Bernoulli (1778) introduced the principle of the maximum product of the probabilities of a system of concurrent errors. The method of least squares is due to Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805), who introduced it in his Nouvelles méthodes pour la détermination des orbites des comètes (New Methods for Determining the Orbits of Comets). In ignorance of Legendre's contribution, an Irish-American writer, Robert Adrain, editor of "The Analyst" (1808), first deduced the law of facility of error, being a constant depending on precision of observation, and a scale factor ensuring that the area under the curve equals 1. He gave two proofs, the second being essentially the same as John Herschel's (1850). Gauss gave the first proof which seems to have been known in Europe (the third after Adrain's) in 1809. Further proofs were given by Laplace (1810, 1812), Gauss (1823), James Ivory (1825, 1826), Hagen (1837), Friedrich Bessel (1838), W. F. Donkin (1844, 1856), and Morgan Crofton (1870). Other contributors were Ellis (1844), De Morgan (1864), Glaisher (1872), and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1875). Peters's (1856) formula for , the probable error of a single observation, is well known. In the nineteenth century authors on the general theory included Laplace, Sylvestre Lacroix (1816), Littrow (1833), Adolphe Quetelet (1853), Richard Dedekind (1860), Helmert (1872), Hermann Laurent (1873), Liagre, Didion, and Karl Pearson. Augustus De Morgan and George Boole improved the exposition of the theory. On the geometric side (see integral geometry) contributors to The Educational Times were influential (Miller, Crofton, McColl, Wolstenholme, Watson, and Artemas Martin). Mathematical treatment In mathematics, a probability of an event A is represented by a real number in the range from 0 to 1 and written as P(A), p(A) or Pr(A). An impossible event has a probability of 0, and a certain event has a probability of 1. However, the converses are not always true: probability 0 events are not always impossible, nor probability 1 events certain. The rather subtle distinction between "certain" and "probability 1" is treated at greater length in the article on "almost surely". The opposite or complement of an event A is the event [not A] (that is, the event of A not occurring); its probability is given by . As an example, the chance of not rolling a six on a six-sided die is = . See Complementary event for a more complete treatment. If both the events A and B occur on a single performance of an experiment this is called the intersection or joint probability of A and B, denoted as . If two events, A and B are independent then the joint probability is for example, if two coins are flipped the chance of both being heads is . If either event A or event B or both events occur on a single performance of an experiment this is called the union of the events A and B denoted as . If two events are mutually exclusive then the probability of either occurring is For example, the chance of rolling a 1 or 2 on a six-sided die is . If the events are not mutually exclusive then . For example, when drawing a single card at random from a regular deck of cards, the chance of getting a heart or a face card (J,Q,K) (or one that is both) is , because of the 52 cards of a deck 13 are hearts, 12 are face cards, and 3 are both: here the possibilities included in the "3 that are both" are included in each of the "13 hearts" and the "12 face cards" but should only be counted once. Conditional probability is the probability of some event A, given the occurrence of some other event B. Conditional probability is written P(A|B), and is read "the probability of A, given B". It is defined by If then is undefined. +Summary of probabilitiesEventProbabilityAnot AA or BA and BA given B Theory Like other theories, the theory of probability is a representation of probabilistic concepts in formal terms—that is, in terms that can be considered separately from their meaning. These formal terms are manipulated by the rules of mathematics and logic, and any results are then interpreted or translated back into the problem domain. There have been at least two successful attempts to formalize probability, namely the Kolmogorov formulation and the Cox formulation. In Kolmogorov's formulation (see probability space), sets are interpreted as events and probability itself as a measure on a class of sets. In Cox's theorem, probability is taken as a primitive (that is, not further analyzed) and the emphasis is on constructing a consistent assignment of probability values to propositions. In both cases, the laws of probability are the same, except for technical details. There are other methods for quantifying uncertainty, such as the Dempster-Shafer theory or possibility theory, but those are essentially different and not compatible with the laws of probability as they are usually understood. Applications Two major applications of probability theory in everyday life are in risk assessment and in trade on commodity markets. Governments typically apply probabilistic methods in environmental regulation where it is called "pathway analysis", often measuring well-being using methods that are stochastic in nature, and choosing projects to undertake based on statistical analyses of their probable effect on the population as a whole. A good example is the effect of the perceived probability of any widespread Middle East conflict on oil prices - which have ripple effects in the economy as a whole. An assessment by a commodity trader that a war is more likely vs. less likely sends prices up or down, and signals other traders of that opinion. Accordingly, the probabilities are not assessed independently nor necessarily very rationally. The theory of behavioral finance emerged to describe the effect of such groupthink on pricing, on policy, and on peace and conflict. It can reasonably be said that the discovery of rigorous methods to assess and combine probability assessments has had a profound effect on modern society. Accordingly, it may be of some importance to most citizens to understand how odds and probability assessments are made, and how they contribute to reputations and to decisions, especially in a democracy. Another significant application of probability theory in everyday life is reliability. Many consumer products, such as automobiles and consumer electronics, utilize reliability theory in the design of the product in order to reduce the probability of failure. The probability of failure may be closely associated with the product's warranty. Relation to randomness In a deterministic universe, based on Newtonian concepts, there is no probability if all conditions are known. In the case of a roulette wheel, if the force of the hand and the period of that force are known, then the number on which the ball will stop would be a certainty. Of course, this also assumes knowledge of inertia and friction of the wheel, weight, smoothness and roundness of the ball, variations in hand speed during the turning and so forth. A probabilistic description can thus be more useful than Newtonian mechanics for analyzing the pattern of outcomes of repeated rolls of roulette wheel. Physicists face the same situation in kinetic theory of gases, where the system, while deterministic in principle, is so complex (with the number of molecules typically the order of magnitude of Avogadro constant 6.02·1023) that only statistical description of its properties is feasible. A revolutionary discovery of 20th century physics was the random character of all physical processes that occur at sub-atomic scales and are governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. The wave function itself evolves deterministically as long as no observation is made, but, according to the prevailing Copenhagen interpretation, the randomness caused by the wave function collapsing when an observation is made, is fundamental. This means that probability theory is required to describe nature. Others never came to terms with the loss of determinism. Albert Einstein famously remarked in a letter to Max Born: Jedenfalls bin ich überzeugt, daß der Alte nicht würfelt. (I am convinced that God does not play dice). Although alternative viewpoints exist, such as that of quantum decoherence being the cause of an apparent random collapse, at present there is a firm consensus among the physicists that probability theory is necessary to describe quantum phenomena. See also Topic outline of probability Decision theory Equiprobable Fuzzy measure theory Game theory Gaming mathematics Information theory Important publications in probability List of scientific journals in probability Measure theory Negative probability Probabilistic argumentation Probabilistic logic Random fields Random variable Statistics List of statistical topics Stochastic process Wiener process Black Swan theory Calculus of predispositions Intrinsic random event Notes References Olav Kallenberg, Probabilistic Symmetries and Invariance Principles. Springer -Verlag, New York (2005). 510 pp. ISBN 0-387-25115-4 Kallenberg, O., Foundations of Modern Probability, 2nd ed. Springer Series in Statistics. (2002). 650 pp. ISBN 0-387-95313-2 Quotations Damon Runyon, "It may be that the race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the strong - but that is the way to bet." Pierre-Simon Laplace "It is remarkable that a science which began with the consideration of games of chance should have become the most important object of human knowledge." Théorie Analytique des Probabilités, 1812. Richard von Mises "The unlimited extension of the validity of the exact sciences was a characteristic feature of the exaggerated rationalism of the eighteenth century" (in reference to Laplace). Probability, Statistics, and Truth, p 9. Dover edition, 1981 (republication of second English edition, 1957). External links Probability and Statistics EBook Edwin Thompson Jaynes. Probability Theory: The Logic of Science. Preprint: Washington University, (1996). — HTML index with links to PostScript files and PDF Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Certainty in Seventeenth-Century Thought Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Certainty since the Seventeenth Century Figures from the History of Probability and Statistics (Univ. of Southampton) Probability and Statistics on the Earliest Uses Pages (Univ. of Southampton) Earliest Uses of Symbols in Probability and Statistics on Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols A tutorial on probability and Bayes’ theorem devised for first-year Oxford University students pdf file of An Anthology of Chance Operations (1963) at UbuWeb Probability Theory Guide for Non-Mathematicians | Probability |@lemmatized probability:72 chance:8 way:3 express:1 knowledge:3 belief:2 event:24 occur:6 mathematics:6 concept:4 give:12 exact:3 meaning:3 theory:26 use:4 extensively:1 area:3 study:3 statistic:8 finance:2 gambling:2 science:4 philosophy:2 draw:2 conclusion:1 likelihood:1 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4,286 | Nieuwe_Maas | The Nieuwe Maas (English: New Meuse) is a river branch of the Rhine-Meuse delta in the Netherlands. It runs from the confluence of the rivers Noord and Lek, and flows west through Rotterdam. It ends west of the city where it meets the Oude Maas (Old Meuse), near Vlaardingen, to form Het Scheur. The total length is approximately 24 kilometers. The Nieuwe Maas flows through some of the most densely populated and developed areas in the Netherlands. Along its shores are numerous harbours and industries. History During the early Middle Ages the Nieuwe Maas was considered to be the continuation of the river Merwede and was named accordingly. In the original situation, the Merwede was the continuation of the river Waal (itself being a distributary branch of the river Rhine), but after some major floods the river Meuse shifted its course towards the Merwede as well. From that moment on, several stretches of the original Merwede were named Meuse instead. As a result, for many centuries the Nieuwe Maas and its sibling Oude Maas were considered part of the Meuse delta. Near Vlaardingen, these two met and then split again at the island of Rozenburg: the north branch was known as Het Scheur and the south branch as Nieuwe Maas or Brielse Maas (Brill Meuse) because it flowed close to Brielle. They met again to form an estuary known as Maasmond ("Mouth of Meuse"). However, both Meuse and Rhine shifted their courses southwards again. As a result, the Nieuwe Maas is once again a primary distributary branch of the Rhine, while the Meuse is currently delivering only very small amounts of water towards its former mouth. Nieuwe Maas and its mouth in 1769. With the completion of the Nieuwe Waterweg, the lower Nieuwe Maas no longer reaches the sea as a primary outflow for the river Rhine. The Brielse Maas section was dammed off from Het Scheur in the middle of the 20th century (now forming Briel Lake), forcing all waters to flow through the artificial Nieuwe Waterweg. Links across the Nieuwe Maas From west to east: Beneluxtunnel (tunnel; motor vehicles, cyclists and metro) Maastunnel (tunnel; motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians) Erasmusbrug (bridge; motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians, trams) Maastaxi (ferry; pedestrians) Metrotunnel (tunnel; metro) Willemstunnel (tunnel; train) Willemsbrug (bridge; motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians) Van Brienenoordbrug (bridge; motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians) Satellite image showing the Nieuwe Maas going through Rotterdam. Also visible are the confluence of the Noord and Lek rivers (right edge) and the Oude Maas (bottom of the image). The Erasmusbrug ("Erasmus Bridge") across the Nieuwe Maas in Rotterdam. | Nieuwe_Maas |@lemmatized nieuwe:13 maas:16 english:1 new:1 meuse:10 river:8 branch:5 rhine:5 delta:2 netherlands:2 run:1 confluence:2 noord:2 lek:2 flow:4 west:3 rotterdam:3 end:1 city:1 meet:3 oude:3 old:1 near:2 vlaardingen:2 form:3 het:3 scheur:3 total:1 length:1 approximately:1 kilometer:1 densely:1 populated:1 developed:1 area:1 along:1 shore:1 numerous:1 harbour:1 industry:1 history:1 early:1 middle:2 age:1 consider:2 continuation:2 merwede:4 name:2 accordingly:1 original:2 situation:1 waal:1 distributary:2 major:1 flood:1 shift:2 course:2 towards:2 well:1 moment:1 several:1 stretch:1 instead:1 result:2 many:1 century:2 sibling:1 part:1 two:1 split:1 island:1 rozenburg:1 north:1 know:1 south:1 brielse:2 brill:1 close:1 brielle:1 estuary:1 known:1 maasmond:1 mouth:3 however:1 southward:1 primary:2 currently:1 deliver:1 small:1 amount:1 water:2 former:1 completion:1 waterweg:2 low:1 longer:1 reach:1 sea:1 outflow:1 section:1 dam:1 briel:1 lake:1 force:1 artificial:1 link:1 across:2 east:1 beneluxtunnel:1 tunnel:4 motor:5 vehicle:5 cyclist:5 metro:2 maastunnel:1 pedestrian:5 erasmusbrug:2 bridge:4 tram:1 maastaxi:1 ferry:1 metrotunnel:1 willemstunnel:1 train:1 willemsbrug:1 van:1 brienenoordbrug:1 satellite:1 image:2 show:1 go:1 also:1 visible:1 right:1 edge:1 bottom:1 erasmus:1 |@bigram nieuwe_maas:11 rhine_meuse:2 meuse_delta:2 oude_maas:3 het_scheur:3 densely_populated:1 nieuwe_waterweg:2 cyclist_pedestrian:4 |
4,287 | Leto | In Greek mythology, Lētṓ (Greek: , Λατώ, Lato in Dorian Greek, etymology and meaning disputed) is a daughter of the Titans Coeus and Phoebe: Hesiod, Theogony 403. Kos claimed her birthplace. Herodotus 2.98; Diodorus Siculus2.47.2. In the Olympian scheme of things, Zeus is the father of her twins, Pindar consistently refers to Apollo and Artemis as twins; other sources instead give separate birthplaces for the siblings. Apollo and Artemis, the Letoides. For the classical Greeks, Leto is scarcely to be conceived apart from being pregnant and finding a place to be delivered of Apollo and Artemis, for Hera being jealous, made it so all lands shunned her. Finally, she finds an island that isn't attached to the ocean floor so it isn't considered land and she can give birth. Karl Kerenyi notes, The Gods of the Greeks 1951:130, "His twin sister is usually already on the scene." This is her one active mythic role: once Apollo and Artemis are grown, Leto withdraws, to remain a dim Hesiod, Theogony 406; "dark-veiled Leto" (Orphic Hymn 35, To Leto and benevolent matronly figure upon Olympus, her part already played. In Roman mythology, Leto's equivalent is Latona, a Latinization of her name, influenced by Etruscan Letun. Letun noted is passing in Larissa Bonfante and Judith Swaddling, Etruscan Myths (series: The Legendary Past) (British Museum/University of Texas Press) 2006, p. 72. In Crete, at the city of Dreros, Spyridon Marinatos uncovered an eighth-century post-Minoan hearth house temple in which there were found three unique figures of Apollo, Artemis and Leto made of brass sheeting hammered over a shaped core (sphyrelata). Marinatos' publications on Dreros are listed by Burkert 1985, sect. I.4 note 16 (p.365); John Boardman, Annual of the British School at Athens 62 (1967) p. 61; Theodora Hadzisteliou Price, "Double and Multiple Representations in Greek Art and Religious Thought" The Journal of Hellenic Studies 91 (1971:pp. 48-69), plate III.5a-b. Walter Burkert notes Burkert, Greek Religion 1985. that in Phaistos she appears in connection with an initiation cult. Leto was identified from the fourth century onwards with the principal local mother goddess of Anatolian Lycia, as the region became Hellenized. The process is discussed by T. R. Bryce, "The Arrival of the Goddess Leto in Lycia", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 321 (1983:1-13. Her sanctuary, the Letoon near Xanthos, united the Lycian confederacy of city-states. The people of Kos also claimed Leto as their own. Another sanctuary, more recently identified, was at Oenoanda in the north of Lycia. Alan Hall, "A Sanctuary of Leto at Oenoanda" Anatolian Studies 27 (1977) pp 193-197. There was, of course, a further Letoon at Delos. A measure of what a primal goddess Leto was can be recognized in her father and mother. Her Titan father is called "Coeus," and his obscure name Herbert Jennings Rose, A Handbook of Greek Mythology (1991:21) found his name and nature uncertain. links him to the sphere of heaven from pole to pole. In the surviving summary of the preface to Hyginus, Koios is translated literally, as Polus: "From Polus and Phoebe: Latone, Asterie." Leto's mother "Phoebe" is precisely the "bright, purifying" epithet of the full moon. Φοιβη (Phoibe), "bright, pure"; Rose 1991:21 noted that an explicit connection with the moon was only made by later writers, which would have left a sun-Titan but no moon-Titan. Origin and meaning of name Several explanations have been put forward to explain the origin of the goddess and the meaning of her name. Possibly related to "lethe" (oblivion) and "Lotus" (the fruit that brings oblivion to those who eat it). It would thus mean "the hidden one". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology., at Theoi.com It is most likely to have a Lycian origin, as her earliest cult was centered there. Leto may have the same Lycian origin as "Leda", meaning "woman/wife" in ancient Lycian. Birth of Artemis and Apollo When Hera, the most conservative of goddesses — for she had the most to lose in changes to the order of nature — See Hera. discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she realized that the offspring would cement the new order. She was powerless to stop the flow of events. "Latona for her intrigue with Zeus was hunted by Hera over the whole earth, till she came to Delos and brought forth first Artemis, by the help of whose midwifery she afterwards gave birth to Apollo." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 1.4.1 Hera banned Leto from giving birth on "terra firma", the mainland, any island at sea, or any place under the sun Hyginus, Fabulae 140). . Antoninus Liberalis is not alone in hinting that Leto came down from the land of the Hyperboreans in the guise of a she-wolf, or that she sought out the "wolf-country" of Lycia, formerly called Tremilis, which she renamed to honour wolves that had befriended her Antoninus Liberalis' etiological myth reflects Greek misunderstanding of a Greek origin for the place-name Lycia; modern scholars now suggest a source in the "Lukka lands" of Hittite inscriptions (Bryce 1983:5). for her denning. Another late source, Aelian, also links Leto with wolves and Hyperboreans: Wolves are not easily delivered of their young, only after twelve days and twelve nights, for the people of Delos maintain that this was the length of time that it took Leto to travel from the Hyperboreoi to Delos." Aelian, On the Nature of Animals 4. 4 (A.F. Scholfield, tr.). Most accounts agree that she found the barren floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island, and gave birth there, promising the island wealth from the worshippers who would flock to the obscure birthplace of the splendid god who was to come. The island was surrounded by swans. As a gesture of gratitude, Delos was secured with four pillars and later became sacred to Apollo. It is remarkable that Leto brought forth Artemis, the elder twin, without travail, as Callimachus wrote, Artemis speaks: "my mother suffered no pain either when she gave me birth or when she carried me in her womb, but without travail put me from her body." (Callimachus, Hymn 3, to Artemis). as if she were merely revealing another manifestation of herself. By contrast, Leto labored for nine nights and nine days for Apollo, according to the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, in the presence of all the first among the deathless goddesses as witnesses: Dione, Rhea, Ichnaea, Themis and the "loud-moaning" sea-goddess Amphitrite. Only Hera kept apart, perhaps to kidnap Eileithyia or Ilithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. Instead Artemis, having been born first, assisted with the birth of Apollo. Another version, in the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo and in an Orphic hymn, states that Artemis was born before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia, and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth there to Apollo. Leto was threatened and assailed in her wanderings by chthonic monsters of the ancient earth and old ways, and these became the enemies of Apollo and Artemis. One was the Titan Tityos, a phallic being who grew so vast that he split his mother's womb and had to be carried to term by Gaia herself. He attempted to waylay Leto near Delphi, but was laid low by the arrows of Apollo— or possibly Artemis, as Pindar recalled in a Pythian ode. Another ancient earth creature that had to be overcome was the dragon Pytho, or Python, which lived in a cleft of the mother-rock beneath Delphi and beside the Castalian Spring. Apollo slew it but had to do penance and be cleansed afterwards, since though Python was a child of Gaea, it was necessary that the ancient Delphic Oracle pass to the protection of the new god. A queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, Niobe boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven sons and seven daughters, while Leto had only two. For her hubris, Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Zeus after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylus in Asia Minor and either turned to stone as she wept or killed herself. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them. Leto was intensely worshipped in Lycia, Asia Minor. Appian tells of Mithridates' intention to cut down the sacred grove at the Letoon to serve in his siege of Patara on the Lycian coast; a nightmare warned him to desist. (Appian, Mithridates, 27). In Delos and Athens she was worshipped primarily as an adjunct to her children. Herodotus reported Herodotus, Histories, 2.155-56 a temple to her in Egypt supposedly attached to a floating island "The claim that it floated is rightly dismissed by Herodotus — it probably reflects nothing more than contamination by Greek traditions on the floating island of Ortygia/Delos associated with Leto," remarks Alan B. Lloyd, "The temple of Leto (Wadjet) at Buto", in Anton Powell, ed. The Greek World (Routledge) 1995:190. called "Khemmis" in Buto, which also included a temple to an Egyptian god Greeks identified by interpretatio graeca as Apollo. There, Herodotus was given to understand, the goddess whom Greeks recognised as Leto was worshipped in the form of Wadjet, the cobra-headed goddess of Lower Egypt. Witnesses at the birth of Apollo According to the Homeric hymn, the goddesses who assembled to be witnesses at the birth of Apollo were responding to a public occasion in the rites of a dynasty, where the authenticity of the child must be established beyond doubt from the first moment. The dynastic rite of the witnessed birth must have been familiar to the hymn's hearers. Greek women, at least among Athenians, gave birth in the midst of a crowd of the women of the household. The dynasty that is so concerned to be authenticated in this myth is the new dynasty of Zeus and the Olympian Pantheon, and the goddesses at Delos who bear witness to the rightness of the birth are the great goddesses of the old order. Demeter is not present; her mother Rhea attends. Aphrodite, a generation older than Zeus, is not present either. The goddess Dione (in her name simply the "Goddess") is sometimes taken by later mythographers as a mere feminine form of Zeus (see entry Dodona): if this were so, she would not have assembled here. Leto of the golden spindle Pindar calls the goddess Leto Chryselakatos (Sixth Nemean Ode, 36), an epithet that was attached to her daughter Artemis as early as Homer. O. Brendel, Römische Mitt. 51 (1936), p 60ff. "The conception of a goddess enthroned like a queen and equipped with a spindle seems to have originated in Asiatic worship of the Great Mother", O. Brendel notes, but a lucky survival of an inscribed inventory of her temple on Delos, where she was the central figures of the Delian trinity, records her cult image as sitting on a wooden throne, clothed in a linen chiton and a linen himation. O. Brendel, noting Pierre Roussel, Délos, colonie athénienne (Paris: Boccard) 1916, p 221, in "The Corbridge Lanx" The Journal of Roman Studies 31 (1941), pp. 100-127) p 113ff; the article is a discussion of the seated female figure he identifies as Leto on the Roman silver tray (lanx) at Alnwick Castle. The Lycian peasants Leto's introduction into Lycia was met with resistance; there, according to Ovid's Metamorphoses, Ovid, Metamorphoses, vi.317-81; Antoninus Liberalis also relates a version of this myth. when Leto was wandering the earth after giving birth to Apollo and Artemis, she attempted to drink water from a pond in Lycia. The spring Melite, according to Kerenyi 1951:131. The peasants there refused to allow her to do so by stirring the mud at the bottom of the pond. Leto turned them into frogs for their inhospitality, forever doomed to swim in the murky waters of ponds and rivers. This scene is represented in the central fountain, the Bassin de Latone, in the garden terrace of Versailles. Notes External links Theoi.com: Leto | Leto |@lemmatized greek:15 mythology:4 lētṓ:1 λατώ:1 lato:1 dorian:1 etymology:1 meaning:4 dispute:1 daughter:4 titan:5 coeus:2 phoebe:3 hesiod:2 theogony:2 ko:2 claim:3 birthplace:3 herodotus:5 diodorus:1 olympian:2 scheme:1 thing:1 zeus:8 father:4 twin:4 pindar:3 consistently:1 refer:1 apollo:23 artemis:18 source:3 instead:2 give:10 separate:1 sibling:1 letoides:1 classical:1 leto:37 scarcely:1 conceive:1 apart:2 pregnant:2 find:5 place:3 deliver:2 hera:6 jealous:1 make:3 land:4 shun:1 finally:1 island:9 attach:3 ocean:1 floor:1 consider:1 birth:14 karl:1 kerenyi:2 note:8 god:5 sister:1 usually:2 already:2 scene:2 one:4 active:1 mythic:1 role:1 grow:2 withdraws:1 remain:1 dim:1 dark:1 veiled:1 orphic:2 hymn:7 benevolent:1 matronly:1 figure:4 upon:1 olympus:1 part:1 play:1 roman:4 equivalent:1 latona:2 latinization:1 name:7 influence:1 etruscan:2 letun:2 pass:1 larissa:1 bonfante:1 judith:1 swaddling:1 myth:4 series:1 legendary:1 past:1 british:2 museum:1 university:1 texas:1 press:1 p:6 crete:1 city:2 dreros:2 spyridon:1 marinatos:2 uncover:1 eighth:1 century:2 post:1 minoan:1 hearth:1 house:1 temple:5 three:1 unique:1 brass:1 sheeting:1 hammer:1 shape:1 core:1 sphyrelata:1 publication:1 list:1 burkert:3 sect:1 john:1 boardman:1 annual:1 school:1 athens:2 theodora:1 hadzisteliou:1 price:1 double:1 multiple:1 representation:1 art:1 religious:1 thought:1 journal:2 hellenic:1 study:3 pp:3 plate:1 iii:1 b:2 walter:1 religion:1 phaistos:1 appear:1 connection:2 initiation:1 cult:3 identify:4 fourth:1 onwards:1 principal:1 local:1 mother:8 goddess:16 anatolian:2 lycia:8 region:1 become:3 hellenized:1 process:1 discuss:1 r:1 bryce:2 arrival:1 historia:1 zeitschrift:1 für:1 alte:1 geschichte:1 sanctuary:3 letoon:3 near:2 xanthos:1 unite:1 lycian:6 confederacy:1 state:2 people:3 also:4 another:5 recently:1 oenoanda:2 north:1 alan:2 hall:1 course:1 delos:11 measure:1 primal:1 recognize:1 call:4 obscure:2 herbert:1 jennings:1 rise:2 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etiological:1 reflect:2 misunderstanding:1 modern:1 scholar:1 suggest:1 lukka:1 hittite:1 inscription:1 denning:1 aelian:2 easily:1 young:1 twelve:2 day:4 night:2 maintain:1 length:1 time:1 take:2 travel:1 hyperboreoi:1 animal:1 f:1 scholfield:1 tr:1 account:1 agree:1 barren:1 float:4 neither:1 real:1 promise:1 wealth:1 worshipper:1 flock:1 splendid:1 surround:1 swan:1 gesture:1 gratitude:1 secure:1 four:1 pillar:1 later:1 sacred:2 remarkable:1 elder:1 without:2 travail:2 callimachus:2 write:1 speaks:1 suffer:1 pain:1 either:4 carry:2 womb:2 body:1 merely:1 reveal:1 manifestation:1 contrast:1 labor:2 nine:2 accord:5 homeric:3 delian:3 presence:1 among:2 deathless:1 goddesses:1 witness:4 dione:2 rhea:2 ichnaea:1 themis:1 loud:1 moaning:1 amphitrite:1 keep:1 perhaps:1 kidnap:1 eileithyia:1 ilithyia:1 childbirth:1 prevent:1 go:1 bear:3 assist:1 version:3 ortygia:2 cross:1 next:1 threaten:1 assail:1 wandering:1 chthonic:1 monster:1 old:3 way:1 enemy:1 tityos:1 phallic:1 vast:1 split:1 term:1 gaia:1 attempt:2 waylay:1 delphi:2 lay:1 low:2 arrow:2 recall:1 pythian:1 ode:2 creature:1 overcome:1 dragon:1 pytho:1 python:2 live:1 cleft:1 rock:1 beneath:1 beside:1 castalian:1 spring:2 slew:1 penance:1 cleanse:1 since:1 though:2 child:4 gaea:1 necessary:1 delphic:1 oracle:1 pas:1 protection:1 queen:2 thebe:2 amphion:2 niobe:2 boast:1 superiority:1 fourteen:1 niobids:3 seven:2 son:3 two:1 hubris:1 kill:5 practice:1 athletics:1 last:1 begging:1 life:1 use:1 poison:1 number:1 spar:1 chloris:1 sight:1 dead:1 swear:1 revenge:1 devastated:1 flee:1 mount:1 sipylus:1 asia:2 minor:2 turn:3 stone:2 weep:1 tear:1 form:3 river:2 achelous:1 bury:1 ninth:1 death:1 entomb:1 intensely:1 worship:4 appian:2 tell:1 mithridates:2 intention:1 cut:1 grove:1 serve:1 siege:1 patara:1 coast:1 nightmare:1 warn:1 desist:1 primarily:1 adjunct:1 report:1 history:1 egypt:2 supposedly:1 rightly:1 dismiss:1 probably:1 nothing:1 contamination:1 tradition:1 associate:1 remark:1 lloyd:1 wadjet:2 buto:2 anton:1 powell:1 ed:1 world:1 routledge:1 khemmis:1 include:1 egyptian:1 interpretatio:1 graeca:1 understand:1 greeks:1 recognise:1 cobra:1 head:1 assemble:2 respond:1 public:1 occasion:1 rite:2 dynasty:3 authenticity:1 must:2 establish:1 beyond:1 doubt:1 moment:1 dynastic:1 witnessed:1 familiar:1 hearer:1 least:1 athenian:1 midst:1 crowd:1 household:1 concerned:1 authenticate:1 pantheon:1 rightness:1 great:2 demeter:1 present:2 attends:1 aphrodite:1 generation:1 simply:1 sometimes:1 mythographers:1 mere:1 feminine:1 entry:1 dodona:1 golden:1 spindle:2 chryselakatos:1 sixth:1 nemean:1 homer:1 brendel:3 römische:1 mitt:1 conception:1 enthrone:1 like:1 equip:1 seem:1 originate:1 asiatic:1 lucky:1 survival:1 inscribed:1 inventory:1 central:2 trinity:1 record:1 image:1 sit:1 wooden:1 throne:1 clothe:1 linen:2 chiton:1 himation:1 pierre:1 roussel:1 délos:1 colonie:1 athénienne:1 paris:1 boccard:1 corbridge:1 lanx:2 article:1 discussion:1 seated:1 female:1 silver:1 tray:1 alnwick:1 castle:1 peasant:2 introduction:1 meet:1 resistance:1 ovid:2 metamorphosis:2 vi:1 wander:1 drink:1 water:2 pond:3 melite:1 refuse:1 allow:1 stir:1 mud:1 bottom:1 frog:1 inhospitality:1 forever:1 doom:1 swim:1 murky:1 represent:1 fountain:1 bassin:1 de:1 garden:1 terrace:1 versailles:1 external:1 |@bigram hesiod_theogony:2 apollo_artemis:8 karl_kerenyi:1 walter_burkert:1 zeitschrift_für:1 theoi_com:2 powerless_stop:1 pseudo_apollodorus:1 apollodorus_bibliotheke:1 hyginus_fabulae:1 etiological_myth:1 hymn_artemis:1 homeric_hymn:3 delian_apollo:2 goddess_childbirth:1 delphic_oracle:1 poison_arrow:1 olympian_pantheon:1 ovid_metamorphosis:2 metamorphosis_ovid:1 external_link:1 |
4,288 | Politics_of_Guinea-Bissau | Politics of Guinea-Bissau takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic in transition, whereby the President is head of state and the Prime Minister is head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National People's Assembly. Since 1994 the party system is dominated by the socialist African Independence Party of Guinea and Cape Verde and the Party for Social Renewal. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Recent political developments In Guinea-Bissau in 1989, the ruling African Independence Party of Guinea and Cape Verde(PAIGC) under the direction of President João Bernardo "Nino" Vieira began to outline a political liberalization program which the People's National Assembly approved in 1991. Reforms that paved the way for multi-party democracy included the repeal of articles of the constitution, which had enshrined the leading role of the PAIGC. Laws were ratified to allow the formation of other political parties, a free press, and independent trade unions with the right to strike. Guinea-Bissau's first multi-party elections for president and parliament were held in 1994. Following the 1998-99 civil war, presidential and legislative elections were again held, bringing opposition leader Kumba Ialá and his Party for Social Renewal to power. Ialá was ousted in a bloodless coup in September 2003, and Henrique Rosa was sworn in as President. Former President Viera was once again elected as President in July 2005. The government of Prime Minister Carlos Gomes Júnior was elected in March 2004 in a free and fair election round, but was replaced by the government of Prime Minister Aristides Gomes which took office already in November 2005. Aristides Gomes lost a no-confidence vote and submitted his resignation in March 2007. Martinho Ndafa Kabi was proposed as prime minister by a coalition composed of the PAIGC, the Social Renewal Party (PRS), and the United Social Democratic Party (PUSD). On April 9, it was announced that President João Bernardo Vieira had rejected the choice of Kabi, but the coalition said that they maintained him as their choice and later on the same day, Vieira appointed Kabi as the new prime minister. He took office on April 13, and his government, composed of 20 ministers (including eight from the PAIGC, eight from the PRS, and two from the PUSD) was named on April 17. President Viera was reported killed on March 2nd 2009 by soldiers as retaliation of the killing of the head of the joint chiefs of staff, General Tagme Na Waie Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracy is complicated by its crippled economy, devastated in the civil war. Executive branch National Parliament of Guinea-Bissau |Acting President |Raimundo Pereira |PAIGC |2 March 2009 |- |Prime Minister |Carlos Gomes Júnior |PAIGC |25 December 2008 |} The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The prime minister is appointed by the president after consultation with party leaders in the legislature. Legislative branch The National People's Assembly () has 102 members, elected for a four year term in multi-member constituencies. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The Supreme Court (), consists of nine justices who are appointed by the president and serve at his pleasure, final court of appeals in criminal and civil case. There are Regional Courts, one in each of nine regions, first court of appeals for sectoral court decisions, hear all felony cases and civil cases valued at over $1,000 and 24 Sectoral Courts, judges are not necessarily trained lawyers, hear civil cases under $1,000 and misdemeanor criminal cases. Political parties and leaders: African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde or PAIGC [Carlos GOMES Junior]; Front for the Liberation and Independence of Guinea or FLING [Francois MENDY]; Guinea-Bissau Resistance-Ba Fata Movement or RGB-MB [Helder Vaz LOPES]; Guinean Civic Forum or FCG [Antonieta Rosa GOMES]; International League for Ecological Protection or LIPE [Alhaje Bubacar DJALO, president]; National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Abubacer BALDE, secretary general]; Party for Democratic Convergence or PCD [Victor MANDINGA]; Social Renovation Party or PRS [Kumba YALA]; Union for Change or UM [Jorge MANDINGA, president, Dr. Anne SAAD, secretary general]; United Platform or UP [coalition formed by PCD, FDS, FLING, and RGB-MB]; United Social Democratic Party or PUSD [Francisco Jose FADUL]. Administrative divisions Guinea-Bissau is divided in 9 regions (, singular - ); Bafata, Biombo, Bissau, Bolama, Cacheu, Gabu, Oio, Quinara, Tombali. note: Bolama may have been renamed Bolama/Bijagos International organization participation ACCT (associate), ACP, AfDB, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO Flag description Two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and green with a vertical red band on the hoist side; there is a black five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia. See also Guinea-Bissau | Politics_of_Guinea-Bissau |@lemmatized politics:1 guinea:12 bissau:10 take:3 place:1 framework:1 semi:1 presidential:2 representative:1 democratic:4 republic:1 transition:2 whereby:1 president:14 head:3 state:1 prime:7 minister:8 government:6 multi:4 party:18 system:2 executive:3 power:3 exercise:1 legislative:3 vest:1 national:5 people:3 assembly:3 since:1 dominate:1 socialist:1 african:4 independence:4 cape:3 verde:3 social:6 renewal:3 judiciary:1 independent:2 legislature:2 recent:1 political:5 development:1 ruling:1 paigc:7 direction:1 joão:2 bernardo:2 nino:1 vieira:3 begin:1 outline:1 liberalization:1 program:1 approve:1 reform:1 pave:1 way:1 democracy:3 include:2 repeal:1 article:1 constitution:1 enshrine:1 lead:1 role:1 law:1 ratify:1 allow:1 formation:1 free:2 press:1 trade:1 union:3 right:1 strike:1 first:2 election:4 parliament:2 hold:2 follow:1 civil:5 war:2 bring:1 opposition:1 leader:3 kumba:2 ialá:2 oust:1 bloodless:1 coup:1 september:1 henrique:1 rosa:2 swear:1 former:1 viera:2 elect:4 july:1 carlos:3 gomes:6 júnior:2 march:4 fair:1 round:1 replace:1 aristides:2 office:2 already:1 november:1 lose:1 confidence:1 vote:2 submit:1 resignation:1 martinho:1 ndafa:1 kabi:3 propose:1 coalition:3 compose:2 prs:1 united:1 pusd:3 april:3 announce:1 reject:1 choice:2 say:1 maintain:1 later:1 day:1 appoint:3 new:1 eight:2 pr:2 two:2 name:1 report:1 kill:1 soldier:1 retaliation:1 killing:1 joint:1 chief:1 staff:1 general:3 tagme:1 na:1 waie:1 back:1 complicate:1 crippled:1 economy:1 devastate:1 branch:3 act:1 raimundo:1 pereira:1 december:1 popular:2 five:2 year:2 term:2 consultation:1 member:2 four:1 constituency:1 judicial:1 supreme:1 court:6 consist:1 nine:2 justice:1 serve:1 pleasure:1 final:1 appeal:2 criminal:2 case:5 regional:2 one:1 region:2 sectoral:2 decision:1 hear:2 felony:1 value:1 judge:1 necessarily:1 trained:1 lawyer:1 misdemeanor:1 junior:1 front:1 liberation:1 fling:2 francois:1 mendy:1 resistance:1 ba:1 fata:1 movement:1 rgb:2 mb:2 helder:1 vaz:1 lop:1 guinean:1 civic:1 forum:1 fcg:1 antonieta:1 international:2 league:1 ecological:1 protection:1 lipe:1 alhaje:1 bubacar:1 djalo:1 progress:1 undp:1 abubacer:1 balde:1 secretary:2 convergence:1 pcd:2 victor:1 mandinga:2 renovation:1 yala:1 change:1 um:1 jorge:1 dr:1 anne:1 saad:1 unite:2 platform:1 form:1 fds:1 francisco:1 jose:1 fadul:1 administrative:1 division:1 divide:1 singular:1 bafata:1 biombo:1 bolama:3 cacheu:1 gabu:1 oio:1 quinara:1 tombali:1 note:1 may:1 rename:1 bijagos:1 organization:1 participation:1 acct:1 associate:1 acp:1 afdb:1 eca:1 ecowas:1 fao:1 fz:1 g:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 itu:1 nam:1 oau:1 oic:1 opcw:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wadb:1 waemu:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 flag:1 description:1 equal:1 horizontal:1 band:3 yellow:1 top:1 green:1 vertical:1 red:2 hoist:1 side:1 black:1 point:1 star:1 center:1 use:1 pan:1 color:1 ethiopia:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram guinea_bissau:9 prime_minister:7 cape_verde:3 judiciary_independent:1 verde_paigc:2 joão_bernardo:2 bloodless_coup:1 bernardo_vieira:1 chief_staff:1 legislative_branch:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 participation_acct:1 acp_afdb:1 eca_ecowas:1 fao_fz:1 fz_g:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icftu:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 itu_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_oic:1 oic_opcw:1 opcw_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 |
4,289 | Transport_in_Comoros | There are a number of systems of transport in Comoros. Comoros possesses 880km of highway, of which 673km are paved. It additionally has three seaports: Fomboni, Moroni and Moutsamoudou, and does not have a merchant marine, or railway network. In terms of airports, the country possesses four, all with paved runways. Of the airports, one has runways of length exceeding 2,438m, with the remaining three having runways shorter than 1,523m. The relative isolation of the Comoro Islands had made air traffic a major means of transportation. One of President Abdallah's accomplishments was to make Comoros more accessible by air. During his administration, he negotiated agreements to initiate or enhance commercial air links with Tanzania and Madagascar. The Djohar regime reached an agreement in 1990 to link Moroni and Brussels by air. By the early 1990s, commercial flights connected Comoros with France, Mauritius, Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania, and Madagascar. The national airline was Air Comores. Daily flights linked the three main islands, and air service was also available to Mahoré; each island had airstrips. In 1986 the republic received a grant from the French government's CCCE to renovate and expand Hahaya airport, near Moroni. Because of the absence of regularly scheduled sea transport between the islands, nearly all interisland passenger traffic is by air. More than 99 percent of freight is transported by sea. Both Moroni on Njazidja and Mutsamudu on Nzwani have artificial harbors. There is also a harbor at Fomboni, on Mwali. Despite extensive internationally financed programs to upgrade the harbors at Moroni and Mutsamudu, by the early 1990s only Mutsamudu was operational as a deepwater facility. Its harbor could accommodate vessels of up to eleven meters' draught. At Moroni, ocean-going vessels typically lie offshore and are loaded or unloaded by smaller craft, a costly and sometimes dangerous procedure. Most freight continues to be sent to Kenya, Reunion, or Madagascar for transshipment to Comoros. Use of Comoran ports is further restricted by the threat of cyclones from December through March. The privately operated Comoran Navigation Company (Société Comorienne de Navigation) is based in Moroni, and provides services to Madagascar. ) Roads serve the coastal areas, rather than the interior, and the mountainous terrain makes surface travel difficult. References Much of the material in this article is adapted from the CIA World Factbook. | Transport_in_Comoros |@lemmatized number:1 system:1 transport:3 comoros:5 possess:2 highway:1 pave:2 additionally:1 three:3 seaport:1 fomboni:2 moroni:7 moutsamoudou:1 merchant:1 marine:1 railway:1 network:1 term:1 airport:3 country:1 four:1 runway:3 one:2 length:1 exceed:1 remain:1 short:1 relative:1 isolation:1 comoro:1 island:4 make:3 air:7 traffic:2 major:1 mean:1 transportation:1 president:1 abdallah:1 accomplishment:1 accessible:1 administration:1 negotiate:1 agreement:2 initiate:1 enhance:1 commercial:2 link:3 tanzania:2 madagascar:4 djohar:1 regime:1 reach:1 brussels:1 early:2 flight:2 connect:1 france:1 mauritius:1 kenya:2 south:1 africa:1 national:1 airline:1 comores:1 daily:1 main:1 service:2 also:2 available:1 mahoré:1 airstrip:1 republic:1 receive:1 grant:1 french:1 government:1 ccce:1 renovate:1 expand:1 hahaya:1 near:1 absence:1 regularly:1 schedule:1 sea:2 nearly:1 interisland:1 passenger:1 percent:1 freight:2 njazidja:1 mutsamudu:3 nzwani:1 artificial:1 harbor:4 mwali:1 despite:1 extensive:1 internationally:1 financed:1 program:1 upgrade:1 operational:1 deepwater:1 facility:1 could:1 accommodate:1 vessel:2 eleven:1 meter:1 draught:1 ocean:1 go:1 typically:1 lie:1 offshore:1 load:1 unload:1 small:1 craft:1 costly:1 sometimes:1 dangerous:1 procedure:1 continue:1 send:1 reunion:1 transshipment:1 use:1 comoran:2 port:1 far:1 restrict:1 threat:1 cyclone:1 december:1 march:1 privately:1 operate:1 navigation:2 company:1 société:1 comorienne:1 de:1 base:1 provide:1 roads:1 serve:1 coastal:1 area:1 rather:1 interior:1 mountainous:1 terrain:1 surface:1 travel:1 difficult:1 reference:1 much:1 material:1 article:1 adapt:1 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 |@bigram merchant_marine:1 pave_runway:1 comoro_island:1 tanzania_madagascar:2 load_unload:1 mountainous_terrain:1 |
4,290 | Gibberish | Gibberish is a generic term in English for talking that sounds like speech, but has no actual meaning. This meaning has also been extended to meaningless text or gobbledygook. The common theme in gibberish statements is a lack of literal sense, which can also be described as a presence of nonsense. Origin of the term The term is first seen in English in the early 16th century . A common theory is that the word comes from the name of the famous 8th-century Islamic alchemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan, whose name was Latinized as "Geber", thus the term "gibberish" arose as a reference to the incomprehensible technical jargon often used by Jabir and other alchemists who followed. A second explanation is from the British colony Gibraltar (from Arabic Gabal-Tariq, meaning Mountain of Tariq), whose residents frequently speak in Spanish and English during their conversations. Gibraltarians will often start a sentence in Spanish and switch to English halfway through, making it difficult for non-locals to follow. See also Double Dutch (language game) Grammelot Jabberwocky — English poem written in nonsense The Ketchup Song Lorem ipsum Chacarron Macarron - song with (Spanish) nonsense lyrics Mojibake — Random nonsense characters generated by foreign text Mumbo Jumbo (phrase) Nonsense Scat singing Simlish Vonlenska Swedish Chef External links A statistical gibberish generator based on Markov chains Translate gibberish into Hebrew Pronounceable gibberish generator The Online Dictionary of Language Terminology Bendonium World References | Gibberish |@lemmatized gibberish:6 generic:1 term:4 english:5 talk:1 sound:1 like:1 speech:1 actual:1 meaning:2 also:3 extend:1 meaningless:1 text:2 gobbledygook:1 common:2 theme:1 statement:1 lack:1 literal:1 sense:1 describe:1 presence:1 nonsense:5 origin:1 first:1 see:2 early:1 century:2 theory:1 word:1 come:1 name:2 famous:1 islamic:1 alchemist:2 jabir:2 ibn:1 hayyan:1 whose:2 latinize:1 geber:1 thus:1 arise:1 reference:2 incomprehensible:1 technical:1 jargon:1 often:2 use:1 follow:2 second:1 explanation:1 british:1 colony:1 gibraltar:1 arabic:1 gabal:1 tariq:2 mean:1 mountain:1 resident:1 frequently:1 speak:1 spanish:3 conversation:1 gibraltarian:1 start:1 sentence:1 switch:1 halfway:1 make:1 difficult:1 non:1 local:1 double:1 dutch:1 language:2 game:1 grammelot:1 jabberwocky:1 poem:1 write:1 ketchup:1 song:2 lorem:1 ipsum:1 chacarron:1 macarron:1 lyric:1 mojibake:1 random:1 character:1 generate:1 foreign:1 mumbo:1 jumbo:1 phrase:1 scat:1 sing:1 simlish:1 vonlenska:1 swedish:1 chef:1 external:1 link:1 statistical:1 generator:2 base:1 markov:1 chain:1 translate:1 hebrew:1 pronounceable:1 online:1 dictionary:1 terminology:1 bendonium:1 world:1 |@bigram alchemist_jabir:1 jabir_ibn:1 ibn_hayyan:1 scat_sing:1 external_link:1 markov_chain:1 |
4,291 | Emperor_Bidatsu | Emperor Bidatsu (敏達天皇 Bidatsu-tennō) (538 - September 14, 585) was the 30th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 572 through 585. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon, pp. 36-37; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 262-263. He was called Nunakura no Futotamashiki (渟中倉太珠敷) in the Nihonshoki. Genealogy He was the second son of Emperor Kimmei by his consort Iwahime, a daughter of Emperor Senka. According to the Nihonshokiand Gukanshō , Bidatsu had four empresses and 16 Imperial children (6 sons and 10 daughters). Brown, p. 262. Bidatsu's first empress, Hirohime, died in the fifth year of his reign. To replace her, he elevated one of his consorts, Princess Nukatabe, to the rank of empress. Nukatabe was his half-sister by their father Kimmei. Later she ascended to the throne in her own right and is today known as Empress Suiko. Though he had many children, none of them would ever become emperor. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959) The Imperial House of Japan, p. 46. He was succeeded first by one of his brothers, Emperor Yōmei, then by another, Emperor Sushun, and then Empress Suiko, his sister and wife, before his grandson, Emperor Jomei, eventually took the throne. Princess Hiro Hime, daughter of Prince Mate no Okinaga ; Empress 572; died 575 ; 3 imperial children: Princess Sakanobori Princess Uji no Shitsukahi Prince Oshisako no Hikohito no Oe,born about 556, married (A) Princess Ohomata (Ohotomo), his aunt, daughter of Emperor Kimmei and Soga no Kitashi-Hime, by whom he had a son and a daughter ;(B) Princess Nukate-Hime (his half sister), by whom he had 3 sons ; (C) Princess Woharida (his half sister), by whom he had a son and a daughter : Eldest son : Prince Chinu,born about 575, married to Princess Kibitsu-Hime, by whom he had a son and a daughter: Princess Takara (Empress Kōgyoku), born 594,and Prince Karu (Emperor Kōtoku) Princesse Kuhada Prince Tamura (Emperor Jomei), born 593 Prince Nakatsu Prince Tara Prince Yamashiro Princesse Kasanuhi Ominako no Iratsume (Kusu Kimi no Iratsuko), daughter of Kasuga no Nakatsu Kimi no Omi ; second consort ; 4 imperial children : Prince Naniha Prince Kasuga Princess Kuwada Prince Ohomata Unako no Otoshi (Wo-Umako no Iratsume), daughter of Ohoka no Obito no Okuma ; third consort; 2 imperial children : Princess Futohime (Princess Sakurawi) Princess Nukate Hime (Princess Takara or Tamura), born about 570, married to Prince Oshisako no Hikohito no Oe, her half brother Princess Nukatabe, born 553, died 628; daughter of Emperor Kimmei and Soga no Kitashi hime; imperial consort ; Empress 576,(Empress Suikō) ; 7 imperial children : Princess Uji no Shitsukahi (Uji no Kahitako), born about 570, married to Prince Shōtoku, son of Emperor Yōmei and Empress Anahobe Prince Takeda Princess Woharida, born about 572, married to her half brother Oshisako no Hikohito no Oe Princess Umori (Karu no Mori) Prince Wohari Princess Tame, married to her nephew Emperor Jomei Princess Sakurawi no Yumihari Events of Bidatsu's life He was appointed crown prince by his father Kimmei; after Kimmei died, Bidatsu ascended to the throne within a few days. 572: In the 32nd year of Kimmei-tennō'''s reign (欽明天皇32年), the old emperor died, and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by his second son. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Bidatsu is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Titsingh, p. 36; Brown, pp. 261-262; Varley, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Emperor Go-Murakami.] He ruled during a tense period between the Soga and Mononobe clans regarding acceptance of Buddhism in Japan. In external affairs, Bidatsu sought to re-establish relations with Korean Kingdoms and, according to Nihonshoki, his court successfully established relations with Baekje and Silla, two of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The emperor died from a disease which afflicted him with sores, apparently the first royal victim of smallpox in Japan. Hopkins, Donald R. The Greatest Killer, pp. 105-106. Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley).'' New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Bidatsu |@lemmatized emperor:21 bidatsu:8 敏達天皇:1 tennō:2 september:1 japan:9 accord:3 traditional:1 order:1 succession:2 reign:4 span:1 year:4 titsingh:3 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:4 brown:4 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:4 call:1 nunakura:1 futotamashiki:1 渟中倉太珠敷:1 nihonshoki:2 genealogy:1 second:3 son:9 kimmei:7 consort:5 iwahime:1 daughter:10 senka:1 nihonshokiand:1 four:1 empress:10 imperial:9 child:6 p:4 first:3 hirohime:1 die:6 fifth:1 replace:1 elevate:1 one:2 princess:20 nukatabe:3 rank:1 half:5 sister:4 father:2 later:1 ascend:2 throne:4 right:1 today:1 know:1 suiko:2 though:1 many:1 none:1 would:1 ever:1 become:1 ponsonby:3 fane:2 richard:2 house:2 succeed:1 brother:3 yōmei:2 another:1 sushun:1 wife:1 grandson:1 jomei:3 eventually:1 take:1 hiro:1 hime:6 prince:16 mate:1 okinaga:1 sakanobori:1 uji:3 shitsukahi:2 oshisako:3 hikohito:3 oe:3 bear:7 marry:6 ohomata:2 ohotomo:1 aunt:1 soga:3 kitashi:2 b:1 nukate:2 c:2 woharida:2 eldest:1 chinu:1 kibitsu:1 takara:2 kōgyoku:1 karu:2 kōtoku:1 princesse:2 kuhada:1 tamura:2 nakatsu:2 tara:1 yamashiro:1 kasanuhi:1 ominako:1 iratsume:2 kusu:1 kimi:2 iratsuko:1 kasuga:2 omi:1 naniha:1 kuwada:1 unako:1 otoshi:1 wo:1 umako:1 ohoka:1 obito:1 okuma:1 third:1 futohime:1 sakurawi:2 born:1 suikō:1 kahitako:1 shōtoku:1 anahobe:1 takeda:1 umori:1 mori:1 wohari:1 tame:1 nephew:1 yumihari:1 event:1 life:1 appoint:1 crown:1 within:1 day:1 old:1 senso:3 receive:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 say:1 accede:1 sokui:2 varley:3 distinct:1 act:1 unrecognized:1 prior:1 tenji:1 sovereign:2 except:1 jitō:1 yōzei:1 go:2 toba:1 fushimi:1 murakami:1 rule:1 tense:1 period:1 mononobe:1 clan:1 regard:1 acceptance:1 buddhism:1 external:1 affair:1 seek:1 establish:2 relation:2 korean:1 kingdom:2 court:1 successfully:1 baekje:1 silla:1 two:1 three:1 korea:1 disease:1 afflict:1 sore:1 apparently:1 royal:1 victim:1 smallpox:1 hopkins:1 donald:1 r:1 great:2 killer:1 note:1 reference:1 aston:1 william:1 george:1 nihongi:1 chronicle:2 early:1 time:1 london:1 kegan:1 paul:3 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:4 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 jien:1 future:1 past:1 translation:2 study:1 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 arthur:1 brabazon:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 society:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 jinnō:2 shōtōki:2 god:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 cult:1 |@bigram emperor_bidatsu:2 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 brown_delmer:2 delmer_et:1 et_al:1 emperor_kimmei:3 emperor_senka:1 ascend_throne:2 empress_suiko:2 ponsonby_fane:2 fane_richard:2 emperor_yōmei:2 emperor_sushun:1 emperor_jomei:3 hime_daughter:1 eldest_son:1 prince_shōtoku:1 succession_senso:1 shortly_thereafter:1 accede_throne:1 throne_sokui:1 sokui_titsingh:1 senso_unrecognized:1 unrecognized_prior:1 emperor_tenji:1 tenji_sovereign:1 except_jitō:1 jitō_yōzei:1 yōzei_go:1 toba_fushimi:1 fushimi_senso:1 senso_sokui:1 go_murakami:1 mononobe_clan:1 baekje_silla:1 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:2 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
4,292 | Mehmed_the_Conqueror | Mehmet II (Ottoman Turkish: محمد الثانى {{Unicode|Meḥmed-i sānī}}, ), (also known as el-Fatih (الفاتح), "the Conqueror", in Ottoman Turkish, or, in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet) (March 30, 1432, Edirne May 3, 1481, Hünkârcayırı, near Gebze) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (Rûm until the conquest) for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople, bringing an end to the Byzantine Empire. Wives and children He had several wives: Valide Sultan Amina Gul-Bahar, a Greek Orthodox woman of Noble birth from the village of Douvera, Trabzon, The Nature of the Early Ottoman State (ottoman empire lasted 1300-1920), Heath W. Lowry, State University of New York Press (SUNY Press), p.153 who died in 1492, the mother of Bayezid II, and Gevher Sultana; Gulshah Hatun; Sitti Mukrime Hatun Wedding portrait http://nauplion.net/M2-SittHatun.jpg ; Hatun Cicek; Helene Hatun, who died in 1481, daughter of Demetrios II Palaiologos, the Despot of Morea; briefly Anna Hatun, the daughter of the Emperor of Trebizond; and Hatun Alexias, a Byzantine princess. Another son of his was Djem Zizim, who died in 1495. Early reign Mehmed II was born in Edirne, the then-capital city of the Ottoman state, on March 30, 1432. His father was Sultan Murad II (1404–51) and his mother Valide Sultan Hüma Hatun, born in Devrekani county of Kastamonu province, was a daughter of Abd'Allah of Hum (Huma meaning a girl/woman from Hum). When Mehmed II was 11 years old he was sent to Amasya to govern and thus gain experience, as per the custom of Ottoman rulers before his time. After Murad II made peace with the Karaman Emirate in Anatolia in August 1444, he abdicated the throne to his 12-year-old son Mehmed II. During his first reign, Mehmed II asked his father Murad II to reclaim the throne in anticipation of the Battle of Varna, but Murad II refused. Enraged at his father, who had long since retired to a contemplative life in southwestern Anatolia, Mehmed II wrote: "If you are the Sultan, come and lead your armies. If I am the Sultan I hereby order you to come and lead my armies." It was upon this letter that Murad II led the Ottoman army in the Battle of Varna in 1444. It is said Murad II's return to the throne was forced by Chandarli Khalil Pasha, the grand vizier at the time, who was not fond of Mehmed II's rule, since Mehmed II's teacher was influential on him and did not like Chandarli. Chandarli was later executed by Mehmed II during the siege of Constantinople on the grounds that he had been bribed by or had somehow helped the defenders. He married Valide Sultan Amina Gul-Bahar, a Greek Orthodox woman of Noble birth from the village of Douvera, Trabzon, The Nature of the Early Ottoman State, Heath W. Lowry, State University of New York Press (SUNY Press), p.153 who died in 1492. She was the mother of Bayezid II. Conquest of Constantinople Mehmed II enters Constantinople by Fausto Zonaro In 1451 Mehmed II reclaimed the throne upon his father's death. Two years later he brought an end to the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital during the siege of Constantinople. Sultan Mehmet II - Olga's Gallery After this conquest, he conquered the Despotate of Morea in the Peloponnese in 1460, and the Empire of Trebizond in northeastern Anatolia in 1461. The last two vestiges of Byzantine rule were thus absorbed by the Ottoman Empire. The conquest of Constantinople bestowed immense glory and prestige on the country; the Ottoman state was internationally recognized as an Empire for the first time. It is said that when Mehmed stepped into the ruins of the Boukoleon, known to the Ottomans and Persians as the Palace of the Caesars, probably built over a thousand years before by Theodosius II, he uttered the famous lines of Persian poetry: The spider weaves the curtains in the palace of the Caesars;the owl calls the watches in the towers of Afrasiab. After the Fall of Constantinople, Mehmed claimed the title of "Caesar" of Rome (Kayser-i Rûm), although this claim was not recogized by western Europe, the Greek Orthodox Patriarch, or the Greeks themselves. Mehmed's claim rested with the concept that the Byzantine Empire was the carrier of the Roman legacy, after the transfer of its capital to Constantinople in 330 AD. Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family, as his predecessors like Sultan Orhan I had married a Byzantine princess. He was not the only ruler to claim such a title, as there was the Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, whose emperor, Frederick III, traced his titular lineage from Charlemagne who obtained the title of Roman Emperor when he was crowned by Pope Leo III in 800 - although never recognized as such by the Byzantine Empire. Reference is made to the prospective conquest of Constantinople in an authentic hadith, attributed to a saying of the Prophet Muhammad. "Verily you shall conquer Constantinople. What a wonderful leader will he be, and what a wonderful army will that army be!" Ten years after the conquest of Constantinople Mehmed II visited the site of Troy and boasted that he had avenged the Trojans by having conquered the Greeks (Byzantines) TURKS :: Ottomans . Conquests in Asia The conquest of Constantinople allowed Mehmed II to turn his attention to Anatolia. Mehmed II tried to create a single political entity in Anatolia by capturing Turkish states called Beyliks and the Greek Empire of Trebizond in northeastern Anatolia and allied himself with the Golden Horde in the Crimea. Uniting the Anatolian Beyliks was first accomplished by Sultan Bayezid I, more than fifty years earlier than Mehmed II but after the destructive Battle of Ankara back in 1402, the newly formed Anatolian unification was gone. Mehmed II recovered the Ottoman power on other Turkish states. These conquests allowed him to push further into Europe. Another important political entity which shaped the Eastern policy of Mehmed II was the White Sheep Turcomans. With the leadership of Uzun Hasan, this Turcoman kingdom gained power in the East but because of their strong relations with the Christian powers like Empire of Trebizond and the Republic of Venice and the alliance between Turcomans and Karamanoğlu Tribe, Mehmed saw them as a threat to his own power. He led a successful campaign against Uzun Hasan in 1473 which resulted with the decisive victory of the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Otlukbeli. Conquests in Europe Mehmed II advanced toward Eastern Europe as far as Belgrade, and attempted to conquer the city from John Hunyadi at the Siege of Belgrade in 1456. Hungarian commanders successfully defended the city and Ottomans retreated with heavy losses but at the end, Ottomans occupied nearly all of Serbia. In 1463, after a dispute over the tribute paid annually by the Bosnian kingdom, Mehmed invaded Bosnia and conquered it very quickly, executing the last Bosnian king Stjepan Tomašević. He also came into conflict with and was defeated by his former vassal, Prince Vlad III Dracula of Wallachia in 1462 at the Night Attack. Then, Mehmed II helped Radu, the brother of Vlad, to take the revenge of the Ottoman military losses and Radu managed to take the control of Wallachia in the same year. Vlad lost all his power and escaped from his country. In 1475, the Ottomans suffered a great defeat at the hands of Stephen the Great of Moldavia at the Battle of Vaslui. In 1476, Mehmed won a victory against Stephen at the Battle of Valea Albă and nearly destroyed all of the relatively small Moldovian army. Then, he sacked the capital of Suceava, but could not take the castle of Piatra Neamţ, nor the citadel of Suceava. With a plague running in his camp and food and water being very scarce, Mehmed was forced to retreat as Stephen was reinforcing his army and Dracula, turning from exile, was marching with a 30,000-strong army to aid the Moldavians. Mehmed II invaded Italy in 1480. The intent of his invasion was to capture Rome and "reunite the Roman Empire", and, at first, looked like he might be able to do it with the easy capture of Otranto in 1480 but Otranto was retaken by Papal forces in 1481 after the death of Mehmed. A rebellion in Albania between 1443 and 1468 led by George Kastrioti Skanderbeg (İskender Bey), an Albanian noble and a former member of the Ottoman ruling elite, prevented the Ottoman expansion into the Italian peninsula. Skanderbeg had been sent to Albania as the highest representative of the Ottoman Empire in the region by Mehmed's father Murad II, but he rebelled and united the Albanian princes in a fight against the Empire. These military conflicts between the Ottomans and the European forces showed that the Ottoman presence in Europe was not a temporary situation. During the reign of Mehmed II, the Balkan forces were not completely surpassed by the Ottoman war machine, but could not stop it either. Administrative actions A profile that has been attributed to both Gentile Bellini and Costanzo da Ferrara. Mehmed II amalgamated the old Byzantine administration into the Ottoman state. He first introduced the word Politics into Arabic "Siyasah" from a book he published and claimed to be the collection of Politics doctrines of the Byzantine Caesars before him. He gathered Italian artists, humanists and Greek scholars at his court, kept the Byzantine Church functioning, ordered the patriarch to translate the Christian faith into Turkish and called Gentile Bellini from Venice to paint his portrait. He was extremely serious about his efforts to continue the Roman Empire, with him as its Caesar, and came closer than most people realize to capturing Rome and conquering Italy. Mehmed II also tried to get Muslim scientists and artists to his court in Constantinople, started a University, built mosques e.g. the Fatih Mosque, waterways, and the Topkapı Palace. Mehmed II's reign is also well-known for the religious tolerance with which he treated his subjects, especially among the conquered Christians, which was very unusual for Europe in the Middle Ages. However, his army was recruited from the Devshirme. This group took Christian subjects at a young age. They were split up: those regarded as more able were destined for the sultans court, the less able but physically strong were put into the army or the sultan's personal guard - the Janissaries. Within the conquered city, Mehmed established a millet or an autonomous religious community, and he appointed the former Patriarch as essentially governor of the city. His authority extended only to the Orthodox Christians of the city, and this excluded the Genoese and Venetian settlements in the suburbs, and excluded the coming Muslim and Jewish settlers entirely. This method allowed for an indirect rule of the Christian Byzantines and allowed the occupants to feel relatively autonomous even as Mehmed II began the Turkish remodeling of the city, eventually turning it into the Turkish capital, which it remained until the 1920s. Details Mehmed II spoke seven languages (including Turkish, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Persian and Latin) when he was 21 years old (the age at which he conquered Constantinople). After the fall of Constantinople, he founded many universities and colleges in the city, some of which are still active. Mehmed II is also recognized as the first Sultan to codify criminal and constitutional law long before Suleiman the Magnificent (also "the Lawmaker" or "Kanuni") and he thus established the classical image of the autocratic Ottoman sultan (padishah). Mehmed II's tomb is located at Fatih Mosque in Istanbul; the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge is also named after him. He was poisoned by his doctors at Hünkârcayırı, near Gebze. Mehmed II's portrait was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 1000 lira banknotes of 1986-1992. Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum: 7. Emission Group - One Thousand Turkish Lira - I. Series & II. Series. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. Mehmed II's Firman on the freedom of the Bosnian Franciscans "I, the Sultan Khan the Conqueror, hereby declare the whole world that, The Bosnian Franciscans granted with this sultanate firman are under my protection. And I command that: No one shall disturb or give harm to these people and their churches! They shall live in peace in my state. These people who have become emigrants, shall have security and liberty. They may return to their monasteries which are located in the borders of my state. No one from my empire notable, viziers, clerks or my maids will break their honour or give any harm to them! No one shall insult, put in danger or attack these lives, properties, and churches of these people! Also, what and those these people have brought from their own countries have the same rights... By declaring this firman, I swear on my sword by the holy name of Allah who has created the ground and sky, Allah's prophet Mohammed, and 124.000 former prophets that; no one from my citizens will react or behave the opposite of this firman!" This oath firman, which has provided independence and tolerance to the ones who are from another religion, belief, and race was declared by Mehmed II the Conqueror and granted to Angjeo Zvizdovic of the Franciscan Catholic Monastery in Fojnica, Bosnia and Herzegovina after the conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina on May 28 of 1463. Croatia and Ottoman Empire, Ahdnama, Sultan Mehemt II Light Millennium: A Culture of Peaceful Coexistence: The Ottoman Turkish Example; by Prof. Dr. Ekmeleddin IHSANOGLU The firman has been recently raised and published by the Ministry of Culture of Turkey for the 700th anniversary of the foundation of the Ottoman State. The edict was issued by the Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror to protect the basic rights of the Bosnian Christians when he conquered that territory in 1463. The original edict is still kept in the Franciscan Catholic Monastery in Fojnica. It is one of the oldest documents on religious freedom. Mehmed II's oath was entered into force in the Ottoman Empire on May 28 1463. In 1971, the United Nations published a translation of the document in all the official U.N. languages. 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4,293 | Abbe_number | An Abbe diagram plots the Abbe number against refractive index for a range of different glasses (red dots). Glasses are classified using the Schott Glass letter-number code to reflect their composition and position on the diagram. Influences of selected glass component additions on the Abbe number of a specific base glass. Abbe number calculation of glasses In physics and optics, the Abbe number, also known as the V-number or constringence of a transparent material, is a measure of the material's dispersion (variation of refractive index with wavelength) in relation to the refractive index. It is named for Ernst Abbe (1840–1905), the German physicist who defined it. The Abbe number V of a material is defined as where nD, nF and nC are the refractive indices of the material at the wavelengths of the Fraunhofer D-, F- and C- spectral lines (589.2 nm, 486.1 nm and 656.3 nm respectively). Low dispersion (low chromatic aberration) materials have high values of V. Abbe numbers are used to classify glass and other optically transparent materials. For example, flint glass has V < 50 and crown glass has V > 50. Typical values of V range from around 20 for very dense flint glass, around 30 for polycarbonate plastics, and up to 65 for very light crown glass, and up to 85 for fluor-crown glass. Abbe numbers are only a useful measure of dispersion for visible light, and for other wavelengths, or for higher precision work, the group velocity dispersion is used. Alternate definitions of the Abbe number are used in some contexts. The value Vd is given by which defines the Abbe number with respect to the yellow Fraunhofer d (or D3) helium line at 587.5618 nm wavelength. It can also be defined at the green mercury E-line at 546.073 nm: where F' and C' are the blue and red cadmium lines at 480.0 nm and 643.8 nm, respectively. An Abbe diagram is produced by plotting the Abbe number Vd of a material versus its refractive index nd. Glasses can then be categorised by their composition and position on the diagram. This can be a letter-number code, as used in the Schott Glass catalogue, or a 6-digit glass code. Abbe numbers are used to calculate the necessary focal lengths of achromatic doublet lenses to minimize chromatic aberration. The following table lists standard wavelengths at which n is usually determined, indicated by subscripts. L. D. Pye, V. D. Frechette, N. J. Kreidl: "Borate Glasses"; Plenum Press, New York, 1977 For example, nD is measured at 589.3 nm: λ in nm Fraunhofer's symbol Light source Color 365.01 i Hg UV 404.66 h Hg violet 435.84 g Hg blue 479.19 F' Cd blue 486.13 F H blue 546.07 e Hg green 587.56 d He yellow 589.3 D Na yellow 643.85 C' Cd red 656.27 C H red 706.52 r He red 768.2 A' K red 852.11 s Cs IR 1013.98 t Hg IR See also Abbe prism Abbe refractometer Calculation of glass properties, including Abbe number Fraunhofer lines References | Abbe_number |@lemmatized abbe:17 diagram:4 plot:2 number:15 refractive:5 index:5 range:2 different:1 glass:17 red:6 dot:1 classify:2 use:6 schott:2 letter:2 code:3 reflect:1 composition:2 position:2 influence:1 select:1 component:1 addition:1 specific:1 base:1 calculation:2 physic:1 optic:1 also:3 know:1 v:7 constringence:1 transparent:2 material:7 measure:3 dispersion:4 variation:1 wavelength:5 relation:1 name:1 ernst:1 german:1 physicist:1 define:4 nd:3 nf:1 nc:1 fraunhofer:4 f:4 c:5 spectral:1 line:5 nm:9 respectively:2 low:2 chromatic:2 aberration:2 high:2 value:3 optically:1 example:2 flint:2 crown:3 typical:1 around:2 dense:1 polycarbonate:1 plastic:1 light:3 fluor:1 useful:1 visible:1 precision:1 work:1 group:1 velocity:1 alternate:1 definition:1 context:1 vd:2 give:1 respect:1 yellow:3 helium:1 green:2 mercury:1 e:2 blue:4 cadmium:1 produce:1 versus:1 categorise:1 catalogue:1 digit:1 calculate:1 necessary:1 focal:1 length:1 achromatic:1 doublet:1 lens:1 minimize:1 follow:1 table:1 list:1 standard:1 n:2 usually:1 determine:1 indicate:1 subscript:1 l:1 pye:1 frechette:1 j:1 kreidl:1 borate:1 plenum:1 press:1 new:1 york:1 λ:1 symbol:1 source:1 color:1 hg:5 uv:1 h:3 violet:1 g:1 cd:2 na:1 r:1 k:1 ir:2 see:1 prism:1 refractometer:1 property:1 include:1 reference:1 |@bigram refractive_index:5 nm_nm:3 chromatic_aberration:2 velocity_dispersion:1 focal_length:1 |
4,294 | Kinky_Friedman | Richard S. "Kinky" Friedman (born October 31 http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinky_Friedman German Wikipedia or November 1, 1944 http://www.kinkyfriedman.com/node/719 The Kosher Cowboy ) is an American singer, songwriter, novelist, humorist, politician and former columnist for Texas Monthly who styles himself in the mold of popular American satirists Will Rogers and Mark Twain. You Can Lead a Politician to Water, But You Can't Make Him Think, BookTV.org, October, 2007 He was one of two independent candidates in the 2006 election for the office of Governor of Texas. Receiving 12.6% of the vote, Friedman placed fourth in the six-person race. Personal life Born in Chicago to Jewish parents, Dr. S. Thomas Friedman and Minnie Samet Friedman, Friedman moved with his family to a ranch in central Texas during his childhood. He had a keen interest in both music and chess at an early age. Friedman was chosen when he was 7 to be one of 50 local chess players to challenge U.S. grandmaster Samuel Reshevsky to simultaneous matches in Houston. While Reshevsky won all 50 matches, Friedman was by far the youngest competitor. Friedman graduated from Austin High School in Austin, Texas in 1962 and graduated from the University of Texas at Austin in 1966 with a Bachelor of Arts, majoring in Psychology while participating in the Plan II Honors program. He is also a member of the Tau Delta Phi fraternity. It was during his freshman year at the university that Chinga Chavin gave Friedman the nickname "Kinky," in reference to Friedman's curly hair. Lone Star: Kinky Friedman on the campaign trail by Dan Halpern, The New Yorker, 2005-08-22. Friedman then served two years with the Peace Corps on the island of Borneo in Malaysia with John Gross. Kinky Friedman Biography, Kinkajou Records. Notable Former Volunteers / Arts and Literature He has been featured in the news including 60 Minutes on CBS and made an appearance as one of Jay Leno's guests. Friedman lives at Echo Hill Ranch, his family's summer camp near Kerrville, Texas. He also founded Utopia Animal Rescue Ranch, the mission of which is to care for stray, abused and aging animals; more than 1,000 dogs have been saved from animal euthanasia. Music career Friedman formed his first band, King Arthur & the Carrots while a student at the University of Texas. The band - which poked fun at surf music - recorded only one single in 1966 (Schwinn 24/Beach Party Boo Boo). By 1971, Friedman had formed his second band, Kinky Friedman and The Texas Jewboys, which many took to be a play on the name of the famous band Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys. In keeping with the band's satirical nature, each member had a comical name: in addition to Kinky there was Little Jewford, Big Nig, Panama Red, Wichita Culpepper, Sky Cap Adams, Rainbow Colours, and Snakebite Jacobs. Friedman's father objected to the name of the band, calling it a "negative, hostile, peculiar thing", Kinky Friedman Turns To Politics, Humorist, Musician, Writer, Is Now Gubernatorial Hopeful In Texas - CBS News which gave Kinky even more reason to choose the name. Arriving on the wave of country rock following on from Gram Parsons, The Band, and the Eagles, Friedman originally found cult fame as a country and western singer. His break came in 1973 thanks to Commander Cody, who contacted Vanguard Music on his behalf. Friedman released Kinky Friedman in 1974 for ABC Records, then toured with Bob Dylan in 1975-6. Tucker, Stephen R. (1998). "Kinky Friedman". In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kingsbury, Editor. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 184. His repertoire mixed social commentary ("We Reserve The Right To Refuse Service To You") and maudlin ballads ("Western Union Wire") with raucous humor (such as "Get Your Biscuits In The Oven and Your Buns In Bed"). His "Ride' em Jewboy" was an extended tribute to the victims of the Holocaust. He made a race baiting song, "They Ain't Makin' Jews Like Jesus Anymore," a song in which Kinky verbally and physically beats up a drunken white person he deems "racist" who fictitiously berates African Americans, Jews, Greeks, and Sigma Nus in a bar. Sample lyrics: "Oh, they ain't makin' Jews like Jesus anymore, They ain't makin' carpenters that know what nails are for" Other Friedman tunes include "The Ballad of Charles Whitman," in which Friedman lampooned Whitman's sniper attack from The University of Texas at Austin's Main Building tower on August 1, 1966. His cover of Chinga Chavin's "Asshole from El Paso", a parody of Merle Haggard's "Okie from Muskogee" is, perhaps, his most famous song. In early 1976, he joined Bob Dylan on the second leg of the Rolling Thunder Revue tour. Friedman was a musical guest on Saturday Night Live in October 1976. It has been reported by Mr. Friedman himself that he is the only artist known to have taped an unaired episode of Austin City Limits. The Austin Chronicle: Music: Looking Out My Back Door: Thirteen from 30 years of 'Austin City Limits' He has also claimed to have been the first full-blooded Jew to take the stage at the Grand Ole Opry. In February 2007, Sustain Records released a compilation of the songs of Kinky Friedman sung by other artists called Why the Hell not... The compilation includes contributions by Dwight Yoakam, Willie Nelson, Lyle Lovett, and Kelly Willis. Peace Corps Online | 2007.02.02: February 2, 2007: Headlines: Figures: COS - Malaysia: Writing - Malaysia: Humor: Music: Sherman Denison Herald Democrat : Kinky invites country greats to sing his songs on "Why The Hell Not..." On July 20, 2007, Kinky Friedman hosted the "Concert to Save Town Lake" to honor the memory of Lady Bird Johnson and her efforts to protect and preserve the shores of Town Lake in Austin, Texas. Digital50: News and more Business News Discography Sold American (1973) Kinky Friedman (1974) Lasso From El Paso (1976) Live From The Lone Star Cafe (1982) Under the Double Ego (1983) Old Testaments and New Revelations (1992) From One Good American To Another (1995) Pearls in the Snow: The Songs of Kinky Friedman (1998; other artists perform Friedman's songs) Classic Snatches from Europe (2000) Mayhem Aforethought (2005) They Ain't Makin' Jews Like Jesus Anymore (2005) Writing career After his music career stalled in the 1980s, Friedman shifted his creative focus to writing detective novels. His books have similarities to his music, featuring a fictionalized version of himself solving crimes in New York City and dispensing jokes, wisdom, recipes, charm and Jameson's whiskey in equal measure. They are written in a straightforward style which owes a debt to Raymond Chandler. To date, he has written two novels that do not star the Kinky Friedman character: Kill Two Birds and Get Stoned and The Christmas Pig. Friedman has also written a regular column for the magazine Texas Monthly since April 2001, although it has been suspended during his run for governor of Texas; his last essay appeared in the March 2005 issue. List of Friedman's articles and Hail to the Kinkster from Texas Monthly In 2008, Texas Monthly brought his column back on a bimonthly basis. Two books have been published collecting some of these nonfiction writings, as well as previously unpublished ones: 'Scuse Me While I Whip This Out and Texas Hold'em. He has also published a travelog (The Great Psychedelic Armadillo Picnic) and an etiquette guide. The recurring character "Rambam", a New York private investigator and friend of the Friedman character in the books, is based on the real-life investigator, Steven Rombom, who acts as a technical advisor for the real Friedman. CNN.com "Kinky Friedman inspiration gets busted" July 26, 2006 Politics In 1986, Friedman ran for Justice of the Peace in Kerrville, Texas, but lost the election. Friedman speaking at Southern Methodist University in Dallas on October 5, 2006. In 2004, Friedman began a serious, though colorful, campaign to become the Governor of Texas in 2006. One of his stated goals is the "dewussification" of Texas ccrayz.com: News Among his campaign slogans are "How Hard Could It Be?", "Why The Hell Not?", "My Governor is a Jewish Cowboy" and "He ain't Kinky, he's my Governor". Upcoming Appearances | Kinky Friedman Friedman had hoped to follow in the footsteps of other entertainers-turned-governors, including Jimmie Davis, Jesse Ventura, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and Ronald Reagan. Jesse Ventura even campaigned with Friedman for his election. http://wcco.com/politics/kinky.friedman.jesse.2.361880.html http://cbs11tv.com/education/Kinky.Friedman.Jesse.2.495984.html?detectflash=false When the campaign finance reports came out after the second quarter had ended, Friedman had raised more funds than the Democratic nominee, former Congressman Chris Bell. On election day, November 7, Friedman was defeated by a wide margin, having received less than 13% of the state's votes in the five-candidate matchup. Issues and positions On education, he supports higher pay for teachers and working to lower Texas's dropout rate, which is the highest in the United States. Kinky Friedman | Independent Texan He supports more investment in harnessing Texas's alternative fuel resources such as wind and biodiesel. Friedman is opposed to the Trans-Texas Corridor since it relies on toll road construction. He feels that the TTC is a land grab of the ugliest kind, with land being taken from hard-working ranchers and farmers in little towns and villages all over Texas. Kinky Friedman for Governor :: The Issues :: FAQ On capital punishment, he previously summed up his position, "I am not anti-death penalty, but I'm damn sure anti-the-wrong-guy-getting-executed". http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/08/19/sunday/main788935.shtml CBS News, Aug. 21, 2005: Kinky Friedman Turns To Politics More recently, he has clarified his position: "The system is not perfect. Until it's perfect, let's do away with the death penalty". abc13.com: News from KTRK, around Houston and southeast Texas 2/28/06 On illegal immigration, Kinky wants to increase the number of Texas National Guard troops on the border (from the current 1,500 to 10,000), impose $25,000 and $50,000 fines on companies that hire illegal immigrants and require foreign nationals seeking employment to purchase a foreign taxpayer ID card once they have passed a criminal background check. "Texas can no longer wait for our federal government to solve our illegal immigration problem," Friedman said. "These are steps that Texas can immediately take to help stem the tide of illegal immigrants penetrating our border." Had he been elected, he had promised to meet regularly with Governors Bill Richardson (New Mexico) and Janet Napolitano (Arizona) to develop a coordinated border state plan to supplement federal efforts to curb illegal immigration. Previously, Kinky put forth the "Five Mexican Generals" Plan, to pay Mexican officials to halt immigration on their side of the border. Although he originally stated "When I talk about the five Mexican generals, people think I’m joking but I’m dead serious", http://www.kilgorenewsherald.com/news/2005/0717/Front_Page/002.html Friedman says all Texans independents, Kilgore News-Herald Friedman later told the Dallas Morning News that the plan, never meant to be carried out, was a joke with an element of seriousness. http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/dn/discusslive/viewpoints/stories/081106dnkinkychat.5dc3680.html Chat with the candidates: Kinky Friedman, Dallas Morning News, August 17, 2006 According to his official Web site, Friedman's answer to the question "How does Kinky feel about abortion?" is "Kinky believes in a woman's right to choose." In person, he hedges his bet, saying "I'm not pro-life, and I'm not pro-choice. I'm pro-football". Friedman draws celebrity support | Kinky Friedman On social issues he has supported gay marriage, answering an Associated Press reporter's question on the subject on Feb. 3, 2005, "I support gay marriage. I believe they have a right to be as miserable as the rest of us" Kinky Friedman Turns To Politics, Humorist, Musician, Writer, Is Now Gubernatorial Hopeful In Texas - CBS News (Friedman himself is not married). According to Cigar Aficionado magazine, Friedman plans to roll back "any and all smoking bans" if elected. One of his favorite quotes comes from Mark Twain: "If smoking is not allowed in heaven, I shall not go". http://www.cigaraficionado.com/Cigar/CA_Profiles/People_Profile/0,2540,218,00.html Cigar Aficionado, Lone Star Long Shot Friedman supports the decriminalization of marijuana, though he doesn't advocate making its sale legal. "I'm not talking about like Amsterdam," he noted, "We've got to clear some of the room out of the prisons so we can put the bad guys in there, like the pedophiles and the politicians". http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/politics/4185618.html Friedman urges pot be decriminalized Future political plans On August 9, 2007 the Austin American-Statesman reported that Friedman is considering another run for Governor of Texas in 2010. "I'm open to running", Friedman said, adding that he won't make a final decision until after the 2008 elections. (original link) On February 10, 2009 Friedman confirmed to the Associated Press that he was still interested in running. Kinky Friedman may run again for governor, Associated Press, February 11, 2009 In an August 23, 2007 interview with the Fort Worth Star-Telegram and a February 10, 2009 interview with the Associated Press, Friedman stated that if he did run in 2010, he would run as a Democrat, citing that "God probably couldn't have won as an independent" and that he was a Democrat all his life. On April 14, 2009, Friedman announced in an email to supporters that he intended to make a second gubernatorial run, this time as a Democrat. "Friedman forms fundraising committee", AP Texas News, www.chron.com Other work & references in popular culture Friedman appeared in the 2004 documentary film "Barbecue: A Texas Love Story" by Austin-based director Chris Elley. In the film, narrated by Governor Ann Richards, Kinky exclaims that "Jesus loved Barbecue" and analyzes the speech patterns of Texans versus New Yorkers. Raw footage from Friedman's interview appears in the 2005 DVD release of the film. He has appeared in other movies as well including Loose Shoes and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2. IMDb Friedman's persona as a politically incorrect raconteur has been likened to that of movie critic and commentator John Irving Bloom, better known in print as Joe Bob Briggs, with whom he appeared in the B movie The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2. Correspondence with fellow raconteur 'Joe Bob' Briggs Friedman prefers to smoke Montecristo No. 2 Cigars, the same brand once smoked by Fidel Castro. However, he also smokes Bolivars, noting that "Simón Bolívar is the only person in history to be exiled from a country named after him".. Friedman now makes eponymous cigars under the name Kinky Friedman Cigars. Kinky Friedman Cigars - Home Friedman is given brief praise in Joseph Heller's 1976 novel, Good as Gold, in which a governor (meant to satirize Lyndon B. Johnson), tells the main character, Bruce Gold: "Gold, I like you. You remind me a lot of this famous country singer from Texas I'm crazy about, a fellow calls himself Kinky Friedman, the Original Texas Jewboy. Kinky's smarter, but I like you more." Friedman is friends with Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, and he has visited both at the White House. He wrote about his friendships with them in his November 2001 column ("Hail to the Kinkster") for Texas Monthly. Bibliography Greenwich Killing Time (1986, ISBN 0-688-06409-4) A Case Of Lone Star (1987, ISBN 0-517-69427-1) When The Cat's Away (1988, ISBN 0-517-07564-4) Frequent Flyer (1989, ISBN 0-688-08166-5) Musical Chairs (1991, ISBN 0-688-09148-2) Elvis, Jesus and Coca-Cola (1993, ISBN 0-671-86922-1) Armadillos and Old Lace (1994, ISBN 0-671-86923-X) God Bless John Wayne (1995, ISBN 0-684-81051-4) The Love Song of J. Edgar Hoover (1996, ISBN 0-684-80377-1) Roadkill (1997, ISBN 0-684-80378-X) Blast From The Past (1998, ISBN 0-684-80379-8) Spanking Watson (1999, ISBN 0-684-85061-3) The Mile High Club (2000, ISBN 0-684-86486-X) Steppin' On A Rainbow (2001, ISBN 0-684-86487-8) Meanwhile, Back At The Ranch (2002, ISBN 0-684-86488-6) Kinky Friedman's Guide to Texas Etiquette: Or How To Get To Heaven Or Hell Without Going Through Dallas-Fort Worth (2002, ISBN 0-06-093535-9) Kill Two Birds and Get Stoned (2003, ISBN 0-06-620979-X) Curse of the Missing Puppet Head (2003, ISBN 0-9702383-6-3) The Prisoner of Vandam Street (2004, ISBN 0-7432-4602-0) 'Scuse Me While I Whip This Out: Reflections On Country Singers, Presidents, And Other Troublemakers (2004, ISBN 0-06-053975-5) The Great Psychedelic Armadillo Picnic: A "Walk" In Austin (2004, ISBN 1-4000-5070-7) Ten Little New Yorkers (2005, ISBN 0-7432-4603-9) Texas Hold 'Em: How I Was Born In A Manger, Died In The Saddle, And Came Back As A Horny Toad (2005, ISBN 0-312-33155-X) Cowboy Logic : The Wit And Wisdom Of Kinky Friedman (And Some Of His Friends) (2006, ISBN 9780312331573) The Christmas Pig: A Fable (2006, ISBN 1416534989) You Can Lead A Politician To Water, But You Can't Make Him Think: Ten Commandments For Texas Politics (2007, ISBN 9781416547600) What Would Kinky Do? How to Unscrew a Screwed Up World (2008, ISBN 9780312331597) References External links Kinky Friedman's official website Kinky Friedman's authorised oral biography Returned Peace Corps Volunteer stories about Friedman Biography at Kinkajou Records Profile of Friedman's political campaign in the August 22, 2005 New Yorker Kinky Friedman interviewed for Texas Monthly Talks Kinky's Run For Governor Of Texas (Article; Video) 60 Minutes'', January 22, 2006 Kinky Friedman podcast interview - Texas music, dogs, and politics Utopia Animal Rescue Ranch Being There Interview November/December 2005 2008 Kinky Friedman interview with Jon Niccum | Kinky_Friedman |@lemmatized richard:1 kinky:47 friedman:91 born:1 october:4 http:9 de:1 wikipedia:2 org:2 wiki:1 german:1 november:4 www:7 kinkyfriedman:1 com:12 node:1 kosher:1 cowboy:3 american:6 singer:4 songwriter:1 novelist:1 humorist:3 politician:4 former:3 columnist:1 texas:43 monthly:6 style:2 mold:1 popular:2 satirist:1 rogers:1 mark:2 twain:2 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4,295 | African_American | African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa. In the United States, the terms are generally used for Americans with at least partial Sub-Saharan African ancestry. Most African Americans are the direct descendants of captive Africans who survived the slavery era within the boundaries of the present United States, although some are—or are descended from—voluntary immigrants from African, Caribbean, Central American or South American nations. African Americans make up the single largest racial minority in the United States and form the second largest racial group after whites in the United States. United States - QT-P4. Race, Combinations of Two Races, and Not Hispanic or Latino: 2000. History An artist's conception of Crispus Attucks (~1723–1770), the first "martyr" of the American Revolution. The first recorded Africans in British North America (including most of the future United States) arrived in 1619 as indentured servants who settled in Jamestown, Virginia. As English settlers died from harsh conditions more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Africans for many years were similar in legal position to poor English indenturees, who traded several years labor in exchange for passage to America. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom. The shaping of Black America: forthcoming 400th celebration. They raised families, marrying other Africans and sometimes intermarrying with Native Americans or English settlers. The First Black Americans - US News and World Report. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards. The popular conception of a race-based slave system did not fully develop until the 1700s. The first black congregations and churches were organized before 1800 in both northern and southern cities following the Great Awakening. By 1775, Africans made up 20% of the population in the American colonies, which made them the second largest ethnic group after the English. http://www.dalhousielodge.org/Thesis/scotstonc.htm During the 1770s Africans, both enslaved and free, helped rebellious English colonists secure American Independence by defeating the British in the American Revolution. African-Americans in the American Revolution. Africans and Englishmen fought side by side and were fully integrated. http://www.africanamericans.com/MilitaryTimeline.htm James Armistead, an African American, played a large part in making possible the 1781 Yorktown victory that established the United States as an independent nation. http://www.time.com/time/2007/blackhistmth/bios/01.html Other prominent African Americans were Prince Whipple and Oliver Cromwell, who are both depicted in the front of the boat in George Washington's famous 1776 Crossing the Delaware portrait. By 1860, there were 3.5 million enslaved African Americans in the United States due to the Atlantic slave trade, and another 500,000 African Americans lived free across the country. In 1863, during the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation. The proclamation declared all slaves in states that had seceded from the Union were free. Advancing Union troops enforced the proclamation with Texas being the last state to be emancipated in 1865. African Americans quickly set up congregations for themselves, as well as schools, community and civic associations, to have space away from white control or oversight. While the post-war reconstruction era was initially a time of progress for African Americans, in the late 1890s, Southern states enacted Jim Crow laws to enforce racial segregation and disenfranchisement. Most African Americans followed the Jim Crow laws, using a mask of compliance to prevent becoming victims of racially motivated violence. To maintain self-esteem and dignity, African Americans continued to build their own schools, churches, banks, social clubs, and other businesses. In the last decade of the nineteenth century, racially discriminatory laws and racial violence aimed at African Americans began to mushroom in the United States. These discriminatory acts included racial segregation—upheld by the United States Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 —which was legally mandated by southern states and nationwide at the local level of government, voter suppression or disenfranchisement in the southern states, denial of economic opportunity or resources nationwide, and private acts of violence and mass racial violence aimed at African Americans unhindered or encouraged by government authorities. The desperate conditions of African Americans in the South that sparked the Great Migration of the early 20th century, combined with a growing African-American intellectual and cultural elite in the Northern United States, led to a movement to fight violence and discrimination against African Americans that, like abolitionism before it, crossed racial lines. The Civil Rights Movement between 1954 to 1968 was directed at abolishing racial discrimination against African Americans, particularly in the southern United States. The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom and the conditions which brought it into being are credited with putting pressure on President John F. Kennedy and then Lyndon B. Johnson. Johnson put his support behind passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that banned discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and labor unions, and the Voting Rights Act (1965), which expanded federal authority over states to ensure black political participation through protection of voter registration and elections. By 1966, the emergence of the Black Power movement, which lasted from 1966 to 1975, expanded upon the aims of the Civil Rights Movement to include economic and political self-sufficiency, and freedom from white authority. In 2008, Democratic Senator Barack Obama defeated Republican Senator John McCain to become the first Black American elected to the office of President of the United States. Ninety-five percent of African American voters voted for Obama. He also received overwhelming support from young and educated whites, and a majority of Hispanics, Asians, Why Asian Americans Voted For Obama. and Native Americans Paying Attention to the Native American Vote - Votes of Native Americans could impact several battleground states. picking up a number of new states in the Democratic electoral column. Behind the Numbers. http://www.gallup.com/poll/111781/Blacks-Postgrads-Young-Adults-Help-Obama-Prevail.aspx Obama lost the overall white vote. http://www.slate.com/id/2204251/ The following year Michael S. Steele was elected the first African-American chairman of the national Republican Party. http://www.emailwire.com/release/19287-Michael-Steele-First-AfricanAmerican-Leader-to-Chair-RNC-.html Demographics African Americans as percent of population, 2000. In 1790, when the first U.S. Census was taken, Africans (including slaves and free people) numbered about 760,000—about 19.3% of the population. In 1860, at the start of the American Civil War, the African-American population increased to 4.4 million, but the percentage rate dropped to 14% of the overall population of the country. The vast majority were slaves, with only 488,000 counted as "freemen". By 1900, the black population had doubled and reached 8.8 million. In 1910, about 90% of African Americans lived in the South, but large numbers began migrating north looking for better job opportunities and living conditions, and to escape Jim Crow laws and racial violence. The Great Migration, as it was called, spanned the 1890s to the 1970s. From 1916 through the 1960s, more than 6 million black people moved north. But in the 1970s and 1980s, that trend reversed, with more African Americans moving south to the Sun Belt than leaving it. The following table of the African-American population in the United States over time shows that the African-American population, as a percent of the total population, declined until 1930 and has been rising since then. African Americans in the United States This table gives the African-American population in the United States over time, based on U.S. Census figures. (Numbers from years 1920 to 2000 are based on U.S. Census figures as given by the Time Almanac of 2005, p. 377.) Year Number % of total population Slaves % in slavery 1790 757,208 19.3% (highest) 697,681 92% 1800 1,002,037 18.9% 893,602 89% 1810 1,377,808 19.0% 1,191,362 86% 1820 1,771,656 18.4% 1,538,022 87% 1830 2,328,642 18.1% 2,009,043 86% 1840 2,873,648 16.8% 2,487,355 87% 1850 3,638,808 15.7% 3,204,287 88% 1860 4,441,830 14.1% 3,953,731 89% 1870 4,880,009 12.7% - - 1880 6,580,793 13.1% - - 1890 7,488,788 11.9% - - 1900 8,833,994 11.6% - - 1910 9,827,763 10.7% - - 1920 10.5 million 9.9% - - 1930 11.9 million 9.7% (lowest) - - 1940 12.9 million 9.8% - - 1950 15.0 million 10.0% - - 1960 18.9 million 10.5% - - 1970 22.6 million 11.1% - - 1980 26.5 million 11.7% - - 1990 30.0 million 12.1% - - 2000 36.6 million 12.3% - - By 1990, the African-American population reached about 30 million and represented 12% of the U.S. population, roughly the same proportion as in 1900. Time Line of African American History, 1881-1900. In current demographics, according to 2005 U.S. Census figures, some 39.9 million African Americans live in the United States, comprising 13.8% of the total population. The World Factbook gives a 2006 figure of 12.9% Controversy has surrounded the "accurate" population count of African Americans for decades. The NAACP believed it was under counted intentionally to minimize the significance of the black population in order to reduce their political power base. At the time of the 2000 Census, 54.8% of African Americans lived in the South. In that year, 17.6% of African Americans lived in the Northeast and 18.7% in the Midwest, while only 8.9% lived in the western states. The west does have a sizable black population in certain areas, however. California, the nation's most populous state, has the fifth largest African-American population, only behind New York, Texas, Georgia, and Florida. According to the 2000 Census, approximately 2.05% of African Americans identified as Hispanic or Latino in origin. Many of whom may be of Brazilian, Puerto Rican, Dominican, Cuban, Haitian, or other Latin American descent. The only self-reported ancestral groups larger than African Americans are Irish and German Americans. http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf c2kbr01-2.qxd Due to the fact that many African Americans trace their ancestry to colonial American origins, some simply self-report as "American". Almost 58% of African Americans lived in metropolitan areas in 2000. With over 2 million black residents, New York City had the largest black urban population in the United States in 2000, overall the city has a 28% black population. Chicago has the second largest black population, with almost 1.6 million African Americans in its metropolitan area, representing about 18 percent of the total metropolitan population. Among cities of 100,000 or more, Gary, Indiana had the highest percentage of black residents of any U.S. city in 2000, with 84% (though it should be noted that the 2006 Census estimate puts the city's population below 100,000). Gary is followed closely by Detroit, Michigan, which was 82% African American. Other large cities with African-American majorities include New Orleans, Louisiana (67%), Baltimore, Maryland (64%) Atlanta, Georgia (61%), Memphis, Tennessee (61%), and Washington, D.C. (60%). The nation's most affluent county with an African-American majority is Prince George's County, Maryland, with a median income of $62,467. Within that county, among the wealthiest communities are Glenn Dale, Maryland and Fort Washington, Maryland. Other affluent predominantly African-American counties include Dekalb County in Georgia, and Charles City County in Virginia. Queens County, New York is the only county with a population of 65,000 or more where African Americans have a higher median household income than Americans of European descent. The majority of African Americans are Christians and a minority are Muslims. The majority of Christians are affiliated with the historically Black churches of Protestant background. According to The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life (U.S. Religious Landscape Survey), the racial and ethnic composition of religious traditions showed the historical Black churches' followers are 92% Black; the next largest followers of a Christian denomination was the Jehovah's Witnesses (22% Black), with other denominations at 11%. The largest non-Christian religion was Islam; of the total percent of Muslims, 24% were Black. Racial and Ethnic Composition of Religious Traditions U.S. Religious Landscape Survey. Pew Research Center. Of the one-third of American Muslims who are native-born, the majority are converts and African American. America—the Promised Land of Muslims, The WIP. The New York Times estimates African American Muslims make up 25-40% of the Muslim population, John W. Fountain (October 5 2001) A NATION CHALLENGED: AFRICAN-AMERICAN MUSLIMS; Sadness and Fear as a Group Feels Doubly at Risk The New York Times. Retrieved on 2009-04-23. about 2.5 million are members of the American Society of Muslims, Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon (2006). Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America. Indiana University Press. pp. 752. ISBN 0253346851, 9780253346858 its members follow mainstream Islam, previously known as the Nation of Islam which Warith Deen Mohammed guided millions to the traditional Islam. The original Nation of Islam was revived again by Louis Farrakhan, which has about 30,000 to 70,000 members as of 2002. Farrakhan steps down as Nation of Islam leader Taipei Times. Sep 24 2006. Retrieved on 2009-04-23. The Nation of Islam has sometimes been criticized for racist beliefs in particular anti-Semitism, This Rock, Dragnet: Well-rounded bigotry, November 1995 and has differing beliefs with mainstream Islam. Contemporary issues African Americans have improved their social and economic standing significantly since the Civil Rights Movement and recent decades have witnessed the expansion of a robust, African-American middle class across the United States. Unprecedented access to higher education and employment in addition to representation in the highest levels of American government has been gained by African Americans in the post-civil rights era. Nevertheless, due in part to the legacy of slavery, racism and discrimination, African Americans as a group remain at a pronounced economic, educational and social disadvantage in many areas relative to European Americans. Persistent social, economic and political issues for many African Americans include inadequate health care access and delivery; institutional racism and discrimination in housing, education, policing, criminal justice and employment; crime, poverty and substance abuse. One of the most serious and long standing issues within African-American communities is poverty. Poverty itself is a hardship as it is related to marital stress and dissolution, health problems, low educational attainment, deficits in psychological functioning, and crime. In 2004, 24.7% of African-American families lived below the poverty level. In 2007, the average African-American income was $33,916, compared with $54,920 for whites. http://www.omhrc.gov/templates/browse.aspx?lvl=2&lvlID=51 Politics and social issues Collectively, African Americans are more involved in the American political process than other minority groups in the United States, indicated by the highest level of voter registration and participation in elections among these groups in 2004. African Americans collectively attain higher levels of education than immigrants to the United States. African Americans also have the highest level of Congressional representation of any other minority group in the U.S. http://www.thisnation.com/congress-facts.html African Americans tend to vote overwhelmingly for Democrats in U.S. elections. Even most conservative African Americans tend to vote for Democrats. In the 2004 Presidential Election, Democrat John Kerry received 88% of the African American vote compared to 11% for Republican George W. Bush. http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/pages/results/states/US/P/00/epolls.0.html Historically African Americans were supporters of the Republican Party due to the fact that it was Republican President Abraham Lincoln who helped in granting freedom to American slaves; at the time, the Republicans and Democrats represented the sectional interests of the North and South, respectively, rather than any specific ideology, and both right and left were represented equally in both parties. The African American trend of voting for Democrats can be traced back to the 1930s when in the middle of the Great Depression, when Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal program provided economic relief to African Americans; Roosevelt's New Deal coalition turned the Democratic Party into an organization of the working class and their liberal allies, regardless of region. The African American vote became even more solidly Democratic when Democratic presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson pushed for civil rights legislation during the 1960s. After over 50 years, marriage rates for all Americans began to decline while divorce rates and out-of-wedlock births have climbed. http://media.hoover.org/documents/0817998721_95.pdf These changes have been greatest among African Americans. After more than 70 years of racial parity black marriage rates began to fall behind whites. http://media.hoover.org/documents/0817998721_95.pdf Depite that, African Americans favor "traditional American values" about family and marriage. Voting patterns on social and cultural issues continue to remain in line with ideologies of the Republican party. http://www.gallup.com/poll/112807/Blacks-Conservative-Republicans-Some-Moral-Issues.aspx Although African Americans generally support a more progressive tax structure to provide more services and reduce injustice and support more government spending on social services. http://people-press.org/commentary/?analysisid=121 News media and coverage BET founder Robert L. Johnson with former U.S. President George W. Bush. News media coverage of African American news, concerns or dilemmas is inadequate, some activists and academics contend. blackandbrownnews.com Sharon Toomer, editor http://www.blackandbrownnews.com Examining the Future of Black News Media : NPR. How Will African Americans Get the News? : NPR. Activists also contend that the news media present distorted images of African-Americans. Mikal Muharrar, "Media Blackface", "FAIR", September/ October 1998, http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1431 To combat this African Americans founded their own television networks. Black Entertainment Television, founded by Robert L. Johnson is a network that targets young African Americans and urban audiences in the United States. Most programming on the network consists of rap and R&B music videos and urban-oriented movies and series. Additionally, the channel shows syndicated television series, original programs, and some public affairs programs. On Sunday mornings, BET broadcasts a lineup of network-produced Christian programming; other, non-affiliated Christian programs are also shown during the early morning hours daily. BET is now an global network that reaches 85 million viewers in the Caribbean, Canada, and the United Kingdom. http://bet.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=63 In addition to BET there is BET J (BET Jazz) which is a spin-off cable television channel of BET, created originally to showcase jazz music-related programming, especially that of black jazz musicians. While jazz music still remains the primary focus, programming has been expanded to include a block of urban programs as well as some R&B, neo soul, and alternative hip hop. http://bet.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=18 TV One is another African American oriented network and a direct competitor to BET. It targets African American adults with a broad range of programming. The network airs original lifestyle and entertainment-oriented shows, movies, fashion and music programming, as well as classic series such as 227, Good Times, Martin, Boston Public and It's Showtime at the Apollo. The network primarily owned by Radio One. Radio One, Inc., founded and controlled by Catherine Hughes, it is one of the nation's largest radio broadcasting companies and the largest African American owned radio broadcasting company in the United States. http://www.blackamericastudy.com/ Other African American networks scheduled to launch in 2009 are the Black Television News Channel founded by former Congressman J. C. Watts and Better Black Television founded by Percy Miller. http://www.nypost.com/seven/05272008/tv/black_news_net_112648.htm http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/better-black-television-bbtv-set/story.aspx?guid=%7B84DACE55-1089-4DB5-8992-4223A5DF65EE%7D&dist=hppr Education By 2000, African Americans had advanced greatly. They still lagged overall in education attainment compared to white or Asian Americans, with 14 percent with 4 year and 5 percent with advanced degrees, though it was higher than for other minorities. Issued August 2003: Educational Attainment by race and gender: Census 2000 Brief. African Americans attend college at about half the rate of whites, but at a greater rate than Hispanics. More African American women attend and complete college than men. Black schools for kindergarten through twelfth grade students were common throughout the U.S., and a pattern towards re-segregation is currently occurring across the country. Kozol, J. "Overcoming Apartheid", The Nation. December 19, 2005. p. 26. Historically black colleges and universities remain today which were originally set up when segregated colleges did not admit African Americans. As late as 1947, about one third of African Americans over 65 were considered to lack the literacy to read and write their own names. By 1969, illiteracy as it had been traditionally defined, had been largely eradicated among younger African Americans. Public Information Office, U.S. Census Bureau. High School Completions at All-Time High, Census Bureau Reports. 15 September 2000. US Census surveys showed that by 1998, 89 percent of African Americans age 25 to 29 had completed high school, less than whites or Asians, but more than Hispanics. On many college entrance, standardized tests and grades, African Americans have historically lagged whites, but some studies suggest that the achievement gap has been closing. Many policy makers have proposed that this gap can and will be eliminated through progressive policies such as affirmative action, desegregation, and multiculturalism. Closing the Achivement Gap (California). In Chicago, Marva Collins, an African American educator, created a low cost private school specifically for the purpose of teaching low income African American children whom the public school system had labeled as being "learning disabled." Marva Collins Seminars, Inc. One article about Marva Collins' school stated, "Working with students having the worst of backgrounds, those who were working far below grade level, and even those who had been labeled as 'unteachable,' Marva was able to overcome the obstacles. News of third grade students reading at ninth grade level, four-year-olds learning to read in only a few months, outstanding test scores, disappearance of behavioral problems, second-graders studying Shakespeare, and other incredible reports, astounded the public." Excerpts from Ordinary Children, Extraordinary Teachers and Marva Collins’ Way. During the 2006-2007 school year, Collins' school charged $5,500 for tuition, and parents said that the school did a much better job than the Chicago public school system. Marva Collins School to close, ABC News, June 05, 2008. Meanwhile, during the 2007-2008 year, Chicago public school officials claimed that their budget of $11,300 per student was not enough. Chicago students skip school in funding protest, Associated Press, September 2, 2008. Economic status Oprah Winfrey, the wealthiest African American of the 20th century. A pair of economists estimate that Winfrey's endorsement of Barack Obama delivered one million votes for him in the close 2008 Democratic primaries. http://freakonomics.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/08/06/so-much-for-one-person-one-vote/ Economically, African-Americans have benefited from the advances made during the Civil Rights era, particularly among the educated, but not without the lingering effects of historical marginalization when considered as a whole. The racial disparity in poverty rates has narrowed. The black middle class has grown substantially. In 2000, 47% of African Americans owned their homes. The poverty rate among African Americans has decreased from 26.5% in 1998 to 24.7% in 2004. African-Americans are the second largest consumer group in America with a combined buying power of over $892 billion currently and likely over $1.1 trillion by 2012. Report: Affluent African-Americans have 45% of buying power. Buying Power Among African Americans to Reach $1.1 Trillion by 2012 Reuters. In 2002 African-American owned businesses accounted for 1.2 million of the US's 23 million businesses. US Census Press Release. In 2004, African-American workers had the second-highest median earnings of American minority groups after Asian Americans, and African Americans had the highest level of male-female income parity of all ethnic groups in the United States. Also, among American minority groups, only Asian Americans were more likely to hold white-collar occupations (management, professional, and related fields), and African Americans were no more or less likely than European Americans to work in the service industry. In 2001, over half of African-American households of married couples earned $50,000 or more. Although in the same year African Americans were over-represented among the nation's poor, this was directly related to the disproportionate percentage of African-American families headed by single women; such families are collectively poorer, regardless of ethnicity. By 2006, gender continued to be the primary factor in income level, with the median earnings of African-American men more than those black and non-black American women overall and in all educational levels. http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_131.htm PINC-03-Part 131 PINC-03-Part 254 PINC-03-Part 259 PINC-03-Part 135 PINC-03-Part 253 At the same time, among American men, income disparities were significant; the median income of African-American men was approximately 76 cents for every dollar of their European American counterparts, although the gap narrowed somewhat with a rise in educational level. PINC-03-Part 128 Overall, the median earnings of African-American men were 72 cents for every dollar earned of their Asian American counterparts, and $1.17 for every dollar earned by Hispanic men. PINC-03-Part 133 On the other hand by 2006, among American women with post-secondary education, African-American women have made significant advances; the median income of African-American women was more than those of their Asian-, European and Hispanic American counterparts with at least some college education. PINC-03-Part 5 African Americans are still underrepresented in government and employment. In 1999, the median income of African-American families was $33,255 compared to $53,356 of European Americans. In times of economic hardship for the nation, African Americans suffer disproportionately from job loss and underemployment, with the black underclass being hardest hit. The phrase "last hired and first fired" is reflected in the Bureau of Labor Statistics unemployment figures. Nationwide, the October 2008 unemployment rate for African Americans was 11.1%, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t02.htm while the nationwide rate was 6.5%. http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet?data_tool=latest_numbers&series_id=LNS14000000 The income gap between black and white families is also significant. In 2005, employed blacks earned only 65% of the wages of whites, down from 82% in 1975. The New York Times reported in 2006 that in Queens, New York, the median income among African American families exceeded that of white families, which the newspaper attributed to the growth in the number of two-parent black families. It noted that Queens was the only county with more than 65,000 residents where that was true. Black Incomes Surpass Whites in Queens, The New York Times, October 1, 2006. In 1999, the rate of births to unwed African-American mothers was estimated by economist Walter E. Williams of George Mason University to be 70%. Blaming the past, Walter Williams, May 19, 1999. The poverty rate among single-parent black families was 39.5% in 2005, according to Williams, while it was 9.9% among married-couple black families. Among white families, the comparable rates were 26.4% and 6%. Ammunition for poverty pimps Walter E. Williams, October 27, 2005. According to Forbes magazine's "wealthiest American" lists, a 2000 net worth of $800 million dollars made Oprah Winfrey the richest African American of the 20th century; by contrast, the net worth of the 20th century's richest American, Bill Gates, who is of European descent, briefly hit $100 billion in 1999. In Forbes' 2007 list, Gates' net worth decreased to $59 billion while Winfrey's increased to $2.5 billion, http://biz.yahoo.com/ap/070920/apfn_forbes_400_alphabetical_list.html making her the world's richest black person. Winfrey is also the first African American to make Business Week's annual list of America's 50 greatest philanthropists. BET founder Bob Johnson was also listed as a billionaire prior to an expensive divorce and has recently regained his fortune through a series of real estate investments. Although Forbes estimates his net worth at $1.1 billion, which makes him the only male African-American billionaire, Winfrey remains the only African American wealthy enough to rank among the country's 400 richest people. Some black entrepreneurs use their wealth to create new avenues for both African-Americans and new opportunities for American business in general. Examples such as Tyler Perry who created new filming studios in Atlanta, Georgia which makes it possible to film movies and television shows outside of California. Tyler Perry unveils new studio in Atlanta USA Today. Health Ben Carson (left) being announced as a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom at the White House on June 19, 2008. By 2003, sex had replaced race as the primary factor in life expectancy in the United States, with African-American females expected to live longer than European American males born in that year. In the same year, the gap in life expectancy between American whites (78.0) and blacks (72.8) had decreased to 5.2 years, reflecting a long term trend of this phenomenon. By 2004, "the trend toward convergence in mortality figures across the major race groups also continued", with white-black gap in life expectancy dropping to 5 years. The current life expectancy of African Americans as a group is comparable to those of other groups who live in countries with a high Human Development Index. At the same time, the life expectancy gap is affected by collectively lower access to quality medical care. With no system of universal health care, access to medical care in the U.S. generally is mediated by income level and employment status. As a result, African Americans, who have a disproportionate occurrence of poverty and unemployment as a group, are more often uninsured than non Hispanic whites or Asians. For a great many African Americans, healthcare delivery is limited, or nonexistent. And when they receive healthcare, they are more likely than others in the general population to receive substandard, even injurious medical care. African Americans have a higher prevalence of some chronic health conditions. African Americans are the American ethnic group most affected by HIV and AIDS, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It has been estimated that "184,991 adult and adolescent HIV infections [were] diagnosed during 2001-2005" (1). More than 51 percent occurred among blacks than any other race. Between the ages of 25–44 years 62 percent were African Americans. Dr. Robert Janssen (2007) states, "We have rates of HIV/AIDS among blacks in some American cities that are as high as in some countries in Africa". The rate for African Americans with HIV/AIDS in Washington, D.C. is 3 percent, based on cases reported. In a New York Times Article, about 50 percent of AIDS-related deaths were African-American woman, which accounted for 25 percent of the city's population. In many cases there are a higher proportion of black people being tested than any other racial group. Dr. Janssen goes on by saying "We need to do a better job of encouraging African Americans to test. Studies show that approximately one in five black men between the ages 40 to 49 living in the city is HIV-positive, according to the TIMES. Research indicates that African Americans sexual behavior is no different than any other racial group. Dr. Janssen says "Racial groups tend to have sex with members of their own racial group. Crime also plays a significant role in the racial gap in life expectancy. A report from the U.S. Department of Justice states "In 2005, homicide victimization rates for blacks were 6 times higher than the rates for whites" and "94% of black victims were killed by blacks." Homicide trends in the U.S., U.S. Department of Justice. Cultural influence in the United States The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921 From their earliest presence in North America, African Americans have contributed literature, art, agricultural skills, foods, clothing styles, music, language, social and technological innovation to American culture. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the U.S., such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to African and African-American influences. Notable examples include George Washington Carver, who created 300 products from peanuts, 118 products from sweet potatoes, and 75 from pecans; and George Crum, who invented the potato chip in 1853. African American music is one of the most pervasive African-American cultural influences in the United States today and is among the most dominant in mainstream popular music. Hip hop, R&B, funk, rock and roll, soul, blues, and other contemporary American musical forms originated in black communities and evolved from other black forms of music, including blues, ragtime, jazz, and gospel music. African American-derived musical forms have also influenced and been incorporated into virtually every other popular musical genre in the world, including country and techno. African-American genres are the most important ethnic vernacular tradition in America, as they have developed independent of African traditions from which they arise more so than any other immigrant groups, including Europeans; make up the broadest and longest lasting range of styles in America; and have, historically, been more influential, interculturally, geographically, and economically, than other American vernacular traditions. African Americans have also had an important role in American dance. Bill T. Jones, a prominent modern choreographer and dancer, has included historical African-American themes in his work, particularly in the piece "Last Supper at Uncle Tom's Cabin/The Promised Land". Likewise, Alvin Ailey's artistic work, including his "Revelations" based on his experience growing up as an African American in the South during the 1930s, has had a significant influence on modern dance. Another form of dance, Stepping, is an African-American tradition whose performance and competition has been formalized through the traditionally black fraternities and sororities at universities. Many African-American authors have written stories, poems, and essays influenced by their experiences as African Americans. African American literature is a major genre in American literature. Famous examples include Langston Hughes, James Baldwin, Richard Wright, Zora Neale Hurston, Ralph Ellison, Nobel Prize winner Toni Morrison, and Maya Angelou. African-American inventors have created many widely used devices in the world and have contributed to international innovation. Norbert Rillieux created the technique for converting sugar cane juice into white sugar crystals. Moreover, Rillieux left Louisiana in 1854 and went to France, where he spent ten years working with the Champollions deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics from the Rosetta Stone. Most slave inventors were nameless, such as the slave owned by the Confederate President Jefferson Davis who designed the ship propeller used by the Confederate navy. Following the Civil War, the growth of industry in the United States was tremendous, and much of this was made possible with inventions by ethnic minorities. By 1913 over 1,000 inventions were patented by black Americans. Among the most notable inventors were Jan Matzeliger, who developed the first machine to mass-produce shoes, and Elijah McCoy, who invented automatic lubrication devices for steam engines. Granville Woods had 35 patents to improve electric railway systems, including the first system to allow moving trains to communicate. He even sued Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison for stealing his patents and won both cases. Garrett A. Morgan developed the first automatic traffic signal and gas mask. Lewis Howard Latimer created an inexpensive cotton-thread filament, which made electric light bulbs practical because Edison's original light bulb only burned for a few minutes. More recent inventors include McKinley Jones, who invented the movable refrigeration unit for food transport in trucks and trains. Lloyd Quarterman worked with six other black scientists on the creation of the atomic bomb (code named the Manhattan Project.) Quarterman also helped develop the first nuclear reactor, which was used in the atomically powered submarine called the Nautilus. A few other notable examples include the first successful open heart surgery, performed by Dr. Daniel Hale Williams, the conceptualization and establishment of blood banks around the world by Dr. Charles R. Drew, and the air conditioner, patented by Frederick McKinley Jones. Dr. Mark Dean holds three of the original nine patents on the computer on which all PCs are based. More current contributors include Otis Boykin, whose inventions included several novel methods for manufacturing electrical components that found use in applications such as guided missile systems and computers, and Colonel Frederick Gregory, who was not only the first black astronaut pilot but the person who redesigned the cockpits for the last three space shuttles. Gregory was also on the team that pioneered the microwave instrumentation landing system. In 2000, Bendix Aircraft Company began a worldwide promotion of this microwave instrumentation landing system. Political legacy Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. remains the most prominent political leader in the American civil rights movement and perhaps the most influential African American political figure in general. African-Americans have fought in every war in the history of the United States. http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=48936 The gains made by African Americans in the Civil Rights and Black Power movements not only obtained certain rights for African Americans, but changed American society in far-reaching and fundamentally important ways. Prior to the 1950s, Black Americans in the South were subject to de jure discrimination, or Jim Crow. In the words of Martin Luther King, Jr., African Americans and their supporters challenged the nation to "rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed that all men are created equal...." The Civil Rights Movement marked a sea-change in American social, political, economic and civic life. It brought with it boycotts, sit-ins, demonstrations, court battles, bombings and other violence; prompted worldwide media coverage and intense public debate; forged enduring civic, economic and religious alliances; disrupted and realigned the nation's two major political parties. Over time, it has changed in fundamental ways the manner in which blacks and whites interact with and relate to one another. The movement resulted in the removal of codified, de jure racial segregation and discrimination from American life and law, and heavily influenced other groups and movements in struggles for civil rights and social equality within American society, including the Free Speech Movement, the disabled, women, Native Americans, and migrant workers. The term "African American" Political overtones Jesse Jackson, Jr. is a member of the United States House of Representatives representing the state of Illinois. The term African American carries important political overtones. Earlier terms used to identify Americans of African ancestry were conferred upon the group by colonists and Americans of European ancestry. The terms were included in the wording of various laws and legal decisions which became tools of white supremacy and oppression http://books.google.com/books?id=xoZ0POyF2YkC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86&dq=jesse+jackson+african+american+cultural+base&source=bl&ots=nEFSRzdT4Z&sig=oQ2lSr7NwQtkRTBDzLrv-c9WFIU&hl=en&ei=blsOSqudNOawtgfcu_iGCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7 .There developed among blacks in America a growing desire for a term of self-identification of their own choosing. With the political consciousness that emerged from the political and social ferment of the late 1960s and early 1970s, blacks no longer approved of the term Negro. They believed it had suggestions of a moderate, accommodationist, even "Uncle Tom" connotation. In this period, a growing number of blacks in the United States, particularly African-American youth, celebrated their blackness and their historical and cultural ties with the African continent. The Black Power movement defiantly embraced Black as a group identifier. It was a term social leaders themselves had repudiated only two decades earlier, but they proclaimed, "Black is beautiful". In this same period, a smaller number of people favored Afro-American. In the 1980s the term African American was advanced on the model of, for example, German American or Irish American to give descendents of American slaves and other American blacks who lived through the slavery-era a heritage and a cultural base. http://books.google.com/books?id=xoZ0POyF2YkC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86&dq=jesse+jackson+african+american+cultural+base&source=bl&ots=nEFSRzdT4Z&sig=oQ2lSr7NwQtkRTBDzLrv-c9WFIU&hl=en&ei=blsOSqudNOawtgfcu_iGCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7 Jesse Jackson popularized the term, and the major media quickly adopted its use. Many blacks in America expressed a preference for the term, as it was formed in the same way as names for others of the many ethnic groups in the nation. Some argued further that, because of the historical circumstances surrounding the capture, enslavement and systematic attempts to de-Africanize blacks in the United States under chattel slavery, most African Americans are unable to trace their ancestry to a specific African nation; hence, the entire continent serves as a geographic marker. For many, African American is more than a name expressive of cultural and historical roots. The term expresses pride in Africa and a sense of kinship and solidarity with others of the African diaspora—an embrace of pan-Africanism as earlier enunciated by prominent African thinkers such as Marcus Garvey, W. E. B. Du Bois and George Padmore. Who is African American? Since 1977, in an attempt to keep up with changing social opinion, the United States government officially classified black people (revised to black or African American in 1997) as A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. Other Federal offices, such as the United States Census Bureau, adheres to the OMB standards on race in its data collection and tabulations efforts. In preparation for the United States 2010 Census, a marketing and outreach plan, called 2010 Census Integrated Communications Campaign Plan (ICC) recognized and defined African Americans as black people born in the United States. From the ICC perspective, African Americans are one of three groups of black people in the United States The ICC plan was to reach the three groups by acknowledging that each group has its own sense of community that is based on geography and ethnicity. The best way to market the census process toward any of the three groups is to reach them through their own unique communication channels and not treat the entire black population of the U.S. as though they are all African Americans with a single ethnic and geographical background. The U.S. Department of Justice Federal Bureau of Investigation categorizes black or African-American people as "A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa" through racial categories used in the UCR Program adopted from the Statistical Policy Handbook (1978) and published by the Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, derived from the 1977 OMB classification. On census forms, the government depends on individuals' self-identification. Due in part to a centuries-old history within the United States, historical experiences pre- and post-slavery, and migrations throughout North America, the vast majority of contemporary African Americans possess varying degrees of admixture with European ancestry. A lesser percentage also have Native American ancestry. Estimating African American Admixture Proportions by Use of Population-Specific Alleles. Population structure of Y chromosome SNP haplogroups in the United States and forensic implications for constructing Y chromosome STR databases. With the help of geneticists, the historian Henry Louis Gates, Jr. put African-American ancestry in these terms: 58 percent of African Americans have at least 12.5 percent European ancestry (equivalent of one great-grandparent); 19.6 percent of African Americans have at least 25 percent European ancestry (equivalent of one grandparent); 1 percent of African Americans have at least 50 percent European ancestry (equivalent of one parent); and 5 percent of African Americans have at least 12.5 percent Native American ancestry (equivalent to one great-grandparent). Henry Louis Gates, Jr., In Search of Our Roots: How 19 Extraordinary African Americans Reclaimed Their Past, New York: Crown Publishing, 2009, pp. 20-21. However, most studies agreed by most historians and geneticists estimate that most African Americans have significant Native American heritage due to many different circumstances in different families. African Americans with Native American ancestry have either been accused of not having Native American ancestry or having little native ancestry. One reason being, the genetic tests done to test for how much Indian Blood a person has does not present a complete picture, as argued by numerous geneticists, because tests trace only one bloodline and thus exclude most ancestors. The short series African American Lives which was hosted by historian Henry Louis Gates, Jr. was greatly criticized because the program did not acknowledge nor inform those that were tested that not all ancestry may show up in the tests, especially for those who claimed having Native American heritage. The most numerous families of free African Americans in the Upper South by the end of the 18th century were descended from white women, free or servant, and African men, slaves, free or indentured servants, who worked and lived closely together during the colonial period in Virginia. Their free descendants migrated to the frontier of Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina in the 18th and 19th centuries. There were also similar free families in Delaware and Maryland, as documented by Paul Heinegg. Paul Heinegg, Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware, 2005, accessed 15 Feb 2008. The Louisiana colony developed a different model of free people of color (gens de couleur libres) and a large group of such free blacks during French and Spanish rule. By the turn of the 19th century, the free people of color (Louisiana Creole) in Louisiana were usually of mixed-race, many had become educated, often were property owners and artisans, served in the military, and were politically influential in the New Orleans area. More notorious liaisons in the South were those between white planters and overseers (or their sons) and enslaved women. Their children were born into slavery. Some planters freed their mistresses and children; others did not. In their attempt to ensure white supremacy, in the early 20th century some southern states created laws defining a person as black if the person had any known African ancestry. This was a stricter interpretation than what had prevailed earlier and went against commonly accepted social rules of judging a person by appearance. It became known as the one-drop rule, meaning that a single drop of "black blood" made a person "black". Some courts called it the traceable amount rule. Anthropologists called it the hypodescent rule, meaning that racially mixed persons were assigned the status of the subordinate group. Prior to the one-drop rule, different states had different laws regarding color. More importantly, social acceptance often played a bigger role in how a person was perceived and how identity was construed than any law. In frontier areas there were fewer questions about origins, and the community looked at how people performed, whether they served in the militia and voted. When questions about racial identity arose because of inheritance issues, for instance, litigation outcomes often were based on how people were accepted by neighbors. http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/25.3/gross.html Ariela Gross, "Of Portuguese Origin": Litigating Identity and Citizenship among the 'Little Races' in Nineteenth-Century America", Law and History Review, Vol.25 (3), The History Cooperative, accessed 22 June 2008. In Virginia prior to 1920, for example, a person was legally black if he or she had at least one-eighth black ancestry. The one-drop rule originated in some Southern United States in the late 19th century, likely in response to whites' attempt to limit black political power following the Democrats' regaining control of state legislatures in the late 1870s. Sweet, Frank W. Legal History of the Color Line. 2005, p. 11. D'Souza, Dinesh. The End of Racism. 1996, p. 181. The first year in which the U.S. Census did not count mulattoes separately was 1920, evidencing a shift in the American conception of what an African American is. For African Americans, the one-drop system of pigmentocracy became a significant factor in ethnic solidarity. The binary division of society by race forced African Americans to share more of a common lot in society than they might have after the Civil War, given widely varying ancestry, educational and economic levels. The binary division altered the separate status of the traditionally free people of color in Louisiana, for instance, although they maintained a strong Louisiana Créole culture related to French culture and language, and practice of Catholicism. African Americans began to create common cause—regardless of their multiracial admixture or social and economic stratification. In further changes, during the Civil Rights and Black Power movements, the African-American community increased its own pressure for people of any portion of African descent to be claimed solely by the black community. By the 1980s, parents of mixed-race children (and adults of mixed-race ancestry) began to organize and lobby for the ability to show more than one ethnic category on Census and other legal forms. They refused to be put into just one category. When the U.S. government proposed the addition of the category of "bi-racial" or "multiracial" in 1988, the response from the general public was mostly negative. Some African-American organizations and political leaders, such as Senator Diane Watson and Representative Augustus Hawkins, were particularly vocal in their rejection of the category. They feared a loss in political and economic power if African Americans abandoned their one category. This reaction is characterized as "historical irony" by Daniel (2002). The African-American self-designation had been a response to the one-drop rule, but then people resisted the chance to claim their multiple heritages. At the bottom was a desire not to lose political power of the larger group. Whereas before people resisted being characterized as one group regardless of ranges of ancestry, now some of their own were trying to keep them in the same group. p. 128f. In recent decades, the multicultural aspect of the United States has continued to expand, in part due to new waves of immigration from Asia, Central and South America, and Africa. Although the terms mixed-race, biracial, and multiracial are increasingly used, it remains common for those who possess visible traits of black heritage to identify or be identified as blacks or African Americans. People of mixed ancestry possessing any recent black heritage may self-identify demographically as African American while socially acknowledging all their ethnic and cultural heritages such as Nigerian-American or Ethiopian-American. For example, 55% of European Americans classify President Barack Obama as biracial when they are told that he has a white mother, while 66% of African Americans consider him black. Obama describes himself as black<ref>Eric Deggans, "Shades of black", St. Petersburg Times. Published April 15, 2007.</ref> and African American, using both terms interchangeably. Because of that and general conventions, he is generally considered to be African American. Obviously he is in fact both African American and bi-racial; these are not exclusive categories. Relationships between Native Americans and African slaves first occurred in 1502, and continued throughout the centuries. Tracing the genealogy of African Americans and Native Americans is a difficult process, because records were not kept for most African slaves and many Native Americans did not speak English. Another difficulty is that elder family members sometimes withhold pertinent genealogical information. Knowing a family's geographic origins in different periods is a key factor in helping trace Native American ancestry related to specific tribes. Some people who are considered African American can also claim Native heritage. In changes of their own, since the 1980s some Native American nations have changed their rules for membership to construe them more narrowly. They have excluded members who also have African-American ancestry, or who are descendants of slaves held by the tribe, but without a blood ancestor member of the tribe at certain time periods. After the Civil War, all tribes were supposed to make freed slaves citizens of their tribes, in a pattern similar to freeing slaves held by people in the Confederate states. There has been considerable controversy, for example, over the case of descendants of Cherokee Freedmen, who have recently been expelled from the tribal nation. Wired 13.09: Blood Feud. Terms no longer in common use The terms mulatto and colored were widely used until the second quarter of the 20th century, when they were considered outmoded and generally gave way to the use of negro. By the 1940s, the term commonly was capitalized, but by the mid 1960s, it had acquired negative connotations, though the term mulatto is still in use in many parts of Latin America and is not considered offensive there. Today, the term is considered inappropriate and is now often used as a pejorative. Colored and Negro, now largely defunct, survive in certain historical organizations such as the United Negro College Fund, the National Council of Negro Women, and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Negroid was a term used by anthropologists first in the 18th century to describe some indigenous Africans and their descendants throughout the African diaspora. As with most descriptors of race based on inconsistent, unscientific phenotypical standards, the term is controversial and imprecise. Growing numbers of blacks have substituted the term Africoid, which, unlike Negroid, encompasses the phenotypes of all indigenous peoples of Africa. S.O.Y. Keita. History in Africa, Vol. 20, 1993 (1993), pp. 129-154. See also Affirmative action African American art African Americans in France African Americans in the United Kingdom African American history African American literature African American National Biography Project American Black Indians African American Vernacular English African diaspora Afro-American Afro-Latin American American Black Upper Class African immigrants to the United States Americo-Liberian Black feminism Black Hispanic and Latino Americans Black Loyalist Black nationalism Black people Americans of Igbo ancestry Lists of African Americans List of African-American-related topics List of topics related to Black and African people List of U.S. cities with large African American populations List of U.S. communities with African American majority populations List of U.S. counties with African American majority populations List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations Military history of African Americans Native Americans in the United States Indian tribes Poverty Race (classification of human beings) Racial segregation Racism Sierra Leone Creole people Terminology: Colored, Creole peoples, Negro, Nigger, Nigga White American United States foreign born per capita income Notes References Brandon S. Centerwall, "Race, Socioeconomic Status and Domestic Homicide, Atlanta, 1971-72", 74 AM. J. PUB. HLTH. 813, 815 (1984). Darnell F. Hawkins, "Inequality, Culture, and Interpersonal Violence", 12 HEALTH AFFAIRS 80 (1993). Jerome A. Neapolitan, "Cross-National Variation in Homicide; Is Race A Factor?" 36 CRIMINOLOGY 139 (1998). Bohlen, C. "Does She Say the Same Things in her Native Tongue?" New York Times, May 18, 1986. Felder, J. (1992) From the Statue of Liberty to the Statue of Bigotry. New York: Jack Felder. Felder, J. "Black Origins and Lady Liberty". Daily Challenge. July 16, 1990. Sinclair, T. Was Original Statue a Tribute to Blacks? New York Voice, July 5, 1986. The New York Post, "Statue of Liberty" June 17, 1986. Altman, Susan "The Encyclopedia of African-American Heritage".The Music of Black Americans: A History. Eileen Southern. W. W. Norton & Company; 3rd edition, (1997). ISBN 0-393-97141-4. Stewart, Earl L. (1998). African American Music: An Introduction. ISBN 0-02-860294-3. Further reading Jack Salzman, ed., Encyclopedia of Afro-American culture and history, New York, New York : Macmillan Library Reference USA, 1996.African American Lives, edited by Henry L. Gates, Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Oxford University Press, 2004 - more than 600 biographies.From Slavery to Freedom. A History of African Americans, by John Hope Franklin, Alfred Moss, McGraw-Hill Education 2001, standard work, first edition in 1947.Black Women in America - An Historical Encyclopedia, Darlene Clark Hine (Editor), Rosalyn Terborg-Penn (Editor), Elsa Barkley Brown (Editor), Paperback Edition, Indiana University Press 2005. van Sertima, Ivan, "They Came Before Columbus". "The Politicization of Changing Terms of Self Reference Among American Slave Descendants", American Speech, v 66, no.2, Summer 1991, pp. 133–46. External links Richard Thompson Ford Name Games, Slate, September 16, 2004. Article discussing the problems of defining African American. "Of Arms & the Law: Don Kates on Afro-American Homicide Rates". Scientific American Magazine (June 2006) Trace Elements Reconnecting African-Americans to an ancestral past. "The Definition of Political Absurdity", San Francisco Chronicle'', March 2, 2007. Editorial discussing prominent Americans arguing whether presidential candidate Barack Obama qualifies as "black enough." African American archaeology in Sacramento, California pdf. African American archaeology in Oakland, California - See Part III, Chap 10. 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4,296 | Poultry | Ducks amongst other poultry The Poultry-dealer, after Cesare Vecellio Poultry is the category of domesticated birds which some people keep for the purpose of collecting their eggs, or kill for their meat and/or feathers. These most typically are members of the superorder Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes (which includes chickens and turkeys) and the family Anatidae (in order Anseriformes), commonly known as "waterfowl" (e.g. domestic ducks and domestic geese). Poultry also include other birds which are killed for their meat, such as pigeons or doves or birds considered to be game, like pheasants. The term also refers to the flesh of such birds. Examples of types of poultry are as follows. Bird Wild ancestor Domestication Killed or used for Chicken Red Junglefowl India, c. 3000 BC meat, feathers, eggs, ornamentation Duck Mallard/Muscovy Duck various meat, feathers, eggs Goose Greylag Goose/Swan Goose various meat, feathers, eggs Indian peafowl Indian Peafowl various meat, feathers, ornamentation, landscaping Mute swan Mute Swan various feathers, eggs, landscaping Turkey Wild Turkey Mexico meat, feathers Domesticated guineafowl Helmeted guineafowl Africa meat, pest consumption, and alarm calling Common pheasant Common pheasant Eurasia meat, mainly ornamental Golden pheasant Golden pheasant Eurasia meat, mainly ornamental Cuts of poultry Cuts from a skinned chicken. The meatiest parts of a bird are the flight muscles on its chest, called breast meat, and the walking muscles on the first and second segments of its legs, called the thigh and drumstick, respectively. White meat has less oxygen-carrying myoglobin than the dark meat, and is thus lighter in color. Dark meat comes from muscles more heavily exercised, which therefore have more fat stored in them. This accounts for both dark meat's reputation as being unhealthier, and yet more flavorful. Birds that fly rarely (domestic turkey) or sporadically (chicken) have white meat breasts, and birds that fly frequently or long distances (ducks, geese and doves) have dark meat breasts. Quail breast meat is intermediate in color. Leg meat is dark. See also Gamasoidosis External links Information on Poultry Diseases PoultryCast podcast PoultryHub.org is a wiki-based collaborative resource centre where people share information about poultry The Poultry Guide - A to Z and FAQs World Poultry.net - all you need to know about poultry ChickenCrossing.Org - Information,discussion, links about chickens & other poultry | Poultry |@lemmatized duck:5 amongst:1 poultry:12 dealer:1 cesare:1 vecellio:1 category:1 domesticate:2 bird:8 people:2 keep:1 purpose:1 collect:1 egg:5 kill:3 meat:19 feather:7 typically:1 member:1 superorder:1 galloanserae:1 fowl:1 especially:1 order:2 galliformes:1 include:2 chicken:5 turkey:4 family:1 anatidae:1 anseriformes:1 commonly:1 know:2 waterfowl:1 e:1 g:1 domestic:3 geese:2 also:3 pigeon:1 dove:2 consider:1 game:1 like:1 pheasant:5 term:1 refer:1 flesh:1 example:1 type:1 follow:1 wild:2 ancestor:1 domestication:1 use:1 red:1 junglefowl:1 india:1 c:1 bc:1 ornamentation:2 mallard:1 muscovy:1 various:4 goose:3 greylag:1 swan:3 indian:2 peafowl:2 landscape:2 mute:2 mexico:1 guineafowl:2 helmeted:1 africa:1 pest:1 consumption:1 alarm:1 call:3 common:2 eurasia:2 mainly:2 ornamental:2 golden:2 cut:2 skin:1 meaty:1 part:1 flight:1 muscle:3 chest:1 breast:4 walking:1 first:1 second:1 segment:1 leg:2 thigh:1 drumstick:1 respectively:1 white:2 less:1 oxygen:1 carry:1 myoglobin:1 dark:5 thus:1 lighter:1 color:2 come:1 heavily:1 exercise:1 therefore:1 fat:1 store:1 account:1 reputation:1 unhealthy:1 yet:1 flavorful:1 fly:2 rarely:1 sporadically:1 frequently:1 long:1 distance:1 quail:1 intermediate:1 see:1 gamasoidosis:1 external:1 link:2 information:3 disease:1 poultrycast:1 podcast:1 poultryhub:1 org:2 wiki:1 base:1 collaborative:1 resource:1 centre:1 share:1 guide:1 z:1 faqs:1 world:1 net:1 need:1 chickencrossing:1 discussion:1 |@bigram duck_geese:1 external_link:1 org_wiki:1 |
4,297 | Battle_of_Ramillies | The Battle of Ramillies () was a major engagement of the War of the Spanish Succession fought on 23 May 1706. The encounter was a resounding success for the allied forces of the Dutch Republic, England, and their auxiliaries; Denmark remained neutral throughout the war, but Danish troops, hired by the Maritime Powers, were central to Allied success at both Blenhiem and Ramillies. but the battle had followed a year of indecisive campaigning in 1705 where Allied over-confidence and Dutch hesitancy after their success at the Battle of Blenheim had resulted in an abortive campaign along the Moselle, forcing the Duke of Marlborough to abandon his plans for a push into France. Yet despite the Allies' inability to achieve a decisive victory, Louis XIV was eager for peace; but he wanted it on reasonable terms. Therefore, rather than standing on the defensive, French armies on all fronts swung over to the offensive. The year 1706 had begun well for Louis XIV's generals, who had gained early success in Italy and in Alsace, where Marshal Villars had forced the Margrave of Baden to retreat across the Rhine. Louis now pressed Marshal Villeroi to seek out Marlborough and bring the Allies to battle in the Spanish Netherlands. Accordingly, the French Marshal set off from Leuven (Louvain) at the head of 60,000 men, and provocatively marched towards Zoutleeuw (Léau). Marlborough, also determined to fight a major engagement, assembled his forces – some 62,000 men – near Maastricht, before advancing towards the Mehaigne river and the plain of Ramillies where the French, in expectation of battle, had already formed their lines. In less than four hours, Villeroi's army was utterly defeated. Marlborough's subtle moves and changes in emphasis during the battle – something the French and Bavarian commanders failed to realise until it was too late – caught his foe in a tactical vice. The Franco-Bavarian army broke and ran en masse, suffering over 20,000 casualties. With Prince Eugene's subsequent success at Turin in northern Italy, the Allies had imposed the greatest loss of territory and resources that Louis XIV would suffer during the war. Town after town – including Brussels, Bruges and Antwerp – fell to Marlborough's forces and by the end of the campaign, the Franco-Spanish army had been driven from most of the Spanish Netherlands. The year 1706 had indeed proved to be the Allies' annus mirabilis. Background After their disastrous defeat at Blenheim in 1704, the next year brought France some respite. The Duke of Marlborough had intended the 1705 campaign – an invasion of France through the Moselle valley – to complete the work of Blenheim and persuade Louis XIV to make peace, but the plan had been thwarted by both friend and foe alike. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 140 The reluctance of his Dutch allies to see their frontiers denuded of troops for another gamble in Germany had denied Marlborough the initiative, but of far greater importance was the Margrave of Baden’s pronouncement that he could not join the Duke in strength for the coming offensive. This was in part due to the sudden switching of troops from the Rhine to reinforce Prince Eugene in Italy, and part due to the deterioration of Baden’s health brought on by the re-opening of a severe foot wound he had received at the storming of the Schellenberg the previous year. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 154 Moreover, Marlborough had to cope with the death of Emperor Leopold I in May and the accession of Joseph I, which unavoidably complicated matters for the Grand Alliance. The resilience of the French King, and the efforts of his generals, also added to Marlborough’s problems. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 18 Marshal Villeroi, exerting considerable pressure on the Dutch commander, Count Overkirk, along the Meuse, took Huy on 10 June before pressing on towards Liège. With Marshal Villars sitting strong on the Moselle, the Allied commander – whose supplies had by now become critical – was forced to call off his campaign on 16 June. "What a disgrace for Marlborough," exulted Villeroi, "to have made false movements without any result!" Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 157 With Marlborough’s departure north, the French now transferred troops from the Moselle valley to reinforce Villeroi in Flanders, whilst Villars marched off to the Rhine. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 298 The Allies gained minor compensation for the failed Moselle campaign with the success at Elixheim and the crossing of the Lines of Brabant in the Spanish Netherlands (Huy was also retaken on 11 July), but due to considerable Dutch hesitancy and reluctance, a chance to bring the French to a decisive engagement had eluded Marlborough. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 152 The year 1705 proved almost entirely barren for the Duke whose military disappointments were only partly compensated by efforts on the diplomatic front where, at the courts of Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Vienna, Berlin and Hanover, Marlborough sought to bolster support for the Grand Alliance and extract promises of prompt assistance for the following year’s campaign. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 164 Prelude On 11 January 1706, Marlborough finally reached London at the end of his diplomatic tour, but he had already been planning his strategy for the coming season. The first option (although it is debatable to what extent the Duke was committed to such an enterprise) was a plan to transfer his forces from the Spanish Netherlands to northern Italy; once there, he intended linking up with Prince Eugene in order to defeat the French and safeguard Savoy from being overrun. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 158 Savoy would then serve as a gateway into France by way of the mountain passes, or, alternatively, an invasion with naval support along the Mediterranean coast via Nice and Toulon in connection with redoubled efforts of the Allies in Spain. Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 102. However, it seems that the Duke’s favoured scheme was to return to the Moselle valley Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 169 – where Marshal Marsin had recently taken command of French forces – and once more attempt an advance into the heart of France. But these decisions soon became academic; shortly after Marlborough landed in the Dutch Republic on 14 April, news arrived of major allied setbacks in the wider war. The Allied commander-in-chief John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722) by Sir Godfrey Kneller. Determined to show the Allies that France was still resolute, Louis XIV prepared to launch a double surprise in Alsace and northern Italy. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 159 On the latter front, on 19 April, Marshal Vendôme defeated the Imperial army at Calcinato, pushing the Imperialists back in confusion; French forces were now in a position to prepare for the long-anticipated siege of Turin. In Alsace, Marshal Villars took the Margrave of Baden by surprise and captured Haguenau, driving him back across the Rhine in some disorder, thus creating a threat on Landau. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 168 With these reverses, the Dutch now refused to contemplate Marlborough’s ambitious march to Italy, or, indeed, any plan that denuded their borders of the Duke and his army. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 33 Therefore, in the interest of coalition harmony, Marlborough prepared to campaign in the Low Countries. On the move The Duke left The Hague on 9 May. "God knows I go with a heavy heart," he wrote six days later to his friend and political ally in England, Lord Godolphin, "for I have no hope of doing anything considerable, unless the French do what I am very confident they will not … " – in other words, court battle. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 160 On 17 May the Duke concentrated his Dutch and English troops at Tongeren, near Maastricht. The Hanoverians, Hessians and Danes, despite earlier undertakings, found, or invented, pressing reasons for withholding their support. Marlborough wrote an appeal to the Duke of Württemberg, the commander of the Danish contingent – "I send you this express to request your Highness to bring forward by a double march your cavalry so as to join us at the earliest moment …" Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 38 Additionally, the King in Prussia had kept his troops in quarters behind the Rhine while his personal disputes with Vienna and the States-General at The Hague remained unresolved. Nevertheless, the Duke could think of no circumstances why the French would leave their strong positions and attack his army, even if Villeroi was first reinforced by substantial transfers from Marsin’s command. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 170 But in this he had miscalculated. Although Louis XIV wanted peace he wanted it on reasonable terms, and for that he needed victory in the field, and convince the Allies into believing that his resources were by no means exhausted. Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 103 Following the successes in Italy and along the Rhine, Louis XIV was now hopeful of similar results in Flanders. Far from standing on the defensive therefore – and unbeknown to Marlborough – Louis XIV was persistently goading his marshal into action. "[Villeroi] began to imagine," wrote St Simon, "that the King doubted his courage, and resolved to stake all at once in an effort to vindicate himself." Saint-Simon: Memoirs, vol i, p. 298 Accordingly, on 18 May, Villeroi set off from Leuven at the head of 70 battalions, 132 squadrons and 62 cannon – comprising an overall force of some 60,000 troops – and crossed the river Dyle to seek battle with the enemy. Spurred on by his growing confidence in his ability to out-general his opponent, and by Versailles’ determination to avenge Blenheim, Villeroi and his generals anticipated success. Villeroi was convinced that Marlborough had won the Battle of Blenheim by mere chance. The advance towards Ramillies. Due to the fog of war neither commander knew the exact position of his opponent prior to the battle. Neither opponent expected the clash at the exact moment or place where it occurred. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 172 The French moved first to Tirlemont, (as if to threaten Zoutleeuw, abandoned by the French in October 1705), before turning southwards, heading for Judoigne – this line of march took Villeroi’s army towards the narrow aperture of dry ground between the Mehaigne and Petite Gheete rivers close to the small villages of Ramillies and Taviers; but neither commander quite appreciated how far his opponent had travelled. Villeroi still believed (on 22 May) the Allies were a full day’s march away when in fact they had camped near Corswaren waiting for the Danish squadrons to catch up; for his part, Marlborough deemed Villeroi still at Judoigne when in reality he was now approaching the plateau of Mont St. André with the intention of pitching camp near Ramillies (see map at right). However, the Prussian infantry was not there. Marlborough wrote to Lord Raby, the English resident at Berlin; "If it should please god to give us victory over the enemy, the Allies will be little obliged to the King [Frederick] for the success." Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 104 The following day, at 01:00, Marlborough dispatched Cadogan, his Quartermaster-General, with an advanced guard to reconnoitre the same dry ground that Villeroi’s army was now heading, country that was well known to the Duke from previous campaigns. Two hours later the Duke followed with the main body: 74 battalions, 123 squadrons, 90 pieces of artillery and 20 mortars, totalling 62,000 troops. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 161 At about 08:00, after Cadogan had just passed Merdorp, his force made brief contact with a party of French hussars gathering forage on the edge of the plateau of Jandrenouille. After a brief exchange of shots the French retired and the Allied dragoons pressed forward. With a short lift in the mist, Cadogan soon discovered the smartly ordered lines of Villeroi’s advance guard some four miles (6 km) off; a galloper hastened back to warn Marlborough. Two hours later the Duke, accompanied by the Dutch field commander Veldt Marshal Overkirk, General Daniel Dopff and the Allied staff, rode up to Cadogan where, on the horizon to the westward he could discern the massed ranks of the French army deploying for battle along the four mile (6.4 km) front. Marlborough later told Bishop Burnet that, ‘the French army looked the best of any he had ever seen’. Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 106 Battle Battlefield The battlefield of Ramillies is very similar to that of Blenheim, for here too there is an immense area of arable land unimpeded by woods or hedges. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 162 Villeroi’s right rested on the villages of Franquenée and Taviers, with the river Mehaigne protecting his flank. A large open plain, just over 1 mile (~2 km) wide, lay between Taviers and Ramillies, but unlike Blenheim, there was no stream to hinder the cavalry. His centre was secured by Ramillies itself, lying on a slight eminence which gave distant views to the north and east. The French left flank was protected by broken country, and by a stream, the Petite Gheete, which runs deep between steep and slippery slopes. On the French side of the stream the ground rises to Offus, the village which, together with Autre-Eglise farther north, anchored Villeroi’s left flank. To the west of the Petite Gheete rises the plateau of Mont St. André; a second plain, the plateau of Jandrenouille – upon which the Allied army amassed – rises to the east. Initial dispositions Initial attack at the Battle of Ramillies, 23 May 1706. To the south, between Taviers and Ramillies, both commanders positioned the bulk of their cavalry. It was here where Marlborough made the breakthrough. At 11:00, the Duke ordered the army to take standard battle formation. On the far right, towards Foulz, the British battalions and squadrons took up their posts in a double line near the Jeuche stream. The centre was formed by the mass of Dutch, German, Protestant Swiss and Scottish infantry – perhaps 30,000 men – facing Offus and Ramillies. Also facing Ramillies Marlborough placed a powerful battery of thirty 24-pounders, dragged into position by a team of oxen; further batteries were positioned overlooking the Petite Gheete. On their left, on the broad plain between Taviers and Ramillies – and where Marlborough thought the decisive encounter must take place Barnett: Marlborough, p. 163 – Overkirk drew the 69 squadrons of the Dutch and Danish horse, supported by 19 battalions of Dutch infantry and two artillery pieces. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 173 Meanwhile Villeroi deployed his forces. In Taviers on his right, he placed two battalions of the Greder Suisse Régiment, with a smaller force forward in Franquenée; the whole position was protected by the boggy ground of the Mehaigne river, thus preventing an Allied flanking movement. Falkner: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 50 Between the open country of Taviers and Ramillies, he placed 82 squadrons under General de Guiscard supported by several interleaved brigades of French, Swiss and Bavarian infantry. Along the Ramillies–Offus–Autre Eglise ridge-line, Villeroi positioned Walloon and Bavarian infantry, supported by the Elector of Bavaria's 50 squadrons of Bavarian and Walloon cavalry placed behind on the plateau of Mont St. André. Ramillies, Offus and Autre-Eglise were all packed with troops and put in a state of defence, with alleys barricaded and walls loop-holed for muskets. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 51 Villeroi also positioned powerful batteries near Ramillies. These guns (some of which were of the three barrelled kind first seen at Elixheim the previous year) enjoyed good arcs of fire, able to fully cover the approaches of the plateau of Jandrenouille over which the Allied infantry would have to pass. Marlborough, however, noticed several important weaknesses in the French dispositions. Chandler: A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe, p. 30 Tactically, it was imperative for Villeroi to occupy Taviers on his right and Autre-Eglise on his left, but by adopting this posture he had been forced to over-extend his forces. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 304 Moreover, this disposition – concave in relation to the Allied army – gave Marlborough the opportunity to form a more compact line, drawn up in a shorter front between the ‘horns’ of the French crescent; thus when the Allied blow came, it would be more concentrated and carry more weight. Additionally, the Duke’s disposition facilitated the transfer of troops across his front far more easily than his foe, a tactical advantage that would grow in importance as the events of the afternoon unfolded. Although Villeroi had the option of enveloping the flanks of the Allies as they deployed on the plateau of Jandrenouille – threatening to encircle the Allies – the Duke correctly gauged that the characteristically cautious French commander was intent on a defensive battle along the ridge-line. Falkner: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 55 Taviers At 13:00, the batteries went into action; a little later two Allied columns set out from the extremities of their line and attacked the flanks of the Franco-Bavarian army. Chandler: A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe, p. 31. To the south the Dutch Guards, under the command of Colonel Wertmüller, came forward with their two field guns to seize the hamlet of Franquenée. The small Swiss garrison in the village, shaken by the sudden onslaught and unsupported by the battalions to their rear, were soon compelled back towards the village of Taviers. Taviers was of particular importance to the Franco-Bavarian position: it protected the otherwise unsupported flank of General de Guiscard’s cavalry on the open plain, whilst at the same time, it allowed the French infantry to pose a threat to the flanks of the Dutch and Danish squadrons as they came forward into position. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 57 But hardly had the retreating Swiss rejoined their comrades in that village when the Dutch Guards renewed their attack. The fighting amongst the alleys and cottages soon deteriorated into a fierce bayonet and clubbing mêlée, but the superiority in Dutch firepower soon told. The accomplished French officer, Colonel de la Colonie, standing on the plain nearby remembered – "this village was the opening of the engagement, and the fighting there was almost as murderous as the rest of the battle put together." La Colonie: The Chronicles of an old Campaigner, p. 306 By about 15:00 the Swiss had been pushed out of the village into the marshes beyond. The Franco-Bavarian commander Duc de Villeroi (1644–1730). The Battle of Ramillies was Villeroi’s last command. Villeroi’s right flank fell into chaos and was now open and vulnerable. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 61 Alerted to the situation de Guiscard ordered an immediate attack with 14 squadrons of French dragoons currently stationed in the rear. Two other battalions of the Greder Suisse Régiment were also sent, but the attack was poorly co-ordinated and consequently went in piecemeal. The Allied commanders now sent dismounted Dutch dragoons into Taviers, which, together with the Guards and their field guns, poured concentrated musketry- and canister-fire into the advancing French troops – Colonel d’Aubigni leading his regiment fell mortally wounded. La Colonie: The Chronicles of an old Campaigner, p. 309 As the French ranks wavered, the leading squadrons of Württemberg’s Danish horse – now unhampered by enemy fire from either village – were also sent into the attack and fell upon the exposed flank of the Franco-Swiss infantry and dragoons. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 175 De la Colonie, with his Grenadiers Rouge regiment, together with the Cologne Guards who were brigaded with them, was now ordered forward from his post south of Ramillies to support the faltering counter-attack on the village. But on his arrival, all was chaos – "Scarcely had my troops got over when the dragoons and Swiss who had preceded us, came tumbling down upon my battalions in full flight … My own fellows turned about and fled along with them." De La Colonie managed to rally some of his grenadiers, together with the remnants of the French dragoons and Greder Suisse battalions, but it was an entirely peripheral operation, offering only fragile support for Villeroi’s right flank. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 65 Offus and Autre-Eglise George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney (1666–1737) by Martin Maingaud. He personally led the English infantry attacks on Offus and Autre-Eglise. Whilst the attack on Taviers went in, the Earl of Orkney launched his first line of English across the Petite Gheete in a determined attack against the barricaded villages of Offus and Autre-Eglise on the Allied right. Villeroi, posting himself near Offus, watched anxiously the redcoats' advance, minded of the counsel he had received on 6 May from Louis XIV – "Have particular care to that part of the line which will endure the first shock of the English troops." Heeding this advice the French commander began to transfer battalions from his centre to reinforce the left, drawing more foot from the already weakened right to replace them. As the English battalions descended the gentle slope of the Petite Gheete valley, struggling through the boggy stream, they were met by Major General de la Guiche’s disciplined Walloon infantry sent forward from around Offus. After concentrated volleys – extracting heavy casualties on the redcoats – the Walloons fell back to the ridge-line in good order. Nevertheless, the English were able to form their ranks on the dry ground beyond the stream and press on up the slope towards the cottages and barricades on the ridge. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 69 The vigour of the English assault, however, was such that they threatened to break through the line of the villages and out onto the open plateau of Mont St André beyond. This was potentially dangerous for the Allied infantry who would then be at the mercy of the Elector’s Bavarian and Walloon squadrons patiently waiting on the plateau for the order to move. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 71 Although Henry Lumley’s British cavalry had managed to cross the marshy ground around the Petite Gheete, it was soon evident to Marlborough that sufficient cavalry support would not be practicable and that the battle could not be won on the Allied right. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 176 The Duke, therefore, called off the attack against Offus and Autre-Eglise. To make sure that Orkney obeyed his order to withdraw, Marlborough sent his Quartermaster-General in person with the command. Despite Orkney’s protestations, Cadogan insisted on compliance and, reluctantly, Orkney gave the word for his troops to fall back to their original positions on the edge of the plateau of Jandrenouille. It is still not clear how far Orkney’s advance was planned only as a feint; according to historian David Chandler it is probably more accurate to surmise that Marlborough launched Orkney in a serious probe with a view to sounding out the possibilities of the sector. Nevertheless, the attack had served its purpose. Villeroi had given his personal attention to that wing and strengthened it with large bodies of horse and foot that ought to been taking part in the decisive struggle south of Ramillies. Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 109 Ramillies Meanwhile, the Allied assault on Ramillies was gaining pace. Marlborough’s younger brother, General of Infantry, Charles Churchill, ordered four brigades of foot to attack the village. The assault consisted of 12 battalions of Dutch infantry commanded by Major Generals Schultz and Spaar; two brigades of Saxons under Count Schulenburg; a Scottish brigade in Dutch service led by the 2nd Duke of Argyle; and a small brigade of Protestant Swiss. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 75 The 20 French and Bavarian battalions in Ramillies, supported by Irish dragoons and a small brigade of Cologne and Bavarian Guards under the Marquis de Maffei, put up a determined defence, initially driving back the attackers with severe losses. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 77 Seeing that Schultz and Spaar were faltering, Marlborough now ordered Orkney’s second-line British and Danish battalions (who had not been used in the assault on Offus and Autre-Eglise) to move south towards Ramillies. Shielded as they were from observation by a slight fold in the land, their commander, Brigadier-General van Pallandt, ordered the regimental colours to be left in place on the edge of the plateau to convince their opponents they were still in their initial position. Therefore, unbeknown to the French who remained oblivious to the Allies’ real strength and intentions on the opposite side of the Petite Gheete, Marlborough was throwing his full weight against Ramillies and the open plain to the south. Villeroi meanwhile, was still moving more reserves of infantry in the opposite direction towards his left flank; crucially, it would be some time before the French commander noticed the subtle change in emphasis of the Allied dispositions. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 78 Ten of Diamonds: The decapitation of Colonel Bringfield. A monument to Bringfield in the north aisle of Westminster Abbey recalls the tale. Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 113 At around 15:30, Overkirk advanced his massed squadrons on the open plain in support of the infantry attack on Ramillies. The disciplined Allied squadrons – 48 Dutch, supported on their left by 21 Danish – steadily advanced towards the enemy (taking care not to prematurely tire the horses), before breaking into a trot to gain the impetus for their charge. La Colonie: The Chronicles of an old Campaigner, p. 313 The Marquis de Feuquières writing after the battle described the scene – "They advanced in four lines … As they approached they advanced their second and fourth lines into the intervals of their first and third lines; so that when they made their advance upon us, they formed only one front, without any intermediate spaces." Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 80 The initial clash favoured the Dutch and Danish squadrons. The disparity of numbers – exacerbated by Villeroi stripping their ranks of infantry to reinforce his left flank – enabled the Allies to throw the first line of French horse back in some disorder towards their second-line squadrons. This line also came under severe pressure and, in turn, was forced back to their third-line of cavalry and the few battalions still remaining on the plain. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 81 But these French horsemen were amongst the best in Louis XIV’s army – the Maison du Roi, Maison du Roi (Household Cavalry): The mounted elements of the French Maison du Roi at Ramillies consisted of the Gardes du Corps, the Royal Carabiniers, the Mousquetaires, the Compagnie des Grenadiers à Cheval and the Compagnie des Gens d’Armes. supported by four elite squadrons of Bavarian Cuirassiers. Ably led by de Guiscard, the French cavalry rallied, thrusting back the Allied squadrons in successful local counterattacks. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 82 On Overkirk’s right flank, close to Ramillies, ten of his squadrons suddenly broke ranks and were scattered, riding headlong to the rear to recover their order, leaving the left flank of the Allied assault on Ramillies dangerously exposed. Notwithstanding the lack of infantry support, de Guiscard threw his cavalry forward in an attempt to split the Allied army in two. A crisis threatened the centre, but from his vantage point Marlborough was at once aware of the situation. The Allied commander now summoned the cavalry on the right wing to reinforce his centre, leaving only the English squadrons in support of Orkney. Thanks to a combination of battle-smoke and favourable terrain, his redeployment went unnoticed by Villeroi who made no attempt to transfer any of his own 50 unused squadrons. While he waited for the fresh reinforcements to arrive, Marlborough flung himself into the mêlée, rallying some of the Dutch cavalry who were recoiling in confusion. But his personal involvement nearly led to his undoing. A number of French horsemen, recognising the Duke, came surging towards his party. Marlborough’s horse tumbled and the Duke was thrown – "Milord Marlborough was rid over," wrote Orkney some time later. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 83 It was a critical moment of the battle. "Major-General Murray," recalled one eye witness, " … seeing him fall, marched up in all haste with two Swiss battalions to save him and stop the enemy who were hewing all down in their way." Barnett: Marlborough, p. 168 One of Marlborough’s aides provided him with his own horse in order to speed him to safety before Murray’s disciplined ranks threw back the pursuing French troopers. After a brief pause, Marlborough’s equerry, Colonel Bringfield (or Bingfield), led up another of the Duke’s spare horses; but whilst assisting him onto his mount, the unfortunate Bringfield was hit by an errant cannonball that sheared off his head. One account has it that the cannonball flew between the Captain-General’s legs before hitting the unfortunate colonel, whose torso fell at Marlborough’s feet – a moment subsequently depicted in a lurid set of contemporary playing cards. Nevertheless the danger passed, enabling the Duke to attend to the positioning of the cavalry reinforcements feeding down from his right flank – a change of which Villeroi remained blissfully unaware. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 85 Breakthrough Allied squadrons transferred from north to south gave the Allies a 5–3 advantage on the plain where some 25,000 French and Allied cavalry were heavily engaged. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 177 The time was about 16:30, and the two armies were in close contact across the whole four-mile (6 km) front, from the skirmishing in the marshes in the south, through the vast cavalry battle on the open plain; to the fierce struggle for Ramillies at the centre, and to the north, where, around the cottages of Offus and Autre-Eglise, Orkney and de la Guiche faced each other across the Petite Gheete ready to renew hostilities. The arrival of the transferring squadrons now began to tip the balance in favour of the Allies. Tired, and suffering a growing list of casualties, the numerical inferiority of Guiscard’s squadrons battling on the plain at last began to tell. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 87 After earlier failing to hold or retake Franquenée and Taviers, Guiscard’s right flank had become dangerously exposed and a fatal gap had opened on the right of their line. Taking advantage of this breach, Württemberg’s Danish cavalry now swept forward, wheeling to penetrate the flank of the Maison du Roi whose attention was almost entirely fixed on holding back the Dutch. Sweeping forwards, virtually without resistance, the 21 Danish squadrons reformed behind the French around the area of the Tomb of Ottomond, facing north across the plateau of Mont St André towards the exposed flank of Villeroi’s army. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 177. Trevelyan calls this the decisive manoeuvre of the day. The final Allied reinforcements for the cavalry contest to the south were at last in position; Marlborough’s superiority on the left could no longer be denied, and his fast-moving plan took hold of the battlefield. Now, far too late, Villeroi tried to redeploy his 50 unused squadrons, but a desperate attempt to form line facing south, stretching from Offus to Mont St, André, floundered amongst the baggage and tents of the French camp carelessly left there after the initial deployment. Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 116. After the retreat had become general, further disaster and confusion resulted from the block of waggons breaking down in the mud. The artillery could not pass, resulting in the loss of most of Villeroi’s cannon. The Allied commander ordered his cavalry forward against the now heavily outnumbered French and Bavarian horsemen. De Guiscard’s right flank, without proper infantry support, could no longer resist the onslaught and, turning their horses northwards, they broke and fled in complete disorder. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 92 Even the squadrons currently being scrambled together by Villeroi behind Ramillies could not withstand the onslaught. "We had not got forty yards on our retreat," remembered Captain Peter Drake, the Irish mercenary serving with the French – "when the words sauve qui peut went through the great part, if not the whole army, and put all to confusion" Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 115 In Ramillies, the Allied infantry, now reinforced by the English troops brought down from the north, at last broke through. The Régiment de Picardie stood their ground but were caught between Colonel Borthwick’s Scots-Dutch regiment and the English reinforcements. Borthwick was killed, as was Charles O’Brien, the Irish Viscount Clare in French service, fighting at the head of his regiment. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 94. The Marquis de Maffei attempted one last stand with his Bavarian and Cologne Guards, but it proved in vain. Noticing a rush of horsemen fast approaching from the south, he later recalled – " … I went towards the nearest of these squadrons to instruct their officer, but instead of being listened to [I] was immediately surrounded and called upon to ask for quarter." Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 95 Pursuit The roads leading north and west were choked with fugitives. Orkney now sent his English troops back across the Petite Gheete stream to once again storm Offus where de la Guiche’s infantry had begun to drift away in the confusion. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 98 To the right of the infantry Lord John Hay’s ‘Scots Greys’ also picked their way across the stream and charged the Régment du Roi within Autre-Eglise. "Our dragoons," wrote John Deane, "pushing into the village … made terrible slaughter of the enemy." The Bavarian Horse Grenadiers and the Electoral Guards withdrew and formed a shield about Villeroi and the Elector but were scattered by Lumley’s cavalry. Stuck in the mass of fugitives fleeing the battlefield, the French and Bavarian commanders narrowly escaped capture by General Cornelius Wood, who, unaware of their identity, had to content himself with the seizure of two Bavarian Lieutenant-Generals. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 178 Far to the south, the remnants of de la Colonie’s brigade headed in the opposite direction towards the French held fortress of Namur." La Colonie: The Chronicles of an old Campaigner, p. 316 The retreat became a rout. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 306 Individual Allied commanders drove their troops forward in pursuit, allowing their beaten enemy no chance to recover. Soon the Allied infantry could no longer keep up, but their cavalry were off the leash, heading through the gathering night for the crossings on the Dyle river. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 102 At last, however, Marlborough called a halt to the pursuit shortly after midnight near Meldert, from the field. "It was indeed a truly shocking sight to see the miserable remains of this mighty army," wrote Captain Drake, "… reduced to a handful." Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 118 Aftermath What was left of Villeroi’s army was now broken in spirit; the imbalance of the casualty figures amply demonstrates the extent of the disaster for Louis XIV’s army (See below). In addition, hundreds of French soldiers were fugitives, many of whom would never remuster to the colours. Villeroi also lost 52 artillery pieces and his entire engineer pontoon train. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 105 In the words of Marshal Villars, the French defeat at Ramillies was – "The most shameful, humiliating and disastrous of routs." Barnett: Marlborough, p. 170 Town after town now succumbed to the Allies. Leuven fell on 25 May 1706; three days later, the Allies entered Brussels, the capital of the Spanish Netherlands. Marlborough realised the great opportunity created by the early victory of Ramillies, – "We now have the whole summer before us," wrote the Duke from Brussels to Robert Harley, "and with the blessing of God I shall make the best use of it." Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 179 Malines, Lierre, Ghent, Alost, Damme, Oudenaarde, Bruges, and on 6 June Antwerp, all subsequently fell to Marlborough’s victorious army and, like Brussels, proclaimed the Austrian candidate for the Spanish throne, the Archduke Charles, as their sovereign. Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 121 Villeroi was helpless to arrest the process of collapse. When Louis learnt of the disaster, he recalled Marshal Vendôme from northern Italy to take command in Flanders; but it would be weeks before the command changed hands. Allied gains of the Ramillies campaign 1706. (Note: Dates of capitulation differ slightly depending on source). As news spread of the Allies’ triumph, the Prussians, Hessians and Hanoverian contingents, long delayed by their respective rulers, eagerly joined the pursuit of the broken French and Bavarian forces. "This," wrote Marlborough wearily, "I take to be owing to our late success." Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 116 Meanwhile, Overkirk took the port of Ostend on 4 July thus opening a direct route to the English Channel for communication and supply, but the Allies were making scant progress against Dendermonde whose governor, the Marquis de Valée, was stubbornly resisting. Only later when Cadogan and Churchill went to take charge did the town’s defences begin to fail. Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 118 Vendôme formally took over command in Flanders on 4 August; Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 181. Lynn states 1 August Villeroi, his defeated predecessor, would never again receive a major command, bemoaning – "I cannot foresee a happy day in my life save only that of my death." Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 308 Louis XIV however, was more forgiving, greeting his old friend with the kind words – "At our age, Marshal, we must no longer expect good fortune." Falkner: Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, p. 119 In the mean time, Marlborough invested the elaborate fortress of Menin which, after a costly siege, capitulated on 22 August. Dendermonde finally succumbed on 6 September followed by Ath – the last conquest of 1706 – on 2 October. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 182 By the time Marlborough had closed down the Ramillies campaign he had denied the French most of the Spanish Netherlands west of the Meuse and north of the Sambre – it was an unsurpassed operational triumph for the English Duke. The immediate question for the Allies now was how to deal with the Spanish Netherlands, a subject that the Austrians and the Dutch were diametrically opposed. Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 132 Emperor Joseph I, acting on behalf of his younger brother King ’Charles III’, absent in Spain, claimed that reconquered Brabant and Flanders should be put under immediate possession of a governor named by himself. The Dutch, however, who had supplied the major share of the troops and money to secure the victory (the Austrians had produced nothing of either) claimed the government of the region till the war was over, and that after the peace they should continue to garrison Barrier Fortresses stronger than those which had fallen so easily to Louis XIV’s forces in 1701. Marlborough mediated between the two parties but favoured the Dutch position. To sway the Duke’s opinion, the Emperor offered Marlborough the governorship of the Spanish Netherlands. It was a tempting offer, but in the name of Allied unity, it was one he refused. Trevelyan: England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, p. 135. Marlborough never fully abandoned the hope that one day he might be proclaimed governor of the Spanish Netherlands. It was his own personal ambition that created mutual suspicion between the Duke and the Dutch. In the end England and the Dutch Republic took control of the newly won territory for the duration of the war; after which it was to be handed over to the direct rule of ‘Charles III’, subject to the reservation of a Dutch Barrier, the extent and nature of which had yet to be settled. The Dutch expected the Belgians to contribute to the cost of the war and the maintenance of the garrisons. Subsequently, the hardships felt by the Belgians led to serious military setbacks when in 1708, Bruges and Ghent swapped sides. Meanwhile, on the Upper Rhine, Villars had been forced onto the defensive as battalion after battalion had been sent north to bolster collapsing French forces in Flanders; there was now no possibility of his undertaking the re-capture of Landau. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 309 Further good news for the Allies arrived from northern Italy where, on 7 September, Prince Eugene had routed a French army before the Piedmontese capital, Turin, driving the Franco-Spanish forces from northern Italy. Only from Spain did Louis XIV receive any good news where Lord Galway had been forced to retreat from Madrid towards Valencia, allowing Philip V to re-enter his capital on 4 October. All in all though, the situation had changed considerably and Louis XIV began to look for ways to end what was fast becoming a ruinous war for France. For Queen Anne also, the Ramillies campaign had one overriding significance – "Now we have God be thanked so hopeful a prospect of peace." Gregg: Queen Anne, p. 216 Instead of continuing the momentum of victory, however, cracks in Allied unity would enable Louis XIV to reverse some of the major setbacks suffered at Turin and Ramillies. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 312 Casualties The total number of French casualties cannot be calculated precisely, so complete was the collapse of the Franco-Bavarian army that day. David G. Chandler’s Marlborough as Military Commander and A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe are consistent with regards to French casualty figures i.e., 12,000 dead and wounded plus some 7,000 taken prisoner. James Falkner, in Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, also notes 12,000 dead and wounded and states ‘up to 10,000’ taken prisoner. In The Collins Encyclopaedia of Military History, Dupuy puts Villeroi’s dead and wounded at 8,000, with a further 7,000 captured. John Millner’s memoirs – Compendious Journal (1733) – is more specific, recording 12,087 of Villeroi’s army were killed or wounded, with another 9,729 taken prisoner. In Marlborough, however, Correlli Barnett puts the total casualty figure as high as 30,000 – 15,000 dead and wounded with an additional 15,000 taken captive. Trevelyan estimates Villeroi’s casualties at 13,000, but adds, ‘his losses by desertion may have doubled that number’. La Colonie omits a casualty figure in his Chronicles of an old Campaigner; but Saint-Simon in his Memoirs states 4,000 killed, adding 'many others were wounded and many important persons were taken prisoner'. Voltaire, however, in Histoire du siecle du Louis XIV records, 'the French lost there twenty thousand men'. See also The battle was used as the name of several British ships; HMS Ramillies Notes References Primary La Colonie, Jean Martin de. The Chronicles of an Old Campaigner, (trans. W. C. Horsley), (1904) (1857) Mémoires relatifs à la Guerre de succession de 1706-1709 et 1711, de Sicco van Goslinga, publiés par mm. U. A. Evertsz et G. H. M. Delprat, au nom de la Société d’histoire, d’archéologie et de linquistique de Frise, (Published by G.T.N. Suringar, 1857) Saint-Simon. Memoirs, vol i. Prion Books Ltd., (1999). ISBN 1-85375-352-1 Secondary Barnett, Correlli. Marlborough. Wordsworth Editions Limited, (1999). ISBN 1-84022-200-X Chandler, David G. A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe. Wordsworth Editions Limited, (1998). ISBN 1-85326-694-9 Chandler, David G. Marlborough as Military Commander. Spellmount Ltd, (2003). ISBN 1-86227-195-X Dupuy, R. E & Dupuy, T. N. The Collins Encyclopaedia of Military History 4th ed. HarperCollins Publishers, (1995). ISBN 0062700561 Falkner, James. Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles. Pen & Sword Books Ltd, (2006). ISBN 1-84415-379-7 Gregg, Edward. Queen Anne. Yale University Press, (2001). ISBN 0-300-09024-2 Lynn, John A. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714. Longman, (1999). ISBN 0-582-05629-2 Trevelyan, G. M. England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland. 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4,298 | Hans-Dietrich_Genscher | Hans-Dietrich Genscher (born March 21, 1927) is a German politician and member of the Free Democratic Party (FDP). He was Foreign Minister of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1974 to 1982 and, after a two-week pause, from 1982 to 1992, making him Germany's longest serving Foreign Minister and Vice Chancellor. Biography Early life Genscher was born at Reideburg (Province of Saxony), now a part of Halle, in what later became East Germany. At a young age, Genscher joined the Hitler Youth and later served as a member of the Air Force Support Personnel (Luftwaffenhelfer) in the Army from 1943 to 1945. After reaching 18 years of age (1945) he became a member of the Nazi Party, despite regulations encouraging active duty military members to avoid holding membership in political organizations (these regulations were widely ignored in the later days of German dictator Adolf Hitler's Germany). Genscher fought as a young man in the Wehrmacht at the end of the Second World War. In 1945, Genscher was a young soldier in General Walther Wenck's 12th Army. He participated in Wenck's ill-fated relief effort during the Battle of Berlin which Hitler saw as a last roll of the dice to save the besieged city. While Wenck's attack was unable to relieve or save the city of Berlin, he was able link up with the remnants of Colonel General (Generaloberst) Theodor Busse's 9th Army. Together, they marched what was left of both armies, along with many civilians, to the American lines and surrendered. For this reason, Genscher briefly became an American and British prisoner of war. After World War II, he studied law and economics at the universities of Halle and Leipzig (1946-1949) and joined the East German Liberal Democratic Party (LDPD) in 1946. Political career In 1952, Genscher fled to West Germany, where he joined the Free Democratic Party (FDP). He passed his second state examination in law in Hamburg in 1954 and became a solicitor in Bremen. In 1965 Genscher was elected on the North Rhine-Westphalian FDP list to the West German parliament and remained a member of parliament until his retirement in 1998. After serving in several party offices, he was appointed Minister of the Interior by Chancellor Willy Brandt, whose Social Democratic Party was in coalition with the FDP, in 1969; in 1974, he became foreign minister and Vice Chancellor. In 1972 while Minister for the Interior, he rejected Israel’s offer to send an Israeli special forces unit to Germany to deal with the Black September hijacking of the 1972 Summer Olympics which led to the Munich massacre. The German government said they could deal with it themselves. They were wrong and it ended in a bloody shootout at Fürstenfeldbruck Air Base which left 11 hostages, 5 terrorists, and 1 German policeman dead. Genscher's popularity with Israel declined further when he endorsed the handing over of the three captured hijackers to the Palesetinians following the hijacking of a Lufthansa plane on October 29 1972. This was widely believed to be a setup (German - Palestinian collusion) and led to further criticism of the German government for negotiating with hijackers. Around this time, German relations with Israel, already strained after the Holocaust deteroriated even further still. In the SPD-FDP coalition, he helped shape Brandt's policy of deescalation with the communist East, commonly known as Ostpolitik, which was continued under Helmut Schmidt after Brandt's resignation in 1974. Still, Genscher was one of the FDP's driving forces when, in 1982, the party switched sides from its coalition with the SPD to support the CDU/CSU in their Constructive Vote of No Confidence to have Helmut Schmidt replaced with Helmut Kohl as Chancellor. Despite the great controversy that accompanied this switch, he remained one of the most popular politicians in West Germany. He retained his posts as foreign minister and vice chancellor through German reunification and until 1992, when he stepped down for health reasons. George H. W. Bush and Hans-Dietrich Genscher, November 21st, 1989. Reunification efforts He is mostly respected for his efforts that helped end the Cold War, to lead to German reunification, when, in eastern Europe, the communist government toppled; for example, he visited Poland to meet Lech Wałęsa as early as 1988. In 1988, he was awarded the Prize For Freedom of the Liberal International. One event remembered by many is his September 30, 1989 speech from the balcony of the German embassy in Prague, in whose court yard thousands of East German citizens had assembled to flee to the west, when he announced that he had reached an agreement with the communist government that the refugees could leave: "We have come to you to tell you that today, your departure ..." (German: "Wir sind zu Ihnen gekommen, um Ihnen mitzuteilen, daß heute Ihre Ausreise ..."). After these words, the speech drowned in cheers. http://youtube.com/watch?v=Qh9EwNurawE In 1991, Genscher raced to recognize the Republic of Croatia in the Croatian War of Independence shortly after the Serbian attack on Vukovar. The rest of the European Union was pressured to follow suit soon afterward. Historically Germany has had a close collaboration with Croatia. Germany was active in putting together the coalition against Slobodan Milošević. Genscher was also an active participant in the further development of the European Union, taking active part in the Single European Act Treaty negotiations in the mid 1980s, as well as the joint publication of the Genscher-Colombo plan with Italian Prime Minister Colombo which advocated further integration and deepening of relations in the European Union towards a more federalist European State. Career after politics Genscher did not run for reelection in 1998. Since then, he has been active as a lawyer, in a public company, and in bona-fide international relations organizations. He founded his own Hans-Dietrich Genscher Consult GmbH in 2000. In 2009. he expressed public concern at the lifting of the bishops of the Society of Saint Pius X. Sind Papst - aber bitte nicht so! Genscher wrote in the Mitteldeutsche Zeitung: Poles can be proud of Pope John Paul II. At the last papal election, we said We are the pope! But please -- not like this. He argued that Pope Benedict XVI is making a habit of offending non-Catholics. This is a deep moral and political question. It is about respect for the victims of crimes against humanity, Genscher said. See also Politics of Germany History of Germany since 1945 References | Hans-Dietrich_Genscher |@lemmatized han:2 dietrich:3 genscher:18 bear:2 march:2 german:14 politician:2 member:5 free:2 democratic:4 party:7 fdp:6 foreign:4 minister:7 federal:1 republic:2 germany:11 two:1 week:1 pause:1 make:2 long:1 serve:3 vice:3 chancellor:5 biography:1 early:2 life:1 reideburg:1 province:1 saxony:1 part:2 halle:2 later:2 become:5 east:4 young:3 age:2 join:3 hitler:3 youth:1 air:2 force:3 support:2 personnel:1 luftwaffenhelfer:1 army:4 reach:2 year:1 nazi:1 despite:2 regulation:2 encourage:1 active:5 duty:1 military:1 avoid:1 hold:1 membership:1 political:3 organization:2 widely:2 ignore:1 late:1 day:1 dictator:1 adolf:1 fight:1 man:1 wehrmacht:1 end:3 second:2 world:2 war:5 soldier:1 general:2 walther:1 wenck:3 participate:1 ill:1 fated:1 relief:1 effort:3 battle:1 berlin:2 saw:1 last:2 roll:1 dice:1 save:2 besieged:1 city:2 attack:2 unable:1 relieve:1 able:1 link:1 remnant:1 colonel:1 generaloberst:1 theodor:1 busse:1 together:2 leave:3 along:1 many:2 civilian:1 american:2 line:1 surrender:1 reason:2 briefly:1 british:1 prisoner:1 ii:2 study:1 law:2 economics:1 university:1 leipzig:1 liberal:2 ldpd:1 career:2 flee:2 west:4 pass:1 state:2 examination:1 hamburg:1 solicitor:1 bremen:1 elect:1 north:1 rhine:1 westphalian:1 list:1 parliament:2 remain:2 retirement:1 several:1 office:1 appoint:1 interior:2 willy:1 brandt:3 whose:2 social:1 coalition:4 reject:1 israel:3 offer:1 send:1 israeli:1 special:1 unit:1 deal:2 black:1 september:2 hijacking:2 summer:1 olympics:1 lead:3 munich:1 massacre:1 government:4 say:3 could:2 wrong:1 bloody:1 shootout:1 fürstenfeldbruck:1 base:1 hostage:1 terrorist:1 policeman:1 dead:1 popularity:1 decline:1 far:3 endorse:1 handing:1 three:1 capture:1 hijacker:2 palesetinians:1 follow:2 lufthansa:1 plane:1 october:1 believe:1 setup:1 palestinian:1 collusion:1 criticism:1 negotiate:1 around:1 time:1 relation:3 already:1 strain:1 holocaust:1 deteroriated:1 even:1 still:2 spd:2 help:2 shape:1 policy:1 deescalation:1 communist:3 commonly:1 know:1 ostpolitik:1 continue:1 helmut:3 schmidt:2 resignation:1 one:3 driving:1 switch:2 side:1 cdu:1 csu:1 constructive:1 vote:1 confidence:1 replace:1 kohl:1 great:1 controversy:1 accompany:1 popular:1 retain:1 post:1 reunification:3 step:1 health:1 george:1 h:1 w:1 bush:1 hans:1 november:1 mostly:1 respect:2 cold:1 eastern:1 europe:1 topple:1 example:1 visit:1 poland:1 meet:1 lech:1 wałęsa:1 award:1 prize:1 freedom:1 international:2 event:1 remember:1 speech:2 balcony:1 embassy:1 prague:1 court:1 yard:1 thousand:1 citizen:1 assemble:1 announce:1 agreement:1 refugee:1 come:1 tell:1 today:1 departure:1 wir:1 sind:2 zu:1 ihnen:2 gekommen:1 um:1 mitzuteilen:1 daß:1 heute:1 ihre:1 ausreise:1 word:1 drown:1 cheer:1 http:1 youtube:1 com:1 watch:1 v:1 race:1 recognize:1 croatia:2 croatian:1 independence:1 shortly:1 serbian:1 vukovar:1 rest:1 european:5 union:3 pressure:1 suit:1 soon:1 afterward:1 historically:1 close:1 collaboration:1 put:1 slobodan:1 milošević:1 also:2 participant:1 development:1 take:1 single:1 act:1 treaty:1 negotiation:1 mid:1 well:1 joint:1 publication:1 colombo:2 plan:1 italian:1 prime:1 advocate:1 integration:1 deepening:1 towards:1 federalist:1 politics:2 run:1 reelection:1 since:2 lawyer:1 public:2 company:1 bona:1 fide:1 found:1 consult:1 gmbh:1 express:1 concern:1 lifting:1 bishop:1 society:1 saint:1 pius:1 x:1 papst:1 aber:1 bitte:1 nicht:1 write:1 mitteldeutsche:1 zeitung:1 pole:1 proud:1 pope:3 john:1 paul:1 papal:1 election:1 please:1 like:1 argue:1 benedict:1 xvi:1 habit:1 offend:1 non:1 catholic:1 deep:1 moral:1 question:1 victim:1 crime:1 humanity:1 see:1 history:1 reference:1 |@bigram dietrich_genscher:3 vice_chancellor:3 dictator_adolf:1 adolf_hitler:1 ill_fated:1 roll_dice:1 chancellor_willy:1 willy_brandt:1 coalition_fdp:1 summer_olympics:1 munich_massacre:1 helmut_schmidt:2 coalition_spd:1 cdu_csu:1 helmut_kohl:1 w_bush:1 lech_wałęsa:1 croatia_croatian:1 slobodan_milošević:1 prime_minister:1 bona_fide:1 pope_benedict:1 benedict_xvi:1 |
4,299 | Isomorphism | In abstract algebra, an isomorphism (Greek: ἴσος isos "equal", and μορφή morphe "shape") is a bijective map f such that both f and its inverse f −1 are homomorphisms, i.e., structure-preserving mappings. In the more general setting of category theory, an isomorphism is a morphism f:X→Y in a category for which there exists an "inverse" f −1:Y→X, with the property that both f −1f=idX and ff −1=idY. Informally, an isomorphism is a kind of mapping between objects, which shows a relationship between two properties or operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two structures, we call the two structures isomorphic. In a certain sense, isomorphic structures are structurally identical, if you choose to ignore finer-grained differences that may arise from how they are defined. Purpose Isomorphisms are studied in mathematics in order to extend insights from one phenomenon to others: if two objects are isomorphic, then any property which is preserved by an isomorphism and which is true of one of the objects is also true of the other. If an isomorphism can be found from a relatively unknown part of mathematics into some well studied division of mathematics, where many theorems are already proved, and many methods are already available to find answers, then the function can be used to map whole problems out of unfamiliar territory over to "solid ground" where the problem is easier to understand and work with. Practical example The following are examples of isomorphisms from ordinary algebra. Consider the logarithm function: For any fixed base b, the logarithm function logb maps from the positive real numbers onto the real numbers ; formally: This mapping is one-to-one and onto, that is, it is a bijection from the domain to the codomain of the logarithm function. In addition to being an isomorphism of sets, the logarithm function also preserves certain operations. Specifically, consider the group of positive real numbers under ordinary multiplication. The logarithm function obeys the following identity: But the real numbers under addition also form a group. So the logarithm function is in fact a group isomorphism from the group to the group . <p> Logarithms can therefore be used to simplify multiplication of real numbers. By working with logarithms, multiplication of positive real numbers is replaced by addition of logs. This way it is possible to multiply real numbers using a ruler and a table of logarithms, or using a slide rule with a logarithmic scale. Consider the group Z6, the numbers from 0 to 5 with addition modulo 6. Also consider the group Z2 × Z3, the ordered pairs where the x coordinates can be 0 or 1, and the y coordinates can be 0, 1, or 2, where addition in the x-coordinate is modulo 2 and addition in the y-coordinate is modulo 3. These structures are isomorphic under addition, if you identify them using the following scheme: (0,0) -> 0 (1,1) -> 1 (0,2) -> 2 (1,0) -> 3 (0,1) -> 4 (1,2) -> 5 or in general (a,b) -> ( 3a + 4 b ) mod 6. For example note that (1,1) + (1,0) = (0,1) which translates in the other system as 1 + 3 = 4. Even though these two groups "look" different in that the sets contain different elements, they are indeed isomorphic: their structures are exactly the same. More generally, the direct product of two cyclic groups Zn and Zm is cyclic if and only if n and m are coprime. Abstract examples A relation-preserving isomorphism If one object consists of a set X with a binary relation R and the other object consists of a set Y with a binary relation S then an isomorphism from X to Y is a bijective function f : X → Y such that f(u) S f(v) if and only if u R v. S is reflexive, irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, asymmetric, transitive, total, , a partial order, total order, strict weak order, total preorder (weak order), an equivalence relation, or a relation with any other special properties, if and only if R is. For example, R is an ordering ≤ and S an ordering , then an isomorphism from X to Y is a bijective function f : X → Y such that if and only if u ≤ v. Such an isomorphism is called an order isomorphism or (less commonly) an isotone isomorphism. If X = Y we have a relation-preserving automorphism. An operation-preserving isomorphism Suppose that on these sets X and Y, there are two binary operations and which happen to constitute the groups (X,) and (Y,). Note that the operators operate on elements from the domain and range, respectively, of the "one-to-one" and "onto" function f. There is an isomorphism from X to Y if the bijective function f : X → Y happens to produce results, that sets up a correspondence between the operator and the operator . for all u, v in X. Applications In abstract algebra, two basic isomorphisms are defined: Group isomorphism, an isomorphism between groups Ring isomorphism, an isomorphism between rings. (Note that isomorphisms between fields are actually ring isomorphisms) Just as the automorphisms of an algebraic structure form a group, the isomorphisms between two algebras sharing a common structure form a heap. Letting a particular isomorphism identify the two structures turns this heap into a group. In mathematical analysis, the Laplace transform is an isomorphism mapping hard differential equations into easier algebraic equations. In category theory, Iet the category C consist of two classes, one of objects and the other of morphisms. Then a general definition of isomorphism that covers the previous and many other cases is: an isomorphism is a morphism f : a → b that has an inverse, i.e. there exists a morphism g : b → a with fg = 1b and gf = 1a. For example, a bijective linear map is an isomorphism between vector spaces, and a bijective continuous function whose inverse is also continuous is an isomorphism between topological spaces, called a homeomorphism. In graph theory, an isomorphism between two graphs G and H is a bijective map f from the vertices of G to the vertices of H that preserves the "edge structure" in the sense that there is an edge from vertex u to vertex v in G if and only if there is an edge from f(u) to f(v) in H. See graph isomorphism. In early theories of logical atomism, the formal relationship between facts and true propositions was theorized by Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein to be isomorphic. An example of this line of thinking can be found in Russell's Introduction to the Philosophy of Mathematics. In cybernetics, the Good Regulator or Conant-Ashby theorem is stated "Every Good Regulator of a system must be a model of that system". Whether regulated or self-regulating an isomorphism is required between regulator part and the processing part of the system. See also Epimorphism Heap (mathematics) Isomorphism class Monomorphism Isometry External links | Isomorphism |@lemmatized abstract:3 algebra:4 isomorphism:36 greek:1 ἴσος:1 isos:1 equal:1 μορφή:1 morphe:1 shape:1 bijective:7 map:6 f:16 inverse:4 homomorphisms:1 e:2 structure:10 preserving:3 mapping:3 general:3 setting:1 category:4 theory:4 morphism:3 x:15 exist:3 property:4 idx:1 ff:1 idy:1 informally:1 kind:1 object:6 show:1 relationship:2 two:12 operation:4 call:3 isomorphic:6 certain:2 sense:2 structurally:1 identical:1 choose:1 ignore:1 fine:1 grain:1 difference:1 may:1 arise:1 define:2 purpose:1 study:1 mathematics:5 order:7 extend:1 insight:1 one:8 phenomenon:1 others:1 preserve:4 true:3 also:6 find:3 relatively:1 unknown:1 part:3 well:1 studied:1 division:1 many:3 theorem:2 already:2 prove:1 method:1 available:1 answer:1 function:12 use:5 whole:1 problem:2 unfamiliar:1 territory:1 solid:1 ground:1 easy:2 understand:1 work:2 practical:1 example:6 follow:1 ordinary:2 consider:4 logarithm:9 fixed:1 base:1 b:5 logb:1 positive:3 real:7 number:8 onto:3 formally:1 bijection:1 domain:2 codomain:1 addition:7 set:6 specifically:1 group:14 multiplication:3 obeys:1 following:2 identity:1 form:3 fact:2 p:1 therefore:1 simplify:1 replace:1 log:1 way:1 possible:1 multiply:1 ruler:1 table:1 slide:1 rule:1 logarithmic:1 scale:1 modulo:3 ordered:1 pair:1 coordinate:4 identify:2 scheme:1 mod:1 note:3 translate:1 system:4 even:1 though:1 look:1 different:2 contain:1 element:2 indeed:1 exactly:1 generally:1 direct:1 product:1 cyclic:2 zn:1 zm:1 n:1 coprime:1 examples:1 relation:6 consist:2 binary:3 r:4 consists:1 u:6 v:6 reflexive:1 irreflexive:1 symmetric:1 antisymmetric:1 asymmetric:1 transitive:1 total:3 partial:1 strict:1 weak:2 preorder:1 equivalence:1 special:1 ordering:1 less:1 commonly:1 isotone:1 automorphism:1 suppose:1 happen:2 constitute:1 operator:3 operate:1 range:1 respectively:1 produce:1 result:1 correspondence:1 application:1 basic:1 ring:3 field:1 actually:1 automorphisms:1 algebraic:2 share:1 common:1 heap:3 let:1 particular:1 turn:1 mathematical:1 analysis:1 laplace:1 transform:1 hard:1 differential:1 equation:2 iet:1 c:1 class:2 morphisms:1 definition:1 cover:1 previous:1 case:1 g:4 fg:1 gf:1 linear:1 vector:1 space:2 continuous:2 whose:1 topological:1 homeomorphism:1 graph:3 h:3 vertex:4 edge:3 see:2 early:1 logical:1 atomism:1 formal:1 proposition:1 theorize:1 bertrand:1 russell:2 ludwig:1 wittgenstein:1 line:1 thinking:1 introduction:1 philosophy:1 cybernetics:1 good:2 regulator:3 conant:1 ashby:1 state:1 every:1 must:1 model:1 whether:1 regulate:2 self:1 require:1 process:1 epimorphism:1 monomorphism:1 isometry:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram abstract_algebra:2 domain_codomain:1 logarithmic_scale:1 ordered_pair:1 symmetric_antisymmetric:1 equivalence_relation:1 isomorphism_isomorphism:2 laplace_transform:1 differential_equation:1 topological_space:1 logical_atomism:1 bertrand_russell:1 ludwig_wittgenstein:1 external_link:1 |
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