Unnamed: 0
int64 0
7.84k
| id
stringlengths 1
79
| raw_text
stringlengths 15
171k
| vw_text
stringlengths 51
47.3k
|
|---|---|---|---|
4,600 | Godwin's_law | Godwin's Law (also known as Godwin's Rule of Nazi Analogies) is an informal adage created by Mike Godwin in 1990. The adage states: "As a Usenet discussion grows longer, the probability of a comparison involving Nazis or Hitler approaches 1." Godwin's Law is often cited in online discussions as a deterrent against the use of arguments in the widespread reductio ad Hitlerum form. The rule does not make any statement about whether any particular reference or comparison to Adolf Hitler or the Nazis might be appropriate, but only asserts that the likelihood of such a reference or comparison arising increases in direct proportion to the length of the discussion. It is precisely because such a comparison or reference may sometimes be appropriate, Godwin has argued, Cyber Rights: Defending Free Speech in the Digital Age that overuse of Nazi and Hitler comparisons should be avoided, because it robs the valid comparisons of their impact. Although in one of its early forms Godwin's Law referred specifically to Usenet newsgroup discussions, the law is now applied to any threaded online discussion: electronic mailing lists, message boards, chat rooms, and more recently blog comment threads and wiki talk pages. Corollaries and usage There are many corollaries to Godwin's law, some considered more canonical (by being adopted by Godwin himself) than others invented later. For example, there is a tradition in many newsgroups and other Internet discussion forums that once such a comparison is made, the thread is finished and whoever mentioned the Nazis has automatically "lost" whatever debate was in progress. This principle itself is frequently referred to as Godwin's Law. It is considered poor form to raise such a comparison arbitrarily with the motive of ending the thread. There is a widely recognized codicil that any such ulterior-motive invocation of Godwin's law will be unsuccessful (this is sometimes referred to as "Quirk's Exception"). Godwin's Law applies especially to inappropriate, inordinate, or hyperbolic comparisons of other situations (or one's opponent) with Hitler or Nazis or their actions. The corollaries of the law would presumably not apply to discussions covering genocide, propaganda, or other mainstays of the Third Reich, or – more debatably – to discussion of other totalitarian regimes. Whether it applies to humorous use or references to oneself is open to interpretation, because although mentioning and trivializing Nazism in an online discussion, this would not be a fallacious attack against a debate opponent. However, Godwin's Law itself can be abused, as a distraction, diversion or even censorship, that fallaciously miscasts an opponent's argument as hyperbole, especially if the comparisons made by the argument are actually appropriate. A 2005 Reason magazine article argued that Godwin's Law is often misused to ridicule even valid comparisons. History Godwin has stated that he introduced Godwin's Law in 1990 as an experiment in memetics. Linking by implication the fallacy of reductio ad Hitlerum to online discussion length had been done before 1990 by a poster named Richard Sexton in 1989: "You can tell when a USENET discussion is getting old when one of the participants drags out Hitler and the Nazis." Godwin's Law does not, however, claim to articulate a fallacy; it is instead framed as a memetic tool to reduce the incidence of inappropriate hyperbolic comparisons. "Although deliberately framed as if it were a law of nature or of mathematics, its purpose has always been rhetorical and pedagogical: I wanted folks who glibly compared someone else to Hitler or to Nazis to think a bit harder about the Holocaust," Godwin has written. http://www.jewcy.com/post/i_seem_be_verb_18_years_godwins_law It has not been established whether Sexton's quip had any influence on Godwin's law, though Sexton continues, citing an apparent joke by Godwin, to claim Godwin borrowed the idea from Sexton and named it. Local variations In Germany, a Nazometer is a mock measurement device suggested by German comedian Harald Schmidt (and causing a minor scandal). 15. November 2007, STREIT UM SCHMIDT & POCHER Rettet das Nazometer! Henryk M. Broder, in Der Spiegel ("Conflict about Schmidt & Pocher: Save the Nazometer"). The device allegedly screens spoken language and will give alarms even at minor Nazi-specific allegations as "Autobahn", "Eva", "Herman" or "Rammstein". In popular culture While Godwin's Law initially was best known in Usenet, it has clearly spread to other forms of online communication. In 2007, Slashdot noted that Godwin's Law affected an ongoing, highly public dispute between Linux author Linus Torvalds and the GNOME project. A May 2007 issue of Randall Munroe's webcomic xkcd anachronistically portrays Allied officers trying to discuss Axis military tactics, but being interrupted by Godwin's Law. Similarly, a November 2007 issue of Jeph Jacques's webcomic Questionable Content, entitled "Godwin Wars", referenced (and contrasted) Godwin's law and the reductio ad Hitlerum. In its October 2007 issue and on its website, Wired published a "Geekipedia" piece that includes an entry for "Godwin's law" among "people, place, ideas, and trends you need to know now". The concept appears to have entered the public consciousness more broadly, as well. In 2005, the aphorism was the subject of a question in the British television quiz show University Challenge. By 2007, The Economist had declared that "a good rule in most discussions is that the first person to call the other a Nazi automatically loses the argument." And in October 2007, the "Last Page" columnist in The Smithsonian stated that when an adversary uses an inappropriate Hitler or Nazi comparison, "you have only to say 'Godwin's Law' and a trapdoor falls open, plunging your rival into a pool of hungry crocodiles." On October 20, 2008, Rachel Maddow, on The Rachel Maddow Show, proposed a corollary to Godwin's law that as the time a liberal candidate is believed to be winning an election or argument increases, the probability that they will be labeled communist or socialist approaches one. In a Christmas Day 2008 review of The Spirit, New York Times movie critic A.O. Scott suggested that "a similar axiom" to Godwin's Law, "applied to Hollywood, would stipulate that every movie star must eventually dress up in a German war uniform." Retrieved on May 24, 2009. See also Association fallacy Benford's law of controversy Internet troll List of adages named after people Infinite monkey theorem Reductio ad Hitlerum References External links Godwin's Law FAQ (alternate link) Godwin's Law at the Public Domain Jargon File "I Seem to be a Verb"; Mike Godwin's commentary on the 18th anniversary of Godwin's Law | Godwin's_law |@lemmatized godwin:33 law:27 also:2 know:3 rule:3 nazi:8 analogy:1 informal:1 adage:3 create:1 mike:2 state:3 usenet:4 discussion:12 grows:1 longer:1 probability:2 comparison:13 involve:1 hitler:7 approach:2 often:2 cite:2 online:5 deterrent:1 use:2 argument:5 widespread:1 reductio:4 ad:4 hitlerum:4 form:4 make:3 statement:1 whether:3 particular:1 reference:6 adolf:1 nazis:3 might:1 appropriate:3 assert:1 likelihood:1 arise:1 increase:2 direct:1 proportion:1 length:2 precisely:1 may:3 sometimes:2 argue:2 cyber:1 right:1 defend:1 free:1 speech:1 digital:1 age:1 overuse:1 avoid:1 rob:1 valid:2 impact:1 although:3 one:4 early:1 refer:3 specifically:1 newsgroup:1 apply:4 threaded:1 electronic:1 mailing:1 list:2 message:1 board:1 chat:1 room:1 recently:1 blog:1 comment:1 thread:3 wiki:1 talk:1 page:2 corollary:4 usage:1 many:2 consider:2 canonical:1 adopt:1 others:1 invent:1 later:1 example:1 tradition:1 newsgroups:1 internet:2 forum:1 finish:1 whoever:1 mention:1 automatically:2 lose:2 whatever:1 debate:2 progress:1 principle:1 frequently:1 poor:1 raise:1 arbitrarily:1 motive:2 end:1 widely:1 recognize:1 codicil:1 ulterior:1 invocation:1 unsuccessful:1 quirk:1 exception:1 applies:1 especially:2 inappropriate:3 inordinate:1 hyperbolic:2 situation:1 opponent:3 action:1 would:3 presumably:1 cover:1 genocide:1 propaganda:1 mainstay:1 third:1 reich:1 debatably:1 totalitarian:1 regime:1 humorous:1 oneself:1 open:2 interpretation:1 mentioning:1 trivialize:1 nazism:1 fallacious:1 attack:1 however:2 abuse:1 distraction:1 diversion:1 even:3 censorship:1 fallaciously:1 miscast:1 hyperbole:1 actually:1 reason:1 magazine:1 article:1 misuse:1 ridicule:1 history:1 introduce:1 experiment:1 memetics:1 link:3 implication:1 fallacy:3 poster:1 name:3 richard:1 sexton:4 tell:1 get:1 old:1 participant:1 drag:1 claim:2 articulate:1 instead:1 frame:2 memetic:1 tool:1 reduce:1 incidence:1 deliberately:1 nature:1 mathematics:1 purpose:1 always:1 rhetorical:1 pedagogical:1 want:1 folk:1 glibly:1 compare:1 someone:1 else:1 think:1 bit:1 hard:1 holocaust:1 write:1 http:1 www:1 jewcy:1 com:1 post:1 establish:1 quip:1 influence:1 though:1 continue:1 apparent:1 joke:1 borrow:1 idea:2 local:1 variation:1 germany:1 nazometer:3 mock:1 measurement:1 device:2 suggest:2 german:2 comedian:1 harald:1 schmidt:3 cause:1 minor:2 scandal:1 november:2 streit:1 um:1 pocher:2 rettet:1 das:1 henryk:1 broder:1 der:1 spiegel:1 conflict:1 save:1 allegedly:1 screen:1 spoken:1 language:1 give:1 alarm:1 specific:1 allegation:1 autobahn:1 eva:1 herman:1 rammstein:1 popular:1 culture:1 initially:1 best:1 clearly:1 spread:1 communication:1 slashdot:1 note:1 affect:1 ongoing:1 highly:1 public:3 dispute:1 linux:1 author:1 linus:1 torvalds:1 gnome:1 project:1 issue:3 randall:1 munroe:1 webcomic:2 xkcd:1 anachronistically:1 portray:1 allied:1 officer:1 try:1 discuss:1 axis:1 military:1 tactic:1 interrupt:1 similarly:1 jeph:1 jacques:1 questionable:1 content:1 entitle:1 war:2 contrast:1 october:3 website:1 wire:1 publish:1 geekipedia:1 piece:1 include:1 entry:1 among:1 people:2 place:1 trend:1 need:1 concept:1 appear:1 enter:1 consciousness:1 broadly:1 well:1 aphorism:1 subject:1 question:1 british:1 television:1 quiz:1 show:2 university:1 challenge:1 economist:1 declare:1 good:1 first:1 person:1 call:1 last:1 columnist:1 smithsonian:1 adversary:1 us:1 say:1 trapdoor:1 fall:1 plunge:1 rival:1 pool:1 hungry:1 crocodile:1 rachel:2 maddow:2 propose:1 time:2 liberal:1 candidate:1 believe:1 win:1 election:1 label:1 communist:1 socialist:1 christmas:1 day:1 review:1 spirit:1 new:1 york:1 movie:2 critic:1 scott:1 similar:1 axiom:1 hollywood:1 stipulate:1 every:1 star:1 must:1 eventually:1 dress:1 uniform:1 retrieve:1 see:1 association:1 benford:1 controversy:1 troll:1 infinite:1 monkey:1 theorem:1 external:1 faq:1 alternate:1 domain:1 jargon:1 file:1 seem:1 verb:1 commentary:1 anniversary:1 |@bigram reductio_ad:4 ad_hitlerum:4 adolf_hitler:1 usenet_newsgroup:1 mailing_list:1 chat_room:1 ulterior_motive:1 third_reich:1 totalitarian_regime:1 someone_else:1 http_www:1 der_spiegel:1 linus_torvalds:1 external_link:1 |
4,601 | Diocletian | Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (c. December 22, 244 Barnes, New Empire, 30, 46; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 68. – December 3, 311 Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 32–35; Barnes, New Empire, 31–32. ), born Diocles () and commonly known as Diocletian (), was Roman Emperor from November 20, 284 to May 1, 305. Born to a Dalmatian family of low status, he rose through the ranks of the military to become cavalry commander to the emperor Carus. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian was acclaimed emperor by the army. A brief confrontation with Carus' other surviving son Carinus at the Battle of the Margus removed the only other claimant to the title. With his ascension to power, he ended the Crisis of the Third Century. Diocletian appointed fellow-officer Maximian his Augustus, his senior co-emperor, in 285. He delegated further on March 1, 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as Caesars, junior co-emperors. Under this "Tetrarchy", or "rule of four", each emperor would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. In campaigns against Sarmatian and Danubian tribes (285–90), the Alamanni (288), and usurpers in Egypt (297–98), Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of threats to his power. In 299, Diocletian led negotiations with Sassanid Persia, the empire's traditional enemy, and achieved a lasting and favorable peace. Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and re-organized the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire. He established new administrative centers in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Antioch, and Trier, closer to the empire's frontiers than the traditional capital at Rome had been. Building on third-century trends towards absolutism, Diocletian styled himself an autocrat, elevating himself above the empire's masses with imposing forms of court ceremonial and architecture. Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction projects increased the state's expenditures, and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform. From at least 297 on, imperial taxation was standardized, made more equitable, and levied at generally higher rates. Not all Diocletian's plans were successful; the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), Diocletian's attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was unsuccessful, counterproductive, and quickly ignored. Although effective while he ruled, Diocletian's Tetrarchic system collapsed after his abdication under the competing dynastic claims of Maxentius and Constantine, sons of Maximian and Constantius respectively. The Diocletianic Persecution (303–11), the empire's last, largest, and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity, did not destroy the empire's Christian community; indeed, after 324 Christianity became the empire's preferred religion under its first Christian emperor, Constantine. In spite of his failures, Diocletian's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of Roman imperial government and helped stabilize the empire economically and militarily, enabling an empire that had seemed near the brink of collapse in Diocletian's youth to remain essentially intact for another hundred years. Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on May 1, 305, and became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate the position. He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast, tending to his vegetable gardens. His palace went on to become the core of the modern day city of Split. Early life Diocletian was probably born near Salona in Dalmatia (Solin in modern Croatia), some time around 244. His parents named him Diocles, or possibly Diocles Valerius. Aurelius Victor 39.1; Potter, 648. The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22, his official birthday, as his actual birthdate. Other historians are not so certain. Barnes, New Empire, 30; Williams, 237–38. Diocles' parents were of low status, and writers critical of him claimed that his father was a scribe or a freedman of the senator Anullinus, or even that Diocles was a freedman himself. The first forty years of his life are mostly obscure. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 68; Potter, 280; Williams, 22–23. The Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras states that he was Dux Moesiae, Zonaras, 12.31; Southern, 331; Williams, 26. a commander of forces on the lower Danube. Mathisen, "Diocletian"; Williams, 26. The often-unreliable Historia Augusta states that he served in Gaul, but this account is not corroborated by other sources, and is ignored by modern historians of the period. SHA, Vita Carini 14–15; Williams, 26. In 282, the legions of the upper Danube in Raetia and Noricum proclaimed the praetorian prefect M. Aurelius Carus as emperor, beginning a rebellion against emperor Probus. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Odahl, 39; Southern, 132; Williams, 32. Probus' army, stationed in Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia), decided against fighting Carus, and assassinated Probus instead. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Odahl, 39; Southern, 132. Diocles soon gained Carus' trust. Carus soon appointed him to command the Protectores Domestici, the cavalry arm of the imperial bodyguard. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Barnes, New Empire, 31; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 68; Mathisen, "Diocletian"; Williams, 33. Carus, already sixty at his accession, wished to establish a dynasty that could outlive him. Odahl, 39; Southern, 132; Williams, 32. He immediately elevated his sons Carinus and Numerian to the rank of Caesar. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Odahl, 39; Williams, 32. In 283, Carus raised Carinus to the rank of Augustus, Leadbetter, "Carus"; Leadbetter, "Carinus"; Southern, 132. left him in charge of the care of the West, and moved with Numerian, Diocles, and the praetorian prefect Aper to the East, against the Sassanid Empire. The Sassanids had been embroiled in a succession dispute since the death of Shapur I in 272, and were in no position to oppose Carus' advance. Leadbetter, "Carus"; Odahl, 39. According to Zonaras, Eutropius, and Festus, Carus won a major victory against the Persians, taking Seleucia and the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon (near modern Al-Mada'in, Iraq), cities on opposite banks of the Tigris. Zonaras, 12.30; Eutropius, 9.14.1; Festus, 24; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Leadbetter, "Carus"; Odahl, 39; Potter, 279; Williams, 33. In celebration, Carus and his sons took the title Persici maximi. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Leadbetter, "Carus." Carus died in July or early August, Leadbetter, "Carus." reportedly struck by lightning. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Leadbetter, "Carus"; Odahl, 39; Southern, 133; Williams, 33–34. Rise to power Death of Numerian Map of the Roman Empire ca. 400 Carus' death left his unpopular sons Numerian and Carinus as the new Augusti. Carinus quickly made his way to Rome from Gaul, and arrived by January 284; Numerian lingered in the East. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4. The Roman retreat from Persia was orderly. Since the Persian King Bahram II was still struggling to establish his authority, he could not field any armies against them. The Romans left the country unopposed. Southern, 133. By March 284 Numerian had only reached Emesa (Hims) in Syria; by November, only Asia Minor. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Leadbetter, "Numerianus." In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health (he issued the only extant rescript in his name there), Codex Justinianus 5.52.2; Leadbetter, "Numerianus"; Potter, 279. but after he left the city, his staff, including the prefect Aper, reported that he suffered from an inflammation of the eyes. He traveled in a closed coach from then on. Leadbetter, "Numerianus." When the army reached Bithynia, some of Numerian's soldiers smelled an odor reminiscent of a decaying corpse emanating from the coach. They opened its curtains. Inside, they found Numerian, dead. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Leadbetter, "Numerianus"; Odahl, 39; Williams, 35. Aper officially broke the news in Nicomedia (İzmit) in November. Numerianus' generals and tribunes called a council for the succession, and chose Diocles as emperor, Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 68; Williams, 35–36. in spite of Aper's attempts to garner support. On November 20, 284, the army of the east gathered on a hill outside Nicomedia. The army unanimously saluted their new Augustus, and Diocles accepted the purple imperial vestments. He raised his sword to the light of the sun, and swore an oath disclaiming responsibility for Numerian's death. He asserted that Aper had killed Numerian and concealed it. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4–5; Odahl, 39–40; Williams, 36–37. In full view of the army, Diocles drew his blade and killed Aper. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4–5; Leadbetter, "Numerian"; Odahl, 39–40; Williams, 37. Soon after Aper's death, Diocles changed his name to the more Latinate "Diocletianus", Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 39. in full Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus. Barnes, New Empire, 31; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 68–69; Potter, 280; Southern, 134; Williams, 37. Conflict with Carinus Head of Carinus at the Centrale Montemartini After his accession, Diocletian and Lucius Caesonius Bassus Fully, L. Caesonius Ovinius Manlius Rufinianus Bassus. were named as consuls. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Potter, 280; Southern, 134. They assumed the fasces in place of Carinus and Numerianus. Bassus was a member of a Campanian senatorial family, a former consul and a proconsul of Africa. He had been chosen by Probus for signal distinction. He was a man skilled in areas of government where Diocletian, presumably, had no experience. Diocletian's elevation of Bassus as consul symbolized his rejection of Carinus' government in Rome, his refusal to accept second-tier status to any other emperor, and his willingness to continue the long-standing collaboration between the empire's senatorial and military aristocracies. It also tied his success to that of the Senate, whose support he would need in an advance on Rome. Diocletian was not the only challenger to Carinus' rule; the usurper M. Aurelius Julianus, Carinus' corrector Venetiae, took control of northern Italy and Pannonia after Diocletian's accession. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Leadbetter, "Carinus"; Southern, 134–35; Williams, 38. See also Banchich. He minted coins from the mint at Siscia (Sisak, Croatia) declaring himself as emperor and promising freedom. It was all good press for Diocletian, and aided in his portrayal of Carinus as a cruel and oppressive tyrant. Southern, 134–5; Williams, 38. Julianus' forces were weak, however, and were handily dispersed when Carinus' armies moved from Britain to northern Italy. As leader of the united East, Diocletian was clearly the greater threat. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Leadbetter, "Carinus." Over the winter of 284–85, Diocletian advanced west across the Balkans. In the spring, some time before the end of May, Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Potter, 280. his armies met Carinus' across the river Margus (Great Morava) in Moesia. In modern accounts, the site has been located between the Mons Aureus (Seone, west of Smederevo) and Viminacium, Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5. near modern Belgrade, Serbia. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Odahl, 40; Southern, 135. Despite having the stronger army, Carinus held the weaker position. His rule was unpopular; it was subsequently alleged that Carinus had mistreated the Senate and seduced the wives of his officers. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Williams, 37–38. It is possible that Flavius Constantius, the governor of Dalmatia and Diocletian's associate in the household guard, had already defected to Diocletian in the early spring. Potter, 280; Williams, 37. When the Battle of the Margus began, Carinus' prefect Aristobulus also defected. In the course of the battle, Carinus was killed by his own men. Following Diocletian's victory, both the western and the eastern armies acclaimed him emperor. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Odahl, 40; Williams, 38. Diocletian exacted an oath of allegiance from the defeated army and departed for Italy. Southern, 135; Williams, 38. Early rule Diocletian may have become involved in battles against the Quadi and Marcomanni immediately after the Battle of the Margus. He eventually made his way to northern Italy and made an imperial government, but it is not known whether Diocletian visited the city of Rome at this time. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69. There is a contemporary issue of coins suggestive of an imperial adventus (arrival) for the city, Roman Imperial Coinage 5.2.241 no. 203–04; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5, 287; Barnes, New Empire, 50. but some modern historians state that Diocletian avoided the city, and that he did so on principle; the city and its Senate were no longer politically relevant to the affairs of the empire, and needed to be taught as much. Diocletian dated his reign from his elevation by the army, not the date of his ratification by the Senate, Williams, 41. following the practice established by Carus, who had declared the Senate's ratification a useless formality. Aurelius Victor, De Cesaribus, 37.5, quoted in Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 654 If Diocletian ever did enter Rome shortly after his accession, he did not stay long; Southern, 135, 331. he is attested back in the Balkans by November 2, 285, on campaign against the Sarmatians. Potter, 281. Diocletian replaced the prefect of Rome with his consular colleague Bassus. Most officials who had served under Carinus, however, retained their offices under Diocletian. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5–6; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Barnes, New Empire, 113; Williams, 41–42. In an act the epitomator Aurelius Victor denotes as unusual act of clementia, Aurelius Victor, 39.15, qtd. in Leadbetter, "Carinus." Diocletian did not kill or depose Carinus' traitorous praetorian prefect and consul Ti. Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus, but confirmed him in both roles, Barnes, "Two Senators," 46; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5–6; Leadbetter, "Carinus"; Southern, 135; Williams, 41 and later gave him the proconsulate of Africa and the rank of urban prefect. Leadbetter, "Carinus." The other figures who retained their offices might have also betrayed Carinus. Barnes, "Two Senators," 46; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5–6; Leadbetter, "Carinus." Maximian made co-emperor Maximian's consistent loyalty to Diocletian proved an important component of the Tetrarchy's early successes. Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40. Recent history had demonstrated that sole rulership was dangerous to the stability of the empire. The assassinations of Aurelian (r. 270–75) and Probus testified to that truth. Potter, 280. Conflict boiled in every province of the empire, from Gaul to Syria, from Egypt to the lower Danube. It was too much for a single person to control, and Diocletian needed a lieutenant. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Southern, 136. At some time in 285 at Mediolanum (Milan, Italy), Diocletian raised his fellow-officer Maximian to the office of Caesar, making him co-emperor. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 4; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Bleckmann; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Potter, 280–81; Williams, 43–45. The concept of dual rulership was nothing new to the Roman Empire. Augustus, the first emperor (r. 27 BC–AD 14), had shared power with his colleagues, and more formal offices of co-emperor had existed from Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–80) on. Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40. See also: Williams, 48–49. Most recently, the emperor Carus and his sons had ruled together, albeit unsuccessfully. Diocletian was in a less comfortable position than most of his predecessors, as he had a daughter, Valeria, but no sons. His co-ruler had to be from outside his family. He could not, therefore, be easily trusted. Potter, 280; Southern, 136; Williams, 43. Some historians state that Diocletian, like some emperors before him, adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti, his "Augustan son", upon his appointment to the throne. Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Odahl, 42–43; Southern, 136; Williams, 45. This argument has not been universally accepted. Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Southern, 136. The relationship between Diocletian and Maximian was quickly couched in religious terms. Circa 287 Diocletian assumed the title Iovius, and Maximian assumed the title Herculius. Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 70–71; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Liebeschuetz, 235–52, 240–43; Odahl, 43–44; Williams, 58–59. The titles were probably meant to convey certain characteristics of their associated leaders; Diocletian, in Jovian style, would take on the dominating roles of planning and commanding; Maximian, in Herculian mode, would act as Jupiter's heroic subordinate. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 11–12; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 70–71; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Odahl, 43; Southern, 136–37; Williams, 58. For all their religious connotations, the emperors were not "gods" in the tradition of the Imperial cult—although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics. Instead, they were seen as the gods' representatives, effecting their will on earth. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 11; Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 172. The shift to divine sanctification from military acclamation took the power to appoint emperors away from the army. Religious legitimization elevated Diocletian and Maximian above potential rivals in a way military power and dynastic claims could not. Williams, 58–59. See also: Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 171. After his acclamation, Maximian was dispatched to fight the rebel Bagaudae in Gaul. Diocletian returned to the East. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Southern, 137. Conflict with Sarmatia and Persia Diocletian progressed slowly. By November 2, he had only reached Citivas Iovia (Botivo, near Ptuj, Slovenia). Codex Justinianus 4.48.5; Fragmenta Vaticana 297; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 50; Potter, 281. In the Balkans during the autumn of 285, he encountered a tribe of Sarmatians who demanded assistance from the emperor. The Sarmatians requested that Diocletian either help them recover their lost lands or grant them pasturage rights within the empire. Diocletian refused and fought a battle with them, but was unable to secure a complete victory. The nomadic pressures of the European Plain remained, and could not be solved by a single war; soon the Sarmatians would have to be fought again. Southern, 143; Williams, 52. He wintered in Nicomedia. There may have been a revolt in the eastern provinces at this time, because Diocletian brought settlers from Asia to populate emptied farmlands in Thrace. Panegyrici Latini 8(5)21.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6. He visited Judea the following spring. He probably returned to Nicomedia for the winter. Diocletian's stay in the East saw diplomatic success in the conflict with Persia: in 287, Bahram II granted him precious gifts, declared open friendship with the empire, and invited Diocletian to visit him. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Millar, 177. Roman sources insist that the act was entirely voluntary. Southern, 242. Around the same time, perhaps in 287, Barnes, New Empire, 51; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 73. Persia relinquished claims on Armenia and recognized Roman authority over territory to the west and south of the Tigris. The western portion of Armenia was incorporated into the Roman empire and made a province. Tiridates III, Arsacid claimant to the Armenian throne and Roman client, had been disinherited and forced to take refuge in the Roman empire after the Persian conquest of 252/3. In 287, he returned to lay claim to the eastern half of his ancestral domain. He encountered no opposition. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 73; Potter, 292, 651; Southern, 143; Williams, 52. Bahram II's gifts were widely recognized as symbolic of a victory in the ongoing conflict with Persia; Diocletian was hailed as the "founder of eternal peace". The events might have represented a formal end to Carus' eastern campaign, which probably ended without an acknowledged peace. Southern, 242, 360–61. At the conclusion of discussions with the Persians, Diocletian re-organized the Mesopotamian frontier and fortified the city of Circesium (Buseire, Syria) on the Euphrates. Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 73; Millar, 180–81; Southern, 143; Williams, 52. Maximian made Augustus Maximian's campaigns were not proceeding as smoothly. The Bagaudae had been easily suppressed, but Carausius, the man he had put in charge of operations against Saxon and Frankish pirates on the Saxon Shore, had begun keeping the goods seized from the pirates for himself. Maximian issued a death-warrant for his larcenous subordinate. Carausius fled the Continent, proclaimed himself Augustus, and spurred Britain and northwestern Gaul into open revolt against Maximian and Diocletian. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6–7; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 70–71; Potter, 283–84; Southern, 137–41; Williams, 45–47. Spurred by the crisis, on April 1, 286, Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6–7; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Potter, 282; Southern, 141–42; Williams, 47–48. Maximian took up the title of Augustus. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bleckmann; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Potter, 282; Southern, 141–42; Williams, 48. Maximian's appointment is unusual in that it was impossible for Diocletian to have been present to witness the event. It has even been suggested that Maximian usurped the title, and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war. Potter, 649. Although this suggestion is unpopular, it is clear that Diocletian meant for Maximian to act with a certain amount of independence from Diocletian. Potter, 282; Williams, 49. Carausius, rebel emperor of Roman Britain. Most of the evidence for Carausius' reign comes from his coinage, which was of generally fine quality. Southern, 140. Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress the rogue commander, and so, for the whole campaigning season of 287, campaigned against tribes beyond the Rhine instead. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 71; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40. The following spring, as Maximian prepared a fleet for an expedition against Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East to meet Maximian. The two emperors agreed on a joint campaign against the Alamanni. Diocletian invaded Germania through Raetia while Maximian progressed from Mainz. Each emperor burned crops and food supplies as he went, destroying the Germans' means of sustenance. Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 31; Southern, 142–43; Williams, 50. The two men added territory to the empire and allowed Maximian to continue preparations against Carausius without further disturbance. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Southern, 143. On his return to the East, Diocletian managed what was probably another rapid campaign against the resurgent Sarmatians. No details survive, but surviving inscriptions indicate that Diocletian took the title Sarmaticus Maximus after 289. Barnes, New Empire, 255; Southern, 144. In the East, Diocletian engaged in diplomacy with desert tribes in the regions between Rome and Persia. He might have been attempting to persuade them to ally themselves with Rome, thus reviving the old, Rome-friendly, Palmyrene sphere of influence, Potter, 285. or simply attempting to reduce the frequency of their incursions. Williams, 63. No details survive for these events. Southern, 144. Some of the princes of these states were Persian client kings; a disturbing fact in light of increasing tensions with that kingdom. Williams, 78. In the West, Maximian lost the fleet built in 288 and 289, probably in the early spring of 290. The panegyrist who refers to the loss suggests that its cause was a storm, Panegyrici Latini 8(5)12.2; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7, 288; Potter, 284–85, 650; Southern, 143; Williams, 55. but this might simply be the panegyrist's attempt to conceal an embarrassing military defeat. Southern, 143; Williams, 55. Diocletian broke off his tour of the Eastern provinces soon thereafter. He returned with haste to the West, reaching Emesa by May 10, 290, Codex Justinianus 9.41.9; Barnes, New Empire, 51; Potter, 285, 650. and Sirmium on the Danube by July 1, 290. Codex Justinianus 6.30.6; Barnes, New Empire, 52; Potter, 285, 650. Diocletian met Maximian in Milan in the winter of 290–91, either in late December 290 or January 291. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8; Barnes, New Empire, 52; Potter, 285. The meeting was undertaken with a sense of solemn pageantry. The emperors spent most of their time in public appearances. It has been surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian's continuing support for his faltering colleague. A deputation from the Roman Senate met with the emperors, renewing that body's infrequent contact with the imperial office. Panegyrici Latini 11(3)2.4, 8.1, 11.3–4, 12.2; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8, 288; Potter, 285, 650; Williams, 56. The choice of Milan over Rome further snubbed the capital's pride. But then it was already a long established practice that Rome itself was only a ceremonial capital, as the actual seat of the imperial administration was determined by the needs of defense. Long before Diocletian, Gallienus (r. 253–68) had already chosen Milan as the seat of his headquarters. Elsner, Imperial Rome, 73. If the panegyric detailing the ceremony implied that the true center of the empire was not Rome, but where the emperor sat ("...the capital of the Empire appeared to be there, where the two emperors met" Panegyrici Latini 11(3)12, qtd. in Williams, 57. ), it simply echoed what had already been stated by the historian Herodian in the early third century: "Rome is where the emperor is". Elsner, Imperial Rome, 73. During the meeting, decisions on matters of politics and war were probably made, but they were made in secret. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8; Potter, 285, 288. The Augusti would not meet again until 303. Tetrarchy Foundation of the Tetrarchy Triumphal Arch of the Tetrarchy, Sbeitla, Tunisia Some time after his return, and before 293, Diocletian transferred command of the war against Carausius from Maximian to Flavius Constantius. Constantius was a former governor of Dalmatia and a man of military experience stretching back to Aurelian's campaigns against Zenobia (272–73). He was Maximian's praetorian prefect in Gaul, and the husband to Maximian's daughter, Theodora. On March 1, 293 at Milan, Maximian gave Constantius the office of Caesar. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Barnes, New Empire, 4, 36–37; Potter, 288; Southern, 146; Williams, 64–65. In the spring of 293, in either Philippopolis (Plovdiv, Bulgaria) or Sirmium, Diocletian would do the same for Galerius, husband to Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and perhaps Diocletian's praetorian prefect. Constantius was assigned Gaul and Britain. Galerius was assigned Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and responsibility for the eastern borderlands. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Williams, 67. This arrangement is called the Tetrarchy, from a Greek term meaning "rulership by four". Southern, 145. The Tetrarchic emperors were more or less sovereign in their own lands, and they travelled with their own imperial courts, administrators, secretaries, and armies. Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 45–46; Williams, 67. They were joined by blood and marriage; Diocletian and Maximian now styled themselves as brothers. The senior co-emperors formally adopted Galerius and Constantius as sons in 293. These relationships implied a line of succession. Galerius and Constantius would become Augusti after Diocletian and Maximian's departure. Maximian's son Maxentius, and Constantius' son Constantine would then become Caesars. In preparation for their future roles, Constantine and Maxentius were taken to Diocletian's court in Nicomedia. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9. Conflict in the Balkans and Egypt A Trajanic temple on the island of Philae, the newly established border between the Nobatae and Blemmyes and Roman Egypt Diocletian spent the spring of 293 traveling with Galerius from Sirmium to Byzantium (Istanbul, Turkey). Diocletian then returned to Sirmium, where he would remain for the following winter and spring. He campaigned against the Sarmatians again in 294, probably in the autumn, Odahl, 59. and won a victory against them. The Sarmatians' defeat kept them from the Danube provinces for a long time. Meanwhile, Diocletian built forts north of the Danube, Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; Williams, 76–77. at Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary), Bononia (Vidin, Bulgaria), Ulcisia Vetera, Castra Florentium, Intercisa (Dunaújváros, Hungary), and Onagrinum (Begeč, Serbia). The new forts became part of a new defensive line called the Ripa Sarmatica. Williams, 76. In 295 and 296 Diocletian campaigned in the region again, and won a victory over the Carpi in the summer of 296. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; Odahl, 59; Southern, 149–50. Afterwards, during 299 and 302, as Diocletian was then residing in the East, it was Galerius' turn to campaign victoriously on the Danube Carrie & Rousselle, LEmpire Romain, 163-164 . By the end of his reign, Diocletian had secured the entire length of the Danube, provided it with forts, bridgeheads, highways, and walled towns, and sent fifteen or more legions to patrol the region; an inscription at Sexaginta Prista on the Lower Danube extolled restored tranquilitas at the region Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 164 . The defense came at a heavy cost, but was a significant achievement in an area difficult to defend. Williams, 77. Galerius, meanwhile, was engaged during 291-293 in disputes in Upper Egypt, where he suppressed a regional uprising Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 163 . He would return to Syria in 295 to fight the revanchist Persian Empire. Diocletian's attempts to bring the Egyptian tax system in line with imperial standards stirred discontent, and a revolt swept the region after Galerius' departure. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17. See also Southern, 160, 338. The usurper L. Domitius Domitianus declared himself Augustus in July or August 297. Much of Egypt, including Alexandria, recognized his rule. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17. Diocletian moved into Egypt to suppress him, first putting down rebels in the Thebaid in the autumn of 297, then moving on to besiege Alexandria. Domitianus died in December 297, DiMaio, "Domitius". by which time Diocletian had secured control of the Egyptian countryside. Alexandria, whose defense was organized under Diocletian's former corrector Aurelius Achilleus, held out until a later date, probably March 298. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; DiMaio, "Domitius". Bureaucratic affairs were completed during Diocletian's stay: Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17–18; Southern, 150. a census took place, and Alexandria, in punishment for its rebellion, lost the ability to mint independently. Southern, 150. Diocletian's reforms in the region, combined with those of Septimus Severus, brought Egyptian administrative practices much closer to Roman standards. Harries, 173. Diocletian travelled south along the Nile the following summer, where he visited Oxyrhynchus and Elephantine. In Nubia, he made peace with the Nobatae and Blemmyes tribes. Under the terms of the peace treaty Rome's borders moved north to Philae and the two tribes received an annual gold stipend. Diocletian left Africa quickly after the treaty, moving from Upper Egypt in September 298 to Syria in February 299. He met up with Galerius in Mesopotamia. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17–18. War with Persia Invasion, counterinvasion Military issue coin of Diocletian In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came to power in Persia. Narseh eliminated Bahram III, a young man installed in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293. Potter, 292; Williams, 69. In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts between the empires, and Diocletian responded with an exchange of ambassadors. Within Persia, however, Narseh was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike kings Ardashir (r. 226–41) and Shapur (r. 241–72), the same Shapur who had sacked Roman Antioch and skinned the Emperor Valerian (r. 253–260) to decorate his war temple. Williams, 69–70. Narseh declared war on Rome in 295 or 296. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, where he seized the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. Ammianus Marcellinus 23.5.11; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 81; " Potter, 292; Southern, 149. Narseh moved south into Roman Mesopotamia in 297, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum (Ar-Raqqah, Syria) Eutropius 9.24–25; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 81; Millar, 177–78. (and thus, the historian Fergus Millar notes, probably somewhere on the Balikh river). Millar, 177–78. Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle, Potter, 652. but he quickly divested himself of all responsibility. In a public ceremony at Antioch, the official version of events was clear: Galerius was responsible for the defeat; Diocletian was not. Diocletian publicly humiliated Galerius, forcing him to walk for a mile at the head of the imperial caravan, still clad in the purple robes of the emperor. Eutropius 9.24–25; Theophanes, anno 5793; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 81; Potter, 292–93. Detail of Galerius attacking Narseh on the Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki, Greece, the city where Galerius carried out most of his administrative actions Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 14; Southern, 151. Galerius was reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire's Danubian holdings. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 18; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 81; Millar, 178. Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. Millar, 178; Potter, Roman Empire at Bay, 293. It is unclear if Diocletian was present to assist the campaign; he might have returned to Egypt or Syria. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius' force, to Narseh's disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but unfavorable to Sassanid cavalry. In two battles, Galerius won major victories over Narseh. During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 18; Potter, 293. Galerius continued moving down the Tigris, and took the Persian capital at Ctesiphon before returning to Roman territory along the Euphrates. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 18; Millar, 178. Peace negotiations Narseh sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wives and children in the course of the war, but Galerius had dismissed him. Serious peace negotiations began in the spring of 299. Diocletian and Galerius' magister memoriae (secretary) Sicorius Probus were sent to Narseh to present terms. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 18. The conditions of the peace were heavy; Potter, 293. Armenia returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene (Carduene), and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau. Millar, 178–79; Potter, Roman Empire at Bay, 293. A stretch of land containing the later strategic strongholds of Amida (Diyarbakır, Turkey) and Bezabde came under firm Roman military occupation. Millar, 178. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region. The Tigris was said to have become the boundary between the two empires, but what this means is unclear, as the satrapies listed all lie on the far side of the river. Millar suggests that the satrapies might have been held under a loose Roman hegemony, without military occupation. At the conclusion of the peace, Tiridates regained both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim. Rome secured a wide zone of cultural influence, which led to a wide diffusion of Syriac Christianity from a center at Nisibis in later decades, and the eventual Christianization of Armenia. Religious persecutions Early persecutions At the conclusion of the peace, Diocletian and Galerius returned to Syrian Antioch. Southern, 151. At some time in 299, the emperors took part in a ceremony of sacrifice and divination in an attempt to predict the future. The haruspices were unable to read the entrails of the sacrificed animals, and blamed Christians in the imperial household. The emperors ordered all members of the court to perform a sacrifice to purify the palace. The emperors sent letters to the military command, demanding the entire army perform the required sacrifices or face discharge. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.1–5; Barnes, "Sossianus Hierocles", 245; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 18–19; Burgess, "Date of the Persecution", 157–58; Helgeland, "Christians and the Roman Army", 159; Liebeschuetz, 246–8; Odahl, 65. Diocletian was conservative in matters of religion, a man faithful to the traditional Roman pantheon and understanding of demands for religious purification, Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 20; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 51; Odahl, 54–56, 62. but Eusebius, Lactantius and Constantine state that it was Galerius, not Diocletian, who was the prime supporter of the purge, and its greatest beneficiary. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6, 31.1; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8, a1, 3; Constantine, Oratio ad Coetum Sanctum 22; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 19, 294. Galerius, even more devoted and passionate than Diocletian, saw political advantage in the politics of persecution. He was willing to break with a government policy of inaction on the issue. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 19. Antioch was Diocletian's primary residence from 299 to 302, while Galerius swapped places with his Augustus on the Middle and Lower Danube Barnes, New Empire, 49; Carrié & Roussele, L'Empire Romain, 163-164 . He visited Egypt once, over the winter of 301–2, and issued a grain dole in Alexandria. Following some public disputes with Manicheans, Diocletian ordered that the leading followers of Mani be burnt alive along with their scriptures. In a March 31, 302 rescript from Alexandria, he declared that low-status Manicheans must be executed by the blade, and high-status Manicheans must be sent to work in the quarries of Proconnesus (Marmara Island, Turkey) or the mines of Phaeno in southern Palestine. All Manichean property was to be seized and deposited in the imperial treasury. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 660; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 20. Diocletian found much to be offended by in Manichean religion: its novelty, its alien origins, the way it corrupted the morals of the Roman race, and its inherent opposition to long-standing religious traditions. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 33.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 20; Williams, 83–84. Manichaeanism was also supported by Persia at the time, compounding religious dissent with international politics. Williams, 78–79, 83–84. Excepting Persian support, the reasons why he disliked Manichaenism were equally applicable, if not more so, to Christianity, his next target. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 20. Catacomb of Saints Marcellinus and Peter on the Via Labicana. Christ between Peter and Paul. To the sides are the martyrs Gorgonius, Peter, Marcellinus, Tiburtius Great Persecution Diocletian returned to Antioch in the autumn of 302. He ordered that the deacon Romanus of Caesarea have his tongue removed for defying the order of the courts and interrupting official sacrifices. Romanus was then sent to prison, where he was executed on November 17, 303. The arrogance of this Christian displeased Diocletian, and he left the city for Nicomedia in the winter, accompanied by Galerius. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 20–21. According to Lactantius, Diocletian and Galerius entered into an argument over imperial policy towards Christians while wintering at Nicomedia in 302. Diocletian argued that forbidding Christians from the bureaucracy and military would be sufficient to appease the gods, but Galerius pushed for extermination. The two men sought the advice of the oracle of Apollo at Didyma. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 21; Odahl, 67. The oracle responded that "the just on earth" Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.50. hindered Apollo's ability to provide advice. These "just", Diocletian was informed by members of the court, could only refer to the Christians of the empire. At the behest of his court, Diocletian acceded to demands for universal persecution. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 21; Odahl, 67; Potter, 338. On February 23, 303, Diocletian ordered that the newly built church at Nicomedia be razed. He demanded that its scriptures be burned, and seized its precious stores for the treasury. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 22; Odahl, 67–69; Potter, 337; Southern, 168. The next day, Diocletian's first "Edict against the Christians" was published. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 22; Williams, 176. The edict ordered the destruction of Christian scriptures and places of worship across the Empire, and prohibited Christians from assembling for worship. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 22; Liebeschuetz, 249–50. Before the end of February, a fire destroyed part of the imperial palace. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 24; Southern, 168. Galerius convinced Diocletian that the culprits were Christians, conspirators who had plotted with the eunuchs of the palace. An investigation was commissioned, but no responsible party was found. Executions followed anyway, and the palace eunuchs Dorotheus and Gorgonius were executed. One individual, Peter, was stripped, raised high, and scourged. Salt and vinegar were poured in his wounds, and he was slowly boiled over an open flame. The executions continued until at least April 24, 303, when six individuals, including the bishop Anthimus, were decapitated. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 24. A second fire occurred sixteen days after the first. Galerius left the city for Rome, declaring Nicomedia unsafe. Diocletian would soon follow. Although further persecutionary edicts followed, compelling the arrest of the Christian clergy and universal acts of sacrifice, Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 23–24. the persecutionary edicts were ultimately unsuccessful; most Christians escaped punishment, and even pagans were generally unsympathetic to the persecution. The martyrs' sufferings strengthened the resolve of their fellow Christians. Treadgold, 25. Constantius and Maximian did not apply the later persecutionary edicts, and left the Christians of the West unharmed. Southern, 168. Galerius rescinded the edict in 311, announcing that the persecution had failed to bring Christians back to traditional religion. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 39. The temporary apostasy of some Christians, and the surrendering of scriptures, during the persecution played a major role in the subsequent Donatist controversy. Tilley, xi. Within twenty-five years of the persecution's inauguration, the Christian emperor Constantine would rule the empire alone. He would reverse the consequences of the edicts, and return all confiscated property to Christians. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 48–49, 208–213. Under Constantine's rule, Christianity would become the empire's preferred religion. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 208–213. Diocletian was demonized by his Christian successors: Lactantius intimated that Diocletian's ascendancy heralded the apocalypse, Lactantius, Divinae Institutiones 7.16–17; cf. Daniel 7:23–25; Digeser, 149–50. and in Serbian mythology, Diocletian is remembered as Dukljan, the adversary of God. Š. Kulišić, P. Ž. Petrović, and N. Pantelić, Српски митолошки речник (Belgrade: Nolit, 1970), 111–12. Later life Illness and abdication Diocletian's Palace at Salona (Split, Croatia) Diocletian entered the city of Rome in the early winter of 303. On November 20, he celebrated, with Maximian, the twentieth anniversary of his reign (vicennalia), the tenth anniversary of the Tetrarchy (decennalia), and a triumph for the war with Persia. Diocletian soon grew impatient with the city, as the Romans acted towards him with what Edward Gibbon, following Lactantius, calls "licentious familiarity" Gibbon, Decline and Fall, I, 153 and 712, note 92 . The Roman people did not give enough deference to his supreme authority; it expected him to act the part of an aristocratic ruler, not a monarchic one. On December 20, 303, Potter, 341. Diocletian cut short his stay in Rome and left for the north. He did not even perform the ceremonies investing him with his ninth consulate; he did them in Ravenna on January 1, 304 instead. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 24–25. There are suggestions in the Panegyrici Latini and Lactantius' account that Diocletian arranged plans for his and Maximian's future retirement of power in Rome. Maximian, according to these accounts, swore to uphold Diocletian's plan in a ceremony in the temple of Jupiter. Panegyrici Latini 7(6)15.16; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 20.4; Southern, 152, 336. From Ravenna, Diocletian left for the Danube. There, possibly in Galerius' company, he took part in a campaign against the Carpi. He contracted a minor illness while on campaign, but his condition quickly worsened and he chose to travel in a litter. In the late summer he left for Nicomedia. On November 20, he appeared in public to dedicate the opening of the circus beside his palace. He collapsed soon after the ceremonies. Over the winter of 304–5 he kept within his palace at all times. Rumors alleging that Diocletian's death was merely being kept secret until Galerius could come to assume power spread through the city. On December 13, he seemed to have finally died. The city was sent into a mourning from which it was only retrieved by public declarations of his survival. When Diocletian reappeared in public on March 1, 305, he was emaciated and barely recognizable. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25; Southern, 152. Galerius arrived in the city later in March. According to Lactantius, he came armed with plans to reconstitute the Tetrarchy, force Diocletian to step down, and fill the imperial office with men compliant to his will. Through coercion and threats, he eventually convinced Diocletian to comply with his plan. Lactantius also claims that he had done the same to Maximian at Sirmium. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 18.1–7; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25; Southern, 152. On May 1, 305, Diocletian called an assembly of his generals, traditional companion troops, and representatives from distant legions. They met at the same hill, out of Nicomedia, where Diocletian had been proclaimed emperor. In front of a statue of Jupiter, his patron deity, Diocletian addressed the crowd. With tears in his eyes, he told them of his weakness, his need for rest, and his will to resign. He declared that he needed to pass the duty of empire on to someone stronger. He thus became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate his title. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25–27; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine," 60; Odahl, 69–72; Potter, 341–42. Most in the crowd believed they knew what would follow; Constantine and Maxentius, the only adult sons of a reigning emperor, men who had long been preparing to succeed their fathers, would be granted the title of Caesar. Constantine had traveled through Palestine at the right hand of Diocletian, and was present at the palace in Nicomedia in 303 and 305. It is likely that Maxentius received the same treatment. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25–26. In Lactantius' account, when Diocletian announced that he was to resign, the entire crowd turned to face Constantine. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 26; Potter, 342. It was not to be: Severus and Maximin were declared Caesars. Maximin appeared and took Diocletian's robes. On the same day, Severus received his robes from Maximian in Milan. Constantius succeeded Maximian as Augustus of the West, but Constantine and Maxentius were entirely ignored in the transition of power. This did not bode well for the future security of the Tetrarchic system. Lenski, "Reign of Constantine," 60–61; Odahl, 72–74; Southern, 152–53. Retirement and death Diocletian retired to his homeland, Dalmatia. He moved into the expansive palace he had built on the Adriatic near the administrative center of Salona. Maximian retired to villas in Campania or Lucania. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27; Southern, 152. Their homes were distant from political life, but Diocletian and Maximian were close enough to remain in regular contact with each other. Southern, 152. Galerius assumed the consular fasces in 308 with Diocletian as his colleague. In the autumn of 308, Galerius again conferred with Diocletian at Carnuntum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria). Diocletian and Maximian were both present on November 11, 308, to see Galerius appoint Licinius to be Augustus in place of Severus, who had died at the hands of Maxentius. He ordered Maximian, who had attempted to return to power after his retirement, to step down permanently. At Carnuntum people begged Diocletian to return to the throne, to resolve the conflicts that had arisen through Constantine's rise to power and Maxentius' usurpation. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 31–32; Lenski, 65; Odahl, 90. Diocletian's reply: "If you could show the cabbage that I planted with my own hands to your emperor, he definitely wouldn’t dare suggest that I replace the peace and happiness of this place with the storms of a never-satisfied greed." Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus 39.6. He lived on for three more years, spending his days in his palace gardens. He saw his Tetrarchic system implode, torn by the selfish ambitions of his successors. He heard of Maximian's third claim to the throne, his forced suicide, his damnatio memoriae. In his own palace, statues and portraits of his former companion emperor were torn down and destroyed. Deep in despair and illness, Diocletian may have committed suicide. He died on December 3, 311. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41. Reforms Tetrarchic and ideological Modern view of Diocletian's Palace near Salona (in Split, Croatia) Diocletian saw his work as that of a restorer, a figure of authority whose duty it was to return the empire to peace, to recreate stability and justice where barbarian hordes had destroyed it. Potter, 294–95. He arrogated, regimented and centralized political authority on a massive scale. In his policies, he enforced an imperial system of values on diverse and often unreceptive provincial audiences. Potter, 298. In the imperial propaganda from the period, recent history is perverted and minimized in the service of the theme of the Tetrarchs as "restorers". Aurelian's achievements are ignored, the revolt of Carausius is backdated to the reign of Gallienus, and it is implied that the Tetrarchs engineered Aurelian's defeat of the Palmyrenes; the period between Gallienus and Diocletian is effectively erased. The history of the empire before the Tetrarchy is portrayed as a time of civil war, savage despotism, and imperial collapse. Potter, 296–98. In those inscriptions that bear their names, Diocletian and his companions are referred to as "restorers of the whole world", Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 617, qtd. in Potter, 296. men who succeeded in "defeating the nations of the barbarians, and confirming the tranquility of their world". Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 641, qtd. in Potter, 296. Diocletian was written up as the "founder of eternal peace". Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 618, qtd. in Potter, 296. See also Millar, 182, on Tetrarchic triumphalism in the Near East. The theme of restoration was conjoined to an emphasis on the uniqueness and accomplishments of the Tetrarchs themselves. The cities where emperors lived frequently in this period—Milan, Trier, Arles, Sirmium, Serdica, Thessaloniki, Nicomedia, and Antioch—were treated as alternate imperial seats, to the exclusion of Rome and its senatorial elite. Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 44–45. A new style of ceremony was developed, emphasizing the distinction of the emperor from all other persons. The quasi-republican ideals of Augustus' primus inter pares were abandoned for all but the Tetrarchs themselves. Diocletian took to wearing a gold crown and jewels, and forbade the use of purple cloth to all but the emperors. Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 43; Potter, 290. His subjects were required to prostrate themselves in his presence (adoratio); the most fortunate were allowed the privilege of kissing the hem of his robe (proskynesis, προσκύνησις). Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 171–72; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 43; Liebeschuetz, 235–52, 240–43. Circuses and basilicas were designed to keep the face of the emperor perpetually in view, and always in a seat of authority. The emperor became a figure of transcendent authority, a man beyond the grip of the masses. Potter, 290. His every appearance was stage-managed. Southern, 163. This style of presentation was not new—many of its elements were first seen in the reigns of Aurelian and Severus—but it was only under the Tetrarchs that it was refined into an explicit system. Southern, 153–54, 163. Administrative In keeping with his move from an ideology of republicanism to one of autocracy, Diocletian's council of advisers, his consilium, differed from those of earlier emperors. He destroyed the Augustan illusion of imperial government as a cooperative affair between emperor, army, and Senate. Southern, 162–63. In its place he established an effectively autocratic structure, a shift later epitomized in the institution's name: it would be called a consistorium ("consistory"), not a council. Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 171–72; Southern, 162–63; Williams, 110. Diocletian regulated his court by distinguishing separate departments (scrina) for different tasks. Southern, 162–63; Williams, 110. From this structure came the offices of different magistri, like the Magister officiorum ("Master of offices"), and associated secretariats. These were men suited to dealing with petitions, requests, correspondence, legal affairs, and foreign embassies. Within his court Diocletian maintained a permanent body of legal advisers, men with significant influence on his re-ordering of juridical affairs. There were also two finance ministers, dealing with the separate bodies of the public treasury and the private domains of the emperor, and the praetorian prefect, the most significant person of the whole. Diocletian's reduction of the Praetorian Guards to the level of a simple city garrison for Rome lessened the military powers of the prefect, but the office retained much civil authority. The prefect kept a staff of hundreds and managed affairs in all segments of government: in taxation, administration, jurisprudence, and minor military commands, the praetorian prefect was often second only to the emperor himself. Williams, 110. Altogether, Diocletian effected a large increase in the number of bureaucrats at the government's command; Lactantius was to claim that there were now more men using tax money than there were paying it. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.3, cited in Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 173. The historian Warren Treadgold estimates that under Diocletian the number of men in the civil service doubled from 15,000 to 30,000. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, 19. The classicist Roger Bagnall, based on data produced by A.H.M. Jones, estimated that there was one bureaucrat for every 5–10,000 people. (By comparison, the ratio in twelfth-century China was one bureaucrat for every 15,000 people.) Roger S. Bagnall, Egypt in Late Antiquity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 66, and A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey (Oxford: Blackwell, 1964), 594, cited in Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 173. To avoid the possibility of local usurpations Carrié & Rouselle, L'Empire Romain, 678 , to facilitate a more efficient collection of taxes and supplies, and to ease the enforcement of the law, Diocletian doubled the number of provinces from fifty to almost one hundred. As taken from the Laterculus Veronensis or Verona List, reproduced in Barnes, New Empire, chs. 12–13 (with corrections in T.D. Barnes, "Emperors, panegyrics, prefects, provinces and palaces (284–317)", Journal of Roman Archaeology 9 (1996): 539–42). See also: Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 9; Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 179; Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 24–27. The provinces were grouped into twelve dioceses, each governed by an appointed official called a vicarius, or "deputy of the praetorian prefects". Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 9; Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 25–26. Some of the provincial divisions required revision, and were modified either soon after 293 or early in the fourth century. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 10. . Rome herself (including her environs, as defined by a 100-miles-radius perimeter around the City itself) was kept outside the system, as she was to be administered by a City Prefect of senatorial rank - the sole prestigious post with actual power reserved exclusively for senators Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 655/666 .The dissemination of imperial law to the provinces was facilitated under Diocletian's reign, because Diocletian's reform of the empire's provincial structure meant that there were now a greater number of governors (praesides) ruling over smaller regions and smaller populations. Potter, 296. Diocletian's reforms shifted the governors' main function to that of the presiding official in the lower courts: Harries, 53–54; Potter, 296. whereas in the early empire military and judicial functions were the function of governor, and procurators had supervised taxation; under the new system vicarii and governors were responsible for justice and taxation, and a new class of duces ("dukes"), acting independently of the civil service, had military command. These dukes sometimes administered two or three of the new provinces created by Diocletian, and had forces ranging from two thousand to more than twenty thousand men. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 9–10; Treadgold, 18–20. In addition to their roles as judges and tax collectors, governors were expected to maintain the postal service (cursus publicus) and ensure that town councils fulfilled their duties. Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 25, citing Simon Corcoran, The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government A.D. 284-324 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 234–53. This curtailment of governors' powers as the emperors' representatives may have lessened the political dangers of an all-too-powerful class of imperial delegates, but it also severely limited governors' ability to oppose local landed elites. On one occasion, Diocletian had to exhort a proconsul of Africa not to fear the consequences of treading on the toes of the local magnates of senatorial rank, Codex Justinianus 2.13.1, qtd. by Carrié & Rousselle, l"Empire Romain, 678. If a governor of senatorial rank himself felt these pressures, one can imagine the difficulties faced by a mere praeses. Carrié & Roussele, L'Empire Romain, 678 Legal A 1581 reprint of the Digestorum from Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis (527–534). The Corpus drew on the codices of Gregorius and Hermogenianus, drafted and published under Diocletian's reign. As with most emperors, much of Diocletian's daily routine rotated around legal affairs—responding to appeals and petitions, and delivering decisions on disputed matters. Rescripts, authoritative interpretations issued by the emperor in response to demands from disputants in both public and private cases, were a common duty of second- and third-century emperors. Diocletian was awash in paperwork, and was nearly incapable of delegating his duties. It would have been seen as a dereliction of duty to ignore them. Diocletian's praetorian prefects—Afranius Hannibalianus, Julius Asclepiodotus, and Flavius Constantius—aided in regulating the flow and presentation of such paperwork, but the deep legalism of Roman culture kept the workload heavy. Williams, 53–54, 142–43. Emperors in the forty years preceding Diocletian's reign had not managed these duties so effectively, and their output in attested rescripts is low. Diocletian, by contrast, was prodigious in his affairs: there are around 1,200 rescripts in his name still surviving, and these probably represent only a small portion of the total issue. Johnston, "Epiclassical Law" (CAH), 201; Williams, Diocletian. 143. The sharp increase in the number of edicts and rescripts produced under Diocletian's rule has been read as evidence of a thoroughgoing effort to realign the whole empire on terms dictated by the imperial center. Potter, 296, 652. Under the governance of the jurists Gregorius, Aurelius Arcadius Charisius, and Hermogenianus, the imperial government began issuing official books of precedent, collecting and listing all the rescripts that had been issued from the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–38) to the reign of Diocletian. Harries, 14–15; Potter, 295–96. The Codex Gregorianus includes rescripts up to 292, which the Codex Hermogenianus updated with a comprehensive collection of rescripts issued by Diocletian in 293 and 294. Although the very act of codification was a radical innovation, given the decentralized nature of the Roman legal system, Potter, 295–96. the jurists themselves were generally conservative, and constantly looked to past Roman practice and theory for guidance. Harries, 21, 29–30; Potter, 295–96. They were probably given more free rein over their codes than the compilers of the Codex Theodosianus (438) and Codex Justinianus (529) would have. Gregorius and Hermogenianus' codices lack the rigid structuring of later codes, Harries, 21–22. and were not published in the name of the emperor, but in the names of their compilers. Harries, 63–64. After Diocletian's reform of the provinces, governors were called iudex, or judge. The governor became responsible for his decisions first to his immediate superiors, as well as to the more distant office of the emperor. Harries, 162. It was most likely at this time that judicial records became verbatim accounts of what was said in trial, making it easier to determine bias or improper conduct on the part of the governor. With these records and the empire's universal right of appeal, imperial authorities probably had a great deal of power to enforce behavior standards for their judges. Harries, 167. In spite of Diocletian's attempts at reform, the provincial restructuring was far from clear, especially when citizens appealed the decisions of their governors. Proconsuls, for example, were often both judges of first instance and appeal, and the governors of some provinces took appellant cases from their neighbors. It soon became impossible to avoid taking some cases to the emperor for arbitration and judgment. Harries, 55. Diocletian's reign marks the end of the classical period of Roman law. Where Diocletian's system of rescripts shows an adherence to classical tradition, Constantine's law is full of Greek and eastern influences. Johnston, "Epiclassical Law" (CAH), 207. Military See also: Late Roman army: Diocletian It is archaeologically difficult to distinguish Diocletian's fortifications from those of his successors and predecessors. The Devil's Dyke, for example, the Danubian earthworks traditionally attributed to Diocletian, cannot even be securely dated to a particular century. The most that can be said about built structures under Diocletian's reign is that he rebuilt forts along the Rhine–Iller–Danube line, in Egypt, and on the frontier with Persia. Beyond that, much discussion is speculative, and reliant on the broad generalizations of written sources. Diocletian and the Tetrarchs had no consistent plan for frontier advancement, and records of raids and forts built across the frontier are likely to indicate only temporary claims. The Strata Diocletiana, which ran from the Euphrates to Palmyra and northeast Arabia, is the classic Diocletianic frontier system, consisting of an outer road followed by tightly spaced forts followed by further fortifications in the rear. Campbell, "The Army" (CAH), 124–26; Southern, 154–55. See also: Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 19–20; Williams, 91–101. In an attempt to resolve the difficulty and slowness of transmitting orders to the frontier, the new capitals of the Tetrarchic era were all much closer to the empire's frontiers than Rome had been: Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 171; Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 27. Trier sat on the Rhine, Sirmium and Serdica were close to the Danube, Thessaloniki was on the route leading eastward, and Nicomedia and Antioch were important points in dealings with Persia. Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 27. Lactantius criticized Diocletian for an excessive increase in troop sizes, declaring that "each of the four [Tetrarchs] strove to have a far larger number of troops than previous emperors had when they were governing the state alone". Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.2, qtd. in Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 46. The fifth-century pagan Zosimus, by contrast, praised Diocletian for keeping troops on the borders, rather than keeping them in the cities, as Constantine was held to have done. Zosimus, 2.34 qtd. in Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 46. Both these views had some truth to them, despite the biases of their authors: Diocletian and the Tetrarchs did greatly expand the army, and the growth was mostly in frontier regions, although it is difficult to establish the precise details of these shifts given the weakness of the sources. Southern, 157; Treadgold, 19. The army expanded to about 581,000 men from a 285 strength of 390,000 men. The growth was smaller in the East, which only expanded from 253,000 men to 311,000 men, most of whom manned the Persian frontier. The navy's forces increased from approximately 46,000 men to approximately 64,000 men. Treadgold, 19. Diocletian's expansion of the army and civil service meant that the empire's tax burden would rise. Since military upkeep took the largest portion of the imperial budget, any reforms here would be especially costly. Southern, 158; Treadgold, 112–13. The proportion of the adult male population serving in the army increased from roughly 1 in 25 to 1 in 15, an increase judged excessive by some modern commentators. Official troop allowances were kept to low levels, and the mass of troops often resorted to extortion or the taking of civilian jobs. Southern, 159; Treadgold, 112–13. Arrears became the norm for most troops. Many were even given payment in kind in place of their salaries. Southern, 159. Were he unable to pay for his enlarged army, there would likely be civil conflict, potentially open revolt. Diocletian was led to devise a new system of taxation. Economic Taxation Diocletian introduced an extensive new tax system based on heads (capita) and land (iuga) and tied to a new, regular census of the empire's population and wealth. Census officials traveled throughout the empire, assessed the value of labor and land for each landowner, and joined the landowners' totals together to make city-wide totals of capita and iuga. Treadgold, 20. The iugum was not a consistent measure of land, but varied according to the type of land and crop, and the amount of labor necessary for sustenance. The caput was not consistent either: women, for instance, were often valued at half a caput, and sometimes at other values. The city would provide animals, money, and manpower in proportion to its capita, and grain in proportion to its iuga. Most taxes were due on each September 1, and levied from individual landowners by decuriones (decurions). These decurions, analogous to city councilors, were responsible for paying from their own pocket what they failed to collect from the populace. Southern, 160; Treadgold, 20. Diocletian's reforms also increased the number of financial officials in the provinces: more rationales and magistri privatae are attested under Diocletian's reign than before. These offices were to manage imperial properties and to supervise the collection of revenue. Despite the instability of the coinage, most taxes were either levied in or convertible into money. Rates shifted to take inflation into account. In 296, Diocletian issued an edict reforming census procedures. This edict introduced a general five-year census for the whole empire, replacing prior censuses that had operated at different speeds throughout the empire. The new censuses would keep up with changes in the values of capita and iuga. Potter, 333. In the interests of securing a generally egalitarian tax system, Italy, which had long been exempt from taxes, was exempt no longer. From 290/291 on, most of Italy would now be taxed on the same level as any other province. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 9, 288; Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 28–29; Southern, 159. The city prefecture of Rome itself and the surrounding Suburbicarian diocese (where Roman senators held the bulk of their landed property), however, remained exempt. Carrié & Rousselle, l"Empire Romain, 187–188. Diocletian's edicts emphasize the common liability of all taxpayers. Public records of all taxes were established to enhance the transparency of the operation, so that taxpayers would know exactly how much their neighbors paid. Williams, 125. The position of decurion had long been an honor sought by wealthy aristocrats, but under Diocletian its tax-collecting requirements became much more rigorous. Decurions and the city treasury could be bankrupted if production figures fell. The effects of the new tax system were deeply felt: boundary-markers (necessary for tax administration) dating from the Tetrarchic period make relatively frequent appearances in Near-Eastern towns, even in remote country districts like Sakkaia in the northern Hauran. Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum VII, no. 1055; Millar, 193–96. The Roman populace, long accustomed to irregular and ineffective tax collection, went through an uncomfortable period of adjustment to Diocletian's reforms. But even the lower classes were able to pay this burden. Brown, Rise of Christendom, 57; Williams, 123. The benefits of the new system were clear: taxes were predictable, regular, and fair, and the population was now free from fear. Citizens of the fourth century, safe behind the frontiers established and paid for by their taxes, no longer had to fear foreign occupation. Williams, 124. Currency and inflation A fragment of the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), on display in Berlin By the early 280s, market forces had created a stable exchange rate between gold and the copper antoninianus, more or less stabilizing commodity prices. The antoninianus, which had become the standard medium, however, remained a serious issue: Southern, 160. In spite of attempts to wean the nation off metal currency by converting governmental taxes and salaries to annonary payments in kind, metal currency remained in wide circulation. Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 176. In the wake of a brief period of re-inflation, Diocletian began a more comprehensive reform of the currency in 293. Potter, 392. The new system consisted of five coins: the aureus/solidus, a gold coin weighing, like its predecessors, one-sixtieth of a pound; the argenteus, a coin weighing one ninety-sixth of a pound and containing ninety-five percent pure silver; the follis, sometimes referred to as the laureatus A, which is a copper coin with added silver struck at the rate of thirty-two to the pound; the radiatus, a small copper coin struck at the rate of 108 to the pound, with no added silver; and a coin known today as the laureatus B, a smaller copper coin struck at the rate of 192 to the pound. Potter, 392–93. Since the nominal values of these new issues were lower than their intrinsic worth as metals, the state was minting these coins at a loss. This practice could only be sustained only by requisitioning precious metals from private citizens in exchange for state-minted coin (of a far lower value than the price of the precious metals requisitioned). By 301, however, the system was in trouble, strained by a new bout of inflation. Diocletian therefore issued his Edict on Coinage, an act re-tariffing all debts so that the nummi, the most common coin in circulation, would be worth half as much. Potter, 334, 393; Southern, 160. In the edict, preserved in an inscription from the city of Aphrodisias in Caria (near Geyre, Turkey), it was declared that all debts contracted before September 1, 301 would be repaid at the old standards, while all debts contracted after September 1 would be repaid at the new standards. Potter, 334–35. It appears that the edict was made in an attempt to preserve the current price of gold and to keep the empire's coinage on silver, Rome's traditional metal currency. Potter, 393. This edict risked giving further momentum to inflationary trends, as had happened after Aurelian's currency reforms. Soon the Tetrarchic government could see no better solution to its monetary woes than a series of price freezes. Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 176–77. The Edict on Maximum Prices (Edictum De Pretiis Rerum Venalium) was issued two to three months after the coinage edict, somewhere between November 20 and December 10, 301. The best-preserved Latin inscription surviving from the Greek East, Potter, 336. the edict survives in many versions, on materials as varied as wood, papyrus, and stone. Southern, 160, 339. In the edict, Diocletian declared that the current pricing crisis resulted from the unchecked greed of merchants, and had resulted in turmoil for the mass of common citizens. The language of the edict calls on the people's memory of their benevolent leaders, and exhorts them to enforce the provisions of the edict, and thereby restore perfection to the world. The edict goes on to list in detail over one thousand goods and accompanying retail prices not to be exceeded. Penalties are laid out for various pricing transgressions. Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 177–78; Potter, 335; Southern, 161. In the most basic terms, the edict was ignorant of the law of supply and demand: it ignored the fact that prices might vary from region to region according to product availability, and it ignored the impact of transportation costs in the retail price of goods. In the judgment of the historian David Potter, the edict was "an act of economic lunacy". Potter, 335. Inflation, speculation, and monetary instability continued, and a black market arose to trade in goods forced out of official markets. Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 178. The edict's penalties were applied unevenly across the empire (some scholars believe they were applied only in Diocletian's domains Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 177. ), widely resisted, and eventually dropped, perhaps within a year of the edict's issue. Potter, 336; Southern, 161. Lactantius has written of the perverse accompaniments to the edict; of goods withdrawn from the market, of brawls over minute variations in price, of the deaths that came when its provisions were enforced. His account may be true, but it seems to modern historians exaggerated and hyperbolic, Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.6–7, cited in Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 178, and Southern, 161. and the impact of the law is recorded in no other ancient source. Potter, 336; Williams, 131–32. Legacy The historian A.H.M. Jones observed that "It is perhaps Diocletian's greatest achievement that he reigned twenty-one years and then abdicated voluntarily, and spent the remaining years of his life in peaceful retirement." Jones, Later Roman Empire, 40. Diocletian was one of the few emperors of the third and fourth centuries to die naturally, and the first in the history of the empire to retire voluntarily. Williams, 228–29. Once he retired, however, his Tetrarchic system collapsed. Without the guiding hand of Diocletian, the empire frequently broke into civil war. Only in 324, when Constantine alone emerged triumphant, did stability return. Williams, 196–98. Under the Christian Constantine, Diocletian was maligned. Constantine's rule, however, validated Diocletian's achievements and the autocratic principle he represented: Williams, 204. the borders remained secure, in spite of Constantine's large expenditure of forces during his civil wars; the bureaucratic transformation of Roman government was completed; and Constantine took Diocletian's court ceremonies and made them even more extravagant. Williams, 205–6. Constantine ignored those parts of Diocletian's rule that did not suit him. Diocletian's policy of preserving a stable silver coinage was abandoned, and the gold solidus became the empire's primary currency instead. Williams, 207–8. Diocletian's paganism was repudiated in favor of an imperially sponsored Christianity, and his price controls were ignored. But even Christianity would be tied to the state structure of the empire in an autocratic way, and Constantine would claim to have the same close relationship with the Christian God as Diocletian claimed to have with Jupiter. Williams, 206. Most importantly, Diocletian's tax system was preserved and tightened. Williams, 208. Aided by the new state machinery introduced by Diocletian, the Byzantine Empire would last for over one thousand years after his death. Williams, 218–19. Notes Citations Chapters from The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire are marked with a "(CAH)". References Primary sources Codex Justinianus (translation) 529. Epitome de Caesaribus (translation) ca. 395. Eusebius of Caesarea, Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History) first seven books ca. 300, eighth and ninth book ca. 313, tenth book ca. 315, epilogue ca. 325. Book 8. Eutropius, Breviarium ab Urbe Condita (Abbreviated History from the City's Founding) ca. 369. Book 9 Lactantius, Liber De Mortibus Persecutorum (Book on the Deaths of the Persecutors) ca. 313–15. XII Panegyrici Latini (Twelve Latin Panegyrics) relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, and 307. Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History (Επιτομή Ιστορίων) ca. 1200. Compendium extract: Diocletian to the Death of Galerius: 284–311 Secondary sources Banchich, Thomas M. "Iulianus (ca. 286–293 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997). Accessed March 8, 2008. Barnes, Timothy D. "Lactantius and Constantine." The Journal of Roman Studies 63 (1973): 29–46. Barnes, Timothy D. "Two Senators under Constantine." The Journal of Roman Studies 65 (1975): 40–49. Barnes, Timothy D. Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0674165311 Barnes, Timothy D. The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982. ISBN 0783722214 Bleckmann, Bruno. "Diocletianus." In Brill's New Pauly, Volume 4, edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmut Schneider, 429–38. Leiden: Brill, 2002. ISBN 9004122591 Bowman, Alan, Averil Cameron, and Peter Garnsey, eds. The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-30199-8 Brown, Peter. The Rise of Western Christendom. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0-631-22138-7 Burgess, R.W. "The Date of the Persecution of Christians in the Army". Journal of Theological Studies 47:1 (1996): 157–158. Carrié, Jean-Michel & Rousselle, Aline. L'Empire Romain en mutation- des Sévères à Constantin, 192-337. Paris: Seuil, 1999. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 Corcoran, Simon. The Empire of the Tetrarchs, Imperial Pronouncements and Government AD 284–324. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-814984-0 Corcoran, Simon. "Before Constantine." In The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, edited by Noel Lenski, 35–58. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-81838-9 Paperback ISBN 0-521-52157-2 Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma. Lactantius and Rome: The Making of a Christian Empire. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0-8014-3594-2 DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "L. Domitius Domitianus and Aurelius Achilleus (ca. 296/297–ca. 297/298)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1996c). Accessed March 8, 2008. Elliott, T. G. The Christianity of Constantine the Great. Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press, 1996. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 Elsner, Jas. Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-19-284201-3 Gibbon, Edward. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Chicago, London & Toronto: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1952 (Great Books of the Western World coll.). In two volumes. Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 Helgeland, John. "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173-337." Church History 43:2 (1974): 149–163, 200. Jones, A.H.M. The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1964. Leadbetter, William. "Carus (282–283 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001a). Accessed February 16, 2008. Leadbetter, William. "Numerianus (283–284 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001b). Accessed February 16, 2008. Leadbetter, William. "Carinus (283–285 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001c). Accessed February 16, 2008. Lewis, Naphtali, and Meyer Reinhold. Roman Civilization: Volume 2, The Roman Empire. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-231-07133-7 Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. Continuity and Change in Roman Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-19-814822-4. Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian." Classical Philology 94:2 (1999): 198–209. Mathisen, Ralph W. "Diocletian (284–305 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997). Accessed February 16, 2008. Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. Hardcover ISBN 0-674-77885-5 Paperback ISBN 0-674-77886-3 Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-17485-6 Paperback ISBN 0-415-38655-1 Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge, 2005. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-10057-7 Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger. Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric: AD 289–307. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-924918-0 Rees, Roger. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7486-1661-6 Rostovtzeff, Michael. The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966. ISBN 978-0198142317 Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. New York: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 Tilley, Maureen A. Donatist Martyr Stories: The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1996. Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2 Williams, Stephen. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery. New York: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 See also 20,000 Martyrs of Nicomedia Dioclesian, Henry Purcell's 1690 tragicomic semi-opera, loosely based on the life of the historical Diocletian Diocletian window External links Diocletian from the Catholic Encyclopedia. 12 Byzantine Rulers, by Lars Brownworth. 15 minute audio lecture on Diocletian. Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia By Robert Adam, 1764. Plates made available by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center. (N.B. "Spalatro" was a less used alternative form of "Spalato", the Italian name for Croatian "Split"). | Diocletian |@lemmatized gaius:2 aurelius:14 valerius:3 diocletianus:4 c:2 december:9 barnes:121 new:66 empire:100 bowman:28 diocletian:267 first:41 tetrarchy:45 cah:45 lactantius:27 constantine:158 born:1 diocles:11 commonly:1 know:5 roman:60 emperor:65 november:11 may:13 bear:3 dalmatian:2 family:3 low:13 status:5 rise:6 rank:7 military:19 become:20 cavalry:3 commander:3 carus:24 death:14 son:14 numerian:12 campaign:15 persia:16 acclaim:2 army:27 brief:2 confrontation:1 survive:6 carinus:29 battle:8 margus:4 remove:2 claimant:2 title:10 ascension:1 power:16 end:7 crisis:5 third:6 century:10 appoint:6 fellow:3 officer:3 maximian:45 augustus:12 senior:2 co:7 delegate:3 far:6 march:9 galerius:41 constantius:13 caesar:7 junior:1 rule:14 four:3 would:39 quarter:1 division:3 sarmatian:1 danubian:3 tribe:5 alamanni:2 usurper:3 egypt:13 secure:7 border:6 purge:2 threat:3 lead:6 negotiation:3 sassanid:5 traditional:6 enemy:1 achieve:1 lasting:1 favorable:2 peace:14 separate:3 enlarge:1 civil:10 service:6 organize:3 provincial:5 establish:11 large:6 bureaucratic:4 government:14 history:14 administrative:7 center:6 nicomedia:16 mediolanum:2 antioch:8 trier:3 close:4 frontier:11 capital:7 rome:35 build:7 trend:2 towards:3 absolutism:1 style:5 autocrat:1 elevate:3 mass:4 impose:1 form:2 court:11 ceremonial:2 architecture:1 growth:3 constant:1 campaigning:2 construction:1 project:1 increase:9 state:29 expenditure:2 necessitate:1 comprehensive:3 tax:21 reform:13 least:2 imperial:37 taxation:6 standardize:1 make:17 equitable:1 levy:3 generally:5 high:3 rate:6 plan:6 successful:1 edict:29 maximum:3 price:13 attempt:12 curb:1 inflation:6 via:3 control:6 unsuccessful:2 counterproductive:1 quickly:6 ignore:9 although:6 effective:1 tetrarchic:10 system:20 collapse:5 abdication:2 compete:1 dynastic:2 claim:11 maxentius:8 respectively:1 diocletianic:2 persecution:13 last:2 bloody:1 official:12 christianity:8 destroy:5 christian:28 community:1 indeed:1 prefer:2 religion:6 spite:5 failure:1 fundamentally:1 change:4 structure:6 help:2 stabilize:1 economically:1 militarily:1 enable:1 seem:3 near:12 brink:1 youth:1 remain:9 essentially:1 intact:1 another:2 hundred:3 year:10 weaken:1 illness:4 leave:12 office:13 voluntarily:4 abdicate:3 position:5 live:3 retirement:5 palace:16 coast:1 tend:1 vegetable:1 garden:2 go:4 core:1 modern:12 day:5 city:28 split:4 early:14 life:6 probably:14 salona:4 dalmatia:5 solin:1 croatia:4 time:15 around:5 parent:2 name:10 possibly:2 victor:5 potter:67 historian:11 timothy:5 take:22 birthday:1 actual:3 birthdate:1 certain:3 williams:76 writer:1 critical:1 father:2 scribe:1 freedman:2 senator:6 anullinus:1 even:11 forty:2 mostly:2 obscure:1 eusebius:99 byzantine:5 chronicler:1 joannes:2 zonaras:5 dux:1 moesiae:1 southern:74 force:13 danube:13 mathisen:3 often:6 unreliable:1 historia:3 augusta:1 serve:3 gaul:7 account:8 corroborate:1 source:7 period:8 sha:1 vita:2 carini:1 legion:3 upper:3 raetia:2 noricum:1 proclaim:3 praetorian:10 prefect:17 begin:6 rebellion:2 probus:6 odahl:26 station:2 sirmium:8 sremska:1 mitrovica:1 serbia:3 decide:1 fight:6 assassinate:1 instead:5 soon:11 gain:1 trust:2 command:6 protectores:1 domestici:1 arm:2 bodyguard:1 already:5 sixty:1 accession:4 wish:1 dynasty:1 could:12 outlive:1 immediately:3 raise:4 leadbetter:21 charge:2 care:1 west:8 move:10 aper:7 east:14 sassanids:1 embroil:1 succession:5 dispute:3 since:4 shapur:4 oppose:2 advance:6 accord:6 eutropius:5 festus:2 win:4 major:3 victory:7 persian:11 seleucia:1 ctesiphon:3 al:1 mada:1 iraq:1 opposite:1 bank:1 tigris:6 celebration:1 persici:1 maximi:1 die:6 july:3 august:2 reportedly:1 strike:4 lightning:1 map:1 ca:12 unpopular:3 augusti:4 way:5 arrive:2 january:3 linger:1 retreat:2 orderly:1 king:3 bahram:5 ii:4 still:4 struggle:1 authority:9 field:1 country:2 unopposed:1 reach:4 emesa:3 hims:1 syria:8 asia:2 minor:3 numerianus:7 apparently:1 alive:2 good:8 health:1 issue:17 extant:1 rescript:9 codex:12 justinianus:7 staff:2 include:6 report:1 suffer:1 inflammation:1 eye:2 travel:7 closed:1 coach:2 bithynia:1 soldier:1 smell:1 odor:1 reminiscent:1 decaying:1 corpse:1 emanate:1 open:5 curtain:1 inside:1 find:3 dead:1 officially:1 break:4 news:1 zmit:1 general:3 tribune:1 call:9 council:4 choose:4 garner:1 support:5 gather:1 hill:2 outside:3 unanimously:1 salute:1 accept:3 purple:3 vestment:1 sword:1 light:2 sun:1 swear:1 oath:2 disclaiming:1 responsibility:3 assert:1 kill:4 conceal:2 full:3 view:4 draw:2 blade:2 latinate:1 corcoran:19 conflict:9 head:3 centrale:1 montemartini:1 lucius:1 caesonius:2 bassus:5 fully:1 l:13 ovinius:1 manlius:1 rufinianus:1 consul:4 assume:5 fasces:2 place:8 member:3 campanian:1 senatorial:6 former:4 proconsul:3 africa:5 signal:1 distinction:2 man:7 skilled:1 area:2 presumably:1 experience:2 elevation:2 symbolize:1 rejection:1 refusal:1 second:5 tier:1 willingness:1 continue:6 long:10 stand:2 collaboration:1 aristocracy:1 also:17 tie:3 success:3 senate:7 whose:3 need:6 challenger:1 julianus:2 corrector:2 venetiae:1 northern:5 italy:7 pannonia:1 see:14 banchich:2 mint:5 coin:13 siscia:1 sisak:1 declare:11 promising:1 freedom:1 press:20 aid:3 portrayal:1 cruel:1 oppressive:1 tyrant:1 weak:2 however:8 handily:1 disperse:1 britain:4 leader:3 united:1 clearly:1 great:9 winter:10 across:5 balkan:4 spring:10 meet:8 river:3 morava:1 moesia:1 site:1 locate:1 mon:1 aureus:2 seone:1 smederevo:1 viminacium:1 belgrade:2 despite:3 strong:1 hold:5 subsequently:1 allege:2 mistreat:1 seduce:1 wife:3 possible:1 flavius:3 governor:15 associate:2 household:2 guard:2 defect:2 aristobulus:2 course:2 men:17 follow:10 western:5 eastern:8 exact:1 allegiance:2 defeat:7 depart:1 involve:1 quadi:1 marcomanni:1 eventually:3 whether:1 visit:5 contemporary:1 suggestive:1 adventus:1 arrival:1 coinage:7 avoid:4 principle:2 longer:3 politically:1 relevant:2 affair:8 teach:1 much:12 date:8 reign:18 ratification:2 practice:5 useless:1 formality:1 de:22 cesaribus:1 quote:1 carrié:10 rousselle:8 romain:11 ever:1 enter:3 shortly:1 stay:4 attest:2 back:3 sarmatians:7 replace:3 consular:2 colleague:4 retain:3 act:12 epitomator:1 denote:1 unusual:2 clementia:1 qtd:8 depose:1 traitorous:1 ti:1 claudius:1 confirm:2 role:5 two:16 later:6 give:8 proconsulate:1 urban:1 figure:4 might:7 betray:1 consistent:4 loyalty:3 proved:1 important:2 component:1 recent:2 demonstrate:2 sole:3 rulership:3 dangerous:1 stability:3 assassination:1 aurelian:6 r:9 testify:1 truth:2 boil:2 every:5 province:14 single:2 person:3 lieutenant:1 milan:7 bleckmann:3 concept:1 dual:1 nothing:1 bc:1 ad:5 share:1 formal:2 exist:1 marcus:1 recently:1 together:2 albeit:1 unsuccessfully:1 less:4 comfortable:1 predecessor:4 daughter:3 valeria:2 ruler:3 therefore:2 easily:2 like:4 adopt:2 filius:1 augustan:2 upon:1 appointment:2 throne:5 argument:2 universally:1 relationship:3 couch:1 religious:7 term:6 circa:1 iovius:1 herculius:1 liebeschuetz:5 mean:6 convey:1 characteristic:1 associated:1 jovian:1 dominate:1 planning:1 commanding:1 herculian:1 mode:1 jupiter:4 heroic:1 subordinate:2 connotation:1 god:5 tradition:3 cult:1 hail:2 panegyric:6 representative:3 effect:3 earth:2 cascio:14 shift:5 divine:1 sanctification:1 acclamation:2 away:1 legitimization:1 potential:1 rival:1 dispatch:1 rebel:3 bagaudae:2 return:20 sarmatia:1 progress:2 slowly:2 citivas:1 iovia:1 botivo:1 ptuj:1 slovenia:1 fragmenta:1 vaticana:1 autumn:5 encounter:3 demand:7 assistance:1 request:2 either:6 recover:1 lose:3 land:9 grant:3 pasturage:1 right:3 within:6 refuse:1 unable:3 complete:3 nomadic:1 pressure:2 european:1 plain:1 solve:1 war:12 revolt:5 bring:4 settler:1 populate:1 emptied:1 farmland:1 thrace:1 panegyrici:7 latini:7 judea:1 following:4 saw:4 diplomatic:1 precious:4 gift:3 friendship:1 invite:1 millar:14 insist:1 entirely:2 voluntary:1 perhaps:4 relinquish:1 armenia:10 recognize:4 territory:4 south:3 portion:3 incorporate:1 tiridates:3 iii:2 arsacid:1 armenian:2 client:2 disinherit:1 refuge:1 conquest:1 lay:2 half:3 ancestral:2 domain:3 opposition:2 widely:2 symbolic:1 ongoing:1 founder:2 eternal:2 event:4 represent:3 without:4 acknowledged:1 conclusion:3 discussion:2 mesopotamian:1 fortify:1 circesium:1 buseire:1 euphrates:3 proceed:1 smoothly:1 suppress:4 carausius:8 put:2 operation:2 saxon:2 frankish:1 pirate:2 shore:1 keep:14 seize:5 warrant:1 larcenous:1 flee:1 continent:1 spur:2 northwestern:1 april:2 impossible:2 present:6 witness:1 suggest:4 usurp:1 hope:1 suggestion:2 clear:4 meant:1 amount:2 independence:1 evidence:2 come:8 fine:1 quality:1 realize:1 rogue:1 whole:5 season:1 tribes:1 beyond:3 rhine:3 prepare:2 fleet:2 expedition:1 agree:1 joint:1 invade:2 germania:1 mainz:1 burn:2 crop:2 food:1 supply:3 german:1 sustenance:2 rees:11 layer:2 add:1 allow:2 preparation:2 disturbance:1 manage:5 rapid:1 resurgent:1 detail:6 inscription:5 indicate:2 sarmaticus:1 maximus:1 engage:2 diplomacy:1 desert:1 region:13 persuade:1 ally:1 thus:3 revive:1 old:2 friendly:1 palmyrene:1 sphere:1 influence:4 simply:3 reduce:1 frequency:1 incursion:1 prince:1 disturb:1 fact:2 tension:1 kingdom:1 panegyrist:2 refer:4 loss:2 cause:1 storm:2 embarrassing:1 tour:1 thereafter:1 haste:1 late:12 meeting:2 undertake:1 sense:1 solemn:1 pageantry:1 spend:4 public:10 appearance:3 surmise:1 ceremony:9 arrange:2 faltering:1 deputation:1 renew:1 body:3 infrequent:1 contact:2 choice:1 snub:1 pride:1 seat:4 administration:3 determine:2 defense:3 gallienus:3 headquarters:1 elsner:3 imply:3 true:2 sit:2 appear:5 echo:1 herodian:1 decision:4 matter:3 politics:3 secret:2 foundation:1 triumphal:1 arch:2 sbeitla:1 tunisia:1 transfer:1 stretch:2 zenobia:1 husband:2 theodora:1 philippopolis:1 plovdiv:1 bulgaria:2 assign:2 palestine:3 borderland:1 arrangement:1 greek:3 sovereign:1 administrator:1 secretary:2 join:2 blood:1 marriage:1 brother:1 formally:1 line:4 departure:2 future:5 trajanic:1 temple:3 island:2 philae:2 newly:2 nobatae:2 blemmyes:2 byzantium:1 istanbul:1 turkey:6 meanwhile:2 fort:7 north:5 aquincum:1 budapest:1 hungary:2 bononia:1 vidin:1 ulcisia:1 vetera:1 castra:1 florentium:1 intercisa:1 dunaújváros:1 onagrinum:1 begeč:1 part:7 defensive:1 ripa:1 sarmatica:1 carpus:2 summer:3 afterwards:1 reside:1 turn:2 victoriously:1 carrie:1 lempire:1 entire:3 length:1 provide:3 bridgehead:1 highway:1 wall:1 town:3 send:8 fifteen:1 patrol:1 sexaginta:1 prista:1 extol:1 restored:1 tranquilitas:1 heavy:3 cost:2 significant:3 achievement:4 difficult:3 defend:1 regional:1 uprising:1 revanchist:1 egyptian:3 standard:6 stir:1 discontent:1 sweep:1 domitius:4 domitianus:3 alexandria:6 thebaid:1 besiege:1 dimaio:3 countryside:1 achilleus:2 census:7 punishment:2 ability:3 independently:2 combine:1 septimus:1 severus:6 closer:2 harries:10 along:4 nile:1 oxyrhynchus:1 elephantine:1 nubia:1 treaty:2 receive:3 annual:1 gold:6 stipend:1 september:4 february:7 mesopotamia:4 invasion:1 counterinvasion:1 narseh:14 pass:2 eliminate:1 young:1 instal:1 wake:2 customary:1 package:1 respond:3 exchange:3 ambassador:2 trace:1 immediate:2 monument:1 seek:3 identify:1 warlike:1 ardashir:1 sack:1 skin:1 valerian:1 decorate:1 deliver:2 ammianus:1 marcellinus:3 inflict:1 severe:1 carrhae:1 harran:1 callinicum:1 ar:1 raqqah:1 fergus:2 note:3 somewhere:2 balikh:1 divest:1 version:2 responsible:5 publicly:1 humiliate:1 walk:1 mile:2 caravan:1 clothe:1 robe:4 theophanes:1 anno:1 attack:2 thessaloniki:3 greece:1 carry:1 action:1 reinforce:1 contingent:1 collect:3 holding:1 offensive:1 bay:3 unclear:2 assist:1 disadvantage:1 rugged:1 terrain:1 infantry:1 unfavorable:1 camp:1 treasury:5 harem:1 plead:1 child:1 dismiss:1 serious:2 magister:2 memoriae:2 sicorius:1 condition:2 domination:1 ziatha:1 caucasian:1 iberia:1 pay:7 appointee:1 nisibis:2 conduit:1 trade:2 exercise:1 five:5 satrapies:3 ingilene:1 sophanene:1 sophene:1 arzanene:1 aghdznik:1 corduene:1 carduene:1 zabdicene:1 hakkâri:1 passage:1 anti:1 taurus:1 range:2 bitlis:1 pas:1 quick:1 southerly:1 route:2 access:7 tur:1 abdin:1 plateau:1 contain:2 strategic:1 stronghold:1 amida:1 diyarbakır:1 bezabde:1 firm:1 occupation:3 able:2 slow:1 say:3 boundary:2 list:4 lie:1 side:2 loose:1 hegemony:1 regain:1 entirety:1 wide:4 zone:1 cultural:1 diffusion:1 syriac:1 decade:1 eventual:1 christianization:1 syrian:1 sacrifice:5 divination:1 predict:1 haruspices:1 read:2 entrails:1 sacrificed:1 animal:2 blame:1 order:8 perform:3 purify:1 letter:1 required:1 face:4 discharge:1 mortibus:11 persecutorum:11 sossianus:1 hierocles:1 burgess:2 helgeland:2 conservative:2 faithful:1 pantheon:1 understanding:1 purification:1 prime:1 supporter:1 beneficiary:1 ecclesiastica:2 oratio:1 coetum:1 sanctum:1 devoted:1 passionate:1 political:4 advantage:1 willing:1 policy:4 inaction:1 primary:3 residence:1 swap:1 middle:1 roussele:2 grain:2 dole:1 manichean:5 follower:1 mani:1 burnt:1 scripture:4 must:2 execute:3 work:2 quarry:1 proconnesus:1 marmara:1 mine:1 phaeno:1 property:4 deposit:1 inscriptiones:4 latinae:4 selectae:4 offend:1 novelty:1 alien:1 origin:1 corrupt:1 moral:1 race:1 inherent:1 manichaeanism:1 compound:1 dissent:1 international:1 except:1 reason:1 dislike:1 manichaenism:1 equally:1 applicable:1 next:2 target:1 catacomb:1 saint:1 peter:6 labicana:1 christ:1 paul:1 martyrs:1 gorgonius:2 tiburtius:1 deacon:1 romanus:2 caesarea:2 tongue:1 defy:1 interrupt:1 prison:1 arrogance:1 displeased:1 accompany:2 argue:1 forbid:2 bureaucracy:1 sufficient:1 appease:1 push:1 extermination:1 advice:2 oracle:2 apollo:2 didyma:1 constantini:1 hinder:1 inform:1 behest:1 accede:1 universal:3 church:4 raze:1 store:1 publish:3 destruction:1 worship:2 prohibit:1 assemble:1 fire:2 destroyed:2 convince:2 culprit:1 conspirator:1 plot:1 eunuch:2 investigation:1 commission:1 party:1 execution:2 anyway:1 dorotheus:1 one:14 individual:3 strip:1 scourge:1 salt:1 vinegar:1 pour:1 wound:1 flame:1 six:1 bishop:1 anthimus:1 decapitate:1 occur:1 sixteen:1 unsafe:1 persecutionary:3 compel:1 arrest:1 clergy:1 ultimately:1 escape:1 pagan:2 unsympathetic:1 martyr:3 suffering:1 strengthen:1 resolve:3 treadgold:11 apply:3 unharmed:1 rescind:1 announce:2 fail:2 temporary:2 apostasy:1 surrendering:1 play:1 subsequent:1 donatist:2 controversy:1 tilley:2 xi:1 twenty:3 inauguration:1 alone:3 reverse:1 consequence:2 confiscate:1 demonize:1 successor:3 intimate:1 ascendancy:1 herald:1 apocalypse:1 divinae:1 institutiones:1 cf:1 daniel:1 digeser:2 serbian:1 mythology:1 remember:1 dukljan:1 adversary:1 š:1 kulišić:1 p:1 ž:1 petrović:1 n:2 pantelić:1 српски:1 митолошки:1 речник:1 nolit:1 celebrate:1 twentieth:1 anniversary:2 vicennalia:1 tenth:2 decennalia:1 triumph:2 grow:1 impatient:1 edward:2 gibbon:3 licentious:1 familiarity:1 decline:2 fall:2 people:5 enough:2 deference:1 supreme:1 expect:2 aristocratic:1 monarchic:1 cut:1 short:1 invest:1 ninth:2 consulate:1 ravenna:2 swore:1 uphold:1 left:1 company:1 contract:3 worsen:1 litter:1 dedicate:1 opening:1 circus:2 beside:1 rumor:1 merely:1 spread:1 finally:1 mourning:1 retrieve:1 declaration:1 survival:1 reappear:1 emaciate:1 barely:1 recognizable:1 reconstitute:1 step:2 fill:1 compliant:1 coercion:1 comply:1 assembly:1 companion:4 troop:7 distant:3 front:1 statue:2 patron:1 deity:1 address:1 crowd:3 tear:3 tell:1 weakness:2 rest:1 resign:2 duty:7 someone:1 stronger:1 lenski:4 believe:2 adult:2 succeed:3 hand:4 likely:4 treatment:1 maximin:2 declared:1 transition:1 bode:1 well:2 security:1 retire:4 homeland:1 expansive:1 adriatic:1 villas:1 campania:1 lucania:1 home:1 regular:3 confer:1 carnuntum:3 petronell:1 austria:1 licinius:1 permanently:1 beg:1 arise:2 usurpation:2 reply:1 show:2 cabbage:1 plant:1 definitely:1 dare:1 happiness:1 never:1 satisfy:1 greed:2 liber:2 caesaribus:2 three:3 implode:1 selfish:1 ambition:1 hear:1 forced:1 suicide:2 damnatio:1 portrait:1 deep:2 despair:1 commit:1 ideological:1 restorer:3 recreate:1 justice:2 barbarian:2 horde:1 arrogate:1 regiment:1 centralize:1 massive:1 scale:1 enforce:4 value:7 diverse:1 unreceptive:1 audience:1 propaganda:1 pervert:1 minimize:1 theme:2 tetrarchs:10 backdate:1 engineer:1 palmyrenes:1 effectively:3 erase:1 portray:1 savage:1 despotism:1 world:4 nation:2 tranquility:1 write:3 triumphalism:1 restoration:1 conjoin:1 emphasis:1 uniqueness:1 accomplishment:1 frequently:2 arles:1 serdica:2 treat:1 alternate:1 exclusion:1 elite:2 develop:1 emphasize:2 quasi:1 republican:1 ideal:1 primus:1 inter:1 pares:1 abandon:2 wear:1 crown:1 jewel:1 use:2 cloth:1 subject:1 require:2 prostrate:1 presence:1 adoratio:1 fortunate:1 privilege:1 kiss:1 hem:1 proskynesis:1 προσκύνησις:1 basilica:1 design:1 perpetually:1 always:1 transcendent:1 grip:1 stage:1 presentation:2 many:3 element:1 refine:1 explicit:1 ideology:1 republicanism:1 autocracy:1 adviser:2 consilium:1 differ:1 illusion:1 cooperative:1 autocratic:3 epitomize:1 institution:1 consistorium:1 consistory:1 regulate:2 distinguish:2 department:1 scrina:1 different:3 task:1 magistri:2 officiorum:1 master:1 secretariat:1 suit:2 deal:3 petition:2 correspondence:1 legal:5 foreign:2 embassy:1 maintain:2 permanent:1 ordering:1 juridical:1 finance:1 minister:1 private:3 reduction:1 level:3 simple:1 garrison:1 lessen:2 segment:1 jurisprudence:1 altogether:1 number:7 bureaucrat:3 money:3 cite:4 warren:2 estimate:2 double:2 society:2 classicist:1 roger:4 bagnall:2 base:3 data:1 produce:2 h:5 jones:5 comparison:1 ratio:1 twelfth:1 china:1 antiquity:2 princeton:2 university:18 social:3 economic:5 survey:2 oxford:12 blackwell:3 possibility:1 local:3 rouselle:1 facilitate:2 efficient:1 collection:5 ease:1 enforcement:1 law:9 fifty:1 almost:1 laterculus:1 veronensis:1 verona:1 reproduce:1 chs:1 correction:1 journal:4 archaeology:1 group:1 twelve:2 diocese:2 govern:2 vicarius:1 deputy:1 revision:1 modify:1 fourth:3 environs:1 define:1 radius:1 perimeter:1 administer:2 prestigious:1 post:1 reserve:1 exclusively:1 dissemination:1 praesides:1 ruling:1 small:6 population:4 main:1 function:3 preside:1 whereas:1 judicial:2 procurator:1 supervise:2 vicarii:1 class:3 duce:1 duke:2 sometimes:3 create:2 thousand:4 addition:1 judge:5 collector:1 postal:1 cursus:1 publicus:1 ensure:1 fulfil:1 simon:3 pronouncement:2 clarendon:2 curtailment:1 danger:1 powerful:1 severely:1 limited:1 occasion:1 exhort:2 fear:3 tread:1 toe:1 magnate:1 felt:2 imagine:1 difficulty:2 mere:1 praeses:1 reprint:1 digestorum:1 justinian:1 corpus:2 juris:1 civilis:1 gregorius:3 hermogenianus:4 draft:1 daily:1 routine:1 rotate:1 appeal:4 disputed:1 authoritative:1 interpretation:1 response:1 disputant:1 case:3 common:4 awash:1 paperwork:2 nearly:1 incapable:1 dereliction:1 afranius:1 hannibalianus:1 julius:1 asclepiodotus:1 flow:1 legalism:1 culture:1 workload:1 precede:1 output:1 attested:1 contrast:2 prodigious:1 total:3 johnston:2 epiclassical:2 sharp:1 thoroughgoing:1 effort:1 realign:1 dictate:1 governance:1 jurist:2 arcadius:1 charisius:1 book:8 precedent:1 hadrian:1 gregorianus:1 rescripts:1 update:1 codification:1 radical:1 innovation:1 decentralized:1 nature:1 constantly:1 look:1 past:1 theory:1 guidance:1 free:2 rein:1 code:2 compiler:2 theodosianus:1 lack:1 rigid:1 structuring:1 iudex:1 superior:1 record:5 verbatim:1 trial:1 easy:1 bias:2 improper:1 conduct:1 behavior:1 restructuring:1 especially:2 citizen:4 example:2 instance:2 appellant:1 neighbor:2 arbitration:1 judgment:2 mark:2 classical:3 adherence:1 archaeologically:1 fortification:2 devil:1 dyke:1 earthwork:1 traditionally:1 attribute:1 cannot:1 securely:1 particular:1 rebuild:1 iller:1 speculative:1 reliant:1 broad:1 generalization:1 advancement:1 raid:1 stratum:1 diocletiana:1 run:1 palmyra:1 northeast:1 arabia:1 classic:1 consist:2 outer:1 road:1 tightly:1 space:1 rear:1 campbell:1 slowness:1 transmit:1 era:1 eastward:1 point:1 dealing:1 criticized:1 excessive:2 size:1 strove:1 previous:1 fifth:1 zosimus:2 praise:1 rather:1 author:1 greatly:1 expand:3 precise:1 strength:1 navy:1 approximately:2 expansion:1 burden:2 upkeep:1 budget:1 costly:1 proportion:3 male:1 roughly:1 commentator:1 allowance:1 resort:1 extortion:1 taking:1 civilian:1 job:1 arrears:1 norm:1 payment:2 kind:2 salary:2 enlarged:1 potentially:1 devise:1 introduce:3 extensive:1 caput:6 iuga:4 wealth:1 throughout:2 assess:1 labor:2 landowner:3 iugum:1 measure:1 vary:2 type:1 necessary:2 woman:1 manpower:1 due:1 decuriones:1 decurions:3 analogous:1 councilors:1 pocket:1 populace:2 financial:1 rationale:1 privatae:1 revenue:1 instability:2 convertible:1 reforming:1 procedure:1 prior:1 operate:1 speed:1 interest:1 egalitarian:1 exempt:3 prefecture:1 surround:1 suburbicarian:1 bulk:1 landed:1 liability:1 taxpayer:2 enhance:1 transparency:1 exactly:1 decurion:1 honor:1 wealthy:1 aristocrat:1 collecting:1 requirement:1 rigorous:1 bankrupt:1 production:1 fell:1 deeply:1 marker:1 relatively:1 frequent:1 remote:1 district:1 sakkaia:1 hauran:1 supplementum:1 epigraphicum:1 graecum:1 vii:1 accustomed:1 irregular:1 ineffective:1 uncomfortable:1 adjustment:1 brown:2 christendom:2 benefit:1 predictable:1 fair:1 safe:1 behind:1 currency:7 fragment:1 display:1 berlin:1 market:4 stable:2 copper:4 antoninianus:2 stabilizing:1 commodity:1 medium:1 wean:1 metal:6 convert:1 governmental:1 annonary:1 circulation:2 solidus:2 weigh:2 sixtieth:1 pound:5 argenteus:1 ninety:2 sixth:1 percent:1 pure:1 silver:5 follis:1 laureatus:2 added:2 thirty:1 radiatus:1 today:1 b:3 nominal:1 intrinsic:1 worth:2 sustain:1 requisition:2 trouble:1 strain:1 bout:1 tariff:1 debt:3 nummi:1 preserve:5 aphrodisia:1 caria:1 geyre:1 repay:2 current:2 risk:1 momentum:1 inflationary:1 happen:1 solution:1 monetary:2 woe:1 series:1 freeze:1 edictum:1 pretiis:1 rerum:1 venalium:1 month:1 best:1 latin:3 survives:1 material:1 varied:1 wood:1 papyrus:1 stone:1 pricing:2 result:2 unchecked:1 merchant:1 turmoil:1 language:1 memory:1 benevolent:1 provision:2 thereby:1 restore:1 perfection:1 retail:2 exceed:1 penalty:2 various:1 transgression:1 basic:1 ignorant:1 product:1 availability:1 impact:2 transportation:1 david:2 lunacy:1 speculation:1 black:1 unevenly:1 scholar:1 resist:1 drop:1 perverse:1 accompaniment:1 withdraw:1 brawl:1 minute:2 variation:1 exaggerated:1 hyperbolic:1 ancient:3 legacy:1 observe:1 peaceful:1 naturally:1 guide:1 emerge:1 triumphant:1 malign:1 validate:1 transformation:1 extravagant:1 paganism:1 repudiate:1 favor:1 imperially:1 sponsored:1 claimed:1 importantly:1 tighten:1 machinery:1 citation:1 chapter:1 cambridge:10 volume:5 xii:3 reference:1 translation:2 epitome:1 seven:1 eighth:1 epilogue:1 breviarium:1 ab:1 urbe:1 condita:1 abbreviated:1 founding:1 persecutor:1 compendium:2 επιτομή:1 ιστορίων:1 extract:1 secondary:1 thomas:1 iulianus:1 imperatoribus:6 romani:6 study:3 harvard:3 isbn:28 bruno:1 brill:2 pauly:1 edit:2 hubert:1 cancik:1 helmut:1 schneider:1 leiden:1 alan:1 averil:1 cameron:1 garnsey:1 ed:1 york:9 publishing:1 w:3 theological:1 jean:1 michel:1 aline:1 en:1 mutation:1 sévères:1 à:1 constantin:1 paris:1 seuil:1 age:1 noel:1 hardcover:5 paperback:5 elizabeth:1 depalma:1 making:1 ithaca:1 cornell:1 jr:1 michael:2 elliott:1 g:2 scranton:2 pa:1 jas:1 chicago:1 london:1 toronto:1 encyclopaedia:1 britannica:1 inc:1 coll:1 jill:1 john:1 basil:1 william:3 lewis:1 naphtali:1 meyer:1 reinhold:1 civilization:1 columbia:1 j:1 continuity:1 mackay:1 christopher:1 philology:1 ralph:1 charles:1 matson:1 routledge:4 edinburgh:2 rostovtzeff:1 pat:1 maureen:1 story:1 liverpool:2 stanford:2 stephen:1 recovery:1 dioclesian:1 henry:1 purcell:1 tragicomic:1 semi:1 opera:1 loosely:1 historical:1 window:1 external:1 link:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 lars:1 brownworth:1 audio:1 lecture:1 ruin:1 spalatro:2 robert:1 adam:1 plate:1 available:1 wisconsin:1 digital:1 used:1 alternative:1 spalato:1 italian:1 croatian:1 |@bigram bowman_diocletian:27 tetrarchy_cah:27 lactantius_constantine:3 curb_inflation:1 economically_militarily:1 brink_collapse:1 dalmatian_coast:1 aurelius_victor:5 barnes_constantine:94 constantine_eusebius:95 eusebius_bowman:17 cah_potter:10 byzantine_chronicler:1 historia_augusta:1 praetorian_prefect:9 eusebius_odahl:9 leadbetter_carus:6 leadbetter_carinus:7 sassanid_empire:1 capital_ctesiphon:2 eusebius_leadbetter:8 odahl_potter:4 codex_justinianus:7 swear_oath:1 corcoran_constantine:16 coin_mint:1 belgrade_serbia:1 oath_allegiance:1 quadi_marcomanni:1 carrié_rousselle:6 rousselle_l:6 empire_romain:10 mediolanum_milan:1 marcus_aurelius:1 universally_accept:1 diocletian_maximian:6 constantine_odahl:4 diocletian_constantine:15 constantine_cah:14 panegyrici_latini:7 latini_barnes:3 triumphal_arch:1 plovdiv_bulgaria:1 constantine_maxentius:3 istanbul_turkey:1 budapest_hungary:1 ammianus_marcellinus:1 inflict_severe:1 purple_robe:1 rees_diocletian:8 diocletian_tetrarchy:9 diocletian_galerius:3 southerly_route:1 de_mortibus:11 mortibus_persecutorum:11 persecutorum_barnes:5 eusebius_historia:1 historia_ecclesiastica:2 oratio_ad:1 burnt_alive:1 inscriptiones_latinae:4 equally_applicable:1 eusebius_vita:1 vita_constantini:1 salt_vinegar:1 tenth_anniversary:1 edward_gibbon:1 lenski_reign:2 de_caesaribus:2 damnatio_memoriae:1 commit_suicide:1 primus_inter:1 inter_pares:1 crown_jewel:1 praetorian_guard:1 princeton_princeton:1 oxford_blackwell:2 oxford_clarendon:2 clarendon_press:2 corpus_juris:1 juris_civilis:1 codex_theodosianus:1 tax_burden:1 wealthy_aristocrat:1 precious_metal:2 eusebius_caesarea:1 eutropius_breviarium:1 ab_urbe:1 urbe_condita:1 de_imperatoribus:6 imperatoribus_romani:6 barnes_timothy:4 leiden_brill:1 averil_cameron:1 blackwell_publishing:1 jean_michel:1 paris_seuil:1 ithaca_cornell:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 basil_blackwell:1 classical_philology:1 routledge_hardcover:2 edinburgh_edinburgh:1 stanford_stanford:1 henry_purcell:1 external_link:1 |
4,602 | American_Registry_for_Internet_Numbers | ARIN logo The American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) is the Regional Internet Registry (RIR) for Canada, many Caribbean and North Atlantic islands, and the United States. ARIN manages the distribution of Internet number resources, including IPv4 and IPv6 address space and AS numbers. ARIN opened its doors for business on 22 December 1997 About ARIN after incorporating on 18 April 1997 Articles of Incorporation . ARIN is a nonprofit corporation in the Commonwealth of Virginia, a U.S. state. ARIN is one of five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) in the world. Like the other RIRs, ARIN: Provides services related to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources Facilitates policy development by its members and stakeholders Participates in the international Internet community Is a nonprofit, community-based organization Is governed by an executive board elected by its membership Services ARIN provides services related to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources. The nature of these services is described in ARIN's mission statement: Applying the principles of stewardship, ARIN, a nonprofit corporation, allocates Internet Protocol resources; develops consensus-based policies; and facilitates the advancement of the Internet through information and educational outreach. These services are grouped in three areas: Registration, Organization, and Policy Development. Registration Services Registration Services pertain to the technical coordination and inventory management of Internet number resources. Services include: IPv4 address allocation and assignment IPv6 address allocation and assignment AS number assignment Directory services including: Registration transaction information (WHOIS) Routing information (Internet Routing Registry) DNS (Reverse) For information on requesting Internet number resources from ARIN, see https://www.arin.net/resources/index.html. This section includes the request templates, specific distribution policies, and guidelines for requesting and managing Internet number resources. Organization Services Organization Services pertain to interaction between stakeholders, ARIN members, and ARIN. Services include: Elections Members meetings Information publication and dissemination Education and training Policy Development Services Policy Development Services facilitate the development of policy for the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources. All ARIN policies are set by the community. Everyone is encouraged to participate in the policy development process at public policy meetings and on the Public Policy Mailing List (ppml@arin.net). The ARIN Board of Trustees ratifies policies only after: discussion on mailing lists and at meetings; ARIN Advisory Council recommendation; community consensus in favor of the policy; and full legal and fiscal review. The community develops policies by following a formal Policy Development Process as outlined at https://www.arin.net/policy/pdp.html. The Number Resource Policy Manual, ARIN’s complete set of current policies, is available at https://www.arin.net/policy/nrpm.html. Membership is not required to participate in ARIN’s policy development process or to apply for Internet number resources. Services include: Maintaining discussion e-mail lists Conducting public policy meetings Publishing policy documents Organizational Structure ARIN consists of the Internet community within its region, its members, a 7-member Board of Trustees, a 15-member Advisory Council, and a professional staff of under 50. The Board of Trustees and Advisory Council are elected by ARIN members for three-year terms. Board of Trustees The ARIN membership elects the Board of Trustees (BoT), which has ultimate responsibility for the business affairs and financial health of ARIN, and manages ARIN's operations in a manner consistent with the guidance received from the Advisory Council and the goals set by the registry's members. The BoT is responsible for determining the disposition of all revenues received to ensure all services are provided in an equitable manner. The BoT ratifies proposals generated from the membership and submitted through the Advisory Council. Executive decisions are carried out following approval by the BoT. The BoT consists of 7 members: Scott Bradner (Treasurer) John Curran (Acting President and CEO) Timothy Denton Lee Howard (Secretary) Paul Vixie (Chairman) Bill Woodcock Advisory Council In addition to the BoT, ARIN has an Advisory Council that advises ARIN and the BoT on IP allocation policy and related matters. Adhering to the procedures in the Internet Resource Policy Evaluation Process, the Advisory Council forwards consensus-based policy proposals to the BoT for ratification. The Advisory Council consists of 15 elected members: Dan Alexander Paul Andersen Cathy Aronson Marla Azinger Leo Bicknell Marc Crandall Bill Darte Owen DeLong David Farmer Stacy Hughes Scott Leibrand Lea Roberts Robert Seastrom Heather Schiller John Sweeting (Chair) History ARIN Logo from 1998 until 2001 The organization was formed in December 1997 to "provide IP registration services as an independent, nonprofit corporation." Until this time IP registration in the ARIN region was done by a department within the Network Solutions corporation, which provided the initial staff and computer infrastructure for ARIN. The first president of ARIN was Kim Hubbard, from 1997 until 2000. Kim was succeeded by Raymond "Ray" Plzak until then end of 2008. Trustee John Curran currently fulfills the role of acting President while Ray Plzak remains as a consultant to the organization. Until late 2002 it served Mexico, Central America, South America and all of the Caribbean. LACNIC now handles parts of the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Also, Sub-Saharan Africa was part of its region until April 2005, when AfriNIC was officially recognized by ICANN as the fifth Regional Internet Registry. Service Region The countries in the ARIN service region are: Anguilla Antarctica Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados Bermuda Bouvet Island (Norway) Canada Cayman Islands (UK) Dominica Grenada Guadeloupe (France) Heard and McDonald Islands (Australia) Jamaica Martinique (France) Montserrat Puerto Rico (U.S.) Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines St. Helena (UK) St. Pierre and Miquelon (France) Turks and Caicos Islands United States United States Minor Outlying Islands British Virgin Islands (UK) U.S. Virgin Islands (U.S.) Former service region ARIN covered Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe until AfriNIC was formed. ARIN covered Argentina, Aruba, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Dutch West Indies, Ecuador, El Salvador, Falkland Islands (UK), French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, and Venezuela until LACNIC was formed. References External links ARIN Home Page ARIN Advisory Council ARIN Board of Trustees | American_Registry_for_Internet_Numbers |@lemmatized arin:40 logo:2 american:1 registry:6 internet:18 number:12 regional:3 rir:1 canada:2 many:1 caribbean:3 north:1 atlantic:1 island:10 united:3 state:4 manage:3 distribution:2 resource:12 include:6 address:3 space:1 open:1 door:1 business:2 december:2 incorporate:1 april:2 article:1 incorporation:1 nonprofit:4 corporation:4 commonwealth:1 virginia:1 u:4 one:1 five:1 rirs:2 world:1 like:1 provide:5 service:20 relate:2 technical:4 coordination:4 management:4 facilitate:3 policy:25 development:8 member:10 stakeholder:2 participates:1 international:1 community:6 base:3 organization:6 govern:1 executive:2 board:7 elect:3 membership:4 nature:1 describe:1 mission:1 statement:1 apply:2 principle:1 stewardship:1 allocate:1 protocol:1 develop:2 consensus:3 advancement:1 information:5 educational:1 outreach:1 group:1 three:2 area:1 registration:6 pertain:2 inventory:1 allocation:3 assignment:3 directory:1 transaction:1 whois:1 rout:2 dns:1 reverse:1 request:3 see:1 https:2 www:3 net:4 index:1 html:3 section:1 template:1 specific:1 guideline:1 interaction:1 election:1 meeting:4 publication:1 dissemination:1 education:1 training:1 set:3 everyone:1 encourage:1 participate:2 process:4 public:3 mail:2 list:3 ppml:1 trustee:7 ratifies:1 discussion:2 mailing:1 advisory:10 council:10 recommendation:1 favor:1 full:1 legal:1 fiscal:1 review:1 follow:2 formal:1 outline:1 http:1 pdp:1 manual:1 complete:1 current:1 available:1 nrpm:1 require:1 maintaining:1 e:1 conduct:1 publish:1 document:1 organizational:1 structure:1 consist:3 within:2 region:6 professional:1 staff:2 year:1 term:1 bot:8 ultimate:1 responsibility:1 affair:1 financial:1 health:1 operation:1 manner:2 consistent:1 guidance:1 receive:2 goal:1 responsible:1 determine:1 disposition:1 revenue:1 ensure:1 equitable:1 ratify:1 proposal:2 generate:1 submit:1 decision:1 carry:1 approval:1 scott:2 bradner:1 treasurer:1 john:3 curran:2 act:2 president:3 ceo:1 timothy:1 denton:1 lee:1 howard:1 secretary:1 paul:2 vixie:1 chairman:1 bill:2 woodcock:1 addition:1 advise:1 ip:3 related:1 matter:1 adhere:1 procedure:1 evaluation:1 forward:1 ratification:1 elected:1 dan:1 alexander:1 andersen:1 cathy:1 aronson:1 marla:1 azinger:1 leo:1 bicknell:1 marc:1 crandall:1 darte:1 owen:1 delong:1 david:1 farmer:1 stacy:1 hughes:1 leibrand:1 lea:1 robert:2 seastrom:1 heather:1 schiller:1 sweeting:1 chair:1 history:1 form:3 independent:1 time:1 department:1 network:1 solution:1 initial:1 computer:1 infrastructure:1 first:1 kim:2 hubbard:1 succeed:1 raymond:1 ray:2 plzak:2 end:1 currently:1 fulfill:1 role:1 remain:1 consultant:1 late:1 serve:1 mexico:3 central:2 america:4 south:5 lacnic:2 handle:1 part:2 also:1 sub:1 saharan:1 africa:2 afrinic:2 officially:1 recognize:1 icann:1 fifth:1 country:1 anguilla:1 antarctica:1 antigua:1 barbuda:1 bahamas:1 barbados:1 bermuda:1 bouvet:1 norway:1 cayman:1 uk:4 dominica:1 grenada:1 guadeloupe:1 france:3 heard:1 mcdonald:1 australia:1 jamaica:1 martinique:1 montserrat:1 puerto:1 rico:1 saint:3 kitts:1 nevis:1 lucia:1 vincent:1 grenadine:1 st:2 helena:1 pierre:1 miquelon:1 turk:1 caicos:1 minor:1 outlying:1 british:1 virgin:2 former:1 cover:2 angola:1 botswana:1 burundi:1 republic:3 congo:2 democratic:1 malawi:1 mozambique:1 namibia:1 rwanda:1 swaziland:1 tanzania:1 zambia:1 zimbabwe:1 argentina:1 aruba:1 belize:1 bolivia:1 brazil:1 chile:1 colombia:1 costa:1 rica:1 cuba:1 dominican:1 dutch:1 west:1 indie:1 ecuador:1 el:1 salvador:1 falkland:1 french:1 guiana:1 guatemala:1 guyana:1 haiti:1 honduras:1 nicaragua:1 panama:1 paraguay:1 peru:1 georgia:1 sandwich:1 suriname:1 trinidad:1 tobago:1 uruguay:1 venezuela:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 |@bigram nonprofit_corporation:3 https_www:2 board_trustee:6 mailing_list:1 http_www:1 paul_vixie:1 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 antigua_barbuda:1 bahamas_barbados:1 bouvet_island:1 dominica_grenada:1 heard_mcdonald:1 puerto_rico:1 saint_kitts:1 kitts_nevis:1 saint_lucia:1 lucia_saint:1 vincent_grenadine:1 pierre_miquelon:1 turk_caicos:1 caicos_island:1 minor_outlying:1 republic_congo:2 zambia_zimbabwe:1 costa_rica:1 dominican_republic:1 west_indie:1 el_salvador:1 french_guiana:1 nicaragua_panama:1 panama_paraguay:1 paraguay_peru:1 trinidad_tobago:1 uruguay_venezuela:1 external_link:1 |
4,603 | Hypothesis | A hypothesis (from Greek ) consists either of a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon or of a reasoned proposal predicting a possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena. The term derives from the Greek, hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose." The scientific method requires that one can test a scientific hypothesis. Scientists generally base such hypotheses on previous observations or on extensions of scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously in common and informal usage, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A hypothesis is never to be stated as a question, but always as a statement with an explanation following it. It is not to be a question because it states what the experimenter thinks will occur. Hypotheses are usually written in the "if-then form": If X, then Y. Usage In early usage, scholars often referred to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplified cumbersome calculations as a hypothesis; when used this way, the word did not necessarily have any specific meaning. Cardinal Bellarmine gave a famous example of the older sense of the word in the warning issued to Galileo in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis. In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation. For proper evaluation, the framer of a hypothesis needs to define specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or occasionally may grow to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model. Sometimes, but not always, one can also formulate them as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic. Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning). It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction may also invoke statistics and only talk about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one cannot regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false. Other philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such as verifiability (e.g., verificationism) or coherence (e.g., confirmation holism). The scientific method involves experimentation on the basis of hypotheses in order to answer questions and explore observations. In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of a test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of showing the truth of a hypothesis. If the researcher already knows the outcome, it counts as a "consequence" — and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis classes as not yet useful, and must wait for others who might come afterward to make possible the needed observations. For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible. Evaluating hypotheses Karl Popper's hypothetico-deductive method (also known as the method of "conjectures and refutations") demands falsifiable hypotheses, framed in such a manner that the scientific community can prove them false (usually by observation). According to this view, a hypothesis cannot be "confirmed", because there is always the possibility that a future experiment will show that it is false. Hence, failing to falsify a hypothesis does not prove that hypothesis: it remains provisional. However, a hypothesis that has been rigorously tested and not falsified can form a reasonable basis for action, i.e., we can act as if it is true, until such time as it is falsified. Just because we've never observed rain falling upward, doesn't mean that we never will—however improbable, our theory of gravity may be falsified some day. Popper's view is not the only view on evaluating hypotheses. For example, some forms of empiricism hold that under a well-crafted, well-controlled experiment, a lack of falsification does count as verification, since such an experiment ranges over the full scope of possibilities in the problem domain. Should we ever discover some place where gravity did not function, and rain fell upward, this would not falsify our current theory of gravity (which, on this view, has been verified by innumerable well-formed experiments in the past)--it would rather suggest an expansion of our theory to encompass some new force or previously undiscovered interaction of forces. In other words, our initial theory as it stands is verified but incomplete. This situation illustrates the importance of having well-crafted, well-controlled experiments that range over the full scope of possibilities for applying the theory. In recent years philosophers of science have tried to integrate the various approaches to evaluating hypothesis, and the scientific method in general, to form a more complete system that integrates the individual concerns of each approach. Notably, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend have produced novel attempts at such a synthesis. Both men also happen to be former students of Popper. Scientific hypothesis People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothesis — often called an "educated guess" — because it provides a suggested solution based on the evidence. Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving the problem. According to Schick and Vaughn, Schick, Theodore and Vaughn, Lewis: How to think about weird things: Critical thinking for a New Age Boston, 2002 researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration: Testability (compare falsifiability as discussed above) Simplicity (as in the application of "Occam's razor", discouraging the postulation of excessive numbers of entities) Scope - the apparent application of the hypothesis to multiple cases of phenomena Fruitfulness - the prospect that a hypothesis may explain further phenomena in the future Conservatism - the degree of "fit" with existing recognized knowledge-systems See also Case study Confirmation holism Ecological fallacy Empiricism Hypothesis Theory, a research area in Cognitive Psychology Learning Logic Logical Positivism Null hypothesis Null Hypothesis - The Journal of Unlikely Science Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica for Newton's position on hypotheses Reductionism Research design Scientific method Sociology of scientific knowledge Theory Thought experiment References | Hypothesis |@lemmatized hypothesis:39 greek:2 consist:1 either:2 suggested:2 explanation:3 observable:1 phenomenon:7 reason:2 proposal:1 predict:2 possible:2 causal:2 correlation:1 among:1 multiple:2 term:2 derive:1 hypotithenai:1 meaning:2 put:1 suppose:1 scientific:13 method:6 require:3 one:4 test:5 scientist:1 generally:1 base:2 previous:1 observation:6 extension:1 theory:14 even:1 though:1 word:4 often:3 use:2 synonymously:1 common:2 informal:1 usage:4 never:3 state:4 question:3 always:3 statement:3 follow:2 experimenter:2 think:3 occur:1 usually:2 write:1 form:7 x:1 early:2 scholar:1 refer:2 clever:1 idea:2 convenient:1 mathematical:2 approach:3 simplify:1 cumbersome:1 calculation:1 way:1 necessarily:1 specific:2 cardinal:1 bellarmine:1 give:1 famous:1 example:3 old:1 sense:1 warning:1 issue:1 galileo:1 century:2 must:4 treat:1 motion:1 earth:1 reality:1 merely:1 refers:1 provisional:2 whose:1 merit:1 evaluation:2 proper:1 framer:1 need:1 define:1 operational:1 work:1 researcher:4 order:2 confirm:2 disprove:1 due:1 course:1 confirmed:1 may:7 become:2 part:1 occasionally:1 grow:1 normally:1 model:1 sometimes:1 also:5 formulate:2 existential:1 particular:2 instance:2 examination:1 characteristic:2 general:2 universal:1 every:1 useful:2 enable:1 prediction:3 include:1 deductive:2 reasoning:1 might:3 outcome:3 experiment:9 laboratory:1 setting:1 nature:1 invoke:1 statistic:1 talk:1 probability:2 karl:2 popper:4 others:2 argue:1 falsifiable:2 cannot:3 regard:1 proposition:1 admit:1 possibility:4 show:3 false:3 philosopher:2 science:3 reject:2 criterion:2 falsifiability:2 supplement:1 verifiability:1 e:3 g:2 verificationism:1 coherence:1 confirmation:2 holism:2 involve:1 experimentation:1 basis:2 answer:1 explore:1 frame:2 investigator:1 currently:1 know:3 remain:2 reasonably:1 continue:1 investigation:1 case:3 study:2 potentially:1 increase:1 truth:1 already:2 count:2 consequence:1 consider:1 ass:1 experience:1 class:1 yet:1 wait:1 come:1 afterward:1 make:2 needed:1 new:3 technology:1 necessary:1 feasible:1 evaluate:3 hypothetico:1 conjecture:1 refutation:1 demand:1 manner:1 community:1 prove:2 accord:2 view:4 future:2 hence:1 fail:1 falsify:5 however:2 rigorously:1 reasonable:1 action:1 act:1 true:1 time:1 observe:1 rain:2 fall:1 upward:2 mean:1 improbable:1 gravity:3 day:1 empiricism:2 hold:1 well:5 craft:2 control:2 lack:1 falsification:1 verification:1 since:1 range:2 full:2 scope:3 problem:3 domain:1 ever:1 discover:1 place:1 function:1 fell:1 would:2 current:1 verify:2 innumerable:1 past:1 rather:1 suggest:1 expansion:1 encompass:1 force:2 previously:1 undiscovered:1 interaction:1 initial:1 stand:1 incomplete:1 situation:1 illustrate:1 importance:1 apply:1 recent:1 year:1 try:1 integrate:2 various:1 complete:1 system:2 individual:1 concern:1 notably:1 imre:1 lakatos:1 paul:1 feyerabend:1 produce:1 novel:1 attempt:1 synthesis:1 men:1 happen:1 former:1 student:1 people:1 trial:1 solution:2 call:1 educate:1 guess:1 provide:1 evidence:1 several:1 solve:1 schick:2 vaughn:2 theodore:1 lewis:1 weird:1 thing:1 critical:1 thinking:1 age:1 boston:1 weigh:1 alternative:1 take:1 consideration:1 testability:1 compare:1 discuss:1 simplicity:1 application:2 occam:1 razor:1 discourage:1 postulation:1 excessive:1 number:1 entity:1 apparent:1 fruitfulness:1 prospect:1 explain:1 conservatism:1 degree:1 fit:1 exist:1 recognize:1 knowledge:2 see:1 ecological:1 fallacy:1 research:2 area:1 cognitive:1 psychology:1 learn:1 logic:1 logical:1 positivism:1 null:2 journal:1 unlikely:1 philosophiae:1 naturalis:1 principia:1 mathematica:1 newton:1 position:1 reductionism:1 design:1 sociology:1 reference:1 |@bigram cardinal_bellarmine:1 deductive_reasoning:1 karl_popper:2 confirmation_holism:2 hypothetico_deductive:1 conjecture_refutation:1 imre_lakatos:1 paul_feyerabend:1 educate_guess:1 occam_razor:1 cognitive_psychology:1 logical_positivism:1 philosophiae_naturalis:1 naturalis_principia:1 principia_mathematica:1 |
4,604 | Live-bearing_aquarium_fish | Guppy Fry Live-bearing aquarium fish, often simply called livebearers, are fish that retain the eggs inside the body and give birth to live, free-swimming young. Because the newborn fish are large compared to the fry of oviparous fish, they are easier to feed than the fry of egg-laying species such as characins and cichlids. This makes them much easier to raise, and for this reason, aquarists often recommend them for beginners to fish breeding. In addition, being much larger makes them far less vulnerable to predation, and with sufficient cover, they can sometimes mature in a community tank. Common aquarium livebearers Species of interest to aquarists are almost always members of the family Poeciliidae, most commonly guppies, mollies, platies and swordtails. Rare livebearers A few other genera from Poeciliidae are kept by advanced aquarists, including Brachyrhaphis, Heterandria, and Limia. Other livebearing species kept by aquarists, though far less commonly than the Poeciliidae are the splitfins, family Goodeidae; and the halfbeaks, family Hemirhamphidae; Freshwater stingrays of the family Potamotrygonidae are sometimes kept by advanced aquarists, and these are also livebearers. None of these are considered to be easy aquarium fish, and some present as much of a challenge to the aquarist as egg-laying fish. Commonly, the problems include providing the right diet and conditions to trigger mating, and ensuring that the female does not miscarry the developing embryos too soon. Ovoviviparous and viviparous fish compared Most of the Poeciliidae are ovoviviparous, that is, while the eggs are retained inside the body of the female for protection, the eggs are essentially independent of the mother and she does not provide them with any nutrients. In contrast, fish such as splitfins and halfbeaks are viviparous, with the eggs receiving food from the maternal blood supply through structures analogous to the placenta of placental mammals. Aberrant livebearers and mouthbrooders Seahorses and pipefish can be defined as livebearers, although in these cases it is the males that incubate the eggs rather than the females. In many cases, the eggs are dependent on the male for oxygen and nutrition, so these fish can be further defined as viviparous livebearers. Many cichlids are mouthbrooders, with the female (or more rarely the male) incubating the eggs in the buccal cavity. Compared with other cichlids, these species produce fewer but bigger eggs, and when they emerge the fry are better developed and have a higher survivability. Because the eggs are protected from the environment but do not absorb nutrients from the parent, this condition is analogous to, though not identical with, ovoviviparity. Livebearer Fish Gallery External links American Livebearer Association British Livebearer Association Keeping & Breeding Halfbeaks Includes growth rate chart and pictures of newborn fish. | Live-bearing_aquarium_fish |@lemmatized guppy:2 fry:4 live:2 bearing:1 aquarium:3 fish:12 often:2 simply:1 call:1 livebearers:7 retain:2 egg:11 inside:2 body:2 give:1 birth:1 free:1 swimming:1 young:1 newborn:2 large:2 compare:3 oviparous:1 easy:3 fee:1 lay:2 specie:4 characin:1 cichlid:3 make:2 much:3 raise:1 reason:1 aquarists:5 recommend:1 beginner:1 breeding:1 addition:1 far:3 less:2 vulnerable:1 predation:1 sufficient:1 cover:1 sometimes:2 mature:1 community:1 tank:1 common:1 interest:1 almost:1 always:1 member:1 family:4 poeciliidae:4 commonly:3 molly:1 platy:1 swordtail:1 rare:1 genus:1 keep:4 advanced:2 include:3 brachyrhaphis:1 heterandria:1 limia:1 livebearing:1 though:2 splitfins:2 goodeidae:1 halfbeak:3 hemirhamphidae:1 freshwater:1 stingray:1 potamotrygonidae:1 also:1 none:1 consider:1 present:1 challenge:1 aquarist:1 problem:1 provide:2 right:1 diet:1 condition:2 trigger:1 mating:1 ensure:1 female:4 miscarry:1 developing:1 embryos:1 soon:1 ovoviviparous:2 viviparous:3 protection:1 essentially:1 independent:1 mother:1 nutrient:2 contrast:1 receive:1 food:1 maternal:1 blood:1 supply:1 structure:1 analogous:2 placenta:1 placental:1 mammal:1 aberrant:1 mouthbrooders:2 seahorse:1 pipefish:1 define:2 although:1 case:2 male:3 incubate:2 rather:1 many:2 dependent:1 oxygen:1 nutrition:1 rarely:1 buccal:1 cavity:1 produce:1 big:1 emerge:1 well:1 develop:1 high:1 survivability:1 protect:1 environment:1 absorb:1 parent:1 identical:1 ovoviviparity:1 livebearer:3 gallery:1 external:1 link:1 american:1 association:2 british:1 breed:1 growth:1 rate:1 chart:1 picture:1 |@bigram aquarium_fish:2 placental_mammal:1 incubate_egg:2 external_link:1 |
4,605 | Extreme_programming | Planning and feedback loops in Extreme Programming (XP) with the time frames of the multiple loops. Extreme Programming (XP) is a software engineering methodology (and a form of agile software development) "Human Centred Technology Workshop 2005", 2005, PDF webpage: Informatics-UK-report-cdrp585. prescribing a set of daily stakeholder practices that embody and encourage particular XP values (below). Proponents believe that exercising these practices—traditional software engineering practices taken to so-called "extreme" levels—leads to a development process that is more responsive to customer needs ("agile") than traditional methods, while creating software of better quality. "Design Patterns and Refactoring", University of Pennsylvania, 2003, webpage: UPenn-Lectures-design-patterns. "Extreme Programming" (lecture paper), USFCA.edu, webpage: USFCA-edu-601-lecture. "Manifesto for Agile Software Development", Agile Alliance, 2001, webpage: Manifesto-for-Agile-Software-Dev Proponents of Extreme Programming and agile methodologies in general regard ongoing changes to requirements as a natural, inescapable and desirable aspect of software development projects; they believe that adaptability to changing requirements at any point during the project life is a more realistic and better approach than attempting to define all requirements at the beginning of a project and then expending effort to control changes to the requirements. However, XP has been noted for several potential drawbacks, as compared to more document-based methodologies, including problems with unstable requirements, no documented compromises of user conflicts, and lack of an overall design spec or document (see below: Controversial aspects). History Extreme Programming was created by Kent Beck during his work on the Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation System (C3) payroll project. Beck became the C3 project leader in March 1996 and began to refine the development method used in the project and wrote a book on the method (in October 1999, Extreme Programming Explained was published). "Extreme Programming", Computerworld (online), December 2001, webpage: Computerworld-appdev-92. Chrysler cancelled the C3 project in February 2000, after the company was acquired by Daimler-Benz. Although Extreme Programming itself is relatively new, many of its practices have been around for some time; the methodology, after all, takes "best practices" to extreme levels. For example, the "practice of test-first development, planning and writing tests before each micro-increment" was used as early as NASA's Project Mercury, in the early 1960s . Refactoring, modularity, bottom-up and incremental design were described by Leo Brodie in his book published in 1984 * . Origins Most software development in the 1990s was shaped by two major influences: internally, object-oriented programming replaced procedural programming as the programming paradigm favored by some in the industry; externally, the rise of the Internet and the dot-com boom emphasized speed-to-market and company-growth as competitive business factors. Rapidly-changing requirements demanded shorter product life-cycles, and were often incompatible with traditional methods of software development. The Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation System was started in order to determine the best way to use object technologies, using the payroll systems at Chrysler as the object of research, with Smalltalk as the language and GemStone as the data access layer. They brought in Kent Beck, a prominent Smalltalk practitioner, to do performance tuning on the system, but his role expanded as he noted several issues they were having with their development process. He took this opportunity to propose and implement some changes in their practices based on his work with his frequent collaborator, Ward Cunningham. The first time I was asked to lead a team, I asked them to do a little bit of the things I thought were sensible, like testing and reviews. The second time there was a lot more on the line. I thought, "Damn the torpedoes, at least this will make a good article," [and] asked the team to crank up all the knobs to 10 on the things I thought were essential and leave out everything else. —Kent Beck Beck invited Ron Jeffries to the project to help develop and refine these methods. Jeffries thereafter acted as a coach to instill the practices as habits in the C3 team. Information about the principles and practices behind XP was disseminated to the wider world through discussions on the original Wiki, Cunningham's WikiWikiWeb. Various contributors discussed and expanded upon the ideas, and some spin-off methodologies resulted (see agile software development). Also, XP concepts have been explained, for several years, using a hyper-text system map on the XP website at "www.extremeprogramming.org" circa 1999 (website XPorg). Beck edited a series of books on XP, beginning with his own "Extreme Programming Explained (1999, ISBN 0-201-61641-6)", spreading his ideas to a much larger, yet very receptive, audience. Authors in the series went through various aspects attending XP and its practices, even a book critical of the practices. Current state XP created quite a buzz in the late 1990s and early 2000s, seeing adoption in a number of environments radically different from its origins. The high discipline required by the original practices often went by the wayside, causing some of these practices that were thought too rigid to be deprecated or left undone on individual sites. Agile development practices have not stood still, and XP is still evolving, assimilating more lessons from experiences in the field. In the second edition of Extreme Programming Explained, Beck added more values and practices and differentiated between primary and corollary practices. Extreme Programming topics Goals of XP "Extreme Programming Explained" describes Extreme Programming as being: An attempt to reconcile humanity and productivity A mechanism for social change A path to improvement A style of development A software development discipline The main aim of XP is to reduce the cost of change. In traditional system development methods (such as SSADM) the requirements for the system are determined at the beginning of the development project and often fixed from that point on. This means that the cost of changing the requirements at a later stage (a common feature of software engineering projects) will be high. XP sets out to reduce the cost of change by introducing basic values, principles and practices. By applying XP, a system development project should be more flexible with respect to changes. XP activities XP describes four basic activities that are performed within the software development process. Coding The advocates of XP argue that the only truly important product of the system development process is code (a concept to which they give a somewhat broader definition than might be given by others). Without code you have nothing. Coding can be drawing diagrams that will generate code, scripting a web-based system or coding a program that needs to be compiled. Coding can also be used to figure out the most suitable solution. For instance, XP would advocate that faced with several alternatives for a programming problem, one should simply code all solutions and determine with automated tests (discussed in the next section) which solution is most suitable. Coding can also help to communicate thoughts about programming problems. A programmer dealing with a complex programming problem and finding it hard to explain the solution to fellow programmers might code it and use the code to demonstrate what he or she means. Code, say the proponents of this position, is always clear and concise and cannot be interpreted in more than one way. Other programmers can give feedback on this code by also coding their thoughts. Testing One cannot be certain of anything unless one has tested it. Testing is not a perceived, primary need for the customer. A lot of software is shipped without proper testing and still works. In software development, XP says this means that one cannot be certain that a function works unless one tests it. This raises the question of defining what one can be uncertain about. You can be uncertain whether what you coded is what you meant. To test this uncertainty, XP uses Unit Tests. These are automated tests that test the code. The programmer will try to write as many tests he or she can think of that might break the code he or she is writing; if all tests run successfully then the coding is complete. You can be uncertain whether what you meant is what you should have meant. To test this uncertainty, XP uses acceptance tests based on the requirements given by the customer in the exploration phase of release planning. A "testathon" is an event when programmers meet to do collaborative test writing, a kind of brainstorming relative to software testing. Listening Programmers do not necessarily know anything about the business side of the system under development. The function of the system is determined by the business side. For the programmers to find what the functionality of the system should be, they have to listen to business. Programmers have to listen "in the large": they have to listen to what the customer needs. Also, they have to try to understand the business problem, and to give the customer feedback about his or her problem, to improve the customer's own understanding of his or her problem. Communication between the customer and programmer is further addressed in The Planning Game. Designing From the point of view of simplicity, one could say that system development doesn't need more than coding, testing and listening. If those activities are performed well, the result should always be a system that works. In practice, this will not work. One can come a long way without designing but at a given time one will get stuck. The system becomes too complex and the dependencies within the system cease to be clear. One can avoid this by creating a design structure that organizes the logic in the system. Good design will avoid lots of dependencies within a system; this means that changing one part of the system will not affect other parts of the system. XP values Extreme Programming initially recognized four values in 1999. A new value was added in the second edition of Extreme Programming Explained. The five values are: Communication Building software systems requires communicating system requirements to the developers of the system. In formal software development methodologies, this task is accomplished through documentation. Extreme Programming techniques can be viewed as methods for rapidly building and disseminating institutional knowledge among members of a development team. The goal is to give all developers a shared view of the system which matches the view held by the users of the system. To this end, Extreme Programming favors simple designs, common metaphors, collaboration of users and programmers, frequent verbal communication, and feedback. Simplicity Extreme Programming encourages starting with the simplest solution. Extra functionality can then be added later. The difference between this approach and more conventional system development methods is the focus on designing and coding for the needs of today instead of those of tomorrow, next week, or next month. Proponents of XP acknowledge the disadvantage that this can sometimes entail more effort tomorrow to change the system; their claim is that this is more than compensated for by the advantage of not investing in possible future requirements that might change before they become relevant. Coding and designing for uncertain future requirements implies the risk of spending resources on something that might not be needed. Related to the "communication" value, simplicity in design and coding should improve the quality of communication. A simple design with very simple code could be easily understood by most programmers in the team. Feedback Within Extreme Programming, feedback relates to different dimensions of the system development: Feedback from the system: by writing unit tests, or running periodic integration tests, the programmers have direct feedback from the state of the system after implementing changes. Feedback from the customer: The functional tests (aka acceptance tests) are written by the customer and the testers. They will get concrete feedback about the current state of their system. This review is planned once in every two or three weeks so the customer can easily steer the development. Feedback from the team: When customers come up with new requirements in the planning game the team directly gives an estimation of the time that it will take to implement. Feedback is closely related to communication and simplicity. Flaws in the system are easily communicated by writing a unit test that proves a certain piece of code will break. The direct feedback from the system tells programmers to recode this part. A customer is able to test the system periodically according to the functional requirements, known as user stories. To quote Kent Beck, "Optimism is an occupational hazard of programming, feedback is the treatment." Courage Several practices embody courage. One is the commandment to always design and code for today and not for tomorrow. This is an effort to avoid getting bogged down in design and requiring a lot of effort to implement anything else. Courage enables developers to feel comfortable with refactoring their code when necessary. This means reviewing the existing system and modifying it so that future changes can be implemented more easily. Another example of courage is knowing when to throw code away: courage to remove source code that is obsolete, no matter how much effort was used to create that source code. Also, courage means persistence: A programmer might be stuck on a complex problem for an entire day, then solve the problem quickly the next day, if only they are persistent. Respect The respect value manifests in several ways. In Extreme Programming, team members respect each other because programmers should never commit changes that break compilation, that make existing unit-tests fail, or that otherwise delay the work of their peers. Members respect their work by always striving for high quality and seeking for the best design for the solution at hand through refactoring. Adopting the four earlier values leads to respect gained from others in the team. Nobody on the team should feel unappreciated or ignored. This ensures high level of motivation and encourages loyalty toward the team, and the goal of the project. This value is very dependent upon the other values, and is very much oriented toward people in a team. XP rules The first version of XP rules was proposed by Ken Hauer Ken Auer in XP/Agile Universe 2003. In short, he said: XP's values make it agile. XP's practices do not define XP; XP is defined by its rules. Because defining XP by the practices has at least two problems: Some practices are fuzzy in definition. It's commonly understood we can be doing XP without doing all of the practices. He finally concluded that we should not define XP merely by its values or its practices. We should define XP by its rules. Ken Auer in his version of XP Rules defined two categories of rules in Rules of Engagement which dictate the environment in which software development can take place effectively. They then discuss the Rules of Play which define the minute-by-minute activities and rules within the framework of the Rules of Engagement. The Rules of Play are what make XP unique. Following the Rules of Play is Extreme Programming. Following the Rules of Play and the Rules of Engagement is Extreme Software Development. After Ken Auer, in APSO workshop at ICSE 2008 Conference, Mehdi Mirakhorli proposed the new version of XP Rules, he had provided some changes in the first version of XP Rules. Because he believed that the rules must satisfy the essence of agility and XP. When you choose rules for defining XP, you should be independent of any practices as much as possible. With regard to Ken’s results and according to his experiences he propose a more precise and comprehensive definition for the rules of engagement and play. Rules of Engagement In Mehdi Mirakhorli literature "Rules of Engagement" are those that make you agile, these rules are similar to agile principles: Business people and developers Joint work : Business people and developers must work together daily throughout the project Our highest priority is customer satisfaction : The customer must set and continuously adjust the objectives and priorities based on estimates and other information provided by the developers or other members of the team. Objectives are defined in terms of what not how. Deliver working software frequently : Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of months, with a preference to the shorter time scale (Timeboxing). Working software : Working software is the primary measure of progress Global Awareness : At any point, any member of the team must be able to measure the team’s progress towards the customer’s objectives and the team reflects on how to become more effective, then tunes and adjusts its behavior accordingly. The team must act as an Effective Social Network, which means: Honest communication leading to continuous learning and an emphasis on person-to-person interaction, rather than documentation. Minimal degrees of separation from what is needed by the team to make progress and the people/resources that can meet those needs. Alignment of authority and responsibility. Rules of play Rules of play that make XP unique are defined below; these rules are based on XP’s values: Communication, Simplicity, Feedback, Courage and Respect. Continuous testing: Work produced must be continuously validated through testing. Clearness and quality of code: All code written for potential use in the software product must clearly express every concept and have clarity, contain no duplication and no superfluous parts and pass all the unit tests. Common vocabulary: There is a sketch of the product guide all development with a simple shared story of how the whole system works. So everyone involved could grasp the essence of the project in a term universally understood. Everybody has the authority: Everybody has the authority and at least two people have the understanding necessary to do any task Principles The principles that form the basis of XP are based on the values just described and are intended to foster decisions in a system development project. The principles are intended to be more concrete than the values and more easily translated to guidance in a practical situation. Feedback Extreme Programming sees feedback as most useful if it is done rapidly and expresses that the time between an action and its feedback is critical to learning and making changes. Unlike traditional system development methods, contact with the customer occurs in more frequent iterations. The customer has clear insight into the system that is being developed. He or she can give feedback and steer the development as needed. Unit tests also contribute to the rapid feedback principle. When writing code, the unit test provides direct feedback as to how the system reacts to the changes one has made. If, for instance, the changes affect a part of the system that is not in the scope of the programmer who made them, that programmer will not notice the flaw. There is a large chance that this bug will appear when the system is in production. Assuming simplicity This is about treating every problem as if its solution were "extremely simple". Traditional system development methods say to plan for the future and to code for reusability. Extreme programming rejects these ideas. The advocates of Extreme Programming say that making big changes all at once does not work. Extreme Programming applies incremental changes: for example, a system might have small releases every three weeks. When many little steps are made, the customer has more control over the development process and the system that is being developed. Embracing change The principle of embracing change is about not working against changes but embracing them. For instance, if at one of the iterative meetings it appears that the customer's requirements have changed dramatically, programmers are to embrace this and plan the new requirements for the next iteration. Practices Extreme Programming has been described as having 12 practices, grouped into four areas: Fine scale feedback Pair programming Planning game Test-driven development Whole team Continuous process Continuous integration Refactoring or design improvement Small releases Shared understanding Coding standards Collective code ownership Simple design System metaphor Programmer welfare Sustainable pace Application of Extreme Programming Controversial aspects notwithstanding, Extreme Programming remains a viable choice for some projects. Projects suited to Extreme Programming are those that: Involve new or prototype technology, where the requirements change rapidly, or some development is required to discover unforeseen implementation problems Are research projects, where the resulting work is not the software product itself, but domain knowledge Are small and more easily managed through agile methods Adapting to rapidly changing Business needs/directions is important Projects suited for more conventional methodologies are those that: Involve stable technology and have fixed requirements, where it is known that few changes will occur Involve mission critical or safety critical systems, where formal methods may be used to ensure system reliability. Project Managers must weigh project aspects against available methodologies to make an appropriate selection. However, some XP concepts could be applied outside, such as using Pair Programming to expedite related technical changes to the documentation set of a large project. ThoughtWorks' experiences with implementing XP in large distributed projects can be found at Using an Agile Software Process with Offshore Development Controversial aspects The practices in XP have been heavily debated with strong opinions for or against using XP. Some of the controversial aspects of XP include: Unstable requirements Proponents of Extreme Programming claim that by having the on-site customer request changes informally, the process becomes flexible, and saves the cost of formal overhead. Critics of XP claim this can lead to costly rework and project scope creep beyond what was previously agreed or funded. User conflicts Change control boards are a sign that there are potential conflicts in project objectives and constraints between multiple users. XP's expedited methodology is somewhat dependent on programmers being able to assume a unified client viewpoint so the programmer can concentrate on coding rather than documentation of compromise objectives and constraints. This also applies when multiple programming organizations are involved, particularly organizations which compete for shares of projects. Other aspects Other potentially controversial aspects of Extreme Programming include: Requirements are expressed as automated acceptance tests rather than specification documents. Requirements are defined incrementally, rather than trying to get them all in advance. Software developers are usually required to work in pairs. There is no Big Design Up Front. Most of the design activity takes place on the fly and incrementally, starting with "the simplest thing that could possibly work" and adding complexity only when it's required by failing tests. Critics fear this would result in more re-design effort than only re-designing when requirements change. A customer representative is attached to the project. This role can become a single-point-of-failure for the project, and some people have found it to be a source of stress. Also, there is the danger of micro-management by a non-technical representative trying to dictate the use of technical software features and architecture. Dependence upon all other aspects of XP: "XP is like a ring of poisonous snakes, daisy-chained together. All it takes is for one of them to wriggle loose, and you've got a very angry, poisonous snake heading your way." The Case Against Extreme Programming: A Self-Referential Safety Net Scalability Historically, XP only works on teams of twelve or fewer people. One way to circumvent this limitation is to break up the project into smaller pieces and the team into smaller groups. It has been claimed that XP has been used successfully on teams of over a hundred developers. ThoughtWorks has claimed reasonable success on distributed XP projects with up to sixty people. Controversy in book In 2003, Matt Stephens and Doug Rosenberg published a book under Apress called Extreme Programming Refactored: The Case Against XP which questioned the value of the XP process and suggested ways in which it could be improved. This triggered a lengthy debate in articles, internet newsgroups, and web-site chat areas. The core argument of the book is that XP's practices are interdependent but that few practical organizations are willing/able to adopt all the practices; therefore the entire process fails. The book also makes other criticisms and it draws a likeness of XP's "collective ownership" model to socialism in a negative manner. XP evolution Certain aspects of XP have changed since the book Extreme Programming Refactored (2003) was published; in particular, XP now accommodates modifications to the practices as long as the required objectives are still met. XP also uses increasingly generic terms for processes. Some argue that these changes invalidate previous criticisms; others claim that this is simply watering the process down. In 2004 Industrial Extreme Programming (IXP) Cutter Consortium :: Industrial XP: Making XP Work in Large Organizations was introduced as an evolution of XP. It brings ability to work in big and distributed teams. It now has 23 practices and flexible changeable values. As it is a new member of Agile family, there is not enough data to prove its usability, however it claims to be an answer to XP's imperfections. XP customization Although software projects can benefit from XP practices, not all projects can directly adopt it. Characteristics of some projects make it difficult to use XP thoroughly; therefore, the need for tailoring XP to the local conditions, contexts and the size of projects is inevitable. RDP Practice RDP Practice is a technique for tailoring Extreme Programming. This practice was initially proposed as a long research paper in a workshop organized by Philippe Kruchten and Steve Adolph( See APSO workshop at ICSE 2008) and yet it is the only proposed and applicable method for customizing XP. The valuable concepts behind RDP practice, in a short time provided the rationale for applicability of it in industries. RDP Practice tries to customize XP by relying on technique XP Rules. Hybrid/unified methodologies Other authors have tried to reconcile XP with the older methods in order to form a unified methodology. Some of these XP sought to replace, such as the waterfall method; example: Project Lifecycles: Waterfall, Rapid Application Development, and All That. Most probably due to the above mentioned points most of the IT industries avoid to follow such methodolgy and follow SDLC life cycles exaple waterfall etc. JPMorgan Chase & Co. tried combining XP with the computer programming methodologies of Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI), and Six Sigma. They found that the three systems reinforced each other well, leading to better development, and did not mutually contradict. Extreme Programming (XP) Six Sigma CMMI. See also Software Development Rhythms Software engineering Software Craftsmanship Agile software development Extreme project management Extreme Programming Practices Pair Programming RDP technique Toyota Production System List of software development philosophies References Further reading Ken Auer and Roy Miller. Extreme Programming Applied: Playing To Win, Addison-Wesley. Kent Beck: Extreme Programming Explained: Embrace Change, Addison-Wesley. Kent Beck and Martin Fowler: Planning Extreme Programming, Addison-Wesley. Kent Beck and Cynthia Andres. Extreme Programming Explained: Embrace Change, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley. Alistair Cockburn: Agile Software Development, Addison-Wesley. Martin Fowler: Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code, Addison-Wesley. Harvey Herela (2005). Case Study: The Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation System. Galen Lab, U.C. Irvine. Jim Highsmith. Agile Software Development Ecosystems, Addison-Wesley. Ron Jeffries, Ann Anderson and Chet Hendrickson (2000), Extreme Programming Installed, Addison-Wesley. Mehdi Mirakhorli (2008). RDP technique: a practice to customize xp, International Conference on Software Engineering, Proceedings of the 2008 international workshop on Scrutinizing agile practices or shoot-out at the agile corral, Leipzig, Germany 2008, Pages 23–32. Craig Larman & V. Basili (2003). "Iterative and Incremental Development: A Brief History", Computer (IEEE Computer Society) 36 (6): 47-56. Matt Stephens and Doug Rosenberg (2003). Extreme Programming Refactored: The Case Against XP, Apress. Waldner, JB. (2008). "Nanocomputers and Swarm Intelligence". In: ISTE, 225-256. External links Extreme Programming XProgramming.com - an Extreme Programming Resource XP articles directory Agile Alliance XP Library InfoQ.com / Agile - Tracking change and innovation in the enterprise software development community (News, Articles, Books, Video) Problems and Solutions to XP implementation XP Game- The XP Game is a playful way to familiarize the players with some of the more difficult concepts of the XP Planning Game Agile Toolkit Podcast - Conversations and Interviews related to Agile Software Development be-x-old:Экстрэмальнае праграмаваньне | Extreme_programming |@lemmatized planning:8 feedback:22 loop:2 extreme:50 programming:38 xp:87 time:9 frame:1 multiple:3 software:40 engineering:5 methodology:12 form:3 agile:24 development:47 human:1 centre:1 technology:4 workshop:5 pdf:1 webpage:5 informatics:1 uk:1 report:1 prescribe:1 set:4 daily:2 stakeholder:1 practice:41 embody:2 encourage:2 particular:2 value:19 proponent:5 believe:3 exercise:1 traditional:6 take:7 call:2 level:3 lead:6 process:12 responsive:1 customer:21 need:12 method:15 create:5 good:4 quality:4 design:22 pattern:2 refactoring:6 university:1 pennsylvania:1 upenn:1 lecture:3 paper:2 usfca:2 edu:2 manifesto:2 alliance:2 dev:1 general:1 regard:2 ongoing:1 change:37 requirement:22 natural:1 inescapable:1 desirable:1 aspect:9 project:37 adaptability:1 point:6 life:3 realistic:1 approach:2 attempt:2 define:13 beginning:2 expend:1 effort:6 control:3 however:3 note:2 several:6 potential:3 drawback:1 compare:1 document:3 base:7 include:3 problem:13 unstable:2 documented:1 compromise:2 user:6 conflict:3 lack:1 overall:1 spec:1 see:6 controversial:5 history:2 kent:7 beck:11 work:23 chrysler:5 comprehensive:4 compensation:3 system:52 payroll:2 become:6 leader:1 march:1 begin:2 refine:2 use:17 write:9 book:10 october:1 explain:9 publish:4 program:21 computerworld:2 online:1 december:1 appdev:1 cancel:1 february:1 company:2 acquire:1 daimler:1 benz:1 although:2 relatively:1 new:7 many:3 around:1 best:3 example:4 test:33 first:4 micro:2 increment:1 early:4 nasa:1 mercury:1 modularity:1 bottom:1 incremental:3 describe:3 leo:1 brodie:1 origins:1 shape:1 two:5 major:1 influence:1 internally:1 object:3 orient:2 replace:2 procedural:1 paradigm:1 favor:2 industry:3 externally:1 rise:1 internet:2 dot:1 com:3 boom:1 emphasize:1 speed:1 market:1 growth:1 competitive:1 business:8 factor:1 rapidly:5 changing:1 demand:1 short:4 product:5 cycle:2 often:3 incompatible:1 start:3 order:2 determine:4 way:8 research:3 smalltalk:2 language:1 gemstone:1 data:2 access:1 layer:1 bring:2 prominent:1 practitioner:1 performance:1 tune:2 role:2 expand:2 issue:1 opportunity:1 propose:6 implement:6 frequent:3 collaborator:1 ward:1 cunningham:2 ask:3 team:23 little:2 bit:1 thing:3 think:5 sensible:1 like:2 review:3 second:4 lot:4 line:1 damn:1 torpedo:1 least:3 make:15 article:4 crank:1 knob:1 essential:1 leave:2 everything:1 else:2 invite:1 ron:2 jeffries:3 help:2 develop:3 thereafter:1 act:2 coach:1 instill:1 habit:1 information:2 principle:7 behind:2 disseminate:2 wider:1 world:1 discussion:1 original:2 wiki:1 wikiwikiweb:1 various:2 contributor:1 discuss:3 upon:3 idea:3 spin:1 result:4 also:12 concept:6 year:1 hyper:1 text:1 map:1 website:2 www:1 extremeprogramming:1 org:1 circa:1 xporg:1 edit:1 series:2 isbn:1 spread:1 much:4 large:6 yet:2 receptive:1 audience:1 author:2 go:2 attend:1 even:1 critical:4 current:2 state:3 quite:1 buzz:1 late:2 adoption:1 number:1 environment:2 radically:1 different:2 origin:1 high:5 discipline:2 require:6 wayside:1 cause:1 rigid:1 deprecate:1 undone:1 individual:1 site:3 stand:1 still:4 evolve:1 assimilate:1 lesson:1 experience:3 field:1 edition:3 add:4 differentiate:1 primary:3 corollary:1 topic:1 goal:3 describes:2 reconcile:2 humanity:1 productivity:1 mechanism:1 social:2 path:1 improvement:2 style:1 main:1 aim:1 reduce:2 cost:4 ssadm:1 fix:2 mean:10 stage:1 common:3 feature:2 introduce:2 basic:2 apply:4 flexible:3 respect:7 activity:5 four:4 perform:2 within:5 cod:7 advocate:3 argue:2 truly:1 important:2 code:23 give:9 somewhat:2 broad:1 definition:3 might:7 others:3 without:4 nothing:1 coding:7 draw:2 diagram:1 generate:1 script:1 web:2 compile:1 figure:1 suitable:2 solution:8 instance:3 would:2 face:1 alternative:1 one:17 simply:2 automated:3 next:5 section:1 communicate:3 thought:2 programmer:21 deal:1 complex:3 find:5 hard:1 fellow:1 demonstrate:1 say:6 position:1 always:4 clear:3 concise:1 cannot:3 interpret:1 certain:4 anything:3 unless:2 perceive:1 ship:1 proper:1 testing:2 function:2 raise:1 question:2 uncertain:4 whether:2 uncertainty:2 us:2 unit:7 try:6 break:4 run:2 successfully:2 complete:1 acceptance:3 exploration:1 phase:1 release:3 testathon:1 event:1 meet:3 collaborative:1 writing:1 kind:1 brainstorm:1 relative:1 listen:5 necessarily:1 know:4 side:2 functionality:2 understand:3 improve:4 understanding:2 communication:8 address:1 game:6 view:4 simplicity:6 could:6 well:3 come:2 long:3 get:5 stick:2 dependency:2 cease:1 avoid:4 structure:1 organize:2 logic:1 part:5 affect:2 initially:2 recognize:1 five:1 building:2 developer:8 formal:3 task:2 accomplish:1 documentation:4 technique:5 institutional:1 knowledge:2 among:1 member:6 share:3 match:1 hold:1 end:1 simple:8 metaphor:2 collaboration:1 verbal:1 encourages:1 extra:1 later:1 difference:1 conventional:2 focus:1 today:2 instead:1 tomorrow:3 week:4 month:2 acknowledge:1 disadvantage:1 sometimes:1 entail:1 claim:7 compensate:1 advantage:1 invest:1 possible:2 future:4 relevant:1 imply:1 risk:1 spending:1 resource:3 something:1 relate:4 easily:6 dimension:1 periodic:1 integration:3 direct:3 functional:2 aka:1 tester:1 concrete:2 plan:3 every:4 three:3 steer:2 directly:2 estimation:1 closely:1 flaw:2 prove:2 piece:2 tell:1 recode:1 able:4 periodically:1 accord:2 story:2 quote:1 optimism:1 occupational:1 hazard:1 treatment:1 courage:7 commandment:1 bogged:1 enable:1 feel:2 comfortable:1 necessary:2 exist:3 modify:1 another:1 throw:1 away:1 remove:1 source:3 obsolete:1 matter:1 persistence:1 entire:2 day:2 solve:1 quickly:1 persistent:1 manifest:1 never:1 commit:1 compilation:1 fail:2 otherwise:1 delay:1 peer:1 strive:1 seek:2 hand:1 adopt:3 gain:1 nobody:1 unappreciated:1 ignore:1 ensure:2 motivation:1 loyalty:1 toward:2 dependent:2 people:8 rule:26 version:4 ken:6 hauer:1 auer:4 universe:1 fuzzy:1 commonly:1 understood:2 finally:1 conclude:1 merely:1 category:1 engagement:6 dictate:2 place:2 effectively:1 play:7 minute:2 framework:1 unique:2 follow:4 apso:2 icse:2 conference:2 mehdi:3 mirakhorli:3 provide:4 must:8 satisfy:1 essence:2 agility:1 choose:1 independent:1 precise:1 literature:1 similar:1 joint:1 together:2 throughout:1 priority:2 satisfaction:1 continuously:2 adjust:2 objective:6 estimate:1 term:3 deliver:2 frequently:2 couple:2 preference:1 scale:2 timeboxing:1 working:1 measure:2 progress:3 global:1 awareness:1 towards:1 reflect:1 effective:2 behavior:1 accordingly:1 network:1 honest:1 continuous:4 learning:1 emphasis:1 person:2 interaction:1 rather:4 minimal:1 degree:1 separation:1 alignment:1 authority:3 responsibility:1 produce:1 validate:1 clearness:1 clearly:1 express:3 clarity:1 contain:1 duplication:1 superfluous:1 pas:1 vocabulary:1 sketch:1 guide:1 shared:1 whole:2 everyone:1 involve:5 grasp:1 universally:1 everybody:2 principles:1 basis:1 intend:2 foster:1 decision:1 translate:1 guidance:1 practical:2 situation:1 useful:1 action:1 learn:1 unlike:1 contact:1 occur:2 iteration:2 insight:1 contribute:1 rapid:2 react:1 scope:2 notice:1 chance:1 bug:1 appear:2 production:2 assume:2 treat:1 extremely:1 reusability:1 reject:1 big:3 applies:1 small:5 step:1 embrace:6 iterative:2 meeting:1 dramatically:1 group:2 area:2 fine:1 pair:4 driven:1 standard:1 collective:2 ownership:2 welfare:1 sustainable:1 pace:1 application:2 notwithstanding:1 remain:1 viable:1 choice:1 suit:2 prototype:1 discover:1 unforeseen:1 implementation:2 resulting:1 domain:1 manage:1 adapt:1 direction:1 stable:1 mission:1 safety:2 may:1 reliability:1 manager:1 weigh:1 available:1 appropriate:1 selection:1 outside:1 expedite:2 related:1 technical:3 thoughtworks:2 distributed:3 offshore:1 aspects:2 heavily:1 debate:2 strong:1 opinion:1 request:1 informally:1 save:1 overhead:1 critic:2 costly:1 rework:1 creep:1 beyond:1 previously:1 agree:1 fund:1 board:1 sign:1 constraint:2 unified:2 client:1 viewpoint:1 concentrate:1 organization:4 particularly:1 compete:1 potentially:1 specification:1 incrementally:2 advance:1 usually:1 front:1 fly:1 possibly:1 complexity:1 fear:1 designing:1 representative:2 attach:1 single:1 failure:1 stress:1 danger:1 management:2 non:1 architecture:1 dependence:1 ring:1 poisonous:2 snake:2 daisy:1 chain:1 wriggle:1 loose:1 angry:1 head:1 case:4 self:1 referential:1 net:1 scalability:1 historically:1 twelve:1 circumvent:1 limitation:1 hundred:1 reasonable:1 success:1 sixty:1 controversy:1 matt:2 stephen:2 doug:2 rosenberg:2 apress:2 refactored:3 suggest:1 trigger:1 lengthy:1 newsgroups:1 chat:1 core:1 argument:1 interdependent:1 willing:1 therefore:2 fails:1 criticism:2 likeness:1 model:2 socialism:1 negative:1 manner:1 evolution:2 since:1 accommodate:1 modification:1 required:1 increasingly:1 generic:1 invalidate:1 previous:1 water:1 industrial:2 ixp:1 cutter:1 consortium:1 making:1 ability:1 changeable:1 family:1 enough:1 usability:1 answer:1 imperfection:1 customization:1 benefit:1 characteristic:1 difficult:2 thoroughly:1 tailor:2 local:1 condition:1 context:1 size:1 inevitable:1 rdp:6 philippe:1 kruchten:1 steve:1 adolph:1 applicable:1 customize:3 valuable:1 rationale:1 applicability:1 rely:1 hybrid:1 unify:1 old:2 waterfall:3 lifecycles:1 probably:1 due:1 mention:1 methodolgy:1 sdlc:1 exaple:1 etc:1 jpmorgan:1 chase:1 co:1 tried:1 combine:1 computer:3 capability:1 maturity:1 cmmi:2 six:2 sigma:2 reinforce:1 mutually:1 contradict:1 rhythm:1 craftsmanship:1 toyota:1 list:1 philosophy:1 reference:1 reading:1 roy:1 miller:1 playing:1 win:1 addison:8 wesley:8 martin:2 fowler:2 cynthia:1 andres:1 alistair:1 cockburn:1 harvey:1 herela:1 study:1 galen:1 lab:1 u:1 c:1 irvine:1 jim:1 highsmith:1 ecosystems:1 ann:1 anderson:1 chet:1 hendrickson:1 instal:1 international:2 proceeding:1 scrutinize:1 shoot:1 corral:1 leipzig:1 germany:1 page:1 craig:1 larman:1 v:1 basili:1 brief:1 ieee:1 society:1 waldner:1 jb:1 nanocomputers:1 swarm:1 intelligence:1 iste:1 external:1 link:1 xprogramming:1 directory:1 library:1 infoq:1 track:1 innovation:1 enterprise:1 community:1 news:1 video:1 playful:1 familiarize:1 player:1 toolkit:1 podcast:1 conversation:1 interview:1 x:1 экстрэмальнае:1 праграмаваньне:1 |@bigram feedback_loop:1 kent_beck:7 daimler_benz:1 orient_programming:1 frequent_collaborator:1 ward_cunningham:1 everything_else:1 closely_relate:1 occupational_hazard:1 anything_else:1 feel_comfortable:1 customer_satisfaction:1 poisonous_snake:2 self_referential:1 capability_maturity:1 addison_wesley:8 external_link:1 |
4,606 | Human_cloning | Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human being (not usually referring monozygotic multiple births), human cell, or human tissue. History Although the possibility of cloning human beings has been the subject of speculation for much of the twentieth century, scientitists and policy makers began to take the prospect seriously in the 1960s. Nobel Prize winning geneticist Joshua Lederberg advocated for cloning and genetic engineering in a seminal article in the American Naturalist in 1966 and again, the following year, in the Washington Post. Joshua Lederberg. (1966). Experimental Genetics and Human Evolution. The American Naturalist 100, 915, pp. 519-531. He sparked a debate with conservative bioethicist Leon Kass, who wrote at the time that "the programmed reproduction of man will, in fact, dehumanize him." Another Nobel Laureate, James Watson, publicized the potential and the perils of cloning in his Atlantic Monthly essay, "Moving Toward the Clonal Man", in 1971. Watson, James. "Moving Toward a Clonal Man: Is This What We Want?" The Atlantic Monthly (1971). Human cloning also gained a foothold in popular culture, starting in the 1970s. Alvin Toffler's Future Shock, David Rorvik's In His Image: Toward Cloning of a Man, Woody Allen's film Sleeper and The Boys from Brazil all helped to make the public aware of the ethical issues surrounding human cloning. Ethical implications Advocates of human therapeutic cloning believe the practice could provide genetically identical cells for regenerative medicine, and tissues and organs for transplantation. Such cells, tissues and organs would neither trigger an immune response nor require the use of immunosuppressive drugs. Both basic research and therapeutic development for serious diseases such as cancer, heart disease and diabetes, as well as improvements in burn treatment and reconstructive and cosmetic surgery, are areas that might benefit from such new technology. Cloning Fact Sheet New York University bioethicist Jacob M. Appel has argued that "children cloned for therapeutic purposes" such as "to donate bone marrow to a sibling with leukemia" might someday be viewed as heroes. Appel, JM. New York Times Magazine, December 11, 2005. Proponents claim that human reproductive cloning also would produce benefits. Severino Antinori and Panos Zavos hope to create a fertility treatment that allows parents who are both infertile to have children with at least some of their DNA in their offspring. Scientists Prepare To Clone a Human; Experiment Aims to Help Infertile. Washington Post, March 10, 2001 Some scientists, including Dr. Richard Seed, suggest that human cloning might obviate the human aging process. Cloning touted as infertility solution, Washington Times, December 11, 1997 Dr. Preston Estep has suggested the terms "replacement cloning" to describe the generation of a clone of a previously living person, and "persistence cloning" to describe the production of a cloned body for the purpose of obviating aging, although he maintains that such procedures currently should be considered science fiction. In Aubrey de Gray's proposed SENS (Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence), one of the considered options to repair the cell depletion related to cellular senescence is to grow replacement tissues from stem cells harvested from a cloned embryo. Opponents of human cloning argue that the process will likely lead to severely disabled children. For example, bioethicist Thomas Murray of the Hastings Center argues that "it is absolutely inevitable that groups are going to try to clone a human being. But they are going to create a lot of dead and dying babies along the way." Friend, Tim. The Real Face of Cloning, USA Today, January 16, 2003 Techniques There have been no documented cases of a living human being produced through human cloning. However, the most successful (though inefficient) common cloning technique in non-human mammals is the process by which Dolly the sheep was produced. It is also the technique used by Advanced Cell Technology (ACT), the first company to successfully Jose B. Cibelli, Robert P. Lanza, and Michael D. West. "The First Human Cloned Embryo". Scientific American. November 24, 2001. Last accessed November 13, 2007. clone early human embryos that stopped at the six cell stage. The process is as follows: an egg cell taken from a donor has its cytoplasm removed. Another cell with the genetic material to be cloned is fused with the original egg cell, transferring its cell nucleus to the enucleated donor egg. In theory, this process, known as somatic cell nuclear transfer, could be applied to human beings. ACT also reported its attempts to clone stem cell lines by parthenogenesis, where an unfertilized egg cell is induced to divide and grow as if it were fertilized, but only incomplete blastocysts resulted. Even if it were practical with mammals, this technique could work only with females. Discussion of human cloning generally assumes the use of somatic cell nuclear transfer, rather than parthenogenesis. In January 2008, Wood and Andrew French, Stemagen's chief scientific officer in California, announced that they successfully created the first five mature human embryos using DNA from adult skin cells, aiming to provide a less-controversial source of viable embryonic stem cells. Dr. Samuel Wood and a colleague donated skin cells, and DNA from those cells was transferred to human eggs. It is not clear if the embryos produced would have been capable of further development, but Dr. Wood stated that if that were possible, using the technology for reproductive cloning would be both unethical and illegal. The five cloned embryos, created in Stemagen Corporation lab, in La Jolla, were later destroyed. Mature Human Embryos Created From Adult Skin Cells Washingtonpost.com MACRAE, FIONA Ethical storm as scientist becomes first man to clone HIMSELF Daily Mail RICKS , DELTHIA Scientists make human embryo clone newsday.com Success beyond the embryo stage In 1978, David Rorvik claimed in his book In his Image: The Cloning of a Man that he had personal knowledge of the creation of a human clone. A court case followed. He failed to produce corroborating evidence to back up his claims and it is now regarded as a hoax. Severino Antinori made claims in November 2002 that a project to clone human beings had succeeded, with the first human clone due to be born in January 2003. His claims were received with skepticism from many observers. In December 2002, Clonaid, the medical arm of a religion called Raëlism, who believe that aliens introduced human life on Earth, claimed to have successfully cloned a human being. They claim that aliens taught them how to perform cloning, even though the company has no record of having successfully cloned any previous animal. A spokesperson said an independent agency would prove that the baby, named Evá, is in fact an exact copy of her mother. Shortly thereafter, the testing was cancelled, with the spokesperson claiming the decision would ultimately be left up to Evá's parents. On October 9, 2003, newspaper Le journal de Montréal published an article accusing Clonaid and the Raelian religion of maintaining an outright hoax in its claims regarding cloning a human baby. In December 2004, Dr. Brigitte Boisselier, Clonaid's Chief Executive, claimed in a letter to the UN that Clonaid has successfully cloned thirteen children; however, to protect them, their identities cannot be revealed to the public. Current law United Nations On December 12, 2001, the United Nations General Assembly began elaborating an international convention against the reproductive cloning of human beings. Lawrence S. B. Goldstein, college professor of cellular and molecular medicine at the University of California at San Diego, claims that the United States, unable to pass a national law, forced Costa Rica to start this debate in the UN over the international cloning ban. Unable to reach a consensus on a binding convention, in March 2005 a non-binding United Nations Declaration on Human Cloning was finally adopted. Australia Australia had prohibited human cloning, though as of December 2006, a bill legalising therapeutic cloning and the creation of human embryos for stem cell research passed the House of Representatives. Within certain regulatory limits, and subject to the effect of state legislation, therapeutic cloning is now legal in some parts of Australia. European Union The European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine prohibits human cloning in one of its additional protocols, but this protocol has been ratified only by Greece, Spain and Portugal. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union explicitly prohibits reproductive human cloning, though the Charter currently carries no legal standing. The proposed Treaty of Lisbon would, if ratified, make the charter legally binding for the institutions of the European Union. United States In 1998, 2001, 2004 and 2007, the United States House of Representatives voted whether to ban all human cloning, both reproductive and therapeutic. Each time, divisions in the Senate over therapeutic cloning prevented either competing proposal (a ban on both forms or reproductive cloning only) from passing. Some American states ban both forms of cloning, while some others outlaw only reproductive cloning. Current regulations prohibit federal funding for research into human cloning, which effectively prevents such research from occurring in public institutions and private institutions such as universities which receive federal funding. However, there are currently no federal laws in the United States which ban cloning completely, and any such laws would raise difficult Constitutional questions similar to the issues raised by abortion. United Kingdom The British government introduced legislation in order to allow licensed therapeutic cloning in a debate in January 14, 2001 in an amendment to the Human Fertilization and Embryology Act 1990. However, on November 15, 2001, a pro-life group won a High Court legal challenge that effectively left cloning unregulated in the UK. Their hope was that Parliament would fill this gap by passing prohibitive legislation. The government was quick to pass legislation prohibiting reproductive cloning Human Reproductive Cloning Act 2001. The remaining gap with regard to therapeutic cloning was closed when the appeals courts reversed the previous decision of the High Court. The first licence was granted on August 11, 2004 to researchers at the University of Newcastle to allow them to investigate treatments for diabetes, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. In popular culture Cloning is a recurring theme in contemporary science fiction. Examples include the novels Joshua Son of None (about the cloning of an assassinated U.S. President strongly implied to be John F. Kennedy) and The Boys from Brazil (cloning Adolf Hitler), as well as the Star Wars films and TV series The Clone Wars. The 2000 Arnold Schwarzenegger film The 6th Day and 2005 The Island, directed by Michael Bay, also explores the theme of human cloning. Religious objections The Roman Catholic Church, under the papacy of Benedict XVI, has condemned the practice of human cloning, in the magisterial instruction Dignitas Personae, stating that it represents a "grave offense to the dignity of that person as well as to the fundamental equality of all people". Washington Post article References External links "Variations and voids: the regulation of human cloning around the world" academic article by S. Pattinson & T. Caulfield Moving Toward the Clonal Man Should We Really Fear Reproductive Human Cloning | Human_cloning |@lemmatized human:47 cloning:27 creation:3 genetically:2 identical:2 copy:2 usually:1 refer:1 monozygotic:1 multiple:1 birth:1 cell:21 tissue:4 history:1 although:2 possibility:1 clone:42 subject:2 speculation:1 much:1 twentieth:1 century:1 scientitists:1 policy:1 maker:1 begin:2 take:2 prospect:1 seriously:1 nobel:2 prize:1 win:2 geneticist:1 joshua:3 lederberg:2 advocate:2 genetic:2 engineering:1 seminal:1 article:4 american:4 naturalist:2 following:1 year:1 washington:4 post:3 experimental:1 genetics:1 evolution:1 pp:1 spark:1 debate:3 conservative:1 bioethicist:3 leon:1 ka:1 write:1 time:4 programmed:1 reproduction:1 man:7 fact:3 dehumanize:1 another:2 laureate:1 james:2 watson:2 publicize:1 potential:1 peril:1 atlantic:2 monthly:2 essay:1 move:3 toward:4 clonal:3 want:1 also:5 gain:1 foothold:1 popular:2 culture:2 start:2 alvin:1 toffler:1 future:1 shock:1 david:2 rorvik:2 image:2 woody:1 allen:1 film:3 sleeper:1 boy:2 brazil:2 help:2 make:4 public:3 aware:1 ethical:3 issue:2 surround:1 implication:1 therapeutic:9 believe:2 practice:2 could:3 provide:2 regenerative:1 medicine:2 organ:2 transplantation:1 would:9 neither:1 trigger:1 immune:1 response:1 require:1 use:5 immunosuppressive:1 drug:1 basic:1 research:4 development:2 serious:1 disease:4 cancer:1 heart:1 diabetes:2 well:3 improvement:1 burn:1 treatment:3 reconstructive:1 cosmetic:1 surgery:1 area:1 might:3 benefit:2 new:3 technology:3 sheet:1 york:2 university:4 jacob:1 appel:2 argue:3 child:4 purpose:2 donate:2 bone:1 marrow:1 sibling:1 leukemia:1 someday:1 view:1 hero:1 jm:1 magazine:1 december:6 proponent:1 claim:11 reproductive:10 produce:5 severino:2 antinori:2 panos:1 zavos:1 hope:2 create:5 fertility:1 allow:3 parent:2 infertile:2 least:1 dna:3 offspring:1 scientist:4 prepare:1 experiment:1 aim:2 march:2 include:2 dr:5 richard:1 seed:1 suggest:2 obviate:2 age:2 process:5 tout:1 infertility:1 solution:1 preston:1 estep:1 term:1 replacement:2 describe:2 generation:1 previously:1 live:1 person:2 persistence:1 production:1 body:1 maintain:2 procedure:1 currently:3 consider:2 science:2 fiction:2 aubrey:1 de:2 gray:1 propose:2 sen:1 strategy:1 engineer:1 negligible:1 senescence:2 one:2 option:1 repair:1 depletion:1 relate:1 cellular:2 grow:2 stem:4 harvest:1 cloned:1 embryo:10 opponent:1 likely:1 lead:1 severely:1 disabled:1 example:2 thomas:1 murray:1 hastings:1 center:1 absolutely:1 inevitable:1 group:2 go:2 try:1 lot:1 dead:1 die:1 baby:3 along:1 way:1 friend:1 tim:1 real:1 face:1 usa:1 today:1 january:4 technique:4 documented:1 case:2 living:1 however:4 successful:1 though:4 inefficient:1 common:1 non:2 mammal:2 dolly:1 sheep:1 advanced:1 act:4 first:6 company:2 successfully:5 jose:1 b:2 cibelli:1 robert:1 p:1 lanza:1 michael:2 west:1 scientific:2 november:4 last:1 accessed:1 early:1 stop:1 six:1 stage:2 follow:2 egg:5 donor:2 cytoplasm:1 remove:1 material:1 fuse:1 original:1 transfer:4 nucleus:1 enucleate:1 theory:1 know:1 somatic:2 nuclear:2 apply:1 report:1 attempt:1 line:1 parthenogenesis:2 unfertilized:1 induce:1 divide:1 fertilize:1 incomplete:1 blastocyst:1 result:1 even:2 practical:1 work:1 female:1 discussion:1 generally:1 assume:1 rather:1 wood:3 andrew:1 french:1 stemagen:2 chief:2 officer:1 california:2 announce:1 five:2 mature:2 adult:2 skin:3 less:1 controversial:1 source:1 viable:1 embryonic:1 samuel:1 colleague:1 clear:1 capable:1 state:8 possible:1 unethical:1 illegal:1 corporation:1 lab:1 la:1 jolla:1 later:1 destroy:1 washingtonpost:1 com:2 macrae:1 fiona:1 storm:1 becomes:1 daily:1 mail:1 rick:1 delthia:1 newsday:1 success:1 beyond:1 book:1 personal:1 knowledge:1 court:4 fail:1 corroborate:1 evidence:1 back:1 regard:3 hoax:2 project:1 succeed:1 due:1 bear:1 receive:2 skepticism:1 many:1 observer:1 clonaid:4 medical:1 arm:1 religion:2 call:1 raëlism:1 alien:2 introduce:2 life:2 earth:1 teach:1 perform:1 record:1 previous:2 animal:1 spokesperson:2 say:1 independent:1 agency:1 prove:1 name:1 evá:2 exact:1 mother:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 testing:1 cancel:1 decision:2 ultimately:1 leave:2 october:1 newspaper:1 le:1 journal:1 montréal:1 publish:1 accuse:1 raelian:1 outright:1 brigitte:1 boisselier:1 executive:1 letter:1 un:2 thirteen:1 protect:1 identity:1 cannot:1 reveal:1 current:2 law:4 unite:1 nation:3 united:7 general:1 assembly:1 elaborate:1 international:2 convention:3 lawrence:1 goldstein:1 college:1 professor:1 molecular:1 san:1 diego:1 unable:2 pass:5 national:1 force:1 costa:1 rica:1 ban:5 reach:1 consensus:1 binding:2 declaration:1 finally:1 adopt:1 australia:3 prohibit:4 bill:1 legalise:1 house:2 representative:2 within:1 certain:1 regulatory:1 limit:1 effect:1 legislation:4 legal:3 part:1 european:4 union:3 right:2 biomedicine:1 prohibits:1 additional:1 protocol:2 ratify:2 greece:1 spain:1 portugal:1 charter:3 fundamental:2 explicitly:1 carry:1 standing:1 treaty:1 lisbon:1 legally:1 bind:1 institution:3 vote:1 whether:1 division:1 senate:1 prevent:2 either:1 compete:1 proposal:1 form:2 others:1 outlaw:1 regulation:2 federal:3 funding:2 effectively:2 occur:1 private:1 completely:1 raise:2 difficult:1 constitutional:1 question:1 similar:1 abortion:1 kingdom:1 british:1 government:2 order:1 licensed:1 amendment:1 fertilization:1 embryology:1 pro:1 high:2 challenge:1 unregulated:1 uk:1 parliament:1 fill:1 gap:2 prohibitive:1 quick:1 remain:1 close:1 appeal:1 reverse:1 licence:1 grant:1 august:1 researcher:1 newcastle:1 investigate:1 parkinson:1 alzheimer:1 recur:1 theme:2 contemporary:1 novel:1 son:1 none:1 assassinated:1 u:1 president:1 strongly:1 imply:1 john:1 f:1 kennedy:1 adolf:1 hitler:1 star:1 war:2 tv:1 series:1 arnold:1 schwarzenegger:1 day:1 island:1 direct:1 bay:1 explore:1 religious:1 objection:1 roman:1 catholic:1 church:1 papacy:1 benedict:1 xvi:1 condemn:1 magisterial:1 instruction:1 dignitas:1 persona:1 represent:1 grave:1 offense:1 dignity:1 equality:1 people:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 variation:1 void:1 around:1 world:1 academic:1 pattinson:1 caulfield:1 really:1 fear:1 |@bigram genetically_identical:2 twentieth_century:1 nobel_prize:1 nobel_laureate:1 gain_foothold:1 woody_allen:1 therapeutic_cloning:6 regenerative_medicine:1 organ_transplantation:1 immune_response:1 immunosuppressive_drug:1 cosmetic_surgery:1 jacob_appel:1 bone_marrow:1 reproductive_cloning:5 science_fiction:2 dolly_sheep:1 somatic_cell:2 unfertilized_egg:1 embryonic_stem:1 la_jolla:1 washingtonpost_com:1 shortly_thereafter:1 san_diego:1 costa_rica:1 legally_bind:1 parkinson_disease:1 alzheimer_disease:1 recur_theme:1 adolf_hitler:1 arnold_schwarzenegger:1 benedict_xvi:1 external_link:1 |
4,607 | Corundum | Corundum is a crystalline form of aluminium oxide (α-) and is one of the rock-forming minerals. It is one of the naturally clear transparent materials, but can have different colors when impurities are present. Transparent specimens are used as gems, called ruby if red, while all other colors are called sapphire. The name corundum probably derived from the Sanskrit "kuruvinda" meaning "ruby" Webminerals: Corundum . In India a pinkish-orange sapphire is called padparadscha and a pink light-red sapphire is called patmaraga. Due to corundum's hardness (pure corundum is defined to have 9.0 Mohs), it can scratch almost every other mineral, leaving behind a streak of white on the other mineral. It is commonly used as an abrasive, on everything from sandpaper to large machines used in machining metals, plastics and wood. Some emery is a mix of corundum and other substances, and the mix is less abrasive, with a lower average Mohs hardness near 8.0. In addition to its hardness, corundum is unusual for its high density of 4.02 g/cm³, which is very high for a transparent mineral composed of the low atomic mass elements aluminium and oxygen. Corundum from Brazil, about 2 x 3 cm of size Corundum occurs as a mineral in mica schist, gneiss, and some marbles in metamorphic terranes. It also occurs in low silica igneous syenite and nepheline syenite intrusives. Other occurrences are as masses adjacent to ultramafic intrusives, associated with lamprophyre dikes and as large crystals in pegmatites. Because of its hardness and resistance to weathering, it commonly occurs as a detrital mineral in stream and beach sands. Corundum for abrasives is mined in Zimbabwe, Russia, and India. Historically it was mined from deposits associated with dunites in North Carolina and from a nepheline syenite in Craigmont, Ontario. Emery grade corundum is found on the Greek island of Naxos and near Peekskill, New York. Abrasive corundum is synthetically manufactured from bauxite. Synthetic corundum In 1837 Gaudin made the first synthetic rubies by fusing alumina at a high temperature with a small amount of chromium as a pigment. In 1847 Ebelmen made white sapphire by fusing alumina in boric acid. In 1877 Frenic and Freil made crystal corundum from which small stones could be cut. Frimy and Auguste Verneuil manufactured artificial ruby by fusing and with a little chromium at temperatures above 2000°C. In 1903 Verneuil announced he could produce synthetic rubies on a commercial scale using this flame fusion process. Crystal structure of corundum The Verneuil process allows the production of flawless single-crystal sapphires, rubies and other corundum gems of much larger size than normally found in nature. It is also possible to grow gem-quality synthetic corundum by flux-growth and hydrothermal synthesis. Because of the simplicity of the methods involved in corundum synthesis, large quantities of these crystals have become available on the market causing a significant reduction of price in recent years. Apart from ornamental uses, synthetic corundum is also used to produce mechanical parts (tubes, rods, bearings, and other machined parts), scratch-resistant watch crystals and windows for optical equipment, spacecraft as well as for lasers. References Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed., Wiley, pp. 300-302 ISBN 0-471-80580-7 Mindat Mineral galleries See also Ruby Sapphire Aluminium oxide Verneuil process | Corundum |@lemmatized corundum:19 crystalline:1 form:1 aluminium:3 oxide:2 α:1 one:2 rock:1 forming:1 mineral:7 naturally:1 clear:1 transparent:3 material:1 different:1 color:2 impurity:1 present:1 specimen:1 use:5 gem:3 call:4 ruby:7 red:2 sapphire:6 name:1 probably:1 derive:1 sanskrit:1 kuruvinda:1 mean:1 webminerals:1 india:2 pinkish:1 orange:1 padparadscha:1 pink:1 light:1 patmaraga:1 due:1 hardness:4 pure:1 define:1 mohs:2 scratch:2 almost:1 every:1 leave:1 behind:1 streak:1 white:2 commonly:2 abrasive:4 everything:1 sandpaper:1 large:4 machine:3 metal:1 plastic:1 wood:1 emery:2 mix:2 substance:1 less:1 low:3 average:1 near:2 addition:1 unusual:1 high:3 density:1 g:1 compose:1 atomic:1 mass:2 element:1 oxygen:1 brazil:1 x:1 cm:1 size:2 occur:3 mica:1 schist:1 gneiss:1 marble:1 metamorphic:1 terranes:1 also:4 silica:1 igneous:1 syenite:3 nepheline:2 intrusives:2 occurrence:1 adjacent:1 ultramafic:1 associate:2 lamprophyre:1 dike:1 crystal:6 pegmatite:1 resistance:1 weathering:1 detrital:1 stream:1 beach:1 sand:1 mine:2 zimbabwe:1 russia:1 historically:1 deposit:1 dunites:1 north:1 carolina:1 craigmont:1 ontario:1 grade:1 find:2 greek:1 island:1 naxos:1 peekskill:1 new:1 york:1 synthetically:1 manufacture:2 bauxite:1 synthetic:5 gaudin:1 make:3 first:1 fuse:3 alumina:2 temperature:2 small:2 amount:1 chromium:2 pigment:1 ebelmen:1 boric:1 acid:1 frenic:1 freil:1 stone:1 could:2 cut:1 frimy:1 auguste:1 verneuil:4 artificial:1 little:1 c:1 announce:1 produce:2 commercial:1 scale:1 flame:1 fusion:1 process:3 structure:1 allow:1 production:1 flawless:1 single:1 much:1 normally:1 nature:1 possible:1 grow:1 quality:1 flux:1 growth:1 hydrothermal:1 synthesis:2 simplicity:1 method:1 involve:1 quantity:1 become:1 available:1 market:1 cause:1 significant:1 reduction:1 price:1 recent:1 year:1 apart:1 ornamental:1 us:1 mechanical:1 part:2 tube:1 rod:1 bearing:1 resistant:1 watch:1 window:1 optical:1 equipment:1 spacecraft:1 well:1 laser:1 reference:1 hurlbut:1 cornelius:1 klein:1 cornelis:1 manual:1 mineralogy:1 ed:1 wiley:1 pp:1 isbn:1 mindat:1 gallery:1 see:1 |@bigram aluminium_oxide:2 forming_mineral:1 mohs_hardness:1 north_carolina:1 boric_acid:1 sapphire_ruby:1 hurlbut_cornelius:1 klein_cornelis:1 manual_mineralogy:1 ruby_sapphire:1 |
4,608 | Show_Me_Love_(film) | Show Me Love, originally titled Fucking Åmål, is a 1998 Swedish film directed by Lukas Moodysson. The film is centred around the lives of two seemingly disparate teenage girls who begin a tentative romantic relationship. The film first premiered outside Sweden at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival under its original title. According to Moodysson, the problem with the original title started when the film was Sweden's candidate for the Academy Awards, though it was eventually not chosen as a nominee: Gareth Griffiths, An Åmål State of Mind, in City + Cinema: Essays on the specificity of location in film, Datutop 29, 2007. the Hollywood industry magazine Variety refused to run an advertisement for a film with that title, and thus American distributor Strand Releasing asked for a new title to be chosen. Moodysson took the new title from the song at the end of the film, by Robyn. Distributors in other native English speaking countries then followed suit. For writer Moodysson, it was his directorial début in a full length film. Starring in the lead roles were Rebecka Liljeberg, as Agnes, and Alexandra Dahlström, as Elin. The film received a generally positive reception "Show Me Love (1998)." Rotten Tomatoes and won four Guldbagge Awards (Sweden's official film awards) at the 1999 ceremony. Its international awards include the Teddy award at the 1999 Berlin Film Festival. The Swedish title refers to the small town of Åmål in south-western Sweden. Only a few scenes were actually filmed in Åmål, Robert Wangeby, ”Smygpremiär på Fucking Åmål”, Provinstidningen Dalsland, 13.10.1998 but these ended up being not included in the final version: the main shooting took place in the nearby town of Trollhättan, location of Film i Väst's (the company that produced the film) film studios. "About Film i Väst," Film i Väst Plot summary The film tells the story of two girls, Agnes and Elin, who go to school in the small town of Åmål in Sweden. Elin is outgoing and popular, but finds her life unsatisfying and dull. Agnes, by contrast, has no real friends and is constantly depressed. Agnes has a crush on Elin, but cannot find any way to express it. Agnes's parents worry about their daughter and try to be reassuring. Her mother decides, against Agnes's will, to throw a 16th birthday party for her, and Agnes is afraid no one will come. Viktoria, a girl in a wheelchair, shows up and Agnes shouts at her in front of her parents, telling her they are friends only because no one else will talk to them. Elin arrives at Agnes's house, mainly as an excuse to avoid going to a different party, where there will be a boy (Johan) (Mathias Rust) she wants to avoid. Elin's older sister, Jessica, who comes with her, dares her to kiss Agnes, who is rumoured to be a lesbian. Elin fulfills the dare, and then runs out with Jessica, only to soon feel guilty for having humiliated Agnes. After having gotten drunk at the other party, Elin returns to Agnes's house to apologize. She even manages to persuade Agnes to return with her to the other party. It is on the way to the other party that Elin shares her real feelings about being trapped in Åmål. On impulse, Elin persuades Agnes to hitch to Stockholm (a five-hour journey); a car even stops and agrees to take them. It is while sitting in the backseat together that they first kiss "for real". The driver sees them and orders them out. Elin discovers that she is attracted to Agnes but is afraid to admit it, ignoring Agnes and refusing to talk to her. She pretends to be in love with Johan, losing her virginity in the process. Elin and Agnes eventually show each other's feelings at the end of the film, where, after a climactic scene in a school bathroom, they decide to literally "out" their relationship to the whole school. The film ends with Elin and Agnes sitting in Elin's bedroom and drinking chocolate milk. Main cast Alexandra Dahlström - Elin Olsson Rebecka Liljeberg - Agnes Ahlberg Erica Carlson - Jessica Olsson Mathias Rust - Johan Hulth Stefan Hörberg - Markus Josefine Nyberg - Viktoria Ralph Carlsson - Agnes' Father Olof Maria Hedborg - Agnes' Mother Karin Axel Widegren - Agnes' Little Brother Oskar Jill Ung - Elin's Mother Birgitta Titles The original title of the film also caused problems in other countries, and so alternative neutral names were chosen by local distributors: Raus aus Åmål (Get out of Åmål), Descubriendo el Amor (Discovering Love), Amigas de Colégio (School Friends), Láska je láska (Love is Love), and Покажи мне любовь (Pokazhi mne ljubov''' = Show me Love). Reception Political controversy Even before the film was completed, it created controversy in the town of Åmål itself. Local politicians campaigned to get the title of the film changed because they argued that it would show the town in an unfair way, and even undermine the town as an economic centre. Further pressure was brought on the makers of the film, the Film i Väst film studio, who are partly financed by Swedish local authorities, including Åmål. However, the local complaints had no effect on the content or release of the film. Since the release of the film the town of Åmål has even tried to embrace the publicity generated, despite the fact that the town's name is missing from the English title. Still, in the early 2000s the town founded the pop music festival "Fucking Åmål Festival". Critical response The film received the highest audience figures for a Swedish film in 1998-9, with a total audience of 867,576, and a total audience for the whole of Europe of 2,100,000. Lumiere data base on film admissions released in Europe. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 90 percent positive rating. Classification boards Strand Releasing released the film in North America where it was given an "unrated" certificate. Momentum released the film in the United Kingdom, where the British Board of Film Classification gave the film a "15" film certificate. Madman Entertainment released the film in Australia, where the film received a "MA 15+" film certificate. In Sweden (like the rest of Scandinavia) the film had a "11" film certificate. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0150662/ Show Me Love at the Internet Movie Database Soundtrack The film's soundtrack was released through Columbia Records, and consists of songs in English and Swedish language. Swedish band Broder Daniel, who contributed three English language songs to the movie, released an EP entitled Fucking Åmål''. "Drifter", performed by Yvonne "Whirlwind", composition and lyrics by Henrik Berggren, performed by Broder Daniel "No dinero no amor", composition by Hällgren and Sagrén, performed by Betty N' Boop "När vi två blir en", composition and lyrics by Per Gessle, performed by Gyllene Tider "U Drive Me Crazy", composition by Hogblad and Lehtonen, performed by Waldo's People "Fantasy Dreamworld", composition by Stigsson and Rickstrand, performed by Cumbayah "Adagio", composition by Tomaso Albinoni, arrangement by Remo Giazotto, directed by Jan-Olav Wedin, performed by Stockholm Chamber Orchestra "I Want To Know What Love Is", composition and lyrics by Mick Jones, performed by Foreigner "Funny Bunny Boy", composition by Lindgren and From, performed by Evelyn "Danny's Dream", composition by Lars Gullin, lyrics by Lars Söderberg "I'll Be Gone", composition and lyrics by Henrik Berggren, performed by Broder Daniel "Simplicity", composition by Nordlund, Danielsson, Karlsson and Andersson, performed by Souls "Underground", composition and lyrics by Henrik Berggren, performed by Broder Daniel "Show Me Love" (title track), composition by Max Martin, lyrics by Robyn, performed by Robyn Awards and award nominations Guldbagge Awards, Sweden: Best Actress in a leading role (won jointly by Alexandra Dahlström and Rebecka Liljeberg); Best Direction (won by Lukas Moodysson); Best Film; Best Screenplay (won by Lukas Moodysson); Best Supporting Actor (Nominee, Ralph Carlsson) (1999) Amanda Awards, Norway: Best Foreign Feature Film (1999) Atlantic Film Festival: Best International Feature (1999) Teddy Award: Best Feature Film (1999) Brothers Manaki International Film Festival, Macedonia: Special Jury Award (Cinematography: Ulf Brantås) Rotterdam International Film Festival, The Netherlands: Moviezone Award (won by Lukas Moodysson) (2000) British Film Institute Awards, UK: Sutherland Trophy, Special Mention (1999) Bodil Awards: Best Non-American Film (2000) Molodist International Film Festival, Ukraine: Best Film Award; Best Full-Length Fiction Film Award; Fipresci Prize (won by Lukas Moodysson); Youth Jury Award Full-Length Feature Film 1999) Verzaubert International Gay & Lesbian Film Festival, Germany: Best film nomination (1999) Karlovy Vary International Film Festival, Czech Republic: Audience Award; Don Quijote Award; Special Prize of the Jury; Crystal Globe Award nominee European Film Awards: nominee, Best Film (1999) European Film Academy: Staff und Structure GLAAD Media Awards: Outstanding Film (Limited Release) (2000) Tiina Rosenberg, Out of the National Closet. Show me Love. Journal of Theatre and Drama, vol. 7/8, 2/2002. References External links Fucking Åmål scene to scene Film trailer (1998) Portal-like fan site, in English and Slovak. Original script, in Swedish English subtitles, translated script | Show_Me_Love_(film) |@lemmatized show:9 love:11 originally:1 title:13 fucking:1 åmål:15 swedish:7 film:64 direct:2 lukas:5 moodysson:8 centre:2 around:1 life:2 two:2 seemingly:1 disparate:1 teenage:1 girl:3 begin:1 tentative:1 romantic:1 relationship:2 first:2 premier:1 outside:1 sweden:7 cannes:1 festival:10 original:4 accord:1 problem:2 start:1 candidate:1 academy:2 award:22 though:1 eventually:2 choose:3 nominee:4 gareth:1 griffith:1 state:1 mind:1 city:1 cinema:1 essay:1 specificity:1 location:2 datutop:1 hollywood:1 industry:1 magazine:1 variety:1 refuse:2 run:2 advertisement:1 thus:1 american:2 distributor:3 strand:2 release:11 ask:1 new:2 take:3 song:3 end:4 robyn:3 native:1 english:6 speaking:1 country:2 follow:1 suit:1 writer:1 directorial:1 début:1 full:3 length:3 star:1 lead:1 role:2 rebecka:3 liljeberg:3 agnes:22 alexandra:3 dahlström:3 elin:16 receive:3 generally:1 positive:2 reception:2 rotten:2 tomato:2 win:6 four:1 guldbagge:2 official:1 ceremony:1 international:7 include:3 teddy:2 berlin:1 refers:1 small:2 town:9 south:1 western:1 scene:4 actually:1 robert:1 wangeby:1 smygpremiär:1 på:1 fuck:4 provinstidningen:1 dalsland:1 final:1 version:1 main:2 shooting:1 place:1 nearby:1 trollhättan:1 väst:4 company:1 produce:1 studio:2 plot:1 summary:1 tell:2 story:1 go:3 school:4 outgo:1 popular:1 find:2 unsatisfying:1 dull:1 contrast:1 real:3 friend:2 constantly:1 depress:1 crush:1 cannot:1 way:3 express:1 parent:2 worry:1 daughter:1 try:2 reassure:1 mother:3 decides:1 throw:1 birthday:1 party:5 afraid:2 one:2 come:2 viktoria:2 wheelchair:1 shout:1 front:1 friends:1 else:1 talk:2 arrives:1 house:2 mainly:1 excuse:1 avoid:2 different:1 boy:2 johan:3 mathias:2 rust:2 want:2 old:1 sister:1 jessica:3 dare:2 kiss:2 rumour:1 lesbian:2 fulfill:1 soon:1 feel:1 guilty:1 humiliate:1 gotten:1 drunk:1 return:2 apologize:1 even:5 manage:1 persuade:1 share:1 feeling:2 trap:1 impulse:1 persuades:1 hitch:1 stockholm:2 five:1 hour:1 journey:1 car:1 stop:1 agree:1 sit:2 backseat:1 together:1 driver:1 see:1 order:1 discovers:1 attract:1 admit:1 ignore:1 pretend:1 lose:1 virginity:1 process:1 climactic:1 bathroom:1 decide:1 literally:1 whole:2 bedroom:1 drinking:1 chocolate:1 milk:1 cast:1 olsson:2 ahlberg:1 erica:1 carlson:1 hulth:1 stefan:1 hörberg:1 markus:1 josefine:1 nyberg:1 ralph:2 carlsson:2 father:1 olof:1 maria:1 hedborg:1 karin:1 axel:1 widegren:1 little:1 brother:2 oskar:1 jill:1 ung:1 birgitta:1 also:1 cause:1 alternative:1 neutral:1 name:2 local:4 raus:1 au:1 get:2 descubriendo:1 el:1 amor:2 discover:1 amigas:1 de:1 colégio:1 láska:2 je:1 покажи:1 мне:1 любовь:1 pokazhi:1 mne:1 ljubov:1 political:1 controversy:2 complete:1 create:1 politician:1 campaign:1 change:1 argue:1 would:1 unfair:1 undermine:1 economic:1 pressure:1 bring:1 maker:1 partly:1 finance:1 authority:1 however:1 complaint:1 effect:1 content:1 since:1 embrace:1 publicity:1 generate:1 despite:1 fact:1 miss:1 still:1 early:1 found:1 pop:1 music:1 critical:1 response:1 high:1 audience:4 figure:1 total:2 europe:2 lumiere:1 data:1 base:1 admission:1 give:3 percent:1 rating:1 classification:2 board:2 north:1 america:1 unrated:1 certificate:4 momentum:1 united:1 kingdom:1 british:2 madman:1 entertainment:1 australia:1 like:2 rest:1 scandinavia:1 http:1 www:1 imdb:1 com:1 internet:1 movie:2 database:1 soundtrack:2 columbia:1 record:1 consist:1 language:2 band:1 broder:4 daniel:4 contribute:1 three:1 ep:1 entitle:1 drifter:1 perform:13 yvonne:1 whirlwind:1 composition:13 lyric:7 henrik:3 berggren:3 dinero:1 hällgren:1 sagrén:1 betty:1 n:1 boop:1 när:1 vi:1 två:1 blir:1 en:1 per:1 gessle:1 gyllene:1 tider:1 u:1 drive:1 crazy:1 hogblad:1 lehtonen:1 waldo:1 people:1 fantasy:1 dreamworld:1 stigsson:1 rickstrand:1 cumbayah:1 adagio:1 tomaso:1 albinoni:1 arrangement:1 remo:1 giazotto:1 jan:1 olav:1 wedin:1 chamber:1 orchestra:1 know:1 mick:1 jones:1 foreigner:1 funny:1 bunny:1 lindgren:1 evelyn:1 danny:1 dream:1 lars:2 gullin:1 söderberg:1 simplicity:1 nordlund:1 danielsson:1 karlsson:1 andersson:1 soul:1 underground:1 track:1 max:1 martin:1 nomination:2 best:13 actress:1 leading:1 jointly:1 direction:1 screenplay:1 support:1 actor:1 amanda:1 norway:1 foreign:1 feature:4 atlantic:1 manaki:1 macedonia:1 special:3 jury:3 cinematography:1 ulf:1 brantås:1 rotterdam:1 netherlands:1 moviezone:1 institute:1 uk:1 sutherland:1 trophy:1 mention:1 bodil:1 non:1 molodist:1 ukraine:1 fiction:1 fipresci:1 prize:2 youth:1 verzaubert:1 gay:1 germany:1 karlovy:1 vary:1 czech:1 republic:1 quijote:1 crystal:1 globe:1 european:2 staff:1 und:1 structure:1 glaad:1 medium:1 outstanding:1 limited:1 tiina:1 rosenberg:1 national:1 closet:1 journal:1 theatre:1 drama:1 vol:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 trailer:1 portal:1 fan:1 site:1 slovak:1 script:2 subtitle:1 translate:1 |@bigram lukas_moodysson:5 teenage_girl:1 cannes_film:1 rotten_tomato:2 fuck_åmål:4 mathias_rust:2 climactic_scene:1 http_www:1 www_imdb:1 imdb_com:1 award_nomination:1 fipresci_prize:1 gay_lesbian:1 karlovy_vary:1 czech_republic:1 glaad_medium:1 external_link:1 |
4,609 | Circumference | Circumference = × diameter The circumference is the distance around a closed curve. Circumference is a special perimeter. Circumference of a circle The circumference of a circle is the length around it. The circumference of a circle can be calculated from its diameter using the formula: Or, substituting the diameter for the radius: where r is the radius and d is the diameter of the circle, and π (the Greek letter pi) is as the ratio of the circumference of the circle to its diameter (the numerical value of pi is 3.141 592 653 589 793...). If desired, the above circumference formula can be derived without reference to the definition of π by using some integral calculus, as follows: The upper half of a circle centered at the origin is the graph of the function where x runs from -r to +r. The circumference (c) of the entire circle can be represented as twice the sum of the lengths of the infinitesimal arcs that make up this half circle. The length of a single infinitesimal part of the arc can be calculated using the Pythagorean formula for the length of the hypotenuse of a rectangular triangle with side lengths dx and f'(x)dx, which gives us Thus the circle circumference can be calculated as follows: The antiderivative needed to solve this definite integral is the arcsine function: Pi (π) is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. Circumference of an ellipse The circumference of an ellipse is more problematic, as the exact solution requires finding the complete elliptic integral of the second kind. This can be achieved either via numerical integration (the best type being Gaussian quadrature) or by one of many binomial series expansions. Where are the ellipse's semi-major and semi-minor axes, respectively, and is the ellipse's angular eccentricity, There are many different approximations for the divided difference, with varying degrees of sophistication and corresponding accuracy. In comparing the different approximations, the based series expansion is used to find the actual value: Muir-1883 Probably the most accurate to its given simplicity is Thomas Muir's: Ramanujan-1914 (#1,#2) Srinivasa Ramanujan introduced two different approximations, both from 1914 The second equation is demonstratively by far the better of the two, and may be the most accurate approximation known. Letting a = 10000 and b = a×cos{oε}, results with different ellipticities can be found and compared: b Pr Ramanujan-#2 Ramanujan-#1 Muir9975 9987.50391 11393 9987.50391 11393 9987.50391 11393 9987.50391 113899966 9983.00723 73047 9983.00723 73047 9983.00723 73047 9983.00723 730349950 9975.01566 41666 9975.01566 41666 9975.01566 41666 9975.01566 416049900 9950.06281 41695 9950.06281 41695 9950.06281 41695 9950.06281 407049000 9506.58008 71725 9506.58008 71725 9506.58008 67774 9506.57894 842098000 9027.79927 77219 9027.79927 77219 9027.79924 43886 9027.77786 625617500 8794.70009 24247 8794.70009 24240 8794.69994 52888 8794.64324 651326667 8417.02535 37669 8417.02535 37460 8417.02428 62059 8416.81780 563705000 7709.82212 59502 7709.82212 24348 7709.80054 22510 7708.38853 778373333 7090.18347 61693 7090.18324 21686 7089.94281 35586 7083.80287 967142500 6826.49114 72168 6826.48944 11189 6825.75998 22882 6814.20222 312051000 6468.01579 36089 6467.94103 84016 6462.57005 00576 6431.72229 28418 100 6367.94576 97209 6366.42397 74408 6346.16560 81001 6303.80428 66621 10 6366.22253 29150 6363.81341 42880 6340.31989 06242 6299.73805 61141 1 6366.19804 50617 6363.65301 06191 6339.80266 34498 6299.60944 92105iota 6366.19772 36758 6363.63636 36364 6339.74596 21556 6299.60524 94744 Circumference of a graph In graph theory the circumference of a graph refers to the longest cycle contained in that graph. External links Numericana - Circumference of an ellipse Circumference of a circle With interactive applet and animation | Circumference |@lemmatized circumference:17 diameter:6 distance:1 around:2 closed:1 curve:1 special:1 perimeter:1 circle:11 length:5 calculate:3 use:4 formula:3 substitute:1 radius:2 r:3 π:3 greek:1 letter:1 pi:3 ratio:2 numerical:2 value:2 desire:1 derive:1 without:1 reference:1 definition:1 integral:3 calculus:1 follow:2 upper:1 half:2 center:1 origin:1 graph:5 function:2 x:2 run:1 c:1 entire:1 represent:1 twice:1 sum:1 infinitesimal:2 arc:2 make:1 single:1 part:1 pythagorean:1 hypotenuse:1 rectangular:1 triangle:1 side:1 dx:2 f:1 give:2 u:1 thus:1 antiderivative:1 need:1 solve:1 definite:1 arcsine:1 ellipse:5 problematic:1 exact:1 solution:1 require:1 find:3 complete:1 elliptic:1 second:2 kind:1 achieve:1 either:1 via:1 integration:1 best:1 type:1 gaussian:1 quadrature:1 one:1 many:2 binomial:1 series:2 expansion:2 semi:2 major:1 minor:1 ax:1 respectively:1 angular:1 eccentricity:1 different:4 approximation:4 divided:1 difference:1 vary:1 degree:1 sophistication:1 correspond:1 accuracy:1 compare:2 base:1 actual:1 muir:2 probably:1 accurate:2 simplicity:1 thomas:1 ramanujan:4 srinivasa:1 introduce:1 two:2 equation:1 demonstratively:1 far:1 good:1 may:1 know:1 let:1 b:2 co:1 oε:1 result:1 ellipticity:1 pr:1 theory:1 refers:1 long:1 cycle:1 contain:1 external:1 link:1 numericana:1 interactive:1 applet:1 animation:1 |@bigram circumference_diameter:1 circumference_circle:6 length_hypotenuse:1 definite_integral:1 elliptic_integral:1 angular_eccentricity:1 external_link:1 interactive_applet:1 |
4,610 | Myelin | Myelin is a dielectric (electrically insulating) material that forms a layer, the myelin sheath. Usually, myelin surrounds only the axon of a neuron. It is essential for proper functioning of the nervous system. Myelin is an outgrowth glial cell: Schwann cells supply the myelin for peripheral neurons, whereas oligodendrocytes supply it to those of the central nervous system. Myelin is considered a defining characteristic of the (gnathostome) vertebrates, but it has also arisen by parallel evolution in some invertebrates. Invertebrate Myelin Myelin was discovered in 1854 by Rudolf Virchow [Virchow R (1854) Über das ausgebreitete Vorkommen einer dem Nervenmark analogen Substanz in den tierischen Geweben. Virchows Arch. Pathol. Anat. 6:562-572.] . Composition of myelin Myelin made by different cell types varies in chemical composition and configuration, but performs the same insulating function. Myelinated axons are white in appearance, hence the "white matter" of the brain. Myelin is composed of about 80% lipid and about 20% protein. Some of the proteins that make up myelin are Myelin basic protein (MBP), Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), and Proteolipid protein (PLP). Myelin is made up primarily of a glycolipid called galactocerebroside. The intertwining of the hydrocarbon chains of sphingomyelin serve to strengthen the myelin sheath. Function of myelin layer left| Transmission electron micrograph of a myelinated axon. Generated at the Electron Microscopy Facility at Trinity College, Hartford, CT The main purpose of a myelin layer (or sheath) is an increase in the speed at which impulses propagate along the myelinated fiber. Along unmyelinated fibers, impulses move continuously as waves, but, in myelinated fibers, they hop or "propagate by saltation." Myelin increases electrical resistance across the cell membrane by a factor of 5,000 and decreases capacitance by a factor of 50. Thus, myelination helps prevent the electrical current from leaving the axon. When a peripheral fiber is severed, the myelin sheath provides a track along which regrowth can occur. Unmyelinated fibers and myelinated axons of the mammalian central nervous system do not regenerate. Demyelination and Dysmyelination Demyelination is the loss of the myelin sheath insulating the nerves, and is the hallmark of some neurodegenerative autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, transverse myelitis, Alexander's disease, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, Guillain-Barré Syndrome and central pontine myelinosis. Sufferers of pernicious anaemia can also suffer nerve damage if the condition is not diagnosed quickly. Sub-acute combined degeneration of the spinal cord secondary to pernicious anaemia can lead to anything from slight peripheral nerve damage to severe damage to the central nervous system affecting speech, balance and cognitive awareness. When myelin degrades, conduction of signals along the nerve can be impaired or lost and the nerve eventually withers. The immune system may play a role in demyelination associated with such diseases, including inflammation causing demyelination by overproduction of cytokines via upregulation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) Ledeen R.W., Chakraborty G., "Cytokines, Signal Transduction, and Inflammatory Demyelination: Review and Hypothesis" Neurochemical Research, Volume 23, Number 3, March 1998, pp. 277-289(13) or interferon. Research to repair damaged myelin sheaths is ongoing. Techniques include surgically implanting oligodendrocyte precursor cells in the central nervous system and inducing myelin repair with certain antibodies. While there have been some encouraging results in mice (via stem cell implant), it is still unknown whether this technique can be effective in humans. FuturePundit January 20, 2004 Dysmyelination is characterized by a defective structure and function of myelin sheaths; unlike demyelination, it does not produce lesions. Such defective sheaths often arise from genetic mutations affecting the biosynthesis and formation of myelin. The shiverer mouse represents one animal model of dysmyelination. Human diseases where dysmyelination has been implicated include leukodystrophies (Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease, Canavan disease, phenylketonuria) and schizophrenia. Krämer-Albers at al., 2006 Matalon et al., 2006 Tkachev et al., 2007 Symptoms of Demyelination Demyelination (destruction or loss of the myelin sheath) results in diverse symptoms determined by the functions of the affected neurons. It disrupts signals between the brain and other parts of the body; symptoms differ from patient to patient, and have different presentations upon clinical observation and in laboratory studies. Typical symptoms include: blurriness in the central visual field that affects only one eye; may be accompanied by pain upon eye movement; double vision; odd sensation in legs, arms, chest, or face, such as tingling or numbness (neuropathy); weakness of arms or legs; cognitive disruption including speech impairment and memory loss; heat sensitivity (symptoms worsen, reappear upon exposure to heat such as a hot shower); loss of dexterity; difficulty coordinating movement or balance disorder; difficulty controlling bowel movements or urination; fatigue. See also The Myelin Project, project to re-generate myelin Myelinogenesis, order of myelination of central nervous system Myelin Repair Foundation, non-profit medical research foundation accelerating drug discovery in myelin repair for multiple sclerosis References Krämer-Albers EM, Gehrig-Burger K, Thiele C, Trotter J, Nave KA. (2006 Nov 8). "Perturbed interactions of mutant proteolipid protein/DM20 with cholesterol and lipid rafts in oligodendroglia: implications for dysmyelination in spastic paraplegia". J Neurosci. 26(45):11743-52. PMID: 17093095 Matalon R, Michals-Matalon K, Surendran S, Tyring SK. (2006). "Canavan disease: studies on the knockout mouse". Adv Exp Med Biol.; 576:77-93. PMID: 16802706 Tkachev D, Mimmack ML, Huffaker SJ, Ryan M, Bahn S. (2007 Aug). "Further evidence for altered myelin biosynthesis and glutamatergic dysfunction in schizophrenia". Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 10(4):557-63. PMID: 17291371 Also see Relating to diabetes Vlassara H, Brownlee M, Cerami A. (1985 Jun); "Recognition and uptake of human diabetic peripheral nerve myelin by macrophages." Diabetes. 34(6):553-7. PMID: 4007282 Thornalley PJ. (2002); "Glycation in diabetic neuropathy: characteristics, consequences, causes, and therapeutic options." Int Rev Neurobiol. 50:37-57. PMID: 12198817 Relating to myelin's geometry, and its fibre-optic potentiality Donaldson, H.H. & Hoke, G.W. (1905). "The areas of the axis cylinder and medullary sheath as seen in cross sections of the spinal nerves of vertebrates". Journal of Comparative Neurology. 15, 1- — [Early evidence of approximately-constant ratio of myelin-thickness to axon diameter]. Duncan, D. (1934). "A relation between axone diameter and myelination determined by measurement of myelinated spinal root fibres". Journal of Comparative Neurology. 60, 437-471. — [another historic paper on the myelin/axon ratio]. Rushton, W.A.H. (1951). "A theory of the effects of fibre size in medullated nerve". J.Physiology, 115, 101-122. [Calculation of best geometry for saltatory conduction.] Traill, R.R. (1977/1980/2006) Toward a theoretical explanation of electro-chemical interaction in memory-use. Monograph #24, Cybernetics Department, Brunel University., or as Part B of Thesis. — [showing that other extra signal-modes are possible for such "coaxials", which could make myelin even more important]. Traill, R.R. (1988). "The case that mammalian intelligence is based on sub-molecular memory-coding and fibre-optic capabilities of myelinated nerve axons". Speculations in Science and Technology. 11(3), 173-181. Traill, R.R. (2005). Strange regularities in the geometry of myelin nerve-insulation — a possible single cause. Ondwelle: Melbourne — or in Gen.Sci.J.. — [Offers explanation for the myelin/axon ratio, and other details]. optic nerve, physiology subsection; — [applies some of this theory]. External links The Myelin Project Athabasca University Biological Psychology Website The MS Information Sourcebook, Myelin The Myelin Repair Foundation H & E Histology Luxol Fast Blue: Modified Kluver's Method to stain for Myelin Sheath | Myelin |@lemmatized myelin:43 dielectric:1 electrically:1 insulate:2 material:1 form:1 layer:3 sheath:11 usually:1 surround:1 axon:9 neuron:3 essential:1 proper:1 functioning:1 nervous:6 system:7 outgrowth:1 glial:1 cell:6 schwann:1 supply:2 peripheral:4 whereas:1 oligodendrocytes:1 central:7 consider:1 define:1 characteristic:2 gnathostome:1 vertebrates:1 also:4 arise:2 parallel:1 evolution:1 invertebrate:2 discover:1 rudolf:1 virchow:3 r:9 über:1 das:1 ausgebreitete:1 vorkommen:1 einer:1 dem:1 nervenmark:1 analogen:1 substanz:1 den:1 tierischen:1 geweben:1 arch:1 pathol:1 anat:1 composition:2 make:4 different:2 type:1 varies:1 chemical:2 configuration:1 perform:1 insulating:1 function:4 myelinated:7 white:2 appearance:1 hence:1 matter:1 brain:2 compose:1 lipid:2 protein:5 basic:1 mbp:1 oligodendrocyte:2 glycoprotein:1 mog:1 proteolipid:2 plp:1 primarily:1 glycolipid:1 call:1 galactocerebroside:1 intertwining:1 hydrocarbon:1 chain:1 sphingomyelin:1 serve:1 strengthen:1 leave:2 transmission:1 electron:2 micrograph:1 generate:2 microscopy:1 facility:1 trinity:1 college:1 hartford:1 ct:1 main:1 purpose:1 increase:2 speed:1 impulses:1 propagate:2 along:4 fiber:5 unmyelinated:2 impulse:1 move:1 continuously:1 wave:1 hop:1 saltation:1 electrical:2 resistance:1 across:1 membrane:1 factor:3 decrease:1 capacitance:1 thus:1 myelination:3 help:1 prevent:1 current:1 sever:1 provide:1 track:1 regrowth:1 occur:1 mammalian:2 regenerate:1 demyelination:8 dysmyelination:5 loss:4 nerve:11 hallmark:1 neurodegenerative:1 autoimmune:1 disease:6 include:6 multiple:2 sclerosis:2 acute:2 disseminate:1 encephalomyelitis:1 transverse:1 myelitis:1 alexander:1 chronic:1 inflammatory:2 demyelinate:1 polyneuropathy:1 guillain:1 barré:1 syndrome:1 pontine:1 myelinosis:1 sufferer:1 pernicious:2 anaemia:2 suffer:1 damage:3 condition:1 diagnosed:1 quickly:1 sub:2 combined:1 degeneration:1 spinal:3 cord:1 secondary:1 lead:1 anything:1 slight:1 severe:1 affect:3 speech:2 balance:2 cognitive:2 awareness:1 degrades:1 conduction:2 signal:4 impair:1 lose:1 eventually:1 withers:1 immune:1 may:2 play:1 role:1 associate:1 inflammation:1 cause:3 overproduction:1 cytokine:2 via:2 upregulation:1 tumor:1 necrosis:1 tnf:1 ledeen:1 w:3 chakraborty:1 g:2 transduction:1 review:1 hypothesis:1 neurochemical:1 research:3 volume:1 number:1 march:1 pp:1 interferon:1 repair:5 damaged:1 ongoing:1 technique:2 surgically:1 implant:2 precursor:1 induce:1 certain:1 antibody:1 encouraging:1 result:2 mouse:3 stem:1 still:1 unknown:1 whether:1 effective:1 human:3 futurepundit:1 january:1 characterize:1 defective:2 structure:1 unlike:1 produce:1 lesion:1 often:1 genetic:1 mutation:1 biosynthesis:2 formation:1 shiverer:1 represent:1 one:2 animal:1 model:1 diseases:1 implicate:1 leukodystrophies:1 pelizaeus:1 merzbacher:1 canavan:2 phenylketonuria:1 schizophrenia:2 krämer:2 albers:2 al:3 matalon:3 et:2 tkachev:2 symptom:4 destruction:1 diverse:1 determine:2 affected:1 disrupt:1 part:2 body:1 differ:1 patient:2 presentation:1 upon:3 clinical:1 observation:1 laboratory:1 study:2 typical:1 blurriness:1 visual:1 field:1 eye:2 accompany:1 pain:1 movement:3 double:1 vision:1 odd:1 sensation:1 leg:2 arm:2 chest:1 face:1 tingle:1 numbness:1 neuropathy:2 weakness:1 disruption:1 impairment:1 memory:3 heat:2 sensitivity:1 symptoms:1 worsen:1 reappear:1 exposure:1 hot:1 shower:1 dexterity:1 difficulty:2 coordinate:1 disorder:1 control:1 bowel:1 urination:1 fatigue:1 see:3 project:3 myelinogenesis:1 order:1 foundation:3 non:1 profit:1 medical:1 accelerate:1 drug:1 discovery:1 reference:1 em:1 gehrig:1 burger:1 k:2 thiele:1 c:1 trotter:1 j:5 nave:1 ka:1 nov:1 perturb:1 interaction:2 mutant:1 cholesterol:1 raft:1 oligodendroglia:1 implication:1 spastic:1 paraplegia:1 neurosci:1 pmid:5 michals:1 surendran:1 tyring:1 sk:1 knockout:1 adv:1 exp:1 med:1 biol:1 mimmack:1 ml:1 huffaker:1 sj:1 ryan:1 bahn:1 aug:1 evidence:2 altered:1 glutamatergic:1 dysfunction:1 int:2 neuropsychopharmacol:1 relate:2 diabetes:2 vlassara:1 h:5 brownlee:1 cerami:1 jun:1 recognition:1 uptake:1 diabetic:2 macrophage:1 thornalley:1 pj:1 glycation:1 consequence:1 therapeutic:1 option:1 rev:1 neurobiol:1 geometry:3 fibre:4 optic:3 potentiality:1 donaldson:1 hoke:1 area:1 axis:1 cylinder:1 medullary:1 cross:1 section:1 vertebrate:1 journal:2 comparative:2 neurology:2 early:1 approximately:1 constant:1 ratio:3 thickness:1 diameter:2 duncan:1 relation:1 axone:1 measurement:1 root:1 another:1 historic:1 paper:1 rushton:1 theory:2 effect:1 size:1 medullated:1 physiology:2 calculation:1 best:1 saltatory:1 traill:3 toward:1 theoretical:1 explanation:2 electro:1 use:1 monograph:1 cybernetics:1 department:1 brunel:1 university:2 b:1 thesis:1 showing:1 extra:1 mode:1 possible:2 coaxials:1 could:1 even:1 important:1 case:1 intelligence:1 base:1 molecular:1 coding:1 capability:1 speculation:1 science:1 technology:1 strange:1 regularity:1 insulation:1 single:1 ondwelle:1 melbourne:1 gen:1 sci:1 offer:1 detail:1 subsection:1 apply:1 external:1 link:1 athabasca:1 biological:1 psychology:1 website:1 information:1 sourcebook:1 e:1 histology:1 luxol:1 fast:1 blue:1 modify:1 kluver:1 method:1 stain:1 |@bigram myelin_sheath:8 axon_neuron:1 glial_cell:1 schwann_cell:1 rudolf_virchow:1 über_das:1 electron_micrograph:1 electron_microscopy:1 autoimmune_disease:1 multiple_sclerosis:2 disseminate_encephalomyelitis:1 guillain_barré:1 spinal_cord:1 peripheral_nerve:2 tumor_necrosis:1 necrosis_factor:1 signal_transduction:1 et_al:2 fibre_optic:2 optic_nerve:1 external_link:1 |
4,611 | George_Frederick,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg-Ansbach | George Frederick the Elder (; April 5 1539 - April 25 1603) was Margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth, as well as Regent of Prussia. He was the son of George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and a member of the House of Hohenzollern. George Frederick reigned in his native Ansbach, Franconia and Jägerndorf, Upper Silesia since 1556 and, after the death of his cousin Albert Alcibiades in 1557, also in Kulmbach. He took over the administration of the Duchy of Prussia in 1577, when the then-reigning Duke Albert Frederick became ill. He was the last of the older Franconia line of the House of Hohenzollern. Upon his death Ansbach and Kulmbach were inherited by younger princes of the Brandenburg line according to a domestic treaty in Gera from 1598. George Frederick rebuilt the palace and fortress Plassenburg, which was destroyed after the second margravian war (1552 - 1554), as one of the most impressive residences of the renaissance in the German empire. He also built the fortress Wülzburg and the old palace in Bayreuth. During his regnancy between 1557 and 1603 in the Franconian territories of the Hohenzollern (Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Kulmbach) he kept peace, rebuilt cities and Castles, founded several schools and a University. | George_Frederick,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg-Ansbach |@lemmatized george:4 frederick:4 elder:1 april:2 margrave:2 ansbach:5 bayreuth:2 well:1 regent:1 prussia:2 son:1 brandenburg:4 member:1 house:2 hohenzollern:3 reign:2 native:1 franconia:2 jägerndorf:1 upper:1 silesia:1 since:1 death:2 cousin:1 albert:2 alcibiades:1 also:2 kulmbach:3 take:1 administration:1 duchy:1 duke:1 become:1 ill:1 last:1 old:2 line:2 upon:1 inherit:1 young:1 prince:1 accord:1 domestic:1 treaty:1 gera:1 rebuild:1 palace:2 fortress:2 plassenburg:1 destroy:1 second:1 margravian:1 war:1 one:1 impressive:1 residence:1 renaissance:1 german:1 empire:1 build:1 wülzburg:1 regnancy:1 franconian:1 territory:1 keep:1 peace:1 rebuilt:1 city:1 castle:1 found:1 several:1 school:1 university:1 |@bigram margrave_brandenburg:1 brandenburg_ansbach:2 upper_silesia:1 duchy_prussia:1 brandenburg_kulmbach:1 |
4,612 | Conciliation | Conciliation is an alternative dispute resolution (ADR) process whereby the parties to a dispute (including future interest disputes) agree to utilize the services of a conciliator, who then meets with the parties separately in an attempt to resolve their differences. Conciliation differs from arbitration in that the conciliation process, in and of itself, has no legal standing, and the conciliator usually has no authority to seek evidence or call witnesses, usually writes no decision, and makes no award. Conciliation differs from mediation in that the main goal is to conciliate, most of the time by seeking concessions. In mediation, the mediator tries to guide the discussion in a way that optimizes parties needs, takes feelings into account and reframes representations. In conciliation the parties seldom, if ever, actually face each other across the table in the presence of the conciliator. Effectiveness Recent studies in the processes of negotiation have indicated the effectiveness of a technique that deserves mention here. A conciliator assists each of the parties to independently develop a list of all of their objectives (the outcomes which they desire to obtain from the conciliation). The conciliator then has each of the parties separately prioritize their own list from most to least important. He/She then goes back and forth between the parties and encourages them to "give" on the objectives one at a time, starting with the least important and working toward the most important for each party in turn. The parties rarely place the same priorities on all objectives, and usually have some objectives that are not listed by the other party. Thus the conciliator can quickly build a string of successes and help the parties create an atmosphere of trust which the conciliator can continue to develop. Most successful conciliators are highly skilled negotiators. Some conciliators operate under the auspices of any one of several non-governmental entities, and for governmental agencies such as the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service. Conciliation in Japan Japanese law makes extensive use of in civil disputes. The most common forms are civil conciliation and domestic conciliation, both of which are managed under the auspices of the court system by one judge and two non-judge "conciliators." Civil conciliation is a form of dispute resolution for small lawsuits, and provides a simpler and cheaper alternative to litigation. Depending on the nature of the case, non-judge experts (doctors, appraisers, actuaries, etc.) may be called by the court as conciliators to help decide the case. Domestic conciliation is most commonly used to handle contentious divorces, but may apply to other domestic disputes such as the annulment of a marriage or acknowledgment of paternity. Parties in such cases are required to undergo conciliation proceedings and may only bring their case to court once conciliation has failed. | Conciliation |@lemmatized conciliation:14 alternative:2 dispute:6 resolution:2 adr:1 process:3 whereby:1 party:12 include:1 future:1 interest:1 agree:1 utilize:1 service:2 conciliator:11 meet:1 separately:2 attempt:1 resolve:1 difference:1 differs:2 arbitration:1 legal:1 standing:1 usually:3 authority:1 seek:2 evidence:1 call:2 witness:1 write:1 decision:1 make:2 award:1 mediation:3 main:1 goal:1 conciliate:1 time:2 concession:1 mediator:1 try:1 guide:1 discussion:1 way:1 optimize:1 need:1 take:1 feeling:1 account:1 reframes:1 representation:1 seldom:1 ever:1 actually:1 face:1 across:1 table:1 presence:1 effectiveness:2 recent:1 study:1 negotiation:1 indicate:1 technique:1 deserve:1 mention:1 assist:1 independently:1 develop:2 list:3 objective:4 outcome:1 desire:1 obtain:1 prioritize:1 least:2 important:3 go:1 back:1 forth:1 encourage:1 give:1 one:3 start:1 work:1 toward:1 turn:1 rarely:1 place:1 priority:1 thus:1 quickly:1 build:1 string:1 success:1 help:2 create:1 atmosphere:1 trust:1 continue:1 successful:1 highly:1 skilled:1 negotiator:1 operate:1 auspex:2 several:1 non:3 governmental:2 entity:1 agency:1 federal:1 japan:1 japanese:1 law:1 extensive:1 use:2 civil:3 common:1 form:2 domestic:3 manage:1 court:3 system:1 judge:3 two:1 small:1 lawsuit:1 provide:1 simpler:1 cheap:1 litigation:1 depend:1 nature:1 case:4 expert:1 doctor:1 appraiser:1 actuary:1 etc:1 may:3 decide:1 commonly:1 handle:1 contentious:1 divorce:1 apply:1 annulment:1 marriage:1 acknowledgment:1 paternity:1 require:1 undergo:1 proceeding:1 bring:1 fail:1 |@bigram mediation_conciliation:1 annulment_marriage:1 |
4,613 | Immunology | Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. It deals with, among other things, the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, transplant rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro, in situ, and in vivo. Immunology has applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided. Histological examination of the immune system Even before the concept of immunity (from immunis, Latin for "exempt") was developed, numerous early physicians characterized organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system are thymus and bone marrow, and secondary lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, and skin. When health conditions warrant, immune system organs including the thymus, spleen, portions of bone marrow, lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be surgically excised for examination while patients are still alive. Many components of the immune system are actually cellular in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various tissues located throughout the body. Classical immunology Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine. It studies the relationship between the body systems, pathogens, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the plague of Athens in 430 BCE. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory. The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive innate immune system, and acquired or adaptive immune system of vertebrates, the latter of which is further divided into humoral and cellular components. The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between antibodies and antigens. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells (B lymphocytes). Antigens are defined as anything that elicits generation of antibodies, hence they are Antibody Generators. Immunology itself rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities. However, equally important is the cellular response, which can not only kill infected cells in its own right, but is also crucial in controlling the antibody response. Put simply, both systems are highly interdependent. In the 21st century, immunology has broadened its horizons with much research being performed in the more specialized niches of immunology. This includes the immunological function of cells, organs and systems not normally associated with the immune system, as well as the function of the immune system outside classical models of immunity. Clinical immunology Clinical immunology is the study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features. The diseases caused by disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories: immunodeficiency, in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include chronic granulomatous disease), and autoimmunity, in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, Hashimoto's disease and myasthenia gravis). Other immune system disorders include different hypersensitivities, in which the system responds inappropriately to harmless compounds (asthma and other allergies) or responds too intensely. The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is AIDS, caused by HIV. AIDS is an immunodeficiency characterized by the lack of CD4+ ("helper") T cells and macrophages, which are destroyed by HIV. Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent transplant rejection, in which the immune system attempts to destroy allografts or xenografts. Developmental Immmunology Adolescence is the age or biological time at which the human body start to develop from an infantile form to a fully-grown adult. During this time several; physical, physiological and immunological changes start to occur inside the developing human body. These changes are started and mediated by different hormones. Depending on the sex either testosterone or 17-β-oestradiol, act on male and female bodies accordingly, start acting at ages of 12 and 10 years (2). There is evidence that these steroids act directly not only the primary and secondary sexual characteristic but also have an effect on the development and regulation of the immune system (3). There is and increase risk in developing autoimmunity for pubertal and post pubertal females and males (4). There are also evidence of cell surface receptors on T cells and Macrophages that detect sex hormones in the system (5). The female sex hormone 17-β-oestradiol has been shown to regulate de level of immunological response (6). For example during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle there is a greater drop of IgG than that of IgA in adolescent females that in adult ones also other immune cells like macrophages and APC cells seem to response to this fluctuation of 17-β-oestradiol specifically in the mucosal layer on the womb of post puberty females (7). It has been suggested that this level of control is achieved by the stimulation of peripheral blood monocytes cells (PBMC) by 17-β-oestradiol (7). On the male androgens, like testosterone seems to suppress the stress response to infection; but other androgens like DHEA have the opposite effect of testosterone as it increases the immune response instead of down playing it (8). As in females, the male sex hormones seem to have more control of the immune system during puberty and the time right after than in fully developed adults.. Other than hormonal changes physical changes like the involution of the Thymus during puberty will also affect the immunological response of the subject or patient (9). These differences occurring not only during development but also in sex hormones makes the development of vaccines or antitoxins extra challenging for the immunologist because it simply presents more variables to take into account at the time of designing and testing new treatment and vaccines (8) Neonates are said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, because both, their innate and adaptive immunological responses are greatly suppress. In fact, many of the infections they acquire are cause by low virulence organisms like Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas. In neonates, opsonic activity and the ability to activate the complement cascade is very limited. For example, the mean level of C3 in a newborn is approximately 65% of that found in the adult. The phagocitic activity is also greatly impaired in newborns. This is not only due to a decrease in the opsonic activity, but mainly, to a diminished up regulation of integrins and selectins receptors, which limit the ability of neutrophils to interact with adhesion molecules in the endothelium. Their monocytes are slow and have a reduced ATP production, which also limits the newborns phagocitic activity. Although, the number of total lymphocytes is significantly higher than in adults, the cellular and humoral immunity is also impair. Antigen presenting cells in newborns have a reduced capability to activate T cells. Also, T cells of a newborn proliferate poorly and produce very little amount, if any, of cytokines like IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-12, and IFN-g which limits their capacity to activate the humoral response as well as the phagocitic activity of macrophage. B cells develop early in gestation but are no fully active. At birth most of the immunoglobulin is present is maternal IgG. Because IgM, IgD, IgE and IgA don’t cross the placenta, they are almost undetectable at birth. By breast feeding the mother provides the newborn with some IgA. The passively acquired antibodies can protect the newborn up to 18 months, but their response is usually short-live and of low affinity (1). The body’s capability to react to antigen depends according to age (of the person), antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented. Once born, a child’s immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well to glycoproteins and polysaccharies. By 6-9 months after birth, a child’s immune system begins to respond better (more strongly) to glycoproteins. Not until 12-24 months of age is there a marked improvement in the body’s response to polysaccharides. This can be the reason for the specific time frames found in vaccination schedules [10]. Maternal factors also play a role in the body’s immune response. As we know a child receives antibodies from the mother through breast milk and through the placenta. These antibodies have a beneficial and a negative response. If a child is exposed to the antibody for a particular antigen before being exposed to the antigen itself then the child will have a dampened response. According to Jaspen, the passively acquired maternal antibodies suppress the antibody response to active immunization [1] (We see it as not giving the child a chance to experience the antigen for itself; therefore the child is not exposed to as many antigen possibilities were it to experience the real thing). Similarly the response of T-cells to vaccination differs in children compared to adults. “Vaccines that induce Th1 responses in adults do not readily elicit neonatal TH1 responses” [1, 11]. Location where the antigen is found by the body is also an important factor. This is due to the ability (or lack thereof) of APC’s to migrate to specific tissue. An example given is that when an antigen is presented in mucosa the local cells will have access to the antigen, and transfer that antigen to a central lymphatic node where it will be presented (simultaneously, APC’s generally have a harder time reaching mucosa). Nevertheless, antigen found in the mucosa of the nasal cavity will induce a more wide spread response by activating both a mucosal and systemic response resulting in a response in the nasal lymphoid tissue, saliva and female genital tract [12]. In terms of general vaccination, the cellular response to live vaccines generally induces a stronger immune response unless the aforementioned circumstances are present. Immunotherapy See main article Immunotherapy The use of immune system components to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used in the context of the treatment of cancers together with chemotherapy (drugs) and radiotherapy (radiation). However, immunotherapy is also often used in the immunosuppressed (such as HIV patients) and people suffering from other immune deficiencies or autoimmune diseases. Diagnostic immunology See main article Diagnostic immunology The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made it an excellent tool in the detection of substances in a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired antigen can be conjugated with a radiolabel, fluorescent label, or color-forming enzyme and are used as a "probe" to detect it. Evolutionary immunology Study of the immune system in extant and extinct species is capable of giving us a key understanding of the evolution of species and the immune system. A development of complexity of the immune system can be seen from simple phagocytotic protection of single celled organisms, to circulating antimicrobial peptides in insects to lymphoid organs in vertebrates. Of course, like much of evolutionary observation, these physical properties are often seen from the anthropocentric aspect. It should be recognized that every organism living today has an immune system absolutely capable of protecting it from most forms of harm; those organisms that did not adapt their immune systems to external threats are no longer around to be observed. Insects and other arthropods, while not possessing true adaptive immunity, show highly evolved systems of innate immunity, and are additionally protected from external injury (and exposure to pathogens) by their chitinous shells. Reproductive Immunology This area of the immunology is devoted to the study of immunological aspects of the reproductive process including fetus acceptance. The term has also been used by fertility clinics to address fertility problems, recurrent miscarriages, premature deliveries, and dangerous complications such as pre-clampsia. See also Autoimmunity List of immunologists History of immunology Serology Immunodeficiency Medical technologist Osteoimmunology References Wikibooks Immunology Textbook Goldsby RA, Kindt TK, Osborne BA and Kuby J (2003) Immunology, 5th Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, New York, ISBN 0-7167-4947-5 1 Jaspan Heather, S.D Lawn; et al. "The maturing immune system: implications for development and testing HIV-1 vaccines for children and adolescents" AIDS21 Mar. 2006, Vol 20 p.p 483-494. 2 Sizonenko PC, Paunier L. Hormonal changes in puberty III: Correlation of plasma dehydroepiandrosterone, testosterone, FSH, and LH with stages of puberty and bone age in normal boys and girls and in patients with Addison's disease or hypogonadism or with premature or late adrenarche. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1975; 41:894–904. 3 Verthelyi D. Sex hormones as immunomodulators in health and disease. Int Immunopharmacol 2001; 1:983–993. 4 Stimson WH. Oestrogen and human T lymphocytes: presence of specific receptors in the T-suppressor/cytotoxic subset. Scand J Immunol 1998; 28:345–350. 5 Benten WPM, Stephan C, Wunderlich F. B cells express intracellular but not surface receptors for testosterone and estradiol. Steroids 2002; 67:647–654. 6 Beagley K, Gockel CM. Regulation of innate and adaptive immunity by the female sex hormones oestradiol and progesterone. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2003; 38:13–22. 7 Cutolo M, Sulli A, Capellino S, Villaggio B, Montagna P, Seriolo B, et al. Sex hormones influence on the immune system: basic and clinical aspects in autoimmunity. Lupus 2004; 13:635–638. 8 Kanda N, Tamaki K. Estrogen enhances immunoglobulin production by human PBMCs. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999; 103:282–288. 9 McFarland RD, Douek DC, Koup RA, Picker LJ. Identification of a human recent thymic emigrant phenotype. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000; 97:4215–4220. 10 Glezen WP. Maternal vaccines. Prim Care 2001(28):791. 11 Holt PG, Macaubas C, Cooper D, Nelson DJ, McWilliam AS. Th-1/Th-2 switch regulation in immune responses to inhaled antigens - role of dendritic cells in the aetiology of allergic respiratory disease. Dendritic Cells in Fundamental and Clinical Immunology 1997; (3) (417) 301–306. 12 Kozlowski PA, Cuuvin S, Neutra MR, Flanigan TP. Comparison of the oral, rectal, and vaginal immunization routes for induction of antibodies in rectal and genital tract secretions of women. Infect Immun 1997 (65) 1387–1394. External links April the 29th - the annual Day of Immunology Annual Review of Immunology (journal home) BMC: Immunology- BioMed Central:Immunology is an open access journal publishing original peer-reviewed research articles. Biomedical Sciences Research Center "Alexander Fleming" Institute of Immunology BRT-Burleson Research Technologies Tests the effects of pharmaceuticals in the developmental stage on the immune system. Janeway's Immunobiology textbook Searchable free online version at the National Center for Biotechnology Information MUGEN NoE murine models for immunological disease Nature Reviews Immunology ( journal home) The Immunology Database and Analysis Portal - an NIAID-funded database resource of reference and experiment data covering the entire immunology domain Transplantation Immunology Interesting web site made by the faculty of medicine of the University of Geneva dealing with the immunological issues linked with the transplantation of materials genetically different between donor and recipient (hematopoietical stem cells, organs or the transfusion of blood). Online lectures in immunology University of South Carolina American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Medical specialty organization Immunology products | Immunology |@lemmatized immunology:31 broad:2 branch:1 biomedical:2 science:4 cover:2 study:7 aspect:4 immune:44 system:43 organism:5 deal:2 among:1 thing:2 physiological:4 functioning:1 state:2 health:3 disease:15 malfunction:1 immunological:9 disorder:5 autoimmune:2 hypersensitivity:2 deficiency:2 transplant:2 rejection:2 physical:4 chemical:1 characteristic:2 component:5 vitro:1 situ:1 vivo:1 application:1 several:2 discipline:1 far:2 divide:3 histological:1 examination:2 even:1 concept:2 immunity:8 immunis:1 latin:1 exempt:1 develop:7 numerous:1 early:3 physician:1 characterize:2 organ:6 would:1 later:1 prove:1 part:3 key:2 primary:2 lymphoid:3 thymus:3 bone:3 marrow:2 secondary:3 lymphatic:3 tissue:5 spleen:2 tonsil:1 lymph:3 vessel:1 node:3 adenoid:1 skin:1 condition:1 warrant:1 organs:1 include:7 portion:1 surgically:1 excise:1 patient:4 still:1 alive:1 many:4 actually:1 cellular:7 nature:2 associate:2 specific:6 rather:1 embed:1 circulate:2 various:1 locate:1 throughout:1 body:10 classical:3 tie:1 field:1 epidemiology:1 medicine:2 relationship:1 pathogen:2 write:1 mention:1 trace:1 back:1 plague:1 athens:1 bce:1 thucydides:1 note:1 people:2 recover:1 previous:1 bout:1 could:1 nurse:1 sick:1 without:1 contract:1 illness:1 second:1 time:7 ancient:1 society:1 reference:3 phenomenon:1 century:2 scientific:1 theory:1 molecular:1 comprise:1 function:3 interaction:2 central:3 primitive:1 innate:4 acquire:3 adaptive:4 vertebrate:2 latter:1 humoral:4 antibody:15 response:26 define:2 antigen:19 protein:2 release:1 certain:1 class:1 cell:19 b:5 lymphocytes:1 anything:1 elicit:2 generation:1 hence:1 generator:1 rest:1 understanding:2 property:2 two:2 biological:2 entity:1 however:2 equally:1 important:2 kill:1 infected:1 right:2 also:17 crucial:1 control:3 put:1 simply:2 highly:2 interdependent:1 broaden:1 horizon:1 much:2 research:4 perform:1 specialized:1 niche:1 normally:1 well:4 outside:1 model:2 clinical:6 cause:4 failure:1 aberrant:1 action:1 malignant:1 growth:1 element:1 involve:1 reaction:1 play:3 pathology:1 feature:1 fall:1 category:1 immunodeficiency:4 fail:1 provide:2 adequate:1 example:4 chronic:1 granulomatous:1 autoimmunity:4 attack:1 host:1 examples:1 systemic:2 lupus:2 erythematosus:1 rheumatoid:1 arthritis:1 hashimoto:1 myasthenia:1 gravis:1 different:3 respond:4 inappropriately:1 harmless:1 compound:1 asthma:2 allergy:3 intensely:1 know:3 affect:2 aid:2 hiv:4 lack:2 helper:1 macrophage:4 destroy:2 immunologist:3 way:1 prevent:1 attempt:1 allograft:1 xenograft:1 developmental:2 immmunology:1 adolescence:1 age:5 human:5 start:4 infantile:1 form:2 fully:3 grown:1 adult:7 change:5 occur:2 inside:1 mediate:1 hormone:8 depend:1 sex:8 either:1 testosterone:5 β:4 oestradiol:5 act:3 male:4 female:8 accordingly:1 year:1 evidence:2 steroid:2 directly:1 sexual:1 effect:3 development:5 regulation:4 increase:2 risk:1 pubertal:2 post:2 surface:2 receptor:4 detect:2 show:2 regulate:1 de:1 level:3 follicular:1 phase:1 menstrual:1 cycle:1 great:1 drop:1 igg:2 iga:3 adolescent:2 one:1 like:7 apc:3 seem:3 fluctuation:1 specifically:1 mucosal:2 layer:1 womb:1 puberty:5 suggest:1 achieve:1 stimulation:1 peripheral:1 blood:2 monocyte:2 pbmc:1 androgens:1 suppress:3 stress:1 infection:2 androgen:1 dhea:1 opposite:1 instead:1 hormonal:2 involution:1 subject:1 difference:1 make:3 vaccine:6 antitoxin:1 extra:1 challenge:1 present:7 variable:1 take:1 account:1 design:1 test:3 new:3 treatment:2 neonate:2 say:1 greatly:2 fact:1 low:2 virulence:1 staphylococcus:1 pseudomonas:1 opsonic:2 activity:5 ability:3 activate:4 complement:1 cascade:1 limited:1 mean:1 newborn:6 approximately:1 found:1 phagocitic:3 impair:2 due:2 decrease:1 mainly:1 diminish:1 integrins:1 selectins:1 limit:3 neutrophil:1 interact:1 adhesion:1 molecule:1 endothelium:1 slow:1 reduce:2 atp:1 production:2 newborns:1 although:1 number:1 total:1 lymphocyte:2 significantly:1 high:1 capability:2 proliferate:1 poorly:1 produce:1 little:1 amount:1 cytokine:1 il:4 ifn:1 g:1 capacity:1 gestation:1 active:2 birth:3 immunoglobulin:2 maternal:5 igm:1 igd:1 ige:1 cross:1 placenta:2 almost:1 undetectable:1 breast:2 feed:1 mother:2 passively:2 acquired:1 protect:3 month:3 usually:1 short:1 live:3 affinity:1 react:1 depends:1 accord:2 person:1 type:1 factor:3 area:2 bear:1 child:9 favorably:1 glycoprotein:2 polysaccharies:1 begin:1 good:1 strongly:1 marked:1 improvement:1 polysaccharide:1 reason:1 frame:1 find:3 vaccination:3 schedule:1 role:2 receive:1 milk:1 beneficial:1 negative:1 expose:3 particular:1 dampen:1 jaspen:1 immunization:2 see:6 give:3 chance:1 experience:2 therefore:1 possibility:1 real:1 similarly:1 differs:1 compare:1 induce:3 readily:1 neonatal:1 location:1 thereof:1 migrate:1 mucosa:3 local:1 access:2 transfer:1 simultaneously:1 generally:2 hard:1 reach:1 nevertheless:1 nasal:2 cavity:1 wide:1 spread:1 result:1 saliva:1 genital:2 tract:2 term:2 general:1 strong:1 unless:1 aforementioned:1 circumstance:1 immunotherapy:5 main:2 article:3 use:5 treat:1 commonly:1 context:1 cancer:1 together:1 chemotherapy:1 drug:1 radiotherapy:1 radiation:1 often:2 immunosuppressed:1 suffer:1 diagnostic:3 specificity:1 bond:1 excellent:1 tool:1 detection:1 substance:1 variety:1 technique:1 desired:1 conjugate:1 radiolabel:1 fluorescent:1 label:1 color:1 forming:1 enzyme:1 probe:1 evolutionary:2 extant:1 extinct:1 specie:2 capable:2 u:1 evolution:1 complexity:1 simple:1 phagocytotic:1 protection:1 single:1 celled:1 antimicrobial:1 peptide:1 insect:2 course:1 observation:1 anthropocentric:1 recognize:1 every:1 today:1 absolutely:1 harm:1 adapt:1 external:3 threat:1 longer:1 around:1 observe:1 arthropod:1 possess:1 true:1 evolve:1 additionally:1 injury:1 exposure:1 chitinous:1 shell:1 reproductive:2 devote:1 process:1 fetus:1 acceptance:1 fertility:2 clinic:1 address:1 problem:1 recurrent:1 miscarriage:1 premature:2 delivery:1 dangerous:1 complication:1 pre:1 clampsia:1 list:1 history:1 serology:1 medical:2 technologist:1 osteoimmunology:1 wikibooks:1 textbook:2 goldsby:1 ra:2 kindt:1 tk:1 osborne:1 ba:1 kuby:1 j:4 edition:1 w:1 h:1 freeman:1 company:1 york:2 isbn:1 jaspan:1 heather:1 lawn:1 et:2 al:2 mature:1 implication:1 mar:1 vol:1 p:3 sizonenko:1 pc:1 paunier:1 l:1 iii:1 correlation:1 plasma:1 dehydroepiandrosterone:1 fsh:1 lh:1 stage:2 normal:1 boy:1 girl:1 addison:1 hypogonadism:1 late:1 adrenarche:1 clin:2 endocrinol:1 metab:1 verthelyi:1 immunomodulators:1 int:1 immunopharmacol:1 stimson:1 wh:1 oestrogen:1 presence:1 suppressor:1 cytotoxic:1 subset:1 scand:1 immunol:3 benten:1 wpm:1 stephan:1 c:2 wunderlich:1 f:1 express:1 intracellular:1 estradiol:1 beagley:1 k:2 gockel:1 cm:1 progesterone:1 fems:1 med:1 microbiol:1 cutolo:1 sulli:1 capellino:1 villaggio:1 montagna:1 seriolo:1 influence:1 basic:1 kanda:1 n:1 tamaki:1 estrogen:1 enhances:1 pbmcs:1 mcfarland:1 rd:1 douek:1 dc:1 koup:1 picker:1 lj:1 identification:1 recent:1 thymic:1 emigrant:1 phenotype:1 proc:1 natl:1 acad:1 sci:1 usa:1 glezen:1 wp:1 prim:1 care:1 holt:1 pg:1 macaubas:1 cooper:1 nelson:1 dj:1 mcwilliam:1 th:2 switch:1 inhale:1 dendritic:2 aetiology:1 allergic:1 respiratory:1 fundamental:1 kozlowski:1 pa:1 cuuvin:1 neutra:1 mr:1 flanigan:1 tp:1 comparison:1 oral:1 rectal:2 vaginal:1 route:1 induction:1 secretion:1 woman:1 infect:1 immun:1 link:2 april:1 annual:2 day:1 review:3 journal:3 home:2 bmc:1 biomed:1 open:1 publishing:1 original:1 peer:1 center:2 alexander:1 fleming:1 institute:1 brt:1 burleson:1 technology:1 pharmaceutical:1 janeway:1 immunobiology:1 searchable:1 free:1 online:2 version:1 national:1 biotechnology:1 information:1 mugen:1 noe:1 murine:1 database:2 analysis:1 portal:1 niaid:1 funded:1 resource:1 experiment:1 data:1 entire:1 domain:1 transplantation:2 interest:1 web:1 site:1 faculty:1 university:2 geneva:1 issue:1 material:1 genetically:1 donor:1 recipient:1 hematopoietical:1 stem:1 transfusion:1 lecture:1 south:1 carolina:1 american:1 academy:1 specialty:1 organization:1 product:1 |@bigram autoimmune_disease:2 immune_deficiency:2 transplant_rejection:2 bone_marrow:2 lymph_node:2 innate_immune:1 adaptive_immune:1 antibody_antigen:2 antigen_antibody:1 clinical_immunology:3 systemic_lupus:1 lupus_erythematosus:1 rheumatoid_arthritis:1 myasthenia_gravis:1 asthma_allergy:1 hiv_aid:1 helper_cell:1 male_female:1 menstrual_cycle:1 immune_response:4 innate_adaptive:2 adhesion_molecule:1 humoral_immunity:1 igg_igm:1 marked_improvement:1 breast_milk:1 lack_thereof:1 female_genital:1 single_celled:1 celled_organism:1 adaptive_immunity:2 et_al:2 child_adolescent:1 proc_natl:1 natl_acad:1 acad_sci:1 dendritic_cell:2 external_link:1 peer_review:1 |
4,614 | Polynomial | In mathematics, a polynomial is a finite length expression constructed from variables (also known as indeterminates) and constants, using the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and constant non-negative whole number exponents. For example, is a polynomial, but is not, because its second term involves division by the variable x and also because its third term contains an exponent that is not a whole number. Polynomials are one of the most important concepts in algebra and throughout mathematics and science. They are used to form polynomial equations, which encode a wide range of problems, from elementary word problems to complicated problems in the sciences; they are used to define polynomial functions, which appear in settings ranging from basic chemistry and physics to economics, and are used in calculus and numerical analysis to approximate other functions. Polynomials are used to construct polynomial rings, one of the most powerful concepts in algebra and algebraic geometry. Overview A polynomial is either zero, or can be written as the sum of one or more non-zero terms. The number of terms is finite. These terms consist of a constant (called the coefficient of the term) multiplied by zero or more variables (which are usually represented by letters). Each variable may have an exponent that is a non-negative integer (also known as a natural number). The exponent on a variable in a term is equal to the degree of that variable in that term. Since , the degree of a variable without a written exponent is one. A term with no variables is called a constant term, or just a constant. The degree of a constant term is 0. The coefficient of a term may be any number, including fractions, irrational numbers, negative numbers, and complex numbers. For example, is a term. The coefficient is –5, the variables are x and y, the degree of x is two, and the degree of y is one. The degree of the entire term is the sum of the degrees of each variable in it. In the example above, the degree is 2 + 1 = 3. A polynomial is a sum of terms. For example, the following is a polynomial: It consists of three terms: the first is degree two, the second is degree one, and the third is degree zero. Here "" stands for "", so the coefficient of the middle term . When a polynomial in one variable is arranged in the traditional order, the terms of higher degree come before the terms of lower degree. In the first term above, the coefficient , the variable , and the exponent . In the second term, the coefficient . The third term is a constant. The degree of a non-zero polynomial is the largest degree of any one term. In this example, the polynomial has degree two. Alternative forms An expression that can be converted to polynomial form through a sequence of applications of the commutative, associative, and distributive laws is usually considered to be a polynomial. For instance, is a polynomial because it can be worked out to . Similarly, is considered a valid term in a polynomial, even though it involves a division, because it is equivalent to and is just a constant. The coefficient of this term is therefore . For similar reasons, if complex coefficients are allowed, one may have a single term like ; even though it looks like it should be worked out to two terms, the complex number 2+3i is in fact just a single coefficient in this case that happens to require a "+" to be written down. Division by an expression containing a variable is not generally allowed in polynomials. Peter H. Selby, Steve Slavin, Practical Algebra: A Self-Teaching Guide, 2nd Edition, Wiley, ISBN 0471530123 ISBN 978-0471530121 For example, is not a polynomial because it includes division by a variable. Similarly, is not a polynomial, because it has a variable exponent. Since subtraction can be treated as addition of the additive opposite, and since exponentiation to a constant positive whole number power can be treated as repeated multiplication, polynomials can be constructed from constants and variables with just the two operations addition and multiplication. Polynomial functions A polynomial function is a function defined by evaluating a polynomial. A function ƒ of one argument is called a polynomial function if it satisfies for all arguments x, where n is a nonnegative integer and a0, a1,a2, ..., an are constant coefficients. For example, the function ƒ, taking real numbers to real numbers, defined by is a polynomial function of one argument. Polynomial functions of multiple arguments can also be defined, using polynomials in multiple variables, as in Polynomial functions are an important class of smooth functions. Polynomial equations A polynomial equation is an equation in which a polynomial is set equal to another polynomial. is a polynomial equation. In case of a polynomial equation the variable is considered an unknown, and one seeks to find the possible values for which both members of the equation evaluate to the same value (in general more than one solution may exist). A polynomial equation is to be contrasted with a polynomial identity like , where both members represent the same polynomial in different forms, and as a consequence any evaluation of both members will give a valid equality. Elementary properties of polynomials A sum of polynomials is a polynomial. A product of polynomials is a polynomial The derivative of a polynomial function is a polynomial function Any primitive or antiderivative of a polynomial function is a polynomial function Polynomials serve to approximate other functions, such as sine, cosine, and exponential. All polynomials have an expanded form, in which the distributive law has been used to remove all brackets. All polynomials with real or complex coefficients also have a factored form in which the polynomial is written as a product of linear complex polynomials. For example, the polynomial is the expanded form of the polynomial , which is written in factored form. Note that the constants in the linear polynomials (like -3 and +1 in the above example) may be complex numbers in certain cases, even if all coefficients of the expanded form are real numbers. This is because the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed; however, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. Every polynomial in one variable is equivalent to a polynomial with the form This form is sometimes taken as the definition of a polynomial in one variable. Evaluation of a polynomial consists of assigning a number to each variable and carrying out the indicated multiplications and additions. Evaluation is sometimes performed more efficiently using the Horner scheme In elementary algebra, methods are given for solving all first degree and second degree polynomial equations in one variable. In the case of polynomial equations, the variable is often called an unknown. The number of solutions may not exceed the degree, and will equal the degree when multiplicity of solutions and complex number solutions are counted. This fact is called the fundamental theorem of algebra. A system of polynomial equations is a set of equations in which a given variable must take on the same value everywhere it appears in any of the equations. Systems of equations are usually grouped with a single open brace on the left. In elementary algebra, methods are given for solving a system of linear equations in several unknowns. To get a unique solution, the number of equations should equal the number of unknowns. If there are more unknowns than equations, the system is called underdetermined. If there are more equations than unknowns, the system is called overdetermined. This important subject is studied extensively in the area of mathematics known as linear algebra. Overdetermined systems are common in practical applications. For example, one U.S. mapping survey used computers to solve 2.5 million equations in 400,000 unknowns. Gilbert Strang, Linear Algebra and its Applications, Fourth Edition, Thompson Brooks/Cole, ISBN 0030105676.</ref> More advanced examples of polynomials In linear algebra, the characteristic polynomial of a square matrix encodes several important properties of the matrix. In graph theory the chromatic polynomial of a graph encodes the different ways to vertex color the graph using x colors. In abstract algebra, one may define polynomials with coefficients in any ring. In knot theory the Alexander polynomial, the Jones polynomial, and the HOMFLY polynomial are important knot invariants. History Determining the roots of polynomials, or "solving algebraic equations", is among the oldest problems in mathematics. However, the elegant and practical notation we use today only developed beginning in the 15th century. Before that, equations are written out in words. For example, an algebra problem from the Chinese Arithmetic in Nine Sections, circa 200 BCE, begins "Three sheafs of good crop, two sheafs of mediocre crop, and one sheaf of bad crop are sold for 29 dou." We would write . Notation The earliest known use of the equal sign is in Robert Recorde's The Whetstone of Witte, 1557. The signs + for addition, − for subtraction, and the use of a letter for an unknown appear in Michael Stifel's Arithemetica integra, 1544. René Descartes, in La géometrie, 1637, introduced the concept of the graph of a polynomial equation. He popularized the use of letters from the beginning of the alphabet to denote constants and letters from the end of the alphabet to denote variables, as can be seen above, in the general formula for a polynomial in one variable, where the a 's denote constants and x denotes a variable. Descartes introduced the use of superscripts to denote exponents as well.<ref>Howard Eves, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Sixth Edition, Saunders, ISBN 0030295580 Solving polynomial equations Every polynomial corresponds to a polynomial function, where f(x) is set equal to the polynomial, and to a polynomial equation, where the polynomial is set equal to zero. The solutions to the equation are called the roots of the polynomial and they are the zeroes of the function and the x-intercepts of its graph. If x = a is a root of a polynomial, then (x − a) is a factor of that polynomial. Some polynomials, such as f(x) = x2 + 1, do not have any roots among the real numbers. If, however, the set of allowed candidates is expanded to the complex numbers, every (non-constant) polynomial has at least one distinct root; this follows from the fundamental theorem of algebra. There is a difference between approximating roots and finding exact roots. Formulas for the roots of polynomials up to a degree of 2 have been known since ancient times (see quadratic equation) and up to a degree of 4 since the 16th century (see Gerolamo Cardano, Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia). But formulas for degree 5 eluded researchers. In 1824, Niels Henrik Abel proved the striking result that there can be no general formula (involving only the arithmetical operations and radicals) for the roots of a polynomial of degree 5 or greater in terms of its coefficients (see Abel-Ruffini theorem). This result marked the start of Galois theory which engages in a detailed study of relationships among roots of polynomials. Numerically solving a polynomial equation in one unknown is easily done on a computer by the Durand-Kerner method or by some other root-finding algorithm. The reduction of equations in several unknowns to equations each in one unknown is discussed in the article on the Buchberger's algorithm. The special case where all the polynomials are of degree one is called a system of linear equations, for which a range of different solution methods exist, including the classical gaussian elimination. It has been shown by Richard Birkeland and Karl Meyr that the roots of any polynomial may be expressed in terms of multivariate hypergeometric functions. Ferdinand von Lindemann and Hiroshi Umemura showed that the roots may also be expressed in terms of Siegel modular functions, generalizations of the theta functions that appear in the theory of elliptic functions. These characterizations of the roots of arbitrary polynomials are generalizations of the methods previously discovered to solve the quintic equation. Graphs A polynomial function in one real variable can be represented by a graph. The graph of the zero polynomial f(x) = 0 is the x-axis. The graph of a degree 0 polynomial f(x) = a0, where a0 ≠ 0, is a horizontal line with y-intercept a0 The graph of a degree 1 polynomial (or linear function) f(x) = a0 + a1x , where a1 ≠ 0, is an oblique line with y-intercept a0 and slope a1. The graph of a degree 2 polynomial f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2, where a2 ≠ 0 is a parabola. The graph of a degree 3 polynomial f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2, + a3x3, where a3 ≠ 0 is a cubic curve. The graph of any polynomial with degree 2 or greater f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn , where an ≠ 0 and n ≥ 2 is a continuous non-linear curve. Polynomial graphs are analyzed in calculus using intercepts, slopes, concavity, and end behavior. The illustrations below show graphs of polynomials. Polynomial of degree 2:Polynomial of degree 3:Polynomial of degree 4:Polynomial of degree 5: Polynomials and calculus One important aspect of calculus is the project of analyzing complicated functions by means of approximating them with polynomials. The culmination of these efforts is Taylor's theorem, which roughly states that every differentiable function locally looks like a polynomial, and the Stone-Weierstrass theorem, which states that every continuous function defined on a compact interval of the real axis can be approximated on the whole interval as closely as desired by a polynomial. Polynomials are also frequently used to interpolate functions. Quotients of polynomials are called rational expressions, and functions that evaluate rational expressions are called rational functions. Rational functions are the only functions that can be evaluated on a computer by a fixed sequence of instructions involving operations of addition, multiplication, division, which operations on floating point numbers are usually implemented in hardware. All the other functions that computers need to evaluate, such as trigonometric functions, logarithms and exponential functions, must then be computed in software that may use approximations to those functions on certain intervals by rational functions, and possibly iteration. Calculating derivatives and integrals of polynomials is particularly simple. For the polynomial the derivative with respect to x is and the indefinite integral is Abstract algebra In abstract algebra, one must take care to distinguish between polynomials and polynomial functions. A polynomial f in one variable over a ring is defined to be a formal expression of the form where is a natural number, the coefficients are elements of , Here X is a formal symbol, whose powers Xi are at this point just placeholders for the corresponding coefficients ai, so that the given formal expression is just a way to encode the sequence (a0,a1,...), where there is an N such that ai=0 for all i>N. Two polynomials sharing the same value of are considered to be equal if and only if the sequences of their coefficients are equal; furthermore any polynomial is equal to any polynomial with greater value of obtained from it by adding terms in front whose coefficient is zero. These polynomials can be added by simply adding corresponding coefficients (the rule for extending by terms with zero coefficients can be used to make sure such coefficients exist). Thus each polynomial is actually equal to the sum of the terms used in its formal expression, if such a term aiXi is interpreted as a polynomial that has zero coefficients at all powers of X other than Xi. Then to define multiplication, it suffices by the distributive law to describe the product of any two such terms, which is given by the rule for all elements a, b of the ring R and all natural numbers k and l. Thus the set of all polynomials with coefficients in the ring R forms itself a ring, the ring of polynomials over R, which is denoted by R[X]. The map from R to R[X] sending r to rX0 is an injective homomorphism of rings, by which R is viewed as a subring of R[X]. If R is commutative, then R[X] is an algebra over R. One can think of the ring R[X] as arising from R by adding one new element X to R, and extending in a minimal way to a ring in which X satisfies no other relations than the obligatory ones, plus commutation with all elements of R (that is ). To do this, one must add all powers of X and their linear combinations as well. Formation of the polynomial ring, together with forming factor rings by factoring out ideals, are important tools for constructing new rings out of known ones. For instance, the ring (in fact field) of complex numbers, which can be constructed from the polynomial ring R[X] over the real numbers by factoring out the ideal of multiples of the polynomial . Another example is the construction of finite fields, which proceeds similarly, starting out with the field of integers modulo some prime number as the coefficient ring R (see modular arithmetic). If is commutative, then one can associate to every polynomial P in , a polynomial function f with domain and range equal to (more generally one can take domain and range to be the same unital associative algebra over ). One obtains the value f(r) by everywhere replacing the symbol X in P by r. One reason that algebraists distinguish between polynomials and polynomial functions is that over some rings different polynomials may give rise to the same polynomial function (see Fermat's little theorem for an example where R is the integers modulo p). This is not the case when is the real or complex numbers and therefore many analysts often don't separate the two concepts. An even more important reason to distinguish between polynomials and polynomial functions is that many operations on polynomials (like Euclidean division) require looking at what a polynomial is composed of as an expression rather than evaluating it at some constant value for . And it should be noted that if is not commutative, there is no (well behaved) notion of polynomial function at all. Divisibility In commutative algebra, one major focus of study is divisibility among polynomials. If R is an integral domain and f and g are polynomials in R[X], it is said that f divides g if there exists a polynomial q in R[X] such that f q = g. One can then show that "every zero gives rise to a linear factor", or more formally: if f is a polynomial in R[X] and r is an element of R such that f(r) = 0, then the polynomial (X − r) divides f. The converse is also true. The quotient can be computed using the Horner scheme. If F is a field and f and g are polynomials in F[X] with g ≠ 0, then there exist unique polynomials q and r in F[X] with and such that the degree of r is smaller than the degree of g. The polynomials q and r are uniquely determined by f and g. This is called "division with remainder" or "polynomial long division" and shows that the ring F[X] is a Euclidean domain. Analogously, polynomial "primes" (more correctly, irreducible polynomials) can be defined which cannot be factorized into the product of two polynomials of lesser degree. It is not easy to determine if a given polynomial is irreducible. One can start by simply checking if the polynomial has linear factors. Then, one can check divisibility by some other irreducible polynomials. Eisenstein's criterion can also be used in some cases to determine irreducibility. See also: Greatest common divisor of two polynomials. Classifications The most important classification of polynomials is based on the number of distinct variables. A polynomial in one variable is called a univariate polynomial, a polynomial in more than one variable is called a multivariate polynomial. These notions refer more to the kind of polynomials one is generally working with than to individual polynomials; for instance when working with univariate polynomials one does not exclude constant polynomials (which may result for instance from the subtraction of non-constant polynomials), although strictly speaking constant polynomials do not contain any variables at all. It is possible to further classify multivariate polynomials as bivariate, trivariate etc., according to the number of variables, but this is rarely done; it is more common for instance to say simply "polynomials in x, y, and z". A (usually multivariate) polynomial is called homogeneous of if all its terms have . Univariate polynomials have many properties not shared by multivariate polynomials. For instance, the terms of a univariate polynomial are completely ordered by their degree, and it is conventional to always write them in order of decreasing degree. A univariate polynomial in x of degree n then takes the general form where cn, cn-1, ..., c2, c1 and c0 are constants, the coefficients of this polynomial. Here the term cnxn is called the leading term and its coefficient cn the leading coefficient; if the leading coefficient , the univariate polynomial is called monic. Note that apart from the leading (which must be non-zero or else the polynomial would not be of degree n) this general form allows for coefficients to be zero; when this happens the corresponding term is zero and may be removed from the sum without changing the polynomial. It is nevertheless common to refer to ci as the coefficient of xi, even when ci happens to be 0, so that xi does not really occur in any term; for instance one can speak of the constant term of the polynomial, meaning c0 even if it should be zero. Polynomials can similarly be classified by the kind of constant values allowed as coefficients. One can work with polynomials with integral, rational, real or complex coefficients, and in abstract algebra polynomials with many other types of coefficients can be defined. Like for the previous classification, this is about the coefficients one is generally working with; for instance when working with polynomials with complex coefficients one includes polynomials whose coefficients happen to all be real, even though such polynomials can also be considered to be a polynomials with real coefficients. Polynomials can further be classified by their degree and/or the number of non-zero terms they contain. + Polynomials classified by degree Degree Name Example −∞ zero (non-zero) constant linear quadratic cubic quartic (or biquadratic) quintic sextic or hexic septic or heptic octic nonic decic Usually, a polynomial of degree 4 or higher is referred to as a polynomial of degree n, although the phrases quartic polynomial and quintic polynomial are also used. The names for degrees higher than 5 are even less common. The names for the degrees may be applied to the polynomial or to its terms. For example, a constant may refer to a zero degree polynomial or to a zero degree term. The polynomial 0, which may be considered to have no terms at all, is called the zero polynomial. Unlike other constant polynomials, its degree is not zero. Rather the degree of the zero polynomial is either left explicitly undefined, or defined to be negative (either –1 or –∞). http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ZeroPolynomial.html The latter convention is important when defining Euclidean division of polynomials. + Polynomials classified by number of non-zero terms Number of non-zero terms Name Example zero polynomial monomial binomial trinomial Further, polynomials may be classified by the number of terms (using the minimal number of terms, that is, not counting zero terms and combining like terms). The word monomial can be ambiguous, used either to refer to a polynomial with just a single term, as above, or to refer to the particular case of monic monomials, that is, having coefficient 1. Anthony W. Knapp, Advanced Algebra: Along with a Companion Volume Basic Algebra, p. 457, Springer, 2007, ISBN 0817645225 Polynomials associated to other objects Polynomials are frequently used to encode information about some other object. The characteristic polynomial of a matrix or linear operator contains information about the operator's eigenvalues. The minimal polynomial of an algebraic element records the simplest algebraic relation satisfied by that element. The chromatic polynomial of a graph counts the number of proper colourings of that graph. Extensions of the concept of a polynomial Polynomials can involve more than one variable, in which they are called multivariate. Rings of polynomials in a finite number of variables are of fundamental importance in algebraic geometry which studies the simultaneous zero sets of several such multivariate polynomials. These rings can alternatively be constructed by repeating the construction of univariate polynomials with as ceofficient ring another ring of polynomials: thus the ring R[X,Y] of polynomials in X and Y can be viewed as the ring (R[X])[Y] of polynomials in Y with as coeffcients polynomials in X, or as the ring (R[Y])[X] of polynomials in X with as coeffcients polynomials in Y. These identifications are compatible with arithmetic operations (they are isomorphisms of rings), but some notions such as degree or whether a polynomial is considered monic can change between these points of view. One can construct rings of polynomials in infinitely many variables, but since polynomials are (finite) expressions, any individual polynomial can only contain finitely many variables. A binary polynomial where the second variable takes the form of an exponential function applied to the first variable, for example P(X,eX ), may be called an exponential polynomial. Laurent polynomials are like polynomials, but allow negative powers of the variable(s) to occur. Rational functions are formal quotients of polynomials (they are formed from polynomials just as rational numbers are formed from integers, writing a fraction of two of them; fractions related by the cancelling of common factors are identified with each other). The rational functions contain the Laurent polynomials, but do not limit denominators to be powers of a variable. Formal power series are like polynomials, but allow infinitely many nonzero terms to occur, so that they do not have finite degree. Unlike polynomials they cannot in general be explicitly and fully written down (just like real numbers cannot), but the rules for manipulating their terms are the same as for polynomials. See also Please see List of polynomial topics Notes References R. Birkeland. Über die Auflösung algebraischer Gleichungen durch hypergeometrische Funktionen. Mathematische Zeitschrift vol. 26, (1927) pp. 565–578. Shows that the roots of any polynomial may be written in terms of multivariate hypergeometric functions. Paper is available here. F. von Lindemann. Über die Auflösung der algebraischen Gleichungen durch transcendente Functionen. Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, vol. 7, 1884. Polynomial solutions in terms of theta functions. Paper available here. F. von Lindemann. Über die Auflösung der algebraischen Gleichungen durch transcendente Functionen II. Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften und der Georg-Augusts-Universität zu Göttingen, 1892 edition. Paper available here. K. Mayr. Über die Auflösung algebraischer Gleichungssysteme durch hypergeometrische Funktionen. Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik vol. 45, (1937) pp. 280–313. H. Umemura. Solution of algebraic equations in terms of theta constants. In D. Mumford, Tata Lectures on Theta II, Progress in Mathematics 43, Birkhäuser, Boston, 1984. External links List of Calculators for Quadratic through Sextic equations Euler's work on Imaginary Roots of Polynomials at Convergence Free online polynomial calculator Characteristics of polynomials Free online polynomial root finder for both real and complex coefficients | Polynomial |@lemmatized mathematics:6 polynomial:236 finite:6 length:1 expression:10 construct:7 variable:42 also:13 know:5 indeterminates:1 constant:26 use:26 operation:7 addition:6 subtraction:4 multiplication:6 non:12 negative:5 whole:4 number:41 exponent:8 example:18 second:5 term:58 involve:5 division:9 x:47 third:3 contain:7 one:51 important:10 concept:5 algebra:21 throughout:1 science:2 form:19 equation:33 encode:5 wide:1 range:5 problem:5 elementary:4 word:3 complicate:2 define:12 function:49 appear:4 setting:1 basic:2 chemistry:1 physic:1 economics:1 calculus:4 numerical:1 analysis:1 approximate:5 ring:27 powerful:1 algebraic:6 geometry:2 overview:1 either:4 zero:29 write:11 sum:6 consist:2 call:20 coefficient:39 multiply:1 usually:6 represent:3 letter:4 may:19 integer:5 natural:3 equal:12 degree:54 since:6 without:2 include:4 fraction:3 irrational:1 complex:14 two:12 entire:1 following:1 three:2 first:4 stand:1 middle:1 arrange:1 traditional:1 order:3 high:3 come:1 low:1 large:1 alternative:1 convert:1 sequence:4 application:3 commutative:5 associative:2 distributive:3 law:3 consider:7 instance:8 work:8 similarly:4 valid:2 even:8 though:3 equivalent:2 therefore:2 similar:1 reason:3 allow:7 single:4 like:11 look:3 fact:3 case:8 happen:4 require:2 generally:4 peter:1 h:2 selby:1 steve:1 slavin:1 practical:3 self:1 teaching:1 guide:1 edition:4 wiley:1 isbn:5 treat:2 additive:1 opposite:1 exponentiation:1 positive:1 power:7 repeated:1 evaluate:6 ƒ:2 argument:4 satisfy:3 n:7 nonnegative:1 take:7 real:15 multiple:3 class:1 smooth:1 set:7 another:3 unknown:11 seek:1 find:2 possible:2 value:8 member:3 general:6 solution:9 exist:5 contrast:1 identity:1 different:4 consequence:1 evaluation:3 give:9 equality:1 property:3 product:4 derivative:3 primitive:1 antiderivative:1 serve:1 sine:1 cosine:1 exponential:4 expand:3 remove:2 bracket:1 factored:2 linear:14 expanded:1 note:4 certain:2 field:6 algebraically:2 close:2 however:3 fundamental:4 theorem:7 state:3 every:7 sometimes:2 definition:1 consists:1 assign:1 carry:1 indicated:1 perform:1 efficiently:1 horner:2 scheme:2 method:5 solve:7 often:2 exceed:1 multiplicity:1 count:3 system:7 must:5 everywhere:2 group:1 open:1 brace:1 left:2 several:4 get:1 unique:2 underdetermined:1 overdetermined:2 subject:1 study:4 extensively:1 area:1 common:6 u:1 map:2 survey:1 computer:4 million:1 gilbert:1 strang:1 fourth:1 thompson:1 brook:1 cole:1 ref:2 advanced:1 characteristic:3 square:1 matrix:3 graph:17 theory:4 chromatic:2 way:3 vertex:1 color:2 abstract:4 knot:2 alexander:1 jones:1 homfly:1 invariant:1 history:2 determine:4 root:17 among:4 old:1 elegant:1 notation:2 today:1 develop:1 begin:2 century:2 chinese:1 arithmetic:3 nine:1 section:1 circa:1 bce:1 sheaf:3 good:1 crop:3 mediocre:1 bad:1 sell:1 dou:1 would:2 early:1 sign:2 robert:1 recorde:1 whetstone:1 witte:1 michael:1 stifel:1 arithemetica:1 integra:1 rené:1 descartes:2 la:1 géometrie:1 introduce:2 popularize:1 beginning:1 alphabet:2 denote:6 end:2 see:9 formula:4 superscript:1 well:3 howard:1 eve:1 introduction:1 sixth:1 saunders:1 corresponds:1 f:25 intercept:4 factor:7 candidate:1 least:1 distinct:2 follow:1 difference:1 exact:1 ancient:1 time:1 quadratic:3 gerolamo:1 cardano:1 niccolo:1 fontana:1 tartaglia:1 elude:1 researcher:1 niels:1 henrik:1 abel:2 prove:1 striking:1 result:3 arithmetical:1 radical:1 great:4 ruffini:1 mark:1 start:3 galois:1 engage:1 detailed:1 relationship:1 numerically:1 easily:1 durand:1 kerner:1 finding:1 algorithm:2 reduction:1 discuss:1 article:1 buchberger:1 special:1 classical:1 gaussian:1 elimination:1 show:6 richard:1 birkeland:2 karl:1 meyr:1 express:2 multivariate:8 hypergeometric:2 ferdinand:1 von:5 lindemann:3 hiroshi:1 umemura:2 siegel:1 modular:2 generalization:2 theta:4 elliptic:1 characterization:1 arbitrary:1 previously:1 discover:1 quintic:3 axis:2 horizontal:1 line:2 oblique:1 slope:2 parabola:1 cubic:2 curve:2 anxn:1 continuous:2 analyze:2 concavity:1 behavior:1 illustration:1 aspect:1 project:1 mean:2 culmination:1 effort:1 taylor:1 roughly:1 differentiable:1 locally:1 stone:1 weierstrass:1 compact:1 interval:3 closely:1 desire:1 frequently:2 interpolate:1 quotient:3 rational:9 fixed:1 instruction:1 float:1 point:3 implement:1 hardware:1 need:1 trigonometric:1 logarithm:1 compute:2 software:1 approximation:1 possibly:1 iteration:1 calculate:1 integral:4 particularly:1 simple:2 respect:1 indefinite:1 care:1 distinguish:3 formal:6 element:7 symbol:2 whose:3 xi:4 placeholder:1 corresponding:2 ai:2 share:2 furthermore:1 obtain:2 add:5 front:1 simply:3 correspond:1 rule:3 extend:2 make:1 sure:1 thus:3 actually:1 aixi:1 interpret:1 suffice:1 describe:1 b:1 r:36 k:2 l:1 send:1 injective:1 homomorphism:1 view:3 subring:1 think:1 arise:1 new:2 minimal:3 relation:2 obligatory:1 plus:1 commutation:1 combination:1 formation:1 together:1 ideal:2 tool:1 known:1 construction:2 proceed:1 modulo:2 prime:2 associate:2 p:5 domain:4 unital:1 replace:1 algebraists:1 rise:2 fermat:1 little:1 many:7 analyst:1 separate:1 euclidean:3 compose:1 rather:2 behave:1 notion:3 divisibility:3 major:1 focus:1 g:7 say:2 divide:2 q:4 formally:1 converse:1 true:1 small:1 uniquely:1 remainder:1 long:1 analogously:1 correctly:1 irreducible:3 cannot:3 factorize:1 less:2 easy:1 check:2 eisenstein:1 criterion:1 irreducibility:1 divisor:1 classification:3 base:1 univariate:7 refer:6 kind:2 individual:2 exclude:1 although:2 strictly:1 speak:2 classify:6 bivariate:1 trivariate:1 etc:1 accord:1 rarely:1 z:1 homogeneous:1 completely:1 conventional:1 always:1 decrease:1 cn:3 cnxn:1 leading:2 lead:2 monic:3 apart:1 else:1 change:2 nevertheless:1 ci:2 really:1 occur:3 type:1 previous:1 far:2 name:4 quartic:2 biquadratic:1 sextic:2 hexic:1 septic:1 heptic:1 octic:1 nonic:1 decic:1 phrase:1 apply:2 unlike:2 explicitly:2 undefined:1 http:1 mathworld:1 wolfram:1 com:1 zeropolynomial:1 html:1 latter:1 convention:1 monomial:2 binomial:1 trinomial:1 combine:1 ambiguous:1 particular:1 monomials:1 anthony:1 w:1 knapp:1 advance:1 along:1 companion:1 volume:1 springer:1 object:2 information:2 operator:2 eigenvalue:1 record:1 proper:1 colouring:1 extension:1 importance:1 simultaneous:1 alternatively:1 repeat:1 ceofficient:1 coeffcients:2 identification:1 compatible:1 isomorphism:1 whether:1 infinitely:2 finitely:1 binary:1 ex:1 laurent:2 relate:1 cancelling:1 identify:1 limit:1 denominator:1 series:1 nonzero:1 fully:1 manipulate:1 please:1 list:2 topic:1 reference:1 über:4 die:4 auflösung:4 algebraischer:2 gleichungen:3 durch:4 hypergeometrische:2 funktionen:2 mathematische:1 zeitschrift:1 vol:3 pp:2 paper:3 available:3 der:7 algebraischen:2 transcendente:2 functionen:2 nachrichten:2 königl:2 gesellschaft:2 wissenschaften:2 ii:2 und:2 georg:1 augusts:1 universität:1 zu:1 göttingen:1 mayr:1 gleichungssysteme:1 monatshefte:1 für:1 mathematik:1 physik:1 mumford:1 tata:1 lecture:1 progress:1 birkhäuser:1 boston:1 external:1 link:1 calculator:2 euler:1 imaginary:1 convergence:1 free:2 online:2 finder:1 |@bigram addition_subtraction:2 subtraction_multiplication:1 algebraic_geometry:2 commutative_associative:1 nonnegative_integer:1 sine_cosine:1 algebraically_close:2 horner_scheme:2 brook_cole:1 abstract_algebra:4 rené_descartes:1 quadratic_equation:1 gerolamo_cardano:1 fontana_tartaglia:1 niels_henrik:1 henrik_abel:1 abel_ruffini:1 ruffini_theorem:1 gaussian_elimination:1 hypergeometric_function:2 quintic_equation:1 weierstrass_theorem:1 trigonometric_function:1 exponential_function:2 indefinite_integral:1 integer_modulo:2 modular_arithmetic:1 associative_algebra:1 uniquely_determine:1 irreducible_polynomial:2 common_divisor:1 univariate_polynomial:7 multivariate_polynomial:5 cubic_quartic:1 mathworld_wolfram:1 über_die:4 gesellschaft_der:2 der_wissenschaften:2 universität_zu:1 physik_vol:1 external_link:1 |
4,615 | Kiln | Charcoal Kilns, California Gold Kiln, Victoria, Australia Hop kiln. Anagama kiln firing. Kilns are thermally insulated chambers, or ovens, in which controlled temperature regimes are produced. They are used to harden, burn or dry materials. Specific uses include: To dry green lumber so that the lumber can be used immediately Drying wood for use as firewood Heating wood to the point of pyrolysis to produce charcoal For annealing, fusing and deforming glass, or fusing metallic oxide paints to the surface of glass For cremation (at high temperature) Drying of tobacco leaves Firing of material, such as clay, to form ceramics Drying malted barley for brewing Smelting ore to extract metal Heating limestone with clay to make cement Ceramic kilns Kilns are an essential part of the manufacture of all ceramics, which, by definition, require heat treatment, often at high temperature. During this process, chemical and physical reactions occur which cause the material to be permanently altered. In the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, the temperature at which it is fired, and by the glazes that may be used. While modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical systems to control the firing temperatures, pyrometric devices have been used to provide visual indication of the firing regime since around 1000 AD. Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are relatively weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a workable clay body. Part of the firing process includes sintering. This process heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores and crystalline material. Through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material to shrink slightly. This crystalline material is a matrix of predominantly silicon and aluminium oxides, and is very hard and strong, although usually somewhat brittle. Types of Kilns In the broadest terms there are two types of kiln, both sharing the same basic characteristics of being an insulated box with controlled inner temperature and atmosphere. Intermittent – The ware to be fired, is loaded into the kiln. The kiln is sealed and the internal temperature increased according to a schedule. After the firing process is completed, both the kiln and ware are cooled. Continuous, or sometimes called Tunnel. These are long structures in which only the central portion is directly heated. From the cool entrance, ware is slowly transported through the kiln, and its temperature is increased steadily as it approaches the central, hottest part of the kiln. From there, its transportation continues and the temperature is reduced until it exits the kiln at near room temperature. A continuous kiln is the most energy efficient because heat given off during cooling is recycled to pre-heat the incoming ware. A specialty type of kiln, common in tableware and tile manufacture, is the Roller-hearth Kiln, in which ware placed on bats is carried through the kiln on rollers. Kiln technology is very old. The development of the kiln from a simple earthen trench filled with pots and fuel, pit firing, to modern methods happened in stages. One improvement was to build a firing chamber around pots with baffles and a stoking hole, this allowed heat to be conserved and used more efficiently. The use of a chimney stack improves the air flow or draw of the kiln, thus burning the fuel more completely. Early examples of kilns found in Britain include those made for the making of roof-tiles during the Roman occupation. These kilns were built up the side of a slope, such that a fire could be lit at the bottom and the heat would rise up into the kiln. Anagama kiln - the Asian anagama kiln has been used since medieval times and is considered the oldest style of production kiln, brought to Japan from China via Korea in the 5th century. This kiln usually consists of one long firing chamber, pierced with smaller stacking ports on one side, with a firebox at one end and a flue at the other. Firing time can vary from one day to several weeks. Traditional anagama kilns are also built on a slope to allow for a better draft. Noborigama kiln - the Noborigama is an evolution from Anagama design as a multi-chamber kiln, usually built on a slope, where wood is stacked from the front firebox at first, then only through the side-stoking holes with the benefit of having air heated up to 600 C degrees from the front firebox, enabling more efficient firings. Bottle kiln - a type of intermittent kiln, usually coal-fired, formerly used in the firing of pottery; such a kiln was surrounded by a tall brick hovel or cone, of typical bottle shape. Catenary arch kiln under construction Catenary arch kiln, typically used for the firing of pottery using salt, these by their form (a catenary arch) tend to retain their shape over repeated heating and cooling cycles, whereas other types require extensive metalwork supports. Sevres kiln was invented in Sevres, France and enabled to reach efficiently high-temperature (1280 C degrees) in order to have fully water-proof ceramic bodies and easy to obtain glazes. It features a down-draft design that enabled to reach high temperature in shorter time, even with wood-firing. Top-hat Kiln - an intermittent kiln of a type sometimes used in the firing of pottery. The ware is set on a refractory hearth, or plinth, over which a box-shaped cover is then lowered. Feller Kiln brought contemporary design to wood firing by re-using the unburnt gas from the chimney in order to heat the air up before entering the firebox. This leads to an even shorter firing cycle and less wood consumption. This design requires external ventilation to prevent the in-chimney radiator from melting, being typically in metal. The result is a very efficient wood kiln firing one cubic meter of ceramics with one cubic meter of wood. Electric kilns - kilns operated by electricity were developed in the 20th century, primarily for smaller scale use such as in schools, universities, and hobby centers. The atmosphere in most designs of electric kiln is rich in oxygen, as there is no open flame to consume oxygen molecules, however reducing conditions can be created with appropriate gas input. An empty, intermittent kiln; note figurine having just been removed from kiln Modern kilns - with the advent of the industrial age, kilns were designed to utilize electricity and more refined fuels, including natural gas and propane. The majority of large, industrial pottery kilns now use natural gas, as it is generally clean, efficient and easy to control. Modern kilns can be fitted with computerized controls, allowing for refined adjustments during the firing cycle. A user may choose to control the rate of temperature climb or ramp, hold or soak the temperature at any given point, or control the rate of cooling. Both electric and gas kilns are common for smaller scale production in industry and craft, handmade and sculptural work. Microwave Assisted Firing - this technique combine microwave energy with more conventional energy sources such as radiant gas or electric heating in order to process ceramic materials to the required high temperatures. Microwave-assisted firing offers significant economic benefits Wood-Drying Kiln A variety of wood drying kiln technologies exist today: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency. Conventional wood dry kilns (Rasmussen, 1988) are either package-type (sideloader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are sideloader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood lumber kilns are track types in which lumber packages are loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln. Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry 1 inch thick green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1 inch thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%. Heat is typically introduced via steam running through fin/tube heat exchangers controlled by on/off pneumatic valves. Less common are proportional pneumatic valves or even various electrical actuators. Humidity is removed via a system of vents, the specific layout of which are usually particular to a given manufacturer. In general, cool dry air is introduced at one end of the kiln while warm moist air is expelled at the other. Hardwood conventional kilns also require the introduction of humidity via either steam spray or cold water misting systems to keep the relative humidity inside the kiln from dropping too low during the drying cycle. Fan directions are typically reversed periodically to ensure even drying of larger kiln charges. Most softwood lumber kilns operate below 240 °F temperature. Hardwood lumber kiln drying schedules typically keep the dry bulb temperature below 180 °F. Difficult-to-dry species might not exceed 140 degrees F. Dehumidification kilns are very similar to conventional kilns in basic construction. Drying times are usually comparable. Heat is primarily supplied by an integral dehumidification unit which also serves to remove humidity. Auxiliary heat is often provided early in the schedule where the heat required may exceed the heat generated by the DH unit. Solar kilns are conventional kilns, typically built by hobbyists to keep initial investment costs low. Heat is provided via solar radiation, while internal air circulation is typically passive. Newer wood drying technologies have included the use of reduced atmospheric pressure to attempt to speed up the drying process. A variety of vacuum technologies exist, varying primarily in the method heat is introduced into the wood charge. Hot water platten vacuum kilns use aluminum heating plates with the water circulating within as the heat source, and typically operate at significantly reduced absolute pressure. Discontinuous and SSV (super-heated steam) use atmosphere to introduce heat into the kiln charge. Discontinuous technology allows the entire kiln charge to come up to full atmospheric pressure, the air in the chamber is then heated, and finally vacuum is pulled. SSV run at partial atmospheres (typically around 1/3 of full atmospheric pressure) in a hybrid of vacuum and conventional kiln technology (SSV kilns are significantly more popular in Europe where the locally harvested wood is easier to dry versus species found in North America). RF/V (radio frequency + vacuum) kilns use microwave radiation to heat the kiln charge, and typically have the highest operating cost due to the heat of vaporization being provided by electricity rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources. Valid economic studies of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fiber. These costs (which can be a significant part of the entire plant costs)involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. An example of this is that every piece of equipment (in a lumber manufacturing plant) from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is the "drying system". Since thousands of different types of wood products manufacturing plants exist around the globe, and may be integrated (lumber, plywood, paper, etc.) or stand alone (lumber only), the true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying. The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the higher the temperature the kiln operates at, the larger amount of emissions are produced (per pound of water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high-temperature drying of softwoods. See also Cement kiln Lime kiln Oast house Wood Drying Gallery External links Information about the history of bottle ovens (kilns) from Gladstone Pottery Museumin Stoke-on-Trent, UK. References Hamer, Frank and Janet. The Potter's Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers, Limited, London, England, Third Edition 1991. ISBN 0-8122-3112-0. Smith, Ed. Dry Kiln Design Manual. J.E. Smith Engineering and Consulting, Blooming Grove, Texas. Available for purchase from author. M.Kornmann and CTTB, "Clay bricks and roof tiles, manufacturing and properties", Soc. industrie minérale, Paris,(2007) ISBN 2-9517765-6-X For pottery kilns of middle Europe see: Andreas Heege, Töpferöfen - Pottery kilns - Four de potiers. Die Erforschung frühmittelalterlicher bis neuzeitlicher Töpferöfen (6.-20. Jh.) in Belgien, den Niederlanden, Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Basler Hefte zur Archäologie 4. Basel 2007 (2008). | Kiln |@lemmatized charcoal:2 kiln:89 california:1 gold:1 victoria:1 australia:1 hop:1 anagama:5 firing:16 thermally:1 insulated:1 chamber:5 oven:2 control:7 temperature:20 regime:2 produce:4 use:21 harden:1 burn:2 dry:22 material:9 specific:3 include:6 green:4 lumber:12 immediately:1 wood:20 firewood:1 heat:27 point:2 pyrolysis:1 anneal:1 fuse:2 deform:1 glass:2 metallic:1 oxide:2 paint:1 surface:1 cremation:1 high:10 drying:8 tobacco:1 leave:1 fire:11 clay:9 form:2 ceramic:6 malt:1 barley:1 brew:1 smelt:1 ore:1 extract:1 metal:2 limestone:1 make:2 cement:2 essential:1 part:4 manufacture:3 definition:1 require:6 treatment:1 often:3 process:6 chemical:1 physical:1 reaction:1 occur:1 cause:2 permanently:1 alter:1 case:1 pottery:8 shape:4 final:1 characteristic:2 determine:2 composition:1 preparation:1 body:3 glaze:2 may:4 modern:5 sophisticated:1 electrical:2 system:6 pyrometric:1 device:1 provide:4 visual:1 indication:1 since:3 around:4 ad:1 consist:2 fine:1 grained:1 particle:2 relatively:1 weak:1 porous:1 combine:2 mineral:1 create:3 workable:1 sinter:1 partially:1 melt:2 flow:2 together:1 strong:2 single:1 mass:1 compose:1 glassy:1 phase:1 intersperse:1 pore:2 crystalline:2 reduce:4 size:1 shrink:1 slightly:1 matrix:1 predominantly:1 silicon:1 aluminium:1 hard:1 although:1 usually:6 somewhat:1 brittle:1 type:10 broad:1 term:1 two:1 share:1 basic:2 insulate:1 box:2 controlled:1 inner:1 atmosphere:4 intermittent:4 ware:6 load:4 seal:1 internal:2 increase:2 accord:1 schedule:3 complete:1 cool:3 continuous:2 sometimes:2 call:1 tunnel:1 long:2 structure:1 central:2 portion:1 directly:1 entrance:1 slowly:1 transport:1 steadily:1 approach:1 hot:2 transportation:1 continue:1 exit:1 near:1 room:1 energy:4 efficient:4 give:3 cooling:3 recycle:1 pre:1 incoming:1 specialty:1 common:3 tableware:1 tile:3 roller:2 hearth:2 place:1 bat:1 carry:1 technology:7 old:2 development:1 simple:1 earthen:1 trench:1 fill:1 pot:2 fuel:4 pit:1 method:2 happen:1 stage:1 one:8 improvement:1 build:5 baffle:1 stoking:2 hole:2 allow:4 conserve:1 efficiently:2 chimney:3 stack:2 improve:1 air:9 draw:1 thus:1 completely:1 early:2 example:2 find:2 britain:1 making:1 roof:2 roman:1 occupation:1 side:3 slope:3 could:1 light:1 bottom:1 would:1 rise:1 asian:1 medieval:1 time:4 consider:1 style:1 production:2 bring:2 japan:1 china:1 via:5 korea:1 century:2 pierce:1 small:3 stacking:1 port:1 firebox:4 end:2 flue:1 vary:2 day:2 several:1 week:1 traditional:1 also:4 good:1 draft:2 noborigama:2 evolution:1 design:7 multi:1 front:2 first:1 benefit:2 c:3 degree:3 enable:3 bottle:3 coal:1 formerly:1 surround:1 tall:1 brick:2 hovel:1 cone:1 typical:1 catenary:3 arch:3 construction:3 typically:12 salt:1 tend:1 retain:1 repeat:1 heating:2 cycle:4 whereas:1 extensive:1 metalwork:1 support:1 sevres:2 invent:1 france:1 reach:2 order:3 fully:1 water:6 proof:1 easy:3 obtain:1 feature:1 short:2 even:4 top:1 hat:1 set:1 refractory:1 plinth:1 cover:1 lower:1 feller:1 contemporary:1 unburnt:1 gas:6 enter:1 lead:1 less:2 consumption:1 external:2 ventilation:1 prevent:1 radiator:1 result:1 cubic:2 meter:2 electric:4 operate:4 electricity:3 develop:1 primarily:3 scale:2 school:1 university:1 hobby:1 center:1 rich:1 oxygen:2 open:1 flame:1 consume:1 molecule:1 however:2 condition:1 appropriate:1 input:1 empty:1 note:1 figurine:1 remove:5 advent:1 industrial:2 age:1 utilize:1 refined:2 natural:2 propane:1 majority:1 large:3 generally:1 clean:1 fit:1 computerized:1 adjustment:1 user:1 choose:1 rate:2 climb:1 ramp:1 hold:1 soak:1 industry:1 craft:1 handmade:1 sculptural:1 work:1 microwave:4 assist:2 technique:2 conventional:8 source:4 radiant:1 required:1 offer:1 significant:3 economic:2 variety:2 exist:3 today:1 dehumidification:3 solar:3 vacuum:6 radio:2 frequency:2 rasmussen:1 either:2 package:3 sideloader:2 track:3 tram:1 hardwood:3 fork:1 truck:1 softwood:3 car:1 velocity:1 inch:2 thick:2 hour:1 moisture:2 content:2 red:1 oak:1 introduced:1 steam:3 run:2 fin:1 tube:1 exchanger:1 pneumatic:2 valve:2 proportional:1 various:1 actuator:1 humidity:4 vent:1 layout:1 particular:1 manufacturer:1 general:1 introduce:3 warm:1 moist:1 expel:1 introduction:1 spray:1 cold:1 mist:1 keep:3 relative:1 inside:1 drop:1 low:2 fan:1 direction:1 reverse:1 periodically:1 ensure:1 charge:5 f:3 bulb:1 difficult:1 specie:2 might:1 exceed:2 similar:1 comparable:1 supply:1 integral:1 unit:2 serve:1 auxiliary:1 generate:1 dh:1 hobbyist:1 initial:1 investment:1 cost:7 radiation:2 circulation:1 passive:1 new:1 reduced:1 atmospheric:3 pressure:4 attempt:1 speed:1 platten:1 aluminum:1 plate:1 circulate:1 within:1 significantly:2 absolute:1 discontinuous:2 ssv:3 super:1 entire:2 come:1 full:2 finally:1 pull:1 partial:1 hybrid:1 popular:1 europe:2 locally:1 harvest:1 versus:1 north:1 america:1 rf:1 v:1 operating:1 due:1 vaporization:1 rather:1 local:1 fossil:1 waste:1 valid:1 study:1 different:2 base:1 total:3 capital:1 insurance:1 risk:2 environmental:1 impact:2 labor:1 maintenance:1 product:2 degrade:1 task:1 fiber:1 plant:5 involve:1 differential:1 presence:1 equipment:2 every:1 piece:1 manufacturing:2 trimmer:1 infeed:1 planer:1 mill:1 thousand:1 globe:1 integrate:1 plywood:1 paper:1 etc:1 stand:1 alone:1 true:2 compare:1 without:1 harmful:1 emission:2 amount:1 per:1 pound:1 especially:1 thin:1 veneer:1 see:2 lime:1 oast:1 house:1 gallery:1 link:1 information:1 history:1 gladstone:1 museumin:1 stoke:1 trent:1 uk:1 reference:1 hamer:1 frank:1 janet:1 potter:1 dictionary:1 black:1 publisher:1 limit:1 london:1 england:1 third:1 edition:1 isbn:2 smith:2 ed:1 manual:1 j:1 e:1 engineering:1 consulting:1 bloom:1 grove:1 texas:1 available:1 purchase:1 author:1 kornmann:1 cttb:1 property:1 soc:1 industrie:1 minérale:1 paris:1 x:1 middle:1 andreas:1 heege:1 töpferöfen:2 four:1 de:1 potiers:1 die:1 erforschung:1 frühmittelalterlicher:1 bis:1 neuzeitlicher:1 jh:1 belgien:1 den:1 niederlanden:1 deutschland:1 österreich:1 und:1 der:1 schweiz:1 basler:1 hefte:1 zur:1 archäologie:1 basel:1 |@bigram malt_barley:1 fine_grained:1 aluminium_oxide:1 catenary_arch:3 heating_cooling:1 cubic_meter:2 softwood_lumber:2 heat_exchanger:1 warm_moist:1 relative_humidity:1 atmospheric_pressure:3 heat_vaporization:1 fossil_fuel:1 external_link:1 stoke_trent:1 |
4,616 | Musical_instrument | A musical instrument is an object constructed or used for the purpose of making music. In principle, anything that produces sound can serve as a musical instrument. The history of musical instruments dates back to the beginnings of human culture. The academic study of musical instruments is called organology. The date and origin of the first device considered to be a musical instrument is the subject of modern debate. Archaeologists tend to debate the matter in terms of the validity of various physical evidence such as artifacts and cultural works. An artifact of disputed status as a musical instrument dates back as far as 67,000 old; artifacts commonly accepted to be early flutes date back as far as 37,000 years old. However, most historians believe determining a specific time of musical instrument invention to be impossible due to the subjectivity of the definition. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world. However, contact among civilizations resulted in the rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia could be found in the Malay Archipelago and Europeans were playing instruments from North Africa. Development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. Archaeology In pursuit of understanding who developed the first musical instruments and when, researchers have discovered various archaeological evidence of musical instruments in many parts of the world. Some finds are as much as 67,000 years old, but their status as musical instruments is often in dispute. Consensus solidifies about artifacts dated back to around 37,000 years old and later. Only artifacts made from durable materials or using durable methods tend to survive. As such, the specimens found cannot be irrefutably placed as the earliest musical instruments. Drawing of disputed flute by Bob Fink In July 1995, Slovenian archaeologist Ivan Turk discovered a bone carving in the northwest region of Slovenia. The carving, named the Divje Babe flute, features four holes that Canadian musicologist Bob Fink determined could have been used to play four notes of a diatonic scale. Researchers estimate the flute's age to be between 43,400 and 67,000 years, making it the oldest known musical instrument and the only musical instrument associated with the Neanderthal culture. However, some archaeologists question the flute's status as a musical instrument. German archaeologists have found mammoth bone and swan bone flutes dating back to 30,000 to 37,000 years old in the Swabian Alb. The flutes were made in the Upper Paleolithic age, and are more commonly accepted as being the oldest known musical instruments. Archaeological evidence of musical instruments was discovered in excavations at the Royal Cemetery in the Sumerian city of (see Lyres of Ur). These instruments include nine lyres, two harps, a silver double flute, sistra and cymbals. A set of reed-sounded silver pipes discovered in Ur was the likely predecessor of modern bagpipes. The cylindrical pipes feature three side-holes that allowed players to produce whole tone scales. These excavations, carried out by Leonard Woolley in the 1920s, uncovered non-degradable fragments of instruments and the voids left by the degraded segments which, together, have been used to reconstruct them. The graves to which these instruments were related have been carbon dated to between 2600 and 2500 BCE, providing evidence that these instruments were being used in Sumeria by this time. A cuneiform tablet from Nippur in Mesopotamia dated to 2000 BCE indicates the names of strings on the lyre and represents the earliest known example of music notation. History Scholars agree that there are no completely reliable methods of determining the exact chronology of musical instruments across cultures. Comparing and organizing instruments based on their complexity is misleading, since advancements in musical instruments have sometimes reduced complexity. For example, construction of early slit drums involved felling and hollowing out large trees; later slit drums were made by opening bamboo stalks, a much simpler task. It is likewise misleading to arrange the development of musical instruments by workmanship since all cultures advance at different levels and have access to different materials. For example, anthropologists attempting to compare musical instruments made by two cultures that existed at the same time but who differed in organization, culture, and handicraft cannot determine which instruments are more "primitive". Ordering instruments by geography is also partially unreliable, as one cannot determine when and how cultures contacted one another and shared knowledge. German musicologist Curt Sachs, one of the most prominent musicologists and musical ethnologists in modern times, proposed that a geographical chronology until approximately 1400 is preferable, however, due to its limited subjectivity. Beyond 1400, one can follow the overall development of musical instruments by time period. The science of marking the order of musical instrument development relies on archaeological artifacts, artistic depictions, and literary references. Since data in one research path can be inconclusive, all three paths provide a better historical picture. Primitive and prehistoric Two Aztec slit drums, called teponaztli. The characteristic "H" slits can be seen on the top of the drum in the foreground Until the 19th century AD, written music histories began with mythological accounts of how musical instruments were invented. Such accounts included Jubal, descendant of Cain and "father of all such as handle the harp and the organ", Pan, inventor of the pan pipes, and Mercury, who is said to have made a dried tortoise shell into the first lyre. Modern histories have replaced such mythology with anthropologically proven information. Scholars agree that there was no definitive "invention" of the musical instrument since the definition of the term "musical instrument" is completely subjective to both the scholar and the would-be inventor. For example, a Homo habilis slapping his body could be the makings of a musical instrument regardless of the being's intent. Among the first devices external to the human body considered to be instruments are rattles, stampers, and various drums. These earliest instruments evolved due to the human motor impulse to add sound to emotional movements such as dancing. Eventually, some cultures assigned ritual functions to their musical instruments. Those cultures developed more complex percussion instruments and other instruments such as ribbon reeds, flutes, and trumpets. Some of these labels carry far different connotations from those used in modern day; early flutes and trumpets are so-labeled for their basic operation and function rather than any resemblance to modern instruments. Among early cultures for whom drums developed ritual, even sacred importance are the Chukchi people of the Russian Far East, the indigenous people of Melanesia, and many cultures of Africa. In fact, drums were pervasive throughout every African culture. One East African tribe, the Wahinda, believed it was so holy that seeing a drum would be fatal to any person other than the sultan. Humans eventually developed the concept of using musical instruments for producing a melody. Until this time in the evolutions of musical instruments, melody was common only in singing. Similar to the process of reduplication in language, instrument players first developed repetition and then arrangement. An early form of melody was produced by pounding two stamping tubes of slightly different sizes—one tube would produce a "clear" sound and the other would answer with a "darker" sound. Such instrument pairs also included bullroarers, slit drums, shell trumpets, and skin drums. Cultures who used these instrument pairs associated genders with them; the "father" was the bigger or more energetic instrument, while the "mother" was the smaller or duller instrument. Musical instruments existed in this form for thousands of years before patterns of three or more tones would evolve in the form of the earliest xylophone. Xylophones originated in the mainland and archipelago of Southeast Asia, eventually spreading to Africa, the Americas, and Europe. Along with xylophones, which ranged from simple sets of three "leg bars" to carefully-tuned sets of parallel bars, various cultures developed instruments such as the ground harp, ground zither, musical bow, and jaw harp. Antiquity Images of musical instruments begin to appear in Mesopotamian artifacts in 2800 BC or earlier. Beginning around 2000 BC, Sumerian and Babylonian cultures began delineating two distinct classes of musical instruments due to division of labor and the evolving class system. Popular instruments, simple and playable by anyone, evolved differently from professional instruments whose development focused on effectiveness and skill. Despite this development, very few musical instruments have been recovered in Mesopotamia. Scholars must rely on artifacts and cuneiform texts written in Sumerian or Akkadian to reconstruct the early history of musical instruments in Mesopotamia. Even the process of assigning names to these instruments is challenging since there is no clear distinction among various instruments and the words used to describe them. Although Sumerian and Babylonian artists mainly depicted ceremonial instruments, historians have been able to distinguish six idiophones used in early Mesopotamia: concussion clubs, clappers, sistra, bells, cymbals, and rattles. Sistra are depicted prominently in a great relief of Amenhotep III, and are of particular interest because similar designs have been found in far-reaching places such as Tbilisi, Georgia and among the Native American Yaqui tribe. The people of Mesopotamia preferred stringed instruments to any other, as evidenced by their proliferation in Mesopotamian figurines, plaques, and seals. Innumerable varieties of harps are depicted, as well as lyres and lutes, the forerunner of modern stringed instruments such as the violin. Ancient Egyptian tomb painting depicting lute players, 18th Dynasty (c. 1350 BC) Musical instruments used by the Egyptian culture before 2700 BC bore striking similarity to those of Mesopotamia, leading historians to conclude that the civilizations must have been in contact with one another. Sachs notes that Egypt did not possess any instruments that the Sumerian culture did not also possess. However, by 2700 BC the cultural contacts seem to have dissipated; the lyre, a prominent ceremonial instrument in Sumer, did not appear in Egypt for another 800 years. Clappers and concussion sticks appear on Egyptian vases as early as 3000 BC. The civilization also made use of sistra, vertical flutes, double clarinets, arched and angular harps, and various drums. Little history is available in the period between 2700 BC and 1500 BC, as Egypt (and indeed, Babylon) entered a long violent period of war and destruction. This period saw the Kassites destroy the Babylonian empire in Mesopotamia and the Hyksos destroy the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. When the Pharaohs of Egypt conquered Southwest Asia in around 1500 BC, the cultural ties to Mesopotamia were renewed and Egypt's musical instruments also reflected heavy influence from Asiatic cultures. Under their new cultural influences, the people of the New Kingdom began using oboes, trumpets, lyres, lutes, castanets, and cymbals. In contrast with Mesopotamia and Egypt, professional musicians did not exist in Israel between 2000 and 1000 BC. While the history of musical instruments in Mesopotamia and Egypt relies on artistic representations, the culture in Israel produced few such representations. Scholars must therefore rely on information gleaned from the Bible and the Talmud. The Hebrew texts mention two prominent instruments associated with Jubal, ugabs and kinnors. These may be translated as pan pipes and lyres, respectively. Other instruments of the period included tofs, or frame drums, small bells or jingles called pa'amon, shofars, and the trumpet-like hasosra. The introduction of a monarchy in Israel during the 11th century BC produced the first professional musicians and with them a drastic increase in the number and variety of musical instruments. However, identifying and classifying the instruments remains a challenge due to the lack of artistic interpretations. For example, stringed instruments of uncertain design called nevals and asors existed, but neither archaeology nor etymology can clearly define them. In her book A Survey of Musical Instruments, American musicologist Sibyl Marcuse proposes that the nevel must be similar to vertical harp due to its relation to "nabla", the Phoenician term for "harp". In Greece, Rome, and Etruria, the use and development of musical instruments stood in stark contrast to those cultures' achievements in architecture and sculpture. The instruments of the time were simple and virtually all of them were imported from other cultures. Lyres were the principal instrument, as musicians used them to honor the gods. Greeks played a variety of wind instruments they classified as aulos (reeds) or syrinx (flutes); Greek writing from that time reflects a serious study of reed production and playing technique. Romans played reed instruments named tibia featuring side-holes that could be opened or closed, allowing for greater flexibility in playing modes. Other instruments in common use in the region included vertical harps derived from those of the Orient, lutes of Egyptian design, various pipes and organs, and clappers, which were played primarily by women. Evidence of musical instruments in use by early civilizations of India is almost completely lacking, making it impossible to reliably attribute instruments to the Munda and Dravidian language-speaking cultures that first settled the area. Rather, the history of musical instruments in the area begins with the Indus Valley Civilization that emerged around 3000 BC. Various rattles and whistles found among excavated artifacts are the only physical evidence of musical instruments. A clay statuette indicates the use of drums, and examination of the Indus script has also revealed representations of vertical arched harps identical in design to those depicted in Sumerian artifacts. This discovery is among many indications that the Indus Valley and Sumerian cultures maintained cultural contact. Subsequent developments in musical instruments in India occurred with the Rigveda, or religious hymns. These songs used various drums, shell trumpets, harps, and flutes. Other prominent instruments in use during the early centuries AD were the snake charmer's double clarinet, bagpipes, barrel drums, cross flutes, and short lutes. In all, India had no unique musical instruments until the Middle Ages. A Chinese wooden fish, used in Buddhist recitations Musical instruments such as zithers appear in Chinese literature written around 1100 BC and earlier. Early Chinese philosophers such as Confucius (551–479 BC), Mencius (372–289 BC), and Laozi shaped the development of musical instruments in China, adopting an attitude toward music similar to that of the Greeks. The Chinese believed that music was an essential part of character and community, and developed a unique system of classifying their musical instruments according to their material makeup. Idiophones were extremely important in Chinese music, hence the majority of early instruments were idiophones. Poetry of the Shang Dynasty mentions bells, chimes, drums, and globular flutes carved from bone, the latter of which has been excavated and preserved by archaeologists. The Zhou Dynasty introduced percussion instruments such as clappers, troughs, wooden fish, and yu. Wind instruments such as flute, pan-pipes, pitch-pipes, and mouth organs also appeared in this time period. The short lute, a pear-shaped form of a western instrument that spread through many cultures, came into use in China during the Han Dynasty. Although civilizations in Central America attained a relatively high level of sophistication by the eleventh century AD, they lagged behind other civilizations in the development of musical instruments. For example, they had no stringed instruments; all of their instruments were idiophones, drums, and wind instruments such as flutes and trumpets. Of these, only the flute was capable of producing a melody. In contrast, pre-Columbian South American civilizations in areas such as modern-day Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile were less advanced culturally but more advanced musically. South American cultures of the time used pan-pipes as well as varieties of flutes, idiophones, drums, and shell or wood trumpets. Middle Ages During the period of time loosely referred to as the Middle Ages, China developed a tradition of integrating musical influence obtained by either conquering foreign countries or by being conquered. The first record of this type of influence is in 384 AD, when China established an East Turkestanic orchestra in its imperial court after a conquest in Turkestan. Influences from India, Mongolia, and other countries followed. In fact, Chinese tradition attributes most musical instruments of the time to those countries. Cymbals and gongs gained popularity, along with more advanced trumpets, clarinets, oboes, flutes, drums, and lutes. Some of the first bowed zithers appeared in China in the 9th or 10th century, influenced by Mongolian culture. India experienced similar development to China in the Middle Ages; however, stringed instruments developed differently to accommodate different styles of music. While stringed instruments of China were designed to produce precise tones capable of matching the tones of chimes, stringed instruments of India were considerably more flexible. This flexibility suited the slides and tremolos of Hindu music. Rhythm was of paramount importance in Indian music of the time, as evidenced by the frequent depiction of drums in reliefs dating to the Middle Ages. The emphasis on rhythm is an aspect native to Indian music. Historians divide the development of musical instruments in Middle Age India between pre-Islamic and Islamic periods due to the different influence each period provided. In pre-Islamic times, idiophones such hand bells, cymbals, and peculiar instruments resembling gongs came into wide use in Hindu music. The gong-like instrument was a bronze disk that was struck with a hammer instead of a mallet. Tubular drums, stick zithers named veena, short fiddles, double and triple flutes, coiled trumpets, and curved India horns emerged in this time period. Islamic influences brought new types of drums, perfectly circular or octagonal as opposed to the irregular pre-Islamic drums. Persian influence brought oboes and sitars, although Persian sitars had three strings and Indian version had from four to seven. An Indonesian metallophone Southeast Asia was responsible for a series of innovations in musical instruments, particularly once their period of Indian influence ended in around 920 AD. Balinese and Javanese music made prominent use of xylophones and metallophones, bronze versions of the former. The most prominent and important musical instrument of Southeast Asia was the gong. While the gong likely originated in the geographical area between Tibet and Burma, it was part of every category of human activity in Southeast Asian areas such as Java and the Malay Archipelago. The areas of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula experiences rapid growth and sharing of musical instruments once they were united by Islamic culture in the seventh century. Frame drums and cylindrical drums of various depths were immensely important in all genres of music. Conical oboes were involved in the music that accompanied wedding and circumcision ceremonies. Persian miniatures provide information on the development of kettle drums in Mesopotamia that spread as far as Java. Various lutes, zithers, dulcimers, and harps spread as far as Madagascar to the south and modern-day Sulawesi to the east. Despite the influences of Greece and Rome, most musical instruments in Europe during the Middles Ages came from Asia. The lyre is the only musical instrument that may have been invented in Europe until this period. Stringed instruments were prominent in Middle Age Europe. The central and northern regions used mainly lyres, stringed instruments with necks, while the southern region used lutes, which featured a two-armed body and a crossbar. Various harps served Central and Northern Europe as far north as Ireland, where the harp eventually became a national symbol. Lyres propagated through the same areas, as far east as Estonia. European music between 800 and 1100 became more sophisticated, more frequently requiring instruments capable of polyphony. The Persian geographer of the 9th century (Ibn Khordadbeh), mentioned in his lexicographical discussion of music instruments that in the Byzantine Empire typical instruments included the urghun (organ), shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre), salandj (probably a bagpipe) and the Byzantine lyra (Greek: λύρα ~ lūrā) . Lyra was a medieval pear-shaped bowed string instrument with three to five strings, held upright and is an ancestor of most European bowed instruments, including the violin. The monochord served as a precise measure of the notes of a musical scale, allowing more accurate musical arrangements. Mechanical hurdy-gurdies allowed single musicians to play more complicated arrangements than a fiddle would; both were prominent folk instruments in the Middle Ages. Southern Europeans played short and long lutes whose pegs extended to the sides, unlike the rear-facing pegs of Central and Northern European instruments. Idiophones such as bells and clappers served various practical purposes, such as warning of the approach of a leper. The ninth century revealed the first bagpipes, which spread throughout Europe and had many uses from folk instruments to military instruments. The construction of pneumatic organs evolved in Europe starting in fifth century Spain, spreading to England in about 700. The resulting instruments varied in size and use from portable organs worn around the neck to large pipe organs. Literary accounts of organs being played in English Benedictine abbeys toward the end of the tenth century are the first references to organs being connected to churches. Reed players of the Middle Ages were limited to oboes; no evidence of clarinets exists during this period. Modern Renaissance Musical instrument development was dominated by the Western Occident from 1400 on—indeed, the most profound changes occurred during the Renaissance period. Instruments took on other purposes than accompanying singing or dance, and performers used them as solo instruments. Keyboards and lutes developed as polyphonic instruments, and composers arranged increasingly complex pieces using more advanced tablature. Composers also began designing pieces of music for specific instruments. In the latter half of the sixteenth century, orchestration came into common practice as a method of writing music for a variety of instruments. Composers now specified orchestration where individual performers once applied their own discretion. Beginning in about 1400, the rate of development of musical instruments increased in earnest as compositions demanded more dynamic sounds. People also began writing books about creating, playing, and cataloging musical instruments; the first such book was Sebastian Virdung's 1511 treatise Musica getuscht und angezogen (English: Music Germanized and Abstracted). Virdung's work is noted as being particularly thorough for including descriptions of "irregular" instruments such as hunters' horns and cow bells, though Virdung is critical of the same. Other books followed, including Arnolt Schlick's Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten (English: Mirror of Organ Makers and Organ Players) the same year, a treatise on organ building and organ playing. Classification There are many different methods of classifying musical instruments. All methods examine some combination of the physical properties of the instrument, how music is performed on the instrument, the range of the instrument, and the instrument's place in an orchestra or other ensemble. Some methods arise as a result of disagreements between experts on how instruments should be classified. While a complete survey of the systems of classifications is beyond the scope of this article, a summary of major systems follows. Ancient systems An ancient system, dating from at least the 1st century BC, divides instruments into four main classification groups: instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating strings; instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating columns of air; percussion instruments made of wood or metal; and percussion instruments with skin heads, or drums. Victor-Charles Mahillon later adopted a system very similar to this. He was the curator of the musical instrument collection of the conservatoire in Brussels, and for the 1888 catalogue of the collection divided instruments into four groups: string instruments, wind instruments, percussion instruments, and drums. Sachs-Hornbostel Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs later took up the ancient scheme and published an extensive new scheme for classification in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Their scheme is widely used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system. The original Sachs-Hornbostel system classified instruments into four main groups: Idiophones, such as the xylophone and rattle, produce sound by vibrating themselves; they are sorted into concussion, percussion, shaken, scraped, split, and plucked idiophones. Membranophones, such as drums or kazoos, produce sound by a vibrating membrane; they are sorted into predrum membranophones, tubular drums, friction idiophones, kettledrums, friction drums, and mirlitons. Chordophones, such as the piano or cello, produce sound by vibrating strings; they are sorted into zithers, keyboard chordophones, lyres, harps, lutes, and bowed chordophones. Aerophones, such as the pipe organ or oboe, produce sound by vibrating columns of air; they are sorted into free aerophones, flutes, organs, reedpipes, and lip-vibrated aerophones. Sachs later added a fifth category, electrophones, such as theremins, which produce sound by electronic means. Within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, but remains widely used by ethnomusicologists and organologists. Schaeffner Andre Schaeffner, a curator at the Musée de l'Homme, disagreed with the Hornbostel-Sachs system and developed his own system in 1932. Schaeffner believed that the physical structure of a musical instrument, rather than its playing method, should determine its classification. His system divided instruments into two categories: instruments with solid, vibrating bodies and instruments containing vibrating air. Range Western instruments are also often classified by their musical range in comparison with other instruments in the same family. These terms are named after singing voice classifications: Soprano instruments: flute, recorder, violin, trumpet Alto instruments: alto saxophone, oboe, alto flute, viola, horn Tenor instruments: trombone, clarinet , Tenor Saxophone Baritone instruments: Bassoon, English Horn, Baritone Saxophone, Baritone Horn, Bass Clarinet, Cello Bass instruments: Contrabassoon, Bass Saxophone, double bass, tuba Some instruments fall into more than one category: for example, the cello may be considered either tenor or bass, depending on how its music fits into the ensemble, and the trombone may be alto, tenor, or bass and the French horn, bass, baritone, tenor, or alto, depending on which range it is played. Many instruments have their range as part of their name: soprano saxophone, tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone, baritone horn, alto flute, bass flute, alto recorder, bass guitar, etc. Additional adjectives describe instruments above the soprano range or below the bass, for example: sopranino saxophone, contrabass clarinet. When used in the name of an instrument, these terms are relative, describing the instrument's range in comparison to other instruments of its family and not in comparison to the human voice range or instruments of other families. For example, a bass flute's range is from C3 to F♯6, while a bass clarinet plays about one octave lower. Construction Musical instrument construction is a specialized trade that requires years of training, practice, and sometimes an apprenticeship. Most makers of musical instruments specialize in one genre of instruments; for example, a luthier makes only stringed instruments. Some make only one type of instrument such as a piano. User interfaces Regardless of how the sound in an instrument is produced, many musical instruments have a keyboard as the user-interface. Keyboard instruments are any instruments that are played with a musical keyboard. Every key generates one or more sounds; most keyboard instruments have extra means (pedals for a piano, stops for an organ) to manipulate these sounds. They may produce sound by wind being fanned (organ) or pumped (accordion), vibrating strings either hammered (piano) or plucked (harpsichord), by electronic means (synthesizer) or in some other way. Sometimes, instruments that do not usually have a keyboard, such as the glockenspiel, are fitted with one. Though they have no moving parts and are struck by mallets held in the player's hands, they have the same physical arrangement of keys and produce soundwaves in a similar manner. See also List of musical instruments Folk instrument Electronic tuner Experimental musical instrument Extended technique Music lessons Orchestra Notes References </ref> . Further reading External links be-x-old:Музычны інструмэнт | Musical_instrument |@lemmatized musical:76 instrument:181 object:1 construct:1 use:33 purpose:3 make:13 music:22 principle:1 anything:1 produce:19 sound:17 serve:4 history:8 date:10 back:5 beginning:2 human:6 culture:28 academic:1 study:2 call:4 organology:1 origin:2 first:12 device:2 consider:3 subject:1 modern:10 debate:2 archaeologist:5 tend:2 matter:1 term:5 validity:1 various:13 physical:5 evidence:9 artifact:8 cultural:5 work:2 disputed:1 status:3 far:11 old:8 artifacts:2 commonly:2 accept:2 early:17 flute:27 year:10 however:7 historian:4 believe:4 determine:6 specific:2 time:15 invention:2 impossible:2 due:7 subjectivity:2 definition:2 develop:12 independently:1 many:10 populated:1 region:5 world:2 contact:5 among:7 civilization:8 result:3 rapid:2 spread:7 adaptation:1 place:4 middle:12 age:13 mesopotamia:13 could:4 find:6 malay:2 archipelago:3 european:5 play:12 north:3 africa:3 development:15 america:4 occur:3 slow:1 pace:1 central:5 south:4 share:2 archaeology:2 pursuit:1 understand:1 researcher:2 discover:4 archaeological:3 part:5 much:2 often:3 dispute:2 consensus:1 solidify:1 around:7 later:5 durable:2 material:3 method:7 survive:1 specimen:1 cannot:3 irrefutably:1 drawing:1 bob:2 fink:2 july:1 slovenian:1 ivan:1 turk:1 bone:4 carving:2 northwest:1 slovenia:1 name:8 divje:1 babe:1 feature:4 four:6 hole:3 canadian:1 musicologist:4 note:5 diatonic:1 scale:3 estimate:1 known:3 associate:3 neanderthal:1 question:1 german:2 mammoth:1 swan:1 swabian:1 alb:1 upper:1 paleolithic:1 excavation:2 royal:1 cemetery:1 sumerian:7 city:1 see:4 lyre:13 ur:2 include:9 nine:1 two:8 harp:14 silver:2 double:5 sistra:4 cymbal:5 set:3 reed:6 pipe:10 likely:2 predecessor:1 bagpipe:4 cylindrical:2 three:6 side:3 allow:4 player:6 whole:1 tone:4 carry:2 leonard:1 woolley:1 uncover:1 non:1 degradable:1 fragment:1 void:1 leave:1 degraded:1 segment:1 together:1 reconstruct:2 graf:1 relate:1 carbon:1 bce:2 provide:4 sumeria:1 cuneiform:2 tablet:1 nippur:1 indicate:2 string:14 represent:1 example:10 notation:1 scholar:5 agree:2 completely:3 reliable:1 exact:1 chronology:2 across:1 compare:2 organize:1 base:1 complexity:2 mislead:2 since:5 advancement:1 sometimes:3 reduce:1 construction:4 slit:5 drum:31 involve:2 felling:1 hollow:1 large:2 tree:1 open:2 bamboo:1 stalk:1 simpler:1 task:1 likewise:1 arrange:2 workmanship:1 advance:1 different:7 level:2 access:1 anthropologists:1 attempt:1 exist:5 differ:1 organization:1 handicraft:1 primitive:2 order:2 geography:1 also:11 partially:1 unreliable:1 one:14 another:3 knowledge:1 curt:2 sachs:8 prominent:8 ethnologist:1 propose:2 geographical:2 approximately:1 preferable:1 limited:1 beyond:2 follow:4 overall:1 period:14 science:1 mark:1 relies:2 artistic:3 depiction:2 literary:2 reference:3 data:1 research:1 path:2 inconclusive:1 good:1 historical:1 picture:1 prehistoric:1 aztec:1 teponaztli:1 characteristic:1 h:1 top:1 foreground:1 century:12 ad:5 write:5 begin:8 mythological:1 account:3 invent:2 jubal:2 descendant:1 cain:1 father:2 handle:1 organ:17 pan:5 inventor:2 mercury:1 say:1 dried:1 tortoise:1 shell:4 replace:1 mythology:1 anthropologically:1 prove:1 information:3 definitive:1 subjective:1 would:6 homo:1 habilis:1 slap:1 body:4 making:1 regardless:2 intent:1 external:2 rattle:4 stamper:1 evolve:5 motor:1 impulse:1 add:2 emotional:1 movement:1 dance:2 eventually:4 assign:2 ritual:2 function:2 complex:2 percussion:6 ribbon:1 trumpet:11 label:2 connotation:1 day:3 basic:1 operation:1 rather:3 resemblance:1 even:2 sacred:1 importance:2 chukchi:1 people:5 russian:1 east:5 indigenous:1 melanesia:1 fact:2 pervasive:1 throughout:2 every:3 african:2 tribe:2 wahinda:1 holy:1 fatal:1 person:1 sultan:1 concept:1 melody:4 evolution:1 common:3 sing:3 similar:7 process:2 reduplication:1 language:2 repetition:1 arrangement:4 form:4 pound:1 stamp:1 tube:2 slightly:1 size:2 clear:2 answer:1 darker:1 pair:2 bullroarers:1 skin:2 gender:1 big:1 energetic:1 mother:1 small:2 duller:1 thousand:1 pattern:1 xylophone:5 originate:2 mainland:1 southeast:4 asia:5 europe:7 along:2 range:10 simple:3 leg:1 bar:2 carefully:1 tuned:1 parallel:1 ground:2 zither:6 bow:3 jaw:1 antiquity:1 image:1 appear:6 mesopotamian:2 bc:16 babylonian:3 delineate:1 distinct:1 class:2 division:1 labor:1 system:13 popular:1 playable:1 anyone:1 differently:2 professional:3 whose:2 focus:1 effectiveness:1 skill:1 despite:2 recover:1 must:4 rely:2 text:1 akkadian:1 challenge:2 distinction:1 word:1 describe:3 although:3 artist:1 mainly:2 depict:5 ceremonial:2 able:1 distinguish:1 six:1 idiophones:10 concussion:3 club:1 clapper:5 bell:6 prominently:1 great:2 relief:2 amenhotep:1 iii:1 particular:1 interest:1 design:6 reach:1 tbilisi:1 georgia:1 native:2 american:4 yaqui:1 prefer:1 proliferation:1 figurine:1 plaque:1 seal:1 innumerable:1 variety:5 well:2 lute:11 forerunner:1 violin:3 ancient:4 egyptian:4 tomb:1 paint:1 dynasty:4 c:1 bore:1 striking:1 similarity:1 lead:1 conclude:1 egypt:8 possess:1 posse:1 seem:1 dissipate:1 sumer:1 stick:2 vas:1 vertical:4 clarinet:8 arch:2 angular:1 little:1 available:1 indeed:2 babylon:1 enter:1 long:2 violent:1 war:1 destruction:1 saw:1 kassite:1 destroy:2 empire:2 hyksos:1 kingdom:2 pharaoh:1 conquer:3 southwest:1 tie:1 renew:1 reflect:2 heavy:1 influence:11 asiatic:1 new:4 oboe:7 castanets:1 contrast:3 musician:4 israel:3 representation:3 therefore:1 glean:1 bible:1 talmud:1 hebrew:1 texts:1 mention:3 ugabs:1 kinnors:1 may:5 translate:1 respectively:1 tofs:1 frame:2 jingle:1 pa:1 amon:1 shofar:1 like:2 hasosra:1 introduction:1 monarchy:1 drastic:1 increase:2 number:1 identify:1 classify:7 remain:2 lack:1 interpretation:1 uncertain:1 nevals:1 asors:1 neither:1 etymology:1 clearly:1 define:1 book:4 survey:2 sibyl:1 marcuse:1 nevel:1 relation:1 nabla:1 phoenician:1 greece:2 rome:2 etruria:1 stand:1 stark:1 achievement:1 architecture:1 sculpture:1 virtually:1 import:1 principal:1 honor:1 god:1 greek:4 wind:5 aulos:1 syrinx:1 writing:1 serious:1 production:1 playing:4 technique:2 roman:1 tibia:1 close:1 flexibility:2 mode:1 derive:1 orient:1 primarily:1 woman:1 india:8 almost:1 lacking:1 reliably:1 attribute:2 munda:1 dravidian:1 speaking:1 settle:1 area:7 indus:3 valley:2 emerge:2 whistle:1 excavated:1 clay:1 statuette:1 examination:1 script:1 reveal:2 harps:2 identical:1 discovery:1 indication:1 maintain:1 subsequent:1 rigveda:1 religious:1 hymn:1 song:1 snake:1 charmer:1 barrel:1 cross:1 short:4 unique:2 chinese:6 wooden:2 fish:2 buddhist:1 recitation:1 literature:1 earlier:1 philosopher:1 confucius:1 mencius:1 laozi:1 shape:2 china:7 adopt:2 attitude:1 toward:2 essential:1 character:1 community:1 accord:1 makeup:1 extremely:1 important:3 hence:1 majority:1 poetry:1 shang:1 chime:2 globular:1 carve:1 latter:2 excavate:1 preserve:1 zhou:1 introduce:1 trough:1 yu:1 pitch:1 mouth:1 pear:2 shaped:1 western:3 come:4 han:1 attain:1 relatively:1 high:1 sophistication:1 eleventh:1 lag:1 behind:1 stringed:4 capable:3 pre:4 columbian:1 peru:1 colombia:1 ecuador:1 bolivia:1 chile:1 less:1 advanced:4 culturally:1 musically:1 wood:2 loosely:1 refer:1 tradition:2 integrate:1 obtain:1 either:3 foreign:1 country:3 record:1 type:4 establish:1 turkestanic:1 orchestra:3 imperial:1 court:1 conquest:1 turkestan:1 mongolia:1 gong:5 gain:1 popularity:1 mongolian:1 experience:2 accommodate:1 style:1 precise:2 match:1 considerably:1 flexible:1 suit:1 slide:1 tremolo:1 hindu:2 rhythm:2 paramount:1 indian:4 frequent:1 emphasis:1 aspect:1 divide:4 islamic:6 hand:2 peculiar:1 resemble:1 wide:1 bronze:2 disk:1 strike:2 hammer:2 instead:1 mallet:2 tubular:2 veena:1 fiddle:2 triple:1 coil:1 curve:1 horn:7 bring:2 perfectly:1 circular:1 octagonal:1 oppose:1 irregular:2 persian:4 sitar:2 version:2 seven:1 indonesian:1 metallophone:1 responsible:1 series:1 innovation:1 particularly:2 end:2 balinese:1 javanese:1 metallophones:1 former:1 tibet:1 burma:1 category:5 activity:1 asian:1 java:2 arabian:1 peninsula:1 growth:1 sharing:1 unite:1 seventh:1 depth:1 immensely:1 genre:2 conical:1 accompany:2 wedding:1 circumcision:1 ceremony:1 miniature:1 kettle:1 dulcimer:1 madagascar:1 sulawesi:1 northern:3 lyres:1 neck:2 southern:2 arm:1 crossbar:1 ireland:1 become:2 national:1 symbol:1 propagate:1 estonia:1 sophisticated:1 frequently:1 require:2 polyphony:1 geographer:1 ibn:1 khordadbeh:1 lexicographical:1 discussion:1 byzantine:2 typical:1 urghun:1 shilyani:1 probably:2 salandj:1 lyra:2 λύρα:1 lūrā:1 medieval:1 bowed:2 five:1 hold:2 upright:1 ancestor:1 monochord:1 measure:1 accurate:1 mechanical:1 hurdy:1 gurdies:1 single:1 complicated:1 folk:3 peg:2 extend:2 unlike:1 rear:1 face:1 practical:1 warning:1 approach:1 leper:1 ninth:1 us:1 military:1 pneumatic:1 starting:1 fifth:2 spain:1 england:1 vary:1 portable:1 wear:1 english:4 benedictine:1 abbey:1 tenth:1 connect:1 church:1 limit:1 renaissance:2 dominate:1 occident:1 profound:1 change:1 take:2 performer:2 solo:1 keyboard:7 polyphonic:1 composer:3 increasingly:1 piece:2 tablature:1 half:1 sixteenth:1 orchestration:2 practice:2 specify:1 individual:1 apply:1 discretion:1 rate:1 earnest:1 composition:1 demand:1 dynamic:1 create:1 catalog:1 sebastian:1 virdung:3 treatise:2 musica:1 getuscht:1 und:2 angezogen:1 germanized:1 abstract:1 thorough:1 description:1 hunter:1 cow:1 though:2 critical:1 arnolt:1 schlick:1 spiegel:1 der:1 orgelmacher:1 organisten:1 mirror:1 maker:2 building:1 classification:6 examine:1 combination:1 property:1 perform:1 ensemble:2 arise:1 disagreement:1 expert:1 complete:1 scope:1 article:1 summary:1 major:1 least:1 main:2 group:3 vibrate:10 column:2 air:3 metal:1 head:1 victor:1 charles:1 mahillon:1 curator:2 collection:2 conservatoire:1 brussels:1 catalogue:1 hornbostel:5 erich:1 von:1 scheme:3 publish:1 extensive:1 zeitschrift:1 für:1 ethnologie:1 widely:2 today:1 know:1 original:1 sort:4 shake:1 scrap:1 split:1 pluck:2 membranophone:2 kazoo:1 membrane:1 predrum:1 friction:2 kettledrum:1 mirlitons:1 chordophone:3 piano:4 cello:3 lutes:1 aerophones:3 free:1 reedpipes:1 lip:1 electrophones:1 theremin:1 electronic:3 mean:3 within:1 subgroup:1 criticise:1 revise:1 ethnomusicologists:1 organologists:1 schaeffner:3 andre:1 musée:1 de:1 l:1 homme:1 disagreed:1 structure:1 solid:1 contain:1 comparison:3 family:3 voice:2 soprano:3 recorder:2 alto:7 saxophone:8 viola:1 tenor:6 trombone:2 baritone:6 bassoon:1 bass:12 contrabassoon:1 tuba:1 fall:1 depend:2 fit:2 french:1 guitar:1 etc:1 additional:1 adjective:1 sopranino:1 contrabass:1 relative:1 f:1 octave:1 lower:1 specialized:1 trade:1 training:1 apprenticeship:1 specialize:1 luthier:1 user:2 interface:2 key:2 generate:1 extra:1 pedal:1 stop:1 manipulate:1 fan:1 pump:1 accordion:1 harpsichord:1 synthesizer:1 way:1 usually:1 glockenspiel:1 moving:1 soundwaves:1 manner:1 list:1 tuner:1 experimental:1 lesson:1 ref:1 read:1 link:1 x:1 музычны:1 інструмэнт:1 |@bigram malay_archipelago:2 archaeological_evidence:2 diatonic_scale:1 upper_paleolithic:1 leonard_woolley:1 cuneiform_tablet:1 slit_drum:4 curt_sachs:2 descendant_cain:1 tortoise_shell:1 homo_habilis:1 percussion_instrument:5 flute_trumpet:3 southeast_asia:3 sumerian_babylonian:2 sumerian_akkadian:1 amenhotep_iii:1 tbilisi_georgia:1 striking_similarity:1 stark_contrast:1 pipe_organ:3 indus_valley:2 attitude_toward:1 shang_dynasty:1 zhou_dynasty:1 pear_shaped:1 han_dynasty:1 lag_behind:1 stringed_instrument:4 pre_columbian:1 colombia_ecuador:1 ecuador_bolivia:1 bolivia_chile:1 paramount_importance:1 southeast_asian:1 arabian_peninsula:1 bowed_string:1 benedictine_abbey:1 erich_von:1 zeitschrift_für:1 l_homme:1 alto_saxophone:1 tenor_saxophone:2 saxophone_baritone:4 baritone_horn:2 bass_clarinet:2 double_bass:1 tenor_bass:2 bass_baritone:1 soprano_saxophone:1 bass_guitar:1 contrabass_clarinet:1 user_interface:2 electronic_tuner:1 external_link:1 |
4,617 | Edward_Gibbon | Edward Gibbon (April 27, 1737 Gibbon's birthday is April 27, 1737 of the old style (O.S.) Julian calendar; England adopted the new style (N.S.) Gregorian calendar in 1752, and thereafter Gibbon's birthday was celebrated on May 8, 1737, N.S. January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. His most important work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, was published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788. The History is known principally for the quality and irony of its prose, its use of primary sources, and its open denigration of organized religion, though the extent of this is disputed by some critics. The most recent and also the first critical edition, in three volumes, is that of David Womersley. See References. For commentary on Gibbon's irony and insistence on primary sources whenever available, see Womersley, Intro. While the larger part of Gibbon's caustic view of Christianity is declared within the text of chapters XV and XVI, Gibbon rarely neglects to note its baleful influence throughout The History's remaining volumes. Childhood Edward Gibbon was born in 1737, the son of Edward and Judith Gibbon at Lime Grove, in the town of Putney, Surrey. He had six siblings: five brothers and one sister, all of whom died in infancy. His grandfather, also named Edward, had lost all of his assets in the South Sea Bubble stock market collapse (1720), but eventually regained much of his wealth, so that Gibbon's father was able to inherit a substantial estate. As a youth, his health was under constant threat. He described himself as "a puny child, neglected by my Mother, starved by my nurse." At age nine, Gibbon was sent to Dr. Woddeson's school at Kingston-on-Thames, shortly after which his mother died. He then took up residence in the Westminster School boarding house, owned by his adored "Aunt Kitty," Catherine Porten. Soon after she died in 1786, he remembered her as rescuing him from his mother's disdain, and imparting "the first rudiments of knowledge, the first exercise of reason, and a taste for books which is still the pleasure and glory of my life." Norton, Letters, vol. 3, 10/5/[17]86, 45-48. By 1751, Gibbon's reading was already voracious and certainly pointed toward his future pursuits: Laurence Echard's Roman History (1713), William Howel(l)'s An Institution of General History (1680–85), and several of the 65 volumes of the acclaimed Universal History from the Earliest Account of Time (1747–1768). Stephen, DNB, p. 1130; Pocock, EEG, 29–40. At age 14, Gibbon was "a prodigy of uncontrolled reading;" Gibbon himself admitted of an "indiscriminate appetite." p. 29. Oxford, Lausanne, and a religious journey Following a stay at Bath to improve his health, Gibbon in 1752 at the age of 15, was sent by his father to Magdalen College, Oxford, where he was enrolled as a gentleman-commoner. He was ill-suited, however, to the college atmosphere and later rued his 14 months there as the "most idle and unprofitable" of his life. But his penchant for "theological controversy," (his aunt's influence), fully bloomed when he came under the spell of rationalist theologian Conyers Middleton (1683–1750) and his Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers (1749). In that tract, Middleton denied the validity of such powers; Gibbon promptly objected. The product of that disagreement, with some assistance from the work of Catholic Bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627–1704), and that of the Elizabethan Jesuit Robert Parsons (1546–1610), yielded the most memorable event of his time at Oxford: his conversion to Roman Catholicism on June 8, 1753. He was further "corrupted" by the 'free thinking' deism of the playwright/poet couple David and Lucy Mallet; Pocock, EEG. for Middleton, see p. 45–47; for Bossuet, p. 47; for the Mallets, p.23; Robert Parsons [or Persons], A Christian directory: The first booke of the Christian exercise, appertayning to resolution, (London, 1582). In his 1796 edition of Gibbon's Memoirs, Lord Sheffield claims that Gibbon directly connected his Catholic conversion to his reading of Parsons. Womersley, ODNB, p. 9. and finally Gibbon's father, already "in despair," had had enough. Within weeks of his conversion, the youngster was removed from Oxford and sent to live under the care and tutelage of Daniel Pavillard, Reformed pastor of Lausanne, Switzerland. It was here that he made one of his life's two great friendships, that of Jacques Georges Deyverdun (the French language translator of Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther); the other being John Baker Holroyd (later Lord Sheffield). Just a year and a half later, after his father threatened to disinherit him, on Christmas Day, 1754, he reconverted to Protestantism. "The articles of the Romish creed," he wrote, "disappeared like a dream." He remained in Lausanne for five intellectually productive years, a period that greatly enriched Gibbon's already immense aptitude for scholarship and erudition: he read Latin literature; traveled throughout Switzerland studying its cantons' constitutions; and aggressively mined the works of Hugo Grotius, Samuel von Pufendorf, John Locke, Pierre Bayle, and Blaise Pascal. Thwarted romance He also met the one romance in his life: the pastor of Crassy's daughter, a young woman named Suzanne Curchod, who would later become the wife of Louis XVI's finance minister Jacques Necker, and the mother of Madame de Staël. The two developed a warm affinity; Gibbon proceeded to propose marriage, Norton, Biblio, p.2; Letters, vol. 1, p. 396. a concise summary of their relationship is found at 396-401. but ultimately wedlock was out of the question, blocked both by his father's staunch disapproval and Curchod's equally staunch reluctance to leave Switzerland. Gibbon returned to England in August 1758 to face his father. There could be no refusal of the elder's wishes. Gibbon put it this way: "After a painful struggle I yielded to my fate: I sighed as a lover, I obeyed as a son." Gibbon, Memoirs, paragraph begins (¶): "I hesitate, from the apprehension of ridicule...." see References, Project Gutenberg. The phrase, "sighed [etc.]" alludes to the play Polyeucte by "the father of French tragedy," Pierre Corneille. Womersley, ODNB, p. 11. He proceeded to cut off all contact with Curchod, even as she vowed to wait for him. Their final emotional break apparently came at Ferney, France in the spring of 1764, though they did see each other at least one more time a year later. Ibid., 11-12. First fame and the grand tour Upon his return to England, Gibbon published his first book, Essai sur l'Étude de la Littérature in 1761, which produced an initial taste of celebrity and distinguished him, in Paris at least, as a man of letters. In the Essai, the 24 year-old boldly braved the reigning philosoph[e]ic fashion to uphold the studious values and practices of the érudits (antiquarian scholars). Ibid., p. 11; and The Miscellaneous Works, First edition, vol. 2. From 1759 to 1770, Gibbon served on active duty and in reserve with the South Hampshire militia, his deactivation in December 1762 coinciding with the militia's dispersal at the end of the Seven Years' War. Womersley, ODNB, pp. 11, 12. Gibbon was commissioned a captain and resigned a lieutenant colonel, later crediting his service with providing him "a larger introduction into the English world." There was further, the matter of a vast utility: "The discipline and evolutions of a modern battalion gave me a clearer notion of the phalanx and the legion; and the captain of the Hampshire grenadiers (the reader may smile) has not been useless to the historian of the Roman empire." Gibbon, Memoirs, ¶: "The loss of so many busy and idle hours." The following year he embarked on the Grand Tour (of continental Europe), which included a visit to Rome. The Memoirs vividly record Gibbon's rapture when he finally neared "the great object of [my] pilgrimage": I can neither forget nor express the strong emotions which agitated my mind as I first approached and entered the eternal [C]ity. After a sleepless night, I trod, with a lofty step, the ruins of the Forum; each memorable spot where Romulus stood, or Tully spoke, or Caesar fell, was at once present to my eye; and several days of intoxication were lost or enjoyed before I could descend to a cool and minute investigation. Gibbon, Memoirs, ¶: "I shall advance with rapid brevity." And it was here that Gibbon first conceived the idea of composing a history of the city, later extended to the entire empire, a moment known to history as the "Capitoline vision": Pocock, "Classical History," ¶ #2. It was at Rome, on the [fifteenth] of October[,] 1764, as I sat musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the bare[-]footed fryars were singing [V]espers in the temple of Jupiter, that the idea of writing the decline and fall of the [C]ity first started to my mind. Gibbon, Memoirs, ¶: "The use of foreign travel." Womersley (ODNB, p. 12) notes the existence of "good reasons" to doubt the statement's accuracy. Elaborating, Pocock ("Classical History," ¶ #2) refers to it as a likely "creation of memory" or a "literary invention" seeing as how Gibbon, in his Memoirs, claimed his journal dated the reminiscence to October 15, when in fact the journal gives no date. Magnum opus His father died in 1770, and after tending to the estate, which was by no means in good condition, there remained quite enough for Gibbon to settle fashionably in London at 7 Bentinck Street, independent of financial concerns. By February 1773 he was writing in earnest, but not without the occasional self-imposed distraction. He took to London society quite easily, joined the better social clubs, including Dr. Johnson's Literary Club, and looked in from time to time on his friend Holroyd in Sussex. He succeeded Oliver Goldsmith at the Royal Academy as 'professor in ancient history' (honorary but prestigious). In late 1774, he was initiated a freemason of the Premier Grand Lodge of England. i.e., in London's Lodge of Friendship No. 3. see Gibbon's freemasonry. And, perhaps least productively in that same year, he was returned to the House of Commons for Liskeard, Cornwall through the intervention of his relative and patron, Edward Eliot. He became the archetypal back-bencher, benignly "mute" and "indifferent," his support of the Whig ministry routinely automatic. Gibbon's indolence in that position, perhaps fully intentional, subtracted little from the progress of his writing. Gibbon lost the Liskeard seat in 1780 when Eliot joined the opposition, taking with him "the electors of Leskeard [who] are commonly of the same opinion as Mr. El[l]iot." (Gibbon, Memoirs, ¶: "The aspect of the next session.") The following year, owing to the good grace of Prime Minister Lord North, he was again returned to Parliament, this time for Lymington on a by-election. Gibbon's Whiggery was solidly conservative: in favor of the propertied oligarchy while upholding the subject's rights under the rule of law; though staunchly against ideas such as the natural rights of man and popular sovereignty, what he referred to as "the wild & mischievous system of Democracy" (Dickinson, "Politics," 178-79). Gibbon also served on the government's Board of Trade and Plantations from 1779 until 1782, when the Board was abolished. The subsequent promise of an embassy position in Paris ultimately aborted, serendipitously leaving Gibbon free to focus on his great project. After several rewrites, with Gibbon "often tempted to throw away the labours of seven years," the first volume of what would become his life's major achievement, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, was published on February 17, 1776. Through 1777, the reading public eagerly consumed three editions for which Gibbon was rewarded handsomely: two-thirds of the profits amounting to approx. £1000. Norton, Biblio, pp. 37, 45. Gibbon sold the copyrights to the remaining editions of volume 1 and the remaining 5 volumes to publishers Strahan & Cadell for £8000. The great History earned the author a total of about £9000. Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter, "His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting." And as regards this first volume, "Some warm praise from David Hume overpaid the labour of ten years." Volumes II and III appeared on March 1, 1781, eventually rising "to a level with the previous volume in general esteem." Volume IV was finished in June 1784; Ibid., pp. 49, 57. Both Norton and Womersley (ODNB, p. 14) establish that vol. IV was substantially complete by the end of 1783. the final two were completed during a second Lausanne sojourn (September 1783 to August 1787) where Gibbon reunited with his friend Deyverdun in leisurely comfort. By early 1787, he was "straining for the goal;" and with great relief the project was finished in June. From the Memoirs: It was on the ...night of the 27th of June, 1787, between the hours of eleven and twelve, that I wrote the last lines of the last page in a summer-house in my garden. ... I will not dissemble the first emotions of joy on the recovery of my freedom; and perhaps the establishment of my fame. But my pride was soon humbled, and a sober melancholy was spread over my mind by the idea that I had taken my everlasting leave of an old and agreeable friend. Gibbon, Memoirs, ¶: "I have presumed to mark." Volumes IV, V, and VI finally reached the press in May 1788, publication having been delayed since March to coincide with a dinner party celebrating Gibbon's 51st birthday (the 8th). Norton, Biblio, p. 61. Mounting a bandwagon of praise for the later volumes were such contemporary luminaries as Adam Smith, William Robertson, Adam Ferguson, Lord Camden, and Horace Walpole. Smith remarked that Gibbon's triumph had positioned him "at the very head of [Europe's] literary tribe." Aftermath and the end The years following Gibbon's completion of The History were filled largely with sorrow and increasing physical discomfort. He had returned to London in late 1787 to oversee the publication process alongside Lord Sheffield. With that accomplished, in 1789 it was back to Lausanne only to learn of and be "deeply affected" by the death of Deyverdun, who had willed Gibbon his home, La Grotte. He resided there with little commotion, took in the local society, received a visit from Sheffield in 1791, and "shared the common abhorrence" of the French Revolution. In 1793, word came of Lady Sheffield's death; Gibbon immediately quit Lausanne and set sail to comfort a grieving but composed Sheffield. His health began to fail critically in December, and at the turn of the new year, he was on his last legs. Gibbon is believed to have suffered from hydrocele testis, a condition which causes the scrotum to swell with fluid in a compartment overlying either testicle. the term hydrocele specifies that the compartment is not connected to the peritoneal cavity, whereas the term inguinal hernia specifies a connecting passageway, however narrow. -ed. In an age when close-fitting clothes were fashionable, his condition led to a chronic and disfiguring inflammation which left Gibbon a lonely figure. After more than two centuries, the exact nature of Gibbon's ailment remains a bone of contention. Womersley's version here matches Patricia Craddock's. She, in a very full and graphic account of Gibbon's last days, notes that Sir Gavin de Beer's medical analysis of 1949 "makes it certain that Gibbon did not have a true hydrocele...and highly probable that he was suffering both from a 'large and irreducible hernia' and cirrhosis of the liver." (emphasis added). Also worthy of note are Gibbon's congenial and even joking moods while in excruciating pain as he neared the end. Both authors report this late bit of Gibbonian baudiness: "Why is a fat man like a Cornish Borough? Because he never sees his member." see Womersley, ODNB, p.16; Craddock, Luminous Historian, 334-342; and Beer, "Malady." As his condition worsened, he underwent numerous procedures to alleviate the condition, but with no enduring success. In early January, the last of a series of three operations caused an unremitting peritonitis to set in and spread. The "English giant of the Enlightenment" so styled by the "unrivalled master of Enlightenment studies," historian Franco Venturi (1914–1994) in his Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment (Cambridge: 1971), p. 132. See Pocock, EEG, p. 6; x. finally succumbed at 12:45 pm, January 16, 1794 at age 56, to be buried in the Sheffield family graveyard at the parish church in Fletching, Sussex. Gibbon's estate was valued at approx. £26,000. He left most of his property to cousins. As stipulated in his will, Sheffield oversaw the sale of his library at auction to William Beckford for £950. Womersley, ODNB, 17-18. Assessment Gibbon's work has been criticized for its aggressively scathing view of Christianity as laid down in chapters XV and XVI. Those chapters were strongly criticised and resulted in the banning of the book in several countries. Gibbon's alleged crime was disrespecting, and none too lightly, the character of sacred Christian doctrine in "treat[ing] the Christian church as a phenomenon of general history, not a special case admitting supernatural explanations and disallowing criticism of its adherents" as the Roman church was likely expecting. More specifically, Gibbon's blasphemous chapters excoriated the church for "supplanting in an unnecessarily destructive way the great culture that preceded it" and for "the outrage of [practicing] religious intolerance and warfare". Craddock, Luminous Historian, p.60; also see Shelby Thomas McCloy, Gibbon's Antagonism to Christianity (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1933). Gibbon, however, began chapter XV with what appeared to be a moderately positive appraisal of the church's rise to power and authority. Therein he documented one primary and five secondary causes of the rapid spread of Christianity throughout the Roman Empire: primarily, "the convincing evidence of the doctrine itself, and... the ruling providence of its great Author;" secondarily, "exclusive zeal, the immediate expectation of another world, the claim of miracles, the practice of rigid virtue, and the constitution of the primitive church." (first quote, Gibbon in Craddock, Luminous Historian, p. 61; second quote, Gibbon in Womersley, Decline and Fall, vol. 1, ch. XV, p. 497.) Gibbon, though assumed to be entirely anti-religion, was actually supportive to some extent, insofar as it did not obscure his true endeavour - a history that was not influenced and swayed by official church doctrine. Some argue that though it is true that the most famous two chapters are heavily ironical and cutting about religion, that it is interesting that it is in no way utterly condemned, and that the apparent truth and rightness is upheld however thinly. Gibbon, in letters to Holroyd and others, expected some type of church-inspired backlash, but the utter harshness of the ensuing torrents far exceeded anything he or his friends could possibly have anticipated. Contemporary detractors such as Joseph Priestley and Richard Watson stoked the nascent fire, but the most severe of these attacks was an "acrimonious" piece by the young cleric, Henry Edwards Davis. Henry Edwards Davis, An Examination of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Chapters of Mr. Gibbon’s History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (London: J. Dodsley, 1778). online. Gibbon subsequently published his Vindication in 1779, in which he categorically denied Davis' "criminal accusations", branding him a purveyor of "servile plagiarism." See Gibbon monographs. Davis followed Gibbon's Vindication with yet another reply (1779). Gibbon's antagonism to Christian doctrine spilled over into the Jewish faith, inevitably leading to charges of anti-Semitism. For example, he wrote: Humanity is shocked at the recital of the horrid cruelties which [the Jews] committed in the cities of Egypt, of Cyprus, and of Cyrene, where they dwelt in treacherous friendship with the unsuspecting natives;¹ and we are tempted to applaud the severe retaliation which was exercised by the arms of legions against a race of fanatics, whose dire and credulous superstition seemed to render them the implacable enemies not only of the Roman government, but also of humankind.² Womersley, ed., Decline and Fall, vol. 1, ch. XVI, p. 516. Gibbon's first footnote here reveals even more about why his detractors reacted so harshly: "In Cyrene, [the Jews] massacred 220,000 Greeks; in Cyprus, 240,000; in Egypt, a very great multitude. Many of these unhappy victims were sawed asunder, according to a precedent to which David had given the sanction of his examples. The victorious Jews devoured the flesh, licked up the blood, and twisted the entrails like a girdle around their bodies. see Dion Cassius l.lxviii, p. 1145." Burke, Churchill and 'the fountain-head' Gibbon is considered to be a son of the Enlightenment and this is reflected in his famous verdict on the history of the Middle Ages: "I have described the triumph of barbarism and religion." Womersley, Decline and Fall, vol. 3, ch. LXXI, p. 1068. However, politically, he aligned himself with the conservative Edmund Burke's rejection of the democratic movements of the time as well as with Burke's dismissal of the "rights of man." Burke supported the American rebellion, while Gibbon sided with the ministry; but with regard to the French Revolution they shared a perfect revulsion. At first (1789-1790), Gibbon cautiously withheld his condemnation of the latter (David Womersley, "Gibbon's Unfinished History," in Gibbon and the 'Watchmen of the Holy City', 195-196. see Further reading), but he quickly came to see it as "the Gallic phrenzy" spewing "wild theories of equal and boundless freedom." And of his colleague, "I...subscribe my assent to Mr. Burke's creed on the Revolution of France. I admire his eloquence, I approve his politics, I adore his Chivalry, and I can almost excuse his reverence for Church establishments." Gibbon, Memoirs, ¶: "A swarm of emigrants;" ¶: "I beg leave to subscribe." See also his letter to Sheffield in which "Burke's book is a most admirable medicine against the French disease. ...The French spread so many lyes [sic] about the sentiments of the English nation." Norton, Letters, vol. 3, 5/2/[17]91, 212-217, at p. 216; cf. also p. 243. Despite their agreement on the FR, Burke and Gibbon "were not specially close," owing to Whig party differences and divergent religious beliefs, not to mention Burke's sponsorship of a revenue bill which abolished, and therefore cost Gibbon his place on, the government's Board of Trade and Plantations in 1782. see Pocock, "The Ironist," ¶: "Both the autobiography...." Gibbon's work has been praised for its style, his piquant epigrams and its effective irony. Winston Churchill memorably noted, "I set out upon...Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [and] was immediately dominated both by the story and the style. ...I devoured Gibbon. I rode triumphantly through it from end to end and enjoyed it all." Winston Churchill, My Early Life: A Roving Commission (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1958), p. 111. Churchill modelled much of his own literary style on Gibbon's. The future Prime Minister, like the "English Voltaire," dedicated himself to producing a "vivid historical narrative, ranging widely over period and place and enriched by analysis and reflection." Roland Quinault, "Winston Churchill and Gibbon," in Edward Gibbon and Empire, eds. R. McKitterick and R. Quinault (Cambridge: 1997), 317-332, at p. 331; Pocock, "Ironist," ¶: "Both the autobiography...." Unusually for the 18th century, Gibbon was never content with secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible (though most of these were drawn from well-known printed editions). "I have always endeavoured," he says, "to draw from the fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and that, if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the secondary evidence, on whose faith a passage or a fact were reduced to depend." Womersley, Decline and Fall, vol. 2, Preface to Gibbon vol. 4, p. 520. In this insistence upon the importance of primary sources, Gibbon is considered by many to be one of the first modern historians: In accuracy, thoroughness, lucidity, and comprehensive grasp of a vast subject, the 'History' is unsurpassable. It is the one English history which may be regarded as definitive. ...Whatever its shortcomings the book is artistically imposing as well as historically unimpeachable as a vast panorama of a great period. Stephen, DNB, p. 1134. Influence on other writers The subject of Gibbon's writing as well as his ideas and style have influenced other writers. Besides his influence on Churchill, Gibbon was also a model for Isaac Asimov in his writing of The Foundation Trilogy, which he said involved "a little bit of cribbin' from the works of Edward Gibbon". Evelyn Waugh admired Gibbon's style but not his secular viewpoint. In Waugh's 1950 novel Helena the early Christian author Lactantius worried about the possibility of " '...a false historian, with the mind of Cicero or Tacitus and the soul of an animal,' and he nodded towards the gibbon who fretted his golden chain and chattered for fruit." (London: Chapman and Hall), chapter 6, p.122. J C Stobart, author of The Grandeur that was Rome (1911) who wrote of Gibbon that 'The mere notion of empire continuing to decline and fall for five centuries is ridiculous'... 'this is one of the cases which prove that History is made not so much by heroes or natural forces as by historians' Notes The majority of this article, including quotations unless otherwise noted, has been adapted from Stephen, DNB (see References). Monographs by Gibbon Essai sur l’Étude de la Littérature (London: Becket & De Hondt, 1761). Critical Observations on the Sixth Book of [Vergil's] 'The Aeneid' (London: Elmsley, 1770). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (vol. I, 1776; vols. II, III, 1781; vols. IV, V,VI, 1788-1789). all London: Strahan & Cadell. A Vindication of some passages in the fifteenth and sixteenth chapters of the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (London: J. Dodsley, 1779). Mémoire Justificatif pour servir de Réponse à l’Exposé, etc. de la Cour de France (London: Harrison & Brooke, 1779). Other writings by Gibbon "Lettre sur le gouvernement de Berne" [Letter No. IX. Mr. Gibbon to *** on the Government of Berne], in Miscellaneous Works, First (1796) edition, vol. 1 (below). Scholars differ on the date of its composition (Norman, D.M. Low: 1758-59; Pocock: 1763-64). Mémoires Littéraires de la Grande-Bretagne. co-author: Georges Deyverdun (2 vols.: vol. 1, London: Becket & De Hondt, 1767; vol. 2, London: Heydinger, 1768). Miscellaneous Works of Edward Gibbon, Esq., ed. John Lord Sheffield (2 vols., London: Cadell & Davies, 1796; 5 vols., London: J. Murray, 1814; 3 vols., London: J. Murray, 1815). includes Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Edward Gibbon, Esq.; Autobiographies of Edward Gibbon, ed. John Murray (London: J. Murray, 1896). EG's complete memoirs (six drafts) from the original manuscripts. The Private Letters of Edward Gibbon, 2 vols., ed. Rowland E. Prothero (London: J. Murray, 1896). Gibbon's Journal to January 28, 1763, ed. D.M. Low (London: Chatto and Windus, 1929). Le Journal de Gibbon à Lausanne, ed. Georges A. Bonnard (Lausanne: Librairie de l'Université, 1945). Miscellanea Gibboniana, eds. G.R. de Beer, L. Junod, G.A. Bonnard (Lausanne: Librairie de l'Université, 1952). The Letters of Edward Gibbon, 3 vols., ed. J.E. Norton (London: Cassell & Co., 1956). vol.1: 1750-1773; vol.2: 1774-1784; vol.3: 1784-1794. cited as 'Norton, Letters'. Gibbon's Journey from Geneva to Rome, ed. G.A. Bonnard (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1961). journal. Edward Gibbon: Memoirs of My Life, ed. G.A. Bonnard (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1969;1966). portions of EG's memoirs arranged chronologically, omitting repetition. The English Essays of Edward Gibbon, ed. Patricia Craddock (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972); [hb: ISBN 0198124961]. References Beer, G. R. de. "The Malady of Edward Gibbon, F.R.S.," Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 7,1 (December 1949), 71–80. cited as 'Beer, "Malady"'. Craddock, Patricia B. Edward Gibbon, Luminous Historian 1772–1794 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1989); [hb: ISBN 0801837200]. biography; cited as 'Craddock, Luminous Historian'. Dickinson, H.T., "The Politics of Edward Gibbon," Literature and History 8,4(1978), 175-196. cited as 'Dickinson, "Politics"'. Norton, J.E. A Bibliography of the Works of Edward Gibbon (New York: Burt Franklin Co., 1970;1940). cited as 'Norton, Biblio'. Norton, The Letters of Edward Gibbon, 3 vols. (London: Cassell & Co. Ltd., 1956). cited as 'Norton, Letters'. Pocock, J.G.A. Barbarism and Religion, vol. 1, The Enlightenments of Edward Gibbon, 1737–1764 (Cambridge: 1999); [hb: ISBN 0521633451]. cited as 'Pocock, EEG'. Pocock, "Classical and Civil History: The Transformation of Humanism," Cromohs 1(1996); online. cited as 'Pocock, "Classical History"'. Pocock, "The Ironist," London Review of Books 24,22(November 14, 2002). cited as 'Pocock, "Ironist"'. Project Gutenberg: Gibbon, Memoirs of My Life and Writings, online: cited as 'Gibbon, Memoirs'. Stephen, Sir Leslie, "Gibbon, Edward (1737-1794)," Dictionary of National Biography, vol. 7, eds. Sir Leslie Stephen, Sir Sidney Lee (Oxford: 1963;1921), 1129–1135. cited as 'Stephen, DNB'. Womersley, David, Edward Gibbon - The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 3 vols. (Allen Lane, London; Penguin Press, New York: 1994). cited as 'Womersley, Decline and Fall'. Womersley, "Introduction," in Womersley, Decline and Fall above, vol. 1, xi-cvi, cited as 'Womersley, Intro'. Womersley, "Gibbon, Edward (1737-1794)," Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, vol. 22, H.C.G. Matthew; Brian Harrison, eds. (Oxford: 2004), 8-18. cited as 'Womersley, ODNB'. Further reading Before 1985 Beer, Gavin de. Gibbon and His World (London: Thames and Hudson, 1968); [hb: ISBN 0670289817]. Bowersock, G.W. et al. eds. Edward Gibbon and the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1977). Craddock, Patricia B. Young Edward Gibbon: Gentleman of Letters (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1982); [hb: ISBN 0801827140]. biography. Jordan, David. Gibbon and his Roman Empire (Urbana, Ill.: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1971). Keynes, Geoffrey, ed. The Library of Edward Gibbon, 2nd ed. (Godalming, England: St. Paul's Bibliographies, 1980;1940). Lewis, Bernard, "Gibbon on Muhammad," Daedalus 105,3(Summer 1976), 89-101. Low, D.M. Edward Gibbon 1737-1794 (London: Chatto and Windus, 1937). biography. Momigliano, Arnaldo. "Gibbon's Contributions to Historical Method," in Momigliano, Studies in Historiography (New York: Garland Pubs., 1985;1966), 40-55; [pb: ISBN 0824063724]. Porter, Roger J. "Gibbon's Autobiography: Filling Up the Silent Vacancy," Eighteenth-Century Studies 8,1 (Autumn 1974), 1–26. Swain, J.W. Edward Gibbon the Historian (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1966). Turnbull, Paul, "The Supposed Infidelity of Edward Gibbon," Historical Journal 5(1982), 23-41. White, Jr. Lynn. The Transformation of the Roman World: Gibbon's Problem after Two Centuries (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1966); [hb: ISBN 0520013344]. Since 1985 Bowersock, Glen. Gibbon's Historical Imagination (Stanford: 1988). Burrow, J.W. Gibbon (Past Masters) (Oxford: 1985); [hb: ISBN 0192875531; pb: ISBN 0192875523]. Carnochan, W. Bliss. Gibbon's Solitude: The Inward World of the Historian (Stanford: 1987); [hb: ISBN 0804713634]. Craddock, Patricia B. Edward Gibbon: a Reference Guide (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1987); [pb: ISBN 0816182175]. a comprehensive listing of secondary literature through 1985. see also her supplement through 1997. Ghosh, Peter R. "Gibbon Observed," Journal of Roman Studies 81(1991), 132–156. Ghosh, "Gibbon's First Thoughts: Rome, Christianity and the Essai sur l'Étude de la Litterature 1758–61," Journal of Roman Studies 85(1995), 148–164. Ghosh, "The Conception of Gibbon's History," in McKitterick and Quinault, eds. (below), 271-316. Ghosh, "Gibbon's Timeless Verity: Nature and Neo-Classicism in the Late Enlightenment," in Womersley, Burrow, Pocock, eds. (below). Ghosh, "Gibbon, Edward 1737-1794 British historian of Rome and universal historian," in Kelly Boyd, ed. Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1999), 461-463. Levine, Joseph M., "Edward Gibbon and the Quarrel between the Ancients and the Moderns," in Levine, Humanism and History: origins of modern English historiography (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1987). Levine, "Truth and Method in Gibbon's Historiography," in Levine, The Autonomy of History: truth and method from Erasmus to Gibbon (Chicago: 1999). McKitterick, R.; Quinault, R., eds. Edward Gibbon and Empire (Cambridge: 1997). Norman, Brian. "The Influence of Switzerland on the Life and Writings of Edward Gibbon," in Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century [SVEC] v.2002:03, (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2002). Pocock, J.G.A. Barbarism and Religion, 4 vols.: vol. 1, The Enlightenments of Edward Gibbon, 1737–1764, 1999 [hb: ISBN 0521633451]; vol. 2, Narratives of Civil Government, 1999 [hb: ISBN 0521640024]; vol. 3, The First Decline and Fall, 2003 [pb: ISBN 0521824451]; vol. 4, Barbarians, Savages and Empires, 2005 [pb: ISBN 0521721011]. all Cambridge Univ. Press. Porter, Roy. Gibbon: Making History (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989); [hb: ISBN 0312027281]. Turnbull, Paul, "'Une marionnette infidele': the Fashioning of Edward Gibbon's Reputation as the English Voltaire," in Womersley, Burrow, Pocock, eds. (below). Womersley, David P. The Transformation of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Cambridge: 1988); [hb: ISBN 0521350360]. Womersley, John Burrow; J.G.A. Pocock, eds. Edward Gibbon: bicentenary essays (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1997); [hb: ISBN 0729405524]. Womersley, Gibbon and the ‘Watchmen of the Holy City’: The Historian and His Reputation, 1776–1815 (Oxford: 2002); [pb: ISBN 0-19-818733-5]. See also The Work of J.G.A. Pocock: Edward Gibbon section. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Further reading. The Miscellaneous Works of Edward Gibbon. A Gibbon chronology. Biographer Patricia Craddock's comprehensive bibliography through May 1999. Craddock's supplement to her Reference Guide. External links Complete History of the Decline and Fall including Gibbon's Vindication, courtesy: Christian Classics Ethereal Library of Calvin College, Grands Rapids, Michigan, USA. Extensive Biography in 1911 Encyclopedia Edward Gibbon, Historian of the Roman Empire. Part 1: The Man and his Book Edward Gibbon, Historian of the Roman Empire. Part 2: A closer look at The Decline and Fall Tom Moran's Edward Gibbon page The Life and Death of Edward Gibbon @ Ward's Book of Days A Brief Biography of Edward Gibbon DeclineandFallResources.com - Original Maps and Footnote Translations | Edward_Gibbon |@lemmatized edward:46 gibbon:159 april:2 birthday:3 old:3 style:8 julian:1 calendar:2 england:5 adopt:1 new:9 n:2 gregorian:1 thereafter:2 celebrate:2 may:5 january:4 english:9 historian:19 member:2 parliament:2 important:1 work:12 history:34 decline:21 fall:21 roman:22 empire:20 publish:4 six:3 volume:13 know:3 principally:1 quality:1 irony:3 prose:1 use:2 primary:5 source:4 open:1 denigration:1 organize:1 religion:6 though:6 extent:2 dispute:1 critic:1 recent:1 also:12 first:20 critical:2 edition:7 three:3 david:8 womersley:27 see:20 reference:6 commentary:1 insistence:2 whenever:1 available:1 intro:2 large:3 part:3 caustic:1 view:2 christianity:5 declare:1 within:2 text:1 chapter:9 xv:4 xvi:4 rarely:1 neglect:2 note:8 baleful:1 influence:7 throughout:3 remain:6 childhood:1 bear:1 son:5 judith:1 lime:1 grove:1 town:1 putney:1 surrey:1 sibling:1 five:4 brother:1 one:8 sister:1 die:4 infancy:1 grandfather:1 name:2 lose:3 asset:1 south:2 sea:1 bubble:1 stock:1 market:1 collapse:1 eventually:2 regain:1 much:3 wealth:1 father:8 able:1 inherit:1 substantial:1 estate:3 youth:1 health:3 constant:1 threat:1 describe:2 puny:1 child:1 mother:4 starve:1 nurse:1 age:6 nine:1 send:3 dr:2 woddeson:1 school:2 kingston:1 thames:2 shortly:1 take:5 residence:1 westminster:1 boarding:1 house:3 adored:1 aunt:2 kitty:1 catherine:1 porten:1 soon:2 remember:1 rescue:1 disdain:1 impart:1 rudiment:1 knowledge:1 exercise:3 reason:2 taste:2 book:9 still:1 pleasure:1 glory:1 life:11 norton:12 letter:13 vol:25 reading:5 already:3 voracious:1 certainly:1 point:1 toward:1 future:2 pursuit:1 laurence:1 echard:1 william:3 howel:1 l:10 institution:1 general:3 several:4 acclaimed:1 universal:2 early:5 account:3 time:7 stephen:7 dnb:4 p:30 pocock:19 eeg:4 prodigy:1 uncontrolled:1 admit:2 indiscriminate:1 appetite:1 oxford:12 lausanne:9 religious:3 journey:2 follow:3 stay:1 bath:1 improve:1 magdalen:1 college:3 enrol:1 gentleman:2 commoner:1 ill:2 suit:1 however:5 atmosphere:1 later:7 rue:1 month:1 idle:2 unprofitable:1 penchant:1 theological:1 controversy:1 fully:2 bloom:1 come:4 spell:1 rationalist:1 theologian:1 conyers:1 middleton:3 free:3 inquiry:1 miraculous:1 power:3 tract:1 deny:2 validity:1 promptly:1 object:2 product:1 disagreement:1 assistance:1 catholic:2 bishop:1 jacques:3 bénigne:1 bossuet:2 elizabethan:1 jesuit:1 robert:2 parson:3 yield:2 memorable:2 event:1 conversion:3 catholicism:1 june:4 corrupt:1 think:1 deism:1 playwright:1 poet:1 couple:1 lucy:1 mallet:2 person:1 christian:7 directory:1 booke:1 appertayning:1 resolution:1 london:28 memoir:17 lord:6 sheffield:10 claim:3 directly:1 connect:3 odnb:8 finally:4 despair:1 enough:2 week:1 youngster:1 remove:1 live:1 care:1 tutelage:1 daniel:1 pavillard:1 reform:2 pastor:2 switzerland:4 make:4 two:7 great:9 friendship:3 george:2 deyverdun:4 french:6 language:1 translator:1 goethe:1 sorrow:2 young:4 werther:1 john:7 baker:1 holroyd:3 year:12 half:1 threaten:1 disinherit:1 christmas:1 day:4 reconvert:1 protestantism:1 article:2 romish:1 creed:2 write:7 disappear:1 like:4 dream:1 intellectually:1 productive:1 period:3 greatly:1 enrich:2 immense:1 aptitude:1 scholarship:1 erudition:1 read:3 latin:1 literature:3 travel:2 study:8 canton:1 constitution:2 aggressively:2 mine:1 hugo:1 grotius:1 samuel:1 von:1 pufendorf:1 locke:1 pierre:2 bayle:1 blaise:1 pascal:1 thwart:1 romance:2 meet:1 crassy:1 daughter:1 woman:1 suzanne:1 curchod:3 would:2 become:3 wife:1 louis:1 finance:1 minister:3 necker:1 madame:1 de:18 staël:1 develop:1 warm:2 affinity:1 proceed:2 propose:1 marriage:1 biblio:4 concise:1 summary:1 relationship:1 find:1 ultimately:2 wedlock:1 question:1 block:1 staunch:2 disapproval:1 equally:1 reluctance:1 leave:6 return:5 august:2 face:1 could:3 refusal:1 elder:1 wish:1 put:1 way:3 painful:1 struggle:1 fate:1 sigh:2 lover:1 obey:1 paragraph:1 begin:3 hesitate:1 apprehension:1 ridicule:1 project:4 gutenberg:2 phrase:1 etc:2 alludes:1 play:1 polyeucte:1 tragedy:1 corneille:1 cut:2 contact:1 even:3 vow:1 wait:1 final:2 emotional:1 break:1 apparently:1 ferney:1 france:3 spring:1 least:3 ibid:3 fame:3 grand:3 tour:2 upon:3 essai:4 sur:4 étude:3 la:6 littérature:2 produce:2 initial:1 celebrity:1 distinguish:1 paris:2 man:5 boldly:1 brave:1 reign:1 philosoph:1 e:5 ic:1 fashion:1 uphold:2 studious:1 value:2 practice:3 érudits:1 antiquarian:1 scholar:2 miscellaneous:4 serve:2 active:1 duty:2 reserve:1 hampshire:2 militia:2 deactivation:1 december:3 coinciding:1 dispersal:1 end:6 seven:2 war:1 pp:3 commission:2 captain:2 resign:1 lieutenant:1 colonel:1 credit:1 service:1 provide:1 introduction:2 world:5 far:2 matter:1 vast:3 utility:1 discipline:1 evolution:1 modern:4 battalion:1 give:3 clear:1 notion:2 phalanx:1 legion:2 grenadier:1 reader:1 smile:1 useless:1 loss:1 many:4 busy:1 hour:2 following:2 embark:1 continental:1 europe:2 include:5 visit:2 rome:6 vividly:1 record:2 rapture:1 near:2 pilgrimage:1 neither:1 forget:1 express:1 strong:1 emotion:2 agitate:1 mind:4 approach:1 enter:1 eternal:1 c:4 ity:2 sleepless:1 night:2 trod:1 lofty:1 step:1 ruin:2 forum:1 spot:1 romulus:1 stand:1 tully:1 spoke:1 caesar:1 fell:1 present:1 eye:1 intoxication:1 enjoy:2 descend:1 cool:1 minute:1 investigation:1 shall:1 advance:1 rapid:4 brevity:1 conceive:1 idea:5 compose:2 city:4 extend:1 entire:1 moment:1 capitoline:1 vision:1 classical:4 fifteenth:3 october:2 sit:1 muse:1 amidst:1 capitol:1 bare:1 footed:1 fryars:1 sing:1 v:4 espers:1 temple:1 jupiter:1 start:1 foreign:1 existence:1 good:4 doubt:1 statement:1 accuracy:2 elaborating:1 refers:1 likely:2 creation:1 memory:1 literary:4 invention:1 journal:8 date:3 reminiscence:1 fact:2 magnum:1 opus:1 tend:1 mean:1 condition:5 quite:2 settle:1 fashionably:1 bentinck:1 street:1 independent:1 financial:1 concern:1 february:2 earnest:1 without:1 occasional:1 self:1 impose:2 distraction:1 society:3 easily:1 join:2 social:1 club:2 johnson:1 look:2 friend:4 sussex:2 succeed:1 oliver:1 goldsmith:1 royal:2 academy:1 professor:1 ancient:2 honorary:1 prestigious:1 late:5 initiate:1 freemason:1 premier:1 lodge:2 freemasonry:1 perhaps:3 productively:1 common:2 liskeard:2 cornwall:1 intervention:1 relative:1 patron:1 eliot:2 archetypal:1 back:2 bencher:1 benignly:1 mute:1 indifferent:1 support:2 whig:2 ministry:2 routinely:1 automatic:1 indolence:1 position:3 intentional:1 subtract:1 little:3 progress:1 writing:8 seat:1 opposition:1 elector:1 leskeard:1 commonly:1 opinion:1 mr:4 el:1 iot:1 aspect:1 next:1 session:1 owe:2 grace:1 prime:2 north:2 lymington:1 election:1 whiggery:1 solidly:1 conservative:2 favor:1 propertied:1 oligarchy:1 subject:3 right:3 rule:2 law:1 staunchly:1 natural:2 popular:1 sovereignty:1 refer:1 wild:2 mischievous:1 system:1 democracy:1 dickinson:3 politics:4 government:5 board:3 trade:2 plantation:2 abolish:2 subsequent:1 promise:1 embassy:1 abort:1 serendipitously:1 focus:1 rewrite:1 often:1 tempt:2 throw:1 away:1 labour:2 major:1 achievement:1 public:1 eagerly:1 consume:1 reward:1 handsomely:1 third:1 profit:1 amount:1 approx:2 sell:1 copyright:1 publisher:1 strahan:2 cadell:3 earn:1 author:6 total:1 biographer:2 leslie:3 last:6 regard:3 praise:3 hume:1 overpay:1 ten:1 ii:2 iii:2 appear:2 march:2 rise:2 level:1 previous:1 esteem:1 iv:4 finish:2 establish:1 substantially:1 complete:4 second:2 sojourn:1 september:1 reunite:1 leisurely:1 comfort:2 straining:1 goal:1 relief:1 eleven:1 twelve:1 line:1 page:2 summer:2 garden:1 dissemble:1 joy:1 recovery:1 freedom:2 establishment:2 pride:1 humble:1 sober:1 melancholy:1 spread:4 everlasting:1 agreeable:1 presume:1 mark:2 vi:2 reach:1 press:13 publication:2 delay:1 since:2 coincide:1 dinner:1 party:2 mount:1 bandwagon:1 contemporary:2 luminary:1 adam:2 smith:2 robertson:1 ferguson:1 camden:1 horace:1 walpole:1 remark:1 triumph:2 head:3 tribe:1 aftermath:1 completion:1 fill:1 largely:1 increase:1 physical:1 discomfort:1 oversee:2 process:1 alongside:1 accomplish:1 learn:1 deeply:1 affected:1 death:3 home:1 grotte:1 reside:1 commotion:1 local:1 receive:1 share:2 abhorrence:1 revolution:3 word:1 lady:1 immediately:2 quit:1 set:3 sail:1 grieving:1 fail:1 critically:1 turn:1 leg:1 believe:1 suffer:2 hydrocele:3 testis:1 cause:3 scrotum:1 swell:1 fluid:1 compartment:2 overlie:1 either:1 testicle:1 term:2 specifies:1 peritoneal:1 cavity:1 whereas:1 inguinal:1 hernia:2 specify:1 passageway:1 narrow:1 ed:23 close:3 fitting:1 clothes:1 fashionable:1 lead:2 chronic:1 disfigure:1 inflammation:1 lonely:1 figure:1 century:6 exact:1 nature:2 ailment:1 bone:1 contention:1 version:1 match:1 patricia:6 craddock:11 full:1 graphic:1 sir:4 gavin:2 beer:6 medical:1 analysis:2 certain:1 true:3 highly:1 probable:1 irreducible:1 cirrhosis:1 liver:1 emphasis:1 add:1 worthy:1 congenial:1 joke:1 mood:1 excruciate:1 pain:1 report:1 bit:2 gibbonian:1 baudiness:1 fat:1 cornish:1 borough:1 never:2 luminous:5 malady:3 worsen:1 undergo:1 numerous:1 procedure:1 alleviate:1 endure:1 success:1 series:1 operation:1 unremitting:1 peritonitis:1 giant:1 enlightenment:7 unrivalled:1 master:2 franco:1 venturi:1 utopia:1 cambridge:7 x:1 succumb:1 pm:1 bury:1 family:1 graveyard:1 parish:1 church:9 fletching:1 property:1 cousin:1 stipulate:1 sale:1 library:3 auction:1 beckford:1 assessment:1 criticize:1 scathing:1 lay:1 strongly:1 criticise:1 result:1 banning:1 country:1 allege:1 crime:1 disrespect:1 none:1 lightly:1 character:1 sacred:1 doctrine:4 treat:1 ing:1 phenomenon:1 special:1 case:2 supernatural:1 explanation:1 disallow:1 criticism:1 adherent:1 expect:2 specifically:1 blasphemous:1 excoriate:1 supplanting:1 unnecessarily:1 destructive:1 culture:1 precede:1 outrage:1 intolerance:1 warfare:1 shelby:1 thomas:2 mccloy:1 antagonism:2 chapel:1 hill:1 univ:8 carolina:1 moderately:1 positive:1 appraisal:1 authority:1 therein:1 document:1 secondary:3 primarily:1 convincing:1 evidence:2 providence:1 secondarily:1 exclusive:1 zeal:1 immediate:1 expectation:1 another:2 miracle:1 rigid:1 virtue:1 primitive:1 quote:2 ch:3 assume:1 entirely:1 anti:2 actually:1 supportive:1 insofar:1 obscure:1 endeavour:2 sway:1 official:1 argue:1 famous:2 heavily:1 ironical:1 interest:1 utterly:1 condemn:1 apparent:1 truth:3 rightness:1 upheld:1 thinly:1 others:1 type:1 inspired:1 backlash:1 utter:1 harshness:1 ensue:1 torrent:1 exceed:1 anything:1 possibly:1 anticipate:1 detractor:2 joseph:2 priestley:1 richard:1 watson:1 stoke:1 nascent:1 fire:1 severe:2 attack:1 acrimonious:1 piece:1 cleric:1 henry:2 davis:4 examination:1 sixteenth:2 j:16 dodsley:2 online:3 subsequently:1 vindication:4 categorically:1 criminal:1 accusation:1 brand:1 purveyor:1 servile:1 plagiarism:1 monograph:2 yet:1 reply:1 spill:1 jewish:1 faith:2 inevitably:1 charge:1 semitism:1 example:2 humanity:1 shock:1 recital:1 horrid:1 cruelty:1 jew:3 commit:1 egypt:2 cyprus:2 cyrene:2 dwell:1 treacherous:1 unsuspecting:1 native:1 applaud:1 retaliation:1 arm:1 race:1 fanatic:1 whose:2 dire:1 credulous:1 superstition:1 seem:1 render:1 implacable:1 enemy:1 humankind:1 footnote:2 reveal:1 react:1 harshly:1 massacre:1 greek:1 multitude:1 unhappy:1 victim:1 saw:1 asunder:1 accord:1 precedent:1 sanction:1 victorious:1 devour:2 flesh:1 lick:1 blood:1 twist:1 entrails:1 girdle:1 around:1 body:1 dion:1 cassius:1 lxviii:1 burke:8 churchill:6 fountain:2 consider:2 reflect:1 verdict:1 middle:1 barbarism:3 lxxi:1 politically:1 align:1 edmund:1 rejection:1 democratic:1 movement:1 well:5 dismissal:1 american:1 rebellion:1 side:1 perfect:1 revulsion:1 cautiously:1 withhold:1 condemnation:1 latter:1 unfinished:1 watchman:2 holy:2 quickly:1 gallic:1 phrenzy:1 spew:1 theory:1 equal:1 boundless:1 colleague:1 subscribe:2 assent:1 admire:1 eloquence:1 approve:1 adore:1 chivalry:1 almost:1 excuse:1 reverence:1 swarm:1 emigrant:1 beg:1 admirable:1 medicine:1 disease:1 lye:1 sic:1 sentiment:1 nation:1 cf:1 despite:1 agreement:1 fr:1 specially:1 difference:1 divergent:1 belief:1 mention:1 sponsorship:1 revenue:1 bill:1 therefore:1 cost:1 place:2 ironist:4 autobiography:4 piquant:1 epigram:1 effective:1 winston:3 memorably:1 dominate:1 story:1 rode:1 triumphantly:1 rove:1 york:7 charles:1 scribner:1 model:2 voltaire:5 dedicate:1 vivid:1 historical:5 narrative:2 range:1 widely:1 reflection:1 roland:1 quinault:4 r:8 mckitterick:3 unusually:1 content:1 secondhand:1 accessible:1 draw:2 printed:1 always:2 say:2 curiosity:1 sense:1 urge:1 original:3 sometimes:1 elude:1 search:1 carefully:1 passage:2 reduce:1 depend:1 preface:1 importance:1 thoroughness:1 lucidity:1 comprehensive:3 grasp:1 unsurpassable:1 definitive:1 whatever:1 shortcoming:1 artistically:1 historically:1 unimpeachable:1 panorama:1 writer:2 besides:1 isaac:1 asimov:1 foundation:3 trilogy:1 involve:1 cribbin:1 evelyn:1 waugh:2 admired:1 secular:1 viewpoint:1 novel:1 helena:1 lactantius:1 worry:1 possibility:1 false:1 cicero:1 tacitus:1 soul:1 animal:1 nod:1 towards:1 fret:1 golden:1 chain:1 chatter:1 fruit:1 chapman:1 hall:2 stobart:1 grandeur:1 mere:1 continue:1 ridiculous:1 prove:1 hero:1 force:1 majority:1 quotation:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 adapt:1 becket:2 hondt:2 observation:1 sixth:1 vergil:1 aeneid:1 elmsley:1 vols:11 mémoire:1 justificatif:1 pour:1 servir:1 réponse:1 à:2 exposé:1 cour:1 harrison:2 brooke:1 lettre:1 le:2 gouvernement:1 berne:2 ix:1 differ:1 composition:1 norman:2 low:3 mémoires:1 littéraires:1 grande:1 bretagne:1 co:4 heydinger:1 esq:2 davy:1 murray:5 eg:2 draft:1 manuscript:1 private:1 rowland:1 prothero:1 chatto:2 windus:2 georges:1 bonnard:4 librairie:2 université:2 miscellanea:1 gibboniana:1 g:12 junod:1 cassell:2 cite:14 geneva:1 nelson:1 funk:1 wagnalls:1 portion:1 arrange:1 chronologically:1 omit:1 repetition:1 essay:2 clarendon:1 hb:13 isbn:19 f:1 b:3 baltimore:2 hopkins:2 biography:7 h:2 bibliography:3 burt:1 franklin:1 ltd:1 civil:2 transformation:3 humanism:2 cromohs:1 review:1 november:1 dictionary:2 national:2 sidney:1 lee:1 allen:1 lane:1 penguin:1 xi:1 cvi:1 matthew:1 brian:2 hudson:1 bowersock:2 w:4 et:1 al:1 harvard:1 jordan:1 urbana:1 illinois:1 keynes:1 geoffrey:1 godalming:1 st:3 paul:3 lewis:1 bernard:1 muhammad:1 daedalus:1 momigliano:2 arnaldo:1 contribution:1 method:3 historiography:3 garland:1 pub:1 pb:6 porter:2 roger:1 filling:1 silent:1 vacancy:1 eighteenth:2 autumn:1 swain:1 martin:2 turnbull:2 supposed:1 infidelity:1 white:1 jr:1 lynn:1 problem:1 berkeley:1 california:1 glen:1 imagination:1 stanford:2 burrow:4 past:1 carnochan:1 bliss:1 solitude:1 inward:1 guide:2 boston:1 k:1 listing:1 supplement:2 ghosh:5 peter:1 observe:1 thought:1 litterature:1 conception:1 timeless:1 verity:1 neo:1 classicism:1 british:1 kelly:1 boyd:1 encyclopedia:2 chicago:2 fitzroy:1 dearborn:1 levine:4 quarrel:1 origin:1 ithaca:1 cornell:1 autonomy:1 erasmus:1 eds:1 svec:1 barbarian:1 savage:1 roy:1 une:1 marionnette:1 infidele:1 fashioning:1 reputation:2 bicentenary:1 section:1 chronology:1 external:1 link:1 courtesy:1 classic:1 ethereal:1 calvin:1 grands:1 michigan:1 usa:1 extensive:1 tom:1 moran:1 ward:1 brief:1 declineandfallresources:1 com:1 map:1 translation:1 |@bigram edward_gibbon:38 julian_calendar:1 gregorian_calendar:1 xv_xvi:2 magdalen_college:1 jacques_bénigne:1 bénigne_bossuet:1 roman_catholicism:1 gibbon_memoir:12 womersley_odnb:8 lausanne_switzerland:1 hugo_grotius:1 blaise_pascal:1 louis_xvi:1 de_staël:1 project_gutenberg:2 essai_sur:3 l_étude:3 la_littérature:2 lieutenant_colonel:1 sleepless_night:1 magnum_opus:1 oliver_goldsmith:1 grand_lodge:1 prime_minister:2 david_hume:1 horace_walpole:1 deeply_affected:1 cirrhosis_liver:1 north_carolina:1 womersley_decline:5 joseph_priestley:1 fifteenth_sixteenth:2 anti_semitism:1 edmund_burke:1 winston_churchill:3 charles_scribner:1 scribner_son:1 isaac_asimov:1 evelyn_waugh:1 unless_otherwise:1 la_cour:1 lettre_sur:1 sur_le:1 le_gouvernement:1 grande_bretagne:1 london_chatto:2 chatto_windus:2 funk_wagnalls:1 arrange_chronologically:1 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 univ_press:5 thames_hudson:1 et_al:1 harvard_univ:1 garland_pub:1 neo_classicism:1 fitzroy_dearborn:1 ithaca_cornell:1 cambridge_univ:1 external_link:1 classic_ethereal:1 ethereal_library:1 |
4,618 | List_of_freshwater_aquarium_plant_species | Bolbitis heudelotii, one of hundreds of aquatic plants found in the hobby. Aquatic plants are used to give the aquarium a natural appearance, oxygenate the water, and provide habitat for fish, especially fry (babies) and for invertebrate species. Some aquarium fish and invertebrates also eat live plants. Recently, there has been a movement in the hobby to use aquatic plants as part of aesthetic aquarium design and aquascaping, spearheaded by Japanese aquarist Takashi Amano. Most of these plant species are found either partially or fully submersed in their natural habitat. Although there are a handful of obligate aquatic plants that must be grown in water (Cabomba sp., for example), most grow and thrive fully emersed if the soil is kept moist. Listed alphabetically by scientific name As a very important note, the taxonomy of most plant genera is not final. Scientific names and classifications have changed often in the past years, creating confusion for most aquarists. Most of the old names are still in use today on some web sites. Common aquarium plant species: <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> Acorus calamus Alisma gramineum Alternanthera bettzichiana Alternanthera lilacina Alternanthera philoxeroides Alternanthera reineckii "rosaefolia" Alternanthera sessilis Ammania gracilis (Delicate ammania, red ammania) Ammania latifolia Ammania senegalensis Anubias afzelii (Narrow-leafed anubias) Anubias barteri var. barteri (Broadleaved anubias) Anubias barteri var. angustifolia Anubias barteri var. caladiifolia Anubias barteri var. glabra Anubias barteri var. nana (Dwarf anubias) Anubias gilletti Anubias gracilis Anubias hastifolia Anubias heterophylla Anubias pynaertii Aponogeton appendiculatus Aponogeton bernierianus Aponogeton boivinianus Aponogeton capuronii Aponogeton crispus (Crinkled or ruffled aponogeton) Aponogeton decartyi Aponogeton desertorum Aponogeton dioecus Aponogeton distachyos Aponogeton elongatus Aponogeton fenestralis Aponogeton henkelianus Aponogeton junceus Aponogeton longiplumulosus Aponogeton loriae Aponogeton madagascariensis (Madagascar laceleaf, lace plant) Aponogeton natans Aponogeton rigidifolius Aponogeton tenuispicatus Aponogeton ulvaceus (Compact apongeton) Aponogeton undulatus Armoracia aquatica Azolla caroliniana (water velvet, mosquito fern) Azolla filiculoïdes (Azolla, moss fern) Azolla pinnata Bacopa amplexicaulis Bacopa australis Bacopa caroliniana (lemon bacopa, water hyssop, giant bacopa) Bacopa crenata Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop, dwarf bacopa, baby tears) Bacopa myriophylloides Bacopa rotundifolia (Round bacopa) Baldellia ranunculoides Barclaya longifolia (Orchid lily) Barclaya motleyi Blyxa aubertii Blyxa echinosperma Blyxa japonica (Japanese rush) Blyxa novoguineensis Blyxa octandra Bolbitis heteroclita Bolbitis heudelotii (African or Congo fern) Cabomba aquatica (Yellow cabomba, giant cabomba) Cabomba caroliniana (Green cabomba) Cabomba furcata Cabomba palaeformis Cabomba piauhyensis (Red cabomba) Caldesia parnassifolia Calla palustris Callitriche hamulata Callitriche hermaphroditica Callitriche palustris Callitriche stagnalis Cardamine lyrata (Chinese ivy, Japanese cress) Cardamine rotundifolia Ceratophyllum demersum (hornwort) Ceratophyllum submersum (tropical hornwort) Ceratopteris cornuta Ceratopteris pteridoides Ceratopteris thalictroides (water sprite) Cladophora aegagropila Crassula aquatica Crassula helmsii Crinum calamistratum Crinum natans (African onion plant) Crinum purpurascens Crinum thaianum (water onion) Cryptocoryne affinis Cryptocoryne alba Cryptocoryne albida Cryptocoryne aponogetifolia Cryptocoryne auriculata Cryptocoryne axelrodii Cryptocoryne balansae Cryptocoryne beckettii (Beckett's Cryptocoryne) Cryptocoryne blassii Cryptocoryne bogneri Cryptocoryne bullosa Cryptocoryne ciliata Cryptocoryne cognata Cryptocoryne cordata (Giant cryptocoryne) Cryptocoryne crispatula Cryptocoryne cruddasiana Cryptocoryne diderici Cryptocoryne elliptica Cryptocoryne ferruginea Cryptocoryne fusca Cryptocoryne grabowskii Cryptocoryne gracilis Cryptocoryne griffithii Cryptocoryne huegelii Cryptocoryne legroi Cryptocoryne longicauda Cryptocoryne lucens Cryptocoryne lutea Cryptocoryne minima Cryptocoryne moehlmannii (Moehlmann's cryptocoryne) Cryptocoryne nevillii Cryptocoryne nurii Cryptocoryne parva (Tiny cryptocoryne) Cryptocoryne petchii Cryptocoryne pontederiifolia Cryptocoryne purpurea Cryptocoryne retrospiralis Cryptocoryne siamensis Cryptocoryne spiralis Cryptocoryne thwaitesii Cryptocoryne tonkinensis Cryptocoryne undulata (Undulate cryptocoryne) Cryptocoryne usteriana Cryptocoryne venemae Cryptocoryne versteegii Cryptocoryne walkeri Cryptocoryne wendtii 'Tropica' Cryptocoryne x willisii Cryptocoryne zewaldiae Cryptocoryne zonata Cryptocoryne zukalii Cyperus alternifolius Cyperus helferi Cyperus papyrus Damasonium alisma Didiplis diandra (Water hedge) Echinodorus africanus Echinodorus amazonicus (Amazon sword) Echinodorus andrieuxii Echinodorus angustifolius Echinodorus argentinensis Echinodorus aschersonianus Echinodorus barthii Echinodorus berteroi Echinodorus bleheri (Broadleaved amazon) Echinodorus bolivianus (Bolivian sword) Echinodorus brevipedicellatus Echinodorus cordifolius (Radicans sword, spade leaf sword) Echinodorus fluitans Echinodorus grandiflorus (Large-flowered amazon) Echinodorus horemanii (Black-red amazon) Echinodorus horizontalis Echinodorus humilis Echinodorus latifolius Echinodorus longiscapus Echinodorus macrophyllus (Large-leaved amazon sword) Echinodorus martii Echinodorus major (Ruffled amazon sword) Echinodorus opacus (Opaque amazon sword) Echinodorus osiris (Red amazon sword) Echinodorus 'Ozelot' Echinodorus palaefolius Echinodorus paniculatus Echinodorus parviflorus (Black amazon sword) Echinodorus pelliscidus Echinodorus quadricostatus (Dwarf sword) Echinodorus radicans Echinodorus rigidifolius Echinodorus 'Rubin' Echinodorus rubra Echinodorus schlueteri Echinodorus subalatus Echinodorus tenellus (Pygmy chain sword) Echinodorus tunicatus Echinodorus uruguayensis (Uruguay amazon sword) Egeria densa (Elodea, pondweed) Egeria naias Eichhornia crassipes (Water hyacinth) Eichhornia diversifolia Elatine hydropiper Elatine macropoda Eleocharis acicularis (Hairgrass) Eleocharis dulcis Eleocharis minima Eleocharis obtusa Eleocharis parvula Eleocharis vivipare Elodea canadensis (Canadian pondweed) Elodea nuttallii Elodea occidentalis Eriocaulon sp. Eusteralis stellata (Star rotala) Fittonia argyroneura Fontinalis antipyretica (Willow moss) Glossadelphus zollingeri Glossostigma diandrum Glossostigma elatinoides Gymnocoronis spilanthoides (Spadeleaf plant) Hemianthus callitrichoides (Dwarf helzine) Hemianthus micranthemoides (Pearlweed) Heteranthera dubia Heteranthera reniformis Heteranthera zosterifolia (Stargrass) Hippuris vulgaris Hottonia inflata Hottonia palustris (Water violet) Hydrilla verticillata Hydrocharis morsus-ranae Hydrocleis nymphoides Hydrocotyle leucocephala (Brazilian pennywort) Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Hydrocotyle verticillata (Whorled umbrella plant) Hydrocotyle vulgaris Hydrothrix gardneri Hydrotriche hottoniiflora Hygrophila angustifolia Hygrophila corymbosa 'crispa' Hygrophila corymbosa 'glabra' (Broadlead giant stricta) Hygrophila corymbosa 'gracilis' Hygrophila corymbosa 'siamensis' Hygrophila corymbosa 'strigosa' Hygrophila difformis (Water wisteria) Hygrophila guianensis Hygrophila lacustris Hygrophila lancea Hygrophila natalis Hygrophila polysperma (Dwarf hygrophilia) Hygrophila salicifolia Hygrophila stricta (Thai stricta, green stricta) Hygroryza aristata Isoetes lacustris (quillwort) Isoetes malinverniana Isoetes velata Isolepis setracea Juncus repens Lagarosiphon madagascariensis Lagarosiphon major (Elodea crispa) Lagenandra dewitii Lagenandra insignis Lagenandra koenigii Lagenandra lancifolia Lagenandra nairii Lagenandra ovata Lagenandra thwaitesii Lemna gibba Lemna minor (Duckweed) Lemna paucicostata Lemna perpusilla Lemna trisulca Lilaeopsis brasiliensis Lilaeopsis carolinensis Lilaeopsis macloviana Lilaeopsis mauritiana Lilaeopsis novae-zelandiae (New Zealand grassplant) Lilaeopsis ruthiana Limnobium laevigatum (Amazon frogbit) Limnobium spongia Limnocharis flava Limnophila aquatica (Giant ambulia) Limnophila aromatica Limnophila glabra Limnophila heterophylla Limnophila indica (Indian ambulia) Limnophila sessiflora Limnophila sessiliflora (Dwarf ambulia) Lindernia crustacea F. Muell. Lindernia rotundifolia Littorella uniflora Lobelia cardinalis (Cardinal flower, scarlet lobelia) Lobelia dortmanna Lomariopsis sp.Ludwigia alternifoliaLudwigia arcuataLudwigia glandulosa (Glandular ludwigia, red star ludwigia)Ludwigia helminthorrhizaLudwigia inclinataLudwigia inclinata var. verticellata 'Cuba'Ludwigia mullertiiLudwigia natansLudwigia palustrisLudwigia pulvinarisLudwigia repens (Creeping ludwigia, narrow-leaf ludwigia)Luronium natansLycopodiella inundata (Lycopodium inundatum)Lysimachia nummularia (creeping Jenny, moneywort)Marsilea crenataMarsilea drummondiiMarsilea hirsuta Marsilea pubescensMarsilea quadrifolia (water-clover)Mayaca fluviatilisMayaca vandelliiMicranthemum umbrosum (Helzine)Microsorum pteropus (Java fern)Monosolenium tenerum (commercial name; plants sold under this name are probably Metzgeria sp.)Myriophyllum alterniflorumMyriophyllum aquaticum (Brazilian milfoil, milfoil)Myriophyllum elatinoidesMyriophyllum heterophyllumMyriophyllum hippuroides (Green milfoil, water milfoil)Myriophyllum matogrossenseMyriophyllum proserpinacoidesMyriophyllum scabratum (Foxtail)Myriophyllum spicatumMyriophyllum tuberculatum (Red myriophyllum)Myriophyllum ussurienseMyriophyllum verticillatumMyriophylumm oguraenseNajas gramineaNajas guadelupensisNajas indicaNajas marinaNajas minorNajas pectinataNesaea crassicaulisNitella capillarisNitella flexilisNitella gracilisNomaphila siamensisNomaphila strictaNuphar advenumNuphar japonica (Spatterdock)Nuphar luteumNuphar pumilumNuphar sagittifoliumNymphaea albaNymphaea lotus (Tiger lotus)Nymphaea lotus var. rubra Nymphaea micranthaNymphaea pubescensNymphaea pygmeaNymphaea stellata (Red and blue water lily)Nymphaea zenkeri 'Red' (Red tiger lotus)Nymphoides aquatica (Banana plant)Nymphoides humboldtianaNymphoides indicaNymphoides peltataOrontium aquaticumOttelia alismoidesOttelia mesenterumOttelia ulvifoliaPhyllanthus fluitansPilularia americanaPilularia globuliferaPistia stratiotes (Water lettuce)Pogostemon helferiPogostemon stellatusPontederia cordataPotamogeton coloratusPotamogeton crispusPotamogeton densusPotamogeton filiformisPotamogeton gayiPotamogeton gramineusPotamogeton lucensPotamogeton malaianusPotamogeton natansPotamogeton perfoliatusProserpinaca palustrisRanunculus aquatilisRanunculus limosellaRegnellidium diphyllumRiccia fluitans (Crystalwort)Ricciocarpus natansRorippa aquaticaRotala indicaRotala macrandra (Giant red rotala)Rotala rotundifolia (Dwarf rotala)Rotala wallichii (Whorly rotala)Ruellia difformis (out of date synonym)Ruppia maritimaSagittaria chapmaniSagittaria eatoniiSagittaria filiformisSagittaria gramineaSagittaria guyanensisSagittaria isoëtiformisSagittaria latifoliaSagittaria microfilaSagittaria montevidensisSagittaria natansSagittaria papillosaSagittaria platyphylla (giant sagittaria)Sagittaria pusilla (dwarf sagittaria)Sagittaria sagittifoliaSagittaria subulata (needle sagittaria, floating arrowhead)Salvinia auriculataSalvinia cucullataSalvinia minimaSalvinia natans (water spangles)Salvinia oblongifoliaSalvinia rotundifoliaSamolus valerandi (Water cabbage)Saururus cernuus (Lizard's tail) Selaginella sp. Shinnersia rivularis (Mexican oak leaf)Spathiphyllum tasson (Brazilian Sword)Spathiphyllum wallisii (Peace lily)Spiranthes romanzoffianaSpirodela polyrhizaStratiotes aloidesSubularia aquaticaSynnema triflorum (out of date synonym)Taxiphyllum barbieriTonina fluviatilisTrapa natans (Water chestnut)Triglochin maritimaTriglochin palustreTriglochin striataTypha angustifoliaTypha latifoliaUtricularia gibbaUtricularia graminifoliaUtricularia minorUtricularia vulgarisVallisneria americana (Dwarf vallisneria)Vallisneria asiaticaVallisneria asiatica var. biwaensis (Corkscrew vallisneria)Vallisneria gigantea (Giant vallisneria)Vallisneria neotropicalisVallisneria rubraVallisneria spiralis (Straight vallisneria)Vallisneria tortifolia (Twisted vallisneria, dwarf vallisneria)Vallisneria tortissima Versicularia dubyana (Java moss)Wolffia arrhizaWolffia microscopicaWolffiella floridanaZannichellia palustris</div> False aquatics or pseudo-aquarium plants Several species of terrestrial plants are frequently sold as "aquarium plants". While such plants are beautiful and can survive and even flourish for months under water, they will eventually die and must be removed so their decay does not contaminate the aquarium water.Acorus gramineus var. pusilus (Dwarf sedge, Japanese rush) Acorus gramineus var. variegatus (Dwarf sedge, Japanese rush)Aglaonema modestum (Chinese Evergreen)Aglaonema simplexChlorophytum bichetii (Pongol sword)Dracaena sanderiana (Striped dragonplant) Hemigraphis colorata (Crimson ivy) Ophiopogon japonicus (Fountain plant) Pilea cadairei (Aluminum plant) Sciadopitys verticillata) (Umbrella pine, Koyamaki) Spathiphyllum tasson (Brazil Sword)Syngonium podophyllum'' (Stardust ivy) Freshwater Plant Images Gallery Photos Illustrations References See also List of freshwater aquarium fish species | List_of_freshwater_aquarium_plant_species |@lemmatized bolbitis:3 heudelotii:2 one:1 hundred:1 aquatic:5 plant:21 find:2 hobby:2 use:3 give:1 aquarium:8 natural:2 appearance:1 oxygenate:1 water:20 provide:1 habitat:2 fish:3 especially:1 fry:1 baby:2 invertebrate:2 specie:5 also:2 eat:1 live:1 recently:1 movement:1 part:1 aesthetic:1 design:1 aquascaping:1 spearhead:1 japanese:5 aquarist:1 takashi:1 amano:1 either:1 partially:1 fully:2 submerse:1 although:1 handful:1 obligate:1 must:2 grow:2 cabomba:10 sp:5 example:1 thrive:1 emersed:1 soil:1 kept:1 moist:1 list:2 alphabetically:1 scientific:2 name:5 important:1 note:1 taxonomy:1 genus:1 final:1 classification:1 change:1 often:1 past:1 year:1 create:1 confusion:1 aquarists:1 old:1 still:1 today:1 web:1 site:1 common:1 div:2 class:1 reference:2 small:1 style:1 moz:1 column:2 count:2 acorus:3 calamus:1 alisma:2 gramineum:1 alternanthera:5 bettzichiana:1 lilacina:1 philoxeroides:1 reineckii:1 rosaefolia:1 sessilis:1 ammania:5 gracilis:4 delicate:1 red:10 latifolia:1 senegalensis:1 anubias:14 afzelii:1 narrow:2 leafed:1 barteri:6 var:10 broadleaved:2 angustifolia:2 caladiifolia:1 glabra:3 nana:1 dwarf:12 gilletti:1 hastifolia:1 heterophylla:2 pynaertii:1 aponogeton:22 appendiculatus:1 bernierianus:1 boivinianus:1 capuronii:1 crispus:1 crinkle:1 ruffle:2 decartyi:1 desertorum:1 dioecus:1 distachyos:1 elongatus:1 fenestralis:1 henkelianus:1 junceus:1 longiplumulosus:1 loriae:1 madagascariensis:2 madagascar:1 laceleaf:1 lace:1 natans:4 rigidifolius:2 tenuispicatus:1 ulvaceus:1 compact:1 apongeton:1 undulatus:1 armoracia:1 aquatica:5 azolla:4 caroliniana:3 velvet:1 mosquito:1 fern:4 filiculoïdes:1 moss:3 pinnata:1 bacopa:11 amplexicaulis:1 australis:1 lemon:1 hyssop:2 giant:8 crenata:1 monnieri:1 tear:1 myriophylloides:1 rotundifolia:4 round:1 baldellia:1 ranunculoides:1 barclaya:2 longifolia:1 orchid:1 lily:3 motleyi:1 blyxa:5 aubertii:1 echinosperma:1 japonica:2 rush:3 novoguineensis:1 octandra:1 heteroclita:1 african:2 congo:1 yellow:1 green:3 furcata:1 palaeformis:1 piauhyensis:1 caldesia:1 parnassifolia:1 calla:1 palustris:4 callitriche:4 hamulata:1 hermaphroditica:1 stagnalis:1 cardamine:2 lyrata:1 chinese:2 ivy:3 cress:1 ceratophyllum:2 demersum:1 hornwort:2 submersum:1 tropical:1 ceratopteris:3 cornuta:1 pteridoides:1 thalictroides:1 sprite:1 cladophora:1 aegagropila:1 crassula:2 helmsii:1 crinum:4 calamistratum:1 onion:2 purpurascens:1 thaianum:1 cryptocoryne:56 affinis:1 alba:1 albida:1 aponogetifolia:1 auriculata:1 axelrodii:1 balansae:1 beckettii:1 beckett:1 blassii:1 bogneri:1 bullosa:1 ciliata:1 cognata:1 cordata:1 crispatula:1 cruddasiana:1 diderici:1 elliptica:1 ferruginea:1 fusca:1 grabowskii:1 griffithii:1 huegelii:1 legroi:1 longicauda:1 lucens:1 lutea:1 minimum:2 moehlmannii:1 moehlmann:1 nevillii:1 nurii:1 parva:1 tiny:1 petchii:1 pontederiifolia:1 purpurea:1 retrospiralis:1 siamensis:2 spiralis:2 thwaitesii:2 tonkinensis:1 undulata:1 undulate:1 usteriana:1 venemae:1 versteegii:1 walkeri:1 wendtii:1 tropica:1 x:1 willisii:1 zewaldiae:1 zonata:1 zukalii:1 cyperus:3 alternifolius:1 helferi:1 papyrus:1 damasonium:1 didiplis:1 diandra:1 hedge:1 echinodorus:39 africanus:1 amazonicus:1 amazon:11 sword:15 andrieuxii:1 angustifolius:1 argentinensis:1 aschersonianus:1 barthii:1 berteroi:1 bleheri:1 bolivianus:1 bolivian:1 brevipedicellatus:1 cordifolius:1 radicans:2 spade:1 leaf:3 fluitans:2 grandiflorus:1 large:2 flowered:1 horemanii:1 black:2 horizontalis:1 humilis:1 latifolius:1 longiscapus:1 macrophyllus:1 leave:1 martii:1 major:2 opacus:1 opaque:1 osiris:1 ozelot:1 palaefolius:1 paniculatus:1 parviflorus:1 pelliscidus:1 quadricostatus:1 rubin:1 rubra:2 schlueteri:1 subalatus:1 tenellus:1 pygmy:1 chain:1 tunicatus:1 uruguayensis:1 uruguay:1 egeria:2 densa:1 elodea:5 pondweed:2 naias:1 eichhornia:2 crassipes:1 hyacinth:1 diversifolia:1 elatine:2 hydropiper:1 macropoda:1 eleocharis:6 acicularis:1 hairgrass:1 dulcis:1 obtusa:1 parvula:1 vivipare:1 canadensis:1 canadian:1 nuttallii:1 occidentalis:1 eriocaulon:1 eusteralis:1 stellata:2 star:2 rotala:6 fittonia:1 argyroneura:1 fontinalis:1 antipyretica:1 willow:1 glossadelphus:1 zollingeri:1 glossostigma:2 diandrum:1 elatinoides:1 gymnocoronis:1 spilanthoides:1 spadeleaf:1 hemianthus:2 callitrichoides:1 helzine:2 micranthemoides:1 pearlweed:1 heteranthera:3 dubia:1 reniformis:1 zosterifolia:1 stargrass:1 hippuris:1 vulgaris:2 hottonia:2 inflata:1 violet:1 hydrilla:1 verticillata:3 hydrocharis:1 morsus:1 ranae:1 hydrocleis:1 nymphoides:3 hydrocotyle:4 leucocephala:1 brazilian:3 pennywort:1 sibthorpioides:1 whorled:1 umbrella:2 hydrothrix:1 gardneri:1 hydrotriche:1 hottoniiflora:1 hygrophila:14 corymbosa:5 crispa:2 broadlead:1 stricta:4 strigosa:1 difformis:2 wisteria:1 guianensis:1 lacustris:2 lancea:1 natalis:1 polysperma:1 hygrophilia:1 salicifolia:1 thai:1 hygroryza:1 aristata:1 isoetes:3 quillwort:1 malinverniana:1 velata:1 isolepis:1 setracea:1 juncus:1 repens:2 lagarosiphon:2 lagenandra:7 dewitii:1 insignis:1 koenigii:1 lancifolia:1 nairii:1 ovata:1 lemna:5 gibba:1 minor:1 duckweed:1 paucicostata:1 perpusilla:1 trisulca:1 lilaeopsis:6 brasiliensis:1 carolinensis:1 macloviana:1 mauritiana:1 nova:1 zelandiae:1 new:1 zealand:1 grassplant:1 ruthiana:1 limnobium:2 laevigatum:1 frogbit:1 spongia:1 limnocharis:1 flava:1 limnophila:7 ambulia:3 aromatica:1 indica:1 indian:1 sessiflora:1 sessiliflora:1 lindernia:2 crustacea:1 f:1 muell:1 littorella:1 uniflora:1 lobelia:3 cardinalis:1 cardinal:1 flower:1 scarlet:1 dortmanna:1 lomariopsis:1 ludwigia:7 alternifolialudwigia:1 arcuataludwigia:1 glandulosa:1 glandular:1 helminthorrhizaludwigia:1 inclinataludwigia:1 inclinata:1 verticellata:1 cuba:1 mullertiiludwigia:1 natansludwigia:1 palustrisludwigia:1 pulvinarisludwigia:1 creep:2 luronium:1 natanslycopodiella:1 inundata:1 lycopodium:1 inundatum:1 lysimachia:1 nummularia:1 jenny:1 moneywort:1 marsilea:2 crenatamarsilea:1 drummondiimarsilea:1 hirsuta:1 pubescensmarsilea:1 quadrifolia:1 clover:1 mayaca:1 fluviatilismayaca:1 vandelliimicranthemum:1 umbrosum:1 microsorum:1 pteropus:1 java:2 monosolenium:1 tenerum:1 commercial:1 sell:2 probably:1 metzgeria:1 myriophyllum:6 alterniflorummyriophyllum:1 aquaticum:1 milfoil:4 elatinoidesmyriophyllum:1 heterophyllummyriophyllum:1 hippuroides:1 matogrossensemyriophyllum:1 proserpinacoidesmyriophyllum:1 scabratum:1 foxtail:1 spicatummyriophyllum:1 tuberculatum:1 ussuriensemyriophyllum:1 verticillatummyriophylumm:1 oguraensenajas:1 gramineanajas:1 guadelupensisnajas:1 indicanajas:1 marinanajas:1 minornajas:1 pectinatanesaea:1 crassicaulisnitella:1 capillarisnitella:1 flexilisnitella:1 gracilisnomaphila:1 siamensisnomaphila:1 strictanuphar:1 advenumnuphar:1 spatterdock:1 nuphar:1 luteumnuphar:1 pumilumnuphar:1 sagittifoliumnymphaea:1 albanymphaea:1 lotus:4 tiger:2 nymphaea:3 micranthanymphaea:1 pubescensnymphaea:1 pygmeanymphaea:1 blue:1 zenkeri:1 banana:1 humboldtiananymphoides:1 indicanymphoides:1 peltataorontium:1 aquaticumottelia:1 alismoidesottelia:1 mesenterumottelia:1 ulvifoliaphyllanthus:1 fluitanspilularia:1 americanapilularia:1 globuliferapistia:1 stratiotes:1 lettuce:1 pogostemon:1 helferipogostemon:1 stellatuspontederia:1 cordatapotamogeton:1 coloratuspotamogeton:1 crispuspotamogeton:1 densuspotamogeton:1 filiformispotamogeton:1 gayipotamogeton:1 gramineuspotamogeton:1 lucenspotamogeton:1 malaianuspotamogeton:1 natanspotamogeton:1 perfoliatusproserpinaca:1 palustrisranunculus:1 aquatilisranunculus:1 limosellaregnellidium:1 diphyllumriccia:1 crystalwort:1 ricciocarpus:1 natansrorippa:1 aquaticarotala:1 indicarotala:1 macrandra:1 wallichii:1 whorly:1 ruellia:1 date:2 synonym:2 ruppia:1 maritimasagittaria:1 chapmanisagittaria:1 eatoniisagittaria:1 filiformissagittaria:1 gramineasagittaria:1 guyanensissagittaria:1 isoëtiformissagittaria:1 latifoliasagittaria:1 microfilasagittaria:1 montevidensissagittaria:1 natanssagittaria:1 papillosasagittaria:1 platyphylla:1 sagittaria:5 pusilla:1 sagittifoliasagittaria:1 subulata:1 needle:1 float:1 arrowhead:1 salvinia:2 auriculatasalvinia:1 cucullatasalvinia:1 minimasalvinia:1 spangle:1 oblongifoliasalvinia:1 rotundifoliasamolus:1 valerandi:1 cabbage:1 saururus:1 cernuus:1 lizard:1 tail:1 selaginella:1 shinnersia:1 rivularis:1 mexican:1 oak:1 spathiphyllum:3 tasson:2 wallisii:1 peace:1 spiranthes:1 romanzoffianaspirodela:1 polyrhizastratiotes:1 aloidessubularia:1 aquaticasynnema:1 triflorum:1 taxiphyllum:1 barbieritonina:1 fluviatilistrapa:1 chestnut:1 triglochin:1 maritimatriglochin:1 palustretriglochin:1 striatatypha:1 angustifoliatypha:1 latifoliautricularia:1 gibbautricularia:1 graminifoliautricularia:1 minorutricularia:1 vulgarisvallisneria:1 americana:1 vallisneria:11 asiaticavallisneria:1 asiatica:1 biwaensis:1 corkscrew:1 gigantea:1 neotropicalisvallisneria:1 rubravallisneria:1 straight:1 tortifolia:1 twisted:1 tortissima:1 versicularia:1 dubyana:1 wolffia:1 arrhizawolffia:1 microscopicawolffiella:1 floridanazannichellia:1 false:1 pseudo:1 several:1 terrestrial:1 frequently:1 beautiful:1 survive:1 even:1 flourish:1 month:1 eventually:1 die:1 remove:1 decay:1 contaminate:1 gramineus:2 pusilus:1 sedge:2 variegatus:1 aglaonema:2 modestum:1 evergreen:1 simplexchlorophytum:1 bichetii:1 pongol:1 dracaena:1 sanderiana:1 striped:1 dragonplant:1 hemigraphis:1 colorata:1 crimson:1 ophiopogon:1 japonicus:1 fountain:1 pilea:1 cadairei:1 aluminum:1 sciadopitys:1 pine:1 koyamaki:1 brazil:1 syngonium:1 podophyllum:1 stardust:1 freshwater:2 image:1 gallery:1 photos:1 illustration:1 see:1 |@bigram aquarium_fish:2 anubias_barteri:5 barteri_var:5 cryptocoryne_cryptocoryne:5 sword_echinodorus:10 hygrophila_corymbosa:5 oak_leaf:1 vallisneria_vallisneria:5 freshwater_aquarium:1 |
4,619 | Fibonacci_number | In mathematics, the Fibonacci numbers are the following sequence of numbers: The first two Fibonacci numbers are 0 and 1, and each remaining number is the sum of the previous two: Some sources omit the initial 0, instead beginning the sequence with two 1s. In mathematical terms, the sequence Fn of Fibonacci numbers is defined by the recurrence relation with seed values The Fibonacci sequence is named after Leonardo of Pisa, who was known as Fibonacci (a contraction of filius Bonaccio, "son of Bonaccio".) Fibonacci's 1202 book Liber Abaci introduced the sequence to Western European mathematics, although the sequence had been previously described in Indian mathematics. Parmanand Singh. "Acharya Hemachandra and the (so called) Fibonacci Numbers". Math. Ed. Siwan, 20(1):28-30, 1986. ISSN 0047-6269] Parmanand Singh,"The So-called Fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India." Historia Mathematica 12(3), 229–44, 1985. Origins The Fibonacci sequence was well known in ancient India, where it was applied to the metrical sciences (prosody), long before it was known in Europe. Developments have been attributed to Pingala (200 BC), Virahanka (6th century AD), Gopāla (c.1135 AD), and Hemachandra (c.1150 AD). The Fibonacci sequence is formed by adding S to a pattern of length n − 1, or L to a pattern of length n − 2; and the prosodicists showed that the number of patterns of length n is the sum of the two previous numbers in the sequence. Donald Knuth reviews this work in The Art of Computer Programming. In the West, the sequence was studied by Leonardo of Pisa, known as Fibonacci, in his Liber Abaci (1202) Chapter II.12, pp. 404–405. . He considers the growth of an idealised (biologically unrealistic) rabbit population, assuming that: In the "zeroth" month, there is one pair of rabbits (additional pairs of rabbits = 0). In the first month, the first pair begets another pair (additional pairs of rabbits = 1). In the second month, both pairs of rabbits have another pair, and the first pair dies (additional pairs of rabbits = 1). In the third month, the second pair and the new two pairs have a total of three new pairs, and the older second pair dies (additional pairs of rabbits = 2). The laws of this are that each pair of rabbits has 2 pairs in its lifetime, and dies. Let the population at month n be F(n). At this time, only rabbits who were alive at month n − 2 are fertile and produce offspring, so F(n − 2) pairs are added to the current population of F(n − 1). Thus the total is F(n) = F(n − 1) + F(n − 2). List of Fibonacci numbers The first 21 Fibonacci numbers , also denoted as Fn, for n = 0, 1, 2, ... ,20 are: By modern convention, the sequence begins with F0=0. The Liber Abaci began the sequence with F1 = 1, omitting the initial 0, and the sequence is still written this way by some. The website has the first 300 Fn factored into primes and links to more extensive tables. {| class="wikitable" |- | F0 | F1 | F2 | F3 | F4 | F5 | F6 | F7 | F8 | F9 | F10 | F11 | F12 | F13 | F14 | F15 | F16 | F17 | F18 | F19 | F20 |- | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 8 | 13 | 21 | 34 | 55 | 89 | 144 | 233 | 377 | 610 | 987 | 1597 | 2584 | 4181 | 6765 |} Using the recurrence relation, the sequence can also be extended to negative index n. The result satisfies the equation Thus the complete sequence is Divisibility properties Every 3rd number of the sequence is even and more generally, every kth number of the sequence is a multiple of Fk. Thus the Fibonacci sequence is an example of a divisibility sequence. In fact, the Fibonacci sequence satisfies the stronger divisibility property Relation to the golden ratio Closed form expression Like every sequence defined by linear recurrence, the Fibonacci numbers have a closed-form solution. It has become known as Binet's formula, even though it was already known by Abraham de Moivre: where is the golden ratio (note, that , as can be seen from the defining equation above). The Fibonacci recursion is similar to the defining equation of the golden ratio in the form which is also known as the generating polynomial of the recursion. Proof by induction Any root of the equation above satisfies and multiplying by shows: By definition is a root of the equation, and the other root is Therefore: and Both and are geometric series (for n = 1, 2, 3, ...) that satisfy the Fibonacci recursion. The first series grows exponentially; the second exponentially tends to zero, with alternating signs. Because the Fibonacci recursion is linear, any linear combination of these two series will also satisfy the recursion. These linear combinations form a two-dimensional linear vector space; the original Fibonacci sequence can be found in this space. Linear combinations of series and , with coefficients a and b, can be defined by for any real All thus-defined series satisfy the Fibonacci recursion Requiring that and yields and , resulting in the formula of Binet we started with. It has been shown that this formula satisfies the Fibonacci recursion. Furthermore, an explicit check can be made: and establishing the base cases of the induction, proving that for all Therefore, for any two starting values, a combination can be found such that the function is the exact closed formula for the series. Computation by rounding Since for all , the number is the closest integer to Therefore it can be found by rounding, or in terms of the floor function: Limit of consecutive quotients Johannes Kepler observed that the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers converges. He wrote that "as 5 is to 8 so is 8 to 13, practically, and as 8 is to 13, so is 13 to 21 almost”, and concluded that the limit approaches the golden ratio . Strena seu de Nive Sexangula (1611) This convergence does not depend on the starting values chosen, excluding 0, 0. Proof: In brief, Fibonacci numbers are approximately exponential – where the constant depends on starting values – as the remaining term in the exact formula for the Fibonacci numbers becomes exponentially close to zero as n grows. Taking the ratio yields More formally, it follows from the explicit formula that for any real because and thus Decomposition of powers of the golden ratio Since the golden ratio satisfies the equation this expression can be used to decompose higher powers as a linear function of lower powers, which in turn can be decomposed all the way down to a linear combination of and 1. The resulting recurrence relationships yield Fibonacci numbers as the linear coefficients, thus closing the loop: This expression is also true for if the Fibonacci sequence is extended to negative integers using the Fibonacci rule Matrix form A 2-dimensional system of linear difference equations that describes the Fibonacci sequence is or The eigenvalues of the matrix A are and , and the elements of the eigenvectors of A, and , are in the ratios and This matrix has a determinant of −1, and thus it is a 2×2 unimodular matrix. This property can be understood in terms of the continued fraction representation for the golden ratio: The Fibonacci numbers occur as the ratio of successive convergents of the continued fraction for , and the matrix formed from successive convergents of any continued fraction has a determinant of +1 or −1. The matrix representation gives the following closed expression for the Fibonacci numbers: Taking the determinant of both sides of this equation yields Cassini's identity Additionally, since for any square matrix , the following identities can be derived: In particular, with , For another way to derive the formulas see the "EWD note" by Dijkstra. E. W. Dijkstra (1978). In honour of Fibonacci. Report EWD654 Recognizing Fibonacci numbers The question may arise whether a positive integer is a Fibonacci number. Since is the closest integer to , the most straightforward, brute-force test is the identity which is true if and only if is a Fibonacci number. In this formula, F(n) can be computed rapidly using any of the previously discussed closed-form expressions. Alternatively, a positive integer is a Fibonacci number if and only if one of or is a perfect square. A slightly more sophisticated test uses the fact that the convergents of the continued fraction representation of are ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers, that is the inequality (with coprime positive integers , ) is true if and only if and are successive Fibonacci numbers. From this one derives the criterion that is a Fibonacci number if and only if the closed interval contains a positive integer. M. Möbius, Wie erkennt man eine Fibonacci Zahl?, Math. Semesterber. (1998) 45; 243–246 Identities Most identities involving Fibonacci numbers draw from combinatorial arguments. F(n) can be interpreted as the number of sequences of 1s and 2s that sum to n − 1, with the convention that F(0) = 0, meaning no sum will add up to −1, and that F(1) = 1, meaning the empty sum will "add up" to 0. Here the order of the summands matters. For example, 1 + 2 and 2 + 1 are considered two different sums and are counted twice. This is discussed in further detail at Young–Fibonacci lattice. First identity The nth Fibonacci number is the sum of the previous two Fibonacci numbers. Proof We must establish that the sequence of numbers defined by the combinatorial interpretation above satisfy the same recurrence relation as the Fibonacci numbers (and so are indeed identical to the Fibonacci numbers). The set of F(n + 1) ways of making ordered sums of 1's and 2's that sum to n may be divided into two non-overlapping sets. The first set contains those sums whose first summand is 1; the remainder sums to n−1, so there are F(n) sums in the first set. The second set contains those sums whose first summand is 2; the remainder sums to n−2, so there are F(n−1) sums in the second set. The first summand can only be 1 or 2, so these two sets exhaust the original set. Thus F(n+1) = F(n) + F(n−1). Second identity The sum of the first n Fibonacci numbers is the (n + 2)nd Fibonacci number minus 1. Proof We count the number of ways summing 1s and 2s to n + 1 such that at least one of the summands is 2. As before, there are F(n + 2) ways summing 1s and 2s to n + 1 when n ≥ 0. Since there is only one sum of n + 1 that does not use any 2, namely 1 + ... + 1 (n + 1 terms), we subtract 1 from F(n + 2). Equivalently, we can consider the first occurrence of 2 as a summand. If, in a sum, the first summand is 2, then there are F(n) ways to the complete the counting for n − 1. If the second summand is 2 but the first is 1, then there are F(n − 1) ways to complete the counting for n − 2. Proceed in this fashion. Eventually we consider the (n + 1)th summand. If it is 2 but all of the previous n summands are 1s, then there are F(0) ways to complete the counting for 0. If a sum contains 2 as a summand, the first occurrence of such summand must take place in between the first and (n + 1)th position. Thus F(n) + F(n − 1) + ... + F(0) gives the desired counting. Third identity This identity has slightly different forms for Fk, depending on whether k is odd or even. The sum of the first n − 1 Fibonacci numbers, Fj, such that j is odd, is the (2n)th Fibonacci number. The sum of the first n Fibonacci numbers, Fj, such that j is even, is the (2n + 1)th Fibonacci number minus 1. Proofs By induction for F2n: A basis case for this could be F1 = F2. By induction for F2n+1: A basis case for this could be F0 = F1−1. Fourth identity Proof This identity can be established in two stages. First, we count the number of ways summing 1s and 2s to −1, 0, ..., or n + 1 such that at least one of the summands is 2. By our second identity, there are F(n + 2) − 1 ways summing to n + 1; F(n + 1) − 1 ways summing to n; ...; and, eventually, F(2) − 1 way summing to 1. As F(1) − 1 = F(0) = 0, we can add up all n + 1 sums and apply the second identity again to obtain [F(n + 2) − 1] + [F(n + 1) − 1] + ... + [F(2) − 1] = [F(n + 2) − 1] + [F(n + 1) − 1] + ... + [F(2) − 1] + [F(1) − 1] + F(0) = F(n + 2) + [F(n + 1) + ... + F(1) + F(0)] − (n + 2) = F(n + 2) + [F(n + 3) − 1] − (n + 2) = F(n + 2) + F(n + 3) − (n + 3). On the other hand, we observe from the second identity that there are F(0) + F(1) + ... + F(n − 1) + F(n) ways summing to n + 1; F(0) + F(1) + ... + F(n − 1) ways summing to n; ...... F(0) way summing to −1. Adding up all n + 1 sums, we see that there are (n + 1) F(0) + n F(1) + ... + F(n) ways summing to −1, 0, ..., or n + 1. Since the two methods of counting refer to the same number, we have (n + 1) F(0) + n F(1) + ... + F(n) = F(n + 2) + F(n + 3) − (n + 3) Finally, we complete the proof by subtracting the above identity from n + 1 times the second identity. Fifth identity The sum of the squares of the first n Fibonacci numbers is the product of the nth and (n + 1)th Fibonacci numbers. Identity for doubling n Fibonacci Number - from Wolfram MathWorld Another identity Another identity useful for calculating Fn for large values of n is from which other identities for specific values of k, n, and c can be derived below, including for all integers n and k. Dijkstra points out that doubling identities of this type can be used to calculate Fn using O(log n) long multiplication operations of size n bits. The number of bits of precision needed to perform each multiplication doubles at each step, so the performance is limited by the final multiplication; if the fast Schönhage-Strassen multiplication algorithm is used, this is O(n log n log log n) bit operations. Notice that, with the definition of Fibonacci numbers with negative n given in the introduction, this formula reduces to the double n formula when k = 0. Other identities Other identities include relationships to the Lucas numbers, which have the same recursive properties but start with L0=2 and L1=1. These properties include F2n=FnLn. There are also scaling identities, which take you from Fn and Fn+1 to a variety of things of the form Fan+b; for instance by Cassini's identity. These can be found experimentally using lattice reduction, and are useful in setting up the special number field sieve to factorize a Fibonacci number. Such relations exist in a very general sense for numbers defined by recurrence relations, see the section on multiplication formulae under Perrin numbers for details. Power series The generating function of the Fibonacci sequence is the power series This series has a simple and interesting closed-form solution for This solution can be proven by using the Fibonacci recurrence to expand each coefficient in the infinite sum defining : Solving the equation for results in the closed form solution. In particular, math puzzle-books note the curious value , or more generally for all integers . Conversely, Reciprocal sums Infinite sums over reciprocal Fibonacci numbers can sometimes be evaluated in terms of theta functions. For example, we can write the sum of every odd-indexed reciprocal Fibonacci number as and the sum of squared reciprocal Fibonacci numbers as If we add 1 to each Fibonacci number in the first sum, there is also the closed form and there is a nice nested sum of squared Fibonacci numbers giving the reciprocal of the golden ratio, Results such as these make it plausible that a closed formula for the plain sum of reciprocal Fibonacci numbers could be found, but none is yet known. Despite that, the reciprocal Fibonacci constant has been proved irrational by Richard André-Jeannin. Primes and divisibility Fibonacci primes A Fibonacci prime is a Fibonacci number that is prime . The first few are: 2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, ... Fibonacci primes with thousands of digits have been found, but it is not known whether there are infinitely many. They must all have a prime index, except F4 = 3. There are arbitrarily long runs of composite numbers and therefore also of composite Fibonacci numbers. With the exceptions of 1, 8 and 144 (F0 = F1, F6 and F12) every Fibonacci number has a prime factor that is not a factor of any smaller Fibonacci number (Carmichael's theorem). Ron Knott, "The Fibonacci numbers". 144 is the only nontrivial square Fibonacci number. Attila Pethő proved A. Pethő, Diophantine properties of linear recursive sequences II, Acta Math. Paedagogicae Nyíregyháziensis, 17(2001), 81--96. in 2001 that there are only finitely many perfect power Fibonacci numbers, in fact, they are less than 5.1× 1017. In 2006, Y. Bugeaud, M. Mignotte, and S. Siksek proved that only 8 and 144 are perfect powers Y. Bugeaud, M. Mignotte, S. Siksek: Classical and modular approaches to exponential Diophantine equations. I. Fibonacci and Lucas perfect powers. Ann. of Math. (2), 163(2006), 969--1018. . No Fibonacci number greater than F6 = 8 is one greater or one less than a prime number. Ross Honsberger Mathematical Gems III (AMS Dolciani Mathematical Expositions No. 9), 1985, ISBN 0-88385-318-3, p. 133. Any three consecutive Fibonacci numbers, taken two at a time, are relatively prime: that is, gcd(Fn, Fn+1) = gcd(Fn, Fn+2) = 1. More generally, gcd(Fn, Fm) = Fgcd(n, m). Paulo Ribenboim, My Numbers, My Friends, Springer-Verlag 2000 Su, Francis E., et al. "Fibonacci GCD's, please.", Mudd Math Fun Facts. Prime divisors of Fibonacci numbers The divisibility of Fibonacci numbers by a prime p is related to the Legendre symbol defined as If p is a prime number then Paulo Ribenboim (1996), The New Book of Prime Number Records, New York: Springer, ISBN 0-387-94457-5, p. 64 Franz Lemmermeyer (2000), Reciprocity Laws, New York: Springer, ISBN 3-540-66957-4, ex 2.25-2.28, pp. 73-74 For example, It is not known whether there exists a prime p such that . Such primes (if there are any) would be called Wall-Sun-Sun primes. Also, if p ≠ 5 is an odd prime number then: Lemmermeyer, ex. 2.38, pp. 73-74 Examples of all the cases: For odd n, all odd prime divisors of Fn are ≡ 1 (mod 4), implying that all odd divisors of Fn (as the products of odd prime divisors) are ≡ 1 (mod 4). Lemmermeyer, ex. 2.27 p. 73 The website has the first 300 Fibonacci numbers factored into primes. For example, F1 = 1, F3 = 2, F5 = 5, F7 = 13, F9 = 34 = 2×17, F11 = 89, F13 = 233, F15 = 610 = 2×5×61 Divisibility by 11 For example, let n = 1: F1+F2+...+F10 = 1 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 5 + 8 + 13 + 21 + 34 + 55 = 143 = 11×13 n = 2: F2+F3+...+F11 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 5 + 8 + 13 + 21 + 34 + 55 + 89 = 231 = 11×21 n = 3: F3+F4+...+F12 = 2 + 3 + 5 + 8 + 13 + 21 + 34 + 55 + 89 + 144= 374 = 11×34 In fact, the identity is true for all integers n, not just positive ones: n = 0: F0+F1+...+F9 = 0 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 5 + 8 + 13 + 21 + 34 = 88 = 11×8 n = −1: F−1+F0+...+F8 = 1 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 5 + 8 + 13 + 21 = 55 = 11×5 n = −2: F−2+F−1+F0+...+F7 = −1 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 5 + 8 + 13 = 33 = 11×3 Right triangles Starting with 5, every second Fibonacci number is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with integer sides, or in other words, the largest number in a Pythagorean triple. The length of the longer leg of this triangle is equal to the sum of the three sides of the preceding triangle in this series of triangles, and the shorter leg is equal to the difference between the preceding bypassed Fibonacci number and the shorter leg of the preceding triangle. The first triangle in this series has sides of length 5, 4, and 3. Skipping 8, the next triangle has sides of length 13, 12 (5 + 4 + 3), and 5 (8 − 3). Skipping 21, the next triangle has sides of length 34, 30 (13 + 12 + 5), and 16 (21 − 5). This series continues indefinitely. The triangle sides a, b, c can be calculated directly: These formulas satisfy for all n, but they only represent triangle sides when . Any four consecutive Fibonacci numbers Fn, Fn+1, Fn+2 and Fn+3 can also be used to generate a Pythagorean triple in a different way: Example 1: let the Fibonacci numbers be 1, 2, 3 and 5. Then: Example 2: let the Fibonacci numbers be 8, 13, 21 and 34. Then: Magnitude of Fibonacci numbers Since is asymptotic to , the number of digits in the base b representation of is asymptotic to . For every integer d greater than 1 there are either 4 or 5 Fibonacci numbers with d digits in base 10. Applications The Fibonacci numbers are important in the run-time analysis of Euclid's algorithm to determine the greatest common divisor of two integers: the worst case input for this algorithm is a pair of consecutive Fibonacci numbers. Yuri Matiyasevich was able to show that the Fibonacci numbers can be defined by a Diophantine equation, which led to his original solution of Hilbert's tenth problem. The Fibonacci numbers occur in the sums of "shallow" diagonals in Pascal's triangle and Lozanić's triangle (see "Binomial coefficient"). (They occur more obviously in Hosoya's triangle). Every positive integer can be written in a unique way as the sum of one or more distinct Fibonacci numbers in such a way that the sum does not include any two consecutive Fibonacci numbers. This is known as Zeckendorf's theorem, and a sum of Fibonacci numbers that satisfies these conditions is called a Zeckendorf representation. The Fibonacci numbers and principle is also used in the financial markets. It is used in trading algorithms, applications and strategies. Some typical forms include: the Fibonacci fan, Fibonacci Arc, Fibonacci Retracement and the Fibonacci Time Extension. Fibonacci numbers are used by some pseudorandom number generators. Fibonacci numbers are used in a polyphase version of the merge sort algorithm in which an unsorted list is divided into two lists whose lengths correspond to sequential Fibonacci numbers - by dividing the list so that the two parts have lengths in the approximate proportion φ. A tape-drive implementation of the polyphase merge sort was described in The Art of Computer Programming. Fibonacci numbers arise in the analysis of the Fibonacci heap data structure. The Fibonacci cube is an undirected graph with a Fibonacci number of nodes that has been proposed as a network topology for parallel computing. A one-dimensional optimization method, called the Fibonacci search technique, uses Fibonacci numbers. The Fibonacci number series is used for optional lossy compression in the IFF 8SVX audio file format used on Amiga computers. The number series compands the original audio wave similar to logarithmic methods e.g. µ-law. Amiga ROM Kernel Reference Manual, Addison-Wesley 1991 IFF - MultimediaWiki In music, Fibonacci numbers are sometimes used to determine tunings, and, as in visual art, to determine the length or size of content or formal elements. It is commonly thought that the first movement of Béla Bartók's Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta was structured using Fibonacci numbers. Since the conversion factor 1.609344 for miles to kilometers is close to the golden ratio (denoted φ), the decomposition of distance in miles into a sum of Fibonacci numbers becomes nearly the kilometer sum when the Fibonacci numbers are replaced by their successors. This method amounts to a radix 2 number register in golden ratio base φ being shifted. To convert from kilometers to miles, shift the register down the Fibonacci sequence instead. An Application of the Fibonacci Number Representation A Practical Use of the Sequence Zeckendorf representation Fibonacci numbers in nature Fibonacci sequences appear in biological settings, in two consecutive Fibonacci numbers, such as branching in trees, arrangement of leaves on a stem, the fruitlets of a pineapple, the flowering of artichoke, an uncurling fern and the arrangement of a pine cone. In addition, numerous poorly substantiated claims of Fibonacci numbers or golden sections in nature are found in popular sources, e.g. relating to the breeding of rabbits, the spirals of shells, and the curve of waves. The Fibonacci numbers are also found in the family tree of honeybees. Przemysław Prusinkiewicz advanced the idea that real instances can be in part understood as the expression of certain algebraic constraints on free groups, specifically as certain Lindenmayer grammars. A model for the pattern of florets in the head of a sunflower was proposed by H. Vogel in 1979. This has the form where n is the index number of the floret and c is a constant scaling factor; the florets thus lie on Fermat's spiral. The divergence angle, approximately 137.51°, is the golden angle, dividing the circle in the golden ratio. Because this ratio is irrational, no floret has a neighbor at exactly the same angle from the center, so the florets pack efficiently. Because the rational approximations to the golden ratio are of the form F(j):F(j + 1), the nearest neighbors of floret number n are those at n ± F(j) for some index j which depends on r, the distance from the center. It is often said that sunflowers and similar arrangements have 55 spirals in one direction and 89 in the other (or some other pair of adjacent Fibonacci numbers), but this is true only of one range of radii, typically the outermost and thus most conspicuous. Popular culture Generalizations The Fibonacci sequence has been generalized in many ways. These include: Generalizing the index to negative integers to produce the Negafibonacci numbers. Generalizing the index to real numbers using a modification of Binet's formula. Starting with other integers. Lucas numbers have L1 = 1, L2 = 3, and Ln = Ln−1 + Ln−2. Primefree sequences use the Fibonacci recursion with other starting points in order to generate sequences in which all numbers are composite. Letting a number be a linear function (other than the sum) of the 2 preceding numbers. The Pell numbers have Pn = 2Pn – 1 + Pn – 2. Not adding the immediately preceding numbers. The Padovan sequence and Perrin numbers have P(n) = P(n – 2) + P(n – 3). Generating the next number by adding 3 numbers (tribonacci numbers), 4 numbers (tetranacci numbers), or more. Adding other objects than integers, for example functions or strings—one essential example is Fibonacci polynomials. Numbers properties Periodicity mod n: Pisano periods It is easily seen that if the members of the Fibonacci sequence are taken mod n, the resulting sequence must be periodic with period at most . The lengths of the periods for various n form the so-called Pisano periods . Determining the Pisano periods in general is an open problem, although for any particular n it can be solved as an instance of cycle detection. The bee ancestry code Fibonacci numbers also appear in the description of the reproduction of a population of idealized bees, according to the following rules: If an egg is laid by an unmated female, it hatches a male. If, however, an egg was fertilized by a male, it hatches a female. Thus, a male bee will always have one parent, and a female bee will have two. If one traces the ancestry of any male bee (1 bee), he has 1 female parent (1 bee). This female had 2 parents, a male and a female (2 bees). The female had two parents, a male and a female, and the male had one female (3 bees). Those two females each had two parents, and the male had one (5 bees). This sequence of numbers of parents is the Fibonacci sequence. The Fibonacci Numbers and the Ancestry of Bees This is an idealization that does not describe actual bee ancestries. In reality, some ancestors of a particular bee will always be sisters or brothers, thus breaking the lineage of distinct parents. See also Logarithmic spiral The Fibonacci Association Fibonacci Quarterly — an academic journal devoted to the study of Fibonacci numbers Negafibonacci numbers Lucas number Golden ratio Fibonacci word Notes External links Sequence Fibonacci Numbers at the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences Periods of Fibonacci Sequences Mod m at MathPages Scientists find clues to the formation of Fibonacci spirals in nature Fibonacci numbers at Mathworld | Fibonacci_number |@lemmatized mathematics:3 fibonacci:139 number:140 following:3 sequence:42 first:28 two:24 remain:2 sum:50 previous:4 source:2 omit:2 initial:2 instead:2 begin:3 mathematical:3 term:6 fn:18 define:9 recurrence:7 relation:6 seed:1 value:7 name:1 leonardo:2 pisa:2 know:11 contraction:1 filius:1 bonaccio:2 son:1 book:3 liber:3 abacus:3 introduce:1 western:1 european:1 although:2 previously:2 describe:4 indian:1 parmanand:2 singh:2 acharya:1 hemachandra:2 call:6 math:6 ed:1 siwan:1 issn:1 ancient:2 medieval:1 india:2 historia:1 mathematica:1 origins:1 well:1 apply:2 metrical:1 science:1 prosody:1 long:4 europe:1 development:1 attribute:1 pingala:1 bc:1 virahanka:1 century:1 ad:3 gopāla:1 c:5 form:17 add:10 pattern:4 length:11 n:116 l:1 prosodicists:1 show:4 donald:1 knuth:1 review:1 work:1 art:3 computer:3 programming:2 west:1 study:2 chapter:1 ii:2 pp:3 consider:4 growth:1 idealised:1 biologically:1 unrealistic:1 rabbit:10 population:4 assume:1 zeroth:1 month:6 one:18 pair:19 additional:4 begets:1 another:5 second:13 dy:3 third:2 new:5 total:2 three:3 old:1 law:3 lifetime:1 let:5 f:67 time:5 alive:1 fertile:1 produce:2 offspring:1 current:1 thus:13 list:4 also:14 denote:2 modern:1 convention:2 still:1 write:4 way:21 website:2 factor:6 prime:20 link:2 extensive:1 table:1 class:1 wikitable:1 use:24 extend:2 negative:4 index:6 result:6 satisfy:10 equation:11 complete:5 divisibility:6 property:7 every:8 even:4 generally:3 kth:1 multiple:1 fk:2 example:11 fact:5 strong:1 golden:15 ratio:19 close:9 expression:6 like:1 linear:12 closed:6 solution:5 become:3 binet:3 formula:14 though:1 already:1 abraham:1 de:2 moivre:1 note:4 see:7 recursion:8 similar:3 generate:5 polynomial:2 proof:7 induction:4 root:3 satisfies:1 multiplying:1 definition:2 therefore:4 geometric:1 series:14 grow:1 exponentially:3 tend:1 zero:2 alternate:1 sign:1 combination:5 dimensional:3 vector:1 space:2 original:4 find:9 coefficient:4 b:4 real:4 defined:1 require:1 yield:4 start:8 furthermore:1 explicit:2 check:1 make:3 establish:3 base:4 case:5 prove:5 function:7 exact:2 computation:1 round:2 since:8 integer:18 floor:1 limit:3 consecutive:7 quotient:1 johannes:1 kepler:1 observe:2 converges:1 practically:1 almost:1 conclude:1 approach:2 strena:1 seu:1 nive:1 sexangula:1 convergence:1 depend:4 choose:1 exclude:1 brief:1 approximately:2 exponential:2 constant:3 grows:1 take:6 formally:1 follow:2 decomposition:2 power:8 decompose:2 high:1 low:1 turn:1 relationship:2 loop:1 true:5 rule:2 matrix:7 system:1 difference:2 eigenvalue:1 element:2 eigenvectors:1 determinant:3 unimodular:1 understand:1 continued:4 fraction:4 representation:7 occur:3 successive:4 convergents:3 give:4 side:8 cassini:2 identity:27 additionally:1 square:4 derive:4 particular:4 ewd:1 dijkstra:3 e:4 w:1 honour:1 report:1 recognize:1 question:1 may:2 arise:2 whether:4 positive:6 straightforward:1 brute:1 force:1 test:2 compute:1 rapidly:1 discuss:2 alternatively:1 perfect:4 slightly:2 sophisticated:1 inequality:1 coprime:1 criterion:1 interval:1 contain:2 möbius:1 wie:1 erkennt:1 man:1 eine:1 zahl:1 semesterber:1 involve:1 draw:1 combinatorial:2 argument:1 interpret:1 mean:2 empty:1 order:2 summands:4 matter:1 different:3 count:4 twice:1 detail:2 young:1 lattice:2 nth:2 must:4 interpretation:1 indeed:1 identical:1 set:9 ordered:1 divide:4 non:1 overlap:1 contains:2 whose:3 summand:9 remainder:2 exhaust:1 nd:1 minus:2 least:2 namely:1 subtract:2 equivalently:1 occurrence:2 counting:4 proceed:1 fashion:1 eventually:2 th:5 place:1 position:1 desired:1 k:4 odd:8 fj:2 j:6 basis:2 could:3 fourth:1 stage:1 obtain:1 hand:1 method:4 refer:1 finally:1 fifth:1 product:2 double:4 wolfram:1 mathworld:2 useful:2 calculate:3 large:2 specific:1 include:6 point:2 type:1 log:4 multiplication:5 operation:2 size:2 bit:3 precision:1 need:1 perform:1 step:1 performance:1 final:1 fast:1 schönhage:1 strassen:1 algorithm:5 notice:1 introduction:1 reduce:1 lucas:4 recursive:2 fnln:1 scale:1 variety:1 thing:1 fan:2 instance:3 experimentally:1 reduction:1 special:1 field:1 sieve:1 factorize:1 exist:2 general:2 sense:1 section:2 perrin:2 simple:1 interesting:1 expand:1 infinite:2 defining:1 solve:2 puzzle:1 curious:1 conversely:1 reciprocal:7 sometimes:2 evaluate:1 theta:1 indexed:1 squared:2 nice:1 nested:1 plausible:1 plain:1 none:1 yet:1 despite:1 irrational:2 richard:1 andré:1 jeannin:1 prim:1 thousand:1 digit:3 infinitely:1 many:3 except:1 arbitrarily:1 run:2 composite:3 exception:1 small:1 carmichael:1 theorem:2 ron:1 knott:1 nontrivial:1 attila:1 pethő:2 diophantine:3 acta:1 paedagogicae:1 nyíregyháziensis:1 finitely:1 less:2 bugeaud:2 mignotte:2 siksek:2 classical:1 modular:1 ann:1 great:4 ross:1 honsberger:1 gem:1 iii:1 ams:1 dolciani:1 exposition:1 isbn:3 p:10 relatively:1 gcd:4 fm:1 fgcd:1 paulo:2 ribenboim:2 friend:1 springer:3 verlag:1 su:1 francis:1 et:1 al:1 please:1 mudd:1 fun:1 divisor:5 relate:2 legendre:1 symbol:1 record:1 york:2 franz:1 lemmermeyer:3 reciprocity:1 ex:3 would:1 wall:1 sun:2 mod:5 implying:1 right:2 triangle:14 hypotenuse:1 word:2 pythagorean:2 triple:2 leg:3 equal:2 precede:4 short:2 bypass:1 skip:2 next:3 continue:1 indefinitely:1 directly:1 represent:1 four:1 magnitude:1 asymptotic:2 either:1 application:3 important:1 analysis:2 euclid:1 determine:4 common:1 bad:1 input:1 yuri:1 matiyasevich:1 able:1 lead:1 hilbert:1 tenth:1 problem:2 shallow:1 diagonal:1 pascal:1 lozanić:1 binomial:1 obviously:1 hosoya:1 unique:1 distinct:2 zeckendorf:3 condition:1 principle:1 financial:1 market:1 trading:1 strategy:1 typical:1 arc:1 retracement:1 extension:1 pseudorandom:1 generator:1 polyphase:2 version:1 merge:2 sort:2 unsorted:1 correspond:1 sequential:1 part:2 lengths:1 approximate:1 proportion:1 φ:3 tape:1 drive:1 implementation:1 heap:1 data:1 structure:2 cube:1 undirected:1 graph:1 node:1 propose:2 network:1 topology:1 parallel:1 computing:1 optimization:1 search:1 technique:1 optional:1 lossy:1 compression:1 iff:2 audio:2 file:1 format:1 amiga:2 compands:1 wave:2 logarithmic:2 g:2 µ:1 rom:1 kernel:1 reference:1 manual:1 addison:1 wesley:1 multimediawiki:1 music:2 tuning:1 visual:1 content:1 formal:1 commonly:1 think:1 movement:1 béla:1 bartók:1 string:2 percussion:1 celesta:1 conversion:1 mile:3 kilometer:3 distance:2 nearly:1 replace:1 successor:1 amount:1 radix:1 register:2 shift:2 convert:1 practical:1 nature:3 appear:2 biological:1 setting:1 branch:1 tree:2 arrangement:3 leaf:1 stem:1 fruitlet:1 pineapple:1 flowering:1 artichoke:1 uncurling:1 fern:1 pine:1 cone:1 addition:1 numerous:1 poorly:1 substantiate:1 claim:1 popular:2 breeding:1 spiral:5 shell:1 curve:1 family:1 honeybee:1 przemysław:1 prusinkiewicz:1 advance:1 idea:1 understood:1 certain:2 algebraic:1 constraint:1 free:1 group:1 specifically:1 lindenmayer:1 grammar:1 model:1 floret:6 head:1 sunflower:2 h:1 vogel:1 scaling:1 lie:1 fermat:1 divergence:1 angle:3 circle:1 neighbor:2 exactly:1 center:2 pack:1 efficiently:1 rational:1 approximation:1 near:1 r:1 often:1 say:1 direction:1 adjacent:1 range:1 radius:1 typically:1 outermost:1 conspicuous:1 culture:1 generalization:1 generalize:3 negafibonacci:2 modification:1 ln:3 primefree:1 pell:1 pn:2 immediately:1 preceding:1 padovan:1 tribonacci:1 tetranacci:1 object:1 essential:1 periodicity:1 pisano:3 period:6 easily:1 member:1 periodic:1 various:1 open:1 cycle:1 detection:1 bee:13 ancestry:4 code:1 description:1 reproduction:1 idealized:1 accord:1 egg:2 lay:1 unmated:1 female:10 hatch:2 male:8 however:1 fertilize:1 always:2 parent:7 trace:1 idealization:1 actual:1 reality:1 ancestor:1 sister:1 brother:1 break:1 lineage:1 association:1 quarterly:1 academic:1 journal:1 devote:1 external:1 line:1 encyclopedia:1 mathpages:1 scientist:1 clue:1 formation:1 |@bigram fibonacci_sequence:15 leonardo_pisa:2 liber_abacus:3 donald_knuth:1 class_wikitable:1 golden_ratio:13 binet_formula:2 de_moivre:1 fibonacci_recursion:6 johannes_kepler:1 consecutive_fibonacci:6 matrix_determinant:1 continued_fraction:4 determinant_matrix:1 closed_interval:1 wolfram_mathworld:1 log_log:1 fn_fn:6 math_puzzle:1 reciprocal_fibonacci:5 diophantine_equation:2 springer_verlag:1 et_al:1 length_hypotenuse:1 pythagorean_triple:2 euclid_algorithm:1 common_divisor:1 yuri_matiyasevich:1 pascal_triangle:1 binomial_coefficient:1 merge_sort:2 unsorted_list:1 fibonacci_heap:1 lossy_compression:1 addison_wesley:1 béla_bartók:1 percussion_celesta:1 scaling_factor:1 ln_ln:2 male_female:2 logarithmic_spiral:1 external_link:1 |
4,620 | Jacques_Mayol | Jacques Mayol (April 1, 1927 – December 22, 2001) was the holder of many world records in free diving. Jacques Mayol was a French national born in Shanghai, China. He was the first free diver to descend to 100 meters (330 ft) (November 23, 1976), and he managed to descend to 105 meters when he was 56 years old. During the scientific research phase of his career, he tried to answer the question of whether man had a hidden aquatic potential that could be evoked by rigorous physiological and psychological training. The film The Big Blue, directed by Luc Besson in 1988, was inspired by his life story (and the life story of the Italian diver Enzo Maiorca); Mayol was one of the screenwriters. On December 22, 2001, Mayol committed suicide by hanging himself in Elba, Italy, at the age of 74. His ashes were spread over the Tuscany coast. Free diving Jacques Mayol’s lifelong passion for diving was based on his love for the ocean, his personal philosophy and his desire to explore his own limits. During his lifetime, he helped introduce the until then elitist sport of free-diving into the main stream. His diving philosophy was to reach a state of mind based on relaxation and Yoga, with which he could accomplish Apnea. http://www.apnea.nl/UK-Index.htm He also contributed to technological advances in the field of free-diving, particularly improving assemblies used by no-limits divers. Mayol was already an experienced free diver when he met the Sicilian Enzo Maiorca who was the first to dive below 50m. Mayol reached 60m depth. http://www.thejacquesmayol.com/JacquesMayol.htm A friendship, as well as rivalry between the two men ensued. Their most famous records were set in the no-limits category, in which the divers are permitted to use weighted sleds to descend and air balloons for a speedy ascent. Between 1966 and 1983, Mayol was eight times no-limits world champion. In 1981 he set a world record of 61m in the constant weight discipline, using fins. In 1976 Mayol broke the 100m barrier with a no-limits 101m dive off Elba, Italy. Tests showed that during this dive his heart beat decreased from 60 to 27 beats/min, a mammalian reflex found in seals and dolphins. Mayol’s last deep dive followed in 1983 when he reached the depth of 105m, at the age of 56. Dolphins Mayol’s fascination with dolphins started in 1955 when he was working as a commercial diver at an aquarium in Miami, Florida. There he met a female dolphin called Clown and formed a close bond with her. Imitating Clown, he learned how to hold his breath longer and how to behave and integrate himself underwater. It is the dolphins that became the foundation of Mayol’s life philosophy of Homo Delphinus. L’Homo Delphinus (1983, published in English as Homo Delphinus – The dolphin within man) – Throughout his book Mayol expounds his theories about man’s relationship with the sea: Does man really have an aquatic origin? How can man re-awaken his dormant mental and spiritual faculties and the physiological mechanisms from the depths of his psyche and genetic make-up to develop the potential of his aquatic origins, to become a Homo Delphinus? Jacques Mayol predicted that, within a couple of generations, some people will be able to dive to 200m and hold their breath for up to ten minutes. Today the no-limits record stands at 214m (Herbert Nitsch, June 2007) and Tom Sietas hold his breath for over 10 minutes (June 2008). http://www.aida-international.org/aspportal1/code/page.asp?sType=wr&CountryID=4&actID=3&ObjectID=136 As a visionary Mayol develops the validity of the concept of underwater birth. As an explorer he takes the reader to the furthest parts of the world where people still dive for food in apnea. As a poet, he introduces us to the world’s sea legends and mythology. References www.thejacquesmayol.com External links Biography from thejacquesmayol.com Current Freediving World Records Profile from Historical Diving Association website Article from divernet.com Obituary from BBC Obituary from The Independent Article by Le Monde | Jacques_Mayol |@lemmatized jacques:4 mayol:15 april:1 december:2 holder:1 many:1 world:6 record:5 free:6 diving:3 french:1 national:1 bear:1 shanghai:1 china:1 first:2 diver:6 descend:3 meter:2 ft:1 november:1 manage:1 year:1 old:1 scientific:1 research:1 phase:1 career:1 try:1 answer:1 question:1 whether:1 man:5 hidden:1 aquatic:3 potential:2 could:2 evoke:1 rigorous:1 physiological:2 psychological:1 training:1 film:1 big:1 blue:1 direct:1 luc:1 besson:1 inspire:1 life:3 story:2 italian:1 enzo:2 maiorca:2 one:1 screenwriter:1 commit:1 suicide:1 hang:1 elba:2 italy:2 age:2 ash:1 spread:1 tuscany:1 coast:1 dive:10 lifelong:1 passion:1 base:2 love:1 ocean:1 personal:1 philosophy:3 desire:1 explore:1 limit:6 lifetime:1 help:1 introduce:2 elitist:1 sport:1 main:1 stream:1 reach:3 state:1 mind:1 relaxation:1 yoga:1 accomplish:1 apnea:3 http:3 www:4 nl:1 uk:1 index:1 htm:2 also:1 contribute:1 technological:1 advance:1 field:1 particularly:1 improve:1 assembly:1 use:3 already:1 experienced:1 meet:2 sicilian:1 depth:3 thejacquesmayol:3 com:4 jacquesmayol:1 friendship:1 well:1 rivalry:1 two:1 men:1 ensue:1 famous:1 set:2 category:1 permit:1 weighted:1 sled:1 air:1 balloon:1 speedy:1 ascent:1 eight:1 time:1 champion:1 constant:1 weight:1 discipline:1 fin:1 break:1 barrier:1 test:1 show:1 heart:1 beat:2 decrease:1 min:1 mammalian:1 reflex:1 find:1 seal:1 dolphin:6 last:1 deep:1 follow:1 fascination:1 start:1 work:1 commercial:1 aquarium:1 miami:1 florida:1 female:1 call:1 clown:2 form:1 close:1 bond:1 imitate:1 learn:1 hold:3 breath:3 longer:1 behave:1 integrate:1 underwater:2 become:2 foundation:1 homo:4 delphinus:4 l:1 publish:1 english:1 within:2 throughout:1 book:1 expound:1 theory:1 relationship:1 sea:2 really:1 origin:2 awaken:1 dormant:1 mental:1 spiritual:1 faculty:1 mechanism:1 psyche:1 genetic:1 make:1 develop:2 predict:1 couple:1 generation:1 people:2 able:1 ten:1 minute:2 today:1 stand:1 herbert:1 nitsch:1 june:2 tom:1 sietas:1 aida:1 international:1 org:1 code:1 page:1 asp:1 stype:1 wr:1 countryid:1 actid:1 objectid:1 visionary:1 validity:1 concept:1 birth:1 explorer:1 take:1 reader:1 furthest:1 part:1 still:1 food:1 poet:1 u:1 legend:1 mythology:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 biography:1 current:1 freediving:1 profile:1 historical:1 association:1 website:1 article:2 divernet:1 obituary:2 bbc:1 independent:1 le:1 monde:1 |@bigram jacques_mayol:4 meter_ft:1 commit_suicide:1 http_www:3 miami_florida:1 external_link:1 le_monde:1 |
4,621 | Mormonism | Mormonism comprises the religious, institutional, and cultural elements of the early Latter Day Saint movement and its modern denominations deriving from the leadership of Brigham Young. Most specifically, Mormonism relates to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and Mormon fundamentalism. The terms Mormon and Mormonism are used by Mormon fundamentalists in reference to themselves. However, the LDS Church encourages journalists not to apply the term Mormon to Mormon fundamentalism, as the LDS Church wishes to distance itself from the fundamentalist practice of plural marriage. According to the LDS Church, the term Mormon is "only acceptable in describing the combination of doctrine, culture and lifestyle unique to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints." See Style Guide - LDS Newsroom. Despite the LDS Church preference, the term fundamentalist Mormonism is in common use. The term does not generally refer to other branches of the Latter Day Saint movement such as the Community of Christ. The term Mormonism derives from the Book of Mormon, one of the faith's religious texts. Based on the name of that book, early followers of founder Joseph Smith, Jr. were called Mormons, and their faith was called Mormonism. The term was initially considered pejorative Terms used in the LDS Restorationist movement ReligiousTolerance.org but is no longer considered so. Theological Mormonism is a form of Restorationism that shares a common set of beliefs with the rest of the Latter Day Saint movement, including use of the Bible, as well as other religious texts including the Book of Mormon and Doctrine and Covenants. It differs from other Latter Day Saint movement traditions in that it also accepts the Pearl of Great Price as part of its canon, and it has a history of teaching plural marriage, although the LDS Church abandoned the practice since around the beginning of the 20th century. Cultural Mormonism includes a lifestyle promoted by the Mormon institutions, and includes cultural Mormons who identify with the culture, but not necessarily the theology. Brief history Mormonism originated in the late 1820s, as Joseph Smith, Jr., founder of the Latter Day Saint movement told his associates and family that he had located a buried book of golden plates written by ancient American prophets. Smith said he had been directed to these plates by an angel, and that his mission was to publish a translation of this book which he expected would revolutionize Christian thought. This work, published in 1830 as the Book of Mormon, served as a foundation for Smith's small Church of Christ. Smith's church grew steadily until his death in 1844, which precipitated a succession crisis. The majority of Latter Day Saints chose Brigham Young as their leader and emigrated to a place in Mexico that soon became the Utah Territory. Young's denomination was called The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). There, they publicly announced the practice of plural marriage (a form of polygamy), which Smith had instituted in secret some years earlier. Plural marriage would become the faith's most famous and defining characteristic during the 19th century. However, the practice was vigorously opposed elsewhere in the United States, threatening the LDS Church's existence as a legal institution. Faced with this pressure, LDS leader Wilford Woodruff felt he had no choice but to issue a 1890 Manifesto officially discontinuing the practice of plural marriage. In the ensuing years, several smaller groups of Mormons broke with the LDS Church over the issue of plural marriage, forming several denominations of Mormon fundamentalism. The LDS Church has distanced itself from these groups, and has taken to promoting a mainstream American view of monogamous families. Since that time, the LDS Church brand of Mormonism has largely melded with mainstream American culture. LDS Church leaders have also sought to minimize their differences with American Christianity. Mormon theology The basic theology of Mormonism derives from its canon of scripture, which includes the Bible and three other books. It also derives from statements by Mormon leaders and the Mormon Endowment ceremony. Following the pattern set by Joseph Smith, Jr. and Brigham Young, the LDS Church recognizes a single man, often referred to as "the Prophet", as the sole ultimate spokesperson for God. In the LDS Church and many Mormon fundamentalist organizations, the Prophet holds the title of President of the Church. To a lesser extent, Mormon theology derives from statements by lesser general authorities of the religion, who are also recognized as prophets and apostles. Theological foundations The most authoritative sources of Mormon theology are its canon of scripture, which includes the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. The version of these books published by the LDS Church is called the faith's Standard Works. Of these books, Mormons hold that the Book of Mormon is "the most correct of any book on earth and the keystone of [their] religion". History of the Church, 4:461. The Bible is accepted as "the word of God as far as it is translated correctly". See ("We believe the Bible to be the word of God as far as it is translated correctly.") Deeper and less-known Mormon doctrines may be found in the remaining two works, Doctrine and Covenants and Pearl of Great Price, as well as statements by Mormon leaders, and from the Mormon Endowment ceremony. Sometimes, parts of a version of the Bible by Joseph Smith, Jr. is considered authoritative, and some excerpts have been included in the Pearl of Great Price. Thus, the theology of Mormonism consists of a mixture of mainstream Christianity and added revelations, ostensible translations of other reputed ancient works, and commentary by Joseph Smith and other Mormon leaders. In addition to a general belief in the Bible and the Atonement of Jesus, many Mormon teachings are shared by factions of mainstream Christianity. For example, Mormon theology includes Restorationism (the belief in a Great Apostasy followed by a Restoration), Millenialism (belief in a thousand year reign of peace on the earth after the Second Coming), and baptism by immersion, a rejection of the original sin doctrine, Apostolic succession (via a vision of apostles to Joseph Smith), and Continuationism. However, the foundations of Mormon theology are distinctive in many ways from most traditional Christianity. Historically, Mormonism is associated with the doctrine of plural marriage, which is still practiced within Mormon fundamentalism, though long been abandoned by the LDS Church. Mormon theology does not follow the Nicene Creed, in that it views the Trinity as three persons with distinct physical (or, in the case of the Holy Spirit, spirit) bodies. Mormonism includes a distinctive Mormon cosmology, a unique Plan of Salvation that includes three heavens, and a doctrine of Exaltation which includes the ability of humans to become gods and goddesses in the afterlife. Differences between mainstream and fundamentalist Mormonism The main distinction between the mainstream Mormonism of the LDS Church and Mormon fundamentalism is the doctrine of plural marriage. In the LDS Church, the doctrine was abandoned around the beginning of the 20th century, but continued by the fundamentalist groups, who believe the practice is a requirement for Exaltation (the highest degree of salvation), which will allow them to become gods and goddesses in the afterlife. Mainstream Mormons, by contrast, believe that a single Celestial marriage is necessary for Exaltation. In distinction with the LDS Church, Mormon fundamentalists also often believe in a number of other doctrines taught and practiced by Brigham Young in the 19th century, which the LDS Church has either abandoned, repudiated, or put in abeyance. These include: the law of consecration also known as the United Order (put in abeyance by the LDS Church in the 19th century); the Adam–God teachings taught by Brigham Young and other early leaders of the LDS Church (repudiated by the LDS Church in the mid-20th century); the principle of blood atonement (repudiated by the LDS Church in the mid-20th century)); and the exclusion of black men from the priesthood (abandoned by the LDS Church in 1978), (It was already indecated by the church that black people would be allowed to have the priestood, when it was time). Relation to Judaism Because of the incorporation of many Old Testament ideas into its theology, Mormonism claims a historical affinity with Judaism. The beliefs of Mormons sometimes parallel those of Judaism and certain elements of Jewish culture. This is primarily from what are historical and doctrinal connections with Judaism. Joseph Smith Jr. named the largest Mormon settlement he founded Nauvoo, which means "to be beautiful" in Hebrew. Brigham Young named a tributary of the Great Salt Lake the "Jordan River." The LDS Church created a writing scheme called the Deseret Alphabet, which was based, in part, on Hebrew. Currently, the LDS Church has a Jerusalem Center in Israel, at which some college-aged youth study and learn to appreciate and respect the region. BYU Jerusalem Center for Near Eastern Studies The LDS Church also teaches that its adherents are members of the House of Israel. Patriarchal blessings are received by most individuals in their youth. Among other things, this blessing's purpose is to declare one's lineage; in other words, to which of the twelve tribes of Israel the individual belongs. Conversely, there has been some controversy involving Jewish groups who see the actions of some elements of Mormonism as offensive. In the 1990s, Jewish groups vocally opposed the LDS practice of baptism for the dead on behalf of Jewish victims of the Holocaust and Jews in general. According to LDS Church general authority Monte J. Brough, "Mormons who baptized 380,000 Holocaust victims posthumously were motivated by love and compassion and did not understand their gesture might offend Jews ... they did not realize that what they intended as a 'Christian act of service' was 'misguided and insensitive.'". Pyle, Richard. AP Newswire, May 5, 1995. Missionary work Missionary work is one of the key aspects of the LDS Church. Young men and women range in age from nineteen for men and twenty-one for women. Older couples also may serve in missionary labor throughout the world. Missions are opened throughout the free world with the only restrictions are to areas where governments do not allow missionaries to preach (currently these areas are composed of the Middle East, some African Countries, as well as China, with the exception of Hong Kong). Presently, as of 2008, there are around 52,686 missionaries serving at 348 mission sites. http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextchannel=d10511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD The first LDS missionary efforts began as early as 1830, with Samuel Smith, Brother to Joseph Smith, Jr. as the first missionary. The Church first called for full-time missionaries in 1974, when the prophet of the Church, President Spencer W. Kimball, called young people to serve the Church in full-time missionary work. Today, every young man that is both morally and physically capable of missionary work is expected to participate in a mission. http://www.dearelder.com/index/inc_name/Mormon_Missionaries/ LDS missionary work is performed in pairs. Before a missionary is sent to their respective mission, they must first attend a Missionary Training Center (MTC). Currently there are seventeen MTCs throughout the world. In order to ensure a focus on Jesus Christ, and the preaching of his gospel, missionaries cease activities such as attending parties, dating, and other forms of entertainment. Mission life is a time of prayer, scripture study, teaching, and searching for those seeking a stronger relationship with God. The average timespan for a mission for a young man is two years, whereas the average time span for a young woman is eighteen months. http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/background-information/missionary-program "The average missionary in 1989 brought 8 people into the church, while in 2000 the average missionary brought 4.6 people into the church. When one accounts for actual activity and retention rates, with the great majority of LDS convert growth occurring in Latin America and other areas with low retention, and only 20-25% of convert growth occurring in North America, one finds that of the 4.6 persons baptized by the average missionary each year, approximately 1.3 will remain active. This declining growth comes in spite of unprecedented increase in opportunity. From 1990 to 2000, the LDS Church opened an additional 59 nations to proselyting." "241,239 LDS convert baptisms were reported for 2004, the lowest number of converts since 1987. Other recent years have also demonstrated decelerating church growth. Over the past decade, LDS missionaries have been challenged to double the number of baptisms, but instead the number of baptisms per missionary has halved." "The LDS Church is one of the few Christian groups with a large missionary program to experience declining growth rates in spite of widening opportunities. An analysis of annual LDS statistical reports published in the May Ensigns of each year demonstrates that LDS growth has declined progressively from over 5% annually in the late 1980s to less than 3% annually from 2000 to 2004." http://www.cumorah.com/index.php?target=harvest_book See also Blacks and the Latter Day Saint movement Criticism of Mormonism List of articles about Mormonism The Joseph Smith Papers Notes External links Official Mormon website PBS: Frontline + American Experience: Mormons — PBS special on Mormon belief | Mormonism |@lemmatized mormonism:20 comprise:1 religious:3 institutional:1 cultural:3 element:3 early:4 latter:10 day:10 saint:10 movement:7 modern:1 denomination:3 derive:3 leadership:1 brigham:6 young:12 specifically:1 relate:1 church:46 jesus:5 christ:6 lds:45 mormon:42 fundamentalism:5 term:8 use:4 fundamentalist:7 reference:1 however:3 encourage:1 journalist:1 apply:1 wish:1 distance:2 practice:9 plural:8 marriage:9 accord:2 acceptable:1 describe:1 combination:1 doctrine:11 culture:4 lifestyle:2 unique:2 see:4 style:1 guide:1 newsroom:3 despite:1 preference:1 common:2 generally:1 refer:2 branch:1 community:1 book:12 one:7 faith:4 text:2 base:2 name:3 follower:1 founder:2 joseph:9 smith:14 jr:6 call:7 initially:1 consider:3 pejorative:1 restorationist:1 religioustolerance:1 org:3 longer:1 theological:2 form:4 restorationism:2 share:2 set:2 belief:6 rest:1 include:12 bible:7 well:3 covenant:3 differ:1 tradition:1 also:10 accept:2 pearl:4 great:7 price:4 part:3 canon:3 history:3 teach:4 although:1 abandon:5 since:3 around:3 beginning:2 century:7 promote:2 institution:2 identify:1 necessarily:1 theology:10 brief:1 originate:1 late:2 tell:1 associate:2 family:2 locate:1 buried:1 golden:1 plate:2 write:1 ancient:2 american:5 prophet:5 say:1 direct:1 angel:1 mission:7 publish:4 translation:2 expect:2 would:3 revolutionize:1 christian:3 thought:1 work:9 serve:4 foundation:3 small:2 grow:1 steadily:1 death:1 precipitate:1 succession:2 crisis:1 majority:2 choose:1 leader:7 emigrate:1 place:1 mexico:1 soon:1 become:4 utah:1 territory:1 publicly:1 announce:1 polygamy:1 institute:1 secret:1 year:7 earlier:1 famous:1 define:1 characteristic:1 vigorously:1 oppose:2 elsewhere:1 united:2 state:1 threaten:1 existence:1 legal:1 face:1 pressure:1 wilford:1 woodruff:1 felt:1 choice:1 issue:2 manifesto:1 officially:1 discontinue:1 ensue:1 several:2 group:6 break:1 take:1 mainstream:7 view:2 monogamous:1 time:6 brand:1 largely:1 meld:1 seek:2 minimize:1 difference:2 christianity:4 basic:1 derives:2 scripture:3 three:3 statement:3 endowment:2 ceremony:2 follow:3 pattern:1 recognize:2 single:2 man:3 often:2 sole:1 ultimate:1 spokesperson:1 god:7 many:4 organization:1 hold:2 title:1 president:2 less:4 extent:1 general:4 authority:2 religion:2 apostle:2 authoritative:2 source:1 version:2 standard:1 correct:1 earth:2 keystone:1 word:3 far:2 translate:2 correctly:2 believe:4 deep:1 know:2 may:4 find:2 remain:2 two:2 sometimes:2 excerpt:1 thus:1 consist:1 mixture:1 add:1 revelation:1 ostensible:1 reputed:1 commentary:1 addition:1 atonement:2 teaching:3 faction:1 example:1 apostasy:1 restoration:1 millenialism:1 thousand:1 reign:1 peace:1 second:1 come:2 baptism:5 immersion:1 rejection:1 original:1 sin:1 apostolic:1 via:1 vision:1 continuationism:1 distinctive:2 way:1 traditional:1 historically:1 still:1 within:1 though:1 long:1 nicene:1 creed:1 trinity:1 person:2 distinct:1 physical:1 case:1 holy:1 spirit:2 body:1 cosmology:1 plan:1 salvation:2 heaven:1 exaltation:3 ability:1 human:1 goddess:2 afterlife:2 main:1 distinction:2 continue:1 requirement:1 high:1 degree:1 allow:3 contrast:1 celestial:1 necessary:1 number:4 either:1 repudiate:3 put:2 abeyance:2 law:1 consecration:1 order:2 adam:1 mid:2 principle:1 blood:1 exclusion:1 black:3 men:3 priesthood:1 already:1 indecated:1 people:4 priestood:1 relation:1 judaism:4 incorporation:1 old:2 testament:1 idea:1 claim:1 historical:2 affinity:1 parallel:1 certain:1 jewish:4 primarily:1 doctrinal:1 connection:1 large:2 settlement:1 found:1 nauvoo:1 mean:1 beautiful:1 hebrew:2 tributary:1 salt:1 lake:1 jordan:1 river:1 create:1 writing:1 scheme:1 deseret:1 alphabet:1 currently:3 jerusalem:2 center:3 israel:3 college:1 age:2 youth:2 study:3 learn:1 appreciate:1 respect:1 region:1 byu:1 near:1 eastern:1 adherent:1 member:1 house:1 patriarchal:1 blessing:1 receive:1 individual:2 among:1 thing:1 bless:1 purpose:1 declare:1 lineage:1 twelve:1 tribe:1 belongs:1 conversely:1 controversy:1 involve:1 action:1 offensive:1 vocally:1 dead:1 behalf:1 victim:2 holocaust:2 jew:2 monte:1 j:1 brough:1 baptize:2 posthumously:1 motivate:1 love:1 compassion:1 understand:1 gesture:1 might:1 offend:1 realize:1 intend:1 act:1 service:1 misguided:1 insensitive:1 pyle:1 richard:1 ap:1 newswire:1 missionary:21 key:1 aspect:1 woman:3 range:1 nineteen:1 twenty:1 couple:1 labor:1 throughout:3 world:3 open:2 free:1 restriction:1 area:3 government:1 preach:1 compose:1 middle:1 east:1 african:1 country:1 china:1 exception:1 hong:1 kong:1 presently:1 site:1 http:4 ldsnewsroom:2 v:1 index:3 jsp:1 vgnextchannel:1 first:4 effort:1 begin:1 samuel:1 brother:1 full:2 spencer:1 w:1 kimball:1 today:1 every:1 morally:1 physically:1 capable:1 participate:1 www:2 dearelder:1 com:2 perform:1 pair:1 send:1 respective:1 must:1 attend:2 training:1 mtc:1 seventeen:1 mtcs:1 ensure:1 focus:1 preaching:1 gospel:1 cease:1 activity:2 party:1 date:1 entertainment:1 life:1 prayer:1 search:1 strong:1 relationship:1 average:5 timespan:1 whereas:1 span:1 eighteen:1 month:1 eng:1 background:1 information:1 program:2 bring:2 account:1 actual:1 retention:2 rate:2 convert:4 growth:6 occur:2 latin:1 america:2 low:2 north:1 approximately:1 active:1 decline:3 spite:2 unprecedented:1 increase:1 opportunity:2 additional:1 nation:1 proselyting:1 report:2 recent:1 demonstrate:2 decelerate:1 past:1 decade:1 challenge:1 double:1 instead:1 per:1 halve:1 experience:2 widen:1 analysis:1 annual:1 statistical:1 ensigns:1 progressively:1 annually:2 cumorah:1 php:1 target:1 criticism:1 list:1 article:1 paper:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 pb:1 frontline:1 pbs:1 special:1 |@bigram brigham_young:6 jesus_christ:4 lds_church:32 mormon_fundamentalism:5 mormon_fundamentalist:3 joseph_smith:9 religioustolerance_org:1 doctrine_covenant:3 wilford_woodruff:1 baptism_immersion:1 apostolic_succession:1 nicene_creed:1 holy_spirit:1 hong_kong:1 newsroom_lds:2 http_www:2 preaching_gospel:1 index_php:1 external_link:1 |
4,622 | People's_Liberation_Army_Macau_Garrison | Since December 20, 1999, the defense of Macau has been the responsibility of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA), which stations between 500-600 troops in the Macau Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, primarily as a symbolic presence to underscore Chinese sovereignty. The remainder of the 1,200-strong Macau garrison resides just across the Chinese border in Zhuhai. Although the Basic Law states that the Macau SAR government may "when necessary" ask the central government to allow the garrison to assist in maintaining public order or disaster relief, Chief Executive Ho has said that, in keeping with the Basic Law the garrison will play no role in internal security. The garrison has maintained a low profile, with soldiers generally wearing civilian clothing when off base and not engaging in business activities. Residents of Macau are prohibited from joining the PLA. Mission According to the Law on Stationing Troops in the Macau Special Administrative Region (or Macau Garrison Law, passed by the NPC Standing Committee on June 28 1999), the mission of the PLA in Macau is to defend the special administrative region by "preventing and resisting aggression; safe-guarding the security of Macau; undertaking defence services; managing military facilities; and handling related foreign military affairs." The PLA can also be called upon by the chief executive to help maintain public order and assist with disaster relief efforts. The members of the garrison are mainly ground force troops. Current garrison The Macau Garrison is under the command and control of the Central Military Commission, and its budget is administered by the central government in Beijing. A PLA major general heads the Macau Garrison. Troops 1 motorised infantry 1 armored company Equipment ModelTypeNumberDatesBuilderDetails ZFB91 6 wheeled Armored Personnel Carrier (Internal Security/Anti-Riot Vehicle) 10 1980s Norinco with 12.7mm machine gun BJ2020S utility vehicle N/A N/A Beijing-Jeep variant of Soviet UAZ469B EQ2102 Troop/Cargo Carrier Truck N/A N/A Dongfeng Motor Corporation EQ2081/2100 Utility Truck N/A N/A Dongfeng Motor Corporation (formerly EQ240 and likely Chinese variants of the Zil 131) and other support vehicles Type 88 Sniper Rifle rifle N/A N/A Norinco QBZ-95 rifle N/A N/A The garrison was temporarily stationed at the 11 storey Edificacao Long Cheng/Long Cheng Mansion. It is now stationed on Taipa Island. There are more troops at the barracks in Zhuhai. See also Military of Macau under Portuguese rule People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison | People's_Liberation_Army_Macau_Garrison |@lemmatized since:1 december:1 defense:1 macau:12 responsibility:1 chinese:4 people:3 liberation:2 army:2 pla:5 station:4 troop:6 special:3 administrative:3 region:3 republic:1 china:1 primarily:1 symbolic:1 presence:1 underscore:1 sovereignty:1 remainder:1 strong:1 garrison:11 reside:1 across:1 border:1 zhuhai:2 although:1 basic:2 law:4 state:1 sar:1 government:3 may:1 necessary:1 ask:1 central:3 allow:1 assist:2 maintain:3 public:2 order:2 disaster:2 relief:2 chief:2 executive:2 ho:1 say:1 keep:1 play:1 role:1 internal:2 security:3 low:1 profile:1 soldier:1 generally:1 wear:1 civilian:1 clothing:1 base:1 engage:1 business:1 activity:1 resident:1 prohibit:1 join:1 mission:2 accord:1 pass:1 npc:1 standing:1 committee:1 june:1 defend:1 preventing:1 resist:1 aggression:1 safe:1 guard:1 undertake:1 defence:1 service:1 manage:1 military:4 facility:1 handle:1 related:1 foreign:1 affair:1 also:2 call:1 upon:1 help:1 effort:1 member:1 mainly:1 ground:1 force:1 current:1 command:1 control:1 commission:1 budget:1 administer:1 beijing:2 major:1 general:1 head:1 motorised:1 infantry:1 armor:1 company:1 equipment:1 modeltypenumberdatesbuilderdetails:1 wheel:1 armored:1 personnel:1 carrier:2 anti:1 riot:1 vehicle:3 norinco:2 machine:1 gun:1 utility:2 n:10 jeep:1 variant:2 soviet:1 cargo:1 truck:2 dongfeng:2 motor:2 corporation:2 formerly:1 likely:1 zil:1 support:1 type:1 sniper:1 rifle:3 qbz:1 temporarily:1 storey:1 edificacao:1 long:2 cheng:2 mansion:1 taipa:1 island:1 barrack:1 see:1 portuguese:1 rule:1 hong:1 kong:1 |@bigram macau_sar:1 armored_personnel:1 dongfeng_motor:2 sniper_rifle:1 hong_kong:1 |
4,623 | Derry | Derry or Londonderry () often called the Maiden City, is a city in Northern Ireland. The old walled city of Londonderry lies on the west bank of the River Foyle with the location of old Derry on the east bank, the present city now covers both banks (Cityside to the west and Waterside to the east) and the river is spanned by two bridges. The city district also extends to rural areas to the southeast of the city. The population of the city proper (the area defined by its 17th century charter) was 83,652 in the 2001 Census, while the Derry Urban Area had a population of 90,663. Statistical Classification and Delineation of Settlements - February 2005 The city is the the second-largest city in Northern Ireland and Ulster, and the fourth largest on the island of Ireland. DERRY REGIONAL CITY - Business Investment Retrieved 2008-11-01 The wider Derry City Council area had a population of 107,300 as of June 2006. The district is administered by Derry City Council and contains both Londonderry Port and City of Derry Airport. The Greater Derry area, that area within about of the city, has a population of 237,000 http://www.qub.ac.uk/cibr/WPpdffiles/MFWPpdf/w14_ac.pdf and comprises the Derry City Council area, the Borough of Limavady, the District of Strabane (excluding the Castlederg area), and parts of North-East Donegal in the Irish Republic, namely Inishowen, Letterkenny, the Finn Valley (which includes Ballybofey/Stranorlar and Lifford) and the Laggan district (which includes Raphoe and St. Johnston). http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/Greater-Derry-Interactive-Map-A1606 Derry is very near the border with County Donegal in the Republic of Ireland. The city has had a very close relationship with what is now County Donegal for centuries. The person traditionally seen as the 'founder' of the original Derry is St. Columba (also known as Colm Cille or St. Columb), a holy man and royal prince from Tír Chonaill, the old name for almost all of modern County Donegal (of which the west bank of the Foyle was a part before c. 1600). Derry and the nearby town of Letterkenny form the major economic core of northwest Ireland. Derry is the only remaining completely walled city in Ireland and one of the finest examples of a Walled City in Europe. It is claimed that Derry's defensive walls are the most complete of any city in the British Isles, although Chester makes a similar claim. Discover Ireland Derry City walls, from University of Ulster website http://www.chester.ac.uk/law/conference/social.html It is one of the few cities in Europe that never saw these fortifications breached. The Walls were built during the period 1613-1618 by "the honourable the Irish Society" as defences for early 17th century settlers from England and Scotland. The Walls, which are approximately 1 mile (1.5 km) in circumference and which vary in height and width between 12 and 35 feet (4 to 12 metres), are completely intact and form a walkway around the inner city. They provide a unique promenade to view the layout of the original town which still preserves its Renaissance style street plan. The four original gates to the Walled City are Bishop’s Gate, Ferryquay Gate, Butcher Gate and Shipquay Gate to which three further gates were added later, Magazine Gate, Castle Gate and New Gate, making seven gates in total. Historic buildings within the walls include the 1633 Gothic cathedral of St Columb, the Apprentice Boys Memorial Hall and the courthouse. It is one of the few cities in Europe that never saw its fortifications breached, withstanding several sieges including one in 1689 which lasted 105 days, hence the city's nickname, The Maiden City. Name Road-sign with the reference to London obscured near Magherafelt. According to the city's Royal Charter of 10 April 1662 the official name is Londonderry and, as stated in a recent High Court decision in January 2007, remains so. It usually appears as such on maps. The city is known by many as Derry, which is an anglicisation of the old Irish Daire, which in modern Irish is spelt Doire, and translates as ‘Oak-grove’. The name derives from the settlement's earliest references, Daire Calgaich (‘oakwood of Calgach’). The name was changed from Derry in 1613 during the Plantation of Ulster to reflect the establishment of the city by the London guilds. The name "Derry" is preferred by nationalists and it is broadly used throughout Northern Ireland's Catholic community, as well as that of the Republic of Ireland, whereas many unionists prefer "Londonderry"; however in everyday conversation Derry is also used frequently by Protestants. Apart from this local government decision, official use within the UK the city is usually known as Londonderry. In the Republic of Ireland, the city and county are almost always referred to as Derry, on maps, in the media and in conversation. In April 2009, however, the Republic of Ireland's Minister for Foreign Affairs, Micheál Martin, announced that Irish passport holders who were born there could record either Derry or Londonderry as their place of birth. Derry-born can choose city's name on passport. Available: http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2009/0409/1224244287427.html Whereas official road signs in the Republic use the name Derry, those in Northern Ireland bear Londonderry (sometimes abbreviated to L'Derry), although some of these have been defaced with the reference to London obscured. Usage varies among local organisations, with both names being used. Examples are City of Derry Airport, City of Derry Rugby Club, Derry City FC and the Protestant Apprentice Boys of Derry, as opposed to Londonderry Port and Londonderry Chamber Of Commerce. The council changed the name of the local government district covering the city to Derry on 7 May 1984, consequently renaming itself Derry City Council. Change of District Name (Derry) Order 1984 This did not change the name of the city, although the city is coterminous with the district, and in law the city council is also the "Corporation of Londonderry" or, more formally, the "Mayor, Aldermen and Citizens of the City of Londonderry". Sections 7, 8 and 132 of the Local Government Act (Northern Ireland) 1972 (Eliz II 20 & 21 c.9) The form "Londonderry" is used for the post town by the Royal Mail, however use of Derry will still ensure delivery. The city is also nicknamed the Maiden City by virtue of the fact that its walls were never penetrated during the siege of Derry in the late 17th century. It is also nicknamed 'Stroke City' by local broadcaster, Gerry Anderson, due to the 'politically correct' use of the oblique notation Derry/Londonderry. A recent addition to the landscape has been the erection of several large stone columns on main roads into the city welcoming drivers, euphemistically, to "the walled city." The name Derry is very much in popular use throughout Ireland for the naming of places, and indeed there are at least 6 towns bearing that name and at least a further 79 places. The word Derry often forms part of the place name, for example Derrymore, Derrybeg and Derrylea . History St Columb's Cathedral The city has long been a focal point for important events in Irish history, including the 1688-1689 siege of Derry and Bloody Sunday on 30 January 1972. Early history Derry is one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in Ireland. The earliest historical references date to the 6th century when a monastery was founded there by St. Columba or Colmcille, a famous saint from what is now County Donegal, but for thousands of years before that people had been living in the vicinity. Before leaving Ireland to spread Christianity elsewhere, Columba founded a monastery in the then Doire Calgach, on the east side of the Foyle. According to oral and documented history, the site was granted to Columba by a local king. The monastery then remained in the hands of the federation of Columban churches who regarded Colmcille as their spiritual mentor. The year 546 is often referred to as the date that the original settlement was founded. However it is accepted that this was an erroneous date assigned by medieval chroniclers. It is accepted that between the 6th century and the 11th century, Derry was known primarily as a monastic settlement. The town became strategically more significant during the Tudor conquest of Ireland and came under frequent attack, until in 1608 it was destroyed by Cahir O'Doherty, Irish chieftain of Inishowen. Plantation Planters organised by London livery companies through The Honourable The Irish Society arrived in the 1600s as part of the plantation of Ulster, and built the city of Londonderry across the Foyle from the earlier town, with walls to defend it from Irish insurgents who did not welcome the occupation. The aim was to settle Ulster with a population supportive of the Crown. This Derry was the first planned city in Ireland: it was begun in 1613, with the walls being completed 5 years later in 1618. The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was thought to be a good design for defence. The grid pattern chosen was subsequently much copied in the colonies of British North America. The charter initially defined the city as extending three Irish miles (about 6.1 km) from the centre. The modern city preserves the 17th century layout of four main streets radiating from a central Diamond to four gateways — Bishop's Gate, Ferryquay Gate, Shipquay Gate and Butcher's Gate. The city's oldest surviving building was also constructed at this time: the 1633 Plantation Gothic cathedral of St Columb. In the porch of the cathedral is the inscription: 17th century upheavals During the 1640s, the city suffered in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which began with the Irish Rebellion of 1641, when the Gaelic Irish insurgents made a failed attack on the city. In 1649 the city and its garrison, which supported the republican Parliament in London, were besieged by Scottish Presbyterian forces loyal to King Charles I. The Parliamentarians besieged in Derry were relieved by a strange alliance of Roundhead troops under George Monck and the Irish Catholic general Owen Roe O'Neill. These temporary allies were soon fighting each other again however, after the landing in Ireland of the New Model Army in 1649. The war in Ulster was finally brought to an end when the Parliamentarians crushed the Irish Catholic Ulster army at the battle of Scarrifholis in nearby Donegal in 1650. During the Glorious Revolution, only Londonderry and nearby Enniskillen had a Protestant garrison by November 1688. An army of around 1,200 men, mostly "Redshanks" (Highlanders), under Alexander Macdonnell, 3rd Earl of Antrim, was slowly organised (they set out on the week William of Orange landed in England). When they arrived on 7 December 1688 the gates were closed against them and the Siege of Derry began. In April 1689, King James came to the city and summoned it to surrender. The King was rebuffed and the siege lasted until the end of July with the arrival of a relief ship. 18th and 19th centuries The war memorial in The Diamond, erected 1927 The city was rebuilt in the 18th century with many of its fine Georgian style houses still surviving. The city's first bridge across the River Foyle in 1790. During the 18th and 19th centuries the port became an important embarkation point for Irish emigrants setting out for North America. Some of these founded the colonies of Derry and Londonderry in the state of New Hampshire. Also during the 19th century, it became a destination for migrants fleeing areas more severely affected by the Irish Potato Famine. Partition During the Irish War of Independence, the area was rocked by sectarian violence, partly prompted by the guerilla war raging between the Irish Republican Army and British forces, but also influenced by economic and social pressures. In July 1920, several thousand unionist ex-British Army servicemen mobilised to try to drive Catholics out of jobs they had taken during the First World War. Severe rioting ensued and the loyalists launched an assault on St Columb's Cathedral, which was resisted by armed IRA members. Many lives were lost and in addition many Catholics and Protestants were expelled from their homes during this communal unrest. After a week's violence, a truce was negotiated by local politicians on both unionist and republican sides. In 1921, following the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the partition of Ireland, it unexpectedly became a border city, separated from much of its natural economic hinterland in County Donegal. During the Second World War the city played an important part in the Battle of the Atlantic. Ships from the Royal Navy, the Royal Canadian Navy, and other Allied navies were stationed in the city and the United States military established a base. The reason for such a high degree of military and naval activity was self-evident: Derry was the United Kingdom's westernmost port; indeed, the city was the westernmost Allied port in Europe: thus, Derry was a crucial jumping-off point, together with Glasgow and Liverpool, for the shipping convoys that ran between the British Isles/Western Europe and North America. The large numbers of military personnel in Derry substantially altered the character of the city, bringing in some outside colour to the local area, as well as some cosmopolitan and economic buoyancy during these years. At the conclusion of the Second World War, some 19 U-boats of the German Kriegsmarine came into the city's harbour at Lisahally to offer their surrender. Troubles The "Free Derry" sign in the Bogside: "You are now entering Free Derry" The Bogside area viewed from the walls Catholics were discriminated against under Unionist government in Northern Ireland, both politically and economically. In the late 1960s the city became the flashpoint of disputes about institutional gerrymandering. Political scientist John Whyte explains that: All the accusations of gerrymandering, practically all the complaints about housing and regional policy, and a disproportionate amount of the charges about public and private employment come from this area. The area – which consisted of Counties Tyrone and Fermanagh, Londonderry County Borough, and portions of Counties Londonderry and Armagh - had less than a quarter of the total population of Northern Ireland yet generated not far short of three-quarters of the complaints of discrimination...The unionist government must bear its share of responsibility. It put through the original gerrymander which underpinned so many of the subsequent malpractices, and then, despite repeated protests, did nothing to stop those malpractices continuing The most serious charge against the Northern Ireland government is not that it was directly responsible for widespread discrimination, but that it allowed discrimination on such a scale over a substantial segment of Northern Ireland. Civil rights demonstrations led by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association were declared illegal and then suppressed by the Royal Ulster Constabulary and Ulster Special Constabulary. The events that followed the August 1969 Apprentice Boys parade resulted in the Battle of the Bogside, when Catholic rioters fought the police, leading to widespread civil disorder in Northern Ireland and is often dated as the starting point of the Troubles. On Sunday January 30, 1972, 13 unarmed civilians were shot dead by British paratroopers during a civil rights march in the Bogside area. Another 13 were wounded and one further man later died of his wounds. This event came to be known as Bloody Sunday. Violence eased towards the end of the Troubles in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Irish journalist Ed Maloney claims in "The Secret History of the IRA" that republican leaders there negotiated a de facto ceasefire in the city as early as 1991. Whether this is true or not, the city did see less bloodshed by this time than Belfast or other localities. The city was famously visited by a killer whale in November 1977 at the height of the troubles and was dubbed Dopey Dick by the thousands who came from miles around to see him. Governance The local district council is Derry City Council, which consists of five electoral areas: Cityside, Northland, Rural, Shantallow and Waterside. The council of 30 members is re-elected every four years, though the 2009 election is expected to be postponed until 2011, when a new council for Derry and Strabane is planned to replace existing councils. As of the 2005 election, 14 Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) members, ten Sinn Féin, five Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), and one Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) make up the council. The mayor and deputy mayor are elected annually by councillors, and SDLP councillor Gerard Diver's term as mayor began in June 2008. The local authority boundaries correspond to the Foyle constituency of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and the Foyle constituency of the Northern Ireland Assembly. In European Parliament elections, it is part of the Northern Ireland constituency. Coat of arms and motto Derry's coat of arms The devices on the city's arms are a skeleton and a three-towered castle on a black field, with the chief or top third of the shield depicting the arms of the City of London: a red cross and sword on white. In the centre of the cross is a gold harp. The blazon of the arms is as follows: Sable, a human skeleton Or seated upon a mossy stone proper and in dexter chief a castle triple towered argent on a chief also argent a cross gules thereon a harp or and in the first quarter a sword erect gules Letters Patent certifying the arms of the City of Londonderry issued to Derry City Council, sealed by Garter and Norroy and Ulster Kings of Arms dated April 30, 2003 According to documents in the College of Arms in London and the Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland in Dublin, the arms of the city were confirmed in 1613 by Daniel Molyneux, Ulster King of Arms. The College of Arms document states that the original arms of the City of Derry were ye picture of death (or a skeleton) on a moissy stone & in ye dexter point a castle and that upon grant of a charter of incorporation and the renaming of the city as Londonderry in that year the first mayor had requested the addition of a "chief of London". Genealogical Office, Dublin: GO Ms 60, Sketches of arms by Richard Carney, fol. 47 <ref>College of Arms, London: The Arms of Peers of Ireland and some Commoners, fol. 133d (c.1652)</ref> Theories have been advanced as to the meaning of the "old" arms of Derry, before the addition of the chief bearing the arms of the City of London: A suggestion has been made that the castle is related to an early 14th century castle in nearby Greencastle belonging to the Anglo-Norman Earl of Ulster Richard de Burgh. The most popular theory about the skeleton is that it is that of a Norman De Burgh knight who was starved to death in the castle dungeons in 1332 on the orders of his cousin the above mentioned Earl of Ulster. Another explanation put forward was that it depicted Cahir O'Doherty (Sir Charles O'Dogherty), who was put to death after Derry was invested by the English army in 1608. During the days of Gerrymandering and discrimination against the Catholic population of Derry, Derry's Roman Catholics often used to claim in dark wit that the skeleton was a local waiting for help from the council bureaucracy. In 1979 Derry City Council commissioned a report into the city's arms and insignia, as part of the design process for an heraldic badge. The published report found that there was no basis for any of the popular explanations for the skeleton and that it was "purely symbolic and does not refer to any identifiable person". L E Rothwell, An inquiry initiated by Derry City Council into the ensigns armourial and related matters of the City of Londonderry The 1613 records of the arms depicted a harp in the centre of the cross, but this was omitted from later depictions of the city arms, and in the Letters Patent confirming the arms to Londonderry Corporation in 1952. Letters Patent ratifying and confirming the arms of the City of Londonderry sealed by Garter and Norroy & Ulster Kings of Arms dated April 28, 1952 In 2002 Derry City Council applied to the College of Arms to have the harp restored to the city arms, and Garter and Norroy & Ulster Kings of Arms accepted the seventeenth century evidence, issuing letters patent to that effect in 2003. The motto attached to the coat of arms reads in Latin, "Vita, Veritas, Victoria". This translates into English as, "Life, Truth, Victory". Geography The River Foyle at night Derry is characterised by its distinctively hilly topography. The River Foyle forms a deep valley as it flows through the city, making Derry a place of very steep streets and sudden, startling views. The original walled city of Londonderry lies on a hill on the west bank of the River Foyle. In the past, the river branched and enclosed this wooded hill as an island; over the centuries, however, the western branch of the river dried up and became a low-lying and boggy district that is now called the Bogside. Today, modern Derry extends considerably north and west of the city walls and east of the river. The half of the city the west of the Foyle is known as the Cityside and the area east is called the Waterside. The Cityside and Waterside are connected by the Craigavon Bridge and Foyle Bridge. The district also extends into rural areas to the southeast of the city. This much larger city, however, remains characterised by the often extremely steep hills that form much of its terrain on both sides of the river. A notable exception to this lies on the north-eastern edge of the city, on the shores of Lough Foyle, where large expanses of sea and mudflats were reclaimed in the middle of the nineteenth century. Today, these slob lands are protected from the sea by miles of sea walls and dikes. The area is an internationally important bird sanctuary. Other important nature reserves lie at Ness Wood, east of Derry; and at Prehen Wood, within the city's south-eastern suburbs. Climate + Climate Table Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecYear Average daily maximum temperature (°C) 10 10 11 12 14 17 18 19 17 15 11 11 13.75 Average daily maximum temperature (°F) 50 50 52 54 57 63 64 66 63 59 52 52 56.75 Average daily minimum temperature (°C) 0 0 2 3 5 8 10 10 9 6 4 1 4.8 Average daily minimum temperature (°F) 32 32 36 37 41 46 50 50 48 43 39 34 40.7 Mean total rainfall (mm) 110 80 90 60 60 70 70 90 100 120 120 100 1070 Mean total rainfall (in) 4.3 3.1 3.5 2.4 2.4 2.8 2.8 3.5 3.9 4.7 4.7 3.9 42.1 Source: Yahoo! Weather Demography Derry Urban Area (DUA), including the city and the neighbouring settlements of Culmore, Newbuildings and Strathfoyle, is classified as a city by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) since its population exceeds 75,000. On census day (29 April 2001) there were 90,736 people living in Derry Urban Area. Of these, 27.0 per cent were aged under 16 years and 13.4 per cent were aged 60 and over; 48.3 per cent of the population were male and 51.7 per cent were female; 77.8 per cent were from a Roman Catholic background and 20.8 per cent were from a Protestant background; and 7.1 per cent of people aged 16-74 were unemployed. The mid-2006 population estimate for the wider Derry City Council area was 107,300. Population growth in 2005/06 was driven by natural change, with net out-migration of approximately 100 people. The city was one of the few in Ireland to experience an increase in population during the Irish Potato Famine as migrants came to it from other, more heavily affected areas. The great majority of these migrants were Catholic. Protestant minority The "No Surrender" mural right outside the city wall: "Londonderry west bank loyalists still under siege no surrender" Concerns have been raised by the Protestant community over the increasingly divided nature of the city. During the course of the Troubles, it is estimated that as many as 15,000 Protestants moved from the cityside. Fewer than 500 Protestants are now living on the west bank of the River Foyle, compared to 18,000 in 1969, with most on the Fountain Estate and it is feared that the city could become permanently divided. However, concerted efforts have been made by local community, church and political leaders from both traditions to redress the problem. A conference to bring together key actors and promote tolerance was held in October 2006. Dr Ken Good, the Church of Ireland Bishop of Derry and Raphoe, said he was happy living on the cityside. "I feel part of it. It is my city and I want to encourage other Protestants to feel exactly the same", he said. Support for Protestants in the district has been strong from the former SDLP city Mayor Helen Quigley. Cllr Quigley has made inclusion and tolerance key themes of her mayoralty. The Mayor Helen Quigley said it is time for "everyone to take a stand to stop the scourge of sectarian and other assaults in the city." This referred to assaults on citizens from both communities. Economy Du Pont production facility, 2007, Maydown History The economy of the district was based significantly on the textile industry until relatively recently. For many years women were often the sole wage earners working in the shirt factories while the men predominantly in comparison had high levels of unemployment. This led to significant male emigration. The history of shirt making in the city dates back as far as 1831 and is said to have been started by William Scott and his family who first exported shirts to Glasgow. Within 50 years, shirt making in the city was the most prolific in the UK with garments being exported all over the world. It was known so well that the industry received a mention in Das Kapital by Karl Marx, when discussing the factory system: The industry reached its peak in the 1920s employing around 18,000 people. In modern times however the textile industry declined due to in most part cheaper Asian wages. A long-term foreign employer in the area is Du Pont, which has been based at Maydown since 1958, its first European production facility. Originally Neoprene was manufactured at Maydown and subsequently followed by Hypalon. More recently Lycra and Kevlar production units were active. Thanks to a healthy worldwide demand for Kevlar which is made at the plant, the facility recently undertook a £40 million upgrade to expand its global Kevlar production. Du Pont has stated that contributing factors to its continued commitment to Maydown are "low labor costs, excellent communications, and tariff-free, easy access to the Britain and European continent." Seagate production facility, 2005, 1 Disc Drive, Springtown Industrial Estate Inward investment In the last 15 years there has been a drive to increase inward investment in the city, more recently concentrating on digital industries. Currently the three largest private-sector employers are American firms. Economic successes have included call centres and a large investment by Seagate, which has operated a factory in the Springtown Industrial Estate since 1993. Seagate currently employs over 1,000 people in the Springtown premises, which produce more than half of the company's total requirement for hard drive read-write heads. A recent but controversial new employer in the area is Raytheon, Raytheon Systems Limited, was established in 1999, in the Ulster Science & Technology Park, Buncrana Road. Although some of the local people welcomed the jobs boost while others in the area objected to the jobs being provided by a firm involved heavily in the arms trade. Following four years of protest by the Foyle Ethical Investment Campaign, in 2004 Derry City Council passed a motion declaring the district a "A 'No – Go' Area for the Arms Trade". Significant multinational employers in the region include Firstsource of India, DuPont, INVISTA, Stream International, Seagate Technology, Perfecseal, NTL, Raytheon and Northbrook Technology of the United States, Arntz Belting and Invision Software of Germany, and Homeloan Management of the UK. Major local business employers include Desmonds, Northern Ireland's largest privately-owned company, manufacturing and sourcing garments, E&I Engineering, St. Brendan's Irish Cream Liqueur and McCambridge Duffy, one of the largest insolvency practices in the UK. Even though the city provides cheap labour by standards in Western Europe, critics have noted that the grants offered by the Northern Ireland Industrial Development Board have helped land jobs for the area that only last as long as the funding lasts. This was reflected in questions to the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Richard Needham, in 1990. It was noted that it cost £30,000 to create one job in an American firm in Northern Ireland. Critics of investment decisions affecting the district often point to the decision to build a new university building in nearby (predominately Protestant) Coleraine rather than developing the University of Ulster Magee Campus. Another major government decision affecting the city was the decision to create the new town of Craigavon outside Belfast, which again was detrimental to the development of the city. Even in October 2005, there was perceived bias against the comparatively impoverished North West of the province, with a major civil service job contract going to Belfast. Mark Durkan, the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) leader and Member of Parliament (MP) for Foyle was quoted in the Belfast Telegraph as saying: In July 2005, the Irish Minister for Finance, Brian Cowen, called for a joint task force to drive economic growth in the cross border region. This would have implications for Counties Londonderry, Tyrone, and Donegal across the border. Shopping Austins department store The city is the north west's major shopping district, housing two large shopping centres along with numerous shop packed streets serving much of the greater county, as well as Tyrone and Donegal. Retail developments in Letterkenny have, however, lessened cross-border traffic from north County Donegal. The city centre has two main shopping centres; the Foyleside Shopping Centre which has 45 stores and 1430 parking spaces, and the Richmond Centre, which has 39 retail units. The Quayside Shopping Centre also serves the city-side and there is also Lisnagelvin Shopping Centre in the Waterside. These centres, as well as local-run businesses, feature numerous national and international stores. A retail park was recently built called Crescent Link Retail Park located in the Waterside and has many international chain stores, including Homebase, Curries, Carpet Right, PC World, Argos Extra, Toys R Us, Halfords, JJB, Pets at Home, MFI, Tesco Express, M&S Simply Food and Land of Leather. In the short space that this site has been built, it has quickly grown to the second largest retail park in Northern Ireland (second only to Sprucefield in Lisburn). It is also home to the world's oldest independent department store; Austins. Established in 1830, Austins predates Jenners of Edinburgh by 5 years, Harrods of London by 15 years and Macy's of New York by 25 years. The store's five-story Edwardian building is located in the city centre's Diamond. Landmarks Guildhall There is a distinct architectural quality compared with other Irish cities. This quality can be primarily ascribed to the formal planning of the historic walled city of Derry at the core of the modern city. This is centred on the Diamond with a collection of late Georgian, Victorian and Edwardian buildings maintaining the gridlines of the main thoroughfares (Shipquay Street, Ferryquay Street, Butcher Street and Bishop Street) to the City Gates. St Columb's Cathedral does not follow the grid pattern reinforcing its civic status. This Church of Ireland Cathedral was the first post-Reformation Cathedral built for an Anglican church. The construction of the Roman Catholic St Eugene's Cathedral in the Bogside in the nineteenth-century was another major architectural addition to the city. The more recent infill buildings within the walls are of varying quality and in many cases these were low quality hurriedly constructed replacements for 1970s bomb damaged buildings. The Townscape Heritage Initiative has funded restoration works to key listed buildings and other older structures. In the three centuries since their construction, the city walls have been adapted to meet the needs of a changing city. The best example of this adaptation is the insertion of three additional gates — Castle Gate, New Gate and Magazine Gate — into the walls in the course of the nineteenth century. Today, the fortifications form a continuous promenade around the city centre, complete with cannon, avenues of mature trees and views across Derry. Historic buildings within the city walls include St Augustine's Church, which sits on the city walls close to the site of the original monastic settlement; the copper-domed Austin's department store, which claims to the oldest such store in the world; and the imposing Greek Revival Courthouse on Bishop Street. The red-brick late-Victorian Guildhall, also crowned by a copper dome, stands just beyond Shipquay Gate and close to the river front. There are many museums and sites of interest in and around the city, including the Foyle Valley Railway Centre, the Amelia Earhart Centre And Wildlife Sanctuary, the Apprentice Boys Memorial Hall, Ballyoan Cemetery, The Bogside, numerous murals by the Bogside Artists, Derry Craft Village, Free Derry Corner, O'Doherty Tower (now home to part of the Tower Museum), the Guildhall, the Harbour Museum, the Museum of Free Derry, Chapter House Museum, the Workhouse Museum, the Nerve Centre, St. Columb's Park and Leisure Centre, St Eugene's Cathedral, Creggan Country Park, The Millennium Forum and the Foyle and Craigavon bridges. Future projects include the Walled City Signature Project, which intends to ensure that the city's walls become a world class tourist experience. The Industry Website of the Northern Ireland Tourist Board. Retrieved 10 September 2006. The city has seen a large boost to its economy in the form of tourism over the last few years. Cheap flights offered by budget airlines have enticed many people to visit the city. Tourism mainly focuses around the pubs, mainly those of Waterloo Street. Other attractions include museums, a vibrant shopping centre and trips to the Giant's Causeway, which is approximately away. Transport The transport network is built out of a complex array of old and modern roads and railways throughout the city and county. The city's road network also makes use of two bridges to cross the River Foyle, the Craigavon Bridge and the Foyle Bridge, the longest bridge in Ireland. Derry also serves as a major transport hub for travel throughout nearby County Donegal. In spite of it being the second city of Northern Ireland (and it being the second-largest city in all of Ulster), road and rail links to other cities are below par for its standing. Many business leaders claim that government investment in the city and infrastructure has been badly lacking. Some have stated that this is due to its outlying border location whilst others have cited a sectarian bias against the region west of the River Bann due to its high proportion of Catholics. There is no direct motorway link with Dublin or Belfast. The rail link to Belfast has been downgraded over the years so that presently it is not a viable alternative to the roads for industry to rely on. There are currently plans for £1 billion worth of transport infrastructure investment in and around the district. Buses Most public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by the subsidiaries of Translink. Originally the city's internal bus network was run by Ulsterbus, which still provides the city's connections with other towns in Northern Ireland. The city's buses are now run by Ulsterbus Foyle, just as Translink Metro now provides the bus service in Belfast. The Ulsterbus Foyle network offers 13 routes across the city into the suburban areas, excluding an Easibus link which connects to the Waterside and Drumahoe, and a free Rail Link Bus runs from the Waterside Railway Station to the city centre. All buses leave from the Foyle Street Bus Station in the city centre. Long distance buses depart from Foyle Street Bus Station to destinations throughout Ireland. Buses are operated by both Ulsterbus and Bus Éireann on cross-border routes and also by Lough Swilly buses to Co. Donegal. There is a half-hourly service to Belfast every day, called the Maiden City Flyer, which is the Goldline Express flagship route. There are hourly services to Strabane, Omagh, Coleraine, Letterkenny and Buncrana, and eleven services a day to bring people to Dublin. There is a daily service to Sligo, Galway, Shannon Airport and Limerick. Railways Northern Ireland Railways (N.I.R.) has a single route from Londonderry railway station (also known as Waterside Station) on the Waterside to Belfast via Bellarena, Castlerock, Coleraine, Ballymoney, Cullybackey, Ballymena, Antrim, Mossley West and Whiteabbey. The service, which had been allowed to deteriorate in the 1990s, has since been boosted by increased investment. Currently, a plan has been put in place by the Department for Regional Development, for relaying of the track between Derry and Coleraine by 2013, which will include a passing loop, and the introduction of two new train sets. The £86 million plan will reduce the journey time to Belfast by 30 minutes and allow commuter trains to arrive before 9 a.m. for the first time. However, many still do not use the train, due to the fact that at over two hours it is slower centre-to-centre than the 100-minute Ulsterbus Goldline Express service. Railways in Ireland, 1906. At one time, the city was served by four different systems which stretched throughout Northern Ireland and County Donegal and deep into southern Ireland. Indeed, for a long time, Derry served as the main railway hub for County Donegal. At the turn of the last century, Clones was one of the major junctions from Derry, Omagh, and Belfast to north Leinster, in particular, the major market towns of Athlone, Cavan, and Mullingar. This back-bone rail infrastructure was administered by Midland Great Western Railway which also linked to other major centres namely, Sligo, Tullamore, via Clara, other destinations such as Dublin, Limerick, and other market centres of the south coast. Road network The road network has historically seen under-investment and has lacked good road connections to both Belfast and Dublin for many years. Long overdue, the largest road investment in the north west's history is now taking place in the district with the construction of new dual-carriageways and roads to Dungiven and helping to reduce the time it takes to get to Belfast. This development is bringing a direct dual-carriageway linking between Northern Ireland's two largest cities a step closer. The project is costing £320 million and is expected to be completed in 2016. In October 2006, the Irish Government announced that it was to invest €1 billion in Northern Ireland; and one of the planned projects was the complete upgrade of the A5 Derry-Omagh-Aughnacloy(-Dublin) road, around 90 km (56 mi) long, to motorway standard. It is yet unknown will these two separate projects interconnect at any point, although there has been calls for some form of connection between the two routes. In June 2008, Conor Murphy, Minister for Regional Development, announced that a study looking into the feasibility of connecting the A5 and A6 will occur. Should it proceed, the scheme would most likely run from Drumahoe to South of Prehen along the South East of the City. Air City of Derry Airport, the council-owned airport near Eglinton, has been growing in recent years with new investment in extending the runway and plans to redevelop the terminal. It is hoped that the new investment will add to the airport's currently limited array of domestic and international flights and reduce the annual subsidy of £3.5 million from the local council. In the summer of 2009 work will begin on turning the A2 from Maydown to Eglinton and the airport into a dual carriageway, with completion estimated by 2010. The facility is the main regional airport for County Donegal, West Tyrone and the west of County Londonderry, as well as Derry City itself. There are scheduled flights to Dublin , London Stansted, Liverpool, Glasgow Prestwick Airport, Birmingham International Airport, Luton, and Alicante all year round and summer charter flights to Majorca, Barcelona and the Canary Islands. Sea Londonderry Port at Lisahally is the United Kingdom's most westerly port and has capacity for 30,000-ton vessels. Recently the Londonderry Port and Harbour Commission has announced record turnover, record profits and record tonnage figures for the year ended March 2008. The excellent figures are as a result of a significant capital expenditure programme for the period 2000 to 2007 of Circa £22 Million. Tonnage handled by Londonderry Port and Harbour Commissioners (LPHC) increased by almost 65 per cent between 2000 and 2007, according to the latest annual results. The port played a vital part for the Allies in World War II during the war's longest running campaign, the Battle of the Atlantic, and saw the surrender of the German U-Boat fleet at Lisahally on 8 May 1945. Education Magee College became a campus of the University of Ulster in 1969 Derry is home to the Magee Campus of the University of Ulster, which was formerly Magee College. However the Lockwood decision in the 1960s to place Northern Ireland's 2nd University in Coleraine rather than in Derry, despite the fact that Magee College (formerly part of Trinity College Dublin) was already 100 years old, was a major catalyst in the formation of the civil rights movement which ultimately led to The Troubles. In the mid 1980's a half-hearted attempt was made at rectifying this mistake by forming Magee College as a campus of the University of Ulster but this has failed to stiffle calls for the establishment of an independent University in Derry that can grow to it full potential. The campus has never thrived and currently only has 3,500 students out of a total University of Ulster student population of 27,000. Ironically, although Coleraine is blamed by many in the city for 'stealing the University', it has only 5,000 students, the remaining 19,000 being based in Belfast. [www.ulster.ac.uk] The university issue reared its head again in 2009 following the decision to relocate the landing point of an Atlantic internet cable codenamed "Project Kelvin" from Derry to Coleraine. After a vociferious campaign by Derry residents the project was reinstated as originally planned. The North West Regional College is also based in the city. In recent years it has grown to almost 30,000 students , no doubt driven in part by the lack of adequate local University places. Secondary schools include St. Columb's College, Oakgrove Integrated College, St Cecilia's College, St. Joseph's Boys' School, Lisneal College, Foyle and Londonderry College, Thornhill College, Lumen Christi College St. Brigid's College and St. Peter's High School. There are also numerous primary schools. Sports The city is home to sports clubs and teams. Both association football and Gaelic football are popular in the area. In association football, the city's main team (in terms of supporters) is Derry City who play in the national league of the Republic of Ireland. Also playing in the city are Institute and Oxford United Stars, of the Irish League. In Gaelic football Derry GAA are the county team and play in the Gaelic Athletic Association's National Football League, Ulster Senior Football Championship and All-Ireland Senior Football Championship. They also field hurling teams in the equivalent tournaments. There are many Gaelic games clubs in and around the city, for example Na Magha CLG, Steelstown GAC, Doire Colmcille CLG, Seán Dolans GAC Na Piarsaigh CLG Doire Trasna and Slaughtmanus GAC. Derry City taking on Paris Saint-Germain at the Brandywell Stadium during the 2006 UEFA Cup In addition to the Derry City, Institute and Oxford United Stars, who all play in national leagues, other clubs are based in the city. The local football league is the Derry and District League and teams from the city and surrounding areas participate, including Lincoln Courts, Don Boscos and Trojans, also North West teams like BBOB (Boys Brigade Old Boys). The Foyle Cup youth soccer tournament is held annually in the city. It has attracted many notable teams in the past, including Werder Bremen, IFK Göteborg and Ferencváros. There are many boxing clubs, the most well-known being The Ring Boxing Club, which is associated with Charlie Nash Ring ABC and John Duddy, The Ring abc Videos amongst others. Rugby Union is also quite popular in the city, with the City of Derry Rugby Club situated not far from the city centre. City of Derry Rugby Club Official Website City of Derry won both the Ulster Towns Cup and the Ulster Junior Cup in 2009. Londonderry YMCA RFC is another rugby club and is based in Drumahoe which is just outside the city. The city's only basketball club is North Star Basketball Club which has teams in the Basketball Northern Ireland senior and junior Leagues. North Star Basketball Club Official Website Culture 'Hands Across the Divide' sculpture, by Maurice Harron In recent years the city, and surrounding countryside, has become well-known for its artistic legacy producing such talents as the Nobel Prizewinning poet Seamus Heaney, the poet Seamus Deane, the playwright Brian Friel, the writer and music critic Nik Cohn, the artist Willie Doherty, the socio-political commentator and activist Eamonn McCann as well as bands such as The Undertones. The large political gable-wall murals of Bogside Artists, Free Derry Corner, the Foyle Film Festival, the Derry Walls, St Eugene's and St Columb's Cathedrals and the annual Halloween street carnival are popular tourist attractions. Media The local papers the Derry Journal (known as the Londonderry Journal until 1880) and the Londonderry Sentinel reflect the divided history of the city: the Journal was founded in 1772 and is Ireland's second oldest newspaper; the Sentinel newspaper was formed in 1829 when new owners of the Journal embraced Catholic Emancipation, and the editor left the paper to set up the Sentinel''. There are numerous radio stations receivable: the largest stations based in the city are BBC Radio Foyle and the commercial station Q102.9. There is a locally based television station, C9TV, which is one of only two local or 'restricted' television services in Northern Ireland. Night-life The city's night-life is mainly centred on the weekend, with several bars and clubs providing "student nights" during the weekdays. Waterloo Street and the Strand Road are central to the City's nightlife. Waterloo Street is a steep street lined with various pubs, both Irish traditional and modern. Live rock and traditional music can frequently be heard emanating from the pub-doors and windows whilst walking up or down the street at night. The city is renowned for producing talented musicians and many bands perform in venues around the city, for example the Smalltown America duo, Fighting with Wire and Jetplane Landing. Numerous other young local and indeed international bands perform at the Nerve Centre. Events The "Banks of the Foyle Hallowe’en Carnival" (known in Irish as Féile na Samhna) in Derry are a huge tourism boost for the city. The carnival is promoted as being the first and longest running Halloween carnival in the whole of Ireland, It is called the largest street party in Ireland by the Londonderry Visitor and Convention Bureau with more than 30,000 ghoulish revellers taking to the streets annually. In March, the city hosts the Big Tickle Comedy Festival, which in 2006 featured Dara Ó Briain and Colin Murphy. In April the city plays host to the City Of Derry Jazz And Big Band Festival and in November the Foyle Film Festival, the biggest film festival in Northern Ireland. Every summer the city hosts Tomo-Dachi, Ireland's largest Anime convention, which in July 2006 was held at Magee College, University of Ulster. The siege of Derry is commemorated annually by the fraternal organisation the Apprentice Boys of Derry in the week long Maiden City Festival. The Instinct Festival is an annual youth festival celebrating the Arts. It is held around Easter and has proven a success in recent years. Celtronic is a major annual electronic dance festival held at venues all around the city. The 2007 Festival featured the DJ, Erol Alkan. The Millennium Forum is the main theatre in the city, it holds numerous shows weekly. On 9 December 2007 Derry entered the Guinness Book of Records when 13000 Santas gathered to break the world record beating previous records held by Liverpool and Las Vegas. References in popular music Notable people Notable people who were born or have lived in Derry include the Restoration dramatist George Farquhar authors Joyce Cary, Seamus Deane, Jennifer Johnston and Nell McCafferty poet and Nobel Laureate Seamus Heaney Social Democratic and Labour Party founder and Nobel Peace Prize winner John Hume Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland Martin McGuinness Aston Villa manager Martin O'Neill Manchester United player Darron Gibson actress Amanda Burton Girls Aloud member Nadine Coyle musician Feargal Sharkey and Eurovision Song Contest winner and former politician Dana. The band The Undertones the actress Roma Downey See also Abbeys and priories in Northern Ireland (County Londonderry) Apprentice Boys of Derry Ballynalliagh Newbuildings Drumahoe Bogside Derry City F.C. Institute FC Derry GAA Doire Colmcille CLG List of towns in Northern Ireland List of villages in Northern Ireland Scouting in Londonderry Shantallow North Star Basketball Club References External links Derry City Council Derry visitor information Londonderry Chamber of Commerce | Derry |@lemmatized derry:109 londonderry:40 often:8 call:10 maiden:5 city:184 northern:35 ireland:66 old:14 walled:7 lie:4 west:17 bank:8 river:14 foyle:30 location:2 east:8 present:1 cover:2 cityside:6 waterside:10 span:1 two:10 bridge:9 district:18 also:27 extend:5 rural:3 area:31 southeast:2 population:13 proper:2 define:2 century:21 charter:5 census:2 urban:3 statistical:1 classification:1 delineation:1 settlement:6 february:1 second:8 large:20 ulster:28 fourth:1 island:3 regional:6 business:4 investment:13 retrieve:2 wider:2 council:22 june:3 administer:2 contain:1 port:10 airport:10 great:5 within:8 http:4 www:5 qub:1 ac:3 uk:7 cibr:1 wppdffiles:1 mfwppdf:1 pdf:1 comprise:1 borough:2 limavady:1 strabane:3 exclude:2 castlederg:1 part:13 north:16 donegal:15 irish:28 republic:7 namely:2 inishowen:2 letterkenny:4 finn:1 valley:3 include:19 ballybofey:1 stranorlar:1 lifford:1 laggan:1 raphoe:2 st:21 johnston:2 discovernorthernireland:1 com:2 interactive:1 map:3 near:3 border:7 county:20 close:4 relationship:1 person:2 traditionally:1 see:6 founder:2 original:8 columba:4 know:12 colm:1 cille:1 columb:9 holy:1 man:2 royal:6 prince:1 tír:1 chonaill:1 name:15 almost:4 modern:8 c:6 nearby:6 town:11 form:11 major:12 economic:6 core:2 northwest:1 remain:4 completely:2 wall:22 one:14 fine:2 example:6 europe:6 claim:6 defensive:1 complete:5 british:6 isle:2 although:6 chester:2 make:11 similar:1 discover:1 university:13 website:4 law:2 conference:2 social:5 html:2 never:4 saw:3 fortification:3 breach:2 build:7 period:2 honourable:2 society:2 defence:2 early:8 settler:1 england:2 scotland:1 approximately:3 mile:4 km:3 circumference:1 vary:2 height:2 width:1 foot:1 metre:1 intact:1 walkway:1 around:13 inner:1 provide:6 unique:1 promenade:2 view:4 layout:2 still:6 preserve:2 renaissance:1 style:2 street:19 plan:8 four:7 gate:22 bishop:5 ferryquay:3 butcher:3 shipquay:4 three:8 far:4 add:2 later:3 magazine:2 castle:8 new:14 seven:1 total:6 historic:3 building:9 gothic:2 cathedral:11 apprentice:6 boys:3 memorial:3 hall:2 courthouse:2 withstand:1 several:4 siege:7 last:7 day:5 hence:1 nickname:3 road:15 sign:3 reference:6 london:12 obscured:2 magherafelt:1 accord:4 april:7 official:5 state:8 recent:8 high:5 court:2 decision:8 january:3 usually:2 appear:1 many:20 anglicisation:1 daire:2 spelt:1 doire:5 translate:2 oak:1 grove:1 derive:1 calgaich:1 oakwood:1 calgach:2 change:6 plantation:4 reflect:3 establishment:2 guild:1 prefer:2 nationalist:1 broadly:1 use:12 throughout:6 catholic:14 community:4 well:9 whereas:2 unionist:7 however:12 everyday:1 conversation:2 frequently:2 protestant:12 apart:1 local:21 government:9 always:1 refer:4 medium:2 minister:4 foreign:2 affair:1 micheál:1 martin:3 announce:4 passport:2 holder:1 bear:6 could:2 record:8 either:1 place:10 birth:1 born:1 choose:2 available:1 irishtimes:1 newspaper:3 sometimes:1 abbreviate:1 l:2 deface:1 usage:1 varies:1 among:1 organisation:2 rugby:5 club:14 fc:2 boy:6 oppose:1 chamber:2 commerce:2 may:3 consequently:1 rename:1 order:2 coterminous:1 corporation:2 formally:1 mayor:7 alderman:1 citizen:2 section:1 act:1 eliz:1 ii:2 post:2 mail:1 ensure:2 delivery:1 virtue:1 fact:3 penetrate:1 late:7 stroke:1 broadcaster:1 gerry:1 anderson:1 due:5 politically:2 correct:1 oblique:1 notation:1 addition:6 landscape:1 erection:1 stone:3 column:1 main:8 welcome:3 driver:1 euphemistically:1 much:6 popular:7 naming:1 indeed:4 least:2 word:1 derrymore:1 derrybeg:1 derrylea:1 history:9 long:11 focal:1 point:8 important:5 event:4 bloody:2 sunday:3 continuously:1 inhabited:1 historical:1 date:7 monastery:3 found:5 colmcille:4 famous:1 saint:2 thousand:3 year:24 people:11 live:5 vicinity:1 leave:3 spread:1 christianity:1 elsewhere:1 side:4 oral:1 documented:1 site:4 grant:3 king:8 hand:2 federation:1 columban:1 church:6 regard:1 spiritual:1 mentor:1 accept:3 erroneous:1 assign:1 medieval:1 chronicler:1 primarily:2 monastic:2 become:10 strategically:1 significant:4 tudor:1 conquest:1 come:7 frequent:1 attack:2 destroy:1 cahir:2 doherty:4 chieftain:1 planter:1 organise:2 livery:1 company:3 arrive:3 across:6 defend:1 insurgent:2 occupation:1 aim:1 settle:1 supportive:1 crown:2 first:11 begin:5 central:3 diamond:5 think:1 good:3 design:2 grid:2 pattern:2 subsequently:2 copy:1 colony:2 america:4 initially:1 centre:29 radiate:1 gateway:1 survive:2 construct:2 time:9 porch:1 inscription:1 upheaval:1 suffer:1 war:10 kingdom:4 rebellion:1 gaelic:5 failed:1 garrison:2 support:2 republican:4 parliament:4 besiege:2 scottish:1 presbyterian:1 force:3 loyal:1 charles:2 parliamentarian:2 relieve:1 strange:1 alliance:1 roundhead:1 troop:1 george:2 monck:1 general:1 owen:1 roe:1 neill:2 temporary:1 ally:2 soon:1 fight:3 landing:3 model:1 army:6 finally:1 bring:5 end:4 crush:1 battle:4 scarrifholis:1 glorious:1 revolution:1 enniskillen:1 november:3 men:2 mostly:1 redshank:1 highlander:1 alexander:1 macdonnell:1 earl:3 antrim:2 slowly:1 set:4 week:3 william:2 orange:1 land:4 december:2 james:1 summon:1 surrender:5 rebuff:1 july:4 arrival:1 relief:1 ship:2 erected:1 rebuild:1 georgian:2 house:2 embarkation:1 emigrant:1 hampshire:1 destination:3 migrant:3 flee:1 severely:1 affect:3 potato:2 famine:2 partition:2 independence:1 rock:2 sectarian:3 violence:3 partly:1 prompt:1 guerilla:1 rag:1 influence:1 pressure:1 ex:1 serviceman:1 mobilise:1 try:1 drive:7 job:6 take:6 world:10 severe:1 riot:1 ensue:1 loyalist:2 launch:1 assault:3 resist:1 armed:1 ira:2 member:5 life:4 lose:1 expel:1 home:6 communal:1 unrest:1 truce:1 negotiate:2 politician:2 follow:7 anglo:2 treaty:1 unexpectedly:1 separate:2 natural:2 hinterland:1 play:7 atlantic:3 navy:3 canadian:1 allied:2 station:10 united:7 military:3 establish:3 base:9 reason:1 degree:1 naval:1 activity:1 self:1 evident:1 westernmost:2 thus:1 crucial:1 jumping:1 together:2 glasgow:3 liverpool:3 shipping:1 convoy:1 ran:1 western:4 number:1 personnel:1 substantially:1 alter:1 character:1 outside:4 colour:1 cosmopolitan:1 buoyancy:1 conclusion:1 u:3 boat:2 german:2 kriegsmarine:1 harbour:4 lisahally:3 offer:4 trouble:6 free:7 bogside:10 enter:2 discriminate:1 economically:1 flashpoint:1 dispute:1 institutional:1 gerrymandering:3 political:4 scientist:1 john:3 whyte:1 explain:1 accusation:1 practically:1 complaint:2 housing:2 policy:1 disproportionate:1 amount:1 charge:2 public:2 private:2 employment:1 consist:2 tyrone:4 fermanagh:1 portion:1 armagh:1 less:2 quarter:3 yet:2 generate:1 short:2 discrimination:4 must:1 share:1 responsibility:1 put:4 gerrymander:1 underpin:1 subsequent:1 malpractice:2 despite:2 repeated:1 protest:2 nothing:1 stop:2 continue:1 serious:1 directly:1 responsible:1 widespread:2 allow:3 scale:1 substantial:1 segment:1 civil:6 right:6 demonstration:1 lead:4 association:4 declare:2 illegal:1 suppress:1 constabulary:2 special:1 august:1 parade:1 result:3 rioter:1 police:1 disorder:1 start:2 unarmed:1 civilian:1 shoot:1 dead:1 paratrooper:1 march:3 another:5 wound:2 die:1 ease:1 towards:1 journalist:1 ed:1 maloney:1 secret:1 leader:4 de:3 facto:1 ceasefire:1 whether:1 true:1 bloodshed:1 belfast:14 locality:1 famously:1 visit:2 killer:1 whale:1 dub:1 dopey:1 dick:1 governance:1 five:3 electoral:1 northland:1 shantallow:2 elect:2 every:3 though:2 election:3 expect:2 postpone:1 replace:1 exist:1 democratic:4 labour:4 party:6 sdlp:4 ten:1 sinn:1 féin:1 dup:1 uup:1 deputy:2 annually:4 councillor:2 gerard:1 diver:1 term:3 authority:1 boundary:1 correspond:1 constituency:3 assembly:1 european:3 coat:3 arm:29 motto:2 device:1 skeleton:6 tower:4 black:1 field:2 chief:6 top:1 third:1 shield:1 depict:3 red:2 cross:8 sword:2 white:1 gold:1 harp:4 blazon:1 sable:1 human:1 seat:1 upon:2 mossy:1 dexter:2 triple:1 argent:2 gules:2 thereon:1 erect:1 letter:4 patent:4 certify:1 issue:3 seal:2 garter:3 norroy:3 document:2 college:19 office:2 herald:1 dublin:9 confirm:3 daniel:1 molyneux:1 ye:2 picture:1 death:3 moissy:1 incorporation:1 renaming:1 request:1 genealogical:1 go:3 ms:1 sketch:1 richard:3 carney:1 fol:2 ref:2 peer:1 commoner:1 theory:2 advance:1 meaning:1 suggestion:1 relate:1 greencastle:1 belonging:1 norman:2 burgh:2 knight:1 starve:1 dungeon:1 cousin:1 mention:2 explanation:2 forward:1 sir:1 dogherty:1 invest:2 english:2 roman:3 dark:1 wit:1 waiting:1 help:3 bureaucracy:1 commission:2 report:2 insignia:1 process:1 heraldic:1 badge:1 published:1 find:1 basis:1 purely:1 symbolic:1 identifiable:1 e:2 rothwell:1 inquiry:1 initiate:1 ensigns:1 armourial:1 related:1 matter:1 omit:1 depiction:1 ratify:1 apply:1 restore:1 seventeenth:1 evidence:1 effect:1 attach:1 read:2 latin:1 vita:1 veritas:1 victoria:1 truth:1 victory:1 geography:1 night:5 characterise:2 distinctively:1 hilly:1 topography:1 deep:2 flow:1 steep:3 sudden:1 startling:1 hill:3 past:2 branch:2 enclose:1 wooded:1 dry:1 low:3 lying:1 boggy:1 today:3 considerably:1 half:4 connect:3 craigavon:4 remains:1 extremely:1 terrain:1 notable:4 exception:1 eastern:2 edge:1 shore:1 lough:2 expanse:1 sea:4 mudflats:1 reclaim:1 middle:1 nineteenth:3 slob:1 protect:1 dike:1 internationally:1 bird:1 sanctuary:2 nature:2 reserve:1 ness:1 wood:2 prehen:2 south:4 suburb:1 climate:2 table:1 jan:1 feb:1 mar:1 apr:1 jun:1 jul:1 aug:1 sep:1 oct:1 nov:1 decyear:1 average:4 daily:5 maximum:2 temperature:4 f:3 minimum:2 mean:2 rainfall:2 mm:1 source:2 yahoo:1 weather:1 demography:1 dua:1 neighbouring:1 culmore:1 newbuildings:2 strathfoyle:1 classify:1 statistic:1 research:1 agency:1 nisra:1 since:5 exceed:1 per:8 cent:8 age:3 male:2 female:1 background:2 unemployed:1 mid:2 estimate:3 growth:2 net:1 migration:1 experience:2 increase:3 heavily:2 affected:1 majority:1 minority:1 mural:3 concern:1 raise:1 increasingly:1 divided:2 course:2 move:1 compare:2 fountain:1 estate:3 fear:1 permanently:1 divide:2 concert:1 effort:1 tradition:1 redress:1 problem:1 key:3 actor:1 promote:2 tolerance:2 hold:7 october:3 dr:1 ken:1 say:5 happy:1 living:1 feel:2 want:1 encourage:1 exactly:1 strong:1 former:2 helen:2 quigley:3 cllr:1 inclusion:1 theme:1 mayoralty:1 everyone:1 stand:2 scourge:1 economy:3 du:3 pont:3 production:5 facility:5 maydown:5 significantly:1 textile:2 industry:7 relatively:1 recently:6 woman:1 sole:1 wage:2 earner:1 work:3 shirt:4 factory:3 predominantly:1 comparison:1 level:1 unemployment:1 emigration:1 making:2 back:2 scott:1 family:1 export:2 prolific:1 garment:2 receive:1 das:1 kapital:1 karl:1 marx:1 discuss:1 system:3 reach:1 peak:1 employ:2 decline:1 cheap:3 asian:1 employer:5 originally:3 neoprene:1 manufacture:1 hypalon:1 lycra:1 kevlar:3 unit:2 active:1 thanks:1 healthy:1 worldwide:1 demand:1 plant:1 undertake:1 million:5 upgrade:2 expand:1 global:1 contribute:1 factor:1 continued:1 commitment:1 labor:1 cost:3 excellent:2 communication:1 tariff:1 easy:1 access:1 britain:1 continent:1 seagate:4 disc:1 springtown:3 industrial:3 inward:2 concentrate:1 digital:1 currently:6 sector:1 american:2 firm:3 success:2 operate:3 premise:1 produce:3 requirement:1 hard:1 write:1 head:2 controversial:1 raytheon:3 limit:1 science:1 technology:3 park:6 buncrana:2 boost:4 others:3 object:1 involve:1 trade:2 ethical:1 campaign:3 pass:1 motion:1 multinational:1 region:3 firstsource:1 india:1 dupont:1 invista:1 stream:1 international:6 perfecseal:1 ntl:1 northbrook:1 arntz:1 belt:1 invision:1 software:1 germany:1 homeloan:1 management:1 desmonds:1 privately:1 manufacturing:1 engineering:1 brendan:1 cream:1 liqueur:1 mccambridge:1 duffy:1 insolvency:1 practice:1 even:2 standard:2 critic:3 note:2 development:6 board:2 funding:1 question:1 parliamentary:1 secretary:1 needham:1 create:2 predominately:1 coleraine:7 rather:2 develop:1 magee:7 campus:5 detrimental:1 perceive:1 bias:2 comparatively:1 impoverished:1 province:1 service:9 contract:1 mark:1 durkan:1 mp:1 quote:1 telegraph:1 finance:1 brian:2 cowen:1 joint:1 task:1 would:2 implication:1 shopping:8 austins:2 department:4 store:8 along:2 numerous:7 shop:1 pack:1 serve:5 retail:5 lessen:1 traffic:1 foyleside:1 parking:1 space:2 richmond:1 quayside:1 lisnagelvin:1 run:7 feature:3 national:4 crescent:1 link:9 locate:2 chain:1 homebase:1 curry:1 carpet:1 pc:1 argos:1 extra:1 toys:1 r:2 halfords:1 jjb:1 pet:1 mfi:1 tesco:1 express:3 simply:1 food:1 leather:1 quickly:1 grow:4 sprucefield:1 lisburn:1 independent:2 austin:2 predate:1 jenner:1 edinburgh:1 harrod:1 macy:1 york:1 story:1 edwardian:2 landmarks:1 guildhall:3 distinct:1 architectural:2 quality:4 ascribe:1 formal:1 planning:1 collection:1 victorian:2 maintain:1 gridlines:1 thoroughfare:1 reinforce:1 civic:1 status:1 reformation:1 anglican:1 construction:3 eugene:3 infill:1 case:1 hurriedly:1 replacement:1 bomb:1 damage:1 townscape:1 heritage:1 initiative:1 fund:1 restoration:2 list:3 structure:1 adapt:1 meet:1 need:1 best:1 adaptation:1 insertion:1 additional:1 continuous:1 cannon:1 avenue:1 mature:1 tree:1 augustine:1 sit:1 copper:2 domed:1 impose:1 greek:1 revival:1 brick:1 dome:1 beyond:1 front:1 museum:7 interest:1 railway:9 amelia:1 earhart:1 wildlife:1 ballyoan:1 cemetery:1 artists:1 craft:1 village:2 corner:2 chapter:1 workhouse:1 nerve:2 leisure:1 creggan:1 country:1 millennium:2 forum:2 future:1 project:7 signature:1 intend:1 class:1 tourist:3 september:1 tourism:3 flight:4 budget:1 airline:1 entice:1 mainly:3 focus:1 pub:3 waterloo:3 attraction:2 vibrant:1 trip:1 giant:1 causeway:1 away:1 transport:5 network:6 complex:1 array:2 hub:2 travel:1 spite:1 rail:4 par:1 standing:1 infrastructure:3 badly:1 lack:3 outlying:1 whilst:2 cite:1 bann:1 proportion:1 direct:2 motorway:2 downgrade:1 presently:1 viable:1 alternative:1 rely:1 billion:2 worth:1 bus:12 subsidiary:1 translink:2 internal:1 ulsterbus:5 connection:3 metro:1 route:5 suburban:1 easibus:1 drumahoe:4 distance:1 depart:1 éireann:1 swilly:1 co:1 hourly:2 flyer:1 goldline:2 flagship:1 omagh:3 eleven:1 sligo:2 galway:1 shannon:1 limerick:2 n:1 single:1 via:2 bellarena:1 castlerock:1 ballymoney:1 cullybackey:1 ballymena:1 mossley:1 whiteabbey:1 deteriorate:1 increased:1 relaying:1 track:1 passing:1 loop:1 introduction:1 train:3 reduce:3 journey:1 minute:2 commuter:1 hour:1 slow:1 different:1 stretch:1 southern:1 turn:2 clone:1 junction:1 leinster:1 particular:1 market:2 athlone:1 cavan:1 mullingar:1 bone:1 midland:1 tullamore:1 clara:1 coast:1 historically:1 overdue:1 dual:3 carriageway:3 dungiven:1 get:1 step:1 closer:1 planned:1 aughnacloy:1 mi:1 unknown:1 interconnect:1 conor:1 murphy:2 study:1 look:1 feasibility:1 occur:1 proceed:1 scheme:1 likely:1 air:1 eglinton:2 runway:1 redevelop:1 terminal:1 hop:1 limited:1 domestic:1 annual:5 subsidy:1 summer:3 completion:1 schedule:1 stansted:1 prestwick:1 birmingham:1 luton:1 alicante:1 round:1 majorca:1 barcelona:1 canary:1 westerly:1 capacity:1 ton:1 vessel:1 turnover:1 profit:1 tonnage:2 figure:2 capital:1 expenditure:1 programme:1 circa:1 handle:1 commissioner:1 lphc:1 vital:1 fleet:1 education:1 formerly:2 lockwood:1 trinity:1 already:1 catalyst:1 formation:1 movement:1 ultimately:1 hearted:1 attempt:1 rectify:1 mistake:1 fail:1 stiffle:1 full:1 potential:1 thrive:1 student:5 ironically:1 blame:1 steal:1 rear:1 relocate:1 internet:1 cable:1 codenamed:1 kelvin:1 vociferious:1 resident:1 reinstate:1 doubt:1 adequate:1 secondary:1 school:4 oakgrove:1 integrated:1 cecilia:1 joseph:1 lisneal:1 thornhill:1 lumen:1 christi:1 brigid:1 peter:1 primary:1 sport:2 team:8 football:8 supporter:1 league:7 institute:3 oxford:2 star:5 gaa:2 athletic:1 senior:3 championship:2 hurl:1 equivalent:1 tournament:2 game:1 na:3 magha:1 clg:4 steelstown:1 gac:3 seán:1 dolans:1 piarsaigh:1 trasna:1 slaughtmanus:1 paris:1 germain:1 brandywell:1 stadium:1 uefa:1 cup:4 surround:2 participate:1 lincoln:1 boscos:1 trojan:1 like:1 bbob:1 brigade:1 youth:2 soccer:1 attract:1 werder:1 bremen:1 ifk:1 göteborg:1 ferencváros:1 box:1 ring:3 boxing:1 associate:1 charlie:1 nash:1 abc:2 duddy:1 video:1 amongst:1 union:1 quite:1 situate:1 win:1 junior:2 ymca:1 rfc:1 basketball:5 culture:1 sculpture:1 maurice:1 harron:1 countryside:1 artistic:1 legacy:1 talent:1 nobel:3 prizewinning:1 poet:3 seamus:4 heaney:2 deane:2 playwright:1 friel:1 writer:1 music:3 nik:1 cohn:1 artist:2 willie:1 socio:1 commentator:1 activist:1 eamonn:1 mccann:1 band:5 undertone:2 gable:1 film:3 festival:10 halloween:2 carnival:4 paper:2 journal:4 sentinel:3 owner:1 embrace:1 emancipation:1 editor:1 radio:2 receivable:1 bbc:1 commercial:1 locally:1 television:2 restrict:1 weekend:1 bar:1 weekday:1 strand:1 nightlife:1 line:1 various:1 traditional:2 hear:1 emanate:1 door:1 window:1 walk:1 renowned:1 talented:1 musician:2 perform:2 venue:2 smalltown:1 duo:1 wire:1 jetplane:1 young:1 hallowe:1 en:1 féile:1 samhna:1 huge:1 whole:1 visitor:2 convention:2 bureau:1 ghoulish:1 reveller:1 host:3 big:3 tickle:1 comedy:1 dara:1 ó:1 briain:1 colin:1 jazz:1 tomo:1 dachi:1 anime:1 commemorate:1 fraternal:1 instinct:1 celebrate:1 art:1 easter:1 prove:1 celtronic:1 electronic:1 dance:1 dj:1 erol:1 alkan:1 theatre:1 show:1 weekly:1 guinness:1 book:1 santa:1 gather:1 break:1 beat:1 previous:1 la:1 vega:1 dramatist:1 farquhar:1 author:1 joyce:1 cary:1 jennifer:1 nell:1 mccafferty:1 laureate:1 peace:1 prize:1 winner:2 hume:1 mcguinness:1 aston:1 villa:1 manager:1 manchester:1 unite:1 player:1 darron:1 gibson:1 actress:2 amanda:1 burton:1 girl:1 aloud:1 nadine:1 coyle:1 feargal:1 sharkey:1 eurovision:1 song:1 contest:1 dana:1 rom:1 downey:1 abbeys:1 priory:1 ballynalliagh:1 scout:1 external:1 information:1 |@bigram derry_londonderry:4 http_www:4 county_donegal:10 st_columba:2 st_columb:9 mile_km:2 oak_grove:1 plantation_ulster:2 foreign_affair:1 passport_holder:1 www_irishtimes:1 irishtimes_com:1 chamber_commerce:2 mayor_alderman:1 siege_derry:4 gerry_anderson:1 politically_correct:1 bloody_sunday:2 continuously_inhabited:1 scottish_presbyterian:1 george_monck:1 glorious_revolution:1 potato_famine:2 sectarian_violence:1 riot_ensue:1 politically_economically:1 county_tyrone:1 ulster_constabulary:1 unarmed_civilian:1 de_facto:1 killer_whale:1 sinn_féin:1 ulster_unionist:1 coat_arm:3 low_lying:1 nineteenth_century:3 jan_feb:1 feb_mar:1 mar_apr:1 jun_jul:1 jul_aug:1 aug_sep:1 sep_oct:1 oct_nov:1 per_cent:8 net_migration:1 du_pont:3 wage_earner:1 das_kapital:1 karl_marx:1 seagate_technology:1 shopping_centre:6 amelia_earhart:1 wildlife_sanctuary:1 mural_bogside:2 bus_éireann:1 commuter_train:1 dual_carriageway:3 london_stansted:1 canary_island:1 magee_college:5 st_cecilia:1 gaelic_athletic:1 saint_germain:1 uefa_cup:1 rugby_union:1 seamus_heaney:2 tourist_attraction:1 hallowe_en:1 la_vega:1 nobel_laureate:1 aston_villa:1 manchester_unite:1 eurovision_song:1 external_link:1 |
4,624 | Andrew_Jackson | Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767June 8, 1845) was the seventh President of the United States (1829–1837). He was military governor of Florida (1821), commander of the American forces at the Battle of New Orleans (1815), and eponym of the era of Jacksonian democracy. A polarizing figure who dominated American politics in the 1820s and 1830s, his political ambition combined with widening political participation, shaping the modern Democratic Party. Wilentz, Sean. Andrew Jackson (2005), p. 8, 35. His legacy is now seen as mixed, as a protector of popular democracy and individual liberty, checkered by his support for Indian removal and slavery. Renowned for his toughness, he was nicknamed “Old Hickory”. As he based his career in developing Tennessee, Jackson was the first president primarily associated with the American frontier. His portrait appears on the U.S. twenty-dollar bill. Early life and career Andrew Jackson was born to Presbyterian Scots-Irish immigrants Andrew and Elizabeth Hutchinson Jackson, on March 15, 1767, approximately two years after they had emigrated from Carrickfergus, in Northern Ireland. Three weeks after his father's death, Andrew was born in the Waxhaws area near the border between North and South Carolina. He was the youngest of the Jacksons' three sons. His exact birth site was the subject of conflicting lore in the area. Jackson claimed to have been born in a cabin just inside South Carolina. Controversies about Jackson's birthplace went far beyond the dispute between North and South Carolina. Because his origins were humble and obscure compared to those of his predecessors, wild rumors abounded about Jackson's past. Joseph Nathan Kane, in his almanac-style book Facts About the Presidents, lists no fewer than eight localities, including two foreign countries, that were mentioned in the popular press as Jackson's "real" birthplace including Ireland, where both of Jackson's parents were born. Jackson received a sporadic education in the local "old-field" school. During the American Revolutionary War, Jackson, at age thirteen, joined a local regiment as a courier. Andrew and his brother Robert Jackson were captured by the British and held as prisoners of war; they nearly starved to death in captivity. When Andrew refused to clean the boots of a British officer, the irate redcoat slashed at him with a sword, giving him scars on his left hand and head, as well as an intense hatred for the British. While imprisoned, the brothers contracted smallpox. Robert died a few days after their mother secured their release. Jackson's entire immediate family died from war-related hardships which Jackson blamed on the British, and he was orphaned by age 14. Jackson was the last U.S. President to have been a veteran of the American Revolution, and the second President to have been a prisoner of war (Washington was captured by the French in the French and Indian War). In 1781, Jackson worked for a time in a saddle-maker's shop. Later, he taught school and studied law in Salisbury, North Carolina. In 1787, he was admitted to the bar, and moved to Jonesborough, in what was then the Western District of North Carolina and later became Tennessee. Though his legal education was scanty, Jackson knew enough to be a country lawyer on the frontier. Since he was not from a distinguished family, he had to make his career by his own merits; soon he began to prosper in the rough-and-tumble world of frontier law. Most of the actions grew out of disputed land-claims, or from assaults and battery. In 1788, he was appointed Solicitor of the Western District and held the same position in the territorial government of Tennessee after 1791. In 1796, Jackson was a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention. When Tennessee achieved statehood that same year, Jackson was elected its U.S. Representative. In 1797, he was elected U.S. Senator as a Democratic-Republican. He resigned within a year. In 1798, he was appointed a judge of the Tennessee Supreme Court, serving until 1804. Jackson refusing to clean a British officer's boots (1876 lithograph) Besides his legal and political career, Jackson prospered as a planter and merchant. In 1803 he owned a lot, and built a home and the first general store in Gallatin. In 1804, he acquired the "Hermitage", a plantation in Davidson County, near Nashville. Jackson later added to the farm. The primary crop was cotton, grown by enslaved workers. Jackson started with nine slaves, by 1820 he held as many as 44, and later held up to 150 slaves. Remini (2000), p.51 cites 1820 census; mentions later figures up to 150 without noting a source. Military career War of 1812 Jackson was appointed commander of the Tennessee militia in 1801, with the rank of colonel. During the War of 1812, Tecumseh incited the "Red Stick" Creek Indians of northern Alabama and Georgia to attack white settlements. Four hundred settlers were killed in the Fort Mims Massacre. In the resulting Creek War, Jackson commanded the American forces, which included Tennessee militia, U.S. regulars, and Cherokee, Choctaw, and Southern Creek Indians. Jackson defeated the Red Stick Creeks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814. Eight hundred "Red Sticks" were killed, but Jackson spared chief William Weatherford. Sam Houston and David Crockett served under Jackson in this campaign. After the victory, Jackson imposed the Treaty of Fort Jackson upon both the Northern Creek enemies and the Southern Creek allies, wresting twenty million acres (81,000 km²) from all Creeks for white settlement. Jackson was appointed Major General after this action. Jackson's service in the War of 1812 against the United Kingdom was conspicuous for bravery and success. When British forces threatened New Orleans, Jackson took command of the defenses, including militia from several western states and territories. He was a strict officer but was popular with his troops. It was said he was "tough as old hickory" wood on the battlefield, which gave him his nickname. In the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815, Jackson's 5,000 soldiers won a victory over 7,500 British. At the end of the day, the British had 2,037 casualties: 291 dead (including three senior generals), 1,262 wounded, and 484 captured or missing. The Americans had 71 casualties: 13 dead, 39 wounded, and 19 missing. Remini, Robert V. (1999) The battle of New Orleans, New York: Penguin Books. p. 285 The war, and especially this victory, made Jackson a national hero. He received the Thanks of Congress and a gold medal by resolution of February 27, 1815. First Seminole War Jackson served in the military again during the First Seminole War. He was ordered by President James Monroe in December 1817 to lead a campaign in Georgia against the Seminole and Creek Indians. Jackson was also charged with preventing Spanish Florida from becoming a refuge for runaway slaves. Critics later alleged that Jackson exceeded orders in his Florida actions. His directions were to "terminate the conflict." Remini, 118. Jackson believed the best way to do this would be to seize Florida. Before going, Jackson wrote to Monroe, "Let it be signified to me through any channel... that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished." Ogg, 66. Monroe gave Jackson orders that were purposely ambiguous, sufficient for international denials. Military governor Jackson was sworn in at Plaza Ferdinand VII in Pensacola, Florida The Seminoles attacked Jackson's Tennessee volunteers. The Seminoles' attack, however, left their villages vulnerable, and Jackson burned them and the crops. He found letters that indicated that the Spanish and British were secretly assisting the Indians. Jackson believed that the United States would not be secure as long as Spain and the United Kingdom encouraged Indians to fight and argued that his actions were undertaken in self-defense. Jackson captured Pensacola, Florida, with little more than some warning shots, and deposed the Spanish governor. He captured and then tried and executed two British subjects, Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot, who had been supplying and advising the Indians. Jackson's action also struck fear into the Seminole tribes as word spread of his ruthlessness in battle. The executions, and Jackson's invasion of territory belonging to Spain, a country with which the U.S. was not at war, created an international incident. Many in the Monroe administration called for Jackson to be censured. Jackson's actions were defended by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, an early believer in Manifest Destiny. When the Spanish minister demanded a "suitable punishment" for Jackson, Adams wrote back, "Spain must immediately [decide] either to place a force in Florida adequate at once to the protection of her territory ... or cede to the United States a province, of which she retains nothing but the nominal possession, but which is, in fact ... a post of annoyance to them." Adams used Jackson's conquest, and Spain's own weakness, to get Spain to cede Florida to the United States by the Adams-Onís Treaty. Jackson was subsequently named military governor and served from March 10, 1821 to December 31, 1821. Election of 1824 The Tennessee legislature nominated Jackson for President in 1822. It also elected him U.S. Senator again. By 1824, the Democratic-Republican Party had become the only functioning national party. Its Presidential candidates had been chosen by an informal Congressional nominating caucus, but this had become unpopular. In 1824, most of the Democratic-Republicans in Congress boycotted the caucus. Those who attended backed Treasury Secretary William H. Crawford for President and Albert Gallatin for Vice President. A Pennsylvanian convention nominated Jackson for President a month later, stating that the irregular caucus ignored the "voice of the people" and was a "vain hope that the American people might be thus deceived into a belief that he [Crawford] was the regular democratic candidate." Gallatin criticized Jackson as "an honest man and the idol of the worshippers of military glory, but from incapacity, military habits, and habitual disregard of laws and constitutional provisions, altogether unfit for the office." Adams, Henry. The Life of Albert Gallatin (1879), 599. Statue of Jackson as General in front of Jackson County Counthouse in Kansas City, Missouri Besides Jackson and Crawford, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and House Speaker Henry Clay were also candidates. Jackson received the most popular votes (but not a majority, and four states had no popular ballot). The Electoral votes were split four ways, with Jackson having a plurality. Since no candidate received a majority, the election was decided by the House of Representatives, which chose Adams. Jackson denounced this result as a "corrupt bargain" because Clay gave his support to Adams. Later Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State. Jackson's defeat burnished his political credentials; however, many voters believed the "man of the people" had been robbed by the "corrupt aristocrats of the East." Election of 1828 Jackson resigned from the Senate in October 1825, but continued his quest for the Presidency. The Tennessee legislature again nominated Jackson for President. Jackson attracted Vice President John C. Calhoun, Martin Van Buren, and Thomas Ritchie into his camp (the latter two previous supporters of Crawford). Van Buren, with help from his friends in Philadelphia and Richmond, revived the old Republican Party, gave it a new name as the Democratic Party, "restored party rivalries", and forged a national organization of durability. The Jackson coalition handily defeated Adams in 1828. During the election, Jackson's opponents referred to him as a "jackass." Jackson liked the name and used the jackass as a symbol for a while, but it died out. However, it later became the symbol for the Democratic Party when cartoonist Thomas Nast popularized it. Nickels, Ilona; "How did Republicans pick the elephant, and Democrats the donkey, to represent their parties?"; "Capitol Questions" feature at c-span.com; September 5, 2000 The campaign was very much a personal one. Although neither candidate personally campaigned, their political followers organized many campaign events. Both candidates were rhetorically attacked in the press, which reached a low point when the press accused Jackson's wife Rachel of bigamy. Though the accusation was true, as were most personal attacks leveled against him during the campaign, it was based on events that occurred many years prior (1791 to 1794). Jackson said he would forgive those who insulted him, but he would never forgive the ones who attacked his wife. Rachel died suddenly on December 22, 1828, prior to his inauguration, and was buried on Christmas Eve. Inauguration Jackson was the first President to invite the public to attend the White House ball honoring his first inauguration. Many poor people came to the inaugural ball in their homemade clothes. The crowd became so large that Jackson's guards could not hold them out of the White House. The White House became so crowded with people that dishes and decorative pieces in the White House began to break. Some people stood on good chairs in muddied boots just to get a look at the President. The crowd had become so wild that the attendants poured punch in tubs and put it on the White House lawn to lure people out of the White House. Jackson’s raucous populism earned him the nickname King Mob. Election of 1832 In the 1832 presidential election, Jackson easily won re-election as the candidate of the Democratic Party against Henry Clay, of the National Republican Party, and William Wirt, of the Anti-Masonic Party. Jackson jettisoned Vice President John C. Calhoun because of his support for nullification and involvement in the Eaton Affair, replacing him with long-time confidant Martin Van Buren of New York. Presidency 1829–1837 Federal debt See also: Panic of 1837 In 1835, Jackson managed to reduce the federal debt to only $33,733.05, the lowest it had been since the first fiscal year of 1791. President Jackson is the only president in United States history to have paid off the national debt. However, this accomplishment was short lived. A severe depression from 1837 to 1844 caused a ten-fold increase in national debt within its first year. Electoral College Jackson repeatedly called for the abolition of the Electoral College by constitutional amendment in his annual messages to Congress as President. In his third annual message to Congress, he expressed the view "I have heretofore recommended amendments of the Federal Constitution giving the election of President and Vice-President to the people and limiting the service of the former to a single term. So important do I consider these changes in our fundamental law that I can not, in accordance with my sense of duty, omit to press them upon the consideration of a new Congress." The institution remains to the present day. Spoils system When Jackson became President, he implemented the theory of rotation in office, declaring it "a leading principle in the republican creed." He believed that rotation in office would prevent the development of a corrupt bureaucracy. To strengthen party loyalty, Jackson's supporters wanted to give the posts to party members. In practice, this meant replacing federal employees with friends or party loyalists. The Spoils System, as the rotation in office system was called, did not originate with Jackson. It originated with New York governors in the late 18th and early 19th centuries (most notably George Clinton and DeWitt Clinton). Thomas Jefferson brought it to the Executive Branch when he replaced Federalist office-holders after becoming President. The Spoils System versus the Merit System. Retrieved on 2006-11-21. However, the effect was not as drastic as expected or portrayed. By the end of his term, Jackson dismissed less than twenty percent of the Federal employees at the start of it. Jacksonian Democracy: The Presidency of Andrew Jackson. Retrieved on 2006-11-21. While Jackson did not start the "spoils system," he did indirectly encourage its growth for many years to come. Opposition to the National Bank Democratic cartoon shows Jackson fighting the monster Bank. "The Bank," Jackson told Martin Van Buren, "is trying to kill me, but I will kill it!" The Second Bank of the United States was authorized for a twenty year period during James Madison's tenure in 1816. As President, Jackson worked to rescind the bank's federal charter. In Jackson's veto message (written by George Bancroft), the bank needed to be abolished because: It concentrated the nation's financial strength in a single institution. It exposed the government to control by foreign interests. It served mainly to make the rich richer. It exercised too much control over members of Congress. It favored northeastern states over southern and western states. Following Jefferson, Jackson supported an "agricultural republic" and felt the Bank improved the fortunes of an "elite circle" of commercial and industrial entrepreneurs at the expense of farmers and laborers. After a titanic struggle, Jackson succeeded in destroying the Bank by vetoing its 1832 re-charter by Congress and by withdrawing U.S. funds in 1833. 1833 Democratic cartoon shows Jackson destroying the devil's Bank. The bank's money-lending functions were taken over by the legions of local and state banks that sprang up. This fed an expansion of credit and speculation. At first, as Jackson withdrew money from the Bank to invest it in other banks, land sales, canal construction, cotton production, and manufacturing boomed. Digital History However, due to the practice of banks issuing paper banknotes that were not backed by gold or silver reserves, there was soon rapid inflation and mounting state debts. Sparknotes Then, in 1836, Jackson issued the Specie Circular, which required buyers of government lands to pay in "specie" (gold or silver coins). The result was a great demand for specie, which many banks did not have enough of to exchange for their notes. These banks collapsed. This was a direct cause of the Panic of 1837, which threw the national economy into a deep depression. It took years for the economy to recover from the damage. The U.S. Senate censured Jackson on March 28, 1834, for his action in removing U.S. funds from the Bank of the United States. When the Jacksonians had a majority in the Senate, the censure was expunged. Nullification crisis Another notable crisis during Jackson's period of office was the "Nullification Crisis", or "secession crisis," of 1828 1832, which merged issues of sectional strife with disagreements over tariffs. Critics alleged that high tariffs (the "Tariff of Abominations") on imports of common manufactured goods made in Europe made those goods more expensive than ones from the northern U.S., raising the prices paid by planters in the South. Southern politicians argued that tariffs benefited northern industrialists at the expense of southern farmers. The issue came to a head when Vice President Calhoun, in the South Carolina Exposition and Protest of 1828, supported the claim of his home state, South Carolina, that it had the right to "nullify"—declare void—the tariff legislation of 1828, and more generally the right of a state to nullify any Federal laws which went against its interests. Although Jackson sympathized with the South in the tariff debate, he was also a strong supporter of a strong union, with effective powers for the central government. Jackson attempted to face down Calhoun over the issue, which developed into a bitter rivalry between the two men. Particularly notable was an incident at the April 13, 1830 Jefferson Day dinner, involving after-dinner toasts. Robert Hayne began by toasting to "The Union of the States, and the Sovereignty of the States." Jackson then rose, and in a booming voice added "Our federal Union: It must be preserved!" a clear challenge to Calhoun. Calhoun clarified his position by responding "The Union: Next to our Liberty, the most dear!" Ogg, 164. Jackson Presidential Dollar The next year, Calhoun and Jackson broke apart politically from one another. Around this time, the Petticoat Affair caused further resignations from Jackson's cabinet, leading to its reorganization as the "Kitchen Cabinet." Martin Van Buren, despite resigning as Secretary of State, played a leading role in the new unofficial cabinet. Martin Van Buren biography at Encyclopedia Americana At the first Democratic National Convention, privately engineered by members of the Kitchen Cabinet, . First published in 1860. Van Buren replaced Calhoun as Jackson's running mate. In December 1832, Calhoun resigned as Vice President to become a U.S. Senator for South Carolina. In response to South Carolina's nullification claim, Jackson vowed to send troops to South Carolina to enforce the laws. In December 1832, he issued a resounding proclamation against the "nullifiers," stating that he considered "the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed." South Carolina, the President declared, stood on "the brink of insurrection and treason," and he appealed to the people of the state to reassert their allegiance to that Union for which their ancestors had fought. Jackson also denied the right of secession: "The Constitution... forms a government not a league... To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation." Syrett, 36. See also: Jackson asked Congress to pass a "Force Bill" explicitly authorizing the use of military force to enforce the tariff. But it was held up until protectionists led by Clay agreed to a reduced Compromise Tariff. The Force Bill and Compromise Tariff passed on March 1, 1833. and Jackson signed both. The South Carolina Convention then met and rescinded its nullification ordinance. The Force Bill became moot because it was no longer needed. Indian removal Official White House portrait of Jackson. Perhaps the most controversial aspect of Jackson's presidency was his policy regarding American Indians. For an attack on Jackson see Cave (2003). 65(6): 1330–1353. For a defense see Remini (2001). Jackson was a leading advocate of a policy known as Indian removal, which involved the ethnic cleansing of several Indian tribes. In particular, see Schama (2008) p. 325-326 In his December 8, 1829 First Annual Message to Congress, Jackson stated: Prior to his election as president, Jackson had been involved with the issue of Indian removal for over ten years. The removal of the Native Americans to the west of the Mississippi River had been a major part of his political agenda in both the 1824 and 1828 presidential elections. Remini,"Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832" pp. 117, 200 After his election he signed the Indian Removal Act into law in 1830. The Act authorized the President to negotiate treaties to purchase tribal lands in the east in exchange for lands further west, outside of existing U.S. state borders. While frequently frowned upon in the North, the Removal Act was popular in the South, where population growth and the discovery of gold on Cherokee land had increased pressure on tribal lands. The state of Georgia became involved in a contentious jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokees, culminating in the 1832 U.S. Supreme Court decision (Worcester v. Georgia) which ruled that Georgia could not impose its laws upon Cherokee tribal lands. Jackson is often quoted (regarding the decision) as having said, "John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it!" Whether or not he actually said it is disputed. Cave (2003); Remini (1988). In any case, Jackson used the Georgia crisis to pressure Cherokee leaders to sign a removal treaty. A small faction of Cherokees led by John Ridge negotiated the Treaty of New Echota with Jackson's representatives. Ridge was not a recognized leader of the Cherokee Nation, and this document was rejected by most Cherokees as illegitimate. Over 15,000 Cherokees signed a petition in protest; it was ignored by the Supreme Court. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html PBS The treaty was enforced by Jackson's successor, Van Buren, who ordered 7,000 armed troops to remove the Cherokees. http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/jackson.htm Indian Removal This resulted in the deaths of over 4,000 Cherokees on the "Trail of Tears." By the 1830s, under constant pressure from settlers, each of the five southern tribes had ceded most of its lands, but sizable self-government groups lived in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. All of these (except the Seminoles) had moved far in the coexistence with whites, and they resisted suggestions that they should voluntarily remove themselves. Their non-violent methods earned them the title the Five Civilized Tribes. PBS: Judgement Day. “Indian removal.” http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html (accessed January 12, 2008). In all, more than 45,000 American Indians were relocated to the West during Jackson's administration. During this time, the administration purchased about 100 million acres (400,000 km²) of Indian land for about $68 million and 32 million acres (130,000 km²) of western land. Jackson was criticized at the time for his role in these events, and the criticism has grown over the years. Remini characterizes the Indian Removal era as "one of the unhappiest chapters in American history." Remini (2001). Attack and assassination attempt Richard Lawrence's attempt on Jackson's life, as depicted in an 1835 etching The first attempt to do bodily harm to a President was against Jackson. Jackson ordered the dismissal of Robert B. Randolph from the Navy for embezzlement. On May 6, 1833, Jackson sailed on USS Cygnet to Fredericksburg, Virginia, where he was to lay the cornerstone on a monument near the grave of Mary Ball Washington, George Washington's mother. During a stopover near Alexandria, Virginia, Randolph appeared and struck the President. He then fled the scene with several members of Jackson's party chasing him, including the well known writer Washington Irving. Jackson decided not to press charges. On January 30, 1835, what is believed to be the first attempt to kill a sitting President of the United States occurred just outside the United States Capitol Building. When Jackson was leaving the Capitol Building out of the East Portico after the funeral of South Carolina Representative Warren R. Davis, Richard Lawrence, an unemployed and deranged house-painter from England, either burst from a crowd or stepped out from hiding behind a column and aimed a pistol at Jackson which misfired. Lawrence then pulled out a second pistol which also misfired. It has since been postulated that the moisture from the humid weather of the day contributed to the double misfiring. Lawrence was then restrained, with legend saying that Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane, prompting his aides to restrain him. Others present, including David Crockett, restrained and disarmed Lawrence. Richard Lawrence gave the doctors several reasons for the shooting. He had recently lost his job painting houses and somehow blamed Jackson. He claimed that with the President dead, "money would be more plenty" (a reference to Jackson’s struggle with the Bank of the United States) and that he "could not rise until the President fell." Finally, he informed his interrogators that he was actually a deposed English King—specifically, Richard III, dead since 1485—and that Jackson was merely his clerk. He was deemed insane, institutionalized, and never punished for his assassination attempt. Supreme Court appointments John McLean 1830. Henry Baldwin 1830. James Moore Wayne 1835. Roger Brooke Taney (Chief Justice) 1836. Philip Pendleton Barbour 1836. John Catron 1837. Major Supreme Court cases Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia 1831. Worcester v. Georgia 1832. Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge 1837. States admitted to the Union Arkansas June 15, 1836. Michigan January 26, 1837. Family and personal life Daguerreotype of Andrew Jackson at age 77 or 78 (1844/1845) Shortly after Jackson first arrived in Nashville in 1788, he took up residence as a boarder with Rachel Stockley Donelson, the widow of John Donelson. Here Jackson became acquainted with their daughter, Rachel Donelson Robards. At the time, Rachel Robards was in an unhappy marriage with Captain Lewis Robards, a man subject to irrational fits of jealous rage. Due to Lewis Robards' temperament, the two were separated in 1790. According to Jackson, he married Rachel after hearing that Robards had obtained a divorce. However, the divorce had never actually been finalized, making Rachel's marriage to Jackson illegitimate. After the divorce was officially completed, Rachel and Jackson re-married in 1794. Remini, 17–25 However, there is evidence that Donelson had been living with Jackson and referred to herself as Mrs. Jackson before the petition for divorce was ever made. Meachem, Jon. "American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House", (2008). The controversy surrounding their marriage remained a sore point for Jackson, who deeply resented attacks on his wife's honor. Jackson fought 13 duels, many nominally over his wife's honor. Charles Dickinson, the only man Jackson ever killed in a duel, had been goaded into angering Jackson by Jackson's political opponents. In the duel, fought over a horse-racing debt and an insult to his wife on May 30, 1806, Dickinson shot Jackson in the ribs before Jackson returned the fatal shot; Jackson actually allowed Dickinson to shoot first, knowing him to be an excellent shot, and as his opponent reloaded, Jackson shot, even as the bullet lodged itself in his chest. The bullet that struck Jackson was so close to his heart that it could never be safely removed. Jackson had been wounded so frequently in duels that it was said he "rattled like a bag of marbles." At times he would cough up blood, and he experienced considerable pain from his wounds for the rest of his life. Rachel died of a heart attack on December 22, 1828, two weeks after her husband's victory in the election and two months prior to Jackson taking office as President. Jackson blamed John Quincy Adams for Rachel's death because the marital scandal was brought up in the election of 1828. He felt that this had hastened her death and never forgave Adams. Jackson had two adopted sons, Andrew Jackson Jr., the son of Rachel's brother Severn Donelson, and Lyncoya, a Creek Indian orphan adopted by Jackson after the Creek War. Jackson had planned to have Lyncoya educated at West Point, but he died of tuberculosis in 1828, at the age of sixteen. Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson. From: National First Ladies' Library. Retrieved November 7, 2007. Rachel Jackson. From: nndb.com. Retrieved November 7, 2007. The Jacksons also acted as guardians for eight other children. John Samuel Donelson, Daniel Smith Donelson and Andrew Jackson Donelson were the sons of Rachel's brother Samuel Donelson, who died in 1804. Andrew Jackson Hutchings was Rachel's orphaned grand nephew. Caroline Butler, Eliza Butler, Edward Butler, and Anthony Butler were the orphaned children of Edward Butler, a family friend. They came to live with the Jacksons after the death of their father. The tomb of Andrew and Rachel Donelson Jackson located at their home, The Hermitage The widower Jackson invited Rachel's niece Emily Donelson to serve as hostess at the White House. Emily was married to Andrew Jackson Donelson, who acted as Jackson's private secretary and in 1856 would run for Vice President on the American Party ticket. The relationship between the President and Emily became strained during the Petticoat Affair, and the two became estranged for over a year. They eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess. Sarah Yorke Jackson, the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr., became co-hostess of the White House in 1834. It was the only time in history when two women simultaneously acted as unofficial First Lady. Sarah took over all hostess duties after Emily died from tuberculosis in 1836. Jackson remained influential in both national and state politics after retiring to The Hermitage in 1837. Though a slave-holder, Jackson was a firm advocate of the federal union of the states, and declined to give any support to talk of secession. Jackson was a lean figure standing at 6 feet, 1 inch (1.85 m) tall, and weighing between 130 and 140 pounds (64 kg) on average. Jackson also had an unruly shock of red hair, which had completely grayed by the time he became president at age 61. He had penetrating deep blue eyes. Jackson was one of the more sickly presidents, suffering from chronic headaches, abdominal pains, and a hacking cough, caused by a musket ball in his lung which was never removed, that often brought up blood and sometimes even made his whole body shake. After retiring to Nashville, he enjoyed eight years of retirement and died at The Hermitage on June 8, 1845 at the age of 78, of chronic tuberculosis, "dropsy" and heart failure. In his will, Jackson left his entire estate to his adopted son, Andrew Jackson Jr., except for specifically enumerated items that were left to various other friends and family members. Andrew Jackson was a member of the First Presbyterian Church in Nashville. His legacy is now seen as mixed, as a protector of popular democracy and individual liberty, checkered by his support for Indian removal and slavery. Finkelman, Paul (2006). "Jackson, Andrew (1767–1845)", in Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties, 3 vols., Routledge (CRC Press), ISBN 978-0-415-94342-0, vol. 2 (G-Q), p. 832–833. See also: Remini 1988, The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery. Memorials Memorials to Jackson include a set of four identical equestrian statues located in different parts of the country. One is in Jackson Square in New Orleans. Another is in Nashville on the grounds of the Tennessee State Capitol. A third is in Washington, D.C. near the White House. The fourth is in Downtown Jacksonville, Florida. Equestrian statues of Jackson have also been erected elsewhere, including one with Jackson on horseback together with seated figures of James K Polk and Andrew Johnson on the State Capitol grounds in Raleigh, North Carolina. Jackson Square in New Orleans. Jackson Statue near the White House in Washington, D.C. Jackson statue in downtown Jacksonville Numerous counties and cities are named after him, including Jacksonville, Florida; Jackson, Louisiana; Jackson, Michigan; Jackson, Mississippi; Jackson County, Mississippi; Jackson, Missouri; Jackson County, Oregon; Jacksonville, North Carolina; Jackson, Tennessee; Jackson County, Florida; Jackson Parish, Louisiana; Jackson County, Missouri; and Jackson County, Ohio. Andrew Jackson State Park is located on the site of his birthplace in Lancaster County, South Carolina. The park features a museum about his childhood, and a bronze statue of Jackson on horseback by sculptor Anna Hyatt Huntington. Two cities located in the suburbs in the eastern part of Nashville, TN, near the Hermitage, are named for Jackson and his home: Old Hickory, Tennessee, and Hermitage, Tennessee. In Nashville, Old Hickory Boulevard, named for Jackson, is a historic road that encircles the city. Originally the road, aided by ferries, formed an unbroken loop around the city. Today, it is interrupted by lakes and rerouted sections. It is the longest road in the city. One of the most popular lakes in middle Tennessee is Old Hickory Lake. Andrew Jackson High School, in Lancaster County, SC, is named after him and also uses the title of "Hickory Log" for its Annual photo book. The section of U.S. Route 74 between Charlotte, North Carolina and Wilmington, North Carolina is named the Andrew Jackson Highway. Jackson's portrait appears on the twenty dollar bill. He has appeared on $5, $10, $50, and $10,000 bills in the past, as well as a Confederate $1,000 bill. Jackson's image is on the Blackjack postage stamp. The U.S. Army installation Fort Jackson in Columbia, South Carolina, is named in his honor. Fort Jackson, built before the Civil War on the Mississippi River for the defense of New Orleans, was named in his honor. USS Andrew Jackson (SSBN-619), a Lafayette-class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine, which served from 1963 to 1989. Jackson Park, the third-largest park in Chicago is named for him. Jackson Park, a public golf course in Seattle, Washington is named for him. Andrew Jackson Centre, the Andrew Jackson Cottage and US Rangers Centre includes Jackson's parents home - a "traditional thatched Ulster–Scots farmhouse built in 1750’s. It has been restored to its original state". See also Indian Removal Act List of places named for Andrew Jackson Second Party System The Hermitage, Andrew Jackson's home, now a tourist destination Trail of Tears U.S. presidential election, 1832 References Secondary sources Brands, H. W. Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times (2005), ISBN 0385507380; ISBN 978-0385507387; ISBN 1400030722; ISBN 978-1400030729 biography emphasizing military career. Brustein, Andrew. The Passions of Andrew Jackson. (2003). Bugg Jr. James L. ed. Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality? (1952), excerpts from scholars. Cave, Alfred A.. Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830 (2003). Gammon, Samuel Rhea. The Presidential Campaign of 1832 (1922). Hammond, Bray. Andrew Jackson's Battle with the "Money Power" (1958) ch 8, of his Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War (1954); Pulitzer prize. Hofstatder, Richard. The American Political Tradition (1948), chapter on Jackson. James, Marquis. The Life of Andrew Jackson Combines two books: The Border Captain and Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President, 1933, 1937; winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Biography in 1938. Latner Richard B. The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820–1837 (1979), standard survey. Mabry, Donald J., Short Book Bibliography on Andrew Jackson, Historical Text Archive. Ogg, Frederic Austin ; The Reign of Andrew Jackson: A Chronicle of the Frontier in Politics 1919. short popular survey online at Gutenberg. Parton, James. Life of Andrew Jackson (1860). Volume I, Volume III. Ratner, Lorman A. Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture (1997). Remini, Robert V. The Life of Andrew Jackson. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume monumental biography, (1988). Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767–1821 (1977); Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832 (1981); Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833–1845 (1984). Remini, Robert V. The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery (1988). Remini, Robert V. Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars (2001). Remini, Robert V. "Andrew Jackson", American National Biography (2000). Rowland, Dunbar. Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813–1815 (1926). Schama, Simon. The American Future: A History (2008). Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. The Age of Jackson. (1945). Winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History. history of ideas of the era. Charles Grier Sellers, Jr. "Andrew Jackson versus the Historians," The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 44, No. 4. (March, 1958), pp. 615–634. in JSTOR. Syrett, Harold C. Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition (1953). Taylor, George Rogers, ed. Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources. Ward, John William. Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age (1962) how writers saw him. Wilentz, Sean. Andrew Jackson (2005) short biography. External links Andrew Jackson Biography and Fact File Retrieved on 2009-05-06 Andrew Jackson, the national bank and censure American Political History Online Andrew Jackson images White House Biography Andrew Jackson on the Web (resource directory) Critical Resources: Andrew Jackson and Indian Removal Retrieved on 2009-05-06 A genealogical profile of the President Jackson's medical history PBS documentary on Rachel & Andrew's life together Jackson letters to Richard K. Call Jackson's Cheddar Andrew Jackson's Candidacy, August 25, 1828 From Texas Tides Andrew Jackson's veto speech in 1832 regarding the Bank of the US Transcripts of letters of Andrew Jackson at the Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History Essay on Jackson and each member of his cabinet and First Lady - the Miller Center of Public Affairs | Andrew_Jackson |@lemmatized andrew:63 jackson:257 march:6 seventh:1 president:40 united:16 state:43 military:10 governor:5 florida:13 commander:2 american:26 force:8 battle:6 new:14 orleans:7 eponym:1 era:3 jacksonian:4 democracy:8 polarizing:1 figure:4 dominate:1 politics:5 political:10 ambition:1 combine:2 widen:1 participation:1 shape:1 modern:1 democratic:11 party:17 wilentz:2 sean:2 p:5 legacy:4 see:9 mixed:2 protector:2 popular:9 individual:2 liberty:4 checker:2 support:7 indian:28 removal:17 slavery:4 renowned:1 toughness:1 nickname:3 old:7 hickory:6 base:2 career:6 develop:2 tennessee:17 first:20 primarily:1 associate:1 frontier:4 portrait:4 appear:4 u:19 twenty:5 dollar:3 bill:7 early:3 life:10 bear:4 presbyterian:2 scot:2 irish:1 immigrant:1 elizabeth:1 hutchinson:1 approximately:1 two:13 year:14 emigrate:1 carrickfergus:1 northern:5 ireland:2 three:3 week:2 father:2 death:6 waxhaws:1 area:2 near:7 border:3 north:9 south:16 carolina:19 young:1 son:5 exact:1 birth:1 site:2 subject:3 conflict:2 lore:1 claim:5 cabin:1 inside:1 controversy:2 birthplace:3 go:3 far:2 beyond:1 dispute:3 origin:1 humble:1 obscure:1 compare:1 predecessor:1 wild:2 rumor:1 abound:1 past:2 joseph:1 nathan:1 kane:1 almanac:1 style:1 book:5 facts:1 list:2 eight:4 locality:1 include:11 foreign:2 country:4 mention:2 press:6 real:1 parent:2 receive:4 sporadic:1 education:2 local:3 field:1 school:3 revolutionary:1 war:18 age:8 thirteen:1 join:1 regiment:1 courier:1 brother:4 robert:10 capture:5 british:12 hold:6 prisoner:2 nearly:1 starve:1 captivity:1 refuse:2 clean:2 boot:3 officer:3 irate:1 redcoat:1 slash:1 sword:1 give:9 scar:1 left:1 hand:1 head:2 well:3 intense:1 hatred:1 imprison:1 contract:1 smallpox:1 die:9 day:7 mother:2 secure:2 release:1 entire:2 immediate:1 family:5 relate:1 hardship:1 blame:3 orphan:3 last:1 veteran:1 revolution:2 second:5 washington:7 french:2 work:2 time:10 saddle:1 maker:1 shop:1 later:9 teach:1 studied:1 law:9 salisbury:1 admit:2 bar:1 move:2 jonesborough:1 western:5 district:2 become:18 though:3 legal:2 scanty:1 know:4 enough:2 lawyer:1 since:5 distinguish:1 make:9 merit:2 soon:2 begin:3 prosper:2 rough:1 tumble:1 world:1 action:7 grow:3 disputed:1 land:11 assault:1 battery:1 appoint:5 solicitor:1 position:2 territorial:1 government:6 delegate:1 constitutional:3 convention:4 achieve:1 statehood:1 elect:3 representative:4 senator:3 republican:6 resign:4 within:2 judge:1 supreme:5 court:5 serve:7 lithograph:1 besides:2 planter:2 merchant:1 lot:1 build:4 home:6 general:4 store:1 gallatin:4 acquire:1 hermitage:7 plantation:1 davidson:1 county:10 nashville:7 add:2 farm:1 primary:2 crop:2 cotton:2 enslaved:1 worker:1 start:3 nine:1 slave:4 many:9 remini:15 cite:1 census:1 without:1 note:2 source:3 militia:3 rank:1 colonel:1 tecumseh:1 incite:1 red:4 stick:3 creek:11 alabama:2 georgia:9 attack:11 white:18 settlement:2 four:4 hundred:2 settler:2 kill:6 fort:4 mims:1 massacre:1 resulting:1 command:2 regular:2 cherokee:12 choctaw:1 southern:6 defeat:3 horseshoe:1 bend:1 spar:1 chief:2 william:4 weatherford:1 sam:1 houston:1 david:2 crockett:2 campaign:8 victory:4 impose:2 treaty:6 upon:4 enemy:1 ally:1 wrest:1 million:4 acre:3 major:3 service:2 kingdom:2 conspicuous:1 bravery:1 success:1 threaten:1 take:6 defense:4 several:4 territory:4 strict:1 troop:3 say:8 tough:1 wood:1 battlefield:1 january:4 soldier:1 win:2 end:2 casualty:2 dead:4 senior:1 wound:4 miss:2 v:9 york:3 penguin:1 especially:1 national:13 hero:1 thanks:1 congress:9 gold:4 medal:1 resolution:1 february:1 seminole:7 order:5 james:7 monroe:4 december:7 lead:5 also:15 charge:2 prevent:2 spanish:5 refuge:1 runaway:1 critic:2 allege:2 exceed:1 direction:1 terminate:1 believe:5 best:1 way:2 would:9 seize:1 write:3 let:2 signify:1 channel:1 possession:2 desirable:1 sixty:1 accomplish:1 ogg:3 purposely:1 ambiguous:1 sufficient:1 international:2 denial:1 swear:1 plaza:1 ferdinand:1 vii:1 pensacola:2 volunteer:1 however:8 leave:4 village:1 vulnerable:1 burn:1 find:1 letter:4 indicate:1 secretly:1 assist:1 long:3 spain:5 encourage:2 fight:5 argue:2 undertake:1 self:2 little:1 warn:1 shot:5 depose:1 try:2 execute:1 ambrister:1 alexander:1 arbuthnot:1 supply:1 advise:1 strike:3 fear:1 tribe:4 word:1 spread:1 ruthlessness:1 execution:1 invasion:1 belong:1 create:1 incident:2 administration:3 call:4 censure:4 defend:1 secretary:6 john:12 quincy:3 adam:10 believer:1 manifest:1 destiny:1 minister:1 demand:2 suitable:1 punishment:1 adams:2 back:2 must:2 immediately:1 decide:3 either:2 place:2 adequate:1 protection:1 cede:3 province:1 retain:1 nothing:1 nominal:1 fact:2 post:2 annoyance:1 use:5 conquest:1 weakness:1 get:2 onís:1 subsequently:1 name:13 election:14 legislature:2 nominate:2 functioning:1 presidential:6 candidate:7 choose:2 informal:1 congressional:1 nominating:1 caucus:3 unpopular:1 boycott:1 attend:2 backed:1 treasury:1 h:2 crawford:4 albert:2 vice:7 pennsylvanian:1 month:2 irregular:1 ignore:2 voice:2 people:9 vain:1 hope:1 might:1 thus:1 deceive:1 belief:1 criticize:2 honest:1 man:4 idol:1 worshipper:1 glory:1 incapacity:1 habit:1 habitual:1 disregard:1 provision:1 altogether:1 unfit:1 office:7 henry:4 statue:6 front:1 counthouse:1 kansas:1 city:6 missouri:3 house:19 speaker:1 clay:5 vote:2 majority:3 ballot:1 electoral:3 split:1 plurality:1 denounce:1 result:3 corrupt:3 bargain:1 burnish:1 credential:1 voter:1 rob:1 aristocrat:1 east:3 senate:3 october:1 continue:1 quest:1 presidency:5 nominated:1 attracted:1 c:6 calhoun:9 martin:5 van:8 buren:8 thomas:3 ritchie:1 camp:1 latter:1 previous:1 supporter:3 help:1 friend:4 philadelphia:1 richmond:1 revive:1 restore:2 rivalry:2 forge:1 organization:1 durability:1 coalition:1 handily:1 opponent:3 refer:2 jackass:2 like:2 symbol:3 cartoonist:1 nast:1 popularize:1 nickel:1 ilona:1 republicans:1 pick:1 elephant:1 democrats:1 donkey:1 represent:1 capitol:5 question:1 feature:2 span:1 com:2 september:1 much:2 personal:3 one:10 although:2 neither:1 personally:1 follower:1 organize:1 event:3 rhetorically:1 reach:1 low:2 point:3 accuse:1 wife:6 rachel:18 bigamy:1 accusation:1 true:1 level:1 occur:2 prior:4 forgive:3 insult:2 never:6 suddenly:1 inauguration:3 bury:1 christmas:1 eve:1 invite:2 public:3 ball:4 honor:5 poor:1 come:4 inaugural:1 homemade:1 clothes:1 crowd:4 large:2 guard:1 could:4 dish:1 decorative:1 piece:1 break:2 stand:3 good:3 chair:1 muddied:1 look:1 attendant:1 pour:1 punch:1 tub:1 put:1 lawn:1 lure:1 raucous:1 populism:1 earn:2 king:2 mob:1 easily:1 wirt:1 anti:1 masonic:1 jettisoned:1 nullification:5 involvement:1 eaton:1 affair:4 replace:4 confidant:1 federal:9 debt:6 panic:2 manage:1 reduce:2 fiscal:1 history:10 pay:3 accomplishment:1 short:4 live:4 severe:1 depression:2 cause:4 ten:2 fold:1 increase:2 college:2 repeatedly:1 abolition:1 amendment:2 annual:4 message:4 third:3 express:1 view:1 heretofore:1 recommend:1 constitution:3 limit:1 former:1 single:2 term:2 important:1 consider:2 change:1 fundamental:1 accordance:1 sense:1 duty:3 omit:1 consideration:1 institution:2 remain:3 present:2 spoil:2 system:7 implement:1 theory:1 rotation:3 declare:3 principle:2 creed:1 development:1 bureaucracy:1 strengthen:1 loyalty:1 want:1 member:7 practice:2 meant:1 employee:2 loyalist:1 spoils:2 originate:2 late:1 century:1 notably:1 george:4 clinton:2 dewitt:1 jefferson:3 bring:3 executive:1 branch:1 federalist:1 holder:2 versus:3 retrieve:6 effect:1 drastic:1 expect:1 portray:1 dismiss:1 less:1 percent:1 indirectly:1 growth:2 opposition:1 bank:22 cartoon:2 show:2 monster:1 tell:1 authorize:3 period:2 madison:1 tenure:1 rescind:2 charter:2 veto:3 bancroft:1 need:2 abolish:1 concentrate:1 nation:4 financial:1 strength:1 expose:1 control:2 interest:2 mainly:1 rich:1 richer:1 exercise:1 favor:1 northeastern:1 follow:1 agricultural:1 republic:1 felt:2 improve:1 fortune:1 elite:1 circle:1 commercial:1 industrial:1 entrepreneur:1 expense:2 farmer:2 laborer:1 titanic:1 struggle:3 succeed:1 destroy:2 withdraw:2 fund:2 devil:1 money:4 lending:1 function:1 legion:1 spring:1 feed:1 expansion:1 credit:1 speculation:1 invest:1 sale:1 canal:1 construction:1 production:1 manufacturing:1 boomed:1 digital:1 due:2 issue:7 paper:1 banknote:1 silver:2 reserve:1 rapid:1 inflation:1 mount:1 sparknotes:1 specie:3 circular:1 require:1 buyer:1 coin:1 great:2 exchange:2 collapse:1 direct:1 throw:1 economy:2 deep:2 recover:1 damage:1 remove:5 expunge:1 crisis:5 another:3 notable:2 secession:3 merge:1 sectional:1 strife:1 disagreement:1 tariff:9 high:2 abomination:1 import:1 common:1 manufacture:1 europe:1 expensive:1 raise:1 price:1 politician:1 benefit:1 industrialist:1 exposition:1 protest:2 right:3 nullify:2 void:1 legislation:1 generally:1 sympathize:1 debate:1 strong:2 union:9 effective:1 power:5 central:1 attempt:6 face:1 bitter:1 men:1 particularly:1 april:1 dinner:2 involve:4 toast:2 hayne:1 sovereignty:1 rise:2 booming:1 preserve:1 clear:1 challenge:1 clarify:1 respond:1 next:2 dear:1 apart:1 politically:1 around:2 petticoat:2 resignation:1 cabinet:5 reorganization:1 kitchen:2 despite:1 play:1 leading:2 role:2 unofficial:2 biography:8 encyclopedia:2 americana:1 privately:1 engineer:1 publish:1 run:2 mate:1 response:1 vow:1 send:1 enforce:4 resounding:1 proclamation:1 nullifier:1 annul:1 assume:1 incompatible:1 existence:1 contradict:1 expressly:1 unauthorized:1 spirit:1 inconsistent:1 every:1 found:1 destructive:1 object:1 form:3 brink:1 insurrection:1 treason:1 appeal:1 reassert:1 allegiance:1 ancestor:1 deny:1 league:1 may:3 pleasure:1 secede:1 syrett:2 ask:1 pass:2 explicitly:1 protectionist:1 agree:1 compromise:2 sign:4 meet:1 ordinance:1 moot:1 longer:1 official:1 perhaps:1 controversial:1 aspect:1 policy:2 regard:3 cave:3 advocate:2 ethnic:1 cleansing:1 particular:1 schama:2 native:1 west:4 mississippi:7 river:3 part:3 agenda:1 course:5 freedom:2 pp:2 act:8 negotiate:2 purchase:2 tribal:3 outside:2 exist:1 frequently:2 frown:1 population:1 discovery:1 pressure:3 contentious:1 jurisdictional:1 culminate:1 decision:3 worcester:2 rule:1 often:2 quote:1 marshall:1 whether:1 actually:4 case:2 leader:2 small:1 faction:1 ridge:2 echota:1 recognize:1 document:1 reject:1 illegitimate:2 petition:2 http:3 www:3 pb:5 org:2 wgbh:2 aia:2 html:2 successor:1 arm:1 synaptic:1 bc:1 ca:1 ejournal:1 htm:1 trail:2 tear:2 constant:1 five:2 sizable:1 group:1 except:2 coexistence:1 resist:1 suggestion:1 voluntarily:1 non:1 violent:1 method:1 title:2 civilized:1 judgement:1 accessed:1 relocate:1 criticism:1 characterize:1 unhappy:2 chapter:2 assassination:2 richard:7 lawrence:7 depict:1 etch:1 bodily:1 harm:1 dismissal:1 b:2 randolph:2 navy:1 embezzlement:1 sail:1 uss:2 cygnet:1 fredericksburg:1 virginia:2 lay:1 cornerstone:1 monument:1 grave:1 mary:1 stopover:1 alexandria:1 flee:1 scene:1 chase:1 writer:2 irving:1 sit:1 building:1 portico:1 funeral:1 warren:2 r:1 davis:1 unemployed:1 derange:1 painter:1 england:1 burst:1 step:1 hide:1 behind:1 column:1 aim:1 pistol:2 misfire:2 pull:1 postulate:1 moisture:1 humid:1 weather:1 contribute:1 double:1 misfiring:1 restrain:3 legend:1 cane:1 prompt:1 aide:1 others:1 disarm:1 doctor:1 reason:1 shooting:1 recently:1 lose:1 job:1 painting:1 somehow:1 plenty:1 reference:2 fell:1 finally:1 inform:1 interrogator:1 deposed:1 english:1 specifically:2 iii:2 merely:1 clerk:1 deem:1 insane:1 institutionalize:1 punish:1 appointment:1 mclean:1 baldwin:1 moore:1 wayne:1 roger:1 brooke:1 taney:1 justice:1 philip:1 pendleton:1 barbour:1 catron:1 charles:3 bridge:2 arkansas:1 june:2 michigan:2 daguerreotype:1 shortly:1 arrive:1 residence:1 boarder:1 stockley:1 donelson:13 widow:1 acquaint:1 daughter:1 robards:6 marriage:3 captain:2 lewis:2 irrational:1 fit:1 jealous:1 rage:1 temperament:1 separate:1 accord:1 marry:3 hear:1 obtain:1 divorce:4 finalize:1 officially:1 complete:1 evidence:1 mr:1 ever:2 meachem:1 jon:1 lion:1 surround:1 sore:1 deeply:1 resent:1 duel:4 nominally:1 dickinson:3 goad:1 anger:1 horse:1 race:1 rib:1 return:1 fatal:1 allow:1 shoot:1 excellent:1 reload:1 even:2 bullet:2 lodge:1 chest:1 close:1 heart:3 safely:1 rattle:1 bag:1 marble:1 cough:2 blood:2 experience:1 considerable:1 pain:2 rest:1 husband:1 marital:1 scandal:1 hasten:1 adopt:2 jr:6 severn:1 lyncoya:2 plan:1 educate:1 tuberculosis:3 sixteen:1 lady:3 library:1 november:2 nndb:1 guardian:1 child:2 samuel:3 daniel:1 smith:1 hutchings:1 grand:1 nephew:1 caroline:1 butler:5 eliza:1 edward:2 anthony:1 orphaned:1 tomb:1 locate:4 widower:1 niece:1 emily:4 hostess:4 private:1 ticket:1 relationship:1 strained:1 estrange:1 eventually:1 reconcile:1 resume:1 sarah:2 yorke:1 co:1 woman:1 simultaneously:1 influential:1 retire:2 firm:1 decline:1 talk:1 lean:1 foot:1 inch:1 tall:1 weigh:1 pound:1 kg:1 average:1 unruly:1 shock:1 hair:1 completely:1 gray:1 penetrate:1 blue:1 eye:1 sickly:1 suffer:1 chronic:2 headache:1 abdominal:1 hacking:1 musket:1 lung:1 sometimes:1 whole:1 body:1 shake:1 enjoy:1 retirement:1 dropsy:1 failure:1 estate:1 adopted:1 enumerate:1 item:1 various:1 church:1 finkelman:1 paul:1 civil:3 vols:1 routledge:1 crc:1 isbn:5 vol:2 g:1 q:1 essay:3 memorial:2 set:1 identical:1 equestrian:2 different:1 square:2 ground:2 fourth:1 downtown:2 jacksonville:4 erect:1 elsewhere:1 horseback:2 together:2 seated:1 k:2 polk:1 johnson:1 raleigh:1 numerous:1 louisiana:2 oregon:1 parish:1 ohio:1 park:5 lancaster:2 museum:1 childhood:1 bronze:1 sculptor:1 anna:1 hyatt:1 huntington:1 suburb:1 eastern:1 tn:1 boulevard:1 historic:1 road:3 encircle:1 originally:1 aid:1 ferry:1 unbroken:1 loop:1 today:1 interrupt:1 lake:3 rerouted:1 section:2 middle:1 sc:1 log:1 photo:1 route:1 charlotte:1 wilmington:1 highway:1 confederate:1 image:2 blackjack:1 postage:1 stamp:1 army:1 installation:1 columbia:1 ssbn:1 lafayette:1 class:1 nuclear:1 ballistic:1 missile:1 submarine:1 chicago:1 golf:1 seattle:1 centre:2 cottage:1 ranger:1 traditional:1 thatch:1 ulster:1 farmhouse:1 original:1 tourist:1 destination:1 secondary:2 brand:1 w:1 emphasize:1 brustein:1 passion:1 bugg:1 l:1 ed:2 myth:1 reality:1 excerpt:2 scholar:1 alfred:1 abuse:1 gammon:1 rhea:1 hammond:1 bray:1 ch:1 america:1 pulitzer:3 prize:3 hofstatder:1 tradition:2 marquis:1 winner:2 latner:1 standard:1 survey:2 mabry:1 donald:1 j:1 bibliography:1 historical:2 text:1 archive:1 frederic:1 austin:1 reign:1 chronicle:1 online:2 gutenberg:1 parton:1 volume:3 ratner:1 lorman:1 lieutenant:1 study:1 culture:1 abridgment:1 monumental:1 empire:1 rowland:1 dunbar:1 concern:1 operation:1 simon:1 future:1 schlesinger:1 arthur:1 idea:1 grier:1 seller:1 historian:1 valley:1 review:1 jstor:1 harold:1 contribution:1 taylor:1 rogers:1 biddle:1 ward:1 saw:1 external:1 link:1 file:1 web:1 resource:2 directory:1 critical:1 genealogical:1 profile:1 medical:1 documentary:1 cheddar:1 candidacy:1 august:1 texas:1 tide:1 speech:1 transcript:1 gilder:1 lehrman:1 institute:1 miller:1 center:1 |@bigram andrew_jackson:54 jacksonian_democracy:3 north_carolina:6 supreme_court:5 remini_robert:5 gold_medal:1 runaway_slave:1 ferdinand_vii:1 pensacola_florida:2 quincy_adam:3 manifest_destiny:1 onís_treaty:1 presidential_candidate:1 vice_president:7 van_buren:8 thomas_nast:1 christmas_eve:1 presidential_election:3 constitutional_amendment:1 corrupt_bureaucracy:1 dewitt_clinton:1 thomas_jefferson:1 gold_silver:2 bitter_rivalry:1 encyclopedia_americana:1 ethnic_cleansing:1 frown_upon:1 http_www:3 org_wgbh:2 trail_tear:2 bodily_harm:1 weigh_pound:1 pound_kg:1 abdominal_pain:1 adopted_son:1 crc_press:1 equestrian_statue:2 jacksonville_florida:2 bronze_statue:1 nashville_tn:1 postage_stamp:1 ballistic_missile:1 golf_course:1 ulster_scot:1 tourist_destination:1 pulitzer_prize:3 winner_pulitzer:2 external_link:1 |
4,625 | Clarke's_three_laws | Arthur C. Clarke formulated the following three "laws" of prediction: When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible, he is almost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong. The only way of discovering the limits of the possible is to venture a little way past them into the impossible. Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic. Origins The first of the three laws, previously termed Clarke's Law, was proposed by Arthur C. Clarke in the essay "Hazards of Prophecy: The Failure of Imagination", in Profiles of the Future (1962). The second law is offered as a simple observation in the same essay; its status as Clarke's Second Law was conferred on it by others. In a 1973 revision of his compendium of essays, Profiles of the Future, Clarke acknowledged the Second Law and proposed the Third in order to round out the number, adding "As three laws were good enough for Newton, I have modestly decided to stop there." Of the three, the Third Law is the best known and most widely cited. Clarke's Third Law codifies perhaps the most significant of Clarke's unique contributions to speculative fiction. A model to other writers of hard science fiction, Clarke postulates advanced technologies without resorting to flawed engineering concepts (as Jules Verne sometimes did) or explanations grounded in incorrect science or engineering (a hallmark of "bad" science fiction), or taking clues from trends in research and engineering (which dates some of Larry Niven's novels). Accordingly, the powers of any future superintelligence or hyperintelligence which Clarke often described would seem astonishing. But in novels such as The City and the Stars and the story "The Sentinel" (upon which 2001: A Space Odyssey was based) Clarke goes further; he presents us with ultra-advanced technologies developed by hyperintelligences limited only by fundamental science. In Against the Fall of Night the human race has mysteriously regressed after a full billion years of civilization. Humanity is faced with the remnants of its past glories: for example, a network of roads and sidewalks that flow like rivers. Although physically possible, it is inexplicable from their perspective. Clarke's Third Law explains the source of our amazement as our limitation, rather than the impossibility of the technology. In his 1999 revision of Profiles of the Future, published in London by Indigo, Clarke added his Fourth Law: "For every expert there is an equal and opposite expert." References in other works Clarke's laws, especially the third, have been referenced or alluded to numerous times in literature. Sometimes they provide corollaries to one or more of the laws. Often, these are parodies solely for humor value, but sometimes they offer interesting applications or perspectives. Isaac Asimov wrote a corollary to Clarke's First Law, stating "When, however, the lay public rallies round an idea that is denounced by distinguished but elderly scientists and supports that idea with great fervor and emotion -- the distinguished but elderly scientists are then, after all, probably right." Beverley Eyre wrote a corollary to Clarke's Third Law, stating "If you observe something that seems like true magic, it could be an advanced technology of which you know nothing." Larry Niven, in discussing fantasy, wrote that "any sufficiently advanced magic is indistinguishable from technology." This is sometimes known as "Niven's Law" although it is not to be confused with the list of "Niven's laws". Mercedes Lackey has been quoted with the same law. Terry Pratchett refers to Niven's inversion of the third law in his Discworld books by having wizard Ponder Stibbons state that "Any sufficiently advanced magic is indistinguishable from technology." Pratchett also alludes to the second law in another Discworld work, The Last Hero: Leonard of Quirm is working on the Discworld's first (non-magical) flying machine, and states that he has no use for artisans who have "learned the limits of the possible." In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Where No One Has Gone Before", an engineer comments on an advanced alien's technology, saying "You're asking us to believe in magic." The alien (known only as "Traveler") replies, "Yes, I guess from your perspective it does seem like magic." In the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Spirit Folk", captain Janeway says "Some of our technology may seem like magic." to the upset holograms in holodeck that are about to burn three Voyager's crewmen for witchcraft. In the first non-Asimov Foundation novel, Foundation's Fear, the emperor declares, "If technology is distinguishable from magic, it is insufficiently advanced." This is a paraphrase of Gehm's Corollary to Clarke's Third Law, "Any technology distinguishable from magic is insufficiently advanced." In Superman Returns, Lex Luthor is twice heard saying, in reference to Kryptonian technology, that any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic. "Clarke's Third Law" is cited in the end credits. In the online webcomic Freefall, a third corollary is introduced by one of the main characters, Florence Ambrose: "Any technology, no matter how primitive, is magic to those who do not understand it." In The Simpsons episode "Future-Drama", Marge Simpson states "We can do anything now that scientists have invented magic," providing an ironic resolution to the issue of which is which. In Neal Stephenson's Baroque Cycle, Jack Shaftoe remarks to Enoch Root "They cannot see the string at this distance, and suppose you are doing some sort of magick", who responds "Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from a yo-yo." In the Torchwood book Trace Memory, Jack mentions Clarke's Third Law many times, until Tosh looks it up on the internet and finds: Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic. In the web comic Girl Genius, by Phil Foglio and Kaja Foglio, protagonist Agatha Heterodyne rephrases the Niven inversion: "Any sufficiently analyzed magic is indistinguishable from science!" In a short story set in the gameworld Shadowrun, a man possessed by a Wolf Totem spirit comments that he will never again fall asleep whilst watching old sci-fi films after the spirit offers to give him "warp speed." The man then alludes to Clarke's Third Law. Clarke also referred to a law in one of his own works 3001: The Final Odyssey. Frank Poole thought to himself, "A wise man once said that any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic" and then commented on facing the magic of 3001. In the novel The Jennifer Morgue, Charles Stross offers an alternate version of the third law: "Any sufficiently alien technology is indistinguishable from magic." In the science fiction series Babylon Five, there are a group of sentient beings called the Technomages that are based on the principle that they use "science to create the appearance of magic". In the comic novel 'Revenge of the Poobums', author Danielle Cole begins by quoting Clarke's third law, which becomes a recurring theme in the novel. See also Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics Sturgeon's Revelation Grey's Law Adages named after people First contact (anthropology) SETI Futures studies Shermer's Last Law Clark's Law External links The origins of the Three Laws "What's Your Law?" (lists some of the corollaries) "A Gadget Too Far" at Infinity Plus Corollary in "Freefall" | Clarke's_three_laws |@lemmatized arthur:2 c:2 clarke:21 formulate:1 following:1 three:7 law:33 prediction:1 distinguish:2 elderly:3 scientist:4 state:7 something:3 possible:4 almost:1 certainly:1 right:2 impossible:2 probably:2 wrong:1 way:2 discover:1 limit:3 venture:1 little:1 past:2 sufficiently:9 advanced:12 technology:18 indistinguishable:9 magic:18 origins:1 first:5 previously:1 term:1 propose:2 essay:3 hazard:1 prophecy:1 failure:1 imagination:1 profile:3 future:6 second:4 offer:4 simple:1 observation:1 status:1 confer:1 others:1 revision:2 compendium:1 acknowledge:1 third:14 order:1 round:2 number:1 add:2 good:1 enough:1 newton:1 modestly:1 decide:1 stop:1 best:1 know:4 widely:1 cite:2 codifies:1 perhaps:1 significant:1 unique:1 contribution:1 speculative:1 fiction:4 model:1 writer:1 hard:1 science:7 postulate:1 advance:1 without:1 resort:1 flaw:1 engineering:3 concept:1 jules:1 verne:1 sometimes:4 explanation:1 ground:1 incorrect:1 hallmark:1 bad:1 take:1 clue:1 trend:1 research:1 date:1 larry:2 niven:6 novel:6 accordingly:1 power:1 superintelligence:1 hyperintelligence:1 often:2 describe:1 would:1 seem:4 astonish:1 city:1 star:3 story:2 sentinel:1 upon:1 space:1 odyssey:2 base:2 go:2 far:2 present:1 u:2 ultra:1 develop:1 hyperintelligences:1 fundamental:1 fall:2 night:1 human:1 race:1 mysteriously:1 regress:1 full:1 billion:1 year:1 civilization:1 humanity:1 face:2 remnant:1 glory:1 example:1 network:1 road:1 sidewalk:1 flow:1 like:4 river:1 although:2 physically:1 inexplicable:1 perspective:3 explain:1 source:1 amazement:1 limitation:1 rather:1 impossibility:1 publish:1 london:1 indigo:1 fourth:1 every:1 expert:2 equal:1 opposite:1 reference:3 work:4 especially:1 allude:3 numerous:1 time:2 literature:1 provide:2 corollary:7 one:4 parody:1 solely:1 humor:1 value:1 interest:1 application:1 isaac:2 asimov:3 write:3 however:1 lay:1 public:1 rally:1 idea:2 denounce:1 distinguished:1 support:1 great:1 fervor:1 emotion:1 beverley:1 eyre:1 observe:1 true:1 could:1 nothing:1 discuss:1 fantasy:1 confuse:1 list:2 mercedes:1 lackey:1 quote:2 terry:1 pratchett:2 refers:1 inversion:2 discworld:3 book:2 wizard:1 ponder:1 stibbons:1 also:3 another:1 last:2 hero:1 leonard:1 quirm:1 non:2 magical:1 fly:1 machine:1 use:2 artisan:1 learn:1 trek:2 next:1 generation:1 episode:3 engineer:1 comment:3 alien:3 say:4 ask:1 believe:1 traveler:1 reply:1 yes:1 guess:1 voyager:2 spirit:3 folk:1 captain:1 janeway:1 may:1 upset:1 hologram:1 holodeck:1 burn:1 crewman:1 witchcraft:1 foundation:2 fear:1 emperor:1 declare:1 distinguishable:2 insufficiently:2 paraphrase:1 gehm:1 superman:1 return:1 lex:1 luthor:1 twice:1 heard:1 kryptonian:1 end:1 credit:1 online:1 webcomic:1 freefall:2 introduce:1 main:1 character:1 florence:1 ambrose:1 matter:1 primitive:1 understand:1 simpson:2 drama:1 marge:1 anything:1 invent:1 ironic:1 resolution:1 issue:1 neal:1 stephenson:1 baroque:1 cycle:1 jack:2 shaftoe:1 remark:1 enoch:1 root:1 cannot:1 see:2 string:1 distance:1 suppose:1 sort:1 magick:1 respond:1 yo:2 torchwood:1 trace:1 memory:1 mention:1 many:1 tosh:1 look:1 internet:1 find:1 web:1 comic:2 girl:1 genius:1 phil:1 foglio:2 kaja:1 protagonist:1 agatha:1 heterodyne:1 rephrase:1 analyze:1 short:1 set:1 gameworld:1 shadowrun:1 man:3 possess:1 wolf:1 totem:1 never:1 asleep:1 whilst:1 watch:1 old:1 sci:1 fi:1 film:1 give:1 warp:1 speed:1 refer:1 final:1 frank:1 poole:1 thought:1 wise:1 jennifer:1 morgue:1 charles:1 stross:1 alternate:1 version:1 series:1 babylon:1 five:1 group:1 sentient:1 call:1 technomages:1 principle:1 create:1 appearance:1 revenge:1 poobums:1 author:1 danielle:1 cole:1 begin:1 become:1 recur:1 theme:1 robotics:1 sturgeon:1 revelation:1 grey:1 adage:1 name:1 people:1 contact:1 anthropology:1 seti:1 study:1 shermer:1 clark:1 external:1 link:1 origin:1 gadget:1 infinity:1 plus:1 |@bigram indistinguishable_magic:5 science_fiction:3 jules_verne:1 larry_niven:2 isaac_asimov:2 terry_pratchett:1 star_trek:2 trek_voyager:1 lex_luthor:1 neal_stephenson:1 yo_yo:1 fall_asleep:1 sci_fi:1 recur_theme:1 external_link:1 |
4,626 | Military_of_Guinea | The Republic of Guinea Armed Forces are the armed forces of Guinea. They are responsible for the territorial security of Guinea's border and the defence of the country against external attack and aggression. Guinea's armed forces are divided into five branches--army, navy, air force, the paramilitary National Gendarmerie and the Republican Guard--whose chiefs report to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who is subordinate to the Minister of Defense. In addition, regime security forces include the National Police Force (Surete National). The Gendarmerie, responsible for internal security, has a strength of several thousand. The armed forces were formed upon independence in 1958. They resisted the Portuguese invasion of Guinea in 1970. President Conté appointed his first civilian Minister of Defense in 1997. State Department Background Notes, http://www.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/g/6858.htm The 15,000-member army is the largest of the four services. There are four military régions - the 1st RM: Kindia; 2nd RM: Labé; 3rd RM: Kankan; 4ème RM: Nzérékoré, plus the Conakry special zone. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (France), 'Revue Freres Armes' The navy has about 900 personnel and operates several small patrol craft and barges. The military has suffered serious unrest in 2008 and then seized power led by Moussa Dadis Camara in late December 2008. Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,721,941 (2000 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 869,442 (2000 est.) Air Force The air force's personnel total about 700; its equipment includes several Russian-supplied transport planes. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Aero L-29 Delfin || || trainer || L-29 || 3 || |----- | Aérospatiale SA 342 Puma || || utility helicopter || SA 342 || 1 || |----- | Aérospatiale SA-330 Puma || || transport helicopter || SA-330B || 1 || |----- | Antonov An-12 Cub || || tactical transport || An-12 || 1 || |----- | Antonov An-14 Clod || || utility transport || An-14 || 4 || |----- | Antonov An-24 Coke || / || tactical transport || An-24 || 1 || |----- | Eurocopter AS 350 Ecureuil || || utility helicopter || AS 350 || 1 || |----- | Mil Mi-8 Hip || || transport helicopter || Mi-8 || 1 || |----- | Mil Mi-24 Hind || || attack helicopter || Mi-24 || 2 || |----- | Yakovlev Yak-18 Max || || trainer || Yak-18 || 4 || |} References | Military_of_Guinea |@lemmatized republic:1 guinea:5 arm:2 force:9 armed:2 responsible:2 territorial:1 security:3 border:1 defence:1 country:1 external:1 attack:2 aggression:1 divide:1 five:1 branch:1 army:2 navy:2 air:3 paramilitary:1 national:3 gendarmerie:2 republican:1 guard:1 whose:1 chiefs:1 report:1 chairman:1 joint:1 chief:1 staff:1 subordinate:1 minister:2 defense:2 addition:1 regime:1 include:2 police:1 surete:1 internal:1 strength:1 several:3 thousand:1 form:1 upon:1 independence:1 resist:1 portuguese:1 invasion:1 president:1 conté:1 appoint:1 first:1 civilian:1 state:2 department:1 background:7 note:2 http:1 www:1 gov:1 outofdate:1 bgn:1 g:1 htm:1 member:1 large:1 four:2 service:3 military:6 régions:1 rm:4 kindia:1 labé:1 kankan:1 nzérékoré:1 plus:1 conakry:1 special:1 zone:1 ministry:1 foreign:1 affair:1 france:1 revue:1 freres:1 armes:1 personnel:2 operate:1 small:1 patrol:1 craft:1 barge:1 suffer:1 serious:1 unrest:1 seize:1 power:1 lead:1 moussa:1 dadis:1 camara:1 late:1 december:1 manpower:2 availability:1 male:2 age:2 est:2 fit:1 total:1 equipment:1 russian:1 supply:1 transport:6 plane:1 style:6 text:6 align:6 left:6 aacccc:6 aircraft:2 origin:1 type:1 version:1 world:1 inventory:1 aerospace:1 source:1 book:1 aviation:1 week:1 space:1 technology:1 january:1 aero:1 l:2 delfin:1 trainer:2 aérospatiale:2 sa:4 puma:2 utility:3 helicopter:5 antonov:3 cub:1 tactical:2 clod:1 coke:1 eurocopter:1 ecureuil:1 mil:2 mi:4 hip:1 hind:1 yakovlev:1 yak:2 max:1 reference:1 |@bigram chief_staff:1 http_www:1 foreign_affair:1 patrol_craft:1 moussa_dadis:1 dadis_camara:1 manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 inventory_aerospace:1 aérospatiale_sa:2 sa_puma:2 utility_helicopter:2 eurocopter_ecureuil:1 ecureuil_utility:1 helicopter_mil:1 mil_mi:2 mi_hind:1 yakovlev_yak:1 |
4,627 | Microsoft_Windows | Microsoft Windows is a series of software operating systems and graphical user interfaces produced by Microsoft. Microsoft first introduced an operating environment named Windows in November 1985 as an add-on to MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world's personal computer market, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced previously. At the 2004 IDC Directions conference, it was stated that Windows had approximately 90% of the client operating system market. The most recent client version of Windows is Windows Vista; the most recent server version is Windows Server 2008. Vista's successor, Windows 7 (currently a release candidate) is slated to be released in late 2009 or early 2010. Versions The term Windows collectively describes any or all of several generations of Microsoft operating system products. These products are generally categorized as follows: Early versions The history of Windows dates back to September 1981, when the project named "Interface Manager" was started. It was announced in November 1983 (after the Apple Lisa, but before the Macintosh) under the name "Windows", but Windows 1.0 was not released until November 1985. Petzold The shell of Windows 1.0 was a program known as the MS-DOS Executive. Other supplied programs are Calculator, Calendar, Cardfile, Clipboard viewer, Clock, Control Panel, Notepad, Paint, Reversi, Terminal, and Write. Windows 1.0 does not allow overlapping windows, due to Apple Computer owning this feature. Instead all windows are tiled. Only dialog boxes can appear over other windows. Windows 2.0 was released in October 1987 and featured several improvements to the user interface and memory management. Petzold Windows 2.0 allowed application windows to overlap each other and also introduced more sophisticated keyboard-shortcuts. It could also make use of expanded memory. Windows 2.1 was released in two different flavors: Windows/386 employed the 386 virtual 8086 mode to multitask several DOS programs, and the paged memory model to emulate expanded memory using available extended memory. Windows/286 (which, despite its name, would run on the 8086) still ran in real mode, but could make use of the high memory area. The early versions of Windows were often thought of as simply graphical user interfaces, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and used it for file system services. However, even the earliest 16-bit Windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions; notably, having their own executable file format and providing their own device drivers (timer, graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound) for applications. Unlike MS-DOS, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through cooperative multitasking. Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allowed it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources were swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce, and data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control, typically waiting for user input. + Windows OS market share SourceHitslink Awio AT AT (formerly XiTi) recently changed its methodology, making these statistics not directly comparable with its earlier reports. OneStat Date March 2009 March 2009 February 2009 December 8 2008All versions 88.14% - 93.82% -Windows XP 62.85% 70.49% 62.18% 72.02%Windows Vista 23.42% 14.76% 28.90% 21.16%Windows 2000 1.24% 1.94% 1.20% 0.54%Windows 2003 - 0.80% 0.81% -Windows 98 0.19% 0.48% 0.22% -Windows ME 0.12% 0.20% 0.09% -Windows 7 (Beta) 0.21% - 0.10% -Windows NT 0.11% - 0.02% -Windows CE 0.05% Since early 2009, no longer included in the Windows total above by Net Applications, but as a separate Windows Mobile family. - 0.01% -Windows 95 0.01% - 0.00% -Windows other - - 0.28% - Windows 3.0 and 3.1 Windows 3.0 (1990) and Windows 3.1 (1992) improved the design, mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) which allowed them to share arbitrary devices between multitasked DOS windows. Also, Windows applications could now run in protected mode (when Windows was running in Standard or 386 Enhanced Mode), which gave them access to several megabytes of memory and removed the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme. They still ran inside the same address space, where the segmented memory provided a degree of protection, and multi-tasked cooperatively. For Windows 3.0, Microsoft also rewrote critical operations from C into assembly, making this release faster and less memory-hungry than its predecessors. With the introduction of the Windows for Workgroups 3.11, Windows was able to bypass DOS for file management operations using 32-bit file access. Windows 95, 98, and Me Windows 95 was released in 1995, featuring a new user interface, supported long file names, could automatically detect and configure installed hardware (plug and play), natively ran 32-bit applications, and featured several technological improvements that increased its stability over Windows 3.1. Windows 95 uses pre-emptive multitasking and runs each 32-bit application in a separate address space. This makes it harder for a single buggy application to crash the whole system. It was still not a secure multi-user operating system like Windows NT as a strict separation between applications was not enforced by the kernel. The API was a subset of the Win32 API supported by Windows NT, notably lacking support for Unicode and functions related to security. Windows 95 was now bundled together with MS-DOS 7.0, however its role was mostly delegated to that of a boot loader. There were several releases of Windows 95; the first in 1995, with Service Pack 1 following in December which included Internet Explorer 2.0. Subsequent versions were only available with the purchase of a new computer and were called OEM Service Releases. OSR1 was equivalent to Windows 95 with SP1. OSR2 (also called Windows 95 B) included support for FAT32 and UDMA and shipped with Internet Explorer 3. OSR 2.1 included basic support for USB and OSR 2.5 (also called Windows 95C) shipped with Internet Explorer 4.0. Microsoft's next release was Windows 98 in 1998. Microsoft released a second version of Windows 98 in 1999, named Windows 98 Second Edition (often shortened to Windows 98 SE). In 2000, Microsoft released Windows Me (Me standing for Millennium Edition), which used the same core as Windows 98 but adopted some aspects of Windows 2000 and removed the "boot in DOS mode" option. It also added a new feature called System Restore, allowing the user to set the computer's settings back to an earlier date. Me is also the last DOS-based Windows release which does not include Microsoft Product Activation. Windows NT family Windows 7|Windows 7, the next Windows release The NT family of Windows systems was fashioned and marketed for higher reliability business use, and was unencumbered by any Microsoft DOS patrimony. The first release was MS Windows NT 3.1 (1993, numbered "3.1" to match the consumer Windows version, which was followed by NT 3.5 (1994), NT 3.51 (1995), NT 4.0 (1996), and Windows 2000 (2000). 2000 is the last NT-based Windows release which does not include Microsoft Product Activation. NT 4.0 was the first in this line to implement the "Windows 95" user interface (and the first to include Windows 95’s built-in 32-bit runtimes). Microsoft then moved to combine their consumer and business operating systems with Windows XP, coming in both home and professional versions (and later niche market versions for tablet PCs and media centers); they also diverged release schedules for server operating systems. Windows Server 2003, released a year and a half after Windows XP, brought Windows Server up to date with MS Windows XP. After a lengthy development process, Windows Vista was released toward the end of 2006, and its server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 was released in early 2008. In 2009, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 entered beta. Microsoft plans to release Windows 7 in late 2009 or early 2010. Windows CE, Microsoft’s offering in the mobile and embedded markets, is also a true 32-bit operating system that offers various services for all sub-operating workstations. 64-bit operating systems Windows NT included support for several different platforms before the x86-based personal computer became dominant in the professional world. Versions of NT from 3.1 to 4.0 variously supported PowerPC, DEC Alpha and MIPS R4000, some of which were 64-bit processors, although the operating system treated them as 32-bit processors. With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture, which is referred to as IA-64, Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it. Itanium versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 were released at the same time as their mainstream x86 (32-bit) counterparts. On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and x64 versions of Windows Server 2003 to support the AMD64/Intel64 (or x64 in Microsoft terminology) architecture. Microsoft dropped support for the Itanium version of Windows XP in 2005. Windows Vista is the first end-user version of Windows that Microsoft has released simultaneously in x86 and x64 editions. Windows Vista does not support the Itanium architecture. The modern 64-bit Windows family comprises AMD64/Intel64 versions of Windows Vista, and Windows Server 2008, in both Itanium and x64 editions. Windows Server 2008 R2 drops the 32-bit version, although Windows 7 does not. Windows CE Windows CE (officially known as Windows Embedded), is an edition of Windows that runs on minimalistic computers, like satellite navigation systems, and uncommonly mobile phones. Windows Embedded runs as CE, rather than NT, which is why it should not be mistaken for Windows XP Embedded, which is NT. Windows CE was used in the Sega Dreamcast along with Sega's own proprietary OS for the console. History The Windows family tree. Microsoft has taken two parallel routes in its operating systems. One route has been for the home user and the other has been for the professional IT user. The dual routes have generally led to home versions having greater multimedia support and less functionality in networking and security, and professional versions having inferior multimedia support and better networking and security. The first version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released in November 1985, lacked a degree of functionality and achieved little popularity, and was to compete with Apple’s own operating system. Windows 1.0 is not a complete operating system; rather, it extends MS-DOS. Microsoft Windows version 2.0 was released in November, 1987 and was slightly more popular than its predecessor. Windows 2.03 (release date January 1988) had changed the OS from tiled windows to overlapping windows. The result of this change led to Apple Computer filing a suit against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apple's copyrights. A Windows for Workgroups 3.11 desktop. Microsoft Windows version 3.0, released in 1990, was the first Microsoft Windows version to achieve broad commercial success, selling 2 million copies in the first six months. It featured improvements to the user interface and to multitasking capabilities. It received a facelift in Windows 3.1, made generally available on March 1, 1992. Windows 3.1 support ended on December 31, 2001. Windows 3.1 Standard Edition Support Lifecycle In July 1993, Microsoft released Windows NT based on a new kernel. NT was considered to be the professional OS and was the first Windows version to utilize preemptive multitasking.. Windows NT would later be retooled to also function as a home operating system, with Windows XP. On August 24, 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95, a new, and major, consumer version that made further changes to the user interface, and also used preemptive multitasking. Windows 95 was designed to replace not only Windows 3.1, but also Windows for Workgroups, and MS-DOS. It was also the first Windows operating system to use Plug and Play capabilities. The changes Windows 95 brought to the desktop were revolutionary, as opposed to evolutionary, such as those in Windows 98 and Windows Me. Mainstream support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2000 and extended support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2001. Windows 95 Support Lifecycle The next in the consumer line was Microsoft Windows 98 released on June 25, 1998. It was substantially criticized for its slowness and for its unreliability compared with Windows 95, but many of its basic problems were later rectified with the release of Windows 98 Second Edition in 1999. Mainstream support for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002 and extended support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, 2006. Windows 98 Standard Edition Support Lifecycle As part of its "professional" line, Microsoft released Windows 2000 in February 2000. The consumer version following Windows 98 was Windows Me (Windows Millennium Edition). Released in September 2000, Windows Me implemented a number of new technologies for Microsoft: most notably publicized was "Universal Plug and Play." In October 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP, a version built on the Windows NT kernel that also retained the consumer-oriented usability of Windows 95 and its successors. This new version was widely praised in computer magazines. Your top Windows XP questions answered! (Part One) It shipped in two distinct editions, "Home" and "Professional", the former lacking many of the superior security and networking features of the Professional edition. Additionally, the first "Media Center" edition was released in 2002, Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows: A Look at Freestyle and Mira with an emphasis on support for DVD and TV functionality including program recording and a remote control. Mainstream support for Windows XP ended on April 14, 2009. Extended support will continue until April 8, 2014. Windows XP Professional Lifecycle Support In April 2003, Windows Server 2003 was introduced, replacing the Windows 2000 line of server products with a number of new features and a strong focus on security; this was followed in December 2005 by Windows Server 2003 R2. On January 30, 2007 Microsoft released Windows Vista. It contains a number of new features, from a redesigned shell and user interface to significant technical changes, with a particular focus on security features. It is available in a number of different editions, and has been subject to some criticism. Timeline of releases Release date Product name Current Version / Build Notes Last IE November 1985 Windows 1.01 1.01 Unsupported - November 1987 Windows 2.03 2.03 Unsupported - March 1989 Windows 2.11 2.11 Unsupported - May 1990 Windows 3.0 3.0 Unsupported - March 1992 Windows 3.1x 3.1 Unsupported 5 October 1992 Windows For Workgroups 3.1 3.1 Unsupported 5 July 1993 Windows NT 3.1 NT 3.1 Unsupported 5 December 1993 Windows For Workgroups 3.11 3.11 Unsupported 5 January 1994 Windows 3.2 (released in Simplified Chinese only) 3.2 Unsupported 5 September 1994 Windows NT 3.5 NT 3.5 Unsupported 5 May 1995 Windows NT 3.51 NT 3.51 Unsupported 5 August 1995 Windows 95 4.0.950 Unsupported 5.5 July 1996 Windows NT 4.0 NT 4.0.1381 Unsupported 6 June 1998 Windows 98 4.10.1998 Unsupported 6 May 1999 Windows 98 SE 4.10.2222 Unsupported 6 February 2000 Windows 2000 NT 5.0.2195 Extended Support until July 13, 2010 6 September 2000 Windows Me 4.90.3000 Unsupported 6 October 2001 Windows XP NT 5.1.2600 Extended Support until April 8, 2014 for SP3 and July 13, 2010 for SP2. (RTM and SP1 unsupported). 8 March 2003 Windows XP 64-bit Edition 2003 NT 5.2.3790 Unsupported 6 April 2003 Windows Server 2003 NT 5.2.3790 Current for SP1, R2, SP2 (RTM unsupported). 8 April 2005 Windows XP Professional x64 Edition NT 5.2.3790 Current 8 July 2006 Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs NT 5.1.2600 Current 8 November 2006 (volume licensing)January 2007 (retail) Windows Vista NT 6.0.6002 Current. Version changed to NT 6.0.6001 with SP1 (February 4, 2008) and to NT 6.0.6002 with SP2 (April 28, 2009). 8 July 2007 Windows Home Server NT 5.2.4500 Current 8 February 2008 Windows Server 2008 NT 6.0.6001 Current 8 2009 (predicted) Windows 7 NT 6.1.7100 Release Candidate 8 Security Security has been a hot topic with Windows for many years, and even Microsoft itself has been the victim of security breaches. Consumer versions of Windows were originally designed for ease-of-use on a single-user PC without a network connection, and did not have security features built in from the outset. not till NT and XP was there multi-user memory protection, and not until Vista was the default user not an admin. UAC msdn *NIX systems by contrast have always been multi-user, contained true memory management and segmentation, and generally used as a limited privileged user. multics then UNIX Windows NT and its successors are designed for security (including on a network) and multi-user PCs, but were not initially designed with Internet security in mind as much since, when it was first developed in the early 1990s, Internet use was less prevalent. These design issues combined with flawed code (such as buffer overflows) and the popularity of Windows means that it is a frequent target of computer worm and virus writers. In June 2005, Bruce Schneier’s Counterpane Internet Security reported that it had seen over 1,000 new viruses and worms in the previous six months. Microsoft releases security patches through its Windows Update service approximately once a month (usually the second Tuesday of the month), although critical updates are made available at shorter intervals when necessary. In Windows 2000 (SP3 and later), Windows XP and Windows Server 2003, updates can be automatically downloaded and installed if the user selects to do so. As a result, Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, as well as Service Pack 1 for Windows Server 2003, were installed by users more quickly than it otherwise might have been. Windows File Permissions All Windows versions from Windows NT 3 have been based on a file system permission system referred to as AGLP (Accounts, Global, Local, Permissions) AGDLP which in essence where file permissions are applied to the file/folder in the form of a 'local group' which then has other 'global groups' as members. These global groups then hold other groups or users depending on different Windows versions used. This system varies from other vendor products such as Linux and NetWare due to the 'static' allocation of permission being applied directory to the file or folder. However using this process of AGLP/AGDLP/AGUDLP allows a small number of static permissions to be applied and allows for easy changes to the account groups without reapplying the file permissions on the files and folders. Windows Defender On January 6, 2005, Microsoft released a beta version of Microsoft AntiSpyware, based upon the previously released Giant AntiSpyware. On February 14, 2006, Microsoft AntiSpyware became Windows Defender with the release of beta 2. Windows Defender is a freeware program designed to protect against spyware and other unwanted software. Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 users who have genuine copies of Microsoft Windows can freely download the program from Microsoft's web site, and Windows Defender ships as part of Windows Vista. Third-party analysis In an article based on a report by Symantec, internetnews.com has described Microsoft Windows as having the "fewest number of patches and the shortest average patch development time of the five operating systems it monitored in the last six months of 2006." And the number of vulnerabilities found in Windows has significantly increased— Windows: 12+, Red Hat + Fedora: 2, Mac OS X: 1, HP-UX: 2, Solaris: 1. A study conducted by Kevin Mitnick and marketing communications firm Avantgarde in 2004 found that an unprotected and unpatched Windows XP system with Service Pack 1 lasted only 4 minutes on the Internet before it was compromised, and an unprotected and also unpatched Windows Server 2003 system was compromised after being connected to the internet for 8 hours. However, it is important to note that this study does not apply to Windows XP systems running the Service Pack 2 update (released in late 2004), which vastly improved the security of Windows XP. The computer that was running Windows XP Service Pack 2 was not compromised. The AOL National Cyber Security Alliance Online Safety Study of October 2004 determined that 80% of Windows users were infected by at least one spyware/adware product. Much documentation is available describing how to increase the security of Microsoft Windows products. Typical suggestions include deploying Microsoft Windows behind a hardware or software firewall, running anti-virus and anti-spyware software, and installing patches as they become available through Windows Update. Windows Lifecycle Policy Microsoft has stopped releasing updates and hotfixes for many old Windows operating systems, including all versions of Windows 9x, and earlier versions of Windows NT. Windows versions prior to Windows 2000 are no longer supported. No new updates are created for unsupported versions of Windows. Emulation software Emulation allows the use of some Windows applications without using Microsoft Windows. These include: Wine — a free and open source software implementation of the Windows API, allowing one to run many Windows applications on x86-based platforms, including Linux. Wine is technically not an emulator but a "compatibility layer"; while an emulator effectively ‘pretends’ to be a different CPU, Wine instead makes use of Windows-style APIs to ‘simulate’ the Windows environment directly. CrossOver — A Wine package with licensed fonts. Its developers are regular contributors to Wine, and focus on Wine running officially supported applications. Cedega — TransGaming Technologies' proprietary fork of Wine, designed specifically for running games written for Microsoft Windows under Linux. A version of Cedega known as Cider is used by some video game publishers to allow Windows games to run on Mac OS X. Since wine was licensed under the LGPL Cedega has been unable to port the improvements made to wine to their proprietary codebase. Darwine — A bundling of Wine to the PowerPC Macs running OS X by running wine on top of QEMU. Intel Macs use the same Wine as other *NIX x86 systems. ReactOS — An open-source OS that is intended to run the same software as Windows, originally designed to imitate Windows NT 4.0, now aiming at Windows XP compatibility. It has been in the development stage since 1996. See also General: Comparison of operating systems Comparison of Windows and Linux Comparison of Windows versions List of operating systems Further reading: Architecture of the Windows NT operating system line Criticism of Microsoft Windows List of Microsoft Windows components Microsoft Windows topics Optimization (Infrastructure & Application Platform) Windows Explorer Windows Genuine Advantage Windows Media Windows Startup Process Wintel References External links Official Microsoft Windows Website Microsoft Developer Network Microsoft Windows History Timeline | Microsoft_Windows |@lemmatized microsoft:52 window:166 series:1 software:9 operate:14 system:33 graphical:4 user:27 interface:10 produce:1 first:13 introduce:4 operating:8 environment:2 name:7 november:8 add:2 ms:5 response:1 grow:1 interest:1 guis:1 come:2 dominate:1 world:2 personal:2 computer:10 market:6 overtake:1 mac:5 previously:2 idc:1 direction:1 conference:1 state:1 approximately:2 client:2 recent:2 version:44 windows:87 vista:11 server:22 successor:3 currently:1 release:48 candidate:2 slat:1 late:3 early:11 term:1 collectively:1 describes:1 several:7 generation:1 product:9 generally:4 categorize:1 follow:5 history:3 date:6 back:2 september:4 project:1 manager:1 start:1 announce:1 apple:5 lisa:1 macintosh:1 petzold:2 shell:2 program:6 know:3 executive:1 supplied:1 calculator:1 calendar:1 cardfile:1 clipboard:1 viewer:1 clock:1 control:3 panel:1 notepad:1 paint:1 reversi:1 terminal:1 write:2 allow:10 overlap:3 due:2 feature:11 instead:2 tile:2 dialog:1 box:1 appear:1 october:5 improvement:4 memory:17 management:3 allowed:1 application:15 also:17 sophisticated:1 keyboard:2 shortcut:1 could:4 make:10 use:20 expanded:2 two:3 different:5 flavor:1 employ:1 virtual:5 mode:5 multitask:1 paged:1 model:1 emulate:1 available:8 extended:1 despite:1 would:2 run:21 still:3 real:1 high:2 area:1 often:2 think:1 simply:1 mostly:3 top:3 file:13 service:10 however:4 even:2 bit:13 already:1 assume:1 many:6 typical:2 function:3 notably:3 executable:1 format:1 provide:2 device:3 driver:2 timer:1 graphic:1 printer:1 mouse:1 sound:1 unlike:1 execute:1 multiple:1 time:3 cooperative:1 multitasking:5 implement:3 elaborate:1 segment:3 base:9 scheme:2 large:1 code:2 resource:1 swap:1 throw:1 away:1 become:4 scarce:1 data:1 move:2 give:2 relinquish:1 processor:3 typically:1 wait:1 input:1 os:2 share:2 sourcehitslink:1 awio:1 formerly:1 xiti:1 recently:1 change:8 methodology:1 statistic:1 directly:2 comparable:1 report:3 onestat:1 march:6 february:6 december:7 xp:25 beta:4 nt:45 ce:6 since:4 longer:2 include:14 total:1 net:1 separate:2 mobile:3 family:5 improve:2 design:9 loadable:1 vxds:1 arbitrary:1 multitasked:1 protected:1 standard:3 enhanced:1 access:2 megabyte:1 remove:2 obligation:1 participate:1 inside:1 address:2 space:2 segmented:1 degree:2 protection:2 multi:5 task:1 cooperatively:1 rewrite:1 critical:2 operation:2 c:1 assembly:1 faster:1 less:3 hungry:1 predecessor:2 introduction:2 workgroups:5 able:1 bypass:1 new:12 support:29 long:1 automatically:2 detect:1 configure:1 instal:4 hardware:2 plug:3 play:3 natively:1 technological:1 increase:3 stability:1 us:1 pre:1 emptive:1 hard:1 single:2 buggy:1 crash:1 whole:1 secure:1 like:2 strict:1 separation:1 enforce:1 kernel:3 api:3 subset:1 lack:3 unicode:1 relate:1 security:17 bundle:1 together:1 role:1 delegate:1 boot:2 loader:1 pack:6 internet:8 explorer:4 subsequent:1 purchase:1 call:4 oem:1 equivalent:1 b:1 udma:1 ship:4 osr:2 basic:2 usb:1 next:3 second:4 edition:16 shorten:1 se:2 stand:1 millennium:2 core:1 adopt:1 aspect:1 dos:1 option:1 restore:1 set:1 setting:1 last:5 activation:2 fashion:1 reliability:1 business:2 unencumbered:1 patrimony:1 number:8 match:1 consumer:7 line:5 built:1 runtimes:1 combine:2 home:6 professional:11 later:4 niche:1 tablet:1 pc:4 medium:3 center:2 diverge:1 schedule:1 year:2 half:1 bring:1 lengthy:1 development:3 process:3 toward:1 end:8 counterpart:2 enter:1 plan:1 offering:1 embedded:1 true:2 offer:1 various:1 sub:1 workstation:1 platform:3 dominant:1 variously:1 powerpc:2 dec:1 alpha:1 mips:1 although:3 treat:1 intel:2 itanium:5 architecture:4 refer:2 ia:1 mainstream:4 april:8 terminology:1 drop:2 simultaneously:1 modern:1 comprise:1 officially:2 embed:3 minimalistic:1 satellite:1 navigation:1 uncommonly:1 phone:1 rather:2 mistake:1 sega:2 dreamcast:1 along:1 proprietary:3 console:1 tree:1 take:1 parallel:1 route:3 one:4 dual:1 lead:2 great:1 multimedia:2 functionality:3 networking:3 inferior:1 good:1 achieve:2 little:1 popularity:2 compete:1 complete:1 extend:6 slightly:1 popular:1 january:5 result:2 suit:1 allege:1 infringement:1 copyright:1 desktop:2 broad:1 commercial:1 success:1 sell:1 million:1 copy:2 six:3 month:5 capability:2 receive:1 facelift:1 lifecycle:5 july:8 consider:1 utilize:1 preemptive:2 retool:1 august:2 major:1 replace:2 brought:1 revolutionary:1 oppose:1 evolutionary:1 june:4 substantially:1 criticize:1 slowness:1 unreliability:1 compare:1 problem:1 rectify:1 part:3 technology:2 publicize:1 universal:1 build:3 retain:1 orient:1 usability:1 widely:1 praise:1 magazine:1 question:1 answer:1 distinct:1 former:1 superior:1 additionally:1 paul:1 thurrott:1 supersite:1 look:1 freestyle:1 mira:1 emphasis:1 dvd:1 tv:1 recording:1 remote:1 continue:1 strong:1 focus:3 contain:2 redesign:1 significant:1 technical:1 particular:1 subject:1 criticism:2 timeline:2 current:7 note:2 ie:1 unsupported:20 may:3 simplify:1 chinese:1 rtm:2 fundamental:1 legacy:1 volume:1 license:2 retail:1 predict:1 hot:1 topic:2 victim:1 breach:1 originally:2 ease:1 without:3 network:3 connection:1 outset:1 till:1 default:1 admin:1 uac:1 msdn:1 nix:2 contrast:1 always:1 segmentation:1 limited:1 privileged:1 multics:1 unix:1 initially:1 mind:1 much:2 develop:1 prevalent:1 issue:1 flawed:1 buffer:1 overflow:1 mean:1 frequent:1 target:1 worm:2 virus:3 writer:1 bruce:1 schneier:1 counterpane:1 see:2 previous:1 patch:4 update:7 usually:1 tuesday:1 shorter:1 interval:1 necessary:1 download:2 selects:1 well:1 quickly:1 otherwise:1 might:1 permission:7 aglp:2 account:2 global:3 local:2 agdlp:2 essence:1 apply:4 folder:3 form:1 group:5 member:1 hold:1 depend:1 vary:1 vendor:1 linux:4 netware:1 static:2 allocation:1 directory:1 agudlp:1 small:1 easy:1 reapplying:1 defender:4 antispyware:3 upon:1 giant:1 freeware:1 protect:1 spyware:3 unwanted:1 genuine:2 freely:1 web:1 site:1 third:1 party:1 analysis:1 article:1 symantec:1 internetnews:1 com:1 describe:2 short:1 average:1 five:1 monitor:1 vulnerability:1 find:2 significantly:1 red:1 hat:1 fedora:1 x:3 hp:1 ux:1 solaris:1 study:3 conduct:1 kevin:1 mitnick:1 marketing:1 communication:1 firm:1 avantgarde:1 unprotected:2 unpatched:2 minute:1 compromise:3 connect:1 hour:1 important:1 vastly:1 aol:1 national:1 cyber:1 alliance:1 online:1 safety:1 determine:1 infect:1 least:1 adware:1 documentation:1 suggestion:1 deploy:1 behind:1 firewall:1 anti:2 policy:1 stop:1 hotfixes:1 old:1 prior:1 create:1 emulation:2 wine:12 free:1 open:2 source:2 implementation:1 technically:1 emulator:2 compatibility:2 layer:1 effectively:1 pretend:1 cpu:1 style:1 apis:1 simulate:1 crossover:1 package:1 licensed:1 font:1 developer:2 regular:1 contributor:1 cedega:3 transgaming:1 fork:1 specifically:1 game:3 cider:1 video:1 publisher:1 lgpl:1 unable:1 port:1 codebase:1 darwine:1 bundling:1 qemu:1 reactos:1 intend:1 imitate:1 aim:1 stage:1 general:1 comparison:3 list:2 far:1 reading:1 component:1 optimization:1 infrastructure:1 advantage:1 startup:1 wintel:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram microsoft_window:18 graphical_user:3 user_interface:9 windows_vista:3 apple_lisa:1 lisa_macintosh:1 windows_windows:6 dialog_box:1 keyboard_shortcut:1 cooperative_multitasking:1 windows_xp:7 window_vista:6 windows_nt:7 protected_mode:1 window_workgroups:4 pre_emptive:1 window_nt:13 boot_loader:1 internet_explorer:3 nt_nt:6 window_xp:17 windows_server:8 intel_itanium:1 xp_windows:3 vista_windows:1 mobile_phone:1 sega_dreamcast:1 preemptive_multitasking:2 nt_kernel:1 windows_unsupported:8 nt_unsupported:5 nt_xp:1 buffer_overflow:1 bruce_schneier:1 virus_worm:1 file_folder:3 hp_ux:1 vastly_improve:1 license_lgpl:1 external_link:1 |
4,628 | Book_of_Mormon | The Book of Mormon is a sacred text of the churches of the Latter Day Saint movement. It was first published in March 1830 by Joseph Smith, Jr. as The Book of Mormon: An Account Written by the Hand of Mormon upon Plates Taken from the Plates of Nephi. . In 1982, in an effort to clarify and emphasize its purpose, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) retitled its editions of the book to The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ . According to Smith, the book was originally written in otherwise unknown characters referred to as "reformed Egyptian" on golden plates that he discovered in 1823 and then translated. The plates, Smith said, had been buried in a hill near his home in Manchester, New York, where he found them by the guidance of an angel, a resurrected ancient American prophet-historian named Moroni. The Book of Mormon is the earliest of the defining publications of the Latter Day Saint movement. The churches of the movement typically regard the Book of Mormon not only as scripture, but as a historical record of God's dealings with the ancient inhabitants of the Americas, written by American prophets from perhaps as early as 2500 B.C. to about 400 A.D. "Praise to the Man" Gordon B. Hinckley, Church President from 1995 to 2008, mentions the millions who have believed in the Book of Mormon, Statistical Report 2007 The Book of Mormon is divided into smaller books, titled after the individuals named as primary authors and, in most versions, divided into chapters and verses. It is written in the same Early Modern English linguistic style as the King James Version of the Bible. http://www.fairlds.org/FAIR_Brochures/King_James_Bible_and_the_Book_of_Mormon.pdf http://www.lds-mormon.com/bookofmormonquestions.shtml#BOM10 The Book of Mormon has a number of original and distinctive doctrinal discussions on subjects such as the fall of Adam and Eve See for example , the nature of the Atonement See for example , eschatology, redemption from physical and spiritual death See for example , and the organization of the latter-day church. It also includes social and political commentary. Origin Joseph Smith Jr. said that when he was seventeen years of age an angel of God, named Moroni, appeared to him “The Life and Ministry of Joseph Smith,” Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Joseph Smith, (2007),xxii–25 and told him that a collection of ancient writings, engraved on golden plates by ancient prophets, was buried in a nearby hill in Wayne County, New York. The writings described a people whom God had led from Jerusalem to the Western Hemisphere 600 years before Jesus’ birth. According to the narrative, Moroni was the last prophet among these people and had buried the record, which God had promised to bring forth in the latter days. Smith stated that he was instructed by Moroni to meet at the hill annually each September 22 to receive further instructions and that four years after the initial visit, in 1827, he was allowed to take the plates and was directed to translate them into English. “The Life and Ministry of Joseph Smith,” Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Joseph Smith, (2007),xxii–25 Pearl Of Great Price, Joseph SMith - History 1:59 Smith's first published description of the plates said that the plates "had the appearance of gold," and were described by Martin Harris, one of Smith's early scribes, to be "fastened together in the shape of a book by wires." . Smith called the engraved writing on the plates "reformed Egyptian." Only LDS linguists accept the existence of any language or character set known as "reformed Egyptian" as described in LDS tradition. The only example of reformed Egyptian extant is the "Caractors Document", also known as the "Anthon Transcript", a paper written by Smith with examples of what he claimed to be "reformed Egyptian" characters. See Reformed Egyptian for details and references. A portion of the text on the plates was also "sealed" according to his account, so its presumed content was not included in the Book of Mormon. . In addition to Smith's account regarding the plates, eleven others signed affidavits that they saw and handled the golden plates for themselves. Their written testimonies are known as the Testimony of Three Witnesses Testimony of Three Witnesses and the Testimony of Eight Witnesses. Testimony of Eight Witnesses These affidavits are published as part of the introductory pages to the Book of Mormon. Smith enlisted the help of his neighbor, Martin Harris (one of the Three Witnesses), who later mortgaged his farm to underwrite the printing of the Book of Mormon, as a scribe during his initial work on the text. In 1828, Harris, prompted by his wife, Lucy Harris, repeatedly requested that Smith lend him the current pages that had been translated. Smith reluctantly relented to Harris' requests. Lucy Harris is thought to have stolen the first 116 pages. , , After the loss, Smith recorded that he had lost the ability to translate, and that Moroni had taken back the plates to be returned only after Smith repented. Doctrine and Covenants, Section 3 and Smith later stated that God allowed him to resume translation, but directed that he begin translating another part of the plates. In 1829, with the assistance of Oliver Cowdery, work on the Book of Mormon recommenced, and was completed in a remarkably short period (April-June 1829). Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), 70." Smith said that he then returned the plates to Moroni upon the publication of the book. Testimony of Joseph Smith Critics of the Book of Mormon claim that the book was either an original creation of Smith (with or without the assistance of one or more of his associates), was based on a prior work such as View of the Hebrews, or was plagiarized in part from an unpublished manuscript written by Solomon Spalding. For a few followers of the LDS movement, unresolved issues of the book's historicity and the lack of conclusive archaeological evidence have led them to adopt a compromise position that the Book of Mormon may be the creation of Smith, but that it was nevertheless created through divine inspiration. Grant H. Palmer. 2002. An Insider's View of Mormon Origins. Salt Lake City, Signature Books.Brent Lee Metcalfe, ed. 1993. New Approaches to the Book of Mormon: Explorations in Critical Methodology. Salt Lake City: Signature Books. Most in the LDS movement believe Smith's position that it is a literal historical record. “The Life and Ministry of Joseph Smith,” Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Joseph Smith, (2007),xxii–25 Content Title Smith stated that the title page, and presumably the actual title of the 1830 edition, came from the translation of "the very last leaf" of the golden plates, and was written by the prophet-historian Moroni. Joseph Smith stated that the "title page is not by any means a modern composition either of mine or of any other man's who has lived or does live in this generation." The title page states that the purpose of the Book of Mormon is "to [show] unto the remnant of the house of Israel what great things the Lord hath done for their fathers;...and also to the convincing of the Jew and Gentile that Jesus is the Christ, the eternal God, manifesting himself unto all nations." The Book of Mormon Title Page Organization The Book of Mormon is organized as a compilation of smaller books, each named after its main named narrator or a prominent leader, beginning with the First Book of Nephi (1 Nephi) and ending with the Book of Moroni. The book's sequence is primarily chronological based on the narrative content of the book. Exceptions include the Words of Mormon and the Book of Ether. The Words of Mormon contains editorial commentary by Mormon. The Book of Ether is presented as the narrative of an earlier group of people who had come to America before the immigration described in 1 Nephi. 1 Nephi through Omni are written in first-person narrative, as are Mormon and Moroni. The remainder of the Book of Mormon is written in third-person historical narrative, said to be compiled and abridged by Mormon (with Moroni abridging the Book of Ether). Most modern editions of the book have been divided into chapters and verses. Most editions of the book also contain supplementary material, including the Testimony of Three Witnesses and the Testimony of Eight Witnesses, which are statements by men who said they saw the golden plates with Joseph Smith and could verify their existence. Chronology The books from 1 Nephi to Omni are described as being from "the small plates of Nephi". Book Of Mormon, Words Of Mormon 1:3 This account begins in ancient Jerusalem around 600 BC. It tells the story of a man named Lehi, his family, and several others as they are led by God from Jerusalem shortly before the fall of that city to the Babylonians in 586 BC. The book describes their journey across the Arabian peninsula, and then to the promised land, the Americas, by ship. 1 Nephi 18:23 These books recount the group's dealings from approximately 600 BC to about 130 BC, during which time the community grew and split into two main groups, which are called the Nephites and the Lamanites, that frequently warred with each other. Following this section is the Words of Mormon. This small book, said to be written in AD 385 by Mormon, is a short introduction to the books of Mosiah, Alma, Helaman, 3 Nephi, and 4 Nephi Book Of Mormon, A BRIEF EXPLANATION ABOUT THE BOOK OF MORMON . These books are described as being abridged from a large quantity of existing records called "the large plates of Nephi" that detailed the people's history from the time of Omni to Mormon's own life. The book of 3 Nephi is of particular importance within the Book of Mormon because it contains an account of a visit by Jesus from heaven to the Americas sometime after his resurrection and ascension. The text says that during this American visit, he repeated much of the same doctrine and instruction given in the Gospels of the Bible and he established an enlightened, peaceful society which endured for several generations, but which eventually broke into warring factions again. The book of Mormon is an account of the events during Mormon's life. Mormon is said to have received the charge of taking care of the records that had been hidden, once he was old enough. The book includes an account of the wars, Mormon's leading of portions of the Nephite army, and his retrieving and caring for the records. Mormon is eventually killed in battle after having handed down the records to his son Moroni. According to the text, Moroni then made an abridgment (called the Book of Ether) of a record from a previous people called the Jaredites. The account describes a group of families led from the Tower of Babel http://scriptures.lds.org/en/ether/1 See verse 3 to the Americas, headed by a man named Jared and his brother. The Jaredite civilization is presented as existing on the American continent beginning about 2500 BC, Sacred Sites: Searching for Book of Mormon Lands. by Joseph L. Allen Published: October 2003 p.8 - long before Lehi's family arrived in 600 BC - and as being much larger and more developed. The dating in the text is only an approximation. The book of Moroni then details the final destruction of the Nephites and the idolatrous state of the remaining society Book Of Mormon, Book of Moroni Chapter Summaries . It mentions a few spiritual insights and some important doctrinal teachings Book of Mormon, Moroni Ch. 10 , then closes with Moroni's testimony and an invitation to pray to God for a confirmation of the truthfulness of the account Book Of Mormon, Moroni 10:4 . Doctrinal and philosophical teachings The Book of Mormon contains doctrinal and philosophical teachings on a wide range of topics, from basic themes of Christianity and Judaism to political and ideological teachings. Jesus Stated on the title page, the Book of Mormon's central purpose is for the "convincing of the Jew and Gentile that Jesus is the Christ, the Eternal God, manifesting himself unto all nations." The book describes Jesus, prior to his birth, as a spirit "without flesh and blood", although with a spirit "body" that looked similar to how Jesus would appear during his physical life. . Jesus is described as "the Father and the Son". . He is said to be: "God himself [who] shall come down among the children of men, and shall redeem his people...[b]eing the Father and the Son — the Father, because he was conceived by the power of God; and the Son, because of the flesh; thus becoming the Father and Son — and they are one God, yea, the very Eternal Father of heaven and of earth." Other parts of the book portray the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost as "one" . Beliefs among the churches of the Latter Day Saint movement encompass nontrinitarianism (in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) to Trinitarianism (particularly among the Community of Christ). See Godhead (Latter Day Saints). In furtherance of its theme of reconciling Jews and Gentiles to Jesus, the book describes a variety of visions or visitations to some of the early inhabitants in the Americas involving Jesus. Most notable among these is a described visit of Jesus to a group of early inhabitants shortly after his resurrection. See to Many of the book's narrators described other visions of Jesus, including one by a narrator who, according to the book, lived thousands of years before Jesus, but who saw the "body" of Jesus' spirit thousands of years prior to his birth. . In another vision, according to the book, a different narrator described a vision of the birth, ministry, and death of Jesus, , including a prophecy of Jesus' name, said to have taken place nearly 600 years prior to Jesus' birth, See , ; See also In the narrative, at the time of King Benjamin (about 130 BC), the Nephite believers were called "the children of Christ". At another place, the faithful members of the church at the time of Captain Moroni (73 B.C.) were called "Christians" by their enemies, because of their belief in Jesus Christ. The book also states that for nearly 200 years after Jesus' appearance at the temple in the Americas, the land was filled with peace and prosperity because of the people's obedience to his commandments. Later, the prophet Mormon worked to convince the faithless people of his time (360 A.D.) of Christ. The prophet Moroni is said to have buried the plates with faith in Christ. See Many other prophets in the book also wrote of the reality of the Messiah. Jesus spoke to the Jews in Jerusalem of “other sheep” who would hear his voice, See in the King James Version of the Bible which the Book of Mormon claims meant that the Nephites and other remnants of the lost tribes of Israel throughout the world were to be visited by Jesus after his resurrection. , , Other distinctive religious teachings On most religious issues, Book of Mormon doctrines are similar to those found in the Bible and among other Christian denominations. Among its distinctive theological contributions are the following: The Old Testament prophet Isaiah spoke of prophets who would "whisper out of the dust." Isaiah 29:4 The Book of Mormon interprets this as a reference to itself. The Fall of Man was a requirement in order for procreation to occur. "Adam fell that men might be, and men are, that they might have joy." Teachings about political theology The book delves into political and ideological themes, but places them within a Christian or Jewish context. Among these themes are American exceptionalism. According to the book, the Americas are portrayed as a "land of promise", the world's most exceptional land ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . of the time. The book states that any righteous society possessing the land would be protected, whereas if they became wicked they would be destroyed and replaced with a more righteous civilization. ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . On the issue of war and violence, the book teaches that war is justified for people to "defend themselves against their enemies". However they were never to "give an offense," or to "raise their sword...except it were to preserve their lives." The book praises the faith of a group of former warriors who took an oath of complete pacifism, refusing to take arms even to defend themselves and their people. However, 2,000 of their descendants, who had not taken the oath of their parents not to take up arms against their enemies, chose to go to battle against the Lamanites, and it states that in the battle the 2,000 men were protected by God, and none of them died. The book points out monarchy as an ideal form of government, but only when the monarch is righteous. However, the book warns of the evil that occurs when the king is wicked and therefore suggests that it is not generally good to have a king. The book further records the decision of the people to be ruled no longer by kings, choosing instead a form of democracy led by elected judges. When citizens referred to as "king-men" attempted to overthrow a democratically-elected government and establish an unrighteous king, the book praises a military commander who executed pro-monarchy citizens who had vowed to destroy the church of God and were unwilling to defend their country from hostile invading forces. The book also speaks favorably of a particular instance of what appears to be a peaceful Christ-centered theocracy, which lasted approximately 194 years before contentions began again. . The book supports notions of economic justice, achieved through voluntary donation of "substance, every man according to that which he had, to the poor" . In one case, all the citizens held their property in common . Concern for the poor is portrayed as leading to collective wealth . However, when individuals within a society began to disdain and ignore the poor, to "wear costly apparel," and otherwise engage in wickedness for personal gain, such societies are repeatedly portrayed in the book as being ripe for destruction. ; ; ; . Religious significance Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The Book of Mormon is one of four sacred texts or standard works of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The other texts are the Bible (the King James Version), the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. See e.g. Russell M. Nelson, “Living by Scriptural Guidance,” Ensign, Nov 2000, 16–18 (discusses how the four standard works of the church can provide guidance in life) Church members officially regard the Book of Mormon as the "most correct" book of scripture, in that "a man would get nearer to God by abiding by its precepts, than any other book." History of the Church, 4:461; see also Additional Information This is, in part, because church members believe the Bible was the result of a multiple-step translation process and the Book of Mormon was not. Ezra Taft Benson, “The Keystone of Our Religion,” Ensign, Jan 1992. Joseph Smith told of receiving a revelation condemning the "whole church" for treating the Book of Mormon and the former commandments lightly http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/84/54-57#54; see also . Every church president since Joseph Smith has stressed the importance of studying the Book of Mormon along with the church's other standard works. The Book of Mormon’s significance was reiterated in the late 20th century by Ezra Taft Benson, Apostle and 13th President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Ezra Taft Benson, “The Book of Mormon—Keystone of Our Religion,” Ensign, Nov 1986, 4 . In an August 2005 Ensign message, then LDS President Gordon B. Hinckley challenged each member of the church to re-read the Book of Mormon before the year's end. The book’s importance is commonly stressed at the twice-yearly general conference and at special devotionals by general authorities. The church encourages discovery of the book’s truth by following the suggestion in the final chapter to study, ponder, and pray to God concerning its veracity. This passage is referred to as Moroni's Promise. ; for further discussion see Gene R. Cook, “Moroni’s Promise,” Ensign, Apr 1994, 12. Community of Christ The Community of Christ, formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, views the Book of Mormon as an additional witness of Jesus Christ and publishes two versions of the book through its official publishing arm, Herald House. The Authorized Edition is based on the original printer's manuscript and the 1837 Second Edition (or Kirtland Edition) of the Book of Mormon. Its content is similar to the Book of Mormon published by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, but the versification is different. The Community of Christ also publishes a 1966 "Revised Authorized Edition" which attempts to modernize some of the language. In 2001, Community of Christ President W. Grant McMurray reflected on increasing questions about the Book of Mormon: "The proper use of the Book of Mormon as sacred scripture has been under wide discussion in the 1970s and beyond, in part because of long-standing questions about its historicity and in part because of perceived theological inadequacies, including matters of race and ethnicity." McMurray, W. Grant, "They "Shall Blossom as the Rose": Native Americans and the Dream of Zion," an address delivered February 17, 2001, accessed on Community of Christ website, September 1, 2006 at http://www.cofchrist.org/docs/NativeAmericanConference/keynote.asp At the 2007 Community of Christ World Conference, President Stephen M. Veazey ruled out of order a resolution to "reaffirm the Book of Mormon as a divinely inspired record." He stated that "while the Church affirms the Book of Mormon as scripture, and makes it available for study and use in various languages, we do not attempt to mandate the degree of belief or use. This position is in keeping with our longstanding tradition that belief in the Book of Mormon is not to be used as a test of fellowship or membership in the church." Andrew M. Shields, "Official Minutes of Business Session, Wednesday March 28, 2007," in 2007 World Conference Thursday Bulletin, March 29, 2007. Community of Christ, 2007 Greater Latter Day Saint movement There are a number of other churches that are part of the Latter Day Saint movement. http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds.htm Most of these churches were created as a result of issues ranging from differing doctrinal interpretations and acceptance of the movement's scriptures (the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price), to disagreements with the leadership of the original Church of Christ as formed by Joseph Smith or his successors. These groups all have in common the acceptance of the Book of Mormon as scripture. It is this acceptance which distinguishes the churches of the Latter Day Saint Movement from other Christian denominations. Historicity Most adherents of the LDS movement consider the Book of Mormon to be a historically accurate account. Critics of the historical and scientific claims of the Book of Mormon tend to focus on four main areas: The lack of correlation between locations described in the Book of Mormon and American archaeological sites. Citing the lack of specific New World geographic locations to search, Michael D. Coe, a prominent Mesoamerican archaeologist and Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at Yale University, writes (in a 1973 volume of Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought): "As far as I know there is not one professionally trained archaeologist, who is not a Mormon, who sees any scientific justification for believing [the historicity of The Book of Mormon], and I would like to state that there are quite a few Mormon archaeologists who join this group." References to animals, plants, metals and technologies in the Book of Mormon that archaeological or scientific studies have found no evidence of in post-Pleistocene, pre-Columbian America, frequently referred to as anachronisms. Cecil H. Brown. 1999. Lexical Acculturation in Native American Languages. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, 20. OxfordPaul E. Minnis & Wayne J. Elisens, ed. 2001. Biodiversity and Native America. University of Oklahoma Press.Gary Paul Nabhan. 2002. Enduring Seeds: Native American Agriculture and Wild Plant Conservation. University of Arizona Press.Stacy Kowtko. 2006. Nature and the Environment in Pre-Columbian American Life. Greenwood Press.Douglas H. Ubelaker, ed. 2006. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 3, Environment, Origins, and Population. Smithsonian Institution.Elizabeth P. Benson. 1979. Pre-Columbian Metallurgy of South America. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library.R.C. West, ed. 1964. Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 1, Natural Environment & Early Cultures. University of Texas Press.G.R. Willey, ed. 1965. Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volumes 2 & 3, Archeology of Southern Mesoamerica. University of Texas Press.Gordon Ekholm & Ignacio Bernal, ed. 1971. Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 10 & 11, Archeology of Northern Mesoamerica. University of Texas Press. Items typically listed include cattle 1 Nephi 18:25LDS scholars think that this may be a product of reassigning familiar labels to unfamiliar items. For example, the Delaware Indians named the cow after the deer, and the Miami Indians labeled sheep, when they were first seen, "looks-like-a cow."John L. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City, Utah : Deseret Book Co. ; Provo, Utah : Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1996 [1985]), 294. ISBN 1-57345-157-6http://www.mormonfortress.com/cows1.html , horses, 1 Nephi 18:25 "[H]orses became extinct in North America at the end of the Pleistocene..." (Donald K. Grayson. 2006. "Late Pleistocene Faunal Extinctions," Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 3, Environment, Origins and Population. Smithsonian. Pages 208-221. quote on pg 211)"The youngest dates on North American fossil horses are about 8150 years ago, although most of the horses were gone around 10,000 years ago" (Donald R. Prothero & Robert M. Schoch. 2002. Horns, Tusks, and Flippers: The Evolution of Hoofed Mammals. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Page 215.)"During the Pleistocene both New World continents abounded in [horses] and then, some 8000 years ago, the last wild horses in the Americas became extinct..." (R.J.G. Savage & M.R. Long. 1986. Mammal Evolution: An Illustrated Guide. Facts on File Publications. Page 204.) asses, Asses and horses are both in the genus Equus so see the footnote concerning horses. , oxen, sheep, swine, goats 1 Nephi 18:25http://www.irr.org/mit/smithsonian.html paragraph 4 , elephants, Ether 9:19 Donald K. Grayson. 2006. "Late Pleistocene Faunal Extinctions," Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 3, Environment, Origins and Population. Smithsonian. Pages 208-221. The Pleistocene extinction of the two Proboscidea genera Mammut and Mammuthus are mentioned on pages 209 and 212-213."T[he] megafauna [of North America] then disappeared from the face of the earth between 12,000 and 9,000 years ago..." (Donald R. Prothero & Robert M. Schoch. 2002. Horns, Tusks, and Flippers: The Evolution of Hoofed Mammals. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Page 176.)"In North America three other proboscideans survived the end of the Ice Age--the tundra woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), the woodland American mastodont (Mammut americanum) and the grazing mammoth (Mammuthus jeffersoni). Hunting by early man is the most likely cause of the final extinction..." (R.J.G. Savage & M.R. Long. 1986. Mammal Evolution: An Illustrated Guide. Facts on File Publications. Page 157.)"Mammut became extinct only about 10,000 years ago." (Dougal Dixon et al. 1988. The Macmillan Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals. Collier Books. Page 244.)"M[ammuthus] primigenius survived until about 10,000 years ago." (Dixon et al. 1988, page 245) wheat, steel, 1 Nephi 4:9 brass, chains, iron, scimitars, and chariots. Alma 18:9 The lack of linguistic connection between any Native American languages and Near Eastern languages. Lyle Campbell. 1979. "Middle American languages," The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment. Ed. Lyle Campbell and Marianne Mithun. Austin: University of Texas Press. Pages 902-1000.Lyle Campbell. 1997. American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford University Press.Jorge Súarez. 1983. The Mesoamerican Indian Languages. Cambridge University Press. The lack of DNA evidence linking any Native American group to the ancient Near East. The traditional view of the Book of Mormon suggests that Native Americans are principally the descendents of an Israelite migration around 600 BC. However, DNA evidence shows no Near Eastern component in the Native American genetic make-up. For example:Simon G. Southerton. 2004. Losing a Lost Tribe: Native Americans, DNA, and the Mormon Church. Signature Books. The entire book is devoted to the specific topic of DNA evidence and the Book of Mormon." ...[T]he DNA lineages of Central America resemble those of other Native American tribes throughout the two continents. Over 99 percent of the lineages found among native groups from this region are clearly of Asian descent. Modern and ancient DNA samples tested from among the Maya generally fall into the major founding lineage classes... The Mayan Empire has been regarded by Mormons to be the closest to the people of the Book of Mormon because its people were literate and culturally sophisticated. However, leading New World anthropologists, including those specializing in the region, have found the Maya to be similarly related to Asians. Stephen L. Whittington...was not aware of any scientists 'in mainstream anthropology that are trying to prove a Hebrew origin of Native Americans... Archaeologists and physical anthropologists have not found any evidence of Hebrew origins for the people of North, South and Central America.'" (pg 191)D. Andrew Merriwether. 2006. "Mitochondrial DNA," Handbook of North American Indians. Smithsonian Institution Press. Pg 817-830. "Kolman, Sambuughin, and Bermingham (1995) and Merriwether et al. (1996) used the presence of A, B, C, and D to argue for Mongolia as the location for the source population of the New World founders. More specifically perhaps, they argued that the present-day Mongolians and present-day Native Americans are both derived from the same ancestral population in Asia, presumably in the Mongolia-Southern Siberia-Lake Baikal region. T.G. Schurr and S.G. Sherry (2004) strongly favor a southern Siberian origin for the majority of lineages found in the New World." (pg 829)Tatiana M. Karafet, Stephen L. Zegura, and Michael F. Hammer. 2006. "Y Chromosomes," Handbook of North American Indians. Smithsonian Institution. Pp. 831-839. "Zegura et al. (2004) have presented the following scenario for the early peopling of the Americas based on Y chromosome data: a migration of a single, polymorphic Asian population across Beringia with a potential common source for both North American founding lineages (Q and C) in the Altai Mountains of southwest Siberia. Since all their STR-based SNP lineage divergence dates between the Altai and North Asians versus Native Americans...ranged from 10,100 to 17,200 year ago, they favored a relatively late entry model." (pg. 839)Defenders of the book's historicity suggest that the Book of Mormon does not disallow for other groups of people to have contributed to the genetic make-up of Native Americans. Nevertheless, this is a departure from the traditional view that Israelites are the primary ancestors of Native Americans, and therefore would be expected to present some genetic evidence of Near Eastern origins. A recently announced change in the Book of Mormon's introduction, however, allows for a greater diversity of ancestry of Native Americans. See, for example, the following Deseret News article published on November 9, 2007: Intro Change in Book of Mormon Spurs Discussion Within the LDS movement, there have been many apologetical counter claims attempting to reconcile these apparent discrepancies. Among those apologetic groups, a great deal of research has been done by the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS), and Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research (FAIR), in an attempt to either prove the veracity of Book of Mormon claims, or to counter arguments critical to its historicity. Editions Current The Book of Mormon is published by the following: Church publishers Year Titles and notes LDS Church 1982 The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ. The revised text was first published in 1981 and the subtitle was added in October 1982: New introductions, chapter summaries, and footnotes. 1920 edition errors corrected based on Original Manuscript and 1840 edition. Community of Christ 1966 "Revised Authorized Version", based on 1908 Authorized Version, 1837 edition and "original manuscript". The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite) 2001 Compiled by a committee of Apostles. Richard Drew 1992 Photo-enlarged facsimile of the 1840 edition BYU Catalog for "Book of Mormon. English. 1840 (1992)" Church of Christ (Temple Lot) 1990 Uses 1908 RLDS edition, 1830 edition, Printer's Manuscript, and corrections by church leaders. Church of Christ with the Elijah Message 1957 The Record of the Nephites, "Restored Palmyra Edition". 1830 text with LDS chapters and verses. Other publishers Year Titles and notes Herald Heritage 1970 Facsimile of the 1830 edition. Zarahemla Research Foundation 1999 The Book of Mormon: Restored Covenant Edition. Text from Original and Printer's Manuscripts, in poetic layout. Bookcraft 1999 The Book of Mormon for Latter-Day Saint Families. Large print with numerous visuals and explanatory notes. University of Illinois Press 2003 The Book of Mormon: A Reader's Edition. Based on the 1920 LDS edition. Doubleday 2004 The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ Experience Press 2006 Reset type matching the original 1830 edition in word, line and page. Fixed typographical errors. Experience Press Stratford Books 2006 Facsimile reprint of 1830 edition. Penguin Classics 2008 Paperback with 1840 text. Historic The following non-current editions marked major developments in the text or reader's helps printed in the Book of Mormon. PublisherYearTitles and notes E. B. Grandin 1830 "First edition" in Palmyra. Based on Printer's Manuscript copied from Original Manuscript. Pratt and Goodson 1837 "Second edition" in Kirtland. Revision of first edition, using the Printer's Manuscript with emendations and grammatical corrections. Robinson and Smith 1840 "Third edition" in Nauvoo. Revised by Joseph Smith in comparison to the Original Manuscript. Young, Kimball and Pratt 1841 "First European edition". 1837 reprint with British spellings. Future editions descended from this, not the 1840 edition. Franklin D. Richards 1852 "Third European edition". Edited by Richards. Introduced primitive verses (numbered paragraphs). James O. Wright 1858 Unauthorized reprinting of 1840 edition. Used by the early RLDS Church in 1860s. RLDS Church 1874 First RLDS edition. 1840 text with verses. Deseret News 1879 Edited by Orson Pratt. Introduced footnotes, new verses, and shorter chapters. RLDS Church 1908 "Authorized Version". New verses and corrections based on Printers Manuscript. LDS Church 1920 Edited by James E. Talmage. Added introductions, double columns, chapter summaries, new footnotes, pronunciation guide. Changes from original 1830 edition There have been numerous changes to the text of the Book of Mormon between the 1830 edition and modern LDS editions, almost four thousand changes according to one count. 3913 Changes in The Book of Mormon Jerald and Sandra Tanner Many of these changes are spelling and grammar corrections. However, some critics claim that some revisions were systematic attempts to remove evidence that Joseph Smith fabricated the Book of Mormon. http://www.fairlds.org/FAIR_Conferences/2002_Changes_in_the_Book_of_Mormon.html LDS apologetics perspective to changes in versions of the Book of Mormon. Critics Jerald and Sandra Tanner cite the wording change from "King Benjamin" to "King Mosiah" as an example. Mosiah 21:28; The Book of Mormon itself says on the title page that it may contain errors made by the men who wrote it. Title Page; 1 Nephi 19:6; Jacob 1:2; 7:26; Mormon 8:1, 17; 9:31-33; 3 Nephi 8:2; Ether 5:1 The vast majority of the changes noted by the Tanners have been discussed in official LDS Church publications including the Ensign, Improvement Era, Millennial Star and Times and Seasons, and are claimed to be consistent with early pre- and post-publication edits made by Joseph Smith. Some corrections were possibly made due to earlier print or copy errors, or changes in punctuation. However, Mormon Edward Stevenson's account of Martin Harris's transcription conflicts with the Tanners. He wrote Harris' account as Harris only being able to continue transcription after the previously read aloud sentence was transcribed correctly, "so that the translation was just as it was engraven on the plates, precisely in the language then used." Also, conflicting is Mormon historian B. H. Roberts' conclusion that "the first edition of the Book of Mormon is singularly free from typographical errors." In 1989, scholars at Brigham Young University began work on a critical text edition of the Book of Mormon. Volumes 1 and 2, published in 2001, contain transcriptions of all the text variants of the English editions of the Book of Mormon, from the original manuscript to the newest editions. ;; Volume 4, which is being published in parts, is a critical analysis of all the text variants. Volume 3, which is not yet published, will describe the history of all the English-language texts from Joseph Smith to today. ;; Non-English translations The LDS version of the Book of Mormon has been translated into 80 languages, and selections of the Book of Mormon have been translated into an additional 27 languages. In 2001, the LDS church reported that all or part of the Book of Mormon was available in the native language of 99% of Latter-day Saints and 87% of the world's total population. "Taking the Scriptures to the World", Ensign, July 2001, 24 Translations into languages without a tradition of writing (e.g., Kakchiqel, Tzotzil) are available on audio cassette. Welcome Translations into American Sign Language are available on videocassette and DVD. Typically, translators are members of the LDS Church who are employed by the church and translate the text from the original English. Each manuscript is reviewed many times before it is approved and published. "Translation Work Taking Book of Mormon to More People in More Tongues," Ensign, Feb. 2005, 75–76 In 1998, the LDS Church stopped translating selections from the Book of Mormon, and instead announced that each new translation it approves will be a full edition. "Translation Work Taking Book of Mormon to More People in More Tongues", 6 February 2005 Footnotes References . . (see Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling). . . . . (see Mormonism Unvailed). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Further reading See also Restoration Branches External links Online Copies LDS Book of Mormon Book of Mormon (RLDS 1908 Authorized Edition) Audio Book of Mormon in mp3 format (free download, no registration, 32 kbit/s) Scanned 1830 Edition Church of Christ Temple Lot Edition | Book_of_Mormon |@lemmatized book:150 mormon:116 sacred:4 text:20 church:49 latter:18 day:20 saint:16 movement:12 first:12 publish:13 march:3 joseph:22 smith:41 jr:2 account:12 write:15 hand:2 upon:2 plate:21 take:12 nephi:18 effort:1 clarify:1 emphasize:1 purpose:3 jesus:33 christ:32 lds:24 retitled:1 edition:44 another:6 testament:4 accord:9 originally:1 otherwise:2 unknown:1 character:3 refer:4 reform:3 egyptian:6 golden:5 discover:1 translate:9 say:13 bury:4 hill:3 near:6 home:1 manchester:1 new:15 york:3 find:7 guidance:3 angel:2 resurrected:1 ancient:10 american:37 prophet:10 historian:3 name:9 moroni:21 early:12 define:1 publication:6 typically:3 regard:4 scripture:8 historical:6 record:12 god:16 dealing:2 inhabitant:3 america:20 perhaps:2 b:8 c:5 praise:3 man:8 gordon:3 hinckley:2 president:9 mention:3 million:1 believe:4 statistical:1 report:2 divide:3 small:4 title:12 individual:2 primary:2 author:1 version:10 chapter:8 verse:8 modern:5 english:7 linguistic:2 style:1 king:11 jam:3 bible:6 http:7 www:7 fairlds:2 org:7 pdf:1 com:2 bookofmormonquestions:1 shtml:1 number:2 original:13 distinctive:3 doctrinal:5 discussion:4 subject:1 fall:4 adam:2 eve:1 see:22 example:9 nature:2 atonement:1 eschatology:1 redemption:1 physical:3 spiritual:2 death:2 organization:2 also:14 include:11 social:1 political:4 commentary:2 origin:9 seventeen:1 year:18 age:2 appear:3 life:9 ministry:4 teaching:9 xxii:3 tell:2 collection:1 writing:4 engrave:1 nearby:1 wayne:2 county:1 describe:15 people:17 lead:7 jerusalem:4 western:1 hemisphere:1 birth:5 narrative:6 last:4 among:11 promise:4 bring:1 forth:1 state:12 instruct:1 meet:1 annually:1 september:2 receive:3 instruction:2 four:5 initial:2 visit:5 allow:3 direct:2 pearl:3 great:7 price:3 history:4 description:1 appearance:2 gold:1 martin:3 harris:9 one:10 scribe:2 fasten:1 together:1 shape:1 wire:1 call:7 engraved:1 linguist:1 accept:1 existence:2 language:17 set:1 know:5 tradition:3 reformed:3 extant:1 caractors:1 document:1 anthon:1 transcript:1 paper:1 claim:8 detail:3 reference:4 portion:2 seal:1 presumed:1 content:4 addition:1 eleven:1 others:2 sign:2 affidavit:2 saw:3 handle:1 testimony:9 three:5 witness:8 eight:3 part:10 introductory:1 page:21 enlist:1 help:2 neighbor:1 later:3 mortgage:1 farm:2 underwrite:1 printing:1 work:10 prompt:1 wife:1 lucy:2 repeatedly:2 request:2 lend:1 current:3 reluctantly:1 relent:1 think:3 steal:1 loss:1 lose:3 ability:1 back:1 return:2 repent:1 doctrine:5 covenant:4 section:2 resume:1 translation:10 begin:7 assistance:2 oliver:1 cowdery:1 recommence:1 complete:2 remarkably:1 short:3 period:1 april:1 june:1 rough:2 stone:2 roll:2 alfred:1 knopf:1 critic:4 either:3 creation:2 without:3 associate:1 base:10 prior:4 view:5 hebrew:3 plagiarize:1 unpublished:1 manuscript:13 solomon:1 spalding:1 follower:1 unresolved:1 issue:4 historicity:6 lack:5 conclusive:1 archaeological:3 evidence:8 adopt:1 compromise:1 position:3 may:3 nevertheless:2 create:2 divine:1 inspiration:1 grant:3 h:5 palmer:1 insider:1 salt:3 lake:4 city:4 signature:3 brent:1 lee:1 metcalfe:1 ed:7 approach:1 exploration:1 critical:4 methodology:1 literal:1 presumably:2 actual:1 come:3 leaf:1 mean:2 composition:1 mine:1 live:3 generation:2 show:2 unto:3 remnant:2 house:2 israel:2 thing:1 lord:1 hath:1 father:7 convincing:2 jew:4 gentile:3 eternal:3 manifest:2 nation:2 organize:1 compilation:1 main:3 narrator:4 prominent:2 leader:2 end:4 sequence:1 primarily:1 chronological:1 exception:1 word:5 ether:7 contains:2 editorial:1 present:6 group:12 immigration:1 omni:3 person:2 remainder:1 third:3 compile:2 abridge:3 contain:4 supplementary:1 material:1 statement:1 men:7 could:1 verify:1 chronology:1 around:3 bc:8 story:1 lehi:2 family:4 several:2 shortly:2 babylonian:1 journey:1 across:2 arabian:1 peninsula:1 promised:1 land:6 ship:1 recount:1 approximately:2 time:8 community:10 grow:1 split:1 two:4 nephites:4 lamanites:2 frequently:2 war:5 follow:4 ad:1 introduction:4 mosiah:3 alma:2 helaman:1 brief:1 explanation:1 large:4 quantity:1 exist:2 particular:2 importance:3 within:4 heaven:2 sometime:1 resurrection:3 ascension:1 repeat:1 much:2 give:2 gospel:1 establish:2 enlighten:1 peaceful:2 society:5 endure:2 eventually:2 break:1 faction:1 event:1 charge:1 care:1 hide:1 old:2 enough:1 leading:1 nephite:2 army:1 retrieving:1 caring:1 kill:1 battle:3 son:6 make:7 abridgment:1 previous:1 jaredites:1 tower:1 babel:1 scriptures:1 en:1 head:1 jared:1 brother:1 jaredite:1 civilization:2 continent:3 site:2 search:2 l:4 allen:1 october:2 p:2 long:4 arrive:1 developed:1 dating:1 approximation:1 final:3 destruction:2 idolatrous:1 remain:1 summary:3 insight:1 important:1 ch:1 close:2 invitation:1 pray:2 confirmation:1 truthfulness:1 philosophical:2 wide:2 range:3 topic:2 basic:1 theme:4 christianity:1 judaism:1 ideological:2 central:3 spirit:3 flesh:2 blood:1 although:2 body:2 look:2 similar:3 would:8 shall:3 child:2 redeem:1 eing:1 conceive:1 power:1 thus:1 become:5 yea:1 earth:2 portray:4 holy:1 ghost:1 belief:4 encompass:1 nontrinitarianism:1 trinitarianism:1 particularly:1 godhead:1 furtherance:1 reconcile:2 variety:1 vision:4 visitation:1 involve:1 notable:1 described:1 many:5 thousand:3 different:2 prophecy:1 place:3 nearly:2 benjamin:2 believer:1 faithful:1 member:5 captain:1 christian:4 enemy:3 temple:3 fill:1 peace:1 prosperity:1 obedience:1 commandment:2 convince:1 faithless:1 faith:2 reality:1 messiah:1 speak:2 sheep:3 hear:1 voice:1 lost:1 tribe:3 throughout:2 world:11 religious:3 denomination:2 theological:2 contribution:1 following:3 isaiah:2 spoke:1 whisper:1 dust:1 interprets:1 requirement:1 order:2 procreation:1 occur:2 fell:1 might:2 joy:1 theology:1 delve:1 jewish:1 context:1 exceptionalism:1 exceptional:1 righteous:3 possess:1 protect:2 whereas:1 wicked:2 destroy:2 replace:1 violence:1 teach:1 justified:1 defend:3 however:9 never:1 offense:1 raise:1 sword:1 except:1 preserve:1 former:2 warrior:1 oath:2 pacifism:1 refuse:1 arm:3 even:1 descendant:1 parent:1 choose:2 go:2 none:1 die:1 point:1 monarchy:2 ideal:1 form:3 government:2 monarch:1 warn:1 evil:1 therefore:2 suggest:2 generally:2 good:1 far:2 decision:1 rule:2 longer:1 instead:2 democracy:1 elected:2 judge:1 citizen:3 attempt:6 overthrow:1 democratically:1 unrighteous:1 military:1 commander:1 execute:1 pro:1 vow:1 unwilling:1 country:1 hostile:1 invading:1 force:1 favorably:1 instance:1 centered:1 theocracy:1 contention:1 support:1 notion:1 economic:1 justice:1 achieve:1 voluntary:1 donation:1 substance:1 every:2 poor:3 case:1 hold:1 property:1 common:3 concern:3 collective:1 wealth:1 disdain:1 ignore:1 wear:1 costly:1 apparel:1 engage:1 wickedness:1 personal:1 gain:1 ripe:1 significance:2 standard:3 james:2 e:5 g:8 russell:1 nelson:1 living:1 scriptural:1 ensign:8 nov:2 discuss:2 provide:1 officially:1 correct:2 get:1 abide:1 precept:1 additional:3 information:2 result:2 multiple:1 step:1 process:1 ezra:3 taft:3 benson:4 keystone:2 religion:2 jan:1 told:1 revelation:1 condemn:1 whole:1 treat:1 lightly:1 dc:1 since:2 stress:2 study:7 along:1 reiterate:1 late:4 century:1 apostle:2 august:1 message:2 challenge:1 read:2 commonly:1 twice:1 yearly:1 general:2 conference:3 special:1 devotional:1 authority:1 encourage:1 discovery:1 truth:1 suggestion:1 ponder:1 veracity:2 passage:1 gene:1 r:9 cook:1 apr:1 formerly:1 reorganize:1 publishes:1 official:3 publishing:1 herald:2 authorized:5 printer:6 second:2 kirtland:2 versification:1 revise:3 modernize:1 w:2 mcmurray:2 reflect:1 increase:1 question:2 proper:1 use:9 beyond:1 standing:1 perceived:1 inadequacy:1 matter:1 race:1 ethnicity:1 blossom:1 rise:1 native:20 dream:1 zion:1 address:1 deliver:1 february:2 access:1 website:1 cofchrist:1 doc:1 nativeamericanconference:1 keynote:1 asp:1 stephen:3 veazey:1 resolution:1 reaffirm:1 divinely:1 inspired:1 affirm:1 available:4 various:1 mandate:1 degree:1 keep:1 longstanding:1 test:2 fellowship:1 membership:1 andrew:2 shield:1 minute:1 business:1 session:1 wednesday:1 thursday:1 bulletin:1 religioustolerance:1 htm:1 differ:1 interpretation:1 acceptance:3 disagreement:1 leadership:1 successor:1 distinguish:1 adherent:1 consider:1 historically:1 accurate:1 scientific:3 tend:1 focus:1 area:1 correlation:1 location:3 cite:2 specific:2 geographic:1 michael:2 coe:1 mesoamerican:2 archaeologist:4 professor:1 emeritus:1 anthropology:2 yale:1 university:13 volume:10 dialogue:1 journal:1 professionally:1 trained:1 justification:1 like:2 quite:1 join:1 animal:2 plant:2 metal:1 technology:1 post:2 pleistocene:6 pre:4 columbian:3 anachronism:1 cecil:1 brown:1 lexical:1 acculturation:1 oxford:2 anthropological:1 linguistics:2 oxfordpaul:1 minnis:1 j:3 elisens:1 biodiversity:1 oklahoma:1 press:15 gary:1 paul:1 nabhan:1 seed:1 agriculture:1 wild:2 conservation:1 arizona:1 stacy:1 kowtko:1 environment:5 greenwood:1 douglas:1 ubelaker:1 handbook:8 north:12 indian:10 population:7 smithsonian:6 institution:3 elizabeth:1 metallurgy:1 south:2 dumbarton:1 oak:1 research:6 library:1 west:1 middle:4 natural:1 culture:1 texas:4 willey:1 archeology:2 southern:3 mesoamerica:2 ekholm:1 ignacio:1 bernal:1 northern:1 item:2 list:1 cattle:1 scholar:2 product:1 reassign:1 familiar:1 label:1 unfamiliar:1 delaware:1 indians:2 cow:2 deer:1 miami:1 labeled:1 john:3 sorenson:1 setting:1 utah:2 deseret:3 co:1 provo:1 foundation:4 isbn:1 mormonfortress:1 html:3 horse:7 extinct:3 donald:4 k:2 grayson:2 faunal:2 extinction:4 quote:1 pg:5 young:3 date:2 fossil:1 ago:7 prothero:2 robert:3 schoch:2 horn:2 tusk:2 flipper:2 evolution:4 hoofed:2 mammal:4 hopkins:2 abound:1 savage:2 illustrated:2 guide:3 fact:2 file:2 ass:2 genus:2 equus:1 footnote:5 ox:1 swine:1 goat:1 irr:1 mit:1 paragraph:2 elephant:1 proboscidea:1 mammut:3 mammuthus:3 megafauna:1 disappear:1 face:1 proboscidean:1 survive:2 ice:1 tundra:1 woolly:1 mammoth:2 primigenius:2 woodland:1 mastodont:1 americanum:1 grazing:1 jeffersoni:1 hunting:1 likely:1 cause:1 dougal:1 dixon:2 et:4 al:4 macmillan:1 illustrate:1 encyclopedia:1 dinosaur:1 prehistoric:1 collier:1 ammuthus:1 wheat:1 steel:1 brass:1 chain:1 iron:1 scimitar:1 chariot:1 connection:1 eastern:3 lyle:3 campbell:3 comparative:1 assessment:1 marianne:1 mithun:1 austin:1 jorge:1 súarez:1 cambridge:1 dna:7 link:2 east:1 traditional:2 suggests:1 principally:1 descendent:1 israelite:2 migration:2 component:1 genetic:3 simon:1 southerton:1 entire:1 devote:1 lineage:6 resemble:1 percent:1 region:3 clearly:1 asian:4 descent:1 sample:1 maya:2 major:2 founding:2 class:1 mayan:1 empire:1 literate:1 culturally:1 sophisticated:1 anthropologist:2 specialize:1 similarly:1 relate:1 whittington:1 aware:1 scientist:1 mainstream:1 try:1 prove:2 merriwether:2 mitochondrial:1 kolman:1 sambuughin:1 bermingham:1 presence:1 argue:2 mongolia:2 source:2 founder:1 specifically:1 mongolian:1 derive:1 ancestral:1 asia:1 siberia:2 baikal:1 schurr:1 sherry:1 strongly:1 favor:2 siberian:1 majority:2 tatiana:1 karafet:1 zegura:2 f:1 hammer:1 chromosome:2 pp:1 scenario:1 peopling:1 data:1 single:1 polymorphic:1 beringia:1 potential:1 q:1 altai:2 mountain:1 southwest:1 str:1 snp:1 divergence:1 versus:1 relatively:1 entry:1 model:1 defender:1 disallow:1 contribute:1 departure:1 ancestor:1 expect:1 recently:1 announce:2 change:11 diversity:1 ancestry:1 news:2 article:1 november:1 intro:1 spur:1 apologetical:1 counter:2 apparent:1 discrepancy:1 apologetic:2 deal:1 fair:1 argument:1 publisher:2 note:5 revised:1 subtitle:1 add:1 error:5 bickertonite:1 committee:1 richard:1 draw:1 photo:1 enlarge:1 facsimile:3 byu:1 catalog:1 lot:2 rlds:6 correction:5 elijah:1 restore:2 palmyra:2 heritage:1 zarahemla:1 poetic:1 layout:1 bookcraft:1 print:3 numerous:2 visuals:1 explanatory:1 illinois:1 reader:2 doubleday:1 experience:2 reset:1 type:1 match:1 line:1 fix:1 typographical:2 stratford:1 reprint:2 penguin:1 classic:1 paperback:1 historic:1 non:2 mark:1 development:1 publisheryeartitles:1 grandin:1 copy:3 pratt:3 goodson:1 revision:2 emendation:1 grammatical:1 robinson:1 nauvoo:1 comparison:1 kimball:1 european:2 british:1 spelling:1 future:1 descend:1 franklin:1 richards:2 edit:3 introduce:2 primitive:1 numbered:1 wright:1 unauthorized:1 reprinting:1 orson:1 authorize:1 talmage:1 added:1 double:1 column:1 pronunciation:1 almost:1 count:1 jerald:2 sandra:2 tanner:4 spell:1 grammar:1 systematic:1 remove:1 fabricate:1 apologetics:1 perspective:1 wording:1 jacob:1 vast:1 improvement:1 era:1 millennial:1 star:1 season:1 consistent:1 edits:1 possibly:1 due:1 earlier:1 punctuation:1 edward:1 stevenson:1 transcription:3 conflict:2 able:1 continue:1 previously:1 aloud:1 sentence:1 transcribe:1 correctly:1 engraven:1 precisely:1 conclusion:1 singularly:1 free:2 brigham:1 variant:2 analysis:1 yet:1 today:1 selection:2 total:1 july:1 kakchiqel:1 tzotzil:1 audio:2 cassette:1 welcome:1 videocassette:1 dvd:1 translator:1 employ:1 review:1 approve:2 tongue:2 feb:1 stop:1 full:1 mormonism:1 unvailed:1 reading:1 restoration:1 branch:1 external:1 online:1 format:1 download:1 registration:1 kbit:1 scan:1 |@bigram joseph_smith:21 jesus_christ:15 http_www:5 adam_eve:1 doctrine_covenant:3 oliver_cowdery:1 alfred_knopf:1 unpublished_manuscript:1 archaeological_evidence:1 arabian_peninsula:1 promised_land:1 resurrection_ascension:1 tower_babel:1 holy_ghost:1 democratically_elected:1 ezra_taft:3 taft_benson:3 grant_mcmurray:1 divinely_inspired:1 religioustolerance_org:1 professor_emeritus:1 pre_columbian:3 anthropological_linguistics:1 smithsonian_institution:3 dumbarton_oak:1 provo_utah:1 pleistocene_extinction:1 woolly_mammoth:1 mammoth_mammuthus:2 et_al:4 lyle_campbell:3 mitochondrial_dna:1 lake_baikal:1 altai_mountain:1 deseret_news:2 lds_church:6 authorized_version:2 typographical_error:2 facsimile_reprint:1 penguin_classic:1 rlds_church:3 orson_pratt:1 e_talmage:1 vast_majority:1 read_aloud:1 brigham_young:1 audio_cassette:1 external_link:1 |
4,629 | The_World_Factbook | The World Factbook (ISSN ; also known as the CIA World Factbook) is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency of the United States with almanac-style information about the countries of the world. It was originally an annual book, but the 2008 edition was the last to be printed on paper by the Government. Other companies, such as Skyhorse Publishing will continue printing a Paper edition of the The Factbook. The Factbook is available in the form of a website, which is partially updated every two weeks. It is also available for download for use off-line. It provides a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, geography, communications, government, economy, and military of 266 U.S.-recognized countries, dependencies, and other areas in the world. The World Factbook is prepared by the CIA for the use of U.S. government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements. However, it is frequently used as a resource for academic research papers. As a work of the U.S. government, it is in the public domain. Factbook sources In researching the Factbook, the CIA uses the sources listed below. Other public and private sources are also consulted. Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation) Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (Department of Defense) Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce) Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor) Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense) Department of Energy Department of State Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior) Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation) National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense) Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense) Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior) Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense) US Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior) US Transportation Command (Department of Defense) Oil & Gas Journal Copyright The World Factbook website as it appeared in January 2008 Because the Factbook is in the public domain, people are free to redistribute and modify it in any way that they like, without permission of the CIA. However, the CIA requests that it be cited when the Factbook is used. The official seal of the CIA, however, may not be copied without permission as required by the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (). Frequency of updates and availability Before November 2001, The World Factbook website was updated yearly. Since then, the Factbook website is updated every two weeks. Generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the Factbook. Government edition of the Factbook The first classified edition of Factbook was published in August 1962 and the first unclassified version in June 1971. The World Factbook was first available to the public in print in 1975. In January 2009, the print version of the Factbook was discontinued due to a CIA decision to "focus Factbook resources" on the online edition. The Factbook has been on the World Wide Web since October 1994. Miller, Jill Young. "CIA puts data on the internet." Fort Lauderdale Sun-Sentinel 12 December 1994. The Web version gets an average of 6 million visits per month; it can also be downloaded. The official printed version was sold at cost by the Government Printing Office and National Technical Information Service. In past years, the Factbook was available on CD-ROM, microfiche , magnetic tape, floppy disk, and print. Reprints and Older Editions Online The World Factbook 2008 (Skyhorse Publishing reprint edition) cover The World Factbook 2008 (Potomac Books reprint edition) cover Many Internet sites use information and images from the CIA World Factbook. Several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books (formerly known as Brassy's Inc.), and Skyhorse Publishing have re-published the factbook in recent years. Older editions of the CIA world factbook, going back to 1989, together with country rankings constructed from CIA data and additional country information from other sources are available in the Countries of the World website http://www.theodora.com/wfb, which was begun in 1996. Entities in the Factbook As of February 2008, The World Factbook consists of 266 entities. These entities can be divided into categories. They are: Independent countries This category has independent countries, which the CIA defines as people "politically organized into a sovereign state with a definite territory". In this category, there are 194 entities. Others The Other category is a list of other places set apart from the list of independent countries. Currently there are two: Taiwan and the European Union. Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty This category is a list of places affiliated with another country. They may be subdivided into categories using the country they are affiliated with: Australia: six entities China: two entities Denmark: two entities France: nine entities Netherlands: two entities New Zealand: three entities Norway: three entities United Kingdom: seventeen entities United States: fourteen entities Miscellaneous This category is for Antarctica and places in dispute. There are six entities. Other entities This category is for the World and the oceans. There are five oceans and the World (the World entry is intended as a summary of the other 265 entries). Territorial issues and controversies Political Areas not covered Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as Kashmir, are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the Spratly Islands, have entries. Subnational areas of countries (such as US States or the Canadian provinces and territories) are not included in the Factbook. Instead, users looking for information about subnational areas are referred to "a good encyclopedia" for their reference needs. This criterion was invoked in the 2007 edition with the decision to drop the entries for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Reunion. They were dropped because besides being overseas departments, they were now overseas regions, and an integral part of France. Kashmir Maps depicting Kashmir have the India–Pakistan border drawn at the Line of Control, but the region of Kashmir administered by China drawn in hash marks. Northern Cyprus Northern Cyprus, which the U.S. considers part of the Republic of Cyprus, is not given a separate entry because "territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps." Taiwan/Republic of China Taiwan has a separate entry not listed under T, but at the bottom of the list. The name "Republic of China" is not listed as Taiwan's "official name" under the "Government" section, due to U.S. acknowledgement of Beijing's and Taipei's One-China policy according to which there is one China and Taiwan is a part of it. The name "Republic of China" was briefly added on January 27, 2005, but has since been changed back to "none". The map of the Peoples Republic of China on the World Factbook shows Taiwan included on the map of China. [CIA World Factbook-China entry. (See also: Political status of Taiwan, Legal status of Taiwan) Burma/Myanmar The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to Myanmar and thus keeps its entry for the country under "Burma". This is done because the name change "was not approved by any sitting legislature in Burma". As a result, the US government has never adopted the name Myanmar. Macedonia The Republic of Macedonia is entered as Macedonia, the name used in its first entry in the Factbook upon independence in 1992. In the 1994 edition, the name of the entry was changed to the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia as a result of the Macedonia naming dispute with Greece, which objected to the use of the name "Macedonia". For the next decade, this was the name the nation was listed under. Finally, in the 2004 edition of the Factbook, the name of the entry was changed back to Macedonia following a November 2004 US decision to refer to the country using this name. European Union On December 16, 2004, the CIA added an entry for the European Union (EU). (Before this date, the EU was excluded from the Factbook. ) According to the CIA, the European Union was added because the EU "continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself". United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges and Iles Eparses In the 2006 edition of The World Factbook, the entries for Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Johnston Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and the Midway Islands were merged into a new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry. The old entries for each individual insular area remain as redirects on the Factbook website. For an example of a redirect, see what happens with the profile for Kingman Reef. On September 7, 2006, the CIA also merged the entries for Bassas da India, Europa Island, the Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island into a new Iles Eparses entry. As with the new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry, the old entries for these five islands remained as redirects on the website. For an example of a redirect, see what happens with the profile for Juan de Nova Island (mirror). On July 19, 2007, the Iles Eparses entry and redirects for each island were dropped due to the group becoming a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in February. Serbia and Montenegro/Yugoslavia The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) broke apart in 1991. The following year, it was replaced in the Factbook with entries for each of its former constituent republics. In doing this, the CIA listed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, proclaimed in 1992, as Serbia and Montenegro, as the U.S. did not recognize the union between the two republics. This was done in accordance with a May 21, 1992, decision by the U.S. not to recognize any of the former Yugoslav republics as successor states to the recently dissolved SFRY. A map of Yugoslavia from the 2000 edition of The World Factbook. Notice how the disclaimer is printed in the upper right hand corner. One can see how the capital cities of both republics are individually labeled on the map. These views were made clear in a disclaimer printed in the Factbook: Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been recognized as a state by the United States. Montenegro and Serbia were treated separately in the Factbook data, as can be seen on the map. For an example, see the profile for the FRY in the 1999 World Factbook. In October 2000, Slobodan Milošević was forced out of office after a disputed election. This event led to democratic elections and U.S. diplomatic recognition. The 2001 edition of the Factbook thus referred to the state as Yugoslavia. On March 14, 2002, an agreement was signed to transform the FRY into a loose state union called Serbia and Montenegro; it took effect on February 4, 2003. The name of the Yugoslavia entity was altered in the Factbook the month after the change. Kosovo On February 28, 2008, the CIA added an entry for Kosovo; before this, Kosovo was excluded in the Factbook. The Kosovo declaration of independence is disputed by Serbia, which continues to regard Kosovo as its own territory, and other countries. East Timor/Timor-Leste On July 19, 2007, the entry for East Timor was renamed Timor-Leste following a decision of the US Board on Geographic Names (BGN). Factual Before 1998, the United Kingdom profile contained a sentence that asserted the UK had gained independence on 1 January 1801. This terse, confusing description in reference to the Act of Union 1801 has since been greatly expanded. ISBN numbers This is a list of International Standard Book Numbers (ISBNs) for the Government edition The ISBN for each edition can be found on the Government Printing Office Bookstore website. of The World Factbook. ISBNs for the Potomac Books and Skyhorse Publishing reprints of the Factbook are noted as well. For the reprint editions, the year of the data is in parentheses. government editions 2000: ISBN 0-16-061343-4 2001: ISBN 0-16-066404-7 2002: ISBN 0-16-067601-0 2003: ISBN 0-16-067943-5 2004: ISBN 0-16-073030-9 2005: ISBN 0-16-074941-7 2006: ISBN 0-16-076547-1 2007: ISBN 978-0-16-078580-1 Potomac Books reprints 2000 (1999): ISBN 157488266X 2001 (2000): ISBN 1574883461 2002 (2001): ISBN 1574884751 2003 (2002): ISBN 157488641X 2004 (2003): ISBN 1574888374 2005 (2004): ISBN 1574889427 2006 (2005): ISBN 1574889974 2007 (2006): ISBN 159797109X 2008 (2007): ISBN 1597971820 2009 (2008): ISBN 1597974145 Skyhorse Publishing reprints 2008 (2007): ISBN 978-1-60239-080-5 2009 (2008): ISBN 978-1602392823 See also Besides the World Factbook, the CIA also publishes a directory called World Leaders regularly. Sources External links Current CIA World Factbook Mobile Edition of the current CIA World Factbook - updated monthly 1991 CIA World Factbook 1990 CIA World Factbook Previous editions of The World Factbook from the University of Missouri–St. Louis archive: 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 The World Factbook for Google Earth: The Factbook as Google Earth placemarks On stephansmap.org: The CIA World Factbook accessible by location and date range; covers the years 2001 -- 2007. All Factbook entries are tagged with "cia". Requires graphical browser with javascript. CIA World Factbook for Pocket PC and Palm OS devices CIA World Factbook 2006 for Pocket PC and Palm OS devices from Tomeraider CIA World Factbook 2007 as mobile friendly XHTML CIA World Factbook 2008 for Apple's iPhone device | The_World_Factbook |@lemmatized world:38 factbook:59 issn:1 also:8 know:2 cia:29 reference:3 resource:3 produce:1 central:2 intelligence:6 agency:4 united:8 state:15 almanac:1 style:2 information:7 country:16 originally:1 annual:1 book:7 edition:21 last:1 print:8 paper:3 government:13 company:1 skyhorse:5 publishing:5 continue:3 available:6 form:1 website:8 partially:1 update:5 every:2 two:8 week:2 download:2 use:11 line:2 provide:1 three:3 page:1 summary:2 demographic:1 geography:1 communication:1 economy:1 military:2 u:16 recognize:6 dependency:2 area:8 prepare:2 official:4 format:1 coverage:1 content:1 primarily:1 design:1 meet:1 requirement:1 however:3 frequently:1 academic:1 research:2 work:1 public:4 domain:2 source:5 list:10 private:1 consult:1 antarctic:3 program:2 national:4 science:1 foundation:1 arm:1 force:2 medical:1 center:1 department:15 defense:7 bureau:2 census:1 commerce:1 labor:2 statistic:1 council:1 manager:1 energy:1 fish:1 wildlife:4 service:2 interior:3 maritime:1 administration:1 transportation:2 geospatial:1 naval:2 facility:1 engineering:1 command:2 office:5 insular:2 affair:1 board:2 geographic:2 name:15 oil:1 gas:1 journal:1 copyright:1 appear:1 january:5 people:3 free:1 redistribute:1 modify:1 way:1 like:2 without:2 permission:2 request:1 cite:1 seal:1 may:3 copy:1 require:2 act:2 frequency:1 availability:1 november:2 yearly:1 since:4 generally:1 currently:2 current:3 year:6 first:4 classified:1 publish:3 august:1 unclassified:1 version:4 june:1 discontinue:1 due:3 decision:5 focus:1 online:2 wide:1 web:2 october:2 miller:1 jill:1 young:1 put:1 data:4 internet:2 fort:1 lauderdale:1 sun:1 sentinel:1 december:2 get:1 average:1 million:1 visit:1 per:1 month:2 printed:1 sell:1 cost:1 printing:1 technical:1 past:1 cd:1 rom:1 microfiche:1 magnetic:1 tape:1 floppy:1 disk:1 reprint:7 old:4 cover:5 potomac:4 many:1 site:1 image:1 several:1 publisher:1 include:3 grand:1 river:1 formerly:1 brassy:1 inc:1 recent:1 go:1 back:3 together:1 ranking:1 construct:1 additional:1 http:1 www:1 theodora:1 com:1 wfb:1 begin:1 entity:17 february:4 consist:1 divide:1 category:8 independent:4 define:1 politically:1 organize:1 sovereign:1 definite:1 territory:3 others:1 place:3 set:1 apart:2 taiwan:8 european:4 union:7 special:1 sovereignty:1 affiliate:2 another:1 subdivide:1 australia:1 six:2 china:10 denmark:1 france:2 nine:1 netherlands:1 new:4 zealand:1 norway:1 kingdom:2 seventeen:1 fourteen:1 miscellaneous:1 antarctica:1 dispute:5 ocean:2 five:2 entry:24 intend:1 territorial:2 issue:1 controversy:1 political:2 specific:1 region:3 within:1 among:1 kashmir:4 whose:1 status:3 spratly:1 islands:1 subnational:2 canadian:1 province:1 instead:1 user:1 look:1 refer:3 good:1 encyclopedia:1 need:1 criterion:1 invoke:1 drop:3 french:2 guiana:1 guadeloupe:1 martinique:1 reunion:1 besides:2 overseas:2 integral:1 part:3 map:7 depict:1 india:2 pakistan:1 border:1 drawn:1 control:1 administer:1 draw:1 hash:1 mark:1 northern:2 cyprus:3 considers:1 republic:13 give:1 separate:2 occupation:1 annexation:1 show:2 bottom:1 section:1 acknowledgement:1 beijing:1 taipei:1 one:3 policy:1 accord:2 briefly:1 add:4 change:5 none:1 see:7 legal:1 burma:4 myanmar:3 renaming:1 ruling:1 junta:1 thus:2 keep:1 approve:1 sitting:1 legislature:1 result:2 never:1 adopt:1 macedonia:7 enter:1 upon:1 independence:3 former:3 yugoslav:2 greece:1 object:1 next:1 decade:1 nation:2 finally:1 follow:2 eu:3 date:2 exclude:2 accrue:1 characteristic:1 unite:1 pacific:3 island:14 refuge:3 iles:3 eparses:3 baker:1 howland:1 jarvis:1 kingman:2 reef:2 johnston:1 atoll:2 palmyra:1 midway:1 merge:2 individual:1 remain:2 redirects:3 example:3 redirect:2 happen:2 profile:4 september:1 bassas:1 da:1 europa:1 glorioso:1 juan:2 de:2 nova:2 tromelin:1 mirror:1 july:2 group:1 become:1 district:1 southern:1 land:1 serbia:6 montenegro:5 yugoslavia:6 socialist:1 federal:2 sfry:2 break:1 following:1 replace:1 constituent:1 proclaim:1 accordance:1 successor:1 recently:1 dissolve:1 notice:1 disclaimer:2 upper:1 right:1 hand:1 corner:1 capital:1 city:1 individually:1 label:1 view:1 make:1 clear:1 assert:2 formation:1 joint:1 treat:1 separately:1 fry:2 slobodan:1 milošević:1 disputed:1 election:2 event:1 lead:1 democratic:1 diplomatic:1 recognition:1 march:1 agreement:1 sign:1 transform:1 loose:1 call:2 take:1 effect:1 alter:1 kosovo:5 declaration:1 regard:1 east:2 timor:4 leste:2 rename:1 bgn:1 factual:1 contain:1 sentence:1 uk:1 gain:1 terse:1 confuse:1 description:1 greatly:1 expand:1 isbn:22 number:2 international:1 standard:1 isbns:2 find:1 bookstore:1 note:1 well:1 parenthesis:1 directory:1 leader:1 regularly:1 external:1 link:1 mobile:2 monthly:1 previous:1 university:1 missouri:1 st:1 louis:1 archive:1 google:2 earth:2 placemarks:1 stephansmap:1 org:1 accessible:1 location:1 range:1 tag:1 graphical:1 browser:1 javascript:1 pocket:2 pc:2 palm:2 device:3 os:1 tomeraider:1 friendly:1 xhtml:1 apple:1 iphone:1 |@bigram skyhorse_publishing:5 fish_wildlife:1 geospatial_intelligence:1 fort_lauderdale:1 cd_rom:1 floppy_disk:1 http_www:1 spratly_islands:1 french_guiana:1 guiana_guadeloupe:1 guadeloupe_martinique:1 burma_myanmar:1 republic_macedonia:2 wildlife_refuge:3 howland_island:1 jarvis_island:1 kingman_reef:2 johnston_atoll:1 palmyra_atoll:1 glorioso_island:1 serbia_montenegro:4 montenegro_serbia:1 slobodan_milošević:1 declaration_independence:1 east_timor:2 timor_leste:2 external_link:1 apple_iphone:1 |
4,630 | Afonso_VI_of_Portugal | Afonso VI (; English Alphonzo or Alphonse), or Affonso (Old Portuguese), (August 21, 1643 – September 12, 1683) was the twenty-second (or twenty-third according to some historians) king of Portugal and the Algarves, the second of the House of Braganza, known as "the Victorious" (Portuguese o Vitorioso). At the age of three, Afonso suffered an illness that left him paralyzed on the left side of his body, as well as leaving him mentally unstable. His father created him 11th Duke of Braganza. After the 1653 death of his eldest brother Teodósio, Prince of Brazil, Afonso became the heir-apparent to the throne of the kingdom. He received also the crown-princely title 2nd Prince of Brazil. He succeeded his father (João IV) in 1656 at the age of thirteen. His mother, (Luisa of Medina-Sidonia) was named regent in his father's will. His mental instability and paralysis, plus his disinterest in government, left his mother as regent for six years, until 1662. Luisa oversaw military victories over the Spanish at Ameixial (June 8 1663) and Montes Claros (June 17 1665), culminating in the final Spanish recognition of Portugal's independence on February 13 1668 in the Treaty of Lisbon. Colonial affairs saw the Dutch conquest of Jaffnapatam, Portugal's last colony in Sri Lanka (1658) and the cession of Bombay and Tangier to England (June 23, 1661) as dowry for Afonso's sister, Catherine of Braganza who had married King Charles II of England. English mediation in 1661 saw the Netherlands acknowledge Portuguese rule of Brazil in return for uncontested control of Sri Lanka. In 1662, the Count of Castelo Melhor saw an opportunity to gain power at court by befriending the king. He managed to convince the king that his mother was out to steal his throne and exile him from Portugal. As a result, Afonso took control of the throne and his mother was sent to a convent. He was married to Marie Françoise of Nemours, the daughter of the Duke of Nemours, in 1666, but this marriage would not last long. Marie Françoise, or Maria Francisca in Portuguese, filed for an annulment in 1667 based on the impotence of the king. The Church granted her the annulment, and she married Afonso's brother, Pedro, Duke of Beja, (future (Peter II)). That same year, Pedro managed to gain enough support to force the king to relinquish control of the government and he became Prince Regent. Afonso was exiled to the island of Terceira in the Azores for seven years, returning to mainland Portugal shortly before he died at Sintra in 1683. His trial is the base for José Mário Grilo's 1990 film, The King's Trial (O Processo do Rei). Ancestors +Maria's ancestors in three generations Afonso VI of Portugal Father:John IV of Portugal Father's father:Teodósio II, Duke of Braganza Father's father's father:John II, Duke of Braganza Father's father's mother:Infanta Catarina of Guimarães, Duchess of Braganza Father's mother:Ana de Velasco y Girón Father's mother's father:Juan Fernández de Velasco, 5th Duke of Frías Father's mother's mother:Ana Ángela de Aragón y Guzmán Mother:Luisa of Medina-Sidonia (Luisa de Guzmán) Mother's father:Juan Manuel de Guzmán El Bueno, Duke of Medina-Sidonia Mother's father's father:Alonso de Guzmán El Bueno, Duke of Medina-Sidonia Mother's father's mother:Ana de Sylva y Mendoza Mother's mother:Juana Lourença Gómez de Sandoval y la Cerda Mother's mother's father:Francisco Goméz de Sandoval y Rojas, Duke of Lerma Mother's mother's mother:Catarina de Lacerda References | Afonso_VI_of_Portugal |@lemmatized afonso:8 vi:2 english:2 alphonzo:1 alphonse:1 affonso:1 old:1 portuguese:4 august:1 september:1 twenty:2 second:2 third:1 accord:1 historian:1 king:7 portugal:7 algarves:1 house:1 braganza:6 know:1 victorious:1 vitorioso:1 age:2 three:2 suffer:1 illness:1 leave:3 paralyze:1 left:1 side:1 body:1 well:1 mentally:1 unstable:1 father:20 create:1 duke:9 death:1 eldest:1 brother:2 teodósio:2 prince:3 brazil:3 become:2 heir:1 apparent:1 throne:3 kingdom:1 receive:1 also:1 crown:1 princely:1 title:1 succeed:1 joão:1 iv:2 thirteen:1 mother:21 luisa:4 medina:4 sidonia:4 name:1 regent:3 mental:1 instability:1 paralysis:1 plus:1 disinterest:1 government:2 six:1 year:3 oversaw:1 military:1 victory:1 spanish:2 ameixial:1 june:3 montes:1 claro:1 culminate:1 final:1 recognition:1 independence:1 february:1 treaty:1 lisbon:1 colonial:1 affair:1 saw:3 dutch:1 conquest:1 jaffnapatam:1 last:2 colony:1 sri:2 lanka:2 cession:1 bombay:1 tangier:1 england:2 dowry:1 sister:1 catherine:1 marry:3 charles:1 ii:4 mediation:1 netherlands:1 acknowledge:1 rule:1 return:2 uncontested:1 control:3 count:1 castelo:1 melhor:1 opportunity:1 gain:2 power:1 court:1 befriend:1 manage:2 convince:1 steal:1 exile:2 result:1 take:1 send:1 convent:1 marie:2 françoise:2 nemours:2 daughter:1 marriage:1 would:1 long:1 maria:2 francisca:1 file:1 annulment:2 base:2 impotence:1 church:1 grant:1 pedro:2 beja:1 future:1 peter:1 enough:1 support:1 force:1 relinquish:1 island:1 terceira:1 azores:1 seven:1 mainland:1 shortly:1 die:1 sintra:1 trial:2 josé:1 mário:1 grilo:1 film:1 processo:1 rei:1 ancestor:2 generation:1 john:2 infanta:1 catarina:2 guimarães:1 duchess:1 ana:3 de:10 velasco:2 girón:1 juan:2 fernández:1 frías:1 ángela:1 aragón:1 guzmán:4 manuel:1 el:2 bueno:2 alonso:1 sylva:1 mendoza:1 juana:1 lourença:1 gómez:1 sandoval:2 la:1 cerda:1 francisco:1 goméz:1 rojas:1 lerma:1 lacerda:1 reference:1 |@bigram mentally_unstable:1 duke_braganza:3 heir_apparent:1 medina_sidonia:4 sri_lanka:2 catherine_braganza:1 juan_fernández:1 juan_manuel:1 |
4,631 | Korean_People's_Army | The Korean People's Army (KPA) is the military of North Korea. Kim Jong-il is the Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army and Chairman of the National Defence Commission. The army has five branches: the Army Ground Force, the Navy, the Air Force, the Artillery Guidance Bureau, and the Special Operation Force. Annual military expenditure is US$6 billion across the armed forces including expenditure on missiles. US research organization ISIS reports DPRK may have enough fissible material for 2-9 nuclear weapons. ISIS Fast Facts on North Korea, Last accessed April 21, 2009 Songun, the DPRK's "Military First" policy, elevates the Korean People's Army within the DPRK as an organization and as a state function, granting it the primary position in the DPRK government and society and identifying it as the basis of the revolution, a role belonging to the proletariat in classical Marxist theory. In 1978, Kim Il-sung directed that "Military Foundation Day" be changed from 8 February to 25 April — the nominal day of establishment of his anti-Japanese guerilla army in 1932 — to glorify the supposedly indigenous Korean origins of the KPA and obscure its Soviet origin The KPA was actually founded on February 8, 1948. However, in 1978, North Korea established April 25, 1932 as KPA foundation day in recognition of Kim Il Sung’s anti-Japanese guerilla activities. See “Puk chuyo’gi’nyŏm’il 5-10 nyŏnmada taegyumo yŏlpyŏngsik” (North Korea Holds Large Military Parades for Anniversaries Every 5-10 years), Chosŏn Ilbo, April 25, 2007; Chang Jun-ik, “Pukhan Inmingundaesa” (History of the North Korean Military), Seoul, Sŏmundang, 1991, pp. 19-88; Kim Kwang-su, “Chosŏninmingun’ŭi ch’angsŏlgwa palchŏn, 1945~1990” (Foundation and Development of the Korean People’s Army, 1945~1990), Chapter Two in Kyŏngnam University North Korean Studies Graduate School, Pukhan’gunsamunje’ŭi chaejomyŏng (The Military of North Korea: A New Look), Seoul, Hanul Academy, 2006, pp. 63-78. . An active arms industry had been developed to produce long-range missiles such as the Nodong-1. North Korea is the most militarized country in the world today Bermudez (2001), pg 1. , having the fifth largest standing army in the world, at an estimated 1.1 million armed personnel, with about 20% of men ages 17–54 in the regular armed forces. " Background Note: North Korea", US Department of State, October, 2006. It also has the Worker-Peasant Red Guard, a reserve force comprising 3.5m+ (IISS), 3.8m (USMC) or 4.7m (State Department) militia. It operates an enormous network of military facilities scattered around the country, a large weapons production basis, and an extremely dense air defence system. The KPA faces the Military of South Korea and United States Forces Korea across the Korean Demilitarized Zone, as it has since the ceasefire of 1953. History North Korean heavy tanks on the streets of Seoul, 1950. The Korean People's Army history began with the Korean Volunteer Army (KVA), which was formed in Yenan, China in 1939. The two individuals responsible for the army were Kim Tu-bong and Mu Chong. At the same time, a school was established near Yenan for training military and political leaders for a future independent Korea. By 1945, the KVA had grown to approximately 1,000 men, mostly Korean deserters from the Imperial Japanese Army. During this period, the KVA fought alongside the Chinese communist forces from which it drew its arms and ammunition. After the defeat of the Japanese, the KVA accompanied the Chinese communist forces into Manchuria, intending to gain recruits from the Korean population of Manchuria and then enter Korea. By September 1945 the KVA had a 2,500 strong force at its disposal. Just after World War II and during the Soviet Union's occupation of the part of Korea north of the 38th Parallel, the Soviet 25th Army headquarters in Pyongyang issued a statement ordering all armed resistance groups in the northern part of the peninsula to disband on October 12, 1945. Two thousand Koreans with previous experience in the Soviet army were sent to various locations around the country to organize constabulary forces with permission from Soviet military headquarters, and the force was created on October 21. The headquarters felt a need for a separate unit for security around railways, and the formation of the unit was announced on January 11, 1946. That unit was activated on August 15 of the same year to supervise existing security forces and creation of the national armed forces. The first political-military school in the DPRK, the Pyongyang Military Academy (became No. 2 KPA Officers School in January 1949), headed by Kim Chaek, an ally of Kim Il-sung, was founded in October 1945 under Soviet guidance to train people's guards, or public security units. In 1946 graduates of the school entered regular police and public security/constabulary units. These lightly armed security forces included followers of Kim Il-sung and returned veterans from the People's Republic of China, and the Central Constabulary Academy (which became the KPA Military Academy in December 1948) soon followed for education of political and military officers for the new armed forces. After military was organized and facilities to educate its new recruits were constructed, the Constabulary Discipline Corps was reorganized into the Korean People's Army Corps Headquarters. The previously semi-official units became military regulars with distribution of Soviet uniforms, badges, and weapons that followed the inception of the headquarters. KPA soldiers in protective suits examining the site of an alleged US biological attack, ca. 1953. The State Security Department, a forerunner to the Ministry of Defense, was created as part of the Interim People's Committee on February 4, 1948. The formal creation of the Korean People's Army was announced four days later on February 8 seven months before the government of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was proclaimed on September 9, 1948. In addition, the Ministry of People's Armed Forces was established, which controlled a central guard battalion, two divisions, and an independent mixed brigade. Before the outbreak of the Korean War, Joseph Stalin equipped the KPA with modern heavy tanks, trucks, artillery, and small arms (at the time, the South Korean Army had nothing remotely comparable either in numbers of troops or equipment). The KPA was the primary instigator of the Korean War (called the "Fatherland Liberation War" in the North). During the opening phases of the Korean War in 1950, the KPA quickly drove South Korean forces south and captured Seoul, only to lose 70,000 of their 100,000-strong army in the autumn after U.S. amphibious landings at the Battle of Incheon and a subsequent drive to the Yalu River. The KPA subsequently played a secondary minor role to Chinese forces in the remainder of the conflict. By the time of the Armistice in 1953, the KPA had 290,000 casualties and 90,000 POWs. In 1953, the Military Armistice Commission (MAC) was created to oversee and enforce the terms of the armistice. The Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC), originally made up of delegations from Poland and Czechoslovakia on the Communist side, and Sweden and Switzerland on the United Nations side, monitored the activities of the MAC. A monument in Pyongyang, depicting North Korean airmen and a MiG fighter In the early 1970s, following the lead of Soviet military leaders and theorists who were rediscovering and beginning to apply the 1920s–1930s thinking of Soviet military theorists Svechin, Tukhachevski, Triandafillov, and others on operational art and “deep operations,” the Soviet-trained officers of the KPA were developing their version, termed “Two Front War.” Homer T. Hodge, North Korea’s Military Strategy, Parameters (journal), Spring 2003, pp. 68-81. As they envisioned it, a very large conventional force, greatly reinforced with artillery, armor, and mechanized forces, employing surprise, speed, and shock, would break through the DMZ, envelop and destroy South Korean forward forces, and rapidly overrun the entire peninsula. During the 1970s, senior KPA officers writing in official journals echoed Soviet military thinking as they characterized the nature of modern warfare as three-dimensional, with no distinction between front and rear, highly mobile, and increasingly dependent upon mechanization, task organization, and improved engineer capabilities. These articles presaged dramatic increases in mechanized and truck-mobile infantry and self-propelled artillery battalions and ultimately a major expansion, reorganization, and redeployment forward of KPA ground forces. Command and control The primary path for command and control of the KPA extends through the National Defense Commission which is led by its chairman Kim Jong-il, to the Ministry of People's Armed Forces and its General Staff Department. United States Department of Defense Virtual Information Center, merln.ndu.edu/merln/mipal/reports/NorthKoreaPrimer03Nov05.doc, accessed February 2008 From there on, command and control flows to the various bureaus and operational units. A secondary path, to ensure political control, extends through the Korean Workers' Party's Central Military Committee. Since 1990 numerous and dramatic transformations within the DPRK have led to the current command and control structure. The details of the majority of these changes are simply unknown to the world. What little is known indicates that many changes were the natural result of the deaths of the aging leadership including Kim Il-sung (July 1994), Minister of People's Armed Forces O Chin-u (February 1995) and Minister of People's Armed Forces Choi Kwang (February 1997). The vast majority of changes were undertaken to secure the power and position of Kim Jong-il. At the Eighteenth session of the sixth Central People's Committee, held on May 23, 1990, the National Defense Commission became established as its own independent commission, rising to the same status as the Central People's Committee and not subordinated to it, as before. Concurrent with this, Kim Jong-il was appointed first vice-chairman of the National Defense Commission. The Following year, on 24 December 1991, Kim Jong-il was appointed Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army. Four months later, on 20 April 1992, Kim Jong-il was awarded the rank of Marshal and one year later he became the Chairman of the National Defense Commission. Within the KPA, between December 1991 and December 1995, nearly 800 high officers (out of approximately 1200) received promotions and preferential assignments. Three days after Kim Jong-il became Marshal, eight generals were appointed to the rank of Vice-Marshal. In April 1997, on the 85th anniversary of Kim Il-sung's birthday, Kim Jong-il promoted 127 general grade officers. The following April he ordered the promotions of another 22 generals. Along with these changes many KPA officers were appointed to influential positions within the Korean Workers' Party. Ground Forces Organization A North Korean soldier in 2005 The KPA ground forces are by far the largest component of the DPRK's military. As at 2001 the army was composed of approximately 1,003,000 personnel organised into 20 corps consisting of 176 divisions and brigades. The army is equipped with very large numbers of artillery and armoured fighting vehicles and approximately 70 percent of active units are based near the border with South Korea. The KPA also has a powerful special operations force comprising over 90,000 personnel. Bermudez (2001), pg 3–5. Until 1986 most sources claimed the army had two armored divisions. Federation of American Scientists, Korean Peoples' Army, accessed February 2008 These divisions disappeared from the order of battle and were replaced by the armored corps and a doubling of the armored brigade count. In the mid-1980s, the heavy caliber self propelled artillery was consolidated into the first multibrigade artillery corps. At the same time, the restructured mobile exploitation forces were redeployed forward, closer to the DMZ. The forward corps areas of operation were compressed although their internal organization appeared to remain basically the same. The deployment of the newly formed mechanized, armored, and artillery corps directly behind the first echelon conventional forces provides a potent exploitation force that did not exist prior to 1980. As of 1992, the army was composed of sixteen corps commands, two separate special operations forces commands, and nine military district commands (or regions) under the control of the Ministry of the People's Armed Forces. Most sources agreed that the DPRK's ground forces consisted of approximately 145 divisions and brigades, of which approximately 120 are active. There is less agreement, however, on the breakdown of the forces. As of 1996, major combat units consisted of 153 divisions and brigades, including 60 infantry divisions/brigades, 25 mechanized infantry brigades, 13 tank brigades, 25 Special Operation Force (SOF) brigades and 30 artillery brigades. Globalsecurity.org, Korean Peoples' Army, accessed February 2008 North Korea deployed ten corps including sixty divisions and brigades in the forward area south of the Pyongyang-Wonsan line. Ground Forces Equipment Line drawing of a Ch'ŏnma-ho tank Beginning in the late 1970s, after South Korea received new technologies and equipment from the United States, William P. Rogers. "Memorandum From Secretary of State Rogers to President Nixon". National Archives, Nixon Presidential Materials, NSC Files, Subject Files, Box 324, Foreign Aid, Volume II 1972. Secret. Attached to Document 91. An advance copy of Rogers' memorandum, which was not cleared by the Secretary, was provided to the NSC under cover of a March 14 memorandum from Deputy Executive Secretary Curran to Davis. (National Archives, Nixon Presidential Materials, NSC Files, Agency Files, Box 286, State Volume 16), U.S. State Department Jeffrey B. Gayner, "Withdrawal of U.S. Ground Forces from South Korea", Heritage Foundation the DPRK began a major reorganization and modernization of its ground forces. The DPRK began to produce a modified version of the 115 mm gunned T-62 tank, which was the Soviet army's main battle tank in the 1960s. Based on general trends and photography of armed forces parades, it is clear that the DPRK has made considerable modifications to the basic Soviet and Chinese designs in its own production. In the 1980s, in order to make the army more mobile and mechanized, there was a steady influx of new tanks, self propelled artillery, armored personnel carriers (APCs), and trucks. The ground forces seldom retire old models of weapons and tend to maintain a large equipment stock, keeping old models along with upgraded ones in the active force or in reserve. The army remains largely an infantry force, although a decade-long modernization program has significantly improved the mobility and firepower of its active forces. Between 1980 and 1992, the DPRK reorganized, reequipped, and forward deployed the majority of its ground forces. The army places great emphasis on special operations and has the 2nd largest special operations forces in the world — tailored to meet the distinct requirements of mountainous Korean terrain. Between 1984 and 1992, the army added about 1,000 tanks, over 2,500 APC/infantry fighting vehicles (IFV), and about 6,000 artillery tubes or rocket launchers. In 1992 North Korea had about twice the advantage in numbers of tanks and artillery, and a 1.5-to-1 advantage in personnel over its potential adversaries, the United States-Republic of Korea defenses to the south (though it must be pointed out that most of this equipment is obsolete compared to that of the South Korean military). Over 60 percent of the army was located within 100 kilometers of the DMZ in mid-1993. North Korean Navy The Korean People's Naval Command - more commonly known as the Korean People's Navy (KPN) - is a green-water navy and operates mainly within the 50 kilometer exclusion zone. The KPN is the lowest priority military service and most of its equipment is obsolete. As at 2007 the KPN comprised 46,000 personnel and operated 704 ships and landing and infiltration craft. The navy also operates a large number of coastal defence units which are equipped with artillery and surface-to-surface missiles. Saunders (2007), pg 434. The KPN is organised into two fleets which are not able to support each other. The East Fleet is headquartered at T'oejo-dong and the West Fleet at Nampho. A number of training, ship building and maintenance units and a naval aviation battalion report directly to Naval Command Headquarters at Pyongyang. Bermudez (2001), pg 93–95. The majority of the navy's ships are assigned to the East Fleet. Due to the short range of most ships the two fleets are not known to have ever conducted joint operations or shared vessels. Bermudez (2001), pg 101. Korean People's Air Force KPAF MiG-29, 2003 The Korean People's Air and Air Defence Command, better known as the Korean People's Air Force (KPAF), is primarily an air defence force, with limited offensive capability. As at 2007 it comprised 110,000 personnel and between 1,600 and 1,700 aircraft. The KPAF also operates a very large air defence network of radar and anti-aircraft sites. Most of the KPAF's aircraft and surface to air missiles are obsolete and the force's pilots conduct little flight training. Jane's World Air Forces (2007), pg 304. The KPAF is organised into six Air Divisions, four of which have air defense responsibilities and two of which provide air transport. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Air Divisions operate combat aircraft and are responsible for the defence of the north-western, eastern and southern sections of the country respectively. The 8th Air Division operates training aircraft and is responsible for the defence of the north-eastern section of the DPRK. The 5th and 6th Air Divisions operate transport aircraft. Air Koryo, the DPRK's civil airline, also comes under the control of the KPAF through the Civil Aviation Bureau. Jane's World Air Forces (2007), pg 304–305. The KPAF operates from 89 bases, including 18 highway strips and 20 helipads. Most of the force's air bases are 'hardened' against attack, with many having large underground components. Some of the primary air bases have underground runways from which aircraft can be directly launched. Jane's World Air Forces (2007), pg 307–308. Artillery guidance bureau The Artillery guidance bureau (AGB) is the strategic missile forces of the Korean People's Army. It is equipped mainly with Scud-derived localy produced ballistic missiles with varying range, payload and accuracy. Some of them, such as the Hwasong-5 and Hwasong-6 are land-mobile, while others, such as the Rodong-2 and Taepodong-1 require launch pads. North Korea is currently developing a new ICBM - the Taepodong-2, which was tested in 2006 but failed. Its shooting range is estimated to be about 6,700 km or more. Currently deployed missiles have a range of up to 2,000 km. The exact number of deployed missiles of all types is unknown, but it is generally accepted there are some 600 Hwasong-6 and 200 Rodong-1 in service, as well as other shorter-range missiles. Major military launch pads are Musudan-ri on the country's east coast, and Pongdong-ri, which is under construction. Smaller launch pads are scattered around the country. Worker-Peasant Red Guard The Worker-Peasant Red Guard is the largest civilian defense force in the DPRK with a strength of approximately 3.5 million. IISS Military Balance 2007, p.359 The militia is organised on a provincial/ town/ village level, and structured on a brigade, battalion, company, and platoon basis. The militia maintains infantry small arms, with some mortars and anti-aircraft guns, although some units are unarmed. Bermudez (2001), pg 4–5. See also Awards and decorations of North Korea North Korea and weapons of mass destruction Notes References Homer T. Hodge, North Korea’s Military Strategy, Parameters (journal), Spring 2003, pp. 68–81 Further reading External links KPA Equipment Holdings CIA World Factbook GlobalSecurity.org North Korean Orders, Decorations,and Medals | Korean_People's_Army |@lemmatized korean:39 people:27 army:32 kpa:22 military:30 north:25 korea:24 kim:17 jong:8 il:15 supreme:2 commander:2 chairman:4 national:8 defence:8 commission:8 five:1 branch:1 ground:10 force:57 navy:6 air:21 artillery:15 guidance:4 bureau:5 special:6 operation:9 annual:1 expenditure:2 u:8 billion:1 across:2 armed:5 include:6 missile:9 research:1 organization:5 isi:2 report:3 dprk:15 may:2 enough:1 fissible:1 material:3 nuclear:1 weapon:5 fast:1 fact:1 last:1 access:4 april:7 songun:1 first:5 policy:1 elevate:1 within:6 state:11 function:1 grant:1 primary:4 position:3 government:2 society:1 identify:1 basis:3 revolution:1 role:2 belonging:1 proletariat:1 classical:1 marxist:1 theory:1 sung:6 direct:1 foundation:4 day:5 change:5 february:9 nominal:1 establishment:1 anti:4 japanese:4 guerilla:2 glorify:1 supposedly:1 indigenous:1 origin:2 obscure:1 soviet:13 actually:1 found:2 however:2 establish:4 recognition:1 activity:2 see:2 puk:1 chuyo:1 gi:1 nyŏm:1 nyŏnmada:1 taegyumo:1 yŏlpyŏngsik:1 hold:2 large:12 parade:2 anniversary:2 every:1 year:4 chosŏn:1 ilbo:1 chang:1 jun:1 ik:1 pukhan:2 inmingundaesa:1 history:3 seoul:4 sŏmundang:1 pp:4 kwang:2 su:1 chosŏninmingun:1 ŭi:2 ch:2 angsŏlgwa:1 palchŏn:1 development:1 chapter:1 two:10 kyŏngnam:1 university:1 study:1 graduate:2 school:5 gunsamunje:1 chaejomyŏng:1 new:6 look:1 hanul:1 academy:4 active:5 arm:12 industry:1 develop:3 produce:3 long:2 range:6 nodong:1 militarized:1 country:6 world:9 today:1 bermudez:5 pg:9 fifth:1 stand:1 estimated:1 million:2 personnel:7 men:2 age:2 regular:3 background:1 note:2 department:6 october:4 also:6 worker:5 peasant:3 red:3 guard:5 reserve:2 comprise:4 iiss:2 usmc:1 militia:3 operate:9 enormous:1 network:2 facility:2 scatter:2 around:4 production:2 extremely:1 dense:1 system:1 face:1 south:11 united:5 demilitarized:1 zone:2 since:2 ceasefire:1 heavy:3 tank:9 street:1 begin:5 volunteer:1 kva:5 form:2 yenan:2 china:2 individual:1 responsible:3 tu:1 bong:1 mu:1 chong:1 time:4 near:2 train:3 political:4 leader:2 future:1 independent:3 grow:1 approximately:7 mostly:1 deserter:1 imperial:1 period:1 fight:3 alongside:1 chinese:4 communist:3 draw:1 ammunition:1 defeat:1 accompany:1 manchuria:2 intend:1 gain:1 recruit:2 population:1 enter:2 september:2 strong:2 disposal:1 war:6 ii:2 union:1 occupation:1 part:3 parallel:1 headquarters:6 pyongyang:5 issue:1 statement:1 order:5 resistance:1 group:1 northern:1 peninsula:2 disband:1 thousand:1 previous:1 experience:1 send:1 various:2 location:1 organize:2 constabulary:4 permission:1 create:3 felt:1 need:1 separate:2 unit:12 security:6 railways:1 formation:1 announce:2 january:2 activate:1 august:1 supervise:1 exist:2 creation:2 become:6 officer:7 head:1 chaek:1 ally:1 public:2 police:1 lightly:1 follower:1 return:1 veteran:1 republic:3 central:5 december:4 soon:1 follow:3 education:1 educate:1 construct:1 discipline:1 corp:7 reorganize:2 previously:1 semi:1 official:2 distribution:1 uniform:1 badge:1 inception:1 soldier:2 protective:1 suit:1 examine:1 site:2 allege:1 biological:1 attack:2 ca:1 forerunner:1 ministry:4 defense:9 interim:1 committee:4 formal:1 four:3 later:3 seven:1 month:2 democratic:1 proclaim:1 addition:1 control:8 battalion:4 division:12 mixed:1 brigade:12 outbreak:1 joseph:1 stalin:1 equip:4 modern:2 truck:3 small:3 nothing:1 remotely:1 comparable:1 either:1 number:6 troop:1 equipment:7 instigator:1 call:1 fatherland:1 liberation:1 opening:1 phase:1 quickly:1 drive:2 captured:1 lose:1 autumn:1 amphibious:1 landing:2 battle:3 incheon:1 subsequent:1 yalu:1 river:1 subsequently:1 play:1 secondary:2 minor:1 remainder:1 conflict:1 armistice:3 casualty:1 pow:1 mac:2 oversee:1 enforce:1 term:2 neutral:1 nation:2 supervisory:1 nnsc:1 originally:1 make:3 delegation:1 poland:1 czechoslovakia:1 side:2 sweden:1 switzerland:1 monitor:1 monument:1 depict:1 airman:1 mig:2 fighter:1 early:1 lead:3 theorist:2 rediscover:1 apply:1 thinking:2 svechin:1 tukhachevski:1 triandafillov:1 others:2 operational:2 art:1 deep:1 trained:1 version:2 front:2 homer:2 hodge:2 strategy:2 parameter:2 journal:3 spring:2 envision:1 conventional:2 greatly:1 reinforce:1 armor:2 mechanized:4 employ:1 surprise:1 speed:1 shock:1 would:1 break:1 dmz:3 envelop:1 destroy:1 forward:6 rapidly:1 overrun:1 entire:1 senior:1 write:1 echo:1 characterize:1 nature:1 warfare:1 three:2 dimensional:1 distinction:1 rear:1 highly:1 mobile:5 increasingly:1 dependent:1 upon:1 mechanization:1 task:1 improve:2 engineer:1 capability:2 article:1 presage:1 dramatic:2 increase:1 infantry:6 self:3 propel:3 ultimately:1 major:4 expansion:1 reorganization:2 redeployment:1 command:10 path:2 extend:2 general:5 staff:1 virtual:1 information:1 center:1 merln:2 ndu:1 edu:1 mipal:1 doc:1 flow:1 ensure:1 party:2 numerous:1 transformation:1 current:1 structure:2 detail:1 majority:4 simply:1 unknown:2 little:2 know:4 indicates:1 many:3 natural:1 result:1 death:1 leadership:1 july:1 minister:2 chin:1 choi:1 vast:1 undertaken:1 secure:1 power:1 eighteenth:1 session:1 sixth:1 rise:1 status:1 subordinate:1 concurrent:1 appoint:4 vice:2 following:2 award:2 rank:2 marshal:3 one:2 nearly:1 high:1 receive:2 promotion:2 preferential:1 assignment:1 eight:1 birthday:1 promote:1 grade:1 another:1 along:2 influential:1 far:1 component:2 compose:2 organise:4 corps:2 consist:3 armour:1 vehicle:2 percent:2 base:5 border:1 powerful:1 source:2 claim:1 armored:4 federation:1 american:1 scientist:1 disappear:1 replace:1 doubling:1 count:1 mid:2 caliber:1 consolidate:1 multibrigade:1 restructure:1 exploitation:2 redeploy:1 close:1 area:2 compress:1 although:3 internal:1 appear:1 remain:2 basically:1 deployment:1 newly:1 mechanize:1 directly:3 behind:1 echelon:1 provide:3 potent:1 prior:1 sixteen:1 nine:1 district:1 region:1 agree:1 less:1 agreement:1 breakdown:1 combat:2 sof:1 globalsecurity:2 org:2 deploy:3 ten:1 sixty:1 wonsan:1 line:2 drawing:1 ŏnma:1 ho:1 late:1 technology:1 william:1 p:2 rogers:3 memorandum:3 secretary:3 president:1 nixon:3 archive:2 presidential:2 nsc:3 file:4 subject:1 box:2 foreign:1 aid:1 volume:2 secret:1 attach:1 document:1 advance:1 copy:1 clear:2 cover:1 march:1 deputy:1 executive:1 curran:1 davis:1 agency:1 jeffrey:1 b:1 gayner:1 withdrawal:1 heritage:1 modernization:2 modified:1 mm:1 gun:2 main:1 trend:1 photography:1 considerable:1 modification:1 basic:1 design:1 steady:1 influx:1 carrier:1 apcs:1 seldom:1 retire:1 old:2 model:2 tend:1 maintain:2 stock:1 keep:1 upgraded:1 largely:1 decade:1 program:1 significantly:1 mobility:1 firepower:1 reequipped:1 place:1 great:1 emphasis:1 tailor:1 meet:1 distinct:1 requirement:1 mountainous:1 terrain:1 add:1 apc:1 ifv:1 tube:1 rocket:1 launcher:1 twice:1 advantage:2 potential:1 adversary:1 though:1 must:1 point:1 obsolete:3 compare:1 locate:1 kilometer:2 naval:3 commonly:1 kpn:4 green:1 water:1 mainly:2 exclusion:1 low:1 priority:1 service:2 ship:4 infiltration:1 craft:1 coastal:1 surface:3 saunders:1 fleet:5 able:1 support:1 east:3 headquarter:1 oejo:1 dong:1 west:1 nampho:1 training:2 building:1 maintenance:1 aviation:2 assign:1 due:1 short:2 ever:1 conduct:2 joint:1 share:1 vessel:1 kpaf:7 good:1 primarily:1 limited:1 offensive:1 aircraft:8 radar:1 pilot:1 flight:1 jane:3 six:1 responsibility:1 transport:2 western:1 eastern:2 southern:1 section:2 respectively:1 koryo:1 civil:2 airline:1 come:1 highway:1 strip:1 helipads:1 harden:1 underground:2 runway:1 launch:4 agb:1 strategic:1 scud:1 derive:1 localy:1 ballistic:1 vary:1 payload:1 accuracy:1 hwasong:3 land:1 rodong:2 taepodong:2 require:1 pad:3 currently:2 icbm:1 test:1 fail:1 shooting:1 estimate:1 km:2 exact:1 deployed:1 type:1 generally:1 accept:1 well:1 musudan:1 ri:2 coast:1 pongdong:1 construction:1 civilian:1 strength:1 balance:1 provincial:1 town:1 village:1 level:1 company:1 platoon:1 mortar:1 unarmed:1 decoration:2 mass:1 destruction:1 reference:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 holding:1 cia:1 factbook:1 medal:1 |@bigram kim_jong:8 jong_il:8 nuclear_weapon:1 kim_il:6 il_sung:6 bermudez_pg:5 demilitarized_zone:1 soviet_union:1 amphibious_landing:1 yalu_river:1 mig_fighter:1 self_propel:3 propel_artillery:3 vast_majority:1 mechanized_infantry:1 infantry_brigade:1 globalsecurity_org:2 armored_personnel:1 rocket_launcher:1 air_koryo:1 ballistic_missile:1 iiss_military:1 external_link:1 |
4,632 | Elf | An elf is a creature of Germanic mythology. The elves were originally thought of as a race of minor nature and fertility gods, who are often pictured as youthful-seeming men and women of great beauty living in forests and underground places and caves, or in wells and springs. They have been portrayed to be long-lived or immortal and as beings of magical powers. One of their main gods is Seren (The means star in Welsh language). Norse mythology The god Frey, the lord of the light-elves The hero Völundr the 'ruler of the elves' (vísi álfar), sometimes thought to be dwarves, nicknamed 'dark elves' (dökkálfar) The earliest preserved description of elves comes from Norse mythology. In Old Norse they are called álfar (singular, nominative case: álfr), and although no older or contemporary descriptions exist, the appearance of beings etymologically related to álfar in earlier and later folklore strongly suggests that the belief in elves was common among all the Germanic tribes, and not limited solely to the ancient Scandinavians. Although the concept itself is never clearly defined in the exact sources, the elves appear to have been conceived as powerful and beautiful human-sized beings. The myths about elves have never been recorded. Full-sized famous men could be elevated to the rank of elves after death, such as the petty king Olaf Geirstad-Elf. The smith hero Völundr is identified as 'Ruler of Elves' (vísi álfa) and 'One among the Elven Folk' (álfa ljóði), in the poem Völundarkviða, whose later prose introduction also identifies him as the son of a king of 'Finnar', an Arctic people respected for their shamanic magic (most likely, the sami). In the Thidrek's Saga a human queen is surprised to learn that the lover who has made her pregnant is an elf and not a man. In the saga of Hrolf Kraki a king named Helgi rapes and impregnates an elf-woman clad in silk who is the most beautiful woman he has ever seen. Crossbreeding was consequently possible between elves and humans in the Old Norse belief. The human queen who had an elvish lover bore the hero Högni, and the elf-woman who was raped by Helgi bore Skuld, who married Hjörvard, Hrólfr Kraki's killer. The saga of Hrolf Kraki adds that since Skuld was half-elven, she was very skilled in witchcraft (seiðr), and this to the point that she was almost invincible in battle. When her warriors fell, she made them rise again to continue fighting. The only way to defeat her was to capture her before she could summon her armies, which included elvish warriors. Setr Skuld hér til inn mesta seið at vinna Hrólf konung, bróður sinn, svá at í fylgd er með henni álfar ok nornir ok annat ótöluligt illþýði, svá at mannlig náttúra má eigi slíkt standast. There are also in the Heimskringla and in The Saga of Thorstein, Viking's Son accounts of a line of local kings who ruled over Álfheim, corresponding to the modern Swedish province Bohuslän and Norwegian province Østfold, and since they had elven blood they were said to be more beautiful than most men. The land governed by King Alf was called Alfheim, and all his offspring are related to the elves. They were fairer than any other people... The Saga of Thorstein, Viking's Son (Old Norse original: Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar). Chapter 1. The last king is named Gandalf. Harald Fairhair's saga in Heimskringla. In addition to these human aspects, they are commonly described as semi-divine beings associated with fertility and the cult of the ancestors and ancestor worship. The notion of elves thus appears similar to the animistic belief in spirits of nature and of the deceased, common to nearly all human religions; this is also true for the Old Norse belief in dísir, fylgjur and vörðar ("follower" and "warden" spirits, respectively). Like spirits, the elves were not bound by physical limitations and could pass through walls and doors in the manner of ghosts, which happens in Norna-Gests þáttr. It is said that elves are the Germanic equivalent to the nymphs of Greek and Roman mythology, and vili and rusalki of Slavic mythology. The Icelandic mythographer and historian Snorri Sturluson referred to dwarves (dvergar) as "dark-elves" (dökkálfar) or "black-elves" (svartálfar); but whether this reflects wider medieval Scandinavian belief is uncertain. Hall 2004, pp. 31-35 He referred to other elves as "light-elves" (ljósálfar), which has often been associated with elves' connection with Freyr, the god of the sun (according to Grímnismál, Poetic Edda). Snorri describes the elf differences as follows: "There is one place there [in the sky] that is called the Elf Home (Álfheimr). People live there that are named the light elves (Ljósálfar). But the dark elves (Dökkálfar) live below in earth, and they are unlike them in appearance – and more unlike them in reality. The Light Elves are brighter than the sun in appearance, but the Dark Elves are blacker than pitch." (Snorri, Gylfaginning 17, Prose Edda) "Sá er einn staðr þar, er kallaðr er Álfheimr. Þar byggvir fólk þat, er Ljósálfar heita, en Dökkálfar búa niðri í jörðu, ok eru þeir ólíkir þeim sýnum ok miklu ólíkari reyndum. Ljósálfar eru fegri en sól sýnum, en Dökkálfar eru svartari en bik." Sturluson, Snorri. The Younger (or Prose) Edda, Rasmus B. Anderson translation (1897). Chapter 7. Further evidence for elves in Norse mythology comes from Skaldic poetry, the Poetic Edda and legendary sagas. In these elves are linked to the Æsir, particularly by the common phrase "Æsir and the elves", which presumably means "all the gods". Hall 2004, pp. 37-46 Some scholars have compared elves to the Vanir (fertility gods). Hall 2004, pp. 43-46 But in the Alvíssmál ("The Sayings of All-Wise"), elves are considered distinct from both the Vanir and the Æsir, as revealed by a series of comparative names in which Æsir, Vanir, and elves are given their own versions for various words in a reflection of their individual racial preferences. It is possible that the words designate a difference in status between the major fertility gods (the Vanir) and the minor ones (the elves). Grímnismál relates that the Van Frey was the lord of Álfheimr (meaning "elf-world"), the home of the light-elves. Lokasenna relates that a large group of Æsir and elves had assembled at Ægir's court for a banquet. Several minor forces, the servants of gods, are presented such as Byggvir and Beyla, who belonged to Freyr, the lord of the elves, and they were probably elves, since they were not counted among the gods. Two other mentioned servants were Fimafeng (who was murdered by Loki) and Eldir. Some speculate that Vanir and elves belong to an earlier Nordic Bronze Age religion of Scandinavia, and were later replaced by the Æsir as main gods. Others (most notably Georges Dumézil) argue that the Vanir were the gods of the common Norsemen, and the Æsir those of the priest and warrior castes (see also Nerthus). A poem from around 1020, the Austrfaravísur ('Eastern-journey verses') of Sigvat Thordarson, mentions that, as a Christian, he was refused board in a heathen household, in Sweden, because an álfablót ("elves' sacrifice") was being conducted there. However, we have no further reliable information as to what an álfablót involved, Hall 2004, p. 40 but like other blóts it probably included the offering of foods, and later Scandinavian folklore retained a tradition of sacrificing treats to the elves (see below). From the time of year (close to the autumnal equinox) and the elves' association with fertility and the ancestors, we might assume that it had to do with the ancestor cult and the life force of the family. In addition to this, Kormáks saga accounts for how a sacrifice to elves was apparently believed able to heal a severe battle wound: Þorvarð healed but slowly; and when he could get on his feet he went to see Þorðís, and asked her what was best to help his healing. "A hill there is," answered she, "not far away from here, where elves have their haunt. Now get you the bull that Kormák killed, and redden the outer side of the hill with its blood, and make a feast for the elves with its flesh. Then thou wilt be healed." The Life and Death of Cormac the Skald (Old Norse original: Kormáks saga). Chapter 22. Folklore Scandinavian Little älvor, playing with Tomtebobarnen. From Children of the Forest (1910) by Swedish author and illustrator Elsa Beskow. In Scandinavian folklore, which is a later blend of Norse mythology and elements of Christian mythology, an elf is called elver in Danish, alv in Norwegian, and alv or älva in Swedish (the first is masculine, the second feminine). The Norwegian expressions seldom appear in genuine folklore, and when they do, they are always used synonymous to huldrefolk or vetter, a category of earth-dwelling beings generally held to be more related to Norse dwarves than elves which is comparable to the Icelandic huldufólk (hidden people). In Denmark and Sweden, the elves appear as beings distinct from the vetter, even though the border between them is diffuse. The insect-winged fairies in British folklore are often called "älvor" in modern Swedish or "alfer" in Danish, although the correct translation is "feer". In a similar vein, the alf found in the fairy tale The Elf of the Rose by Danish author H. C. Andersen is so tiny that he can have a rose blossom for home, and has "wings that reached from his shoulders to his feet". Yet, Andersen also wrote about elvere in The Elfin Hill. The elves in this story are more alike those of traditional Danish folklore, who were beautiful females, living in hills and boulders, capable of dancing a man to death. Like the huldra in Norway and Sweden, they are hollow when seen from the back. The "Elf cross" which protected against malevolent elves. The elves of Norse mythology have survived into folklore mainly as females, living in hills and mounds of stones. An account given in 1926, The Swedish älvor. For the Swedish belief in älvor see mainly A more summary description in English is provided by , esp. chapter Scandinavia: Elves. (sing. älva) were stunningly beautiful girls who lived in the forest with an elven king. They were long-lived and light-hearted in nature. The elves are typically pictured as fair-haired, white-clad, and (like most creatures in the Scandinavian folklore) nasty when offended. In the stories, they often play the role of disease-spirits. The most common, though also most harmless case was various irritating skin rashes, which were called älvablåst (elven blow) and could be cured by a forceful counter-blow (a handy pair of bellows was most useful for this purpose). Skålgropar, a particular kind of petroglyph found in Scandinavia, were known in older times as älvkvarnar (elven mills), pointing to their believed usage. One could appease the elves by offering them a treat (preferably butter) placed into an elven mill – perhaps a custom with roots in the Old Norse álfablót. In order to protect themselves against malevolent elves, Scandinavians could use a so-called Elf cross (Alfkors, Älvkors or Ellakors), which was carved into buildings or other objects. The article Alfkors in Nordisk familjebok (1904). It existed in two shapes, one was a pentagram and it was still frequently used in early 20th century Sweden as painted or carved onto doors, walls and household utensils in order to protect against elves. As the name suggests, the elves were perceived as a potential danger against people and livestock. The second form was an ordinary cross carved onto a round or oblong silver plate. This second kind of elf cross one was worn as a pendant in a necklace and in order to have sufficient magic it had to be forged during three evenings with silver from nine different sources of inherited silver. In some locations it also had to be on the altar of a church during three consecutive Sundays. Ängsälvor, "meadow elves", (1850), painting by Nils Blommér. Älvalek, "Elf Play", (1866), painting by August Malmström. The elves could be seen dancing over meadows, particularly at night and on misty mornings. They left a kind of circle where they had danced, which were called älvdanser (elf dances) or älvringar (elf circles), and to urinate in one was thought to cause venereal diseases. Typically, elf circles were fairy rings consisting of a ring of small mushrooms, but there was also another kind of elf circle: On lake shores, where the forest met the lake, you could find elf circles. They were round places where the grass had been flattened like a floor. Elves had danced there. By Lake Tisaren, Google Maps I have seen one of those. It could be dangerous and one could become ill if one had trodden over such a place or if one destroyed anything there. If a human watched the dance of the elves, he would discover that even though only a few hours seemed to have passed, many years had passed in the real world. (This time phenomenon is retold in Tolkien's Silmarillion when Thingol watches Melian dance. It also has a remote parallel in the Irish sídhe.) In a song from the late Middle Ages about Olaf Liljekrans, the elven queen invites him to dance. He refuses, he knows what will happen if he joins the dance and he is on his way home to his own wedding. The queen offers him gifts, but he declines. She threatens to kill him if he does not join, but he rides off and dies of the disease she sent upon him, and his young bride dies of a broken heart. provides two translated versions of the song: Sir Olof in Elve-Dance and The Elf-Woman and Sir Olof. However, the elves were not exclusively young and beautiful. In the Swedish folktale Little Rosa and Long Leda, an elvish woman (älvakvinna) arrives in the end and saves the heroine, Little Rose, on condition that the king's cattle no longer graze on her hill. She is described as a beautiful old woman and by her aspect people saw that she belonged to the subterraneans. These myths and legends of elves that are so popular among Scandinavians, are quite prevalent in their everyday lives. It has been said that to this day, many Scandinavians do still believe in this existence of " hidden people", and will often go out of their way to see that they do not disturb these creatures. For example, just outside of Reykjavik, Iceland, a soccer game was called to a halt when a misled ball rolled off the beaten path, and stopped right next to a sign that marked the home of 3 elves believed to dwell near the stones where the ball was resting. Instead of reclaiming the ball, the soccer player opted to leave it there in order to avoid disturbing the elves. Icelandic Natives of Iceland either believe in elves or are unwilling to rule out their existence. Several Icelanders believe in huldufólk or “hidden folk”, the elves that dwell in rock formations. If the natives don’t explicitly express their belief, they are certainly reluctant to express disbelief. Novatoadvance.com, Chasing waterfalls ... and elves A 2006 and 2007 study on superstition by the University of Iceland’s Faculty of Social Sciences supervised by Terry Gunnell (associate folklore professor), reveal that natives would not rule out the existence of elves and ghosts (similar results of a 1974 survey by Professor Erlendur Haraldsson, Fréttabladid reports). Gunnel stated: “Icelanders seem much more open to phenomena like dreaming the future, forebodings, ghosts and elves than other nations.” His results were consistent with a similar study conducted in 1974. Icelandreview.com, Iceland Still Believes in Elves and Ghosts A recent episode of the Sci-Fi Channel's Destination Truth took the host and crew to Iceland to investigate the myth. They did find that several of their electronic devices had malfunctioned, glitched, or even been pushed or turned over. Some strange noises were also heard both by them personally and using a parabolic mic. Some EVP (Electronic Voice Phenomenon) was also recorded. Overall, no images of the elves were recorded and no one had seen anything of the like. The evidence was inconclusive. German The original German elves (Old Saxon alf; Middle High German: alb, alp; plural elbe, elber; Old High German alb, by 13th century Marshall Jones Company (1930). Mythology of All Races Series, Volume 2 Eddic, Great Britain: Marshall Jones Company, 1930, pp. 220. ) are thought to be light creatures who lived in heaven during the era of Germanic paganism, and may have included dark elves or dwarves underground (as understood to be similar to the álfr of Old Norse mythology). In post-Christian folklore they began to be described as mischievous pranksters that could cause disease to cattle and people, and bring bad dreams to sleepers. The German word for nightmare, Albtraum, means "elf dream". The archaic form Albdruck means "elf pressure"; it was believed that nightmares are a result of an elf sitting on the dreamer's chest. This aspect of German elf-belief largely corresponds to the Scandinavian belief in the mara. It is also similar to the legends regarding incubi and succubi. Hall 2004, pp 125-26 As noted above, an elven king occasionally appears among the predominantly female elves in Denmark and Sweden. In the German middle-age epic the Nibelungenlied, a dwarf named Alberich play an important role. Alberich literally translates as "elf-sovereign", further contributing to the elf–dwarf confusion observed already in the Younger Edda. Via the French Alberon, the same name has entered English as Oberon – king of elves and fairies in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream (see below). The legend of Der Erlkönig appears to have originated in fairly recent times in Denmark and Goethe based his poem on "Erlkönigs Tochter" ("Erlkönig's Daughter"), a Danish work translated into German by Johann Gottfried Herder. The Erlkönig's nature has been the subject of some debate. The name translates literally from the German as "Alder King" rather than its common English translation, "Elf King" (which would be rendered as Elfenkönig in German). It has often been suggested that Erlkönig is a mistranslation from the original Danish ellerkonge or elverkonge, which does mean "elf king". According to German and Danish folklore, the Erlkönig appears as an omen of death, much like the banshee in Irish mythology. Unlike the banshee, however, the Erlkönig will appear only to the person about to die. His form and expression also tell the person what sort of death they will have: a pained expression means a painful death, a peaceful expression means a peaceful death. This aspect of the legend was immortalised by Goethe in his poem Der Erlkönig, later set to music by Schubert. In the first story of the Brothers Grimm fairy tale Die Wichtelmänner, the title protagonists are two naked mannequins, which help a shoemaker in his work. When he rewards their work with little clothes, they are so delighted, that they run away and are never seen again. Even though Wichtelmänner are akin to beings such as kobolds, dwarves and brownies, the tale has been translated into English as The Elves and the Shoemaker, and is echoed in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter stories (see House-elf). Variations of the German elf in folklore include the moss people Thistelton-Dyer, T.F. The Folk-lore of Plants, 1889. Available online by Project Gutenberg. File retrieved 3-05-07. and the weisse frauen ("white women"). On the latter Jacob Grimm does not make a direct association to the elves, but other researchers see a possible connection to the shining light elves of Old Norse. Grimm, Jacob (1835). Deutsche Mythologie (German Mythology); From English released version Grimm's Teutonic Mythology (1888); Available online by Northvegr © 2004-2007, Chapter 32, pages 2,3; Marshall Jones Company (1930). Mythology of All Races Series, Volume 2 Eddic, Great Britain: Marshall Jones Company, 1930, pp. 221-222. English and Scottish Poor little birdie teased, by Victorian era illustrator Richard Doyle depicts the traditional view of an elf from later English folklore as a diminutive woodland humanoid. The word elf came into Modern English as the Old English word ælf (pl. ælfe, with regional and chronological variants such as ylfe and ælfen), and so came to Britain originally with the Anglo-Saxons. Hall 2004, esp. pp. 212-16 Words for the nymphs of the Greek and Roman mythos were translated by Anglo-Saxon scholars with ælf and variants on it. Hall 2004, pp. 81-92 Although our early English evidence is slight, there are reasons to think that Anglo-Saxon elves (ælfe) were similar to early elves in Norse mythology: human-like, human-sized supernatural beings, predominantly if not exclusively male, capable of helping or harming the people who encountered them. In particular, the pairing of æsir and álfar found in the Poetic Edda is mirrored in the Old English charm Wið færstice and in the distinctive occurrence of the cognate words os and ælf in Anglo-Saxon personal names (e.g. Oswald, Ælfric Hall 2004, esp. pp. 56-66 ). In relation to the beauty of the Norse elves, some further evidence is given by old English words such as ælfsciene ("elf-beautiful"), used of seductively beautiful Biblical women in the Old English poems Judith and Genesis A. Hall 2004, pp. 71-76, et passim Although elves could be considered to be beautiful and potentially helpful beings in some sections of English-speaking society throughout its history, Anglo-Saxon evidence also attests to alignments of elves with demons, as for example in line 112 of Beowulf. On the other hand, oaf is simply a variant of the word elf, presumably originally referring to a changeling or to someone stupefied by elvish enchantment. Elf-shot (or elf-bolt or elf-arrow) is a word found in Scotland and Northern England, first attested in a manuscript of about the last quarter of the 16th century. Although first attested in the sense 'sharp pain caused by elves', it is later attested denoting Neolithic flint arrow-heads, which by the 17th century seem to have been attributed in the region to elvish folk, and which were used in healing rituals, and alleged to be used by witches (and perhaps elves) to injure people and cattle. Hall, Alaric. 2005. 'Getting Shot of Elves: Healing, Witchcraft and Fairies in the Scottish Witchcraft Trials', Folklore, 116 (2005), 19-36. So too a tangle in the hair was called an elf-lock, as being caused by the mischief of the elves, and sudden paralysis was sometimes attributed to elf-stroke. Compare with the following excerpt from an 1750 ode by Willam Collins: There every herd, by sad experience, knows How, winged with fate, their elf-shot arrows fly, When the sick ewe her summer food forgoes, Or, stretched on earth, the heart-smit heifers lie. Collins, Willam. 1775. An Ode On The Popular Superstitions Of The Highlands Of Scotland, Considered As The Subject Of Poetry. The elf makes many appearances in ballads of English and Scottish origin, as well as folk tales, many involving trips to Elphame or Elfland (the Álfheim of Norse mythology), a mystical realm which is sometimes an eerie and unpleasant place. The elf is occasionally portrayed in a positive light, such as the Queen of Elphame in the ballad Thomas the Rhymer, but many examples exist of elves of sinister character, frequently bent on rape and murder, as in the Tale of Childe Rowland, or the ballad Lady Isabel and the Elf-Knight, in which the Elf-Knight bears away Isabel to murder her. Most instances of elves in ballads are male; the only commonly encountered female elf is the Queen of Elfland, who appears in Thomas the Rhymer and The Queen of Elfland's Nourice, in which a woman is abducted to be a wet-nurse to the queen's baby, but promised that she may return home once the child is weaned. In none of these cases is the elf a spritely character with pixie-like qualities. English folktales of the early modern period commonly portray elves as small, elusive people with mischievous personalities. They are not evil but might annoy humans or interfere in their affairs. They are sometimes said to be invisible. In this tradition, elves became similar to the concept of fairies. Successively, the word elf, as well as literary term fairy, evolved to a general denotation of various nature spirits like Puck, hobgoblins, Robin Goodfellow, the English and Scots brownie, the Northumbrian English hob and so forth. These terms, like their relatives in other European languages, are no longer clearly distinguished in popular folklore. Significant for the distancing of the concept of elves from its mythological origins was the influence from literature. In Elizabethan England, William Shakespeare imagined elves as little people. He apparently considered elves and fairies to be the same race. In Henry IV, part 1, act II, scene iv, he has Falstaff call Prince Henry, "you starveling, you elfskin!", and in his A Midsummer Night's Dream, his elves are almost as small as insects. On the other hand, Edmund Spenser applies elf to full-sized beings in The Faerie Queene. The influence of Shakespeare and Michael Drayton made the use of elf and fairy for very small beings the norm. In Victorian literature, elves usually appeared in illustrations as tiny men and women with pointed ears and stocking caps. An example is Andrew Lang's fairy tale Princess Nobody (1884), illustrated by Richard Doyle, where fairies are tiny people with butterfly wings, whereas elves are tiny people with red stocking caps. There were exceptions to this rule however, such as the full-sized elves who appear in Lord Dunsany's The King of Elfland's Daughter as well as Northern English and Lowland Scottish folklore (as seen in such tales as The Queen of Elfan's Nourice and other local variants). There is a legend concerning the Buckthorn vows that if one sprinkles Buckthorn in a circle and then dances within it under a full Moon, an elf will appear. The dancer must notice the elf and say, 'Halt and grant my boon!' before the creature flees. The elf will then grant one wish. Modern culture Christmas In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland the modern children's folklore of Santa Claus typically includes diminutive elves at Christmas; green-clad elves with pointy ears, long noses, and pointy hats as Santa's assistants or hired workers. They make the toys in a workshop located in the North Pole. In recent years however, other toys—usually high-tech toys like computers, video games, DVDs and DVD players, and even mobile phones—have also been depicted as being readied for delivery, but not necessarily made, in the workshop as well. In this portrayal, elves slightly resemble nimble and delicate versions of the dwarves of Norse mythology. The vision of the small but crafty Christmas elf has come to influence modern popular conception of elves, and sits side by side with the fantasy elves following Tolkien's work (see below). The American cookie company Keebler has long advertised that its cookies are made by elves in a hollow tree, and Kellogg's, who happens to now be the owner of Keebler, uses the elves of Snap, Crackle, and Pop as mascots of Rice Krispies cereal, and the role of elves as Santa's helpers has continued to be popular, as evidenced by the success of the movie Elf. It should be noted that these elves are referred to as elfish, as opposed to elven or elfin. Modern fantasy The first appearance of modern fantasy elves occurred in The King of Elfland's Daughter, a 1924 novel by Lord Dunsany. The next modern work featuring elves was The Hobbit, a 1937 book by J. R. R. Tolkien. Elves played a major role in many of Tolkien's later works, notably The Lord of the Rings. Tolkien's writing has such popularity that in the 1960s and afterwards, elves similar to those in Tolkien's novels became staple non-human characters in high fantasy works and in fantasy role-playing games. Post-Tolkien fantasy elves (popularized by the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game) tend to be more beautiful and wiser than humans, with sharper senses and perceptions. They are also said to be much more gifted in magic and stronger mentally but not physically (although this can be disputed by comparing human advances in technology to the somewhat rustic elven technology). It used to be that elves didn't have facial hair, and were considered androgynous. However, lately in most media, elves have light facial hair, and larger lips. A hallmark of fantasy elves is also their long and pointed ears (a convention begun with a note of Tolkien's that the ears of elves were "leaf-shaped"). Elves of the Tolkien mold have become standardized staple characters of modern fantasy. It is worth noting that those things described as being of or related to these fair elves are referred to as "elven" or "elfin", as opposed to "elfish" (a term more closely associated with the sprite-like elves of medieval conception). See also Concerning traditional elves: Álfheim Dark elves Erlking Light elves Svartálfar Wood Elf Related folklore creatures: Brownie Demon Devil Drow Dryad Dwarf Fairy Ghost Gnome Goblin Saci Half-elf Huldra Haltija Iele Imp Lady of the Lake Leprechaun Norse dwarves Nymph Orang Bunian Psotnik Puck Sidhe Slavic fairies Sprites Sylph Tomte Trolls Wight Yule Lads Miscellaneous: Alfred (name) - from the Old English aelfraed, meaning "elf counsel" Sir Orfeo (Medieval English poetry involving elves) References Old Norse Wikisource:Prose Edda/Gylfaginning (The Fooling Of Gylfe) by Sturluson, Snorri, 13th century Edda, in English. Accessed Apr. 16, 2007 Gylfaginning in Old Norse http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/ProseEdda/Icelandic/GylfaginningXI-XX.htm Marshall Jones Company (1930). Mythology of All Races Series, Volume 2 Eddic, Great Britain: Marshall Jones Company, 1930, pp. 220-221. Fairy Tales Anderson, H. C.. 1842. The Elf of the Rose (Danish original: Rosen-Alfen). Anderson, H. C. 1845. The Elfin Hill (Danish original: Elverhøi). Coghlan, Ronan. 2002. Handbook of Fairies. Lang, Andrew. 1884. The Princess Nobody. | Elf |@lemmatized elf:167 creature:6 germanic:4 mythology:20 originally:3 think:5 race:5 minor:3 nature:5 fertility:5 god:11 often:6 picture:2 youthful:1 seem:4 men:4 woman:11 great:4 beauty:2 living:1 forest:4 underground:2 place:6 cave:1 well:5 spring:1 portray:3 long:6 live:8 immortal:1 magical:1 power:1 one:15 main:2 seren:1 mean:9 star:1 welsh:1 language:2 norse:21 frey:2 lord:6 light:11 elves:11 hero:3 völundr:2 ruler:2 vísi:2 álfar:5 sometimes:4 dwarf:10 nickname:1 dark:6 dökkálfar:5 early:7 preserved:1 description:3 come:5 old:20 call:11 singular:1 nominative:1 case:3 álfr:2 although:7 contemporary:1 exist:3 appearance:5 etymologically:1 relate:6 later:7 folklore:19 strongly:1 suggest:3 belief:9 common:6 among:5 tribe:1 limited:1 solely:1 ancient:1 scandinavian:10 concept:3 never:3 clearly:2 define:1 exact:1 source:2 appear:12 conceive:1 powerful:1 beautiful:11 human:13 sized:3 myth:3 record:3 full:4 size:2 famous:1 could:13 elevate:1 rank:1 death:7 petty:1 king:15 olaf:2 geirstad:1 smith:1 identify:2 álfa:2 elven:12 folk:5 ljóði:1 poem:5 völundarkviða:1 whose:1 prose:4 introduction:1 also:18 son:3 finnar:1 arctic:1 people:15 respect:1 shamanic:1 magic:3 likely:1 sami:1 thidrek:1 saga:10 queen:9 surprise:1 learn:1 lover:2 make:9 pregnant:1 man:2 hrolf:2 kraki:3 name:10 helgi:2 rape:2 impregnate:1 clad:3 silk:1 ever:1 see:17 crossbreeding:1 consequently:1 possible:3 elvish:5 bore:2 högni:1 rap:1 skuld:3 marry:1 hjörvard:1 hrólfr:1 killer:1 add:1 since:3 half:2 skilled:1 witchcraft:3 seiðr:1 point:2 almost:2 invincible:1 battle:2 warrior:3 fell:1 rise:5 continue:2 fight:1 way:3 defeat:1 capture:1 summon:1 army:1 include:5 setr:1 hér:1 til:1 inn:1 mesta:1 seið:1 vinna:1 hrólf:1 konung:1 bróður:1 sinn:1 svá:2 í:2 fylgd:1 er:5 með:1 henni:1 ok:4 nornir:1 annat:1 ótöluligt:1 illþýði:1 mannlig:1 náttúra:1 má:1 eigi:1 slíkt:1 standast:1 heimskringla:2 thorstein:2 viking:2 account:3 line:2 local:2 rule:4 álfheim:3 correspond:2 modern:11 swedish:7 province:2 bohuslän:1 norwegian:3 østfold:1 blood:2 say:6 land:1 govern:1 alf:3 alfheim:1 offspring:1 fair:3 original:6 þorsteins:1 víkingssonar:1 chapter:5 last:2 gandalf:1 harald:1 fairhair:1 addition:2 aspect:4 commonly:3 describe:5 semi:1 divine:1 associate:4 cult:2 ancestor:4 worship:1 notion:1 thus:1 similar:9 animistic:1 spirit:5 deceased:1 nearly:1 religion:2 true:1 dísir:1 fylgjur:1 vörðar:1 follower:1 warden:1 respectively:1 like:14 bind:1 physical:1 limitation:1 pass:3 wall:2 door:2 manner:1 ghost:5 happen:3 norna:1 gests:1 þáttr:1 equivalent:1 nymph:3 greek:2 roman:2 vili:1 rusalki:1 slavic:2 icelandic:4 mythographer:1 historian:1 snorri:5 sturluson:3 refer:5 dvergar:1 black:2 svartálfar:2 whether:1 reflect:1 wide:1 medieval:3 uncertain:1 hall:10 pp:11 ljósálfar:4 connection:2 freyr:2 sun:2 accord:2 grímnismál:2 poetic:3 edda:9 difference:2 follow:3 sky:1 home:6 álfheimr:3 earth:3 unlike:3 reality:1 brighter:1 pitch:1 gylfaginning:3 sá:1 einn:1 staðr:1 þar:2 kallaðr:1 byggvir:2 fólk:1 þat:1 heita:1 en:4 búa:1 niðri:1 jörðu:1 eru:3 þeir:1 ólíkir:1 þeim:1 sýnum:2 miklu:1 ólíkari:1 reyndum:1 fegri:1 sól:1 svartari:1 bik:1 younger:1 rasmus:1 b:1 anderson:3 translation:3 evidence:6 skaldic:1 poetry:3 legendary:1 link:1 æsir:8 particularly:2 phrase:1 presumably:2 scholar:2 compare:3 vanir:6 alvíssmál:1 saying:1 wise:2 consider:5 distinct:2 reveal:2 series:4 comparative:1 give:3 version:4 various:3 word:11 reflection:1 individual:1 racial:1 preference:1 designate:1 status:1 major:2 van:1 world:2 lokasenna:1 large:2 group:1 assemble:1 ægir:1 court:1 banquet:1 several:3 force:2 servant:2 present:1 beyla:1 belong:3 probably:2 count:1 two:4 mention:2 fimafeng:1 murder:3 loki:1 eldir:1 speculate:1 nordic:1 bronze:1 age:3 scandinavia:3 replace:1 others:1 notably:2 george:1 dumézil:1 argue:1 norseman:1 priest:1 caste:1 nerthus:1 around:1 austrfaravísur:1 eastern:1 journey:1 verse:1 sigvat:1 thordarson:1 christian:3 refuse:2 board:1 heathen:1 household:2 sweden:5 álfablót:3 sacrifice:3 conduct:2 however:6 reliable:1 information:1 involve:3 p:1 blóts:1 offering:1 food:2 retain:1 tradition:2 treat:2 time:4 year:3 close:1 autumnal:1 equinox:1 association:2 might:2 assume:1 life:3 family:1 kormáks:2 apparently:2 believe:8 able:1 heal:4 severe:1 wound:1 þorvarð:1 slowly:1 get:3 foot:2 go:2 þorðís:1 ask:1 best:1 help:3 healing:2 hill:7 answered:1 far:2 away:3 haunt:1 bull:1 kormák:1 kill:2 redden:1 side:3 feast:1 flesh:1 thou:1 wilt:1 cormac:1 skald:1 little:6 älvor:4 play:5 tomtebobarnen:1 child:3 author:2 illustrator:2 elsa:1 beskow:1 late:3 blend:1 element:1 elver:1 danish:9 alv:2 älva:2 first:5 masculine:1 second:3 feminine:1 expression:4 seldom:1 genuine:1 always:1 use:10 synonymous:1 huldrefolk:1 vetter:2 category:1 dwelling:1 generally:1 hold:1 related:1 comparable:1 huldufólk:2 hidden:3 denmark:3 even:5 though:4 border:1 diffuse:1 insect:2 winged:1 fairy:16 british:1 alfer:1 correct:1 feer:1 vein:1 find:6 tale:8 h:3 c:3 andersen:2 tiny:4 blossom:1 wing:3 reach:1 shoulder:1 yet:1 write:2 elvere:1 elfin:4 story:4 alike:1 traditional:3 female:4 boulder:1 capable:2 dance:11 huldra:2 norway:1 hollow:2 back:1 cross:4 protect:3 malevolent:2 survive:1 mainly:2 mound:1 stone:2 summary:1 english:22 provide:2 esp:3 sing:1 stunningly:1 girl:1 hearted:1 typically:3 haired:1 white:2 nasty:1 offend:1 role:6 disease:4 harmless:1 irritate:1 skin:1 rash:1 älvablåst:1 blow:2 cure:1 forceful:1 counter:1 handy:1 pair:1 bellow:1 useful:1 purpose:1 skålgropar:1 particular:2 kind:4 petroglyph:1 know:3 älvkvarnar:1 mill:2 usage:1 appease:1 offer:2 preferably:1 butter:1 perhaps:2 custom:1 root:1 order:4 alfkors:2 älvkors:1 ellakors:1 carve:3 building:1 object:1 article:1 nordisk:1 familjebok:1 shape:2 pentagram:1 still:3 frequently:2 century:5 paint:3 onto:2 utensil:1 perceive:1 potential:1 danger:1 livestock:1 form:3 ordinary:1 round:2 oblong:1 silver:3 plate:1 wear:1 pendant:1 necklace:1 sufficient:1 forge:1 three:2 evening:1 nine:1 different:1 inherited:1 location:1 altar:1 church:1 consecutive:1 sunday:1 ängsälvor:1 meadow:2 nil:1 blommér:1 älvalek:1 august:1 malmström:1 night:3 misty:1 morning:1 leave:2 circle:6 älvdanser:1 älvringar:1 urinate:1 cause:4 venereal:1 ring:3 consist:1 small:5 mushroom:1 another:1 lake:4 shore:1 meet:1 grass:1 flatten:1 floor:1 tisaren:1 google:1 map:1 dangerous:1 become:4 ill:1 tread:1 destroy:1 anything:2 watch:2 would:3 discover:1 hour:1 many:6 real:1 phenomenon:2 retell:1 tolkien:9 silmarillion:1 thingol:1 melian:1 remote:1 parallel:1 irish:2 sídhe:1 song:2 middle:3 liljekrans:1 invite:1 join:2 wedding:1 gift:1 decline:1 threaten:1 rid:1 dy:2 send:1 upon:1 young:3 bride:1 broken:1 heart:2 translated:1 sir:3 olof:2 elve:1 exclusively:2 folktale:2 rosa:1 leda:1 älvakvinna:1 arrive:1 end:1 save:1 heroine:1 condition:1 cattle:3 longer:2 graze:1 saw:1 subterraneans:1 legend:5 popular:5 quite:1 prevalent:1 everyday:1 day:1 existence:3 disturb:2 example:4 outside:1 reykjavik:1 iceland:5 soccer:2 game:4 halt:2 mislead:1 ball:3 roll:1 beaten:1 path:1 stop:1 right:1 next:2 sign:1 mark:1 dwell:2 near:1 rest:1 instead:1 reclaim:1 player:2 opt:1 avoid:1 native:3 either:1 unwilling:1 icelander:2 rock:1 formation:1 explicitly:1 express:2 certainly:1 reluctant:1 disbelief:1 novatoadvance:1 com:2 chase:1 waterfall:1 study:2 superstition:2 university:1 faculty:1 social:1 science:1 supervise:1 terry:1 gunnell:1 professor:2 result:3 survey:1 erlendur:1 haraldsson:1 fréttabladid:1 report:1 gunnel:1 state:2 much:3 open:1 phenomena:1 dream:5 future:1 foreboding:1 nation:1 consistent:1 icelandreview:1 recent:3 episode:1 sci:1 fi:1 channel:1 destination:1 truth:1 take:1 host:1 crew:1 investigate:1 electronic:2 device:1 malfunction:1 glitched:1 push:1 turn:1 strange:1 noise:1 hear:1 personally:1 parabolic:1 mic:1 evp:1 voice:1 overall:1 image:1 inconclusive:1 german:13 saxon:6 high:4 alb:2 alp:1 plural:1 elbe:1 elber:1 marshall:6 jones:6 company:7 volume:3 eddic:3 britain:4 heaven:1 era:2 paganism:1 may:2 understood:1 post:2 begin:2 mischievous:2 prankster:1 bring:1 bad:1 sleeper:1 nightmare:2 albtraum:1 archaic:1 albdruck:1 pressure:1 sit:1 dreamer:1 chest:1 largely:1 mara:1 regard:1 incubus:1 succubus:1 note:4 occasionally:2 predominantly:2 epic:1 nibelungenlied:1 alberich:2 important:1 literally:2 translate:5 sovereign:1 contribute:1 confusion:1 observe:1 already:1 via:1 french:1 alberon:1 enter:1 oberon:1 shakespeare:3 midsummer:2 der:2 erlkönig:7 originate:1 fairly:1 goethe:2 base:1 erlkönigs:1 tochter:1 daughter:3 work:7 johann:1 gottfried:1 herder:1 subject:2 debate:1 alder:1 rather:1 render:1 elfenkönig:1 mistranslation:1 ellerkonge:1 elverkonge:1 omen:1 banshee:2 person:2 die:2 tell:1 sort:1 pained:1 painful:1 peaceful:2 immortalise:1 set:1 music:1 schubert:1 brother:1 grimm:4 wichtelmänner:2 title:1 protagonist:1 naked:1 mannequin:1 shoemaker:2 reward:1 clothes:1 delighted:1 run:1 akin:1 kobolds:1 brownie:3 echo:1 j:2 k:1 rowling:1 harry:1 potter:1 house:1 variation:1 moss:1 thistelton:1 dyer:1 f:1 lore:1 plant:1 available:2 online:2 project:1 gutenberg:1 file:1 retrieve:1 weisse:1 frau:1 latter:1 jacob:2 direct:1 researcher:1 shin:1 deutsche:1 mythologie:1 release:1 teutonic:1 northvegr:1 page:1 scottish:4 poor:1 birdie:1 tease:1 victorian:2 richard:2 doyle:2 depict:2 view:1 diminutive:2 woodland:1 humanoid:1 ælf:3 pl:1 ælfe:2 regional:1 chronological:1 variant:4 ylfe:1 ælfen:1 anglo:5 mythos:1 slight:1 reason:1 supernatural:1 male:2 harm:1 encounter:2 pairing:1 mirror:1 charm:1 wið:1 færstice:1 distinctive:1 occurrence:1 cognate:1 personal:1 e:1 g:1 oswald:1 ælfric:1 relation:1 ælfsciene:1 seductively:1 biblical:1 judith:1 genesis:1 et:1 passim:1 potentially:1 helpful:1 section:1 speaking:1 society:1 throughout:1 history:1 attest:4 alignment:1 demon:2 beowulf:1 hand:2 oaf:1 simply:1 changeling:1 someone:1 stupefy:1 enchantment:1 shot:3 bolt:1 arrow:2 scotland:2 northern:2 england:2 manuscript:1 quarter:1 sense:1 sharp:2 pain:1 denote:1 neolithic:1 flint:1 head:1 attribute:2 region:1 ritual:1 allege:1 witch:1 injure:1 alaric:1 trial:1 tangle:1 hair:3 lock:1 mischief:1 sudden:1 paralysis:1 stroke:1 excerpt:1 ode:2 willam:2 collins:2 every:1 herd:1 sad:1 experience:1 fate:1 arrows:1 fly:1 sick:1 ewe:1 summer:1 forgoes:1 stretch:1 smit:1 heifer:1 lie:1 highland:1 ballad:4 origin:2 trip:1 elphame:2 elfland:5 mystical:1 realm:1 eerie:1 unpleasant:1 positive:1 thomas:2 rhymer:2 sinister:1 character:4 bent:1 childe:1 rowland:1 lady:2 isabel:2 knight:2 bear:1 instance:1 nourice:2 abduct:1 wet:1 nurse:1 baby:1 promise:1 return:1 wean:1 none:1 spritely:1 pixie:1 quality:1 period:1 elusive:1 personality:1 evil:1 annoy:1 interfere:1 affair:1 invisible:1 successively:1 literary:1 term:3 evolve:1 general:1 denotation:1 puck:2 hobgoblin:1 robin:1 goodfellow:1 scots:1 northumbrian:1 hob:1 forth:1 relative:1 european:1 distinguish:1 significant:1 distancing:1 mythological:1 influence:3 literature:2 elizabethan:1 william:1 imagined:1 henry:2 iv:2 part:1 act:1 ii:1 scene:1 falstaff:1 prince:1 starveling:1 elfskin:1 edmund:1 spenser:1 applies:1 faerie:1 queene:1 michael:1 drayton:1 norm:1 usually:2 illustration:1 pointed:2 ear:4 stock:1 cap:2 andrew:2 lang:2 princess:2 nobody:2 illustrate:1 butterfly:1 whereas:1 red:1 stocking:1 exception:1 dunsany:2 lowland:1 elfan:1 concern:2 buckthorn:2 vow:1 sprinkle:1 within:1 moon:1 dancer:1 must:1 notice:1 grant:2 boon:1 flee:1 wish:1 culture:1 christmas:3 united:2 canada:1 kingdom:1 ireland:1 santa:3 claus:1 green:1 pointy:2 nose:1 hat:1 assistant:1 hired:1 worker:1 toy:3 workshop:2 locate:1 north:1 pole:1 tech:1 computer:1 video:1 dvd:2 mobile:1 phone:1 readied:1 delivery:1 necessarily:1 portrayal:1 slightly:1 resemble:1 nimble:1 delicate:1 vision:1 crafty:1 conception:2 sits:1 fantasy:8 american:1 cookie:1 keebler:2 advertise:1 cooky:1 tree:1 kellogg:1 owner:1 snap:1 crackle:1 pop:1 mascot:1 rice:1 krispies:1 cereal:1 helper:1 success:1 movie:1 elfish:2 oppose:2 occur:1 novel:2 feature:1 hobbit:1 book:1 r:2 popularity:1 afterwards:1 staple:2 non:1 playing:2 popularize:1 dungeon:1 dragon:1 tend:1 sens:1 perception:1 gifted:1 strong:1 mentally:1 physically:1 dispute:1 advance:1 technology:2 somewhat:1 rustic:1 facial:2 androgynous:1 lately:1 medium:1 lip:1 hallmark:1 convention:1 leaf:1 mold:1 standardized:1 worth:1 thing:1 closely:1 sprite:1 erlking:1 wood:1 devil:1 drow:1 dryad:1 gnome:1 goblin:1 saci:1 haltija:1 iele:1 imp:1 leprechaun:1 orang:1 bunian:1 psotnik:1 sidhe:1 sprites:1 sylph:1 tomte:1 troll:1 wight:1 yule:1 lad:1 miscellaneous:1 alfred:1 aelfraed:1 counsel:1 orfeo:1 reference:1 wikisource:1 fooling:1 gylfe:1 access:1 apr:1 http:1 www:1 cybersamurai:1 net:1 legendssagas:1 proseedda:1 gylfaginningxi:1 xx:1 htm:1 rosen:1 alfen:1 elverhøi:1 coghlan:1 ronan:1 handbook:1 |@bigram norse_mythology:9 singular_nominative:1 germanic_tribe:1 harald_fairhair:1 animistic_belief:1 snorri_sturluson:1 poetic_edda:3 edda_snorri:1 prose_edda:3 þat_er:1 sturluson_snorri:2 rasmus_b:1 skaldic_poetry:1 æsir_vanir:1 nordic_bronze:1 scandinavian_folklore:3 autumnal_equinox:1 thou_wilt:1 fairy_tale:4 light_hearted:1 irritate_skin:1 nordisk_familjebok:1 venereal_disease:1 sci_fi:1 germanic_paganism:1 shakespeare_midsummer:1 midsummer_night:2 johann_gottfried:1 gottfried_herder:1 grimm_fairy:1 k_rowling:1 rowling_harry:1 harry_potter:1 project_gutenberg:1 jacob_grimm:1 grimm_jacob:1 deutsche_mythologie:1 grimm_teutonic:1 teutonic_mythology:1 victorian_era:1 anglo_saxon:5 wet_nurse:1 edmund_spenser:1 faerie_queene:1 michael_drayton:1 red_stocking:1 lord_dunsany:2 king_elfland:2 elfland_daughter:2 santa_claus:1 mobile_phone:1 dungeon_dragon:1 facial_hair:2 edda_gylfaginning:1 http_www:1 |
4,633 | Fawlty_Towers | Fawlty Towers was a famous British sitcom produced by BBC Television and first broadcast on BBC2 in 1975. Although only twelve episodes were produced (consisting of two series, with six episodes each), the programme has had a lasting and powerful legacy. The setting is in a fictional hotel called Fawlty Towers, located in the seaside town of Torquay, in Devon, on the "English Riviera" (which was where the hotel that inspired John Cleese was situated). The show was written by Cleese and Connie Booth, both of whom played main characters. The first series, in 1975, was produced and directed by John Howard Davies, and the second, in 1979, was produced by Douglas Argent and directed by Bob Spiers. Fawlty Towers placed first on a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000 that was voted for by industry professionals. BFI TV100, URL accessed 14 June 2006. It was also voted fifth in the BBC's "Britain's Best Sitcom" poll in 2004. Britain's Best Sitcom Top 10. URL accessed 14 June 2006. Episodes are repeated on G.O.L.D., a digital comedy channel. Origins In May 1970, the Monty Python team booked a stay in the Gleneagles Hotel (A reference was made to the Gleneagles in "The Builders" episode) in Torquay, while doing some location filming. During their stay, John Cleese became fascinated with the behaviour of the owner, Donald Sinclair, whom Cleese later described as "the most marvellously rude man I've ever met". This included him throwing a timetable at a guest who asked when the next bus to town would arrive, and placing Eric Idle's suitcase behind a wall in the garden on the suspicion that it contained a bomb (it actually contained a ticking alarm clock). He also criticised the American-born Terry Gilliam's table manners for not being 'British' (he had the fork in "the wrong hand" while eating). " My husband was not like Basil" by Richard Saville in The Daily Telegraph, 11 May 2002, URL accessed 14 June 2006 Cleese and Booth stayed on at the hotel after filming for the Python show had finished, furthering their research of the owner's erratic, outspoken and prejudiced attitude. At the time, Cleese was also a writer on the 1970s British TV sitcom Doctor in the House for London Weekend Television. An early prototype of the character that would become known as Basil Fawlty was developed in an episode ("No Ill Feeling") of the third Doctor series (titled Doctor at Large). In this edition, the main character checks into a small town hotel, his very presence seemingly winding up the aggressive and incompetent manager (played by Timothy Bateson) with a domineering wife. The show was broadcast on 30 May 1971. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/articles/d/doctoratlarge_7772270.shtmlBBC Comedy Guide Doctor At Large], URL accessed 24 February 2007 Cleese also parodied the contrast between organisational dogma and sensitive customer service in many personnel training videotapes issued with a serious purpose by his company, Video Arts. Bill Cotton, the BBC's Head of Light Entertainment in the mid-1970s, said after the first series was produced that the show was a prime example of the BBC's relaxed attitude to trying new entertainment formats and encouraging new ideas. He said that when he read the first scripts he could see nothing funny in them, but trusting that Cleese knew what he was doing (having come into this fresh from helping rip up the TV comedy form book with his fellow Pythons), he gave the go-ahead. He said that the commercial channels, with their emphasis on audience ratings, would never have let the show get to the production stage on the basis of the scripts. Production Although the series is set in Torquay in Devon, none of it was shot in south west England. For the exterior filming, instead of a hotel, the Wooburn Grange Country Club in Buckinghamshire was used. It later served as a nightclub named "Basil's" for a short time after the series ended, before being destroyed by a fire in March 1991. The remnants of the building were demolished and the site was bought by developers. Photographs of fire at Fawltysite.net, URL accessed 14 June 2006 Other location filming was done mostly around the Harrow area of north London: In the episode "The Germans", the opening shot is of Northwick Park Hospital. In the episode "Gourmet Night", the exterior of Andre's restaurant was filmed on Preston Road in the Harrow area. The launderette next door to the restaurant still exists today and Andre's is now a Chinese restaurant called "Wings". The famous sequence where Basil beats his car with a branch after it stalls was filmed on the corner of Mentmore Close and Lapstone Gardens in Kenton, just east of Harrow. Cleese and Booth were married to each other at the time of the first series. By the second, they had been divorced for almost a year, after ten years of union (1968–78). Britain's Best Sitcom - The case for Fawlty Towers, BBC Documentary presented by Jack Dee, broadcast 24 January 2004 Both Cleese and Booth were so keen on every script being perfect, some episodes took four months and ten drafts to write until they were satisfied. http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/F/htmlF/fawltytowers/fawltytowers.htm Plot directions and examples The series focuses on the exploits and misadventures of short-fused hotelier Basil Fawlty, his wife Sybil, and their employees, porter and waiter Manuel, maid Polly, and (in the second series) chef Terry. The episodes typically revolve around Basil's efforts to succeed in 'raising the tone' of his hotel and his increasing frustration at the numerous complications and mistakes, both his own and those of others, which prevent him from doing so. Much of the humour comes from Basil's overly aggressive manner, engaging in angry but witty arguments with guests, staff, and in particular his formidable wife, whom he addresses (in a faux-romantic way) with insults such as "that golfing puff adder", "my little piranha fish", and "my little nest of vipers". Despite this, he frequently feels intimidated, she being able to stop him in his tracks at any time, usually with a short, sharp cry of "Basil!". At the end of some episodes, Basil succeeds in annoying (or at least bemusing) the guests and frequently gets his comeuppance. The plots are occasionally intricate and always farcical, involving coincidences, misunderstandings, cross-purposes and meetings both missed and accidental. The innuendo of the bedroom farce is sometimes present (often to the disgust of the socially conservative Basil), but it is his eccentricity, not his lust, that drives the plots. The events that take place in each episode happen in such a way that they negatively affect Basil's personality, and test what little patience he has to breaking point, sometimes causing his mental state to deteriorate to the point where he has all but suffered a total breakdown by the end of the episode (some cut to the credits as he is on the brink of doing so). The guests at the hotel are typically comic foils to Basil's anger and outbursts. Each episode's one-shot guest characters provide a different characteristic that he cannot stand (including promiscuity, being working class, or being foreign). Requests both reasonable and impossible test his temper. Even the disabled seem to annoy him, with the episode "Communication Problems" revolving around the havoc caused by the frequent Abbott and Costello-esque misunderstandings between the staff and the hard-of-hearing Mrs Richards (not to mention the contributions from dotty resident Major, the show's other regular character). By the end, Basil faints just at the mention of her name. This episode is typical of the show's careful weaving of humorous situations through comedy cross-talk. The show also uses mild black humour at times, notably when Basil is forced to hide a dead body, and in some of the comments made by Basil both about Sybil ("Did you ever see that film, How to Murder Your Wife? ... Awfully good; I saw it six times") and the guests ("May I suggest that you consider moving to a hotel closer to the sea? Or preferably in it."). Basil behaves particularly violently towards Manuel (an emotional, but innocent, Spaniard whose almost total lack of English vocabulary causes him to make some of the most elementary mistakes) including beating the hapless waiter with a frying pan and smacking him on the forehead with a spoon, despite Manuel's piteous pleading, echoing the antics of the Three Stooges. The violence directed at Manuel has been one of the few reasons for negative criticisms leveled at Fawlty Towers over the years. In this, and in other exaggerated physical mannerisms of Basil, Fawlty Towers employs physical comedy reminiscent of the Marx Brothers' fast-paced slapstick humour. Basil often displays blatant snobbishness in order to climb the social ladder, frequently expressing disdain for the "riff-raff" and "yobbos" that he believes regularly populate the hotel. His desperation is apparent, as he makes increasingly hopeless manoeuvres and painful faux pas in trying to gain favour with the wealthy, yet finds himself forced to serve and help people he sees as beneath him. As such, Basil's efforts tend to be counter-productive, with guests leaving the hotel in disgust and his marriage (and sanity) stretching further and further towards breaking point. Characters Basil Fawlty Basil Fawlty, played by John Cleese, is a snobbish and miserly misanthrope who is desperate to belong to a higher social class. He sees the successful running of the hotel as a means of achieving this ("turn it into an establishment of class..."), yet his job forces him to be pleasant to people he despises or aspires to be above socially. He is terrified of his wife Sybil Fawlty's sharp tongue (in the episode "The Germans", he wishes that it was this that was ingrowing and not her toenail). He yearns to stand up to her, but his plans frequently conflict with her desires. She is often verbally abusive towards him (memorably describing him as "an ageing, brilliantined stick insect") but although he towers over the diminutive Sybil, he often finds himself on the receiving end of her temper, expressed verbally or physically. Basil usually turns to Manuel or Polly to help him with whatever scheme he has planned, while trying his best to prevent Sybil from finding out. However, there are occasions where Basil is shown to lament about the time when there was passion in their relationship, now seemingly lost forever. Also, it appears as though he still does care for her in some way. The penultimate episode — "The Anniversary" — revolves around his efforts to put together a nice surprise anniversary get-together present, involving their closest friends. Things go wrong immediately as, because of Basil's pretending the date doesn't remind him of anything so as to enhance the surprise (gamely accepting a slap in the process), Sybil believes he really has forgotten, and leaves the hotel in a huff. In an interview for the documentary on the DVD box set, Cleese claims that this episode deliberately takes a slightly different tone from the others, focusing on fleshing out their otherwise inexplicable status as a couple (as well as saying that, if a third series had been made, there would have been more episodes like this). In keeping with the general lack of explanation about the marriage, not much is revealed of the characters' back-stories. It is known that Basil served in the Korean War — he was a cook for the British Army, possibly as part of his National Service. He grossly exaggerates this period of his life, suggesting he spent time in active front line service and proclaiming to strangers: "I killed four men." To this Sybil jokes that "He was in the Catering Corps. He used to poison them." Basil is often seen wearing a military tie (as well as that of the Royal Agricultural College), and his moustache seems to betray an army background. He also claims to have sustained an injury to his leg during the action, caused by shrapnel, although apparently it tends to flare up at surprisingly convenient times for him. The only person toward whom Basil, for the most part, consistently exhibits patience and decent manners is the old and senile Major Gowen, a World War I veteran officer who permanently resides at the hotel. Cleese himself described Basil as thinking that "he could run a first-rate hotel if he didn't have all the guests getting in the way," and "an absolutely awful human being", but says that in comedy, if an awful person makes people laugh, people unaccountably feel affectionate toward him. An Interview with John Cleese, DVD Special Programs, 2001 Indeed, he is not entirely unsympathetic. The "Hotel Inspectors" and "Waldorf Salad" episodes both feature guests who are shown to be deeply annoying with constant, and unreasonable demands. Much of the time, he is an unfortunate victim of circumstance. Sybil Fawlty Sybil Fawlty, played by Prunella Scales, is Basil's wife. Energetic and petite (in spite of her precariously high heels), she prefers a working wardrobe of tight skirt suits in vivid shiny fabrics and sports a tower of permed and back-combed hair necessitating the use of overnight curlers. She is often seen to be a more effective manager of the hotel, making sure Basil either gets certain jobs done or stays out of the way when she is handling difficult customers. Despite this, she rarely participates directly in the running of the hotel; during busy check-in sessions or meal-times, while everyone else is busy working, she is frequently talking on the phone to one of her friends (usually Audrey, who makes her sole on-camera appearance in "The Anniversary") with her phrase "Oohhh, I knoooooooow", or chatting to customers. She has a distinctive conversational tone and braying laugh, which her husband compares to "someone machine-gunning a seal". Being his wife, she is the only one who refers to him by his first name, and when (frequently) she barks this at him, he is generally stopped in his tracks, often flinching. In addition to those mentioned above, Basil also refers to her by a number of epithets, occasionally to her face, including "that golfing puff-adder", "the dragon", "toxic midget", "the sabre-toothed tart", "my little kommandant", "my little nest of vipers", and "a rancorous, coiffured old sow". Despite these less than complimentary nicknames, Basil is terrified of her, and it is only once in the entire series that he loses patience to the point which he snaps at her. Sybil and Basil Fawlty are said to have married on 17 April 1958 and started their hotel in 1960.. Prunella Scales has said that the reason Sybil married Basil was because his origins were of a higher social class than hers; in Gourmet Night she recounts an anecdote about 'Uncle Ted and a crate of brown ale', which seems to imply a Working Class background. Polly Sherman Polly Sherman, played by Connie Booth, is primarily employed as a waitress, although she sometimes seems to be coerced into doing many other jobs in the hotel, perhaps for the extra money. She often stands as the voice of sanity during chaotic moments in the hotel, but is frequently embroiled in ridiculous masquerades as she loyally attempts to aid Basil in trying to cover a mistake he has made, or to keep something from Sybil. Her biggest test of loyalty came in the episode "The Anniversary", when Basil asked her to impersonate a purportedly ill Sybil — albeit in semi-darkness — in front of all the Fawltys' closest friends. Polly is apparently employed part-time (during meal times), and is an art student whom Basil refers to as spending three years at university. (Polly is not referred to as a student in the second series.) Despite her part-time employment, as the most competent of the hotel staff, she is frequently saddled with many other duties. In one episode, she is seen to draw a sketch (presumably an impressionistic caricature) of Basil, which everyone but Basil immediately recognises. Polly is also a student of languages, displaying ability with both Spanish and German; in "The Germans" episode Basil alludes to Polly's polyglot inclination by saying that she does her work "while learning two oriental languages". Like Manuel, she has a room of her own at the hotel. Manuel Manuel, a waiter played by Andrew Sachs, is a well-meaning but disorganised and constantly confused Spaniard from Barcelona with a poor grasp of the English language and customs. He is verbally and physically abused by his boss. When told by either Basil, Sybil, or Polly what to do, he often answers, "¿Qué?" ("What?"). Manuel's character was used to demonstrate Basil's instinctive lack of sensitivity and tolerance. Every episode would involve Basil becoming enraged at least a couple of times by not only Manuel's confusion at his boss's bizarre and complicated demands, but also with basic requests. Manuel is afraid of Fawlty's quick temper and violent assaults, yet often expresses his appreciation for being given a steady source of income in what seems to him an endlessly perplexing society. His relentlessly enthusiastic demeanour and lavish pride in what little English he has grasped suggest that at least some of his persistent difficulties stem from his employers' persistently poor communication skills. During the making of the series, Sachs twice suffered a serious injury while playing Manuel. Cleese describes using a real metal pan to knock him unconscious in "The Wedding Party" episode, although he would have preferred to use a rubber one. The original producer/director, John Howard Davies, explains in the director's commentary that he made Basil use a metal one and that he was responsible for most of the violence on the show, which he felt was essential and intrinsic to the type of comical farce that they were trying to create. Later, when his clothes were treated in order to make them give off smoke after he had been let out of the burning kitchen in "The Germans", the corrosive chemicals used went through them and gave Sachs severe burns. John Cleese, VHS or DVD cast interview, 1998 Manuel's exaggerated Spanish accent is an integral part of the humour of the show. Sachs's native language is German, Sachs having emigrated to Britain as a child. The character's nationality was switched to Italian (and the name to Paolo) for the Spanish dub of the show, while in Catalonia he is a Mexican (still called Manuel). Reviewed by David Gómez Tato, 09-01-2005, URL accessed 19 June 2008 Other regular characters and themes Terry, played by Brian Hall, is the laid-back Cockney chef at Fawlty Towers. Terry's cooking methods are likewise somewhat casual, which sometimes frustrates and worries the neurotic Basil. He appears in only the second series of episodes. During the first series, there was no regular chef character seen in the show. The only first series chef was "new" chef Kurt, seen in "Gourmet Night", who quickly proved himself incapable of holding the job because of a fondness for large volumes of wine, and a baffling passion for Manuel. Terry used to work in Dorchester (not at The Dorchester). In "The Anniversary" he and Manuel come to blows as he takes offence at someone else cooking in his kitchen, and proceeds to sabotage Manuel's attempt to make paella for Sybil, leading to fisticuffs between them at the end of the episode. Major Gowen, played by Ballard Berkeley, is a slightly senile, amiable old soldier who holds permanent residence in the hotel. He is one of the very few guests whom Basil seems to like. This is possibly because of his former status in the military, making him a symbol of the establishment status that Basil craves. He is often introduced as their "oldest resident". He enjoys talking about the world outside (especially the cricket scores and bemoaning workers' strikes) and is always on the lookout for the newspaper. He seems to have trouble forgiving the Germans because of the World Wars (the best he can say about them is that German women supposedly make good card players). He also has outdated attitudes towards race, evidenced in the scene where he makes clear the ethnic difference between "wogs" and "niggers" — but in a manner apparently innocent of malice or derogatory bigotry. Despite his good intentions, the Major can cause Basil's devious plans to go catastrophically awry, notably in "Communication Problems" when Basil tries his best to keep the money he won betting on a horse race a secret from Sybil. Miss Tibbs & Miss Gatsby, played by Gilly Flower and Renee Roberts respectively, are the other two permanent residents. Seemingly inseparable, these sweet-natured but cheerfully dotty spinsters appear to have taken a fancy to Basil, feeling as though they need to take care of him. In response to their fond solicitude, Basil vacillates between a sycophantic and superficial charm through to hostility and blunt rudeness during his various conversations with them. Audrey, a mostly unseen character, had one on-screen appearance in "The Anniversary". Audrey is Sybil's lifelong best friend, and mostly appears in the form of gossiping, trivial telephone calls to Sybil. Audrey is a refuge for Sybil from the hotel and from Basil's ludicrous situations. When times get tough (Audrey has a dysfunctional relationship with her husband George), Sybil will offer solutions and guidance, often resulting in the catchphrase "Ooh, I know..." when she tries to commiserate with Audrey's problems. In Audrey's one on-screen appearance she is played by actress Christine Shaw. She is mentioned in "The Hotel Inspectors", "The Wedding Party", "Gourmet Night", "The Psychiatrist" and "The Kipper and the Corpse". The Paperboy, though only seen in one episode, is significant as he is revealed to be the prankster who rearranges the letters on the "Fawlty Towers" sign to read various (sometimes crude) phrases. The shot of the sign (with the hotel exterior in the background) appears at the beginning of every episode but one, "The Germans", when a shot of a hospital is used, as this is the only episode which doesn't begin at the hotel. During the first series, the sign slowly deteriorated throughout the season until almost no letters were left in episode four. Episode five brings the first semi-anagram: "Warty Towels". In the second series, the first episode starts again with the sign spelling 'Fawlty Towers' with a few letters slightly askew, and changes in each subsequent edition, from the correct spelling to various semi-anagrams (only "Flowery Twats" from the 11th episode, "The Anniversary", is a proper anagram using all original letters.) The changes progress as follows: Episode 7: "Fawlty Towers" (the "w" and "s" are askew) Episode 8: "Watery Fowls" Episode 9: "Flay Otters" Episode 10: "Fatty Owls" Episode 11: "Flowery Twats" Episode 12: "Farty Towels" Episode guide The first edition of Fawlty Towers was originally broadcast on 19 September 1975. The 12th and final show was first shown on 25 October 1979. The first series was directed by John Howard Davies, the second by Bob Spiers. Both seasons had their premieres on BBC2. Production of the last two episodes was disrupted by a strike of BBC technical staff, which resulted in the recasting of the role of Reg (the wisecracking friend of Basil and Sybil) in "The Anniversary", and delayed the episode's transmission date by one week. The episode "Basil the Rat" was also delayed, not being screened until the end of a repeat showing six months later. Not the Nine O'Clock News was originally scheduled to debut after an episode of Fawlty Towers and Cleese was to have introduced Not the Nine O'Clock News in a sketch referring to the technicians' strike, explaining (in character as Basil Fawlty) that there was no show ready that week, so a "tatty revue" would be broadcast instead. However, the 1979 general election intervened, and Not the Nine O'Clock News was postponed as being too political. Later that year, Cleese's sketch was broadcast, but its original significance was lost. When originally transmitted, the individual episodes had no on-screen titles. The ones in common currency were first used for the VHS release of the series in the 1980s. There were working titles, such as "USA" for "Waldorf Salad", "Death" for "The Kipper and the Corpse", and "Rat" for "Basil the Rat", which have been printed in some programme guides. In addition, some of the early BBC audio releases of episodes on vinyl and cassette included other variations, such as "Mrs. Richards" and "The Rat" for "Communication Problems" and "Basil the Rat" respectively. It has long been rumoured that a thirteenth episode of the series was written and filmed, but never progressed further than a rough cut . Lars Holger Holm, author of the book Fawlty Towers: A Worshipper's Companion, has made detailed claims about the episode's content, but he provides no evidence of its existence and it is most likely a hoax or fan fiction. Neither BBC officials nor John Cleese have ever commented on the existence of a missing episode. On the subject of whether more episodes would be produced, Cleese revealed (in an interview for the complete DVD box set, which was republished in the book, Fawlty Towers Fully Booked) that he once had the genesis of a feature-length special - possibly sometime during the mid-1990s. The plot (which was never fleshed out beyond his initial idea) would have revolved around the chaos that a now-retired Basil typically caused as he and Sybil flew to Barcelona to visit their former employee Manuel and his family. Of the idea, Cleese said: We had an idea for a plot which I loved. Basil was finally invited to Spain to meet Manuel's family. He gets to Heathrow and then spends about 14 frustrating hours waiting for the flight. Finally, on the plane, a terrorist pulls a gun and tries to hijack the thing. Basil is so angry he overcomes the terrorist and when the pilot says, "We have to fly back to Heathrow", Basil says, "No, fly us to Spain or I'll shoot you". He arrives in Spain, immediately arrested and spends the entire holiday in a Spanish jail. He is released just in time to go back on the plane with Sybil. It was very funny, but I couldn't do it at the time. Making Fawlty Towers work at 90 minutes was a very difficult proposition. You can build up the comedy for 30 minutes, but at that length there has to be a trough and another peak. It doesn't interest me. I don't want to do it. Cleese may also have relented because of the lack of Connie Booth's involvement. She had practically retreated from public life after the show finished (and had been initially unwilling to collaborate on a second series, which explains the four-year gap between productions). The decision by Cleese and Booth to quit before a third series has often been lauded, as it ensured an avoidance of the possibility that the show's immediately-high status could be weakened with lower quality work later down the line. (Cleese in particular was most likely motivated in making the choice by the end of his involvement with the Monty Python's Flying Circus TV series, which he departed after claiming to have run out of ideas for sketches.) Subsequently, it has inspired the makers of other shows to do likewise. Most notably, Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant refused to make a third series of either The Office or Extras, citing Fawlty Towers short lifespan as the reason. Rik Mayall, Ben Elton and Lise Mayer, the writers behind The Young Ones, which also only ran for two series (each with six episodes likewise), used this explanation too. Elton also took the decision to end his next sitcom, Filthy Rich & Catflap, after only one series, despite its popularity. Reception Critical reaction The series was not held in as high esteem on its original broadcast as it is today. The Daily Mirror review of the show in 1975 had the headline "Long John Short On Jokes". Eventually though, as the series began to gain popularity, critical acclaim soon followed. Clive James writing in The Observer said the second episode had him "retching with laughter". By the time the series had ended, it was an overwhelming critical success. This did not stop the critic from Television Today from condemning such praise in an article on 14 September 1976, who wrote: "devoid of everything that makes good modern comedy. The programme is reminiscent of the post-war university drama society production.....The idea behind Fawlty Towers had the makings of one good sketch for John Cleese, who has in the past been shown to such good effect in original sketch material. The series, however, has over-acting and exaggeration on his part which is embarrassing to watch, writing that has no vestige of wit or skill about it and set pieces that are protracted and neither funny nor slapstick; the whole is pervaded by ill-humour. There is no warmth, no vulnerability of characters, no pathos, no visual cleverness, no funny lines. It is an amalgam of everything that does not reach out to an audience and is the epitome of self indulgence by those concerned. One funny walk and a shouting, bullying tone do not make a comedy series; it is twenty-five years too late for that.....Mr Cleese has to learn (if he has not already done so) not to be deluded by applauding critics just as he must observe those who do not applaud. Fawlty Towers is a try and there have to be many in comedy. But when the try has been made it is time to move on, to change and adapt, bearing the lessons in mind: the most important being a growing awareness of what one is good at doing and what is out of reach of one's ability and personal attributes" Another critic of the show was Richard Ingrams, then television reviewer for The Spectator. Cleese got his revenge by naming one of the guests in the second series 'Mr Ingrams', who is caught in his room with a blow up doll. In an interview for the "TV Characters" edition of Channel 4's 'talking heads' strand 100 Greatest (in which Basil placed second, between Homer Simpson and Edmund Blackadder), TV critic A. A. Gill theorised that the initially muted response may have been caused by Cleese seemingly ditching his label as a comic revolutionary - earned through his years with Python - to do something more traditional. He also admitted that he had been one of that chorus when he was young (despite his mother, Yvonne Gilan, being in one of the episodes; she played the saucy French woman in "The Wedding Party"). According to Gill, "that shows you what I know about this business." Awards Three BAFTAs were awarded to people for their involvement with the series. Each of the two series were awarded the BAFTA in the category for "Best Situation Comedy", the first won by John Howard Davies in 1976, and the second by Douglas Argent and Bob Spiers in 1980. John Cleese won the BAFTA for "Best Light Entertainment Performance" in 1976. List of awards at IMDb, URL accessed 14 June 2006 More recently, in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, Fawlty Towers was placed first. It was also voted fifth in the BBC's "Britain's Best Sitcom" poll in 2004 and second only to Frasier in The Ultimate Sitcom poll of comedy writers in January 2006. Basil Fawlty came top of the Britain's Funniest Comedy Character poll, held by Five on 14 May 2006. Remakes and reunions Three attempted remakes of Fawlty Towers were started for the American market, with two making it into production. The first, Chateau Snavely, was produced by ABC for a pilot in 1978, but the transfer from coastal hotel to highway motel proved too much and the series was never produced. The second, also by ABC, was Amanda's, notable for switching the sexes of its 'Basil' and 'Sybil' equivalents. It also failed to pick up a major audience and was dropped. Fawlty Towers at the BBC Guide to comedy, URL accessed 14 June 2006 A third remake called Payne (produced by and starring John Larroquette) was also produced, but was cancelled shortly after. There also was a German sitcom based on Fawlty Towers, and Guest House on Pakistan's PTV also resembled the series. The popular sitcoms 3rd Rock From The Sun and Cheers (both of which Cleese appeared in) have cited Fawlty Towers as an inspiration, especially regarding its depiction of a dysfunctional "family" in the workplace. Also Arthur Mathews and Graham Linehan have cited Fawlty Towers as a major influence on their sitcom Father Ted. Several of the characters have made other appearances, as spin-offs or in small cameo roles. In 1981, in character as Manuel, Andrew Sachs recorded his own version of the Joe Dolce cod-Italian song "Shaddap You Face" (with the B-side "Waiter, There's a Spanish Flea in My Soup"). However, the record was not released after Joe Dolce took out an injunction; he was about to issue his version in Britain. Fawltysite.net, URL accessed 13 December 2006 Gilly Flower and Renee Roberts, who played Miss Tibbs and Miss Gatsby in the series, reprised the roles in a 1983 episode of Only Fools and Horses. "Homesick" (1983) cast list at IMDb, URL accessed 1 September 2006 In 2006, Cleese played Basil Fawlty for the first time in 27 years, for an unofficial England 2006 World Cup song, "Don't Mention the War", named after the phrase Basil famously used in "The Germans". Article about the song by Adam Sherwin in The Times, 15 May 2006 In 2007, Cleese and Sachs reprised their roles for a six-episode corporate video for Norwegian oil company Statoil. In the video, Fawlty is running a restaurant called "Basil's Brasserie", while Manuel owns a Michelin Star restaurant in London. Basil's back, Chortle.co.uk, URL accessed 12 July 2007 In November 2007, Prunella Scales returned to the role of Sybil Fawlty in a series of sketches for the BBC's annual Children in Need charity telethon. The character was seen taking over the management of the eponymous hotel from the BBC drama series Hotel Babylon, interacting with characters from that programme as well as other 1970s sitcom characters. The character of Sybil was used by permission of John Cleese. Fawlty Towers: Re-Opened In 2009, Tiger Aspect Productions produced a two-part documentary for digital comedy channel G.O.L.D., called Fawlty Towers: Re-Opened. The documentary features interviews with all four main cast members, including Connie Booth, who refused to talk about the series for 30 years. John Cleese confirmed at the 30 year reunion in May 2009 that they will never make another episode of the comedy because they are too old and tired, and expectations would be too high. In a television interview (shown in Australian on Seven Network and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation) on 7 May, 2009, Cleese also commented that he and Connie Booth took six weeks to write each episode. Overseas In just 1977 and 1978 alone, it was sold to 45 stations in 17 countries and was the BBC's best selling overseas program for that year. Although it was initially a flop in Spain, because of the portrayal of the Spanish waiter Manuel, it was successfully resold, with Manuel's nationality changed to Italian. http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/F/htmlF/fawltytowers/fawltytowers.htm DVD & VHS releases Fawlty Towers was originally released by BBC Video in 1984, but was edited with the credits from all 3 episodes put at the end of the tape. It was re-released in 1995 unedited and remastered. It was re-released in 1998 with a special interview with John Cleese. Fawlty Towers - The complete series was released on DVD on 16 October 2001, available in regions 1, 2 and 4. A "Collectors Edition" is available in region 2. However John Cleese has mentioned on several different programmes (Richard and Judy on Channel 4), (Beyond A Joke (ITV3)) that he has done audio commentaries on several episodes of Fawlty Towers, but no word as of yet if there is going to be a new release of Fawlty Towers on DVD/blu-ray. References Further reading Apter, Michael J. (2004). "Fawlty Towers: A Reversal Theory Analysis of A Popular Television Comedy Series". The Journal of Popular Culture (Blackwell Publishing) 16''' (3): 128–138. Bright, Morris; Robert Ross (2001). Fawlty Towers: Fully Booked. London: BBC Books. ISBN 0563534397. Cleese, John; Connie Booth (1988). The Complete Fawlty Towers. London: Methuen. ISBN 0413183904. Holm, Lars Holger (2004). Fawlty Towers: A Worshipper's Companion. London: Leo Publishing. ISBN 9197366188. McCann, Graham (2007). Fawlty Towers''. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0340898119. External links Fawlty Towers at BBC Online Fawlty Towers at the British Film Institute Fawlty Towers at the MBC's Encyclopedia of Television | Fawlty_Towers |@lemmatized fawlty:52 tower:40 famous:2 british:9 sitcom:12 produce:11 bbc:17 television:9 first:21 broadcast:7 although:7 twelve:1 episode:59 consist:1 two:8 series:43 six:6 programme:7 lasting:1 powerful:1 legacy:1 setting:1 fictional:1 hotel:31 call:7 locate:1 seaside:1 town:3 torquay:3 devon:2 english:4 riviera:1 inspire:2 john:19 cleese:38 situate:1 show:26 write:7 connie:6 booth:10 play:14 main:3 character:22 direct:4 howard:4 davy:4 second:14 douglas:2 argent:2 bob:3 spiers:3 place:5 list:4 great:3 draw:3 film:8 institute:3 vote:2 industry:2 professional:2 bfi:1 url:11 access:11 june:7 also:24 voted:2 fifth:2 britain:7 best:11 poll:4 top:2 repeat:2 g:2 l:2 digital:2 comedy:18 channel:5 origin:2 may:10 monty:2 python:5 team:1 book:7 stay:4 gleneagles:2 reference:2 make:25 builder:1 location:2 filming:3 become:3 fascinate:1 behaviour:1 owner:2 donald:1 sinclair:1 later:6 describe:2 marvellously:1 rude:1 man:1 ever:3 meet:2 include:6 throw:1 timetable:1 guest:12 ask:2 next:3 bus:1 would:10 arrive:2 eric:1 idle:1 suitcase:1 behind:3 wall:1 garden:2 suspicion:1 contain:2 bomb:1 actually:1 ticking:1 alarm:1 clock:4 criticise:1 american:2 born:1 terry:5 gilliam:1 table:1 manner:4 fork:1 wrong:2 hand:1 eat:1 husband:3 like:4 basil:68 richard:3 saville:1 daily:2 telegraph:1 finish:2 research:1 erratic:1 outspoken:1 prejudiced:1 attitude:3 time:22 writer:3 tv:7 doctor:4 house:2 london:7 weekend:1 early:2 prototype:1 know:5 develop:1 ill:3 feel:4 third:5 title:3 large:3 edition:5 check:2 small:2 presence:1 seemingly:4 wind:1 aggressive:2 incompetent:1 manager:2 timothy:1 bateson:1 domineering:1 wife:7 http:3 www:3 co:2 uk:2 guide:5 article:3 shtmlbbc:1 february:1 parody:1 contrast:1 organisational:1 dogma:1 sensitive:1 customer:3 service:3 many:4 personnel:1 train:1 videotape:1 issue:2 serious:2 purpose:2 company:2 video:4 art:2 bill:1 cotton:1 head:2 light:2 entertainment:3 mid:2 say:13 prime:1 example:1 relax:1 try:10 new:4 format:1 encourage:1 idea:6 read:2 script:3 could:3 see:11 nothing:1 funny:6 trust:1 come:5 fresh:1 help:3 rip:1 form:2 fellow:1 give:4 go:6 ahead:1 commercial:1 emphasis:1 audience:3 rating:1 never:5 let:2 get:8 production:7 stage:1 basis:1 set:4 none:1 shoot:2 south:1 west:1 england:2 exterior:3 instead:2 wooburn:1 grange:1 country:2 club:1 buckinghamshire:1 use:16 serve:3 nightclub:1 name:6 short:5 end:11 destroy:1 fire:2 march:1 remnant:1 building:1 demolish:1 site:1 buy:1 developer:1 photograph:1 fawltysite:2 net:2 mostly:3 around:5 harrow:3 area:2 north:1 german:11 opening:1 shot:4 northwick:1 park:1 hospital:2 gourmet:4 night:4 andre:2 restaurant:5 preston:1 road:1 launderette:1 door:1 still:3 exist:1 today:3 chinese:1 wing:1 sequence:1 beat:2 car:1 branch:1 stall:1 corner:1 mentmore:1 close:3 lapstone:1 kenton:1 east:1 marry:3 divorce:1 almost:3 year:12 ten:2 union:1 case:1 documentary:4 present:3 jack:1 dee:1 january:2 keen:1 every:3 perfect:1 take:10 four:5 month:2 draft:1 satisfy:1 museum:2 archive:2 etv:2 f:2 htmlf:2 fawltytowers:4 htm:2 plot:5 direction:1 examples:1 focus:2 exploit:1 misadventure:1 fuse:1 hotelier:1 sybil:26 employee:2 porter:1 waiter:5 manuel:23 maid:1 polly:9 chef:5 typically:3 revolve:4 effort:3 succeed:2 raise:1 tone:4 increase:1 frustration:1 numerous:1 complication:1 mistake:3 others:2 prevent:2 much:4 humour:5 overly:1 engage:1 angry:2 witty:1 argument:1 staff:4 particular:2 formidable:1 address:1 faux:2 romantic:1 way:5 insult:1 golf:2 puff:2 adder:2 little:6 piranha:1 fish:1 nest:2 viper:2 despite:8 frequently:8 intimidate:1 able:1 stop:3 track:2 usually:3 sharp:2 cry:1 annoy:3 least:3 bemuse:1 comeuppance:1 occasionally:2 intricate:1 always:2 farcical:1 involve:3 coincidence:1 misunderstanding:2 cross:2 meeting:1 miss:5 accidental:1 innuendo:1 bedroom:1 farce:2 sometimes:5 often:13 disgust:2 socially:2 conservative:1 eccentricity:1 lust:1 drive:1 event:1 happen:1 negatively:1 affect:1 personality:1 test:3 patience:3 break:2 point:4 cause:7 mental:1 state:1 deteriorate:2 suffer:2 total:2 breakdown:1 cut:2 credit:2 brink:1 comic:2 foil:1 anger:1 outburst:1 one:23 provide:2 different:3 characteristic:1 cannot:1 stand:3 promiscuity:1 work:8 class:5 foreign:1 request:2 reasonable:1 impossible:1 temper:3 even:1 disabled:1 seem:7 communication:4 problem:4 havoc:1 frequent:1 abbott:1 costello:1 esque:1 hard:1 hearing:1 mr:4 richards:2 mention:6 contribution:1 dotty:2 resident:3 major:6 regular:3 faint:1 typical:1 careful:1 weaving:1 humorous:1 situation:3 talk:5 mild:1 black:1 notably:3 force:3 hide:1 dead:1 body:1 comment:3 murder:1 awfully:1 good:7 saw:1 suggest:3 consider:1 move:2 closer:1 sea:1 preferably:1 behaves:1 particularly:1 violently:1 towards:4 emotional:1 innocent:2 spaniard:2 whose:1 lack:4 vocabulary:1 elementary:1 hapless:1 frying:1 pan:2 smack:1 forehead:1 spoon:1 piteous:1 pleading:1 echo:1 antic:1 three:4 stooge:1 violence:2 reason:3 negative:1 criticism:1 level:1 exaggerated:2 physical:2 mannerism:1 employ:3 reminiscent:2 marx:1 brother:1 fast:1 pace:1 slapstick:2 display:2 blatant:1 snobbishness:1 order:2 climb:1 social:3 ladder:1 express:3 disdain:1 riff:1 raff:1 yobbo:1 believe:2 regularly:1 populate:1 desperation:1 apparent:1 increasingly:1 hopeless:1 manoeuvre:1 painful:1 pa:1 gain:2 favour:1 wealthy:1 yet:4 find:3 people:5 beneath:1 tend:2 counter:1 productive:1 leave:3 marriage:2 sanity:2 stretch:1 snobbish:1 miserly:1 misanthrope:1 desperate:1 belong:1 high:6 successful:1 running:2 mean:1 achieve:1 turn:2 establishment:2 job:4 pleasant:1 despise:1 aspire:1 terrify:2 tongue:1 wish:1 ingrowing:1 toenail:1 yearn:1 plan:3 conflict:1 desire:1 verbally:3 abusive:1 memorably:1 ageing:1 brilliantined:1 stick:1 insect:1 diminutive:1 receive:1 physically:2 whatever:1 scheme:1 however:5 occasion:1 lament:1 passion:2 relationship:2 lose:3 forever:1 appear:6 though:4 care:2 penultimate:1 anniversary:8 put:2 together:2 nice:1 surprise:2 friend:5 thing:2 immediately:4 pretend:1 date:2 remind:1 anything:1 enhance:1 gamely:1 accept:1 slap:1 process:1 really:1 forget:1 huff:1 interview:8 dvd:7 box:2 claim:4 deliberately:1 slightly:3 flesh:2 otherwise:1 inexplicable:1 status:4 couple:2 well:4 keep:3 general:2 explanation:2 reveal:3 back:6 story:1 korean:1 war:5 cook:2 army:2 possibly:3 part:7 national:1 grossly:1 exaggerate:1 period:1 life:2 spent:1 active:1 front:2 line:3 proclaim:1 stranger:1 kill:1 men:1 joke:3 catering:1 corp:1 poison:1 wear:1 military:2 tie:1 royal:1 agricultural:1 college:1 moustache:1 betray:1 background:3 sustain:1 injury:2 leg:1 action:1 shrapnel:1 apparently:3 flare:1 surprisingly:1 convenient:1 person:2 toward:2 consistently:1 exhibit:1 decent:1 old:5 senile:2 gowen:2 world:4 veteran:1 officer:1 permanently:1 reside:1 described:1 thinking:1 run:4 rate:1 absolutely:1 awful:2 human:1 laugh:2 unaccountably:1 affectionate:1 special:3 program:2 indeed:1 entirely:1 unsympathetic:1 inspector:2 waldorf:2 salad:2 episodes:1 feature:3 deeply:1 constant:1 unreasonable:1 demand:2 unfortunate:1 victim:1 circumstance:1 prunella:3 scale:3 energetic:1 petite:1 spite:1 precariously:1 heel:1 prefer:2 wardrobe:1 tight:1 skirt:1 suit:1 vivid:1 shiny:1 fabric:1 sport:1 permed:1 combed:1 hair:1 necessitate:1 overnight:1 curler:1 effective:1 sure:1 either:3 certain:1 handle:1 difficult:2 rarely:1 participate:1 directly:1 busy:2 session:1 meal:2 everyone:2 else:2 phone:1 audrey:7 sole:1 camera:1 appearance:4 phrase:3 oohhh:1 knoooooooow:1 chat:1 distinctive:1 conversational:1 bray:1 compare:1 someone:2 machine:1 gun:2 seal:1 refer:4 bark:1 generally:1 flinch:1 addition:2 number:1 epithet:1 face:2 dragon:1 toxic:1 midget:1 sabre:1 toothed:1 tart:1 kommandant:1 rancorous:1 coiffure:1 sow:1 less:1 complimentary:1 nickname:1 entire:2 snap:1 april:1 start:3 recount:1 anecdote:1 uncle:1 ted:2 crate:1 brown:1 ale:1 imply:1 working:1 sherman:2 primarily:1 waitress:1 coerce:1 perhaps:1 extra:2 money:2 voice:1 chaotic:1 moment:1 embroil:1 ridiculous:1 masquerade:1 loyally:1 attempt:3 aid:1 cover:1 something:2 big:1 loyalty:1 impersonate:1 purportedly:1 albeit:1 semi:3 darkness:1 fawltys:1 student:3 refers:1 spending:1 university:2 employment:1 competent:1 saddle:1 duty:1 sketch:7 presumably:1 impressionistic:1 caricature:1 recognise:1 language:4 ability:2 spanish:6 alludes:1 polyglot:1 inclination:1 learn:2 oriental:1 room:2 andrew:2 sachs:7 meaning:1 disorganise:1 constantly:1 confuse:1 barcelona:2 poor:2 grasp:2 custom:1 abuse:1 bos:2 tell:1 answer:1 qué:1 demonstrate:1 instinctive:1 sensitivity:1 tolerance:1 enrage:1 confusion:1 bizarre:1 complicate:1 basic:1 afraid:1 quick:1 violent:1 assault:1 appreciation:1 steady:1 source:1 income:1 endlessly:1 perplexing:1 society:2 relentlessly:1 enthusiastic:1 demeanour:1 lavish:1 pride:1 persistent:1 difficulty:1 stem:1 employer:1 persistently:1 skill:2 making:2 twice:1 describes:1 real:1 metal:2 knock:1 unconscious:1 wed:3 party:3 rubber:1 original:5 producer:1 director:2 explain:3 commentary:2 responsible:1 felt:1 essential:1 intrinsic:1 type:1 comical:1 create:1 clothes:1 treat:1 smoke:1 burn:2 kitchen:2 corrosive:1 chemical:1 severe:1 vhs:3 cast:3 accent:1 integral:1 native:1 emigrate:1 child:2 nationality:2 switch:2 italian:3 paolo:1 dub:1 catalonia:1 mexican:1 review:2 david:1 gómez:1 tato:1 theme:1 brian:1 hall:1 laid:1 cockney:1 cooking:1 method:1 likewise:3 somewhat:1 casual:1 frustrate:1 worry:1 neurotic:1 kurt:1 quickly:1 prove:2 incapable:1 hold:4 fondness:1 volume:1 wine:1 baffling:1 dorchester:2 blow:2 offence:1 proceeds:1 sabotage:1 paella:1 lead:1 fisticuffs:1 ballard:1 berkeley:1 amiable:1 soldier:1 permanent:2 residence:1 former:2 symbol:1 craves:1 introduce:2 enjoy:1 outside:1 especially:2 cricket:1 score:1 bemoan:1 worker:1 strike:3 lookout:1 newspaper:1 trouble:1 forgive:1 woman:2 supposedly:1 card:1 player:1 outdated:1 race:2 evidence:2 scene:1 clear:1 ethnic:1 difference:1 wog:1 nigger:1 malice:1 derogatory:1 bigotry:1 intention:1 devious:1 catastrophically:1 awry:1 win:2 bet:1 horse:2 secret:1 tibbs:2 gatsby:2 gilly:2 flower:2 renee:2 robert:3 respectively:2 inseparable:1 sweet:1 natured:1 cheerfully:1 spinster:1 fancy:1 need:2 response:2 fond:1 solicitude:1 vacillates:1 sycophantic:1 superficial:1 charm:1 hostility:1 blunt:1 rudeness:1 various:3 conversation:1 unseen:1 screen:4 lifelong:1 gossiping:1 trivial:1 telephone:1 refuge:1 ludicrous:1 tough:1 dysfunctional:2 george:1 offer:1 solution:1 guidance:1 result:2 catchphrase:1 ooh:1 commiserate:1 actress:1 christine:1 shaw:1 psychiatrist:1 kipper:2 corpse:2 paperboy:1 significant:1 prankster:1 rearrange:1 letter:4 sign:4 crude:1 beginning:1 begin:2 slowly:1 throughout:1 season:2 five:3 brings:1 anagram:3 warty:1 towel:2 spell:1 askew:2 change:4 subsequent:1 correct:1 spelling:1 flowery:2 twat:2 proper:1 progress:2 follow:2 w:1 watery:1 fowl:1 flay:1 otter:1 fatty:1 owls:1 farty:1 originally:4 september:3 final:1 october:2 premiere:1 last:1 disrupt:1 technical:1 recasting:1 role:5 reg:1 wisecrack:1 delay:2 transmission:1 week:3 rat:5 nine:3 news:3 schedule:1 debut:1 technician:1 ready:1 tatty:1 revue:1 election:1 intervene:1 postpone:1 political:1 significance:1 transmit:1 individual:1 common:1 currency:1 release:10 usa:1 death:1 print:1 audio:2 vinyl:1 cassette:1 variation:1 long:2 rumour:1 thirteenth:1 far:2 rough:1 lars:2 holger:2 holm:2 author:1 worshipper:2 companion:2 detail:1 content:1 existence:2 likely:2 hoax:1 fan:1 fiction:1 neither:2 official:1 missing:1 subject:1 whether:1 complete:3 republish:1 fully:2 genesis:1 length:2 sometime:1 beyond:2 initial:1 chaos:1 retire:1 flew:1 visit:1 family:3 love:1 finally:2 invite:1 spain:4 heathrow:2 spend:2 frustrating:1 hour:1 wait:1 flight:1 plane:2 terrorist:2 pull:1 hijack:1 overcome:1 pilot:2 fly:3 u:1 arrest:1 holiday:1 jail:1 minute:2 proposition:1 build:1 trough:1 another:3 peak:1 interest:1 want:1 relent:1 involvement:3 practically:1 retreat:1 public:1 initially:3 unwilling:1 collaborate:1 gap:1 decision:2 quit:1 laud:1 ensure:1 avoidance:1 possibility:1 weaken:1 low:1 quality:1 motivate:1 choice:1 circus:1 depart:1 subsequently:1 maker:1 ricky:1 gervais:1 stephen:1 merchant:1 refuse:2 office:1 cite:3 lifespan:1 rik:1 mayall:1 ben:1 elton:2 lise:1 mayer:1 young:2 filthy:1 rich:1 catflap:1 popularity:2 reception:1 critical:3 reaction:1 esteem:1 mirror:1 headline:1 eventually:1 acclaim:1 soon:1 clive:1 james:1 observer:1 retch:1 laughter:1 overwhelming:1 success:1 critic:4 condemn:1 praise:1 devoid:1 everything:2 modern:1 post:1 drama:2 past:1 effect:1 material:1 acting:1 exaggeration:1 embarrass:1 watch:1 vestige:1 wit:1 piece:1 protract:1 whole:1 pervade:1 warmth:1 vulnerability:1 pathos:1 visual:1 cleverness:1 amalgam:1 reach:2 epitome:1 self:1 indulgence:1 concern:1 walk:1 shouting:1 bully:1 twenty:1 late:1 already:1 delude:1 applaud:2 must:1 observe:1 adapt:1 bear:1 lesson:1 mind:1 important:1 grow:1 awareness:1 personal:1 attribute:1 ingrams:2 reviewer:1 spectator:1 revenge:1 catch:1 doll:1 strand:1 homer:1 simpson:1 edmund:1 blackadder:1 gill:2 theorise:1 mute:1 ditch:1 label:1 revolutionary:1 earn:1 traditional:1 admit:1 chorus:1 mother:1 yvonne:1 gilan:1 saucy:1 french:1 accord:1 business:1 award:4 baftas:1 bafta:2 category:1 performance:1 imdb:2 recently:1 frasier:1 ultimate:1 remake:3 reunion:2 market:1 chateau:1 snavely:1 abc:2 transfer:1 coastal:1 highway:1 motel:1 amanda:1 notable:1 sex:1 equivalent:1 fail:1 pick:1 drop:1 payne:1 star:2 larroquette:1 cancel:1 shortly:1 base:1 pakistan:1 ptv:1 resemble:1 popular:3 rock:1 sun:1 cheer:1 inspiration:1 regard:1 depiction:1 workplace:1 arthur:1 mathews:1 graham:2 linehan:1 influence:1 father:1 several:3 spin:1 offs:1 cameo:1 record:2 version:2 joe:2 dolce:2 cod:1 song:3 shaddap:1 b:1 side:1 flea:1 soup:1 injunction:1 december:1 reprise:2 fool:1 homesick:1 unofficial:1 cup:1 famously:1 adam:1 sherwin:1 corporate:1 norwegian:1 oil:1 statoil:1 brasserie:1 michelin:1 chortle:1 july:1 november:1 return:1 annual:1 charity:1 telethon:1 management:1 eponymous:1 babylon:1 interact:1 permission:1 open:2 tiger:1 aspect:1 member:1 confirm:1 tired:1 expectation:1 australian:2 seven:1 network:1 broadcasting:1 corporation:1 overseas:2 alone:1 sell:2 station:1 flop:1 portrayal:1 successfully:1 resold:1 edit:1 tape:1 unedited:1 remastered:1 available:2 region:2 collector:1 judy:1 word:1 blu:1 ray:1 reading:1 apter:1 michael:1 j:1 reversal:1 theory:1 analysis:1 journal:1 culture:1 blackwell:1 publish:1 bright:1 morris:1 ross:1 isbn:4 methuen:1 leo:1 publishing:1 mccann:1 hodder:1 stoughton:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 mbc:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram fawlty_tower:38 torquay_devon:2 connie_booth:6 url_access:11 monty_python:2 eric_idle:1 alarm_clock:1 terry_gilliam:1 daily_telegraph:1 cleese_booth:4 basil_fawlty:9 http_www:3 revolve_around:4 negatively_affect:1 abbott_costello:1 frying_pan:1 riff_raff:1 faux_pa:1 prunella_scale:3 everyone_else:1 quick_temper:1 knock_unconscious:1 vhs_dvd:1 someone_else:1 fly_circus:1 rik_mayall:1 ben_elton:1 critical_acclaim:1 homer_simpson:1 edmund_blackadder:1 arthur_mathews:1 graham_linehan:1 spin_offs:1 reprise_role:2 broadcasting_corporation:1 dvd_blu:1 blu_ray:1 london_methuen:1 hodder_stoughton:1 external_link:1 |
4,634 | Cernunnos | Cernunnos|Depiction of Cernunnos from the Pilier des nautes, Paris, France. Cernunnos (also Cernenus<ref>http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_c/cernwn.html - variant of the name, Cernenus was discovered ...</ref>) is a pagan Celtic god whose representations were widespread in the ancient Celtic lands of western Europe. As a horned god, Cernunnos is associated with horned male animals, especially stags and the ram-horned snake; this and other attributes associate him with produce and fertility. Cernunnos is also associated mainly as the God of the Underworld. Everything that we know about this deity comes from two inscriptions from France, one from Germany. http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_c/cernwn.html Evidence Cernunnos was proposed to have been identified as the illustration on the Snake-witch picture stone, which shows a possibly horned figure holding snakes in his/her hands, from Gotland, Sweden. Archaeological sources such as inscriptions and depictions from Gaul and Northern Italy (Gallia Cisalpina) have been used to define Cernunnos. The first artifact found to identify Cernunnos was the "Pillar of the Boatmen" (Pilier des nautes), a monument now displayed in the Musée National du Moyen Age in Paris. It was constructed by Gaulish sailors in the early first century CE, from the inscription (CIL XIII number 03026) probably in the year 14, on the accession of the emperor Tiberius. It was found in 1710 in the foundations of the cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris on the site of Lutetia, the civitas capital of the Celtic Parisii tribe. It depicts Cernunnos and other Celtic deities alongside Roman divinities such as Jupiter, Vulcan, Castor, and Pollux, a combination suggestive of a Gallo-Roman religion. On the Parisii inscription [_]ernunnos, the first letter of the name has been scraped off at some point, but can safely be restituted to "Cernunnos" because of the depiction of an antlers in the image below the name and that in Gaulish, carnon or cernon means "antler" or "horn". Delmarre, 1987 pp. 106-107 Additional evidence is given by two identical inscriptions on metal plaques from Steinsel-Rëlent in Luxembourg, in the territory of the Celtic Treveri tribe. These inscriptions (AE 1987, 0772) read Deo Ceruninco, "to the God Cerunincos". Lastly, a Gaulish inscription (RIG 1, number G-224) written in Greek letters from Montagnac (Hérault, Languedoc-Roussilion, France) reads αλλετ[ει]υος καρνονου αλ[ι]σο[ντ]εας thus giving the name "Carnonos". Several images without inscriptions are thought to represent Cernunnos. The earliest known probable depiction of Cernunnos was found at Val Camonica in Italy, dating from the 4th century BC, while the best known depiction is on the Gundestrup cauldron found on Jutland, dating to the 1st century BC. The Cauldron was likely to have been stolen by the Germanic Cimbri tribe or another tribe that inhabited Jutland as it originated from south east Europe. Etymological derivationsCern means "horn" or "bumb, boss" in Old Irish and is etymologically related to similar words carn in Welsh and Breton, and is the probable derivation of "Kernow" (Cornwall), meaning horn'[of land]'. These are thought by some linguists to derive from a Proto-Indo-European root *krno- which also gave the Latin cornu and Germanic *hurnaz (from which English "horn") (Nussbaum 1986) (Porkorny 1959 pp.574-576). The same Gaulish root is found in the names of tribes such as the Carnutes, Carni, and Carnonacae and in the name of the Gaulish war trumpet, the carnyx. The Proto-Celtic form of this theonym is reconstructed as either *Cerno-on-os or *Carno-on-os, both meaning "great horned one". (The augmentative -on- is frequently, but not exclusively, found in theonyms, for example: Map-on-os, Ep-on-a, Matr-on-ae, Sir-on-a.) Iconography Kernunnos in Capo di Ponte, Val Camonica The depictions of Cernunnos are strikingly consistent throughout the Celtic world. His most distinctive attribute are his stag's horns, and he is usually portrayed as a mature man with long hair and a beard. He wears a torc, an ornate neck-ring used by the Celts to denote nobility. He often carries other torcs in his hands or hanging from his horns, as well as a purse filled with coins. He is usually portrayed seated and cross-legged, in a position which some have interpreted as meditative or shamanic, although it may only reflect the fact that the Celts squatted on the ground when hunting. Cernunnos is nearly always portrayed with animals, in particular the stag. He is also frequently associated with a unique beast that seems to belong primarily to him: a serpent with the horns of a ram. This creature may have been a deity in its own right. He is associated with other beasts less frequently, including bulls (at Rheims), dogs, and rats. Because of his frequent association with creatures, scholars often describe Cernunnos as the "Lord of the Animals" or the "Lord of Wild Things", and Miranda Green describes him as a "peaceful god of nature and fruitfulness". Green, Miranda (1992) Animals in Celtic Life and Myth, p. 228. Because of his association with stags (a particularly hunted beast) he is also described as the "Lord of the Hunt". Interestingly, the Pilier des nautes links him with sailors and with commerce, suggesting that he was also associated with material wealth as does the coin pouch from the Cernunnos of Rheims (Marne, Champagne, France)—in antiquity, Durocortorum, the civitas capital of the Remi tribe—and the stag vomiting coins from Niedercorn-Turbelslach (Luxembourg) in the lands of the Treveri. The god may have symbolised the fecundity of the stag-inhabited forest. Neopaganism In Wicca and derived forms of Neopaganism a Horned God is revered, a divinity which syncretises a number of horned or antlered gods from various cultures, including Cernunnos. The Horned God reflects the seasons of the year in an annual cycle of life, death and rebirth. Farrar, Stewart & Janet, Eight Sabbats for Witches In the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca, the Horned God is sometimes specifically referred to as Cernunnos, or sometimes also as Kernunno The Rebirth of Witchcraft, Doreen Valiente, page 52-53 . Modern Druidry, which derives from Celtic culture, honors Cernunnos in his ancient Celto-European form as the guardian of the forests, the defender of the animal tuatha (tribes), the source of the deep forest wisdom, and the masculine half of creative energy. His restorative work in the cycle of the year is particularly celebrated at Beltaine, and is often paired with one or another of the female deities in her maiden aspect. Druids may call upon him in reference to vital, non-violent masculine divinity. Notes Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL) volume 13, number 03026 Delmarre, Xavier (2003) Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise (2nd ed.) Paris: Editions Errance. ISBN 2-87772-237-6 Lejeune, Michel (1995) Recueil des inscriptions gauloises (RIG) volume 1, Textes gallo-grecs. Paris: Editions du CNRS Nussbaum, Alan J. (1986) Head and Horn in Indo-European, Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-010449-0 Porkorny, Julius (1959) Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Berlin: Franke Verlag See also Celtic polytheism Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism Horned God Herne the Hunter Green Man Wicca External links Gundestrup Cauldron Cernunnos/Herne Image Gallery Pretanic World The Horned God in Celtic Art, its Religious Symbolism and Modern Vestiges | Cernunnos |@lemmatized cernunnos:20 depiction:6 pilier:3 des:2 nautes:3 paris:5 france:4 also:8 cernenus:2 ref:2 http:2 www:2 celtnet:2 org:2 uk:2 cernwn:2 html:2 variant:1 name:6 discover:1 pagan:1 celtic:12 god:12 whose:1 representation:1 widespread:1 ancient:2 land:3 western:1 europe:2 horned:8 associate:6 male:1 animal:5 especially:1 stags:1 ram:2 snake:3 attribute:2 produce:1 fertility:1 mainly:1 underworld:1 everything:1 know:2 deity:4 come:1 two:2 inscription:9 one:3 germany:1 evidence:2 propose:1 identify:2 illustration:1 witch:2 picture:1 stone:1 show:1 possibly:1 figure:1 hold:1 hand:2 gotland:1 sweden:1 archaeological:1 source:2 gaul:1 northern:1 italy:2 gallia:1 cisalpina:1 use:2 define:1 first:3 artifact:1 find:6 pillar:1 boatman:1 de:5 monument:1 display:1 musée:1 national:1 du:2 moyen:1 age:1 construct:1 gaulish:5 sailor:2 early:2 century:3 ce:1 cil:2 xiii:1 number:4 probably:1 year:3 accession:1 emperor:1 tiberius:1 foundation:1 cathedral:1 notre:1 dame:1 site:1 lutetia:1 civitas:2 capital:2 parisii:2 tribe:6 depict:1 alongside:1 roman:2 divinity:3 jupiter:1 vulcan:1 castor:1 pollux:1 combination:1 suggestive:1 gallo:2 religion:1 ernunnos:1 letter:2 scrap:1 point:1 safely:1 restitute:1 antler:2 image:3 carnon:1 cernon:1 mean:4 horn:11 delmarre:2 pp:2 additional:1 give:3 identical:1 metal:1 plaque:1 steinsel:1 rëlent:1 luxembourg:2 territory:1 treveri:2 ae:2 read:2 deo:1 ceruninco:1 cerunincos:1 lastly:1 rig:2 g:1 write:1 greek:1 montagnac:1 hérault:1 languedoc:1 roussilion:1 αλλετ:1 ει:1 υος:1 καρνονου:1 αλ:1 ι:1 σο:1 ντ:1 εας:1 thus:1 carnonos:1 several:1 without:1 think:2 represent:1 probable:2 val:2 camonica:2 date:2 bc:2 best:1 known:1 gundestrup:2 cauldron:3 jutland:2 likely:1 steal:1 germanic:2 cimbri:1 another:2 inhabit:1 originate:1 south:1 east:1 etymological:1 derivationscern:1 bumb:1 bos:1 old:1 irish:1 etymologically:1 relate:1 similar:1 word:1 carn:1 welsh:1 breton:1 derivation:1 kernow:1 cornwall:1 linguist:1 derive:3 proto:2 indo:2 european:3 root:2 krno:1 latin:1 cornu:1 hurnaz:1 english:1 nussbaum:2 porkorny:2 carnutes:1 carni:1 carnonacae:1 war:1 trumpet:1 carnyx:1 form:3 theonym:1 reconstruct:1 either:1 cerno:1 carno:1 great:1 augmentative:1 frequently:3 exclusively:1 theonyms:1 example:1 map:1 ep:1 matr:1 sir:1 iconography:1 kernunnos:1 capo:1 di:1 ponte:1 strikingly:1 consistent:1 throughout:1 world:2 distinctive:1 stag:5 usually:2 portray:3 mature:1 man:2 long:1 hair:1 beard:1 wear:1 torc:1 ornate:1 neck:1 ring:1 celt:2 denote:1 nobility:1 often:3 carry:1 torcs:1 hang:1 well:1 purse:1 fill:1 coin:3 seat:1 cross:1 legged:1 position:1 interpret:1 meditative:1 shamanic:1 although:1 may:4 reflect:2 fact:1 squat:1 ground:1 hunting:1 nearly:1 always:1 particular:1 unique:1 beast:3 seem:1 belong:1 primarily:1 serpent:1 creature:2 right:1 less:1 include:2 bull:1 rheims:2 dog:1 rat:1 frequent:1 association:2 scholar:1 describe:3 lord:3 wild:1 thing:1 miranda:2 green:3 peaceful:1 nature:1 fruitfulness:1 life:2 myth:1 p:1 particularly:2 hunt:2 interestingly:1 link:2 commerce:1 suggest:1 material:1 wealth:1 pouch:1 marne:1 champagne:1 antiquity:1 durocortorum:1 remi:1 vomit:1 niedercorn:1 turbelslach:1 symbolise:1 fecundity:1 inhabited:1 forest:3 neopaganism:2 wicca:3 revere:1 syncretise:1 antlered:1 various:1 culture:2 season:1 annual:1 cycle:2 death:1 rebirth:2 farrar:1 stewart:1 janet:1 eight:1 sabbat:1 tradition:1 gardnerian:1 sometimes:2 specifically:1 referred:1 kernunno:1 witchcraft:1 doreen:1 valiente:1 page:1 modern:2 druidry:1 honor:1 celto:1 guardian:1 defender:1 tuatha:1 tribes:1 deep:1 wisdom:1 masculine:2 half:1 creative:1 energy:1 restorative:1 work:1 celebrate:1 beltaine:1 pair:1 female:1 maiden:1 aspect:1 druid:1 call:1 upon:1 reference:1 vital:1 non:1 violent:1 note:1 corpus:1 inscriptionum:1 latinarum:1 volume:2 xavier:1 dictionnaire:1 la:1 langue:1 gauloise:1 ed:1 edition:2 errance:1 isbn:2 lejeune:1 michel:1 recueil:1 gauloises:1 textes:1 grecs:1 cnrs:1 alan:1 j:1 head:1 berlin:2 new:1 york:1 walter:1 gruyter:1 julius:1 indogermanisches:1 etymologisches:1 wörterbuch:1 franke:1 verlag:1 see:1 polytheism:1 reconstructionist:1 paganism:1 herne:2 hunter:1 external:1 gallery:1 pretanic:1 art:1 religious:1 symbolism:1 vestige:1 |@bigram http_www:2 horned_god:4 gotland_sweden:1 notre_dame:1 castor_pollux:1 gundestrup_cauldron:2 welsh_breton:1 proto_indo:1 indo_european:2 proto_celtic:1 gardnerian_wicca:1 rebirth_witchcraft:1 doreen_valiente:1 corpus_inscriptionum:1 inscriptionum_latinarum:1 la_langue:1 recueil_de:1 de_gruyter:1 indogermanisches_etymologisches:1 etymologisches_wörterbuch:1 celtic_polytheism:1 celtic_reconstructionist:1 external_link:1 |
4,635 | Occidental_College | Occidental College is a small, private, coeducational liberal arts college located in Los Angeles, California. Founded in 1887, Occidental College, or Oxy as it is called by students and alumni, is one of the oldest liberal arts colleges on the West Coast. Occidental is noted for its combination of rigorous academic programs, a small yet diverse student body, and the resources of one of the world's major cities. It has recently gained greater attention through President Barack Obama, who attended the college for two years before transferring to Columbia University. History President William Howard Taft at Occidental in October 1911 Origin Occidental College was founded on April 20, 1887, by a group of Presbyterian clergy and laymen. The college’s first term began a year later with 27 men and 13 women students, and tuition of $50 a year. Initially located in Boyle Heights, the college moved to a new campus in Los Angeles’ Highland Park neighborhood in 1898. Despite a strong Presbyterian presence on its campus, Occidental cut ties to the church in 1910. In 1912, the school began construction of a new campus located in Los Angeles’ Eagle Rock neighborhood. The Eagle Rock campus was to be designed by noted California Architect Myron Hunt. That same year, Occidental President John Willis Baer announced the trustees’ decision to convert Oxy into an all-men’s institution. However, students protested, and the idea was abandoned.Occidental College in the 1920s Move to Eagle Rock Two weeks after Booker T. Washington came to visit Occidental, on March 27, 1914 — the school’s 25th anniversary, Swan, Fowler, and Johnson halls were dedicated at its new Eagle Rock campus. The Eagle Rock campus covers over 120 acres (0.5 km), much of which is undeveloped land on a hill known as “Mt. Fiji.” In April 1917, the college formed an Army Corps to aid the war effort. The college opened its Hillside Theatre in 1925, and a student union in 1928. During World War II, many students left Occidental to fight the war. In July 1943, 53 students established a Navy V-12 unit on campus and left for active duty. "A little giant" In 1962, Time Magazine described Occidental as a little giant in a story about the college’s rise to national prominence. Indeed, this moniker was characteristic of the college’s growth. During the late 1960s, a strong anti-war sentiment made its presence felt at Occidental. The students’ activism was characteristic of a rise of liberalism across campus. In 1969, the school opened its first two co-ed dormitories, and two more followed a year later. On May 6, 1970, the faculty voted to suspend classes in the wake of the Kent State shootings and America’s invasion of Cambodia. Subsequently, Oxy students wrote 7,000 letters to Washington D.C., protesting U.S. involvement in the war in Southeast Asia. In 1979, Occidental installed Water Forms II (see image below), a kinetic fountain designed by professor George Baker. The fountain is a campus landmark and was featured prominently in the 1984 film Star Trek III: The Search for Spock. During the 1984 Olympic Games, some track events were held at Occidental’s Patterson Field. By 1986, for the first time since World War II, women students outnumbered men. Today, the college is approximately 60 percent female and 40 percent male; roughly equivalent to the national average. On July 1, 2006, Susan Prager became Occidental’s first female president. She then left her position in 2007 during the fall term. . On January 30, 2009, it was announced that Jonathan Veitch, formerly dean of Eugene Lang College, would become Occidental's 15th president beginning in the summer of 2009. Academics, resources, and rankings Student profile 1,825 students from 46 states, the District of Columbia and 21 foreign countries 56 percent women, 44 percent men 6.8 percent African American 14.9 percent Asian American 55.6 percent Caucasian 2.7 percent international 15.2 percent Latino/a 1 percent Native American 8 percent declined to state Faculty profile 150 full-time faculty 6.7 percent African American 12.6 percent Asian American 13.3 percent Latino/a 45 percent women, 55 percent men The academic quad Core program Johnson Hall, one of the three original buildings of the 1914 campus Divided in three parts, the Core Program was designed by the faculty of Occidental to unify and enhance the liberal arts education offered by the school. The Core Program requires students to achieve the following: complete two first-year writing seminars; complete a set number of courses in geographical areas, languages, and the arts; complete three math and science courses; and pass a senior-year comprehensive examination within the student’s chosen major. First-year seminars (8 course hours in total) are the centerpiece of the Core Program. Students are given a variety of class choices to fulfill the seminar requirement, and to satisfy the first-year writing requirement. While the classes range in topic, each is based on a curriculum of cultural studies. The classes are designed to expose students to the rigor of college academics and to the four principles of the college mission—Excellence, Equity, Community, and Service. The Core Program’s emphasis on global literacy requires students to take a minimum of three courses that touch on at least three of the following geographical areas: Africa and the Middle East; Asia and the Pacific; Europe; Latin America; the United States; and Intercultural. Students are also require to demonstrate proficiency in writing and in a foreign language and take courses in the fine arts and in the sciences, mathematics, or other courses that address formal methods of reasoning. The final portion of the Core Program requires students to pass a senior comprehensive examination in their chosen field. Comprehensive examinations may include seminars, creative projects, fieldwork, oral exams, theses, or field research projects. Student research Occidental provides its students unique opportunities to research in their chosen field. Many students collaborate on research with their professors in the lab, at other local institutions, including the City of Hope National Cancer Research Center, and overseas. Research fellowships are provided to students in all fields of study. Over the past five years, more than 280 students received funding to undertake joint research with faculty—research that often results in co-authored publication in peer-reviewed journals. International programs Many Occidental students participate in off-campus programs in the United States and in Europe, Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Latin America, and Oceania. Annually, nearly one third of the junior class partakes in a semester abroad. Occidental offers a unique Occidental-at-the-United Nations Program in New York. When selected, students intern in the United Nations Secretariat or with a related institution, such as the US State Department or an international NGO. Some students also study in Washington, D.C. through American University. Occidental is among a handful of American colleges that participates in the Richter Summer Research Program, in which students compete for a chance to pursue independent research or creative work anywhere in the world. Exchange students also are welcomed to Occidental. The school maintains exchange agreements with the University of Bristol, Cambridge University, University of East Anglia, University of Sussex, and the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Reputation In U.S. News and World Reports 2009 rankings of American liberal arts colleges, Occidental is 37th. The 2007 Princeton Review describes Occidental as having a “rising star quality” and notes that Occidental’s professors have been called “top quality.” The 2006 edition of America's Best Value Colleges by the Princeton Review noted that the college “is committed to recruiting top students regardless of their financial background.” The College Prowler says that people “look at Occidental degrees very highly,” but that Occidental often does not receive the attention it deserves. Campus Thorne Hall Architect Myron Hunt, who also designed the Rose Bowl Stadium, designed Oxy's original buildings in a Mediterranean style, with covered walkways and tile roofs. Currently, there are 12 on-campus residence halls. The three original buildings of the 1914 campus still stand today, although seismic concerns have limited them to classrooms and academic offices. Most of the rest of the buildings match the original style with a few exceptions. The Arthur G. Coons Administration Building has been dubbed "the Chrysler Showroom" by campus wags — a reference to its boxy glass lobby. As the seat of power, Coons has also been compared to Foucault's "panopticon." The most notable aberration, however, is Stearns Hall, which has been described as "Barbie meets Escher" for its angular, post-modern style and its shrunken scale (it is supposedly built at 90% of scale, an idea supported by the feeling of claustrophobia often encountered there). The Hameetman Science Center, designed by the firm of Anshen+Allen and built in 2003 to provide new research facilities for Occidental's geology and physics departments also deviates from the original architecture with its large glass windows and metal balconies. Its lobby also houses a large Foucault pendulum. Occidental's newest building, the 278 bed Rangeview Residence Hall, opened in January 2008 at a cost of a reported 38.8 million dollars and is the first residence hall built in 25 years. Rangeview features dormitories with private bathrooms, lounges, study rooms, classrooms, a 24-hour gym and an underground garage, making it Occidental's only hybrid building. Athletics Johnson Student Center and Freeman College Union Occidental is one of the five schools that founded the Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC) in 1915 and is currently a member of the SCIAC and NCAA Division III. Occidental features 19 varsity sports teams and a program of club sports and intramural competition. Approximately 25 per cent of the student body participates in a varsity sports program. During the 2006–2007 athletic season, the Tiger’s cross country, American football and basketball teams were Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference champions. The school’s Blackshirts Rugby union team was also league champion for the first time in five years. In addition the college boasts a competitive and growing elite dance team that also performs at every home football and basketball game. Notable faculty Herrick Interfaith Center, built 1964, with Water Forms II in the foreground. Several Occidental professors have received awards in recent years and some have held prominent positions in government and the private sector: Larry Caldwell, Professor of Politics, has served in the Office of Soviet Analysis at the Central Intelligence Agency, as Director of European Studies at the National War College in Washington D.C., and as Research Associate at the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London Martha Ronk, Price Professor of English Literature, is a 2005 PEN American Center Literary Award winner in poetry. Derek Shearer, Stuart Chevalier Professor of Diplomacy and World Affairs, was U.S. Ambassador to Finland from 1994 to 1997 and was formerly an aide to Bill Clinton. James Sadd, Educational science video host. Bob Sipchen, Adjunct Assistant Professor of English Writing, teaches journalism classes at Oxy. He is currently the editor of Sierra, the Sierra club's magazine as well as a novelist. In 2002, he and colleague Alex Raksin were awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Writing for their piece on the mentally-ill homeless living in Los Angeles. John Hirsch, Adjunct Professor of Diplomacy and World Affairs, was the former U.S. Ambassador to Sierra Leone and Vice President of the International Peace Academy. Robby Moore, Elbridge Amos Stuart Professor of Economics, was the originating editor of the Teaching Tools Section of Economic Inquiry and has taught Bill Gates. Constance Perkins, Professor of Art History; worked with Richard Neutra on The Constance Perkins House and contributed with many art critiques Notable alumni Barack Obama Patt Morrison Luke Wilson Ben Affleck Ben Affleck (actor; did not graduate) David G. Armstrong (U.S. Physician/Medical Researcher; did not graduate) Kathy Augustine (U.S. politician from Nevada) Howard Ahmanson, Jr (influential philanthropist for fundamentalist Christian causes) Alphonzo E. Bell, Jr. (U.S. Congressman) Ron Botchan (five-time Super Bowl National Football League official from 1980 to 2002) Olin Browne (PGA Tour winner) Norton Clapp (1928) (an original owner of Space Needle) Steve Coll (former Washington Post Managing Editor, Pulitzer Prize winner) Glenn Corbett (television actor) W. Don Cornwell (CEO of Granite Broadcasting) Brent Dalrymple (prominent Geologist and National Medal of Science winner) Sharon Delmendo (professor of English and Author) Mark Dery (author and cultural critic) Glenn S. Dumke (history professor and chancellor of the California State University) Richard Falkenrath (former deputy homeland security advisor) Mesh Flinders (filmmaker, creator of lonelygirl15) Will Friedle (actor) Kathryn Funk (costume designer) Eddie Galan (songwriter, music producer, Billboard Music Award winner, American Music Award Nominee, 4 Time Billboard #1) Terry Gilliam (actor and director) Joanna Gleason (actor) Robinson Jeffers (poet) U. Alexis Johnson (U.S. diplomat) Howard Judd (medical researcher) Jack Kemp (AFL Professional Football player (1958-1970, U.S. Representative Republican from New York 1971-1989, U.S. Secretary Department of Housing and Urban Development 1989-1993, candidate for Republican nomination for President of the US 1988, Republican nominee as Vice President for the 1996 Presidential election Terry Kitchen (musician) Dr. Sammy Lee (Two time Olympic Gold Medalist in Diving) Loren Lester (actor) Linda A. Malcor (author) J. P. Mallory (archaeologist) Pete McCloskey (politician) Adam J. Miller (President of Lodging & Gaming Management Association) Jim Mora, Sr. (football coach) Patt Morrison (NPR radio personality and columnist for the Los Angeles Times) Barack Obama (President of the United States; transferred to Columbia University after two years) Marcel Ophüls (filmmaker; did not graduate) Sam Rubin (KTLA entertainment anchor) Lewis Sargentich Legal scholar at Harvard Law School Jake Shears (lead singer of Scissor Sisters; did not graduate) Dan Slott, comic book writer Anna Slotky (actress) Roger Guenveur Smith (actor) Tui St. George Tucker, composer Jim Tunney (American football official) (NFL official from 1960 - 1991) Carrie Vaughn, writer Rex Weyler, author, journalist, ecologist and co-founder of Greenpeace International; did not graduate Fred Lawrence Whipple (astronomer) Luke Wilson (actor, transferred to Texas Christian University) Rosalind Wiseman, writer, noted expert on relational aggression. Film and television at Occidental Occidental’s campus, architecture, and proximity to Hollywood have made it a desired location for a number of film and television shots. Credits include: The Cup of Fury (1920) Horse Feathers (1932) with the Marx Brothers Pigskin Parade (1936) with Judy Garland and Betty Grable Second Chorus (1941) with Fred Astaire That Hagen Girl (1947) with Shirley Temple and Ronald Reagan Goodbye, My Fancy (1951) with Joan Crawford and Robert Young That's My Boy (1951) with Dean Martin Pat and Mike (1952) with Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy Tall Story (1960) with Jane Fonda and Anthony Perkins Take Her, She’s Mine (1963) with James Stewart The Impossible Years (1968) with David Niven The One and Only (1978) with Henry Winkler Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984) featuring the Gilman Fountain as part of the Palace of Vulcan Real Genius (1985) with Val Kilmer Sneakers (1992) with Robert Redford Beverly Hills, 90210 (1993) Clueless (1995) with Alicia Silverstone Kicking and Screaming (1995) with Josh Hamilton Don't Be A Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood (1996) with the Wayans Brothers Boys and Girls (2000) with Freddie Prinze Jr. Jurassic Park III (2001) with Sam Neill Orange County (2002) with Colin Hanks and Jack Black The Holiday (2006) with Cameron Diaz, Kate Winslet, Jude Law, and Jack Black Made of Honor (2008) with Patrick Dempsey and Michelle Monaghan Fired Up (2009) with Nicholas D'Agosto, Eric Christian Olsen, and Sarah Roemer TV credits include Dragnet, The West Wing (2002), Monk (TV Series), Charmed, The L Word, Criminal Minds, Beverly Hills 90210 (1993-97), Greek and a host of other shows and made-for-TV movies, including Lou Grant, Remington Steele, and Cannon. Occidental in literature Aldous Huxley was close friends with college president Remsen Bird during Huxley's time living in Southern California. He spent much time at the college during this period and the college is portrayed under the name of Tarzana College in his 1939 satirical novel After Many a Summer. Huxley also incorporated Bird into the novel. Gary Shteyngart's novel, Absurdistan, is partly set at the apocryphal "Accidental College," which is clearly a riff on Occidental's name, though its Midwestern setting is more akin to Shteyngart's alma mater, Oberlin. Barack Obama's memoir, "Dreams from My Father" he talks about his and several other African American students' campus activism. F. Scott Fitzgerald's untitled sixth novel contains several references to Occidental College, though in his book in has been overrun by a group claiming to be the Lords of Bognor. Academic majors Arts & Humanities Art History and the Visual Arts Critical Theory and Social Justice English and Comparative Literary Studies Film studies French Literary Studies Group Language Music Philosophy Religious Studies Spanish Literary Studies TheaterSocial Sciences Economics History Politics SociologySciences Biology Chemistry Geology Mathematics Physics PsychologyInterdepartmental Majors American Studies Asian Studies Biochemistry Cognitive Science Diplomacy and World Affairs Geophysics Kinesiology Psychobiology Urban and Environmental policyAcademic Minors' Chinese Language and Literature Classical Studies Education - with an optional credentialing program German Studies Japanese Language and Literature Latin American Studies Linguistics Russian Studies References External links Occidental College -- official website KOXY -- student-run radio station Occidental Weekly Newspaper | Occidental_College |@lemmatized occidental:41 college:32 small:2 private:3 coeducational:1 liberal:4 art:10 locate:3 los:5 angeles:5 california:6 found:3 oxy:5 call:2 student:34 alumnus:2 one:6 old:1 west:2 coast:1 note:5 combination:1 rigorous:1 academic:6 program:14 yet:1 diverse:1 body:2 resource:2 world:8 major:4 city:2 recently:1 gain:1 great:1 attention:2 president:11 barack:4 obama:4 attend:1 two:7 year:15 transfer:3 columbia:3 university:10 history:5 william:1 howard:3 taft:1 october:1 origin:1 april:2 group:3 presbyterian:2 clergy:1 layman:1 first:9 term:2 begin:3 later:2 men:5 woman:4 tuition:1 initially:1 boyle:1 height:1 move:2 new:7 campus:17 highland:1 park:2 neighborhood:2 despite:1 strong:2 presence:2 cut:1 tie:1 church:1 school:8 construction:1 eagle:5 rock:5 design:7 architect:2 myron:2 hunt:2 john:2 willis:1 baer:1 announce:2 trustee:1 decision:1 convert:1 institution:3 however:2 protest:2 idea:2 abandon:1 week:1 booker:1 washington:5 come:1 visit:1 march:1 anniversary:1 swan:1 fowler:1 johnson:4 hall:7 dedicate:1 cover:2 acre:1 km:1 much:2 undeveloped:1 land:1 hill:3 know:1 mt:1 fiji:1 form:3 army:1 corp:1 aid:1 war:7 effort:1 open:3 hillside:1 theatre:1 union:3 ii:4 many:5 leave:3 fight:1 july:2 establish:1 navy:1 v:1 unit:1 active:1 duty:1 little:2 giant:2 time:10 magazine:2 describe:3 story:2 rise:4 national:6 prominence:1 indeed:1 moniker:1 characteristic:2 growth:1 late:1 anti:1 sentiment:1 make:4 felt:1 activism:2 liberalism:1 across:1 co:3 ed:1 dormitory:2 follow:1 may:2 faculty:6 vote:1 suspend:1 class:6 wake:1 kent:1 state:8 shooting:1 america:4 invasion:1 cambodia:1 subsequently:1 write:3 letter:1 c:3 u:13 involvement:1 southeast:1 asia:3 installed:1 water:2 see:1 image:1 kinetic:1 fountain:3 professor:13 george:2 baker:1 landmark:1 feature:4 prominently:1 film:4 star:3 trek:2 iii:4 search:2 spock:2 olympic:2 game:3 track:1 event:1 hold:2 patterson:1 field:5 since:1 outnumber:1 today:2 approximately:2 percent:16 female:2 male:1 roughly:1 equivalent:1 average:1 susan:1 prager:1 become:2 position:2 fall:1 january:2 jonathan:1 veitch:1 formerly:2 dean:2 eugene:1 lang:1 would:1 summer:3 ranking:2 profile:2 district:1 foreign:2 country:2 african:3 american:15 asian:3 caucasian:1 international:6 latino:2 native:1 decline:1 full:1 quad:1 core:6 three:6 original:6 building:7 divide:1 part:2 unify:1 enhance:1 education:2 offer:2 require:4 achieve:1 following:2 complete:3 writing:3 seminar:4 set:2 number:2 course:6 geographical:2 area:2 language:5 math:1 science:7 pass:2 senior:2 comprehensive:3 examination:3 within:1 choose:1 hour:2 total:1 centerpiece:1 give:1 variety:1 choice:1 fulfill:1 requirement:2 satisfy:1 range:1 topic:1 base:1 curriculum:1 cultural:2 study:17 expose:1 rigor:1 four:1 principle:1 mission:1 excellence:1 equity:1 community:1 service:1 emphasis:1 global:1 literacy:1 take:3 minimum:1 touch:1 least:1 africa:2 middle:2 east:3 pacific:1 europe:2 latin:3 united:5 intercultural:1 also:10 demonstrate:1 proficiency:1 fine:1 mathematics:2 address:1 formal:1 method:1 reason:1 final:1 portion:1 chosen:2 include:5 creative:2 project:2 fieldwork:1 oral:1 exam:1 thesis:1 research:12 provide:3 unique:2 opportunity:1 collaborate:1 lab:1 local:1 hope:1 cancer:1 center:5 overseas:1 fellowship:1 past:1 five:4 receive:3 funding:1 undertake:1 joint:1 often:3 result:1 author:5 publication:1 peer:1 review:3 journal:1 participate:3 oceania:1 annually:1 nearly:1 third:1 junior:1 partakes:1 semester:1 abroad:1 nation:2 york:2 select:1 intern:1 secretariat:1 related:1 department:3 ngo:1 among:1 handful:1 richter:1 compete:1 chance:1 pursue:1 independent:1 work:2 anywhere:1 exchange:2 welcome:1 maintain:1 agreement:1 bristol:1 cambridge:1 anglia:1 sussex:1 chinese:2 hong:1 kong:1 reputation:1 news:1 report:2 princeton:2 quality:2 top:2 edition:1 best:1 value:1 commit:1 recruit:1 regardless:1 financial:1 background:1 prowler:1 say:1 people:1 look:1 degree:1 highly:1 deserve:1 thorne:1 bowl:2 stadium:1 mediterranean:1 style:3 walkway:1 tile:1 roof:1 currently:3 residence:3 still:1 stand:1 although:1 seismic:1 concern:1 limit:1 classroom:2 office:2 rest:1 match:1 exception:1 arthur:1 g:2 coon:2 administration:1 dub:1 chrysler:1 showroom:1 wag:1 reference:3 boxy:1 glass:2 lobby:2 seat:1 power:1 compare:1 foucault:2 panopticon:1 notable:3 aberration:1 stearns:1 barbie:1 meet:1 escher:1 angular:1 post:2 modern:1 shrunken:1 scale:2 supposedly:1 build:3 support:1 feeling:1 claustrophobia:1 encounter:1 hameetman:1 firm:1 anshen:1 allen:1 facility:1 geology:2 physic:2 deviate:1 architecture:2 large:2 window:1 metal:1 balcony:1 house:2 pendulum:1 bed:1 rangeview:2 cost:1 million:1 dollar:1 bathroom:1 lounge:1 room:1 gym:1 underground:1 garage:1 hybrid:1 athletics:1 freeman:1 southern:3 intercollegiate:2 athletic:3 conference:2 sciac:2 member:1 ncaa:1 division:1 varsity:2 sport:3 team:4 club:2 intramural:1 competition:1 per:1 cent:1 season:1 tiger:1 cross:1 football:6 basketball:2 champion:2 blackshirt:1 rugby:1 league:2 addition:1 boast:1 competitive:1 grow:1 elite:1 dance:1 perform:1 every:1 home:1 herrick:1 interfaith:1 built:1 foreground:1 several:3 award:5 recent:1 prominent:2 government:1 sector:1 larry:1 caldwell:1 politics:2 serve:1 soviet:1 analysis:1 central:2 intelligence:1 agency:1 director:2 european:1 associate:1 institute:1 strategic:1 london:1 martha:1 ronk:1 price:1 english:4 literature:4 pen:1 literary:4 winner:5 poetry:1 derek:1 shearer:1 stuart:2 chevalier:1 diplomacy:3 affair:3 ambassador:2 finland:1 aide:1 bill:2 clinton:1 james:2 sadd:1 educational:1 video:1 host:2 bob:1 sipchen:1 adjunct:2 assistant:1 teach:2 journalism:1 editor:3 sierra:3 well:1 novelist:1 colleague:1 alex:1 raksin:1 pulitzer:2 prize:2 editorial:1 piece:1 mentally:1 ill:1 homeless:1 living:1 hirsch:1 former:3 leone:1 vice:2 peace:1 academy:1 robby:1 moore:1 elbridge:1 amos:1 economics:2 originate:1 teaching:1 tools:1 section:1 economic:1 inquiry:1 gate:1 constance:2 perkins:3 richard:2 neutra:1 contribute:1 critique:1 patt:2 morrison:2 luke:2 wilson:2 ben:2 affleck:2 actor:8 graduate:5 david:2 armstrong:1 physician:1 medical:2 researcher:2 kathy:1 augustine:1 politician:2 nevada:1 ahmanson:1 jr:3 influential:1 philanthropist:1 fundamentalist:1 christian:3 cause:1 alphonzo:1 e:1 bell:1 congressman:1 ron:1 botchan:1 super:1 official:4 olin:1 browne:1 pga:1 tour:1 norton:1 clapp:1 owner:1 space:1 needle:1 steve:1 coll:1 managing:1 glenn:2 corbett:1 television:3 w:1 cornwell:1 ceo:1 granite:1 broadcasting:1 brent:1 dalrymple:1 geologist:1 medal:1 sharon:1 delmendo:1 mark:1 dery:1 critic:1 dumke:1 chancellor:1 falkenrath:1 deputy:1 homeland:1 security:1 advisor:1 mesh:1 flinders:1 filmmaker:2 creator:1 friedle:1 kathryn:1 funk:1 costume:1 designer:1 eddie:1 galan:1 songwriter:1 music:4 producer:1 billboard:2 nominee:2 terry:2 gilliam:1 joanna:1 gleason:1 robinson:1 jeffers:1 poet:1 alexis:1 diplomat:1 judd:1 jack:3 kemp:1 afl:1 professional:1 player:1 representative:1 republican:3 secretary:1 housing:1 urban:2 development:1 candidate:1 nomination:1 presidential:1 election:1 kitchen:1 musician:1 dr:1 sammy:1 lee:1 gold:1 medalist:1 dive:1 loren:1 lester:1 linda:1 malcor:1 j:2 p:1 mallory:1 archaeologist:1 pete:1 mccloskey:1 adam:1 miller:1 lodge:1 management:1 association:1 jim:2 mora:1 sr:1 coach:1 npr:1 radio:2 personality:1 columnist:1 marcel:1 ophüls:1 sam:2 rubin:1 ktla:1 entertainment:1 anchor:1 lewis:1 sargentich:1 legal:1 scholar:1 harvard:1 law:2 jake:1 shear:1 lead:1 singer:1 scissor:1 sister:1 dan:1 slott:1 comic:1 book:2 writer:3 anna:1 slotky:1 actress:1 roger:1 guenveur:1 smith:1 tui:1 st:1 tucker:1 composer:1 tunney:1 nfl:1 carrie:1 vaughn:1 rex:1 weyler:1 journalist:1 ecologist:1 founder:1 greenpeace:1 fred:2 lawrence:1 whipple:1 astronomer:1 texas:1 rosalind:1 wiseman:1 expert:1 relational:1 aggression:1 proximity:1 hollywood:1 desired:1 location:1 shot:1 credit:2 cup:1 fury:1 horse:1 feather:1 marx:1 brother:2 pigskin:1 parade:1 judy:1 garland:1 betty:1 grable:1 second:1 chorus:1 astaire:1 hagen:1 girl:2 shirley:1 temple:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 goodbye:1 fancy:1 joan:1 crawford:1 robert:2 young:1 boy:2 martin:1 pat:1 mike:1 katharine:1 hepburn:1 spencer:1 tracy:1 tall:1 jane:1 fonda:1 anthony:1 mine:1 stewart:1 impossible:1 niven:1 henry:1 winkler:1 gilman:1 palace:1 vulcan:1 real:1 genius:1 val:1 kilmer:1 sneaker:1 redford:1 beverly:2 clueless:1 alicia:1 silverstone:1 kicking:1 screaming:1 josh:1 hamilton:1 menace:1 south:1 drink:1 juice:1 hood:1 wayans:1 freddie:1 prinze:1 jurassic:1 neill:1 orange:1 county:1 colin:1 hank:1 black:2 holiday:1 cameron:1 diaz:1 kate:1 winslet:1 jude:1 made:1 honor:1 patrick:1 dempsey:1 michelle:1 monaghan:1 fire:1 nicholas:1 agosto:1 eric:1 olsen:1 sarah:1 roemer:1 tv:3 dragnet:1 wing:1 monk:1 series:1 charm:1 l:1 word:1 criminal:1 mind:1 greek:1 show:1 movie:1 lou:1 grant:1 remington:1 steele:1 cannon:1 aldous:1 huxley:3 close:1 friend:1 remsen:1 bird:2 live:1 spend:1 period:1 portray:1 name:2 tarzana:1 satirical:1 novel:4 incorporated:1 gary:1 shteyngart:2 absurdistan:1 partly:1 apocryphal:1 accidental:1 clearly:1 riff:1 though:2 midwestern:1 setting:1 akin:1 alma:1 mater:1 oberlin:1 memoir:1 dream:1 father:1 talk:1 f:1 scott:1 fitzgerald:1 untitled:1 sixth:1 contain:1 overrun:1 claim:1 lord:1 bognor:1 arts:1 humanity:1 visual:1 critical:1 theory:1 social:1 justice:1 comparative:1 french:1 philosophy:1 religious:1 spanish:1 theatersocial:1 sociologysciences:1 biology:1 chemistry:1 psychologyinterdepartmental:1 biochemistry:1 cognitive:1 geophysics:1 kinesiology:1 psychobiology:1 environmental:1 policyacademic:1 minor:1 classical:1 optional:1 credentialing:1 german:1 japanese:1 linguistics:1 russian:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 koxy:1 run:1 station:1 weekly:1 newspaper:1 |@bigram los_angeles:5 barack_obama:4 howard_taft:1 booker_washington:1 southeast_asia:1 star_trek:2 quad_core:1 peer_review:1 east_anglia:1 hong_kong:1 foucault_pendulum:1 intercollegiate_athletic:2 ncaa_division:1 varsity_sport:2 per_cent:1 rugby_union:1 bill_clinton:1 pulitzer_prize:2 mentally_ill:1 adjunct_professor:1 sierra_leone:1 vice_president:2 ben_affleck:2 congressman_ron:1 super_bowl:1 pga_tour:1 steve_coll:1 costume_designer:1 terry_gilliam:1 robinson_jeffers:1 presidential_election:1 gold_medalist:1 scissor_sister:1 rex_weyler:1 judy_garland:1 betty_grable:1 fred_astaire:1 ronald_reagan:1 joan_crawford:1 katharine_hepburn:1 spencer_tracy:1 jane_fonda:1 anthony_perkins:1 val_kilmer:1 robert_redford:1 beverly_hill:2 jurassic_park:1 sam_neill:1 cameron_diaz:1 kate_winslet:1 aldous_huxley:1 alma_mater:1 scott_fitzgerald:1 external_link:1 |
4,636 | Dartmoor | Dartmoor is an area of moorland in the centre of Devon, England. Protected by National Park status, it covers http://www.naturalengland.gov.uk/ourwork/conservation/designatedareas/nationalparks/dartmoor.aspx . The granite upland dates from the Carboniferous period of geological history. The moorland is capped with many exposed granite hilltops (known as tors), providing habitats for Dartmoor wildlife. The highest point is High Willhays, above sea level. The entire area is rich in antiquities and archaeology. Dartmoor is managed by the Dartmoor National Park Authority whose 26 members are drawn from Devon County Council, local District Councils and Government. Parts of Dartmoor have been used as a military firing range for over two hundred years. The public enjoy extensive access rights to the rest of Dartmoor, and it is a popular tourist destination. The Park was featured on the TV programme Seven Natural Wonders as the top natural wonder in South West England. Physical geography Tors Dartmoor is known for its tors – large hills, topped with outcrops of bedrock, which in granite country such as this are usually rounded boulder-like formations. There are over 160 tors on Dartmoor. They are the focus of an annual event known as the Ten Tors Challenge, when over a thousand people, aged between 14 and 21, walk for distances of 35, 45 or 55 miles (56, 72 or 89 km) over ten tors on many differing routes. While many of the hills of Dartmoor have the word "Tor" in them quite a number do not, however this does not appear to relate to whether there is an outcrop of rock on their summit. The highest points on Dartmoor are High Willhays () at and Yes Tor () on the northern moor. Ryder's Hill (), , Snowdon , and an unnamed point at (), are the highest points on the southern moor. Probably the best known tor on Dartmoor is Haytor (also spelt Hey Tor) (), . For a more complete list see List of Dartmoor tors and hills. Rivers River Erme at Ivybridge The levels of rainfall on Dartmoor are considerably higher than in the surrounding lowlands. With much of the national park covered in thick layers of peat, the rain is usually absorbed quickly and distributed slowly, so that the moor is rarely dry. In areas where water accumulates, dangerous bogs or mires can result. Some of these, up to across and topped with bright green moss, are known to locals as "feather beds" or "quakers", because they shift (or 'quake') beneath your feet. This is the result of accumulations of sphagnum moss growing over a hollow in the granite filled with water. Ian Mercer: Bogs and Mires of Dartmoor, in Hunt & Wills 1977, p.16. Another consequence of the high rainfall is that there are numerous rivers and streams on Dartmoor. As well as shaping the landscape, these have traditionally provided a source of power for moor industries such as tin mining and quarrying. The Moor takes its name from the River Dart, which starts as the East Dart and West Dart and then becomes a single river at Dartmeet. For a full list, expand the Rivers of Dartmoor navigational box at the bottom of this page. Angling Angling is a popular pastime on the moor, especially for migratory fish such as salmon. Other Activities Kayaking and canoeing Dartmoor is a focal point for whitewater kayaking and canoeing, due to the previously mentioned high rainfall and high quality of rivers UK Rivers Guidebook - South West England . The River Dart is the most prominent meeting place, the section known as the Loop being particularly popular, but the Erme, Plym, Tavy and Teign are also frequently paddled. There are other rivers on the moor which can be paddled, including the Walkham and Bovey. The access situation is variable on Dartmoor, some paddlers have experienced difficulties with landowners, while others have had a friendly reception. History Pre-history The majority of the prehistoric remains on Dartmoor date back to the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age. Indeed, Dartmoor contains the largest concentration of Bronze Age remains in the United Kingdom, which suggests that this was when a larger population moved onto the hills of Dartmoor. The climate at the time was warmer than today, and much of today's moorland was covered with trees. The prehistoric settlers began clearing the forest, and established the first farming communities. Fire was the main method of clearing land, creating pasture and swidden types of fire-fallow farmland. Areas less suited for farming tended to be burned for livestock grazing. Over the centuries these Neolithic practices greatly expanded the upland moors, and contributed to the acidification of the soil and the accumulation of peat and bogs. Role of anthropogenic fire and in creating moors, and moor-burning in sustaining them, described in Pyne 1997, pp. 348-369. The nature of the soil, which is highly acidic, means that no organic remains have survived. However, by contrast, the high durability of the natural granite means that their homes and monuments are still to be found in abundance, as are their flint tools. It should be noted that a number of remains were "restored" by enthusiastic Victorians and that, in some cases, they have placed their own interpretation on how an area may have looked. Beardown Man, Dartmoor Numerous menhirs (more usually referred to locally as standing stones or longstones), stone circles, kistvaens, cairns and stone rows are to be found on the moor. The most significant sites include: Beardown Man, near Devil’s Tor – isolated standing stone high, said to have another below ground. Challacombe, near the prehistoric settlement of Grimspound – triple stone row. Drizzlecombe, east of Sheepstor village – stone circles, rows, standing stones, kistvaens and cairns. Grey Wethers, near Postbridge – double circle, aligned almost exactly north south. Laughter Tor, near Two Bridges – standing stone high and two double stone rows, one long. Merrivale, between Princetown and Tavistock – includes a double stone row long, wide, aligned almost exactly east-west), stone circles and a kistvaen. Scorhill, west of Chagford – circle, in circumference, and stone rows. Shovel Down, north of Fernworthy reservoir – double stone row approximately long. Upper Erme stone row is the longest on Dartmoor at There are also an estimated 5,000 hut circles still surviving today, despite the fact that many have been raided over the centuries by the builders of the traditional dry stone walls. These are the remnants of Bronze Age houses. The smallest are around in diameter, and the largest may be up to five times this size. Some have L-shaped porches to protect against wind and rain – some particularly good examples are to be found at Grimspound. It is believed that they would have had a conical roof, supported by timbers and covered in turf or thatch. Many ancient structures, including the hut circles at Grimspound, were reconstructed during the 19th century – most notably by civil engineer and historian Richard Hansford Worth. Some of this work was based more on speculation than archaeological expertise, and has since been criticised for its inaccuracy. The historical period The climate worsened over the course of a thousand years from around 1000 BC, so that much of high Dartmoor was largely abandoned by its early inhabitants. It was not until the early medieval period that the weather again became warmer, and settlers moved back onto the moors. Like their ancient forebears, they also used the natural granite to build their homes, preferring a style known as the longhouse – some of which are still inhabited today, although they have been clearly adapted over the centuries. Many are now being used as farm buildings, while others were abandoned and fell into ruin. The earliest surviving farms, still in operation today, are known as the Ancient Tenements. Most of these date back to the 14th century and sometimes earlier. Some way into the moor stands the town of Princetown, the site of the notorious Dartmoor Prison, which was originally built both by, and for, prisoners of war from the Napoleonic Wars. The prison has a (now misplaced) reputation for being escape-proof, both due to the buildings themselves and its physical location. The Dartmoor landscape is scattered with the marks left by the many generations who have lived and worked there over the centuries – such as the remains of the once mighty Dartmoor tin-mining industry, and farmhouses long since abandoned. Indeed the industrial archaeology of Dartmoor is a subject in its own right. Myths and literature Dartmoor abounds with myths and legends. It is reputedly the haunt of pixies, a headless horseman, a mysterious pack of 'spectral hounds', and a large black dog. During the Great Thunderstorm of 1638, Dartmoor was even said to have been visited by the Devil. Many landmarks have ancient legends and ghost stories associated with them, such as Jay's Grave, the ancient burial site at Childe's Tomb, the rock pile called Bowerman's Nose, and the stone crosses that mark mediaeval routes across the moor. A few stories have emerged in recent decades, such as the 'hairy hands', that are said to attack travellers on the B3212 near Two Bridges. Dartmoor has inspired a number of artists and writers, such as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in The Hound of the Baskervilles and The Adventure of Silver Blaze, Eden Phillpotts, Beatrice Chase, Agatha Christie and the Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould. Ownership and access Over half of Dartmoor National Park (57.3%) is private land, much of this owned by the Duke of Cornwall, a title held under a charter of Edward III by the Prince of Wales. The Ministry of Defence owns 14% (see below), 3.8% is owned by water companies (see Dartmoor reservoirs), 3.7% by the National Trust, 1.8% by the Forestry Commission and 1.4% by Dartmoor's National Park Authority. About 37% of Dartmoor is Common land. Dartmoor differs from some other National Parks in England and Wales, in that since the Dartmoor Commons Act 1985 Dartmoor Commons Act 1985 on the OPSI website much of it has been designated as 'Access Land', with no restrictions on where walkers can roam. This Access Land remains privately owned land. There are still almost of footpaths and bridleways on Dartmoor, but they are for guidance and convenience – they do not have to be kept to, and in fact footpaths in these sections of the Park are generally not waymarked. This is not connected with the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, which has established similar rights in other rural parts of the country. Dartmoor is largely unaffected by this legislation because of its existing arrangements. In 2006, this Act opened up much of the remaining restricted land for walkers – a topic much disputed amongst the landowners and the councils. Use by the Ministry of Defence There is a tradition of military usage of Dartmoor dating back to the Napoleonic wars. There is still a large British Army training camp at Okehampton – also the site of an airbase during the Second World War. The Ministry of Defence (MoD) uses three areas of the northern moor for manoeuvres and live-firing exercises, totalling 108.71 km² (41.9 mile²), or just over 11% of Dartmoor National Park. Red and white posts mark the boundaries of these military areas (shown on Ordnance Survey 1:25,000 scale maps). Flagpoles on many tors in and around the ranges will fly red flags when firing is taking place. At other times, members of the public are allowed access. Blank rounds may also be used, but the MoD does not notify the public of this in advance. Some "challenge" and charitable events take place with assistance of the military on Dartmoor including the long established Ten Tors event and the more recent Dartmoor Beast. Preservation The clapper bridge at Postbridge Dartmoor pony on Dartmoor Throughout human history, the landscape has been exploited for industrial purposes. In recent years, controversy has surrounded the work of industrial conglomerates Imerys and Watts Blake Bearne, who have used parts of the moor for china clay mining. Licences were granted by the British Government but were recently renounced after sustained public pressure from bodies such as the Dartmoor Preservation Association. Many of these licences pre-date much of the heavy machinery which is in use today. Imerys were singled out for particular criticism after work at Lee Moor destroyed a number of archaeologically significant sites. The British government has made promises to protect the integrity of the moor; however, the cost of compensating companies for these licences, which may not have been granted in today's political climate, could prove prohibitive. The military use of the moor has been another source of controversy, such as when training was extended in January 2003. The National Park Authority received 1,700 objections before making the decision. Objectors claimed that Dartmoor should be an area for recreation, and that the training disturbs the peace. Those who objected included the Open Spaces Society and the Dartmoor Preservation Association. During her lifetime, Lady Sayer was another outspoken critic of the damage which she perceived that the army was doing to the moor. Towns and villages A typical Dartmoor tor close to Haytor. Dartmoor has a resident population of about 33,400, which swells considerably during holiday periods with incoming tourists. For a list, expand the Settlements of Dartmoor navigational box at the bottom of this page. Features Well known landmarks Black Tor Beare – Remote woodland of stunted oaks over above sea level in West Okement valley Bowerman's Nose – unusual rock formation Brentor Church – Remote church high on crag at western edge of moor Burrator Reservoir – late Victorian reservoir Castle Drogo – Edwardian faux castle built by Edwin Lutyens on crag above Teign Gorge, Drewsteignton Childe's Tomb – ancient burial site Church House, South Tawton – 15th century church ales house Cosdon or Cawsand Beacon – Prominent hill, northern extremity of moor, site of beacon fire for invasion warning Cranmere Pool – original letter box site and location of the legend of Cranmere Binjie Crazywell Pool – artificial lake Dartmeet – meeting point of East and West Dart Devonport Leat – man-made water channel Duck's Pool – location of a memorial to local writer William Crossing Fernworthy Dam & Reservoir – Granite-faced concrete dam and lake in Fernworthy Forest, nr. Chagford Great Links Tor – dominant tor on NW scarp of moor Grey Wethers – pair of ancient stone circles Grimspound – Bronze Age settlement Haytor Rock – Prominent tor and viewpoint between Bovey Tracey and Widecombe Haytor Granite Tramway – Remarkable early tramway with stone rails; ran from quarries at Haytor to Stover Canal High Willhays – highest point on Dartmoor Hound Tor – Rugged tor with remains of Iron Age village Jay's Grave – mysterious burial site Lydford Gorge – Dramatic, very deep and narrow gorge with waterfalls Meldon dam & viaduct – high concrete dam and dramatic Victorian iron bridge Powdermills, Cherrybrook – Remains of gunpowder grinding mill near Two Bridges Rattlebrook railway – Remains of horse-worked railway track to peat works near Great Links Tor Skaigh Valley – Narrow, wooded valley leading up on to moor at Belstone; on famous Sticklepath geological fault Scorhill stone circle – Well-preserved circle of standing stones near Teign-e-ver, Gidleigh Tavistock Canal – 19th century canal Tavy Cleave – dramatic river gorge on western moor near Marytavy Teign-e-ver – confluence of North Teign and Wallabrook; clapper bridges & tolmen stone Two Bridges – 18th century coaching inn Warren House Inn – highest inn in SW England Widgery Cross – Granite cross atop Brat Tor, memorial erected by Dartmoor artist William Widgery to commemorate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887 Wistman's Wood – Remote copse of stunted oaks in valley of West Dart near two bridges Wheal Betsy – Engine house of mine on Blackdown, Marytavy Activities on Dartmoor Climbing Climbing is very popular on Dartmoor. Bouldering, a form of rock climbing, is growing in popularity, many places offering differing levels of difficulty. Letterboxing The definitive guide to hill walking on Dartmoor was written by the Victorian era walker William Crossing. He states that a Dartmoor guide placed a bottle for visitors' cards at Cranmere Pool on the northern moor in 1854. This would seem to be the origin of letterboxing. In 1938 a plaque and letterbox in Crossing's memory were placed at Duck's Pool on the southern moor. This pursuit has become increasingly popular in recent decades. Watertight containers, or 'letterboxes', are hidden throughout Dartmoor, each containing a visitor's book and a rubber stamp. The original intention was for walkers to leave a letter or postcard, which would then be collected and posted by the next person to visit the site. Today visitors take an impression of the letterbox's rubber stamp as proof of finding the box and record their visit by stamping their own personal stamp in the letterbox's logbook. Until the 1970s there were no more than a dozen such sites around the moor, usually in the most inaccessible locations. Today there are thousands of letterboxes, many within easy walking distance of the road. Today there is a club called the "100 Club", membership of which is open to anyone who has found at least 100 letterboxes on Dartmoor. Clues to the locations of letterboxes are published by the "100 Club" in an annual catalogue. Some letterboxes however remain "word of mouth" and the clues to their location can only be obtained from the person who placed the box. Some clues may also be found in other letterboxes or on the Internet, this is however more commonly for letterboxes in places other than Dartmoor, where no "100 Club" or catalogue exist. Letterboxing has become a sport in itself, with thousands of walkers gathering for 'box-hunts' – and in some areas of the moor is particularly popular amongst children, some of the more difficult to find boxes and tougher terrain are however better suited to more experienced adults. Such letterboxes have also been placed in various locations around the world. The more recent activity known as geocaches, could be considered similar to letterboxing. Geocache clues make use of GPS coordinates, whereas letterboxing clues tend to consist of grid references and compass bearings. See also Geology of the United Kingdom Haytor Granite Tramway Dartmoor Discovery Ultramarathon Race Rock-cut basin The Tolmen stone Dartmoor Way long-distance footpath External links Dartmoor Society Dartmoor Letterboxing Legendary Dartmoor Dartmoor National Park Authority Ten Tors Official Website Dartmoor Rescue Group Notes References Hunt, P. J.; Wills, G. L. (eds) (1977), Devon Wetlands, Exeter: Devon County Council ISBN 0-903849-19-4. Pyne, Stephen J. (1997) Vestal Fire: an Environmental History, Told through Fire, of Europe and Europe's Encounter with the World. University of Washington Press, Seattle ISBN 0-295-97596-2. Crossing, William Crossing's Guide to Dartmoor, the 1912 edition reprinted with new introd. by Brian Le Messurier. Dawlish: David & Charles, 1965. | Dartmoor |@lemmatized dartmoor:70 area:9 moorland:3 centre:1 devon:4 england:5 protect:3 national:10 park:11 status:1 cover:4 http:1 www:1 naturalengland:1 gov:1 uk:2 ourwork:1 conservation:1 designatedareas:1 nationalparks:1 aspx:1 granite:10 upland:2 date:5 carboniferous:1 period:4 geological:2 history:5 cap:1 many:12 expose:1 hilltop:1 know:9 tor:25 provide:2 habitat:1 wildlife:1 high:18 point:7 willhays:3 sea:2 level:4 entire:1 rich:1 antiquity:1 archaeology:2 manage:1 authority:4 whose:1 member:2 draw:1 county:2 council:4 local:3 district:1 government:3 part:3 use:10 military:5 firing:3 range:2 two:7 hundred:1 year:3 public:4 enjoy:1 extensive:1 access:6 right:4 rest:1 popular:6 tourist:2 destination:1 feature:2 tv:1 programme:1 seven:1 natural:4 wonder:2 top:3 south:4 west:8 physical:2 geography:1 large:6 hill:7 outcrop:2 bedrock:1 country:2 usually:4 round:2 boulder:1 like:2 formation:2 focus:1 annual:2 event:3 ten:4 challenge:2 thousand:4 people:1 age:6 walk:3 distance:3 mile:1 km:1 differ:2 route:2 word:2 quite:1 number:4 however:6 appear:1 relate:1 whether:1 rock:6 summit:1 yes:1 northern:4 moor:29 ryder:1 snowdon:1 unnamed:1 southern:2 probably:1 best:1 known:1 haytor:6 also:9 spell:1 hey:1 complete:1 list:4 see:4 river:11 erme:3 ivybridge:1 rainfall:3 considerably:2 surround:2 lowland:1 much:8 thick:1 layer:1 peat:3 rain:2 absorbed:1 quickly:1 distribute:1 slowly:1 rarely:1 dry:2 water:4 accumulate:1 dangerous:1 bog:3 mire:2 result:2 across:2 bright:1 green:1 moss:2 feather:1 bed:1 quaker:1 shift:1 quake:1 beneath:1 foot:1 accumulation:2 sphagnum:1 grow:2 hollow:1 fill:1 ian:1 mercer:1 hunt:3 p:2 another:4 consequence:1 numerous:2 stream:1 well:4 shape:1 landscape:3 traditionally:1 source:2 power:1 industry:2 tin:2 mining:3 quarrying:1 take:4 name:1 dart:6 start:1 east:4 become:4 single:2 dartmeet:2 full:1 expand:3 navigational:2 box:7 bottom:2 page:2 angle:1 angling:1 pastime:1 especially:1 migratory:1 fish:1 salmon:1 activity:3 kayak:1 canoe:1 focal:1 whitewater:1 kayaking:1 canoeing:1 due:2 previously:1 mention:1 quality:1 guidebook:1 prominent:3 meeting:2 place:10 section:2 loop:1 particularly:3 plym:1 tavy:2 teign:5 frequently:1 paddle:2 include:6 walkham:1 bovey:2 situation:1 variable:1 paddler:1 experience:1 difficulty:2 landowner:2 others:2 friendly:1 reception:1 pre:2 majority:1 prehistoric:3 remain:7 back:4 late:2 neolithic:2 early:5 bronze:4 indeed:2 contain:2 concentration:1 united:2 kingdom:2 suggest:1 population:2 move:2 onto:2 climate:3 time:3 warm:2 today:10 tree:1 settler:2 begin:1 clear:2 forest:2 establish:3 first:1 farming:1 community:1 fire:6 main:1 method:1 land:7 create:2 pasture:1 swidden:1 type:1 fallow:1 farmland:1 less:1 suit:2 farm:3 tend:2 burn:1 livestock:1 grazing:1 century:9 practice:1 greatly:1 contribute:1 acidification:1 soil:2 role:1 anthropogenic:1 burning:1 sustain:2 describe:1 pyne:2 pp:1 nature:1 highly:1 acidic:1 mean:2 organic:1 remains:4 survive:2 contrast:1 durability:1 home:2 monument:1 still:6 find:7 abundance:1 flint:1 tool:1 note:2 restore:1 enthusiastic:1 victorian:4 case:1 interpretation:1 may:5 look:1 beardown:2 man:3 menhir:1 refer:1 locally:1 stand:6 stone:22 longstones:1 circle:10 kistvaens:2 cairn:2 row:8 significant:2 site:11 near:10 devil:2 isolate:1 say:3 ground:1 challacombe:1 settlement:3 grimspound:4 triple:1 drizzlecombe:1 sheepstor:1 village:2 grey:2 wether:2 postbridge:2 double:4 align:2 almost:3 exactly:2 north:3 laughter:1 bridge:8 one:1 long:7 merrivale:1 princetown:2 tavistock:2 wide:1 kistvaen:1 scorhill:2 chagford:2 circumference:1 shovel:1 fernworthy:3 reservoir:5 approximately:1 upper:1 estimated:1 hut:2 despite:1 fact:2 raid:1 builder:1 traditional:1 wall:1 remnant:1 house:5 small:1 around:5 diameter:1 five:1 size:1 l:2 shaped:1 porch:1 wind:1 good:1 example:1 believe:1 would:3 conical:1 roof:1 support:1 timber:1 turf:1 thatch:1 ancient:7 structure:1 reconstruct:1 notably:1 civil:1 engineer:1 historian:1 richard:1 hansford:1 worth:1 work:6 base:1 speculation:1 archaeological:1 expertise:1 since:3 criticise:1 inaccuracy:1 historical:1 worsen:1 course:1 bc:1 largely:2 abandon:3 inhabitant:1 medieval:1 weather:1 forebear:1 build:3 prefer:1 style:1 longhouse:1 inhabit:1 although:1 clearly:1 adapt:1 building:2 fell:1 ruin:1 surviving:1 operation:1 tenement:1 sometimes:1 earlier:1 way:3 town:2 notorious:1 prison:2 originally:1 prisoner:1 war:4 napoleonic:2 misplace:1 reputation:1 escape:1 proof:2 location:7 scatter:1 mark:3 leave:2 generation:1 live:2 mighty:1 farmhouse:1 industrial:3 subject:1 myth:2 literature:1 abound:1 legend:3 reputedly:1 haunt:1 pixy:1 headless:1 horseman:1 mysterious:2 pack:1 spectral:1 hound:3 black:2 dog:1 great:3 thunderstorm:1 even:1 visit:3 landmark:2 ghost:1 story:2 associate:1 jay:2 grave:2 burial:3 childe:2 tomb:2 pile:1 call:2 bowerman:2 nose:2 cross:6 mediaeval:1 emerge:1 recent:5 decade:2 hairy:1 hand:1 attack:1 traveller:1 inspire:1 artist:2 writer:2 sir:1 arthur:1 conan:1 doyle:1 baskervilles:1 adventure:1 silver:1 blaze:1 eden:1 phillpotts:1 beatrice:1 chase:1 agatha:1 christie:1 reverend:1 sabine:1 bar:1 gould:1 ownership:1 half:1 private:1 duke:1 cornwall:1 title:1 hold:1 charter:1 edward:1 iii:1 prince:1 wale:2 ministry:3 defence:3 company:2 trust:1 forestry:1 commission:1 common:3 differs:1 act:4 opsi:1 website:2 designate:1 restriction:1 walker:5 roam:1 privately:1 footpath:3 bridleways:1 guidance:1 convenience:1 keep:1 generally:1 waymarked:1 connect:1 countryside:1 similar:2 rural:1 unaffected:1 legislation:1 exist:2 arrangement:1 open:3 restricted:1 topic:1 dispute:1 amongst:2 tradition:1 usage:1 british:3 army:2 training:3 camp:1 okehampton:1 airbase:1 second:1 world:3 mod:2 three:1 manoeuvre:1 exercise:1 total:1 red:2 white:1 post:2 boundary:1 show:1 ordnance:1 survey:1 scale:1 map:1 flagpole:1 fly:1 flag:1 allow:1 blank:1 notify:1 advance:1 charitable:1 assistance:1 beast:1 preservation:3 clapper:2 pony:1 throughout:2 human:1 exploit:1 purpose:1 controversy:2 conglomerate:1 imerys:2 watts:1 blake:1 bearne:1 china:1 clay:1 licence:3 grant:2 recently:1 renounce:1 pressure:1 body:1 association:2 heavy:1 machinery:1 particular:1 criticism:1 lee:1 destroy:1 archaeologically:1 make:4 promise:1 integrity:1 cost:1 compensate:1 political:1 could:2 prove:1 prohibitive:1 extend:1 january:1 receive:1 objection:1 decision:1 objector:1 claim:1 recreation:1 disturb:1 peace:1 object:1 space:1 society:2 lifetime:1 lady:1 sayer:1 outspoken:1 critic:1 damage:1 perceive:1 villages:1 typical:1 close:1 resident:1 swell:1 holiday:1 incoming:1 beare:1 remote:3 woodland:1 stunted:2 oak:2 okement:1 valley:4 unusual:1 brentor:1 church:4 crag:2 western:2 edge:1 burrator:1 castle:2 drogo:1 edwardian:1 faux:1 edwin:1 lutyens:1 gorge:4 drewsteignton:1 tawton:1 ale:1 cosdon:1 cawsand:1 beacon:2 extremity:1 invasion:1 warning:1 cranmere:3 pool:5 original:2 letter:2 binjie:1 crazywell:1 artificial:1 lake:2 devonport:1 leat:1 channel:1 duck:2 memorial:2 william:4 dam:4 face:1 concrete:2 nr:1 link:3 dominant:1 nw:1 scarp:1 pair:1 viewpoint:1 tracey:1 widecombe:1 tramway:3 remarkable:1 rail:1 run:1 quarry:1 stover:1 canal:3 rugged:1 iron:2 lydford:1 dramatic:3 deep:1 narrow:2 waterfall:1 meldon:1 viaduct:1 powdermills:1 cherrybrook:1 gunpowder:1 grind:1 mill:1 rattlebrook:1 railway:2 horse:1 track:1 skaigh:1 wooded:1 lead:1 belstone:1 famous:1 sticklepath:1 fault:1 preserve:1 e:2 ver:2 gidleigh:1 cleave:1 marytavy:2 confluence:1 wallabrook:1 tolmen:2 coaching:1 inn:3 warren:1 sw:1 widgery:2 atop:1 brat:1 erect:1 commemorate:1 golden:1 jubilee:1 queen:1 victoria:1 wistman:1 wood:1 copse:1 wheal:1 betsy:1 engine:1 mine:1 blackdown:1 climb:1 climbing:2 bouldering:1 form:1 popularity:1 offer:1 letterboxing:6 definitive:1 guide:3 write:1 era:1 crossing:2 state:1 bottle:1 visitor:3 card:1 seem:1 origin:1 plaque:1 letterbox:3 memory:1 pursuit:1 increasingly:1 watertight:1 container:1 letterboxes:8 hide:1 book:1 rubber:2 stamp:4 intention:1 postcard:1 collect:1 next:1 person:2 impression:1 record:1 personal:1 logbook:1 dozen:1 inaccessible:1 within:1 easy:1 road:1 club:4 membership:1 anyone:1 least:1 clue:5 publish:1 catalogue:2 mouth:1 obtain:1 internet:1 commonly:1 sport:1 gather:1 child:1 difficult:1 tough:1 terrain:1 experienced:1 adult:1 various:1 geocaches:1 consider:1 geocache:1 gps:1 coordinate:1 whereas:1 consist:1 grid:1 reference:2 compass:1 bearing:1 geology:1 discovery:1 ultramarathon:1 race:1 cut:1 basin:1 external:1 legendary:1 official:1 rescue:1 group:1 j:2 g:1 ed:1 wetland:1 exeter:1 isbn:2 stephen:1 vestal:1 environmental:1 tell:1 europe:2 encounter:1 university:1 washington:1 press:1 seattle:1 edition:1 reprint:1 new:1 introd:1 brian:1 le:1 messurier:1 dawlish:1 david:1 charles:1 |@bigram http_www:1 tourist_destination:1 mile_km:1 mining_quarrying:1 peat_bog:1 dartmoor_prison:1 arthur_conan:1 conan_doyle:1 eden_phillpotts:1 agatha_christie:1 ordnance_survey:1 outspoken_critic:1 edwin_lutyens:1 haytor_granite:2 wooded_valley:1 golden_jubilee:1 queen_victoria:1 rock_climbing:1 victorian_era:1 rubber_stamp:2 distance_footpath:1 external_link:1 exeter_devon:1 |
4,637 | New_York_Jets | The New York Jets are a professional American football team based in the New York metropolitan area. They are members of the Eastern Division of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The team plays its home games in East Rutherford, New Jersey, at Giants Stadium, which is named after the other NFL team that plays there, the New York Giants. The team's training facility and corporate headquarters, which opened in 2008, are located in Florham Park, New Jersey. Formerly, their headquarters and training facility were located at Hofstra University in Hempstead, New York, on Long Island. The team began in 1960 as a charter member of the American Football League under the name New York Titans. It was renamed after Andres J Grosser bought the team in 1963. The Jets later joined the NFL as part of the AFL-NFL Merger. The Jets hold the distinction of being the first AFL team to defeat an NFL club in an AFL-NFL World Championship Game when they defeated the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III. Franchise history Originally known as the New York Titans, the team played home games at the Polo Grounds. But they had trouble attracting crowds despite fielding respectable teams that finished .500 (7–7) during their first two seasons. After a 5–9 season in 1962, the team's future was in doubt. It was saved from bankruptcy by a five-man syndicate — David A. "Sonny" Werblin, Townsend B. Martin, Leon Hess, Donald C. Lillis and Philip H. Iselin, who purchased the New York franchise for $1 million from Harry Wismer on March 13, 1964. Leon Hess eventually bought out his partners with the exception of Lillis' daughter Helen Dillon, with whom he co-owned the team until February 1984 when Dillon, a partner since 1968, sold her 25 percent interest in the club. Hess retained sole ownership until his death, and his estate then sold the team to Johnson & Johnson heir Robert Wood Johnson IV in 2000. After Werblin, Martin, Hess, Lillis, and Iselin took over, the team was renamed the New York Jets as they planned to relocate from the Polo Grounds to Shea Stadium, home of the New York Mets, one year later. Shea Stadium was so close to LaGuardia Airport that the sound of jets roaring overhead was a common sound heard during games played there. The colors of the team were also changed from blue and gold to kelly green and white, which also were the colors of Hess' gasoline stations. Exactly one month after the sale of the team, the Jets hired Weeb Ewbank as head coach. Ewbank had won back-to-back NFL championships in 1958 and 1959 with the Baltimore Colts, and was one of the most respected coaches in the game. Broadway Joe 1965–69 The Jets improved steadily on the field after Joe Namath's arrival. In 1967, the former Alabama quarterback led the Jets to an 8–5–1 record, their best record yet. Namath reached a milestone by passing for 4,007 yards in 1967, a 14-game season, making him the first-ever professional quarterback to pass for 4,000 yards in a season. This was especially remarkable considering that at the time, 3,000 yards passing was considered an excellent year. In 1968, the Jets would reach the pinnacle of their existence and provide the moment that would indicate the AFL's coming of age. Under Namath's guidance, the Jets rose to the top of the AFL, defeating the Oakland Raiders in a thrilling AFL championship game, 27–23, on December 29. The win qualified them to represent their league in a game that was being referred to for the first time as the Super Bowl (and referred to retroactively as Super Bowl III) on January 12, 1969. They were pitted against the champions of the NFL, the Baltimore Colts. At the time, the AFL was considered to be inferior to the NFL, and most people considered the Jets to be considerable underdogs and treated the Jets as such. That would change three nights before the game while Namath was being honored by the Miami Touchdown Club as its Player Of The Year. Namath took exception to a heckling Colts fan and used that moment to lament the lack of respect his team had gotten to that point. He then said "We're gonna win the game. I guarantee you." He guaranteed it - Pro Football Hall of Fame His audacious remark proved correct, as the Jets created one of the greatest upsets in football history by defeating the Colts 16–7. This victory showed that the AFL was capable of competing with the NFL. It also gave Shea Stadium the first of two World Championships in the 1969 calendar year , as the Amazin' Mets won the World Series nine months later. 1970–76 Namath's career mirrored the Jets after the AFL-NFL merger became final in 1970. He missed much of the 1970, 1971, and 1973 seasons due to injuries, most notably to his ravaged knees, which robbed him of his mobility and much of his effectiveness. He would not throw more touchdowns than interceptions in a season after the merger, and in fact only had two post-merger seasons (1972 and 1974) where his performance could have been classified as reasonably successful (the Jets also had relative success in those years as well, finishing 7–7 both years). After a terrible 1976 season in which Namath only threw 4 touchdown passes against 16 interceptions (six of them in a 38–24 loss to the New England Patriots) in 11 games, Namath was waived by the Jets when a trade couldn't be worked out to facilitate his move to the Los Angeles Rams. He would play only four games for the Rams before announcing his retirement at the end of the season, at the relatively young age of 34. Although Namath would make the Hall of Fame, it was widely acknowledged that he made it on his performance through the 1969 season and his role in leading the Jets to a victory in Super Bowl III. Post Joe Namath 1977–1983 After Namath's departure, Walt Michaels was hired for the 1977 season and stayed with the team for six years. In Michaels's first year, the Jets finished 3–11 for the third straight year. However, the Jets were rejuvenated for the 1978 season, with unheralded quarterback Matt Robinson replacing Richard Todd and throwing for 2,000 yards and the team finishing 8–8. The Jets were actually 8–6 after the first 14 games and had a chance at a playoff berth, but they lost their final two games. Richard Todd again took over under center for the 1979 season and did even better, but the Jets again finished 8–8. Todd imploded with a 30-interception season in 1980, and the team went down with him, finishing 4–12, last place in the AFC East. The lowest point was a 21-20 loss to the then 0-14 New Orleans Saints, who would eventually finish 1–15. The 1981 season was the Jets' first winning season since the AFL-NFL merger. The Jets would finish 10–5–1 and make the playoffs for the first time since 1969 on Richard Todd's 3,231 yards passing and 25 touchdowns, most of them to Wesley Walker and Jerome Barkum. A late comeback in their first playoff game, against the Buffalo Bills, was stopped when Todd threw an interception deep in Bills territory in the final minute, and the Jets were eliminated. One of the Jets' bright spots for the 1981 season was their defensive line. All-Pro's Mark Gastineau and Joe Klecko anchored the "New York Sack Exchange" and combined for more than 40 quarterback sacks. The line also featured Marty Lyons and Abdul Salaam. In 1982, powered by the Sack Exchange and running back Freeman McNeil, the Jets went through Cincinnati and the Raiders in the playoffs for a meeting in the Conference Finals with the Miami Dolphins. Richard Todd almost single handedly ruined this game for them by throwing 5 interceptions. The Dolphins would wind up winning this controversial game in the mud of the Orange Bowl (game would be known as the Mud Bowl). The Dolphins ownership and coaches decided not to tarp the field during heavy rains the day before the game http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFL_playoffs,_1982-83 , slowing down the Jets pass rushing and their running game. Joe Walton became the new coach for the 1983 season, and he led the team to a 7–9 season. Move to the Meadowlands After the 1983 season, the Jets lease with the city for the use of Shea Stadium had expired, and the Jets would need to cut a new deal. The Jets had faced onerous lease terms at Shea until 1978 when they weren't able to play home games until the Mets completed their season. Often the Mets would use their status as the stadium's primary tenant to force the Jets on long road trips early in the season. Giants Stadium has been home to the Jets since 1984. The Jets failed to reach an agreement with the City of New York about improvements to Shea Stadium, and instead reached an agreement with the New Jersey Sports and Exhibition Authority to play their home games at Giants Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey beginning in 1984. The Jets played their last game at Shea in 1983, a 34–7 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers. Oddly enough, the Jets first game at Giants Stadium in 1984 was a loss to the Steelers as well, 23-17. Despite the move to Giants Stadium, the Jets organization made the decision to remain the "New York" Jets, mirroring the decision made by the Giants in 1976 when they moved, thus staking a claim to fans throughout the Metropolitan New York Tri-State area. Furthermore, despite being in a different state, the Jets' new home was closer to Times Square and midtown Manhattan than Shea Stadium was, as the crow flies across the Hudson River; although considerably farther from the team's Long Island fans and Hofstra University offices and training facilities. In their first season at their new home, veteran quarterback Pat Ryan would start, 1983 first round draft pick Ken O'Brien would eventually take over at quarterback; but the team stumbled to a 7–9 record. It is worth noting that the Jets passed over Dan Marino in the draft, in favor of Ken O'Brien. In 1985 O'Brien threw 25 touchdowns (including 7 to Mickey Shuler and 5 to Wesley Walker) with only 8 interceptions, and four different rushers combined for 18 touchdowns on the ground. The Jets made the playoffs with an 11–5 record, and hosted their first playoff game in 16 years; however they were defeated in the first round by the eventual AFC champion New England Patriots 26–14. The Jets then won 9 straight games to start the 1986 season at 10–1. Wesley Walker caught 12 touchdowns, with second-year player Al Toon catching 8. The team slid through December, losing five straight to finish 10–6. Pat Ryan was named the starting quarterback for the playoffs, and they defeated the Kansas City Chiefs handily in the first round. However, a late collapse in Cleveland against the Browns in their divisional playoff matchup led to a double-overtime winning field goal by Mark Moseley that denied the Jets a berth in the AFC Championship game. Late in the Cleveland game, one of the most infamous plays in Jets history occurred when Browns quarterback Bernie Kosar threw an incomplete pass on 2nd down and 24, but the Browns were awarded a first down when Mark Gastineau was penalized for roughing the passer, giving them a first down at the Browns 33, from where they would get first a touchdown and then in the closing seconds of regulation a game-tying field goal. 1990s In 1990, the Jets hired Dick Steinberg from the New England Patriots to be the franchise's General Manager. One of his first moves was to hire Bruce Coslet, offensive coordinator of the Cincinnati Bengals as head coach. Coslet's offensive schemes had helped lead the Bengals to the 1988 Super Bowl where they nearly defeated the San Francisco 49ers. Steinberg and Coslet let most of the key players from the 1980s go and built from scratch. In 1991, with Brad Baxter tallying a career-high 11 rushing touchdowns, the Jets improved to 8–8, winning their season finale against the Miami Dolphins to earn a trip to the playoffs and deny one to the rival Dolphins. Despite their modest regular season record, the Jets played a close game against the Houston Oilers in their opening-round playoff game, losing 17–10. After their successful 1991 season, Jets fans expectations were high. Coslet chose second-year quarterback Browning Nagle as their starter over Ken O'Brien, which came as somewhat of a surprise at first, but Nagle had shown some promise and seemed to be ready to take the job. Unfortunately for the Jets, Nagle was not up for the job, and the Jets disappointed fans with a 4–12 finish. The year was marked by a near-tragedy in November when defensive lineman Dennis Byrd was temporarily paralyzed when he collided with teammate Scott Mersereau in a home game against Kansas City. Thanks to what—at the time—was a relatively untested steroid treatment, Byrd was able to walk again in a matter of months. After the 1992 season, having again identified the quarterback position as a position of need, the Jets traded a third-round pick for longtime Cincinnati Bengals quarterback Boomer Esiason. Coslet and Esiason had worked together successfully in Cincinnati, and the hope was that they could continue that success with the Jets. Although a mid-season winning streak gave Jets fans hope, they missed the playoffs at 8–8 with a loss to Houston in their final game. Coslet was fired as head coach and replaced by Pete Carroll. Off the field, the Jets also enjoyed a boost in their local profile when WFAN-AM, one of the highest profile stations in the country, acquired the radio rights to the Jets. Although WFAN had contracts with other New York-area professional teams, they lacked a contract with a pro football franchise, and when WCBS-AM decided to not renew the sports rights packages they had acquired, WFAN took advantage of the opportunity to cover the Jets. The strength of the clear-channel WFAN signal, as well as the fact that the Jets would be carried on a dedicated sports-radio station with a rabid and loyal following, gave the Jets a broader reach and visibility with their potential audience that they had not enjoyed previously. The Jets started the 1994 season 6–5 and played Miami on November 27. In a game against the Dolphins, Dan Marino fooled Jet defender Aaron Glenn into thinking that he would spike the ball to stop the clock, then threw the winning touchdown to Mark Ingram with less than a minute left for the victory. The play came to be known as "The Fake Spike." The Jets would lose their last four games, finishing the season 6–10, last place in the AFC East. Carroll was fired after only one season and replaced by former Philadelphia Eagles coach Rich Kotite. During Kotite's two-year term in New York, the Jets won only four games: a 3–13 record in 1995, and 1–15 in 1996, in both cases the worst in the NFL. Having lost his last seven games as the Eagles' coach, Kotite finished his NFL head coaching career with a 4–35 record in his final 39 games—one of the worst prolonged stretches for an NFL head coach in history. Kotite did set the stage for the rebirth of the Parcells led Jets by drafting Keyshawn Johnson and signing Neil O'Donnell. After the 1996 season, the Jets would go on to enjoy a sort of resurgence in relatively short order. New England Patriots coach Bill Parcells, fresh off of leading the Patriots to a Super Bowl, left Foxboro to take the Jets' coaching job for the 1997 season. Parcells was attracted not only by a return to the New York area, where he had enjoyed his greatest success with the Giants, but also by the opportunity to both coach and have full control over personnel decisions. Parcells had craved this dual role in New England, and was quoted as saying that "if (he) cooks the meal, (he) should be able to buy the groceries." The draft set the stage for a quick turnaround in the late 1990s, most notably Keyshawn Johnson, a wide receiver from USC who was picked #1 overall. The pick of Johnson not only gave the Jets a skill position player they desperately needed, but an on-field identity and swagger the team had lacked since the days of Joe Namath. The results were immediate. Neil O'Donnell, formerly of the Pittsburgh Steelers, threw for 17 touchdowns in his only full year as the Jets' starting quarterback, and Adrian Murrell ran for 1,000 yards. The Jets finished 9–7, but missed the playoffs, in part because of a somewhat curious call by Parcells against the Detroit Lions. Parcells had Leon Johnson throw a halfback option, which was intercepted. After that play, Barry Sanders took over the game and went over the 2,000-yard rushing mark on the year. Overall, the Jets enjoyed an eight-game turnaround and quickly won back the respect of the league and their fans. Looking to build on his 1997 success, Parcells signed Patriots running back Curtis Martin, which, at the time, seemed like a move to secure the backup quarterback position with Vinny Testaverde as free agents in time for the 1998 season, which turned out to be the most successful for the team since the 1960s. At Parcells's urging, the Jets also reverted to their classic logo and uniform style, although with a darker shade of green. Parcells said that when he was a young coach, he would see the successful late-60's Jets practice in those uniforms, and Parcells associated that uniform and logo with those of a successful team. Parcells's personnel moves paid immediate dividends. After starting Glenn Foley in the first couple of games, Parcells went to Testaverde, who ended up throwing 28 touchdowns, Martin ran for 1,287 yards and 8 touchdowns, while both Keyshawn Johnson and Wayne Chrebet had 1,000 yards receiving. The Jets won 10 of their last 11 games and finished the season 12–4, setting a team record for wins in a season. After a first-round bye, the Jets beat the Jacksonville Jaguars in their divisional home playoff game, winning 34–24 with a game-ending interception by Keyshawn Johnson, who had previously scored on a pass and a run. The playoff game was the first home playoff game the Jets had since 1986, when they defeated Kansas City 35-15 in a wild-card game. Although New York enjoyed a 10–0 lead in the third quarter of the AFC championship against the Denver Broncos, Testaverde threw two late interceptions and Denver running back Terrell Davis burned the Jets for 167 yards and a touchdown as the Broncos won 23–10. The Jets high hopes for the 1999 season were greatly compromised in their first game against the New England Patriots, when, on the first play of the second quarter, Testaverde ruptured his Achilles tendon. Backup QB Rick Mirer took over, quarterbacking the Jets to a 2–6 record, after which Ray Lucas became the starter. Lucas sparked the team by winning five of his eight starts, but it was not enough as the Jets finished 8-8 and outside of the playoffs. Before the 1999 season, Leon Hess, longtime owner of the Jets, died at age 85. Hess had hired Parcells, and Parcells's role under the new ownership was unclear. As had happened when Parcells was in New England, the ownership that hired him soon was succeeded by new ownership. Despite new owner Woody Johnson's desire to keep Parcells as head coach, Parcells stepped down as head coach at the season's end. However, he remained the team's Chief of Football Operations. Chad Pennington Era 2000-2007 Chad Pennington talks with teammates during a 2006 game against the Houston Texans. In the 2000 NFL Draft, the Jets had four first-round selections. They drafted defensive ends Shaun Ellis and John Abraham, tight end Anthony Becht and quarterback Chad Pennington. Parcells' handpicked successor, Bill Belichick, resigned after one day on the job (infamously writing on a napkin "I resign as HC of the NYJ") and ended up taking the head coaching job with the Patriots. The Jets would eventually receive a first-round draft pick for Belichick's rights. After Belichick's departure, Parcells promoted longtime assistant Al Groh from linebacker coach to head coach for the 2000 season. Once Al Groh became Jets head coach the first move was to trade Keyshawn Johnson to the Tampa Bay Bucs for a first-round pick. Rumors circulated in New York that Groh didn't want to handle a guy like Johnson who had such a strong persona. Keyshawn made a comment before the Jets traveled to Florida to face the Bucs that he was like a star in the sky and Wayne Chrebet, his former teammate, was like a flashlight. In the game down in Tampa, Chrebet went on to out-play Johnson, scoring a touchdown on an option pass from Martin to win the game for New York. For the rest of the year Chrebet was known as the Green Lantern. The Jets won 6 of their first 7 games, capped by the biggest comeback in Monday Night Football history against the Dolphins. Down 30–7 entering the fourth quarter, the Jets exploded for 30 points in the last 15 minutes, and John Hall kicked the winning field goal in overtime. It came to be known as "The Monday Night Miracle". It was the highlight of the season, but they only won three of their last 9 games, finishing at 9–7 and out of the playoffs. Behind the scenes, the Jets' players, because they felt overworked and fed up with Groh's militaristic style, staged a near-mutiny against their coach. Groh resigned after his first season to coach the team at his alma mater, the University of Virginia. Parcells also left the organization after the 2000 season, to be replaced by Kansas City Chiefs executive Terry Bradway. Under new coach Herman Edwards, who had been the assistant head coach and defensive backs coach under Tony Dungy with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, the Jets were streaky through the 2001 season in a highly competitive AFC East. The team managed to salvage a wild card playoff berth with a 53-yard game-winning field goal against the Oakland Raiders in the final minute, forcing a rematch with the Raiders in the opening postseason game. The results were different, however, as Oakland running back Charlie Garner sealed the game with an 80-yard touchdown on third down to extend the Raiders' lead to 38-24 with 87 seconds left. During that play, many Jets fans felt that safety Victor Green was held to allow Garner to break through the line, but no penalty was called. The AFC East proved to be even more competitive in 2002, with all four teams in the race well into December. Testaverde was benched early in the season with the team at 1-4, and replaced with Chad Pennington, who proved to be the spark the Jets needed. Pennington threw 22 touchdowns and only 6 interceptions, and a final-week win over the Green Bay Packers, coupled with a Patriots win over the Dolphins, gave them the AFC East title at 9-7. The Jets would cruise through their opening playoff game at home with a 41-0 blowout of the Indianapolis Colts, but collapsed in the second half and lost the to the eventual AFC champion Raiders in the divisional playoffs with the score of 30-10. The Jets lost several players to free agency before the 2003 season, many to the Washington Redskins; these players were known as the "Jetskins", including starting wide receiver Laveranues Coles (Coles would later return to the team through a trade with the Redskins for another young Jet WR, Santana Moss.) Additionally, a pre-season injury to Pennington, a broken wrist during a game against the Giants, would adversely affect the Jets throughout 2003. It would be Testaverde (whose injury in the 1999 season opener similarly set the tone for the year) who was called upon to take over. Though Testaverde gave his best effort, and Pennington came back midway through the season, it was not enough. The Jets finished 6-10. Pennington and the Jets started the 2004 season 5-0 before losing 2 of their next 3. Despite struggling down the stretch and having Pennington miss three games (later revealed to be an injured rotator cuff), the Jets finished with a 10-6 record and earned a wild-card berth. Herman Edwards' team then faced the AFC West champion San Diego Chargers in the wild-card round, a team that featured Pro Bowlers Drew Brees, LaDainian Tomlinson, and Antonio Gates. The Jets took advantage of San Diego miscues and what some felt was an overly conservative strategy by the Chargers. But with the Jets leading, 17-10, with less than 20 seconds left in regulation, Jets linebacker Eric Barton was penalized for roughing the passer, nullifying Brees' fourth down incompletion and giving San Diego a first down from the one-yard line. Brees threw a touchdown to tight end Gates on the following play, setting up overtime. Chargers rookie kicker Nate Kaeding missed a 40-yard field goal late in the extra period, allowing the Jets to come back down the field. Kicker Doug Brien won the game for the Jets with a 28-yard field goal with five seconds remaining in overtime to beat the Chargers 20-17. The game sent the Jets to the divisional round against the 15–1 Pittsburgh Steelers. While the offense struggled producing only a field goal, a punt return by Santana Moss and interception return by Reggie Tongue kept the Jets in the game. With the score tied at 17–17 late in the fourth quarter, Doug Brien lined up for a 47-yard field goal attempt that would have put the Jets up. However it hit the crossbar of the goal post just short of being successful. Despite this the Jets came through yet again, with an interception by cornerback David Barrett on the next play. Rather than try to drive for a touchdown or otherwise get closer for a game-winning field goal, the Jets seemed content to settle for a 43-yard field goal attempt that would have given the Jets the win—ironically, the same unsuccessful strategy the Chargers had employed the previous week. Brien's kick missed, wide left, forcing the game into overtime. The Jets would lose on a 33-yard field goal by Pittsburgh kicker Jeff Reed, as the Jets fell just short yet again. In the days following the loss, many people and pundits opined that the Jets lost this game by not being aggressive and being too willing to settle for a risky field goal attempt, ignoring the fact that Brien had been 10-11 in field goal attempts between 40-49 yards on the season. Others, however, contend that none of those field goals had been in the notoriously unpredictable winds of Heinz Field, voted by the league's special teamers as the worst field to kick in every year since 2000. Laveranues Coles, Jets Wide receiver 2000-2002, 2005-2008 The 2005 season started out with the Jets reacquiring WR Laveranues Coles from the Washington Redskins and acquiring CB Ty Law from the New England Patriots. The Jets also acquired free agent quarterback Jay Fiedler of the Miami Dolphins as a veteran backup for the starter, Chad Pennington. During the Draft, the Jets traded their first-round selection for Raiders Tight End Doug Jolley. Many fans felt that the Jets should have drafted Virginia tight end Heath Miller instead of trading for the inconsistent Jolley. The Jets used their first selection (2nd round, 15th pick) to select Ohio State kicker Mike Nugent to replace the departed Doug Brien. The Jets allowed several key role players to leave through free agency or traded them for underachieving players. These players included LaMont Jordan, Kareem McKenzie, Sam Cowart, Jason Ferguson, and to a lesser extent Anthony Becht. The Jets entered the season with high hopes of contending for the Super Bowl, but their hopes were dismantled in week three against the Jaguars when Chad Pennington reinjured his shoulder. Even worse, their backup quarterback Jay Fiedler was injured six plays after Pennington. They were both placed on injured reserve for the remainder of the season. The injuries caused previous third-string quarterback Brooks Bollinger to take the role as the team's starter and Vinny Testaverde was brought back out of retirement as Bollinger's backup. After a poor showing by the Jets' offense in a loss, Testaverde would start the Week 5 game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. His steady hand led the offense, and Curtis Martin scored two touchdowns, giving the Jets just enough to earn a 14–12 victory over the previously undefeated Buccaneers. But the season got very sour after the victory over Tampa Bay. They would lose their next 7 games before finally beating the Oakland Raiders in Week 14. The injuries of several key players, including running back Derrick Blaylock and cornerback David Barrett, and season-ending injuries of wide receiver Wayne Chrebet, tight end Chris Baker, right tackle Jason Fabini, and Pro bowl starting center Kevin Mawae, among others, severely hampered their ability to play competitively. Even in the victory against the Raiders, the Jets suffered another morale-sagging injury. Running back Curtis Martin did not play in the game due to a season-ending knee injury that required arthroscopic surgery. The Jets' only noteworthy accomplishment of the remainder of the season would be their participation in the final Monday Night Football game aired on ABC, a 31-21 home loss to the Patriots. They ended the year with a 4-12 record and "earned" the fourth pick in the 2006 NFL Draft, which they used to select D'Brickashaw Ferguson. On January 8, 2006, Herm Edwards ended his time as head coach of the Jets and he signed a 4-year, $12,000,000 contract to become the new head of the Kansas City Chiefs and succeed his original mentor Dick Vermeil, who was Edwards' head coach with the Philadelphia Eagles. The Jets received a 4th round draft pick from the Chiefs as compensation for Edwards, who was still under contract with the Jets at the time. The Jets were criticized for what was considered inadequate compensation for the loss of their head coach. Others felt the Jets were fortunate that another team was willing to take Edwards, who was 5–15 over his last 20 regular season games, off their hands and give up a draft choice to do so. That pick, a fourth-rounder, ended up being used to select the dynamic running back from Florida State, Leon Washington. 2006-07 On January 17, the Jets-Patriots coaching pipeline reared itself yet again, as New England defensive coordinator Eric Mangini was hired by the Jets. Mangini's first order of business was to reorganize the coaching staff. Offensive Coordinator Mike Heimerdinger and Defensive Coordinator Donnie Henderson were both released from the Jets staff. Special Teams Coordinator Mike Westhoff was retained. A full staff was announced on February 20. Linebackers coach Bob Sutton was named defensive coordinator and the team signed Jim Herrmann to replace Sutton as the linebackers coach. Herrmann was the defensive coordinator at the University of Michigan for twenty years before arriving in New York. Eric Mangini then installed a 3-4 defense. General Manager Terry Bradway announced that he was stepping down as Jets GM on February 7, 2006. Assistant GM Mike Tannenbaum was named the new GM on the same day. Bradway would then continue to be employed by the Jets organization as a scouting consultant. The Jets finished the regular season with a record of 10–6, having defeated the Minnesota Vikings, Miami Dolphins, and the Oakland Raiders in their last three games. The Jets earned an AFC Wild Card spot in the playoffs, the number 5 seed and surprised most pundits who predicted a rebuilding year. Players celebrated afterwards by saying the word "playoffs", a word Mangini banished during the regular season to focus players on the regular season. On January 7, 2007, the Jets played rival AFC East champion New England Patriots. The Jets had both beaten and lost to the Patriots in the regular season. While the Jets took an early 10-7 lead after a field goal and a 77-yard touchdown catch and run by Jerricho Cotchery, which was the second longest pass play in Wild Card history, the Jets were not able to score another touchdown, and the Patriots closed out the game after two turnovers by the Jets offense. The Jets postseason ended with a 37–16 loss. One notable aspect of the game was the rivalry between Patriot head coach Bill Belichick and Jet head coach Eric Mangini. The two were not on good terms, and their relationship was widely publicized before the game. Regardless, at games end, the two embraced. On September 10, Bill Belichick was accused by the Jets of authorizing his staff to film the Jets' defensive signals from an on-field location, a violation of league rules. The Jets confiscated the video camera used by video assistant Matt Estrella to film the signals during the game and filed a complaint to the league office, detailing the accusations. The 2007 season opened with high expectations from fans, as the lackluster 2006 running game was boosted by the addition of former Chicago Bears running back Thomas Jones. But with a tougher schedule than the one faced in 2006, commentators were skeptical. Unfortunately for the Jets, the commentators were right. Chad Pennington, who a year earlier had been named NFL Comeback Player of the Year, having overcome what many thought was a career ending rotator cuff injury, began to be hampered by his weakened arm as opposing defenses were not forced to stretch their coverage due to Pennington's inability to throw the ball fast or far. After the team struggled to a 1–7 start, second year quarterback Kellen Clemens replaced Pennington as the starting quarterback. Though Clemens showed himself to be a strong, athletic quarterback, he was unable to turn the ailing team around due to an offensive line that could not keep him safe long enough to throw effective passes. Clemens earned his first professional win on November 18, as the Jets defeated the heavily favored Pittsburgh Steelers, 19–16, in overtime. The Jets would go on to finish the season 4–12 and earn the sixth overall pick in the 2008 NFL Draft, which they used to select Vernon Gholston. During the offseason, the Jets made former Pittsburgh Steelers left guard Alan Faneca the highest paid offensive lineman in the National Football League. The Jets then signed former Arizona Cardinals linebacker Calvin Pace, former Detroit Lions right tackle Damien Woody, fullback Tony Richardson, cornerback Andre Woolfolk, tight end Bubba Franks, and running back Jesse Chatman. 2008: Brett Favre Arrives, Then Retires Favre playing against Washington Redskins in the 2008 preseason. On August 6, 2008, the Jets acquired quarterback Brett Favre from the Green Bay Packers for a conditional 4th round draft pick. The Jets had originally intended to pick Favre in the 1991 NFL Draft, but the Atlanta Falcons, who were one spot ahead of the Jets, chose him instead. On August 7, 2008, the day that Brett Favre had been traded to the Jets, they decided to part ways with former starting quarterback Chad Pennington. He was released from the team later on in the day, and eventually went on to sign with the Miami Dolphins. Brett Favre had one of his best games of his long career when he threw 6 touchdowns in a 56–35 win against the Arizona Cardinals. The Jets finished the regular season with a 9-7 record, eliminated from playoff contention. Jets running back Thomas Jones had his best season as a pro with 1,312 rushing yards and 13 rushing touchdowns. He also added 207 yards and 2 more touchdowns as a receiver out of the backfield. The Jets failed to have a receiver exceed 1,000 yards receiving for the first time since 2005. The Jets had a more balanced attack in the air with two receivers with at least 850 yards. Rookie tight end Dustin Keller impressed with 28 catches for another 535 yards and 3 touchdowns. The defensive leaders for the Jets were Darrelle Revis with 5 interceptions and 16 passes defensed, Eric Barton with 119 tackles, Kerry Rhodes with 8 tackles for a loss and Shaun Ellis with 8.0 sacks. The Jets had a league high and franchise record 7 Pro-bowlers (Favre, Faneca, Mangold, Jones, Revis, Jenkins, Washington). On December 29, 2008, Eric Mangini was fired as head coach of the New York Jets after 3 seasons, with a record of 23 Wins and 26 Losses. 2009: Rex Ryan, Bart Scott and Mark Sanchez On January 19, 2009, following Baltimore's loss in the AFC Conference Championship, the New York Jets offered Rex Ryan a four-year deal worth 11.6 million dollars to become their head coach. Ryan accepted the offer and he was introduced as head coach of the Jets on Wednesday January 21, 2009. On Wednesday February 11, 2009 Quarterback Brett Favre announced he was retiring from the NFL after 18 seasons. On Friday February 27, 2009 the Jets signed linebacker Bart Scott to a 6 Year, $48 Million dollar contract On Tuesday March 3, 2009 the Jets signed safety Jim Leonhard to a 3 year contract. The Jets also traded for Lito Sheppard as well. In the 2009 NFL Draft, the Jets drafted, with the fifth pick, quarterback Mark Sanchez, from USC. The Jets also traded up in the third round to acquire Iowa Running Back Shonn Greene http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/12/sports/football/12favre.html?_r=1&ref=football Season-by-season records Logos and uniforms NY Jets uniform combinations NY Jets logo (1978-1997) NY Jets uniform: 1990-1997 NY Jets AFL logo NY Jets 40th anniversary Super Bowl III patch. Patch was worn on their left chest on October 26, 2008 against the Kansas City Chiefs. The uniform design was changed to white helmets, white pants, and either green or white jerseys. The green jerseys had white stripes on the shoulders and white sleeves. The white jerseys had green stripes on the shoulders and green sleeves. The Jets are often nicknamed "Gang Green" due to the color of their uniforms, and possibly a play on words as well. The team's logo in 1963 consisted of a green airplane with the word "JETS" written on its side. The logo was changed a year later to a football shaped oval with the letters "NY" superimposed, and superimposed over that, both the word "JETS" and a football in green. In 1965, the logo's colors were inverted so that the oval became green, and the word "JETS" and the football became white. In 1978, the Jets changed both their logo and uniform design. The new logo consisted of the word "JETS" with a futuristic jet above it. The new uniform design consisted of green helmets, white pants, and either green or white jerseys. The team wore their white uniforms for every home game from 1985 through 1989. The uniform was modified in 1990, when the team added a black outline, green pants and a black face mask. A subtle change took place in 1996 when the green helmet became a metalic kelly green instead of flat green. In 1998, the team reverted to the 1965 logo, or rather, a modified version, since the oval was now more rounded at the ends and no longer resembled a football. A slightly more modern version of the 1963 uniform design was introduced along with the logo. For both the logo and uniforms, the kelly green of old had been abandoned in favor of a darker shade, essentially forest green. In addition, the face mask color became green (compared to the gray face masks from 1963-1977). In 2002, the team introduced green pants which are almost always worn on the road with the white jerseys and at home to form an all green combination for 1 or 2 games a season. In that same season the Jets wore white at home for their first three home games, which included two in preseason and their first regular season home game. This was due to the Jets success in 2001 on the road. Since that time, the Jets always wear green at home except for home games in the first week of the regular season due to the heat. On October 14, 2007, The New York Jets celebrated their heritage with a special “Titans Throwback Day.” The Jets wore the navy and gold uniforms, in honor of the New York Titans (their previous incarnation) during their game against the Philadelphia Eagles at the Meadowlands. They also honored the four original Titans who played as Jets in Super Bowl III. The "Titans Throwback" uniform was again worn on December 2, 2007, when playing against the Miami Dolphins in Miami. The Jets went 1–1 in their throwbacks. They dropped a 16-9 decision to the Philadelphia Eagles at the Meadowlands on October 9 and then defeated the Dolphins, 40-13, in Miami on December 2. The throwback uniforms will be worn during the 2008 season. Originally scheduled for the home opener against the Patriots, the throwback days were changed to the second and third home games, against the Arizona Cardinals and Cincinnati Bengals, respectively. Victories over the Cardinals (56-35) and Bengals (26–14) improved the Jets to 3–1 in Titan throwbacks. For 2009-2010 season they are wearing white titans jersey with same pants and helmets for 50th season of afl. At the October 26, 2008 home game against the Kansas City Chiefs, the players wore a commemorative 40th anniversary Super Bowl III patch on their left chests to honor the Jets’ 1968 championship team. The team held a halftime ceremony to honor many of the championship alumni. Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers John Riggins Hall of Famer Joe Namath Hall of Famer Weeb Ewbank (coach, 1963–73) Don Maynard (WR, 1960–72) Joe Namath (QB, 1965–76) John Riggins (RB, 1971–75) Art Monk (WR, 1994) Ronnie Lott (DB, 1993-1994) Bulldog Turner (Coach, 1962) Ewbank, Maynard, and Namath are recognized based upon their achievements with the Jets, although Ewbank coached the Baltimore Colts to NFL championships in 1958 and 1959. Riggins is recognized primarily for his seasons with the Washington Redskins (1976–79, 81–85), as is Monk (1980–93), who won three Super Bowl championships in his tenure with the team. Retired numbers 12 Joe Namath 13 Don Maynard 73 Joe Klecko - - Weeb Ewbank (Jacket) Coaches of note Head coaches Current staff Radio and television As of 2008, the Jets' flagship radio station is WEPN, ESPN Radio 1050, with Bob Wischusen as the play-by-play announcer and Marty Lyons as the color analyst. The games are simulcast on WABC, the former sister station of WEPN and flagship, largely due to WABC's much stronger signal. WABC took over the radio rights from WFAN, who aired Jet games from 1993-1999 after purchasing those rights from sister station WCBS following the 1992 season. Any preseason games not nationally televised are shown on WCBS-TV, channel 2 (using a slightly modified version of the on-air graphics package used by CBS Sports for their national AFC telecasts), and rebroadcast on SportsNet New York. Ian Eagle calls the action on those telecasts. Notable past play-by-play announcers for the Titans/Jets include the legends Howard Cosell, Bob Murphy, Merle Harmon, Marty Glickman and Howard David, who has called the Super Bowl and the NBA Finals for Westwood One and ESPN Radio. Notes and references See also History of the New York Jets (Greater depth) List of American Football League players External links Official website | New_York_Jets |@lemmatized new:53 york:26 jet:192 professional:4 american:4 football:19 team:52 base:2 metropolitan:2 area:4 member:2 eastern:1 division:1 conference:3 afc:15 national:3 league:10 nfl:23 play:31 home:23 game:89 east:8 rutherford:2 jersey:10 giant:9 stadium:12 name:6 training:2 facility:3 corporate:1 headquarters:2 open:2 locate:2 florham:1 park:1 formerly:2 train:1 hofstra:2 university:4 hempstead:1 long:6 island:2 begin:2 charter:1 titan:8 rename:2 andres:1 j:1 grosser:1 buy:3 later:7 join:1 part:3 afl:12 merger:5 hold:3 distinction:1 first:41 defeat:11 club:3 world:3 championship:11 baltimore:5 colt:7 super:12 bowl:15 iii:6 franchise:5 history:7 originally:3 know:6 polo:2 ground:3 trouble:1 attract:2 crowds:1 despite:7 field:24 respectable:1 finish:21 two:12 season:81 future:1 doubt:1 save:1 bankruptcy:1 five:4 man:1 syndicate:1 david:4 sonny:1 werblin:2 townsend:1 b:1 martin:7 leon:5 hess:7 donald:1 c:1 lillis:3 philip:1 h:1 iselin:2 purchase:2 million:3 harry:1 wismer:1 march:2 eventually:5 partner:2 exception:2 daughter:1 helen:1 dillon:2 co:1 february:5 since:11 sell:2 percent:1 interest:1 retain:2 sole:1 ownership:5 death:1 estate:1 johnson:13 heir:1 robert:1 wood:1 iv:1 take:17 plan:1 relocate:1 shea:8 mets:4 one:18 year:30 close:5 laguardia:1 airport:1 sound:2 roar:1 overhead:1 common:1 heard:1 color:6 also:15 change:7 blue:1 gold:2 kelly:3 green:26 white:14 gasoline:1 station:6 exactly:1 month:3 sale:1 hire:7 weeb:3 ewbank:6 head:21 coach:41 win:32 back:18 respected:1 broadway:1 joe:10 improve:3 steadily:1 namath:16 arrival:1 former:9 alabama:1 quarterback:25 lead:12 record:16 best:4 yet:4 reach:5 milestone:1 pass:8 yard:25 make:9 ever:1 especially:1 remarkable:1 consider:5 time:12 passing:1 excellent:1 would:33 pinnacle:1 existence:1 provide:1 moment:2 indicate:1 come:7 age:3 guidance:1 rise:1 top:1 oakland:5 raider:10 thrilling:1 december:6 qualify:1 represent:1 refer:2 retroactively:1 january:6 pit:1 champion:5 inferior:1 people:2 considerable:1 underdogs:1 treat:1 three:7 night:4 honor:5 miami:10 touchdown:26 player:16 heckling:1 fan:10 use:10 lament:1 lack:3 respect:2 get:4 point:3 say:4 gonna:1 guarantee:2 pro:8 hall:6 fame:2 audacious:1 remark:1 prove:3 correct:1 create:1 great:3 upset:1 victory:7 show:4 capable:1 compete:1 give:11 calendar:1 amazin:1 series:1 nine:1 career:5 mirror:2 become:10 final:10 miss:6 much:3 due:8 injury:9 notably:2 ravaged:1 knee:2 rob:1 mobility:1 effectiveness:1 throw:17 interception:12 fact:3 post:3 performance:2 could:3 classify:1 reasonably:1 successful:6 relative:1 success:5 well:7 terrible:1 six:3 loss:13 england:10 patriot:17 waive:1 trade:9 work:2 facilitate:1 move:8 los:1 angeles:1 ram:2 four:8 announce:4 retirement:2 end:22 relatively:3 young:3 although:7 widely:2 acknowledge:1 role:5 departure:2 walt:1 michael:2 stay:1 third:7 straight:3 however:7 rejuvenate:1 unheralded:1 matt:2 robinson:1 replace:8 richard:4 todd:6 actually:1 chance:1 playoff:23 berth:4 lose:12 center:2 even:4 implode:1 go:10 last:10 place:4 low:1 orleans:1 saint:1 wesley:3 walker:3 jerome:1 barkum:1 late:8 comeback:3 buffalo:1 bill:6 stop:2 deep:1 territory:1 minute:4 eliminate:2 bright:1 spot:3 defensive:10 line:6 mark:8 gastineau:2 klecko:2 anchor:1 sack:4 exchange:2 combine:2 feature:2 marty:3 lyon:2 abdul:1 salaam:1 power:1 run:16 freeman:1 mcneil:1 cincinnati:5 meeting:1 dolphins:5 almost:2 single:1 handedly:1 ruin:1 dolphin:8 wind:2 controversial:1 mud:2 orange:1 decide:3 tarp:1 heavy:1 rain:1 day:9 http:2 en:1 wikipedia:1 org:1 wiki:1 slow:1 rush:3 running:1 walton:1 meadowlands:3 lease:2 city:9 expire:1 need:4 cut:1 deal:2 face:7 onerous:1 term:3 able:4 complete:1 often:2 status:1 primary:1 tenant:1 force:4 road:3 trip:2 early:3 fail:2 agreement:2 improvement:1 instead:4 sport:5 exhibition:1 authority:1 beginning:1 pittsburgh:6 steelers:6 oddly:1 enough:5 organization:3 decision:4 remain:3 thus:1 stake:1 claim:1 throughout:2 tri:1 state:4 furthermore:1 different:3 square:1 midtown:1 manhattan:1 crow:1 fly:1 across:1 hudson:1 river:1 considerably:1 far:2 office:2 veteran:2 pat:2 ryan:5 start:15 round:16 draft:17 pick:14 ken:3 brien:9 stumble:1 worth:2 note:3 dan:2 marino:2 favor:3 include:6 mickey:1 shuler:1 rusher:1 host:1 eventual:2 catch:4 second:11 al:3 toon:1 slide:1 kansas:6 chief:7 handily:1 collapse:2 cleveland:2 brown:5 divisional:4 matchup:1 double:1 overtime:6 goal:16 moseley:1 deny:2 infamous:1 occur:1 bernie:1 kosar:1 incomplete:1 pas:4 award:1 penalize:2 rough:2 passer:2 closing:1 regulation:2 tie:2 dick:2 steinberg:2 general:2 manager:2 bruce:1 coslet:6 offensive:5 coordinator:7 bengal:5 scheme:1 help:1 nearly:1 san:4 francisco:1 let:1 key:3 build:2 scratch:1 brad:1 baxter:1 tally:1 high:8 finale:1 earn:7 rival:2 modest:1 regular:9 houston:3 oiler:1 opening:3 expectation:2 choose:2 nagle:3 starter:4 somewhat:2 surprise:2 promise:1 seem:3 ready:1 job:5 unfortunately:2 disappoint:1 near:2 tragedy:1 november:3 lineman:2 dennis:1 byrd:2 temporarily:1 paralyze:1 collide:1 teammate:3 scott:3 mersereau:1 thanks:1 untested:1 steroid:1 treatment:1 walk:1 matter:1 identify:1 position:4 longtime:3 boomer:1 esiason:2 together:1 successfully:1 hope:5 continue:2 mid:1 streak:1 fire:3 pete:1 carroll:2 enjoy:6 boost:2 local:1 profile:2 wfan:5 country:1 acquire:6 radio:7 right:8 contract:6 wcbs:3 renew:1 package:2 advantage:2 opportunity:2 cover:1 strength:1 clear:1 channel:2 signal:4 carry:1 dedicated:1 rabid:1 loyal:1 following:2 broad:1 visibility:1 potential:1 audience:1 previously:3 fool:1 defender:1 aaron:1 glenn:2 thinking:1 spike:2 ball:2 clock:1 ingram:1 less:3 left:3 fake:1 philadelphia:4 eagle:6 rich:1 kotite:4 case:1 bad:4 seven:1 prolonged:1 stretch:3 set:5 stage:2 rebirth:1 parcells:20 keyshawn:6 sign:8 neil:2 donnell:2 sort:1 resurgence:1 short:3 order:2 fresh:1 leave:7 foxboro:1 return:4 full:3 control:1 personnel:2 crave:1 dual:1 quote:1 cook:1 meal:1 grocery:1 quick:1 turnaround:2 wide:5 receiver:7 usc:2 overall:3 skill:1 desperately:1 identity:1 swagger:1 result:2 immediate:2 adrian:1 murrell:1 curious:1 call:5 detroit:2 lion:2 halfback:1 option:2 intercept:1 barry:1 sander:1 eight:2 quickly:1 look:1 curtis:3 like:4 secure:1 backup:5 vinny:2 testaverde:9 free:4 agent:2 turn:2 urging:1 revert:2 classic:1 logo:13 uniform:17 style:2 darker:2 shade:2 see:2 practice:1 associate:1 pay:1 dividend:1 foley:1 couple:2 wayne:3 chrebet:5 receive:4 bye:1 beat:4 jacksonville:1 jaguar:2 score:6 kansa:1 wild:6 card:6 quarter:4 denver:2 bronco:2 terrell:1 davis:1 burn:1 greatly:1 compromise:1 rupture:1 achilles:1 tendon:1 qb:2 rick:1 mirer:1 ray:1 lucas:2 spark:2 outside:1 owner:2 die:1 unclear:1 happen:1 soon:1 succeed:2 woody:2 desire:1 keep:3 step:2 operation:1 chad:8 pennington:16 era:1 talk:1 texan:1 selection:3 shaun:2 elli:2 john:4 abraham:1 tight:7 anthony:2 becht:2 handpicked:1 successor:1 belichick:5 resign:3 infamously:1 write:2 napkin:1 hc:1 nyj:1 promote:1 assistant:4 groh:5 linebacker:6 tampa:5 bay:6 bucs:2 rumor:1 circulate:1 want:1 handle:1 guy:1 strong:3 persona:1 comment:1 travel:1 florida:2 star:1 sky:1 flashlight:1 rest:1 lantern:1 cap:1 big:1 monday:3 enter:2 fourth:5 explode:1 kick:3 miracle:1 highlight:1 behind:1 scene:1 felt:5 overwork:1 feed:1 militaristic:1 stag:1 mutiny:1 alma:1 mater:1 virginia:2 executive:1 terry:2 bradway:3 herman:2 edward:6 tony:2 dungy:1 buccaneer:3 streaky:1 highly:1 competitive:2 manage:1 salvage:1 rematch:1 postseason:2 charlie:1 garner:2 seal:1 extend:1 many:6 safety:2 victor:1 allow:3 break:1 penalty:1 race:1 bench:1 week:6 packer:2 title:1 cruise:1 blowout:1 indianapolis:1 half:1 several:3 agency:2 washington:6 redskins:3 jetskins:1 laveranues:3 cole:4 redskin:2 another:5 wr:4 santana:2 moss:2 additionally:1 pre:1 broken:1 wrist:1 adversely:1 affect:1 whose:1 opener:2 similarly:1 tone:1 upon:2 though:2 effort:1 midway:1 next:3 struggle:3 reveal:1 injured:2 rotator:2 cuff:2 west:1 diego:3 charger:5 bowler:2 draw:1 brees:3 ladainian:1 tomlinson:1 antonio:1 gate:2 miscue:1 overly:1 conservative:1 strategy:2 eric:6 barton:2 nullify:1 incompletion:1 rookie:2 kicker:4 nate:1 kaeding:1 extra:1 period:1 doug:4 send:1 offense:4 produce:1 punt:1 reggie:1 tongue:1 attempt:4 put:1 hit:1 crossbar:1 cornerback:3 barrett:2 rather:2 try:1 drive:1 otherwise:1 content:1 settle:2 ironically:1 unsuccessful:1 employ:2 previous:3 jeff:1 reed:1 fell:1 follow:3 pundit:2 opine:1 aggressive:1 willing:2 risky:1 ignore:1 others:3 contend:2 none:1 notoriously:1 unpredictable:1 heinz:1 vote:1 special:3 teamers:1 every:2 reacquiring:1 cb:1 ty:1 law:1 jay:2 fiedler:2 jolley:2 heath:1 miller:1 trading:1 inconsistent:1 select:4 ohio:1 mike:4 nugent:1 departed:1 underachieve:1 lamont:1 jordan:1 kareem:1 mckenzie:1 sam:1 cowart:1 jason:2 ferguson:2 extent:1 dismantle:1 reinjured:1 shoulder:3 injure:1 reserve:1 remainder:2 cause:1 string:1 brook:1 bollinger:2 bring:1 poor:1 showing:1 steady:1 hand:2 undefeated:1 sour:1 finally:1 derrick:1 blaylock:1 chris:1 baker:1 tackle:4 fabini:1 kevin:1 mawae:1 among:1 severely:1 hamper:2 ability:1 competitively:1 suffer:1 morale:1 sag:1 require:1 arthroscopic:1 surgery:1 noteworthy:1 accomplishment:1 participation:1 air:4 abc:1 brickashaw:1 herm:1 original:2 mentor:1 vermeil:1 compensation:2 still:1 criticize:1 inadequate:1 fortunate:1 choice:1 rounder:1 dynamic:1 pipeline:1 rear:1 mangini:6 business:1 reorganize:1 coaching:1 staff:5 heimerdinger:1 donnie:1 henderson:1 release:2 westhoff:1 bob:3 sutton:2 jim:2 herrmann:2 michigan:1 twenty:1 arrive:2 instal:1 defense:2 gm:3 tannenbaum:1 scouting:1 consultant:1 minnesota:1 viking:1 number:2 seed:1 predict:1 rebuilding:1 celebrate:2 afterwards:1 word:7 banish:1 focus:1 jerricho:1 cotchery:1 turnover:1 notable:2 aspect:1 rivalry:1 good:1 relationship:1 publicize:1 regardless:1 embrace:1 september:1 accuse:1 authorize:1 film:2 location:1 violation:1 rule:1 confiscate:1 video:2 camera:1 estrella:1 file:1 complaint:1 detail:1 accusation:1 lackluster:1 addition:2 chicago:1 bear:1 thomas:2 jones:3 tough:1 schedule:2 commentator:2 skeptical:1 earlier:1 overcome:1 thought:1 weakened:1 arm:1 oppose:1 coverage:1 inability:1 fast:1 kellen:1 clemens:3 athletic:1 unable:1 ail:1 around:1 safe:1 effective:1 heavily:1 sixth:1 vernon:1 gholston:1 offseason:1 guard:1 alan:1 faneca:2 paid:1 arizona:3 cardinal:4 calvin:1 pace:1 damien:1 fullback:1 richardson:1 andre:1 woolfolk:1 bubba:1 frank:1 jesse:1 chatman:1 brett:5 favre:8 retire:3 preseason:3 august:2 conditional:1 intend:1 atlanta:1 falcon:1 ahead:1 way:1 contention:1 rushing:2 add:2 backfield:1 exceed:1 balanced:1 attack:1 least:1 dustin:1 keller:1 impress:1 leader:1 darrelle:1 revis:2 defensed:1 kerry:1 rhodes:1 mangold:1 jenkins:1 rex:2 bart:2 sanchez:2 offer:2 dollar:2 accept:1 introduce:3 wednesday:2 friday:1 tuesday:1 leonhard:1 lito:1 sheppard:1 fifth:1 iowa:1 shonn:1 greene:1 www:1 nytimes:1 com:1 html:1 ref:1 ny:6 combination:2 anniversary:2 patch:3 wear:10 chest:2 october:4 design:4 helmet:4 pant:5 either:2 stripe:2 sleeve:2 nicknamed:1 gang:1 possibly:1 consist:3 airplane:1 side:1 shape:1 oval:3 letter:1 superimpose:2 invert:1 futuristic:1 modify:2 black:2 outline:1 mask:3 subtle:1 metalic:1 flat:1 modified:1 version:3 rounded:1 longer:1 resemble:1 slightly:2 modern:1 along:1 old:1 abandon:1 essentially:1 forest:1 compare:1 gray:1 always:2 form:1 except:1 heat:1 heritage:1 throwback:6 navy:1 incarnation:1 titans:1 drop:1 respectively:1 commemorative:1 halftime:1 ceremony:1 alumnus:1 current:2 roster:1 famers:1 riggins:3 famer:2 maynard:3 rb:1 art:1 monk:2 ronnie:1 lott:1 db:1 bulldog:1 turner:1 recognize:2 achievement:1 primarily:1 tenure:1 jacket:1 television:1 flagship:2 wepn:2 espn:2 wischusen:1 announcer:2 analyst:1 simulcast:1 wabc:3 sister:2 largely:1 nationally:1 televise:1 tv:1 graphic:1 cbs:1 telecast:2 rebroadcast:1 sportsnet:1 ian:1 action:1 past:1 legend:1 howard:2 cosell:1 murphy:1 merle:1 harmon:1 glickman:1 nba:1 westwood:1 reference:1 depth:1 list:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram hofstra_university:2 afl_nfl:4 baltimore_colt:4 super_bowl:12 shea_stadium:6 laguardia_airport:1 weeb_ewbank:3 joe_namath:6 oakland_raider:4 hall_fame:2 throw_touchdown:8 touchdown_interception:2 los_angeles:1 playoff_berth:2 quarterback_sack:1 miami_dolphins:5 single_handedly:1 en_wikipedia:1 org_wiki:1 pittsburgh_steelers:5 oddly_enough:1 midtown_manhattan:1 draft_pick:4 dan_marino:2 divisional_playoff:2 afc_championship:2 bernie_kosar:1 offensive_coordinator:2 cincinnati_bengal:3 san_francisco:1 rush_touchdown:1 houston_oiler:1 defensive_lineman:1 philadelphia_eagle:4 keyshawn_johnson:5 bill_parcells:1 desperately_need:1 detroit_lion:2 barry_sander:1 backup_quarterback:2 vinny_testaverde:2 darker_shade:2 yard_touchdown:6 jacksonville_jaguar:1 denver_bronco:1 terrell_davis:1 chad_pennington:8 houston_texan:1 bill_belichick:3 tampa_bay:4 rumor_circulate:1 green_lantern:1 alma_mater:1 bay_buccaneer:2 bay_packer:2 indianapolis_colt:1 washington_redskins:3 adversely_affect:1 rotator_cuff:2 san_diego:3 diego_charger:1 pro_bowler:2 doug_brien:3 jay_fiedler:2 severely_hamper:1 knee_injury:1 dick_vermeil:1 defensive_coordinator:4 eric_mangini:4 coaching_staff:1 minnesota_viking:1 miami_dolphin:1 offensive_lineman:1 tony_richardson:1 brett_favre:5 washington_redskin:1 quarterback_brett:2 atlanta_falcon:1 playoff_contention:1 rushing_yard:1 http_www:1 www_nytimes:1 nytimes_com:1 throwback_uniform:2 roster_pro:1 hall_famers:1 hall_famer:2 nationally_televise:1 howard_cosell:1 external_link:1 |
4,638 | Economy_of_the_Netherlands_Antilles | Tourism, petroleum transshipment, and offshore finance are the mainstays of the Netherlands Antillean economy, which is closely tied to the outside world. The islands enjoy a high per capita income and a well-developed infrastructure as compared with other countries in the region. Almost all consumer and capital goods are imported, with Venezuela, the US, and Mexico being the major suppliers. Poor soils and inadequate water supplies hamper the development of agriculture. GDP: purchasing power parity - $3 600 million (3,6 G$) (2007 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 4,0% (2007 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $19 000 (2007 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 1% industry: 15% services: 84% (2007 est.) Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: ± 1,5% highest 10%: ± 31% Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3,0% (2007) Labour force: 83 600 (2005) Labour force - by occupation: agriculture 1%, industry 20%, services 79% (2007 est.) Unemployment rate: 9% (2007 est.) Budget: revenues: $757,9 million expenditures: $949,5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (2004 est.) Industries: tourism (Curaçao, Sint Maarten, and Bonaire), petroleum refining (Curaçao), petroleum transhipment facilities (Curaçao and Bonaire), light manufacturing (Curaçao) Industrial production growth rate: NA% Electricity - production: 1 005 GWh (2004) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 934,7 GWh (2004) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2004) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2004) Agriculture - products: aloes, sorghum, peanuts, vegetables, tropical fruit Exports: $2 076 million (f.o.b., 2004) Exports - commodities: petroleum products Exports - partners: US 32%, Panama 10.1%, Guatemala 7,9%, Haiti 6,4%, The Bahamas 5,1% (2005) Imports: $4 383 billion (c.i.f., 2004) Imports - commodities: crude petroleum, food, manufactures Imports - partners: Venezuela 50%, US 22,2%, Italy 5.2%, Netherlands 5% (2005) Debt - external: $2 680 million (2004) Economic aid - recipient: IMF provided $61 million in 2000, and the Netherlands continued its support with $40 million (2004) Currency: 1 Netherlands Antillean guilder, gulden, or florin (NAf.) = 100 cents Exchange rates: Netherlands Antillean guilders, gulden, or florins (NAf.) per US$1 - 1.790 (fixed rate since 1989) Fiscal year: calendar year | Economy_of_the_Netherlands_Antilles |@lemmatized tourism:2 petroleum:5 transshipment:1 offshore:1 finance:1 mainstay:1 netherlands:5 antillean:3 economy:1 closely:1 tie:1 outside:1 world:1 island:1 enjoy:1 high:2 per:3 capita:1 income:2 well:1 developed:1 infrastructure:1 compare:1 country:1 region:1 almost:1 consumer:2 capital:2 good:1 import:5 venezuela:2 u:4 mexico:1 major:1 supplier:1 poor:1 soil:1 inadequate:1 water:1 supply:1 hamper:1 development:1 agriculture:4 gdp:4 purchasing:2 power:2 parity:2 million:7 g:1 est:7 real:1 growth:2 rate:6 caput:1 composition:1 sector:1 industry:3 service:2 population:1 poverty:1 line:1 na:3 household:1 consumption:2 percentage:1 share:1 low:1 inflation:1 price:1 labour:2 force:2 occupation:1 unemployment:1 budget:1 revenue:1 expenditure:2 include:1 curaçao:4 sint:1 maarten:1 bonaire:2 refining:1 transhipment:1 facility:1 light:1 manufacturing:1 industrial:1 production:3 electricity:5 gwh:2 source:1 fossil:1 fuel:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 export:4 kwh:2 product:2 aloe:1 sorghum:1 peanut:1 vegetable:1 tropical:1 fruit:1 f:2 b:1 commodity:2 partner:2 panama:1 guatemala:1 haiti:1 bahamas:1 billion:1 c:1 crude:1 food:1 manufacture:1 italy:1 debt:1 external:1 economic:1 aid:1 recipient:1 imf:1 provide:1 continue:1 support:1 currency:1 guilder:2 gulden:2 florin:2 naf:2 cent:1 exchange:1 fix:1 since:1 fiscal:1 year:2 calendar:1 |@bigram netherlands_antillean:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 per_caput:1 caput_purchasing:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 expenditure_na:1 sint_maarten:1 petroleum_refining:1 curaçao_bonaire:1 production_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:2 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 export_kwh:1 kwh_electricity:1 import_kwh:1 kwh_agriculture:1 export_commodity:1 crude_petroleum:1 |
4,639 | Printing_press | Printing press from 1811, photographed in Munich, Germany. A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring an image. The mechanical systems involved were first assembled in Germany by the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, based on existing screw-presses used to press cloth, grapes etc., and possibly to print woodcuts, which were printed in Europe before Gutenberg. Although both woodblock printing and movable type printing press technologies were already developed first in China, and Korea in East Asia several hundred years earlier, Gutenberg was the first in Western Europe to develop a printing press. During the renaissance era, printing methods based on Gutenberg's printing press spread rapidly throughout first Europe and then the rest of the world. It eventually replaced most versions of block printing, making it the most used format of modern movable type, until being superseded by the advent of offset printing. History Finely crafted books—like the 1259 Song Dynasty Bencao (materia medica) shown here—were produced by woodblock in China as early as the ninth century, the earliest known being the Diamond Sutra. Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (p 24) ISBN 0-471-291-98-6 The overall invention of Gutenberg's printing method depended for some of its elements upon a diffusion of technologies from China (East Asia), primarily the Chinese inventions and innovations of paper, in addition to a growing demand by the general European public for the lower cost paper books, instead of the exorbitantly expensive parchment books. Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 58–69) ISBN 0-471-291-98-6 By 1424, Cambridge University library owned only 122 books—each of which had a value equal to a farm or vineyard. The demand for these books was driven by rising literacy amongst the middle class and students in Western Europe. At this time, the Renaissance was still in its early stages and the populace was gradually removing the monopoly the clergy had held on literacy. While woodblock printing had arrived in Europe at approximately the same time paper did, this method was not as suitable for literary communication as it was in the east. Block printing is well-suited to the ancient written Chinese because character alignment is not critical, but the existence of over 100,000 ancient characters and hieroglyphic symbols made the ancient Chinese movable type technology somewhat inefficient and economically impractical affecting the profits of the ancient Chinese book publishers. With the Latin alphabet, however, the need for precise alignment and a much simpler character set positioned movable type as a great advance for the west. The use of a press was a key technological difference provided European book publishers increased profits over their ancient Chinese counterparts—the screw-based presses used in wine and olive oil production. Attaining mechanical sophistication in approximately the year 1000, devices for applying pressure on a flat-plane were common in Europe. David Bird, Understanding Wine Technology The Science of Wine Explained, p 47 ISBN 1-891267-91-4 Gutenberg's Press In this woodblock from 1568, the printer at left is removing a page from the press while the one at right inks the text-blocks Johannes Gutenberg's work on the printing press began in approximately 1436 when he partnered with Andreas Dritzehn—a man he had previously instructed in gem-cutting—and Andreas Heilmann, owner of a paper mill. However, it was not until a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg that an official record exists; witnesses' testimony discussed Gutenberg's types, an inventory of metals (including lead), and his type molds. Others in Europe were also developing movable type at this time, including goldsmith Procopius Waldfoghel of France and Laurens Janszoon Coster of the Netherlands. However, they are not known to have contributed specific advances to the printing press.<ref name="meggs58-69"/ While the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition had attributed the invention of the printing press to Coster, the more recent editions of the work attribute it to Gutenberg to reflect, as it says, the common consent that has developed in the 20th century.Typography - Gutenberg and printing in Germany. Encyclopædia Britannica ©2007. On the other hand, the Kölnische Chronik (The Cologne Chronicle), published in 1499, states that a prototype for Gutenberg's printing press was invented in the Netherlands and that Donatus's Ars minor was printed there much earlier than in Mainz.. Costeriana Having previously worked as a professional goldsmith, Gutenberg made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he had learned as a craftsman. He was the first to make type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, which was critical for producing durable type that produced high-quality printed books and proved to be more suitable for printing than the clay, wooden or bronze types invented in East Asia. To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what some considered his most ingenious invention, a special matrix enabling the quick and precise moulding of new type blocks from a uniform template. Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more durable than the previously used water-based inks. As printing material he used both vellum and paper, the latter having been introduced in Europe a few centuries earlier from China by way of the Arabs. In the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenberg made a trial of coloured printing for a few of the page headings, present only in some copies. Albert Kapr, "Johannes Gutenberg", Scolar 1996, p. 172 A later work, the Mainz Psalter of 1453, presumably designed by Gutenberg but published under the imprint of his successors Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, had elaborate red and blue printed initials. Albert Kapr, "Johannes Gutenberg", Scolar 1996, p. 203 Historical Impact Printing as developed in East Asia did not make use of a printing press as in Gutenberg's case. Although the invention of movable type in China and Korea preceded Gutenberg's printing press, the impact of East Asian movable type printing presses was not as influential as it was in Western European society. This was likely due to the enormous amount of labour involved in manipulating the thousands of porcelain tablets, or in the case of Korea, metal tablets, required by the use of written Chinese characters. Nevertheless, hundreds of thousands of books, on subjects ranging from Confucian Classics to science and mathematics, were printed using the older technology of woodblock printing, creating the world's first print culture. A Hyatt Mayor, Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum of Art/Princeton, 1971, nos 1-4. ISBN 0691003262 . In contrast, the impact of Gutenberg's printing press in Europe was comparable to the development of writing, the invention of the alphabet or the Internet, as far as its effects on society. Just as writing did not replace speaking, printing did not achieve a position of total dominance. Handwritten manuscripts continued to be produced, and the different graphic modes of communication continued to influence each other. The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through the establishment of widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on the scientific revolution. Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It was suddenly important who had said or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the exact citing of references, producing the rule, "One Author, one work (title), one piece of information" (Giesecke, 1989; 325). Before, the author was less important, since a copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in Bologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author was entirely lost. Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though they previously had not been unknown. The process of reading was also changed, gradually changing over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private reading. The wider availability of printed materials also led to a drastic rise in the adult literacy rate throughout Europe. Within fifty or sixty years of the invention of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). Now that more people had access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works. Furthermore, now that book production was a more commercial enterprise, the first copyright laws were passed to protect what we now would call intellectual property rights. A second outgrowth of this popularization of knowledge was the decline of Latin as the language of most published works, to be replaced by the vernacular language of each area, increasing the variety of published works. Paradoxically, the printed word also helped to unify and standardize the spelling and syntax of these vernaculars, in effect 'decreasing' their variability. This rise in importance of national languages as opposed to pan-European Latin is cited as one of the causes of the rise of nationalism in Europe. The art of book printing For years, book printing was considered a true art form. Typesetting, or the placement of the characters on the page, including the use of ligatures, was passed down from master to apprentice. In Germany, the art of typesetting was termed the "black art," in allusion to the ink-covered printers. The Black Art Press & Print in Baltimore, MD adopted their name for this reason. It has largely been replaced by computer typesetting programs, which make it easy to get similar results more quickly and with less physical labor. Some practitioners continue to print books the way Gutenberg did. For example, there is a yearly convention of traditional book printers in Mainz, Germany. Some theorists, such as McLuhan, Eisenstein, Kittler, and Giesecke, see an "alphabetic monopoly" as having developed from printing, removing the role of the image from society. Other authors stress that printed works themselves are a visual medium. Certainly, modern developments in printing have revitalized the role of illustrations. The Industrial Revolution Koenig's 1814 steam-powered printing press The Gutenberg press was much more efficient than manual copying and still was largely unchanged in the eras of John Baskerville and Giambattista Bodoni—over 300 years later. Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 130–133) ISBN 0-471-291-98-6 By 1800, Lord Stanhope had constructed a press completely from cast iron, reducing the force required by 90% while doubling the size of the printed area. While Stanhope's "mechanical theory" had improved the efficiency of the press, it still was only capable of 250 sheets per hour. German printer Friedrich Koenig would be the first to design a non-manpowered machine—using steam. Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig soon met Thomas Bensley and secured financial support for his project in 1807. Patented in 1810, Koenig had designed a steam press "much like a hand press connected to a steam engine." The first production trial of this model occurred in April 1811. He produced his machine with assistance from German engineer Andreas Friedrich Bauer. Koenig and Bauer sold two of their first models to The Times in London in 1814, capable of 1,100 impressions per hour. The first edition so printed was on November 28 1814. They went on to perfect the early model so that it could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This began the long process of making newspapers available to a mass audience (which in turn helped spread literacy), and from the 1820s changed the nature of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata. Their company Koenig & Bauer AG is still one of the world's largest manufacturers of printing presses today. The Miehle P.P. & Mfg. Co. 1905Later on in the middle of the 19th century the rotary printing press (invented in 1833 in the United States by Richard M. Hoe) allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace. Also, in the middle of the 19th century, there was a separate development of jobbing presses, small presses capable of printing small-format pieces such as billheads, letterheads, business cards, and envelopes. Jobbing presses were capable of quick set-up (average makeready time for a small job was under 15 minutes) and quick production (even on treadle-powered jobbing presses it was considered normal to get 1,000 impressions per hour [iph] with one pressman, with speeds of 1,500 iph often attained on simple envelope work). Job printing emerged as a reasonably cost-effective duplicating solution for commerce at this time. A late 1930's Platen printing press model By the late 1930s or early 1940s, printing presses had increased substantially in efficiency: a model by Platen Printing Press was capable of performing 2,500 to 3,000 impressions per hour. Later inventions in this field include the following: Lithography Offset printing Desktop publishing Electronic publishing Computer printer Composing stick See also Augustus Applegath - inventor of the vertical print press Anilox Color printing David Bruce Flexography George E. Clymer Letterpress printing Muller Martini Medical Renaissance National Print Museum of Ireland Print culture Printing Printmaking Typography William Clowes (Printer) Adana Printing Presses Notes References Fontaine, Jean-Paul. L'aventure du livre: Du manuscrit medieval a nos jours. Paris: Bibliotheque de l'image, 1999. Further reading On the effects of Gutenberg's printing Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, September 1980, Paperback, 832 pages, ISBN 0-521-29955-1 More recent, abridged version: Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge University Press, 2Rev ed, 12 September 2005, Paperback, ISBN 0-521-60774-4 Marshall McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) Univ. of Toronto Press (1st ed.); reissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul ISBN 0-7100-1818-5. External links Centre for the History of the Book Gutenberg printing Photos of Incunabula and the Gutenberg Bible (1455) BGDP Safety on printing presses Internet Archive: Printing (1947)—a film from the Prelinger Archives explaining the printing industry An Introduction to Letterpress Printing Careers for the 21st Century: Printing Press Operators | Printing_press |@lemmatized print:36 press:48 photograph:1 munich:1 germany:5 printing:38 mechanical:4 device:2 apply:2 pressure:2 inked:1 surface:1 rest:2 upon:2 medium:2 paper:7 cloth:2 thereby:1 transfer:1 image:3 system:1 involve:2 first:11 assemble:1 goldsmith:3 johannes:4 gutenberg:29 around:1 base:5 exist:2 screw:2 use:12 grape:1 etc:1 possibly:1 woodcut:1 europe:13 although:2 woodblock:5 movable:7 type:14 technology:5 already:1 develop:6 china:5 korea:3 east:6 asia:4 several:2 hundred:2 year:5 earlier:2 western:3 renaissance:3 era:2 method:3 spread:2 rapidly:1 throughout:3 world:3 eventually:1 replace:4 version:2 block:4 make:10 used:1 format:2 modern:3 supersede:1 advent:1 offset:2 history:5 finely:1 craft:1 book:16 like:2 song:1 dynasty:1 bencao:1 materia:1 medica:1 show:1 produce:6 early:7 ninth:1 century:7 know:2 diamond:1 sutra:1 meggs:3 philip:3 b:3 graphic:4 design:6 john:4 wiley:3 son:3 inc:3 p:6 isbn:8 overall:1 invention:8 depend:1 element:1 diffusion:1 primarily:1 chinese:6 innovation:1 addition:1 grow:1 demand:2 general:1 european:4 public:1 low:1 cost:2 instead:1 exorbitantly:1 expensive:1 parchment:1 pp:2 cambridge:3 university:3 library:1 value:1 equal:1 farm:1 vineyard:1 drive:1 rise:4 literacy:4 amongst:1 middle:3 class:1 student:1 time:7 still:4 stage:1 populace:1 gradually:2 remove:3 monopoly:2 clergy:1 hold:1 arrive:1 approximately:3 suitable:2 literary:1 communication:2 well:1 suit:1 ancient:5 write:4 character:5 alignment:2 critical:2 existence:1 hieroglyphic:1 symbol:1 somewhat:1 inefficient:1 economically:1 impractical:1 affect:1 profit:2 publisher:2 latin:3 alphabet:2 however:3 need:1 precise:3 much:5 simpler:1 set:2 position:2 great:2 advance:2 west:1 key:1 technological:1 difference:1 provide:1 increase:3 counterpart:1 wine:3 olive:1 oil:2 production:6 attain:2 sophistication:1 flat:1 plane:1 common:3 david:2 bird:1 understand:1 science:2 explain:2 printer:6 left:1 page:7 one:8 right:2 ink:4 text:1 work:12 begin:2 partner:1 andreas:3 dritzehn:1 man:2 previously:4 instruct:1 gem:1 cut:1 heilmann:1 owner:1 mill:1 lawsuit:1 official:1 record:1 witness:1 testimony:1 discuss:2 inventory:1 metal:3 include:4 lead:4 mold:1 others:1 also:8 procopius:1 waldfoghel:1 france:1 laurens:1 janszoon:1 coster:2 netherlands:2 contribute:1 specific:1 ref:1 name:3 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 eleventh:1 edition:3 attribute:2 recent:2 reflect:1 say:2 consent:1 typography:2 hand:2 kölnische:1 chronik:1 cologne:1 chronicle:1 publish:4 state:2 prototype:1 invent:3 donatus:1 ar:1 minor:1 mainz:3 costeriana:1 professional:1 skillful:1 knowledge:3 learn:1 craftsman:1 alloy:1 tin:1 antimony:1 durable:2 high:1 quality:1 prove:1 clay:1 wooden:1 bronze:1 create:2 consider:3 ingenious:1 special:1 matrix:1 enable:1 quick:3 moulding:1 new:2 uniform:1 template:1 credit:1 introduction:2 water:1 material:2 vellum:1 latter:1 introduce:1 way:2 arab:1 bible:2 trial:2 coloured:1 heading:1 present:1 copy:3 albert:2 kapr:2 scolar:2 late:4 psalter:1 presumably:1 imprint:1 successor:1 johann:1 fust:1 peter:1 schöffer:1 elaborate:1 red:1 blue:1 initial:1 historical:1 impact:3 case:2 precede:1 asian:1 influential:1 society:3 likely:1 due:1 enormous:1 amount:1 labour:1 manipulate:1 thousand:2 porcelain:1 tablet:2 require:2 nevertheless:1 subject:1 range:1 confucian:1 classic:1 mathematics:1 old:2 culture:2 hyatt:1 mayor:1 people:3 metropolitan:1 museum:2 art:6 princeton:1 contrast:1 comparable:1 development:3 writing:1 internet:2 far:1 effect:3 speaking:1 achieve:1 total:1 dominance:1 handwritten:1 manuscript:1 continue:3 different:1 mode:1 influence:1 factor:1 establishment:2 community:1 scientist:1 could:3 easily:1 communicate:1 discovery:1 widely:2 disseminate:1 scholarly:1 journal:1 help:3 bring:1 scientific:1 revolution:3 authorship:1 become:2 meaningful:1 profitable:1 suddenly:1 important:2 formulation:1 composition:1 allow:3 exact:1 cite:2 reference:2 rule:1 author:4 title:2 piece:2 information:2 giesecke:2 less:2 since:1 aristotle:1 paris:2 would:3 exactly:1 identical:1 bologna:1 many:1 prior:1 entirely:1 lose:1 process:3 ensure:1 fell:1 numbering:1 table:1 content:1 index:1 though:1 unknown:1 reading:4 change:4 oral:1 silent:1 private:1 wider:1 availability:1 printed:4 drastic:1 adult:1 rate:1 within:1 fifty:1 sixty:1 entire:1 classical:1 canon:1 reprint:1 promulgate:1 eisenstein:4 access:1 furthermore:1 commercial:1 enterprise:1 copyright:1 law:1 pass:2 protect:1 call:1 intellectual:1 property:1 second:1 outgrowth:1 popularization:1 decline:1 language:3 vernacular:2 area:2 variety:1 paradoxically:1 word:1 unify:1 standardize:1 spelling:1 syntax:1 decrease:1 variability:1 importance:1 national:2 oppose:1 pan:1 cause:1 nationalism:1 true:1 form:1 typesetting:2 placement:1 ligature:1 master:1 apprentice:1 term:1 black:2 allusion:1 covered:1 baltimore:1 md:1 adopt:1 reason:1 largely:2 computer:2 typeset:1 program:1 easy:1 get:2 similar:1 result:1 quickly:1 physical:1 labor:1 practitioner:1 example:1 yearly:1 convention:1 traditional:1 theorist:1 mcluhan:2 kittler:1 see:2 alphabetic:1 role:2 stress:1 visual:1 certainly:1 revitalize:1 illustration:1 industrial:1 koenig:6 steam:4 power:2 efficient:1 manual:1 copying:1 unchanged:1 baskerville:1 giambattista:1 bodoni:1 later:1 lord:1 stanhope:2 construct:1 completely:1 cast:1 iron:1 reduce:1 force:2 double:1 size:1 theory:1 improve:1 efficiency:2 capable:5 sheet:2 per:4 hour:4 german:2 friedrich:2 non:1 manpowered:1 machine:2 move:1 london:2 soon:1 meet:1 thomas:1 bensley:1 secure:1 financial:1 support:1 project:1 patent:1 connect:1 engine:1 model:5 occur:1 april:1 assistance:1 engineer:1 bauer:3 sell:1 two:1 impression:3 november:1 go:1 perfect:1 side:1 long:1 newspaper:1 available:1 mass:2 audience:1 turn:1 nature:1 standardization:1 metadata:1 company:1 ag:1 large:1 manufacturer:1 today:1 miehle:1 mfg:1 co:1 rotary:1 united:1 richard:1 hoe:1 million:1 single:1 day:1 flourish:1 transition:1 roll:1 continuous:1 feed:1 run:1 faster:1 pace:1 separate:1 job:4 small:3 billheads:1 letterhead:1 business:1 card:1 envelope:2 average:1 makeready:1 minute:1 even:1 treadle:1 jobbing:1 normal:1 iph:2 pressman:1 speed:1 often:1 simple:1 emerge:1 reasonably:1 effective:1 duplicating:1 solution:1 commerce:1 platen:2 substantially:1 perform:1 field:1 following:1 lithography:1 desktop:1 publishing:2 electronic:1 compose:1 stick:1 augustus:1 applegath:1 inventor:1 vertical:1 anilox:1 color:1 bruce:1 flexography:1 george:1 e:1 clymer:1 letterpress:2 muller:1 martini:1 medical:1 ireland:1 printmaking:1 william:1 clowes:1 adana:1 note:1 fontaine:1 jean:1 paul:2 l:4 aventure:1 du:2 livre:1 manuscrit:1 medieval:1 nos:1 jours:1 bibliotheque:1 de:1 elizabeth:2 agent:1 september:2 paperback:2 abridged:1 ed:2 marshall:1 galaxy:1 making:1 typographic:1 univ:1 toronto:1 reissue:1 routledge:1 kegan:1 external:1 link:1 centre:1 photo:1 incunabula:1 bgdp:1 safety:1 archive:2 film:1 prelinger:1 industry:1 career:1 operator:1 |@bigram johannes_gutenberg:4 woodblock_printing:3 gutenberg_printing:7 materia_medica:1 diamond_sutra:1 wiley_son:3 olive_oil:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_eleventh:1 hundred_thousand:1 handwritten_manuscript:1 baltimore_md:1 du_livre:1 marshall_mcluhan:1 gutenberg_galaxy:1 routledge_kegan:1 kegan_paul:1 external_link:1 letterpress_printing:1 |
4,640 | John_Dewey | John Dewey (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose thoughts and ideas have been highly influential in the United States and around the world. Dewey, along with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, is recognized as one of the founders of the philosophical school of pragmatism. He is also one of the founders of functional psychology and was a leading representative of the progressive movement in U.S. schooling during the first half of the 20th century. Although Dewey is best known for his works on education, he also wrote on a wide range of subjects, including experience and nature, art and experience, logic and inquiry, democracy, and ethics. In his advocacy of democracy, Dewey considered two fundamental elements—schools and civil society—as being key areas needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality. In the necessary reconstruction of civil society, Dewey asserted that full democracy was to be obtained not just by extending voting rights but also by ensuring that there exists a fully-formed public opinion, accomplished by effective communication among citizens, experts, and politicians, with the latter being held accountable for the policies they adopt. Life and works Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont of modest family origins. Like his older brother, Davis Rich Dewey, he attended the University of Vermont, from which he graduated (Phi Beta Kappa) in 1879. After three years as a high school teacher in Oil City, Pennsylvania, Dewey decided that he was unsuited for employment in primary or secondary education. After studying one year under G. Stanley Hall, working in the first American laboratory of psychology, Dewey received his Ph.D. from the School of Arts & Sciences at Johns Hopkins University in 1884, he took a faculty position at the University of Michigan (1884-1888 and 1889-1894) with the help of George Sylvester Morris. His unpublished and now lost dissertation was titled "The Psychology of Kant". In 1894 Dewey joined the newly founded University of Chicago (1894-1904) where he shaped his belief in an empirically based theory of knowledge aligning his ideals with the newly emerging Pragmatic school of thought. His time at the University of Chicago resulted in four essays collectively entitled Thought and its Subject-Matter which was published with collected works from his colleagues at Chicago under the collective title Studies in Logical Theory (1903). During this time Dewey also founded the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools where he was able to actualize his pedagogical beliefs which provided material for his first major work on education, The School and Society (1899). Disagreements with the administration ultimately led to his resignation from the University at which point he left for the East Coast. In 1899, John Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association. From 1904 until his death he was professor of philosophy at both Columbia University and Teachers College, Columbia University. New York Times edition of January 19, 1953, page 27 In 1905 he became president of the American Philosophical Association. He was a long-time member of the American Federation of Teachers. Along with the historian Charles Beard, economists Thorstein Veblen and James Harvey Robinson, Dewey is one of the founders of The New School for Social Research. Dewey's most significant writings were "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" (1896), a critique of a standard psychological concept and the basis of all his further work; Democracy and Education (1916), his celebrated work on progressive education; Human Nature and Conduct (1922), a study of the role of habit in human behavior; The Public and its Problems (1927), a defense of democracy written in response to Walter Lippmann's The Phantom Public (1925); Experience and Nature (1925), Dewey's most "metaphysical" statement; Art as Experience (1934), Dewey's major work on aesthetics; A Common Faith (1934), a humanistic study of religion, which was originally delivered as the Dwight H. Terry Lectureship at Yale; Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (1938), an examination of Dewey's unusual conception of logic; Freedom and Culture (1939), a political work examining the roots of fascism; and Knowing and the Known (1949), a book written in conjuction with Arthur F. Bentley that systematically outlines the concept of trans-action which is central to his other works. While each of these works focuses on one particular philosophical theme, Dewey wove all of his major themes into everything he wrote. His professional life was extremely productive and consisted of over 700 articles in 140 journals, and roughly 40 books. Dewey married twice, with first wife Alice Chipman, who bore him six children and second wife Roberta Lowitz Grant. Dewey and functional psychology At University of Michigan, Dewey published his first two books, Psychology (1887), and Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding (1888), both of which expressed Dewey's early commitment to Hegelian idealism. Psychology explored the synthesis between this idealism and experimental science that Dewey was then attempting to effect. While still professor of philosophy at Michigan, Dewey and his junior colleagues, James Hayden Tufts and George Herbert Mead, together with his student James Rowland Angell, all strongly influenced by the recent publication of William James' landmark Principles of Psychology (1890), began to reformulate psychology, focusing more strongly on the social environment and on the activity of mind and behaviour than the physiological psychology of Wundt and his followers. By 1894, Dewey had joined Tufts, with whom he would later write Ethics (1908), at the newly-founded University of Chicago and invited Mead and Angell to follow him, the four forming the core of the so-called "Chicago group" of psychology. Their new approach to psychology, later dubbed functional psychology, had a more practical emphasis on action and application. In Dewey's article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" which appeared in Psychological Review in 1896, he reasons against the traditional stimulus-response understanding of the reflex arc in favor of a "circular" account in which what serves as "stimulus" and what as "response" depends on how one views the situation, and defends the unitary nature of the sensory motor circuit. While he does not deny the existence of stimulus, sensation, and response, he disagreed that they were separate, juxtaposed events happening like links in a chain. He put forward the idea that there is a coordination by which the stimulus is enriched by the results of previous experiences. The response is modulated thanks to sensorial experience. That is to say, the stimulus, sensation, and response are phases in a "division of labor" as part of an overall coordination of action as the human organism adapts to its environment. Dewey, not without polemic, was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1899. John Dewey's USA Stamp In 1984, the American Psychological Association announced that Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878-1972) had become the first psychologist to be commemorated on a United States postage stamp. However, psychologists Gary Brucato Jr. and John D. Hogan later made the case that this distinction actually belonged to John Dewey, who had been celebrated on an American stamp 17 years earlier. While some psychology historians consider Dewey more of a philosopher than a bona fide psychologist, Benjamin, L.T. (2003). "Why Can't Psychology Get a Stamp?" Journal of applied psychoanalytic studies 5(4):443-454. the authors noted that Dewey was a founding member of the A.P.A., served as the A.P.A.'s eighth President in 1899, and was the author of an 1896 article on the reflex arc which is now considered a cornerstone of American functional psychology. Brucato, G. & Hogan, J.D. (1999, Spring). "Psychologists on postage stamps" The General Psychologist, 34(1):65 Dewey also expressed interest in work in the psychology of visual perception carried out by Dartmouth research professor Adelbert Ames, Jr.. Pragmatism and instrumentalism Although Dewey did not identify himself as a pragmatist per se, but instead referred to his philosophy as "instrumentalism", he is considered one of the three central figures in American pragmatism, along with Charles Sanders Peirce, who coined the term, and William James, who popularized it. Dewey worked from strongly Hegelian influences, unlike James, whose lineage was primarily British, drawing particularly on empiricist and utilitarian thought. Good (2006). A Search for Unity in Diversity: The "Permanent Hegelian Deposit" in the Philosophy of John Dewey. Lexington Books. Neither was Dewey so pluralist or relativist as James. He held that value was a function not of whim nor purely of social construction, but a quality situated in events ("nature itself is wistful and pathetic, turbulent and passionate" (Experience and Nature)). He also held that experimentation (social, cultural, technological, philosophical) could be used as a relatively hard-and-fast arbiter of truth. For example, James felt that for many people who lacked "over-belief" in religious concepts, human life was shallow and rather uninteresting, and that while no one religious belief could be demonstrated as the correct one, we are all responsible for taking the leap of faith and making a gamble on one or another theism, atheism, monism, etc. Dewey, in contrast, while honoring the important role that religious institutions and practices played in human life, rejected belief in any static ideal, such as a theistic God. Dewey felt that only scientific method could reliably further human good. Of the idea of God, Dewey said, "it denotes the unity of all ideal ends arousing us to desire and actions." A Common Faith, p. 42 (LW 9:29). As with the reemergence of progressive philosophy of education, Dewey's contributions to philosophy as such (he was, after all, much more a professional philosopher than a thinker on education) have also reemerged with the reassessment of pragmatism, beginning in the late 1970s, by thinkers like Richard Rorty, Richard J. Bernstein and Hans Joas. Because of his process-oriented and sociologically conscious view of the world and knowledge, he is sometimes seen as a useful alternative to both modern and postmodern ways of thinking. Dewey's non-foundational approach pre-dates postmodernism by more than half a century. Recent exponents (like Rorty) have not always remained faithful to Dewey's original vision, though this itself is completely in keeping both with Dewey's own usage of other thinkers and with his own philosophy— for Dewey, past doctrines always require reconstruction in order to remain useful for the present time. Dewey's philosophy has gone by many names other than "pragmatism". He has been called an instrumentalist, an experimentalist, an empiricist, a functionalist, and a naturalist. The term "transactional" may better describe his views, a term emphasized by Dewey in his later years to describe his theories of knowledge and experience. Epistemology The terminology problem in the fields of epistemology and logic is partially due, according to Dewey and Bentley, John Dewey, Arthur Bentley, (1949). Knowing and the Known. Beacon Press, Boston. to inefficient and imprecise use of words and concepts that reflect three historic levels of organization and presentation. ibid. p107-109 In the order of chronological appearance, these are: Self-Action: Prescientific concepts regarded humans, animals, and things as possessing powers of their own which initiated or caused their actions. Interaction: as described by Newton, where things, living and inorganic, are balanced against something in a system of interaction, for example, the third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Transaction: where modern systems of descriptions and naming are employed to deal with multiple aspects and phases of action without any attribution to ultimate, final, or independent entities, essences, or realities. A series of characterizations of Transactions indicate the wide range of considerations involved. ibid. p121-139 Logic and method Dewey sees paradox in contemporary logical theory. Proximate subject matter garners general agreement and advance, while the ultimate subject matter of logic generates unremitting controversy. In other words, he challenges confident logicians to answer the question of the truth of logical operators. Do they function merely as abstractions (e.g., pure mathematics) or do they connect in some essential way with their objects, and therefore alter or bring them to light? ("The Problem of Logical Subject Matter", in Logic: The Theory of Inquiry {1938}) Logical positivism also figured in Dewey's thought. About the movement he wrote that it "eschews the use of 'propositions' and 'terms', substituting 'sentences' and 'words'." ("General Theory of Propositions", in Logic: The Theory of Inquiry) He welcomes this changing of referents “in as far as it fixes attention upon the symbolic structure and content of propositions.” However, he registers a small complaint against the use of “sentences” and “words” in that without careful interpretation the act or process of transposition “narrows unduly the scope of symbols and language, since it is not customary to treat gestures and diagrams (maps, blueprints, etc.) as words or sentences.” In other words, sentences and words, considered in isolation, do not disclose intent, which may be inferred or “adjudged only by means of context.” (Ibid.) Yet Dewey was not entirely opposed to modern logical trends. Concerning traditional logic, he states: “Aristotelian logic, which still passes current nominally, is a logic based upon the idea that qualitative objects are existential in the fullest sense. To retain logical principles based on this conception along with the acceptance of theories of existence and knowledge based on an opposite conception is not, to say the least, conductive to clearness – a consideration that has a good deal to do with existing dualism between traditional and the newer relational logics.” (Qualitative Thought {1930}) Louis Menand argues in The Metaphysical Club that Jane Addams had been critical of Dewey's emphasis on antagonism in the context of a discussion of the Pullman strike of 1894. In a later letter to his wife, Dewey confessed that Addams' argument was "the most magnificent exhibition of intellectual & moral faith I ever saw. She converted me internally, but not really, I fear.... When you think that Miss Addams does not think this as a philosophy, but believes it in all her senses & muscles--Great God... I guess I'll have to give it [all] up & start over again." He went on to add, "I can see that I have always been interpreting dialectic wrong end up, the unity as the reconciliation of opposites, instead of the opposites as the unity in its growth, and thus translated the physical tension into a moral thing... I don't know as I give the reality of this at all,... it seems so natural & commonplace now, but I never had anything take hold of me so." Louis Menand. The Metaphysical Club p. 313 In a letter to Addams herself, Dewey wrote, clearly influenced by his conversation with her: "Not only is actual antagonizing bad, but the assumption that there is or may be antagonism is bad-- in fact, the real first antagonism always comes back to the assumption." Aesthetics Art as Experience (1934) is Dewey's major writing on aesthetics. It is, according to his place in the Pragmatist tradition that emphasizes community, a study of the individual art object as embedded in (and inextricable from) the experiences of a local culture. See his Experience and Nature for an extended discussion of 'Experience' in Dewey's philosophy. On democracy The overriding theme of Dewey's works was his profound belief in democracy, be it in politics, education or communication and journalism. As Dewey himself put it in 1888, while still at the University of Michigan, "Democracy and the one, ultimate, ethical ideal of humanity are to my mind synonymous." Early Works, 1:128 (Southern Illinois University Press) op cited in Douglas R. Anderson, AAR, The Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 61, No. 2 (1993), p. 383 With respect to technological developments in a democracy: "Persons do not become a society by living in physical proximity any more than a man ceases to be socially influenced by being so many feet or miles removed from others" -John Dewey from Andrew Feenberg's "Community in the Digital Age" On education Dewey's educational theories were presented in "My Pedagogic Creed" (1897), The School and Society (1900), The Child and Curriculum (1902), Democracy and Education (1916) and Experience and Education (1938). His recurrent and intertwining themes of education, democracy and communication are effectively summed up in the following excerpt from the first chapter, "Education as a Necessity of Life", of his 1916 book, Democracy and Education: an introduction to the philosophy of education: "What nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social life. This education consists primarily in transmission through communication. Communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession." Dewey, J. Democracy and Education: an introduction to the philosophy of education. Chapter 1: Education as a Necessity of Life As well as his very active and direct involvement in setting up educational institutions such as the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools (1896) and The New School for Social Research (1919), many of Dewey's ideas influenced the founding of Bennington College in Vermont, where he served on the Board of Trustees. Dewey was a relentless campaigner for reform of education, pointing out that the authoritarian, strict, pre-ordained knowledge approach of modern traditional education was too concerned with delivering knowledge, and not enough with understanding students' actual experiences. Neil, J. (2005) "John Dewey, the Modern Father of Experiential Education". Wilderdom.com. Retrieved 6/12/07. Dewey was the most famous proponent of hands-on learning or experiential education, which is related to, but not synonymous with experiential learning. Dewey went on to influence many other influential experiential models and advocates. Many researchers credit him with the influence of Project Based Learning (PBL) which places students in the active role of researchers. Dewey's theories influenced many Chinese scholars including Hu Shih, Zhang Boling and Tao Xingzhi while they studied under him in Columbia University. His opposition regarding traditional education also had an impact on Mao Zedong. On journalism Since the mid-1980s, Deweyan ideas have experienced revival as a major source of inspiration for the public journalism movement. Dewey's definition of "public," as described in The Public and its Problems, has profound implications for the significance of journalism in society. As suggested by the title of the book, his concern was of the transactional relationship between publics and problems. Also implicit in its name, public journalism seeks to orient communication away from elite, corporate hegemony toward a civic public sphere. "The 'public' of public journalists is Dewey's public." Heikkilä, H. and Kunelius, R. 2002. "Public Journalism and Its Problems: A Theoretical Perspective", http://www.imdp.org/artman/publish/article_30.shtml Dewey gives a concrete definition to the formation of a public. Publics are spontaneous groups of citizens who share the indirect effects of a particular action. Anyone affected by the indirect consequences of a specific action will automatically share a common interest in controlling those consequences, i.e., solving a common problem. Dewey, J. 1927. The Public and its Problems. Henry Holt & Co., New York. pp 126. Since every action generates unintended consequences, publics continuously emerge, overlap, and disintegrate. In The Public and its Problems, Dewey presents a rebuttal to Walter Lippmann’s treatise on the role of journalism in democracy. Lippmann’s model was a basic transmission model in which journalists took information given them by experts and elites, repackaged that information in simple terms, and transmitted the information to the public, whose role was to react emotionally to the news. In his model, Lippmann supposed that the public was incapable of thought or action, and that all thought and action should be left to the experts and elites. Dewey refutes this model by assuming that politics is the work and duty of each individual in the course of his daily routine. The knowledge needed to be involved in politics, in this model, was to be generated by the interaction of citizens, elites, experts, through the mediation and facilitation of journalism. In this model, not just the government is held accountable, but the citizens, experts, other actors as well. Dewey also revisioned journalism to fit this model by taking the focus from actions or happenings and changing the structure to focus on choices, consequences, and conditions, in order to foster conversation and improve the generation of knowledge in the community. Journalism would not just produce a static product that told of what had already happened, but the news would be in a constant state of evolution as the community added value by generating knowledge. The audience would disappear, to be replaced by citizens and collaborators who would essentially be users, doing more with the news than simply reading it. Dewey’s journalism was revolutionary because it changed the structure from choosing a winner of a given situation to posing alternatives and exploring consequences. His effort to change journalism, involve citizens, stimulation, was all under the auspices of creating the Great Community he wrote of in The Public and its Problems: “Till the Great Society is converted in to a Great Community, the Public will remain in eclipse. Communication can alone create a great community” (Dewey, pg. 144). Dewey believed that communication creates a great community, and citizens who actively participate in public life contribute to that community. "The clear consciousness of a communal life, in all its implications, constitutes the idea of democracy." (The Public and its Problems, p. 149). This Great Community can only occur with "free and full intercommunication." (p. 211) Communication can be understood as journalism - the traditional forum in which people communicate. On humanism Dewey participated in a variety of humanist activities from the thirties into the fifties, which included sitting on the advisory board of Charles Francis Potter's First Humanist Society of New York (1929); being one of the original 34 signees of the first Humanist Manifesto (1933) and being elected an honorary member of the Humanist Press Association (1936). "John Dewey Chronology" 1934.04.08, 1936.03.12, 1940.09, and 1950.09.11. His views on humanism are best summed in his own words from an article titled "What Humanism Means to Me", published in the June 1930 edition of Thinker 2: "What Humanism means to me is an expansion, not a contraction, of human life, an expansion in which nature and the science of nature are made the willing servants of human good." — John Dewey, "What Humanism Means to Me" Italics in the original. "What Humanism Means to Me," first published in Thinker 2 (June 1930): 9-12, as part of a series. Dewey: Page lw.5.266 [The Collected Works of John Dewey, 1882-1953, The Electronic Edition] Social and political activism As a major advocate for academic freedom, in 1935 Dewey, together with Albert Einstein and Alvin Johnson, became a member of the United States section of the International League for Academic Freedom, American Institute of Physics and in 1940, together with Horace M Kallen, edited a series of articles related to the infamous Bertrand Russell Case. As well as being highly active in defending the independence of the teaching community, and opposing a communist take over of the New York Teacher's Union, Dewey was involved in the organization that eventually became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He headed the famous Dewey Commission held in Mexico in 1938, and which cleared Trotsky of the charges made against him by Stalin, "Dewey Commission Report" and marched for women's rights, among many other causes. In 1950, Dewey, together with Bertrand Russell, Benedetto Croce, Karl Jaspers, and Jacques Maritain agreed to act as honorary chairman of the Congress for Cultural Freedom. "Origins of the Congress for Cultural Freedom, 1949-1950" CIA official web site Other interests Dewey's interests and writings covered a wide range of subjects, and according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "a substantial part of his published output consisted of commentary on current domestic and international politics, and public statements on behalf of many causes. (He is probably the only philosopher in this encyclopedia to have published both on the Treaty of Versailles and on the value of displaying art in post offices.)" "Dewey's Political Philosophy" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy In 1918, Dewey met F. M. Alexander in New York City and went on to write the introduction to Alexander's Constructive Conscious Control of the Inidividual (1923). F. M. Alexander Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1923 ISBN 0-913111-11-2 As well as his contacts with people mentioned elsewhere in the article, he also maintained correspondence with Henri Bergson, William M. Brown, Martin Buber, George S. Counts, William Rainey Harper, Sidney Hook, and George Santayana. Criticism In his lifetime Dewey was the target of notable critics, including Randolph Bourne, a former student of his, and Walter Lippmann, among others. Always at the forefront of the battle between the traditional and progressive education of his day, he is today often criticized for "what he did to our schools," a catch-all phrase which never actually pinpoints any specific criticism as it is not apparent that he really did anything directly to the schools, nor even that he fully approved of much of what passed for progressivism. Likewise, on the one hand, Dewey is held up as the epitome of liberalism by many conservative pundits today (see The Closing of the American Mind), even being "portrayed as dangerously radical" during the era of McCarthyism, Caspary, William R. Dewey on Democracy. (2000) Cornell University Press. Ithaca, NY. while on the other, quite a few on the left find him too conservative by today's post-modern standards. Meanwhile, Dewey was strongly critiqued by American communists because he took a stand against Stalinism and had philosophical differences with Marx. Other criticisms levelled at him include his war stances in both the First and the Second World Wars, as well as, despite having been involved in the foundation of the NAACP, not having written more directly against racism. Another, albeit minor, source of criticism has been religion. While one biographer, Steven C. Rockefeller, traced Dewey's firm democratic convictions to his childhood attendance at the Congregational Church, with its strong proclamation of social ideals, Rockefeller, Stephen. John Dewey: Religious Faith and Democratic Humanism. (1994)[13]. Columbia University Press another, Edward A. White, a Stanford University professor of history, suggested in Science and Religion in American Thought (1952) that Dewey's work had led to the 20th century rift between religion and science. However, in reviewing the book in The Quarterly Review of Biology (1954), noted geneticist H. Bentley Glass openly wondered if the rift between religion and science would have taken much the same course, even if there had not been a John Dewey. Bentley Glass, The Quarterly Review of Biology Vol. 29, No. 3 (Sep., 1954), pp. 249-250 Academic awards Copernican Citation (1943) Doctor “honoris causa” – University of Oslo (1946) Doctor “honoris causa” – University of Pennsylvania (1946) Doctor “honoris causa” – Yale University (1951) Doctor “honoris causa” – University of Rome (1951) Publications Besides publishing prolifically himself, Dewey also sat on various boards of scientific publications such as Sociometry (advisory board, 1942) and Journal of Social Psychology (editorial board, 1942), as well as holding posts at other publications such as New Leader (contributing editor, 1949). The following publications by John Dewey are referenced or mentioned in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of publications by John Dewey. "The New Psychology" Andover Review, 2, 278-289 (1884) Psychology (1887) Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding (1888) "The Ego as Cause" Philosophical Review, 3,337-341. (1894) Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" (1896) "My Pedagogic Creed" (1897) The School and Society (1900) The Child and the Curriculum (1902) "The Postulate of Immediate Empiricism" (1905) Moral Principles in Education (1909) The Riverside Press Cambridge Project Gutenberg How We Think (1910) Democracy and Education: an introduction to the philosophy of education (1916) Reconstruction in Philosophy (1919) Human Nature and Conduct: An Introduction to Social Psychology Experience and Nature (1925) The Public and its Problems (1927) The Quest for Certainty (1929) Individualism Old and New (1930) Philosophy and Civilization (1931) Ethics, second edition (with James Hayden Tufts) (1932) Art as Experience (1934) A Common Faith (1934) Liberalism and Social Action (1935) Experience and Education (1938) Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (1938) Freedom and Culture (1939) Knowing and the Known (1949) (with Arthur Bentley) Full copy in pdf file available from the American Institute for Economic Research See also The Essential Dewey: Volumes 1 and 2. Edited by Larry Hickman and Thomas Alexander. (1998). Indiana University Press. The Philosophy of John Dewey. Edited by John J. McDermott. (1981). University of Chicago Press. Dewey's Complete Writings is available in 3 multi-volume sets (37 volumes in all) from Southern Illinois University Press: The Early Works: 1892-1898 (5 volumes) The Middle Works: 1899-1924 (15 volumes) The Later Works: 1925-1953 (17 volumes) The Correspondence of John Dewey is available on CD-ROM in 3 volumes. Works about Dewey Alexander, Thomas. John Dewey's Theory of Art, Experience, and Nature (1987). SUNY Press. Boisvert, Raymond. John Dewey: Rethinking Our Time. (1997). SUNY Press. Campbell, James. John Dewey: Nature and Cooperative Intelligence''. (1995) Open Court Publishing Company. Caspary, William R. on Democracy]. (2000). Cornell University Press. Hickman, Larry A. John Dewey's Pragmatic Technology. (1992) Indiana University Press. Hook, S. John Dewey: An Intellectual Portrait (1939) Kannegiesser, H. J. "Knowledge and Science" (1977) The Macmillan Company of Australia PTY Ltd Martin, Jay. The Education of John Dewey. (2003). Columbia University Press. Rockefeller, Stephen. John Dewey: Religious Faith and Democratic Humanism. (1994). Columbia University Press Rogers, Melvin. The Undiscovered Dewey: Religion, Morality, and the Ethos of Democracy. (2008). Columbia University Press. Roth, Robert J. John Dewey and Self-Realization. (1962). Prentice Hall. Ryan, Alan. John Dewey and the High Tide of American Liberalism. (1995). W.W. Norton. Seigfried, Charlene Haddock, (ed.). Feminist Interpretations of John Dewey (2001). Penn State University Press. Shook, John. Dewey's Empirical Theory of Knowledge and Reality. (2000)[. The Vanderbilt Library of American Philosophy Sleeper, R.W. The Necessity of Pragmatism: John Dewey's Conception of Philosophy. Introduction by Tom Burke. (2001) .University of Illinois Press. Westbrook, Robert B. John Dewey and American Democracy. (1991). Cornell University Press. White, Morton. The Origin of Dewey's Instrumentalism. (1943). Columbia University Press. References See also John Dewey Society Center for Dewey Studies Democratic education Academy at Charlemont The Bertrand Russell Case Dewey Commission Education reform Inquiry-based Science Laboratory school Learning by teaching External links [http://www.siu.edu/~deweyctr/ Center for Dewey Studies John Dewey Society Another biography with easier readability Excerpts from Experience and Nature (pdf file) Impressions of Soviet Russia Small site on John Dewey John Dewey Papers at Southern Illinois University Carbondale John Dewey Chronology at Southern Illinois University Information about John Dewey and F. Mathias Alexander John Dewey: His Life and Work 4-minute clip from a documentary film used primarily in higher education. More information about John Dewey and F. Mathias Alexander Article on Dewey's Moral Philosophy in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Article on Dewey's Political Philosophy in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Dewey page from Pragmatism Cybrary Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy at Northwest Missouri State University | John_Dewey |@lemmatized john:41 dewey:135 october:1 june:3 american:19 philosopher:4 psychologist:6 educational:3 reformer:1 whose:3 thought:8 idea:7 highly:2 influential:2 united:3 state:8 around:1 world:3 along:4 charles:4 sander:2 peirce:2 william:7 james:11 recognize:1 one:14 founder:3 philosophical:6 school:16 pragmatism:7 also:15 functional:4 psychology:23 leading:1 representative:1 progressive:4 movement:3 u:2 first:12 half:2 century:3 although:2 best:2 know:5 work:23 education:34 write:11 wide:3 range:3 subject:6 include:5 experience:21 nature:14 art:8 logic:13 inquiry:6 democracy:20 ethic:3 advocacy:1 consider:5 two:2 fundamental:1 element:1 civil:2 society:11 key:1 area:1 need:2 attention:2 reconstruction:4 encourage:1 experimental:2 intelligence:2 plurality:1 necessary:1 assert:1 full:4 obtain:1 extend:1 vote:1 right:2 ensure:1 exist:2 fully:2 form:2 public:26 opinion:1 accomplish:1 effective:1 communication:9 among:3 citizen:7 expert:5 politician:1 latter:1 hold:8 accountable:2 policy:1 adopt:1 life:12 bear:1 burlington:1 vermont:3 modest:1 family:1 origin:3 like:4 old:2 brother:1 davis:1 rich:1 attend:1 university:37 graduate:1 phi:1 beta:1 kappa:1 three:3 year:4 high:3 teacher:4 oil:1 city:2 pennsylvania:2 decide:1 unsuited:1 employment:1 primary:1 secondary:1 study:9 g:3 stanley:1 hall:2 laboratory:4 receive:1 ph:1 science:8 hopkins:1 take:8 faculty:1 position:1 michigan:4 help:1 george:4 sylvester:1 morris:1 unpublished:1 lose:1 dissertation:1 title:4 kant:1 join:2 newly:3 found:3 chicago:8 shape:1 belief:6 empirically:1 base:6 theory:14 knowledge:11 align:1 ideal:5 emerge:2 pragmatic:2 time:6 result:2 four:2 essay:3 collectively:1 entitle:1 matter:4 publish:9 collected:2 colleague:2 collective:1 logical:7 able:1 actualize:1 pedagogical:1 provide:1 material:1 major:6 disagreement:1 administration:1 ultimately:1 lead:2 resignation:1 point:2 leave:2 east:1 coast:1 elect:3 president:4 psychological:5 association:6 death:1 professor:4 philosophy:27 columbia:8 college:2 new:14 york:5 edition:4 january:1 page:3 become:6 long:1 member:4 federation:1 historian:2 beard:1 economist:1 thorstein:1 veblen:1 harvey:1 robinson:1 social:11 research:4 significant:1 writing:3 reflex:5 arc:5 concept:8 critique:2 standard:2 basis:1 celebrated:1 human:12 conduct:2 role:5 habit:1 behavior:1 problem:12 defense:1 response:6 walter:3 lippmann:5 phantom:1 metaphysical:3 statement:2 aesthetic:3 common:6 faith:7 humanistic:1 religion:7 originally:1 deliver:2 dwight:1 h:4 terry:1 lectureship:1 yale:2 examination:1 unusual:1 conception:4 freedom:6 culture:3 political:4 examine:1 root:1 fascism:1 knowing:3 book:7 conjuction:1 arthur:3 f:5 bentley:6 systematically:1 outline:1 trans:1 action:15 central:2 focus:4 particular:2 theme:4 wove:1 everything:1 professional:2 extremely:1 productive:1 consist:3 article:9 journal:4 roughly:1 marry:1 twice:1 wife:3 alice:1 chipman:1 bore:1 six:1 child:3 second:3 roberta:1 lowitz:1 grant:1 leibniz:2 concern:4 understanding:4 express:2 early:3 commitment:1 hegelian:3 idealism:2 explore:2 synthesis:1 attempt:1 effect:2 still:3 junior:1 hayden:2 tuft:3 herbert:1 mead:2 together:4 student:4 rowland:1 angell:2 strongly:4 influence:8 recent:2 publication:7 landmark:1 principle:3 begin:2 reformulate:1 environment:2 activity:2 mind:3 behaviour:1 physiological:2 wundt:1 follower:1 would:6 later:3 invite:1 follow:1 core:1 call:2 group:2 approach:3 dub:1 practical:1 emphasis:2 application:1 appear:1 review:6 reason:1 traditional:7 stimulus:5 favor:1 circular:1 account:1 serve:3 depend:1 view:4 situation:2 defend:2 unitary:1 sensory:1 motor:1 circuit:1 deny:1 existence:2 sensation:2 disagree:1 separate:1 juxtaposed:1 event:2 happen:2 link:2 chain:1 put:2 forward:1 coordination:2 enrich:1 previous:1 modulate:1 thanks:1 sensorial:1 say:3 phase:2 division:1 labor:1 part:3 overall:1 organism:1 adapts:1 without:3 polemic:1 usa:1 stamp:5 announce:1 lillian:1 moller:1 gilbreth:1 commemorate:1 postage:2 however:3 gary:1 brucato:2 jr:2 hogan:2 make:4 case:3 distinction:1 actually:2 belong:1 celebrate:1 earlier:1 bona:1 fide:1 benjamin:1 l:1 get:1 applied:1 psychoanalytic:1 author:2 note:2 founding:2 p:8 eighth:1 cornerstone:1 j:8 spring:1 general:3 interest:4 visual:1 perception:1 carry:1 dartmouth:1 adelbert:1 ames:1 instrumentalism:3 identify:1 pragmatist:2 per:1 se:1 instead:2 refer:1 figure:2 coin:1 term:5 popularize:1 unlike:1 lineage:1 primarily:3 british:1 draw:1 particularly:1 empiricist:2 utilitarian:1 good:4 search:1 unity:4 diversity:1 permanent:1 deposit:1 lexington:1 neither:1 pluralist:1 relativist:1 value:3 function:2 whim:1 purely:1 construction:1 quality:1 situate:1 wistful:1 pathetic:1 turbulent:1 passionate:1 experimentation:1 cultural:3 technological:2 could:3 use:5 relatively:1 hard:1 fast:1 arbiter:1 truth:2 example:2 felt:2 many:10 people:4 lack:1 religious:5 shallow:1 rather:1 uninteresting:1 demonstrate:1 correct:1 responsible:1 leap:1 gamble:1 another:4 theism:1 atheism:1 monism:1 etc:2 contrast:1 honor:1 important:1 institution:2 practice:1 play:1 reject:1 static:2 theistic:1 god:3 scientific:2 method:2 reliably:1 denote:1 end:2 arouse:1 desire:1 lw:2 reemergence:1 contribution:1 much:3 thinker:5 reemerged:1 reassessment:1 late:4 richard:2 rorty:2 bernstein:1 han:1 joas:1 process:3 orient:2 sociologically:1 conscious:3 sometimes:1 see:7 useful:2 alternative:2 modern:6 postmodern:1 way:2 thinking:1 non:1 foundational:1 pre:2 date:1 postmodernism:1 exponent:1 always:5 remain:3 faithful:1 original:3 vision:1 though:1 completely:1 keep:1 usage:1 past:1 doctrine:1 require:1 order:3 present:3 go:4 name:3 instrumentalist:1 experimentalist:1 functionalist:1 naturalist:1 transactional:2 may:4 better:1 describe:4 emphasize:2 epistemology:2 terminology:1 field:1 partially:1 due:1 accord:3 beacon:1 press:20 boston:1 inefficient:1 imprecise:1 word:8 reflect:1 historic:1 level:2 organization:2 presentation:1 ibid:3 chronological:1 appearance:1 self:2 prescientific:1 regard:2 animal:1 thing:3 possess:1 power:1 initiate:1 cause:4 interaction:3 newton:1 living:1 inorganic:1 balance:1 something:1 system:2 third:1 law:1 motion:1 every:2 equal:1 opposite:4 reaction:1 transaction:2 description:1 employ:1 deal:2 multiple:1 aspect:1 attribution:1 ultimate:3 final:1 independent:1 entity:1 essence:1 reality:3 series:3 characterization:1 indicate:1 consideration:2 involve:5 paradox:1 contemporary:1 proximate:1 garner:1 agreement:1 advance:1 generates:1 unremitting:1 controversy:1 challenge:1 confident:1 logician:1 answer:1 question:1 operator:1 merely:1 abstraction:1 e:3 pure:1 mathematics:1 connect:1 essential:2 object:3 therefore:1 alter:1 bring:1 light:1 positivism:1 eschew:1 proposition:3 substitute:1 sentence:4 welcome:1 changing:1 referent:1 far:1 fix:1 upon:2 symbolic:1 structure:3 content:1 register:1 small:2 complaint:1 careful:1 interpretation:2 act:2 transposition:1 narrow:1 unduly:1 scope:1 symbol:1 language:1 since:3 customary:1 treat:1 gesture:1 diagram:1 map:1 blueprint:1 isolation:1 disclose:1 intent:1 infer:1 adjudge:1 mean:5 context:2 yet:1 entirely:1 oppose:2 trend:1 aristotelian:1 pass:2 current:2 nominally:1 qualitative:2 existential:1 sense:1 retain:1 acceptance:1 least:1 conductive:1 clearness:1 dualism:1 relational:1 think:4 louis:2 menand:2 argues:1 club:2 jane:1 addams:4 critical:1 antagonism:3 discussion:2 pullman:1 strike:1 letter:2 confess:1 argument:1 magnificent:1 exhibition:1 intellectual:2 moral:4 ever:1 saw:1 convert:2 internally:1 really:2 fear:1 miss:1 believe:2 sens:1 muscle:1 great:7 guess:1 give:5 start:1 add:2 interpret:1 dialectic:1 wrong:1 reconciliation:1 growth:1 thus:1 translate:1 physical:2 tension:1 seem:1 natural:1 commonplace:1 never:2 anything:2 clearly:1 conversation:2 actual:2 antagonize:1 bad:2 assumption:2 fact:1 real:1 come:1 back:1 place:2 tradition:1 community:11 individual:3 embed:1 inextricable:1 local:1 extended:1 override:1 profound:2 politics:4 journalism:13 ethical:1 humanity:1 synonymous:2 southern:4 illinois:5 op:1 cite:1 douglas:1 r:5 anderson:1 aar:1 academy:2 vol:2 respect:1 development:1 person:1 live:1 proximity:1 man:1 cease:1 socially:1 foot:1 mile:1 remove:1 others:2 andrew:1 feenberg:1 digital:1 age:1 pedagogic:2 creed:2 curriculum:2 recurrent:1 intertwine:1 effectively:1 sum:2 following:2 excerpt:2 chapter:2 necessity:3 introduction:6 nutrition:1 reproduction:1 transmission:2 share:3 till:2 possession:1 well:6 active:3 direct:1 involvement:1 set:2 bennington:1 board:5 trustee:1 relentless:1 campaigner:1 reform:2 authoritarian:1 strict:1 ordain:1 concerned:1 enough:1 neil:1 father:1 experiential:4 wilderdom:1 com:1 retrieve:1 famous:2 proponent:1 hand:2 learning:4 relate:2 model:8 advocate:2 researcher:2 credit:1 project:2 pbl:1 chinese:1 scholar:1 hu:1 shih:1 zhang:1 boling:1 tao:1 xingzhi:1 opposition:1 impact:1 mao:1 zedong:1 mid:1 deweyan:1 revival:1 source:2 inspiration:1 definition:2 implication:2 significance:1 suggest:2 relationship:1 implicit:1 seek:1 away:1 elite:4 corporate:1 hegemony:1 toward:1 civic:1 sphere:1 journalist:2 heikkilä:1 kunelius:1 theoretical:1 perspective:1 http:2 www:2 imdp:1 org:1 artman:1 shtml:1 concrete:1 formation:1 spontaneous:1 indirect:2 anyone:1 affect:1 consequence:5 specific:2 automatically:1 control:3 solve:1 henry:1 holt:1 co:2 pp:2 generate:3 unintended:1 continuously:1 overlap:1 disintegrate:1 rebuttal:1 treatise:1 basic:1 information:5 repackaged:1 simple:1 transmit:1 react:1 emotionally:1 news:3 suppose:1 incapable:1 refute:1 assume:1 duty:1 course:2 daily:1 routine:1 mediation:1 facilitation:1 government:1 actor:1 revisioned:1 fit:1 happening:1 change:3 choice:1 condition:1 foster:1 improve:1 generation:1 produce:1 product:1 tell:1 already:1 constant:1 evolution:1 audience:1 disappear:1 replace:1 collaborator:1 essentially:1 user:1 simply:1 read:1 revolutionary:1 choose:1 winner:1 pose:1 effort:1 stimulation:1 auspex:1 create:3 eclipse:1 alone:1 pg:1 actively:1 participate:2 contribute:2 clear:2 consciousness:1 communal:1 constitute:1 occur:1 free:1 intercommunication:1 understand:1 forum:1 communicate:1 humanism:8 variety:1 humanist:4 thirty:1 fifty:1 sit:2 advisory:2 francis:1 potter:1 signees:1 manifesto:1 honorary:2 chronology:2 expansion:2 contraction:1 willing:1 servant:1 italic:1 electronic:1 activism:1 academic:3 albert:1 einstein:1 alvin:1 johnson:1 section:1 international:2 league:1 institute:2 physic:1 horace:1 kallen:1 edit:3 infamous:1 bertrand:3 russell:3 independence:1 teaching:1 communist:2 union:1 eventually:1 national:1 advancement:1 colored:1 naacp:2 head:1 commission:3 mexico:1 trotsky:1 charge:1 stalin:1 report:1 march:1 woman:1 benedetto:1 croce:1 karl:1 jasper:1 jacques:1 maritain:1 agree:1 chairman:1 congress:2 cia:1 official:1 web:1 site:2 cover:1 stanford:6 encyclopedia:7 substantial:1 output:1 commentary:1 domestic:1 behalf:1 probably:1 treaty:1 versailles:1 display:1 post:3 office:1 meet:1 alexander:7 constructive:2 inidividual:1 dutton:1 isbn:1 contact:1 mention:2 elsewhere:1 maintain:1 correspondence:2 henri:1 bergson:1 brown:1 martin:2 buber:1 count:1 rainey:1 harper:1 sidney:1 hook:2 santayana:1 criticism:4 lifetime:1 target:1 notable:1 critic:1 randolph:1 bourne:1 former:1 forefront:1 battle:1 day:1 today:3 often:1 criticize:1 catch:1 phrase:1 pinpoint:1 apparent:1 directly:2 even:3 approve:1 progressivism:1 likewise:1 epitome:1 liberalism:3 conservative:2 pundit:1 closing:1 portray:1 dangerously:1 radical:1 era:1 mccarthyism:1 caspary:2 cornell:3 ithaca:1 ny:1 quite:1 left:1 find:2 meanwhile:1 stand:1 stalinism:1 difference:1 marx:1 war:2 stance:1 despite:1 foundation:1 racism:1 albeit:1 minor:1 biographer:1 steven:1 c:1 rockefeller:3 trace:1 firm:1 democratic:4 conviction:1 childhood:1 attendance:1 congregational:1 church:1 strong:1 proclamation:1 stephen:2 edward:1 white:2 history:1 rift:2 quarterly:2 biology:2 geneticist:1 glass:2 openly:1 wonder:1 sep:1 award:1 copernican:1 citation:1 doctor:4 honoris:4 causa:4 oslo:1 rome:1 besides:1 prolifically:1 various:1 sociometry:1 editorial:1 leader:1 editor:1 reference:2 complete:2 list:2 andover:1 ego:1 postulate:1 immediate:1 empiricism:1 riverside:1 cambridge:1 gutenberg:1 quest:1 certainty:1 individualism:1 civilization:1 copy:1 pdf:2 file:2 available:3 economic:1 volume:7 larry:2 hickman:2 thomas:2 indiana:2 mcdermott:1 multi:1 middle:1 cd:1 rom:1 suny:2 boisvert:1 raymond:1 rethink:1 campbell:1 cooperative:1 open:1 court:1 company:2 technology:1 portrait:1 kannegiesser:1 macmillan:1 australia:1 pty:1 ltd:1 jay:1 rogers:1 melvin:1 undiscovered:1 morality:1 ethos:1 roth:1 robert:2 realization:1 prentice:1 ryan:1 alan:1 tide:1 w:3 norton:1 seigfried:1 charlene:1 haddock:1 ed:1 feminist:1 penn:1 shook:1 empirical:1 vanderbilt:1 library:1 sleeper:1 tom:1 burke:1 westbrook:1 b:1 morton:1 center:2 charlemont:1 teach:1 external:1 siu:1 edu:1 deweyctr:1 biography:1 easy:1 readability:1 impression:1 soviet:1 russia:1 paper:1 carbondale:1 mathias:2 minute:1 clip:1 documentary:1 film:1 cybrary:1 internet:1 northwest:1 missouri:1 |@bigram sander_peirce:2 burlington_vermont:1 phi_beta:1 beta_kappa:1 thorstein_veblen:1 reflex_arc:5 walter_lippmann:3 herbert_mead:1 postage_stamp:2 bona_fide:1 per_se:1 richard_rorty:1 logical_positivism:1 board_trustee:1 experiential_learning:1 mao_zedong:1 profound_implication:1 http_www:2 unintended_consequence:1 advisory_board:2 humanist_manifesto:1 albert_einstein:1 bertrand_russell:3 association_advancement:1 advancement_colored:1 benedetto_croce:1 stanford_encyclopedia:5 treaty_versailles:1 dutton_co:1 henri_bergson:1 martin_buber:1 ithaca_ny:1 doctor_honoris:4 honoris_causa:4 project_gutenberg:1 cd_rom:1 suny_press:2 australia_pty:1 pty_ltd:1 prentice_hall:1 w_norton:1 external_link:1 |
4,641 | Group_action | tight|Given an equilateral triangle, the counterclockwise rotation by 120° around the center of the triangle "acts" on the set of vertices of the triangle by mapping every vertex to another one. In algebra and geometry, a group action is a way of describing symmetries of objects using groups. The essential elements of the object are described by a set and the symmetries of the object are described by the symmetry group of this set, which consists of bijective transformations of the set. In this case, the group is also called a permutation group (especially if the set is finite or not a vector space) or transformation group (especially if the set is a vector space and the group acts like linear transformations of the set). A group action is a flexible generalization of the notion of a symmetry group in which every element of the group "acts" like a bijective transformation (or "symmetry") of some set, without being identified with that transformation. This allows for a more comprehensive description of the symmetries of an object, such as a polyhedron, by allowing the same group to act on several different sets, such as the set of vertices, the set of edges and the set of faces of the polyhedron. If G is a group and X is a set then a group action may be defined as a group homomorphism from G to the symmetric group of X. The action assigns a permutation of X to each element of the group in such a way that the permutation of X assigned to the identity element of G is the identity transformation of X; the permutation of X assigned to a product gh of two elements of the group is the composite of the permutations assigned to g and h. Since each element of G is represented as a permutation, a group action is also known as a permutation representation. The abstraction provided by group actions is a powerful one, because it allows geometrical ideas to be applied to more abstract objects. Many objects in mathematics have natural group actions defined on them. In particular, groups can act on other groups, or even on themselves. Despite this generality, the theory of group actions contains wide-reaching theorems, such as the orbit stabilizer theorem, which can be used to prove deep results in several fields. Definition If G is a group and X is a set, then a (left) group action of G on X is a binary function denoted which satisfies the following two axioms: (gh)·x = g·(h·x) for all g, h in G and x in X; e·x = x for every x in X (where e denotes the identity element of G). The set X is called a (left) G-set. The group G is said to act on X (on the left). From these two axioms, it follows that for every g in G, the function which maps x in X to g·x is a bijective map from X to X. Therefore, one may alternatively define a group action of G on X as a group homomorphism from G into the symmetric group Sym(X) of all bijections from X to X. In complete analogy, one can define a right group action of G on X as a function X × G → X by the two axioms: x·(gh) = (x·g)·h; x·e = x. The difference between left and right actions is in the order in which a product like gh acts on x. For a left action h acts first and is followed by g, while for a right action g acts first and is followed by h. From a right action a left action can be constructed by composing with the inverse operation on the group. If r is a right action, then is a left action, since and Similarly, any left action can be converted into a right action. Therefore in the sequel we consider only left group actions, since right actions add nothing new. Examples The trivial action for any group G is defined by g·x=x for all g in G and all x in X; that is, the whole group G induces the identity permutation on X. Every group G acts on G in two natural but essentially different ways: g·x = gx for all x in G, or g·x = gxg−1 for all x in G. The latter action is often called the conjugation action, and an exponential notation is commonly used for the right-action variant: xg = g−1xg; it satisfies (xg)h = xgh. The symmetric group Sn and its subgroups act on the set { 1, ... , n } by permuting its elements The symmetry group of a polyhedron acts on the set of vertices of that polyhedron. It also acts on the set of faces of the polyhedron. The symmetry group of any geometrical object acts on the set of points of that object The automorphism group of a vector space (or graph, or group, or ring...) acts on the vector space (or set of vertices of the graph, or group, or ring...). The general linear group GL(n,R), special linear group SL(n,R), orthogonal group O(n,R), and special orthogonal group SO(n,R) are Lie groups which act on Rn. The Galois group of a field extension E/F acts on the bigger field E. So does every subgroup of the Galois group. The additive group of the real numbers (R, +) acts on the phase space of "well-behaved" systems in classical mechanics (and in more general dynamical systems): if t is in R and x is in the phase space, then x describes a state of the system, and t·x is defined to be the state of the system t seconds later if t is positive or −t seconds ago if t is negative. The additive group of the real numbers (R, +) acts on the set of real functions of a real variable with (g·f)(x) equal to e.g. f(x + g), f(x) + g, , , , or , but not The quaternions with modulus 1, as a multiplicative group, act on R3: for any such quaternion , the mapping f(x) = z x z* is a counterclockwise rotation through an angle about an axis v; −z is the same rotation; see quaternions and spatial rotation. The isometries of the plane act on the set of 2D images and patterns, such as a wallpaper pattern. The definition can be made more precise by specifying what is meant by image or pattern, e.g. a function of position with values in a set of colors. More generally, a group of bijections g: V → V acts on the set of functions x: V → W by (gx)(v) = x(g−1(v)) (or a restricted set of such functions that is closed under the group action). Thus a group of bijections of space induces a group action on "objects" in it. Types of actions The action of G on X is called transitive if for any two x, y in X there exists a g in G such that g·x = y. sharply transitive if that g is unique; it is equivalent to regularity defined below. n-transitive if for any pairwise distinct x1, ..., xn and pairwise distinct y1, ..., yn there is a g in G such that g.xk = yk for 1 ≤ k ≤ n. A 2-transitive action is also called doubly transitive, a 3-transitive action is also called triply transitive, and so on. sharply n-transitive if there is exactly one such g. faithful (or effective) if for any two distinct g, h in G there exists an x in X such that g·x ≠ h·x; or equivalently, if for any g≠ e in G there exists an x in X such that g·x ≠ x. Intuitively, different elements of G induce different permutations of X. free (or semiregular) if for any two distinct g, h in G and all x in X we have g·x ≠ h·x; or equivalently, if g·x = x for some x then g = e. regular (or simply transitive) if it is both transitive and free; this is equivalent to saying that for any two x, y in X there exists precisely one g in G such that g·x = y. In this case, X is known as a principal homogeneous space for G or as a G-torsor. locally free if G is a topological group, and there is a neighbourhood U of e in G such that the restriction of the action to U is free; that is, if g·x = x for some x and some g in U then g = e. irreducible if X is a module over a ring R, the action of G is R-linear, and there is no nonzero proper invariant submodule. Every free action on a non-empty set is faithful. A group G acts faithfully on X if and only if the homomorphism G → Sym(X) has a trivial kernel. Thus, for a faithful action, G is isomorphic to a permutation group on X; specifically, G is isomorphic to its image in Sym(X). The action of any group G on itself by left multiplication is regular, and thus faithful as well. Every group can, therefore, be embedded in the symmetric group on its own elements, Sym(G) — a result known as Cayley's theorem. If G does not act faithfully on X, one can easily modify the group to obtain a faithful action. If we define N = {g in G : g·x = x for all x in X}, then N is a normal subgroup of G; indeed, it is the kernel of the homomorphism G → Sym(X). The factor group G/N acts faithfully on X by setting (gN)·x = g·x. The original action of G on X is faithful if and only if N = {e}. Orbits and stabilizers Consider a group G acting on a set X. The orbit of a point x in X is the set of elements of X to which x can be moved by the elements of G. The orbit of x is denoted by Gx: The defining properties of a group guarantee that the set of orbits of (points x in) X under the action of G form a partition of X. The associated equivalence relation is defined by saying x ~ y if and only if there exists a g in G with g·x = y. The orbits are then the equivalence classes under this relation; two elements x and y are equivalent if and only if their orbits are the same, i.e. Gx = Gy. The set of all orbits of X under the action of G is written as X/G, and is called the quotient of the action; in geometric situations it may be called the orbit space. If Y is a subset of X, we write GY for the set { g·y : y Y and g G}. We call the subset Y invariant under G if GY = Y (which is equivalent to GY ⊆ Y). In that case, G also operates on Y. The subset Y is called fixed under G if g·y = y for all g in G and all y in Y. Every subset that's fixed under G is also invariant under G, but not vice versa. Every orbit is an invariant subset of X on which G acts transitively. The action of G on X is transitive if and only if all elements are equivalent, meaning that there is only one orbit. For every x in X, we define the stabilizer subgroup of x (also called the isotropy group or little group) as the set of all elements in G that fix x: This is a subgroup of G, though typically not a normal one. The action of G on X is free if and only if all stabilizers are trivial. The kernel N of the homomorphism G → Sym(X) is given by the intersection of the stabilizers Gx for all x in X. Orbits and stabilizers are closely related. For a fixed x in X, consider the map from G to X given by g g·x. The image of this map is the orbit of x and the coimage is the set of all left cosets of Gx. The standard quotient theorem of set theory then gives a natural bijection between G/Gx and Gx. Specifically, the bijection is given by hGx h·x. This result is known as the orbit-stabilizer theorem. If G and X are finite then the orbit-stabilizer theorem, together with Lagrange's theorem, gives This result is especially useful since it can be employed for counting arguments. Note that if two elements x and y belong to the same orbit, then their stabilizer subgroups, Gx and Gy, are isomorphic (or conjugate). More precisely: if y = g·x, then Gy = gGx g−1. Points with conjugate stabilizer subgroups are said to have the same orbit-type. A result closely related to the orbit-stabilizer theorem is Burnside's lemma: where Xg is the set of points fixed by g. This result is mainly of use when G and X are finite, when it can be interpreted as follows: the number of orbits is equal to the average number of points fixed per group element. The set of formal differences of finite G-sets forms a ring called the Burnside ring, where addition corresponds to disjoint union, and multiplication to Cartesian product. Group actions and groupoids The notion of group action can be put in a broader context by using the associated `action groupoid' associated to the group action, thus allowing techniques from groupoid theory such as presentations and fibrations. Further the stabilisers of the action are the vertex groups, and the orbits of the action are the components, of the action groupoid. For more details, see the book `Topology and groupoids' referenced below. This action groupoid comes with a morphism which is a `covering morphism of groupoids'. This allows a relation between such morphisms and covering maps in topology. Morphisms and isomorphisms between G-sets If X and Y are two G-sets, we define a morphism from X to Y to be a function f : X → Y such that f(g·x) = g·f(x) for all g in G and all x in X. Morphisms of G-sets are also called equivariant maps or G-maps. If such a function f is bijective, then its inverse is also a morphism, and we call f an isomorphism and the two G-sets X and Y are called isomorphic; for all practical purposes, they are indistinguishable in this case. Some example isomorphisms: Every regular G action is isomorphic to the action of G on G given by left multiplication. Every free G action is isomorphic to G×S, where S is some set and G acts by left multiplication on the first coordinate. Every transitive G action is isomorphic to left multiplication by G on the set of left cosets of some subgroup H of G. With this notion of morphism, the collection of all G-sets forms a category; this category is a topos. Continuous group actions One often considers continuous group actions: the group G is a topological group, X is a topological space, and the map G × X → X is continuous with respect to the product topology of G × X. The space X is also called a G-space in this case. This is indeed a generalization, since every group can be considered a topological group by using the discrete topology. All the concepts introduced above still work in this context, however we define morphisms between G-spaces to be continuous maps compatible with the action of G. The quotient X/G inherits the quotient topology from X, and is called the quotient space of the action. The above statements about isomorphisms for regular, free and transitive actions are no longer valid for continuous group actions. If G is a discrete group acting on a topological space X, the action is properly discontinuous if for any point x in X there is an open neighborhood U of x in X, such that the set of all for which consists of the identity only. If X is a regular covering space of another topological space Y, then the action of the deck transformation group on X is properly discontinuous as well as being free. Every free, properly discontinuous action of a group G on a path-connected topological space X arises in this manner: the quotient map is a regular covering map, and the deck transformation group is the given action of G on X. Furthermore, if X is simply connected, the fundamental group of will be isomorphic to . These results have been generalised in the book Topology and Groupoids referenced below to obtain the fundamental groupoid of the orbit space of a discontinuous action of discrete group on a Hausdorff space, as, under reasonable local conditions, the orbit groupoid of the fundamental groupoid of the space. This allows calculations such as the fundamental group of a symmetric square. An action of a group G on a locally compact space X is cocompact if there exists a compact subset A of X such that GA = X. For a properly discontinuous action, cocompactness is equivalent to compactness of the quotient space X/G. The action of G on X is said to be proper if the mapping G×X → X×X that sends is a proper map. Strongly continuous group action and smooth points If is an action of a topological group on another topological space , one says that it is strongly continuous if for all , the map is continuous with respect to the respective topologies. Such an action induce an action on the space of continuous function on by . The subspace of smooth points for the action is the subspace of of points such that is smooth, i.e. it is continuous and all derivatives are continuous. Generalizations One can also consider actions of monoids on sets, by using the same two axioms as above. This does not define bijective maps and equivalence relations however. Instead of actions on sets, one can define actions of groups and monoids on objects of an arbitrary category: start with an object X of some category, and then define an action on X as a monoid homomorphism into the monoid of endomorphisms of X. If X has an underlying set, then all definitions and facts stated above can be carried over. For example, if we take the category of vector spaces, we obtain group representations in this fashion. One can view a group G as a category with a single object in which every morphism is invertible. A group action is then nothing but a functor from G to the category of sets, and a group representation is a functor from G to the category of vector spaces. A morphism between G-sets is then a natural transformation between the group action functors. In analogy, an action of a groupoid is a functor from the groupoid to the category of sets or to some other category. Without using the language of categories, one can extend the notion of a group action on a set X by studying as well its induced action on the power set of X. This is useful, for instance, in studying the action of the large Mathieu group on a 24-set and in studying symmetry in certain models of finite geometries. See also Group with operators Monoid action Gain graph References Brown, Ronald (2006). Topology and groupoids, Booksurge PLC, ISBN 1-4196-2722-8. Categories and groupoids, P.J. Higgins, downloadable reprint of van Nostrand Notes in Mathematics, 1971, which deal with applications of groupoids in group theory and topology. | Group_action |@lemmatized tight:1 give:8 equilateral:1 triangle:3 counterclockwise:2 rotation:4 around:1 center:1 act:29 set:56 vertex:6 map:15 every:17 another:3 one:15 algebra:1 geometry:2 group:99 action:86 way:3 describe:4 symmetry:9 object:12 use:8 essential:1 element:17 consist:2 bijective:5 transformation:9 case:5 also:13 call:17 permutation:10 especially:3 finite:5 vector:6 space:27 like:3 linear:4 flexible:1 generalization:3 notion:4 without:2 identify:1 allow:6 comprehensive:1 description:1 polyhedron:5 several:2 different:4 edge:1 face:2 g:161 x:170 may:3 define:16 homomorphism:6 symmetric:5 assign:4 identity:5 product:4 gh:4 two:14 composite:1 h:13 since:5 represent:1 know:4 representation:3 abstraction:1 provide:1 powerful:1 geometrical:2 idea:1 apply:1 abstract:1 many:1 mathematics:2 natural:4 particular:1 even:1 despite:1 generality:1 theory:4 contain:1 wide:1 reach:1 theorem:8 orbit:22 stabilizer:11 prove:1 deep:1 result:7 field:3 definition:3 left:12 binary:1 function:10 denote:3 satisfy:2 following:1 axiom:4 e:14 leave:3 say:6 follow:4 therefore:3 alternatively:1 sym:6 bijections:3 complete:1 analogy:2 right:8 difference:2 order:1 first:3 construct:1 compose:1 inverse:2 operation:1 r:10 similarly:1 convert:1 sequel:1 consider:6 add:1 nothing:2 new:1 examples:1 trivial:3 whole:1 induce:3 essentially:1 gx:9 gxg:1 latter:1 often:2 conjugation:1 exponential:1 notation:1 commonly:1 variant:1 xg:3 xgh:1 sn:1 subgroup:8 n:13 permute:1 point:10 automorphism:1 graph:3 ring:5 general:2 gl:1 special:2 sl:1 orthogonal:2 lie:1 rn:1 galois:2 extension:1 f:10 big:1 additive:2 real:4 number:4 phase:2 well:4 behave:1 system:4 classical:1 mechanic:1 dynamical:1 state:3 second:2 later:1 positive:1 ago:1 negative:1 variable:1 equal:2 quaternion:3 modulus:1 multiplicative:1 mapping:2 z:3 angle:1 axis:1 v:6 see:3 spatial:1 isometry:1 plane:1 image:4 pattern:3 wallpaper:1 make:1 precise:1 specify:1 mean:2 position:1 value:1 color:1 generally:1 w:1 restricted:1 close:1 thus:4 induces:1 type:2 transitive:13 exist:6 sharply:2 unique:1 equivalent:6 regularity:1 pairwise:2 distinct:4 xn:1 yn:1 xk:1 yk:1 k:1 doubly:1 triply:1 exactly:1 faithful:6 effective:1 equivalently:2 intuitively:1 free:10 semiregular:1 regular:6 simply:2 precisely:2 principal:1 homogeneous:1 torsor:1 locally:2 topological:9 neighbourhood:1 u:4 restriction:1 irreducible:1 module:1 nonzero:1 proper:3 invariant:4 submodule:1 non:1 empty:1 faithfully:3 kernel:3 isomorphic:8 specifically:2 multiplication:5 embed:1 cayley:1 easily:1 modify:1 obtain:3 normal:2 indeed:2 factor:1 gn:1 original:1 move:1 property:1 guarantee:1 form:3 partition:1 associated:1 equivalence:3 relation:4 class:1 gy:6 write:2 quotient:7 geometric:1 situation:1 subset:6 operate:1 fix:5 vice:1 versa:1 transitively:1 isotropy:1 little:1 though:1 typically:1 intersection:1 closely:2 related:1 fixed:1 coimage:1 cosets:2 standard:1 bijection:2 hgx:1 together:1 lagrange:1 useful:2 employ:1 count:1 argument:1 note:2 belong:1 conjugate:2 ggx:1 relate:1 burnside:2 lemma:1 mainly:1 interpret:1 average:1 per:1 formal:1 addition:1 correspond:1 disjoint:1 union:1 cartesian:1 groupoids:7 put:1 broad:1 context:2 associate:2 groupoid:9 technique:1 presentation:1 fibrations:1 far:1 stabiliser:1 component:1 detail:1 book:2 topology:9 reference:3 come:1 morphism:7 cover:3 morphisms:4 isomorphism:4 equivariant:1 practical:1 purpose:1 indistinguishable:1 example:2 coordinate:1 collection:1 category:12 topos:1 continuous:11 respect:2 discrete:3 concept:1 introduce:1 still:1 work:1 however:2 compatible:1 inherit:1 statement:1 longer:1 valid:1 properly:4 discontinuous:5 open:1 neighborhood:1 deck:2 path:1 connect:2 arise:1 manner:1 covering:1 furthermore:1 fundamental:4 generalise:1 hausdorff:1 reasonable:1 local:1 condition:1 calculation:1 square:1 compact:2 cocompact:1 ga:1 cocompactness:1 compactness:1 send:1 strongly:2 smooth:3 respective:1 subspace:2 derivative:1 monoids:2 instead:1 arbitrary:1 start:1 monoid:3 endomorphisms:1 underlying:1 fact:1 carry:1 take:1 fashion:1 view:1 single:1 invertible:1 functor:3 functors:1 language:1 extend:1 study:3 induced:1 power:1 instance:1 large:1 mathieu:1 certain:1 model:1 operator:1 gain:1 brown:1 ronald:1 booksurge:1 plc:1 isbn:1 p:1 j:1 higgins:1 downloadable:1 reprint:1 van:1 nostrand:1 deal:1 application:1 |@bigram equilateral_triangle:1 counterclockwise_rotation:2 sym_x:5 xk_yk:1 normal_subgroup:1 kernel_homomorphism:1 equivalence_relation:2 vice_versa:1 act_transitively:1 closely_related:1 left_cosets:2 closely_relate:1 disjoint_union:1 cartesian_product:1 topology_groupoids:3 topological_space:5 fundamental_groupoid:2 locally_compact:1 monoid_homomorphism:1 category_groupoids:1 van_nostrand:1 |
4,642 | Jacquard_loom | Jacquard loom on display at Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester, England The Jacquard Loom is a mechanical loom, invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801, that simplifies the process of manufacturing textiles with complex patterns such as brocade, damask, and matelasse. The loom is controlled by punchcards with punched holes, each row of which corresponds to one row of the design. Multiple rows of holes are punched on each card and the many cards that compose the design of the textile are strung together in order. It is based on earlier inventions by the Frenchmen Basile Bouchon (1725), Jean Falcon (1728) and Jacques Vaucanson (1740). Principles of Operation Each hole in the card corresponds to a "Bolus" hook, which can either be up or down. The hook raises or lowers the harness, which carries and guides the warp thread so that the weft will either lie above or below it. The sequence of raised and lowered threads is what creates the pattern. Each hook can be connected via the harness to a number of threads, allowing more than one repeat of a pattern. A loom with a 400 hook head might have four threads connected to each hook, resulting in a fabric that is 1600 warp ends wide with four repeats of the weave going across. Close-up view of comber board, harness, mails, weights (Lingoes) and warp with 1040 ends Close-up view of the 8 × 26 hole punch cards—one card per pick (weft) in the fabric. The term "Jacquard loom" is a misnomer. It is the "Jacquard head" that adapts to a great many dobby looms such as the "Dornier" brand that allow the weaving machine to then create the intricate patterns often seen in Jacquard weaving. Jacquard looms, whilst relatively common in the textile industry, are not as ubiquitous as dobby looms which are usually faster and much cheaper to operate. However unlike jacquard looms they are not capable of producing so many different weaves from one warp. Modern jacquard looms are controlled by computers in place of the original punched cards, and can have thousands of hooks. The threading of a Jacquard loom is so labor intensive that many looms are threaded only once. Subsequent warps are then tied in to the existing warp with the help of a knotting robot which ties each new thread on individually. Even for a small loom with only a few thousand warp ends the process of re-threading can take days. Importance to Computing The Jacquard loom was the first machine to use punch cards to control a sequence of operations. Although it did no computation based on them, it is considered an important step in the history of computing hardware. The ability to change the pattern of the loom's weave by simply changing cards was an important conceptual precursor to the development of computer programming. Specifically, Charles Babbage planned to use cards to store programs in his Analytical engine. See also Timeline of clothing and textiles technology Luddite Jacquard weaving References | Jacquard_loom |@lemmatized jacquard:12 loom:16 display:1 museum:1 science:1 industry:2 manchester:1 england:1 mechanical:1 invent:1 joseph:1 marie:1 simplify:1 process:2 manufacturing:1 textile:4 complex:1 pattern:5 brocade:1 damask:1 matelasse:1 control:3 punchcards:1 punched:2 hole:4 row:3 correspond:2 one:4 design:2 multiple:1 punch:3 card:9 many:4 compose:1 string:1 together:1 order:1 base:2 early:1 invention:1 frenchman:1 basile:1 bouchon:1 jean:1 falcon:1 jacques:1 vaucanson:1 principle:1 operation:2 bolus:1 hook:6 either:2 raise:2 lower:2 harness:3 carry:1 guide:1 warp:7 thread:6 weft:2 lie:1 sequence:2 create:2 connect:2 via:1 number:1 allow:2 repeat:2 head:2 might:1 four:2 result:1 fabric:2 end:3 wide:1 weave:3 go:1 across:1 close:2 view:2 comber:1 board:1 mail:1 weight:1 lingo:1 per:1 pick:1 term:1 misnomer:1 adapt:1 great:1 dobby:2 dornier:1 brand:1 weaving:3 machine:2 intricate:1 often:1 see:2 whilst:1 relatively:1 common:1 ubiquitous:1 usually:1 faster:1 much:1 cheap:1 operate:1 however:1 unlike:1 capable:1 produce:1 different:1 modern:1 computer:2 place:1 original:1 thousand:2 threading:2 labor:1 intensive:1 subsequent:1 tie:2 exist:1 help:1 knotting:1 robot:1 new:1 individually:1 even:1 small:1 take:1 day:1 importance:1 compute:2 first:1 use:2 although:1 computation:1 consider:1 important:2 step:1 history:1 hardware:1 ability:1 change:2 simply:1 conceptual:1 precursor:1 development:1 programming:1 specifically:1 charles:1 babbage:1 plan:1 store:1 program:1 analytical:1 engine:1 also:1 timeline:1 clothing:1 technology:1 luddite:1 reference:1 |@bigram jacquard_loom:8 marie_jacquard:1 warp_thread:1 punched_card:1 labor_intensive:1 charles_babbage:1 |
4,643 | Lennon_Wall | A portion of the Lennon Wall. The Lennon Wall is a wall in Prague, Czech Republic. Once a normal wall, since the 1980s it has been filled it with John Lennon-inspired graffiti and pieces of lyrics from Beatles songs. In 1988, the wall was a source of irritation for the then communist regime of Gustav Husak. Young Czechs would write grievances on the wall and in a report of the time this led to a clash between hundreds of students and security police on the nearby Charles Bridge. The movement these students followed was described ironically as "Lennonism" and Czech authorities described these people variously as alcoholics, mentally deranged, sociopathic, and agents of Western capitalism. The wall continuously undergoes change and the original portrait of Lennon is long lost under layers of new paint. Even when the wall was repainted by some authorities, on the second day it was again full of poems and flowers. Today, the wall represents a symbol of youth ideals such as love and peace. Bust of John Lennon on the Lennon Wall. The wall is owned by the Knights of the Maltese Cross, who allowed the graffiti to continue on the wall, and is located at Velkopřevorské náměstí (Grand Priory Square), Malá Strana. See also Tsoi Wall — a similar wall near Arbat Street in Moscow List of famous walls External links Photography of the wall in 2007 Image of the wall in 2005 Article about the Lennon Wall in the Erasmuspc World CityPoem collection Book of Lennon Wall | Lennon_Wall |@lemmatized portion:1 lennon:8 wall:19 prague:1 czech:3 republic:1 normal:1 since:1 fill:1 john:2 inspire:1 graffiti:2 piece:1 lyric:1 beatles:1 song:1 source:1 irritation:1 communist:1 regime:1 gustav:1 husak:1 young:1 would:1 write:1 grievance:1 report:1 time:1 lead:1 clash:1 hundred:1 student:2 security:1 police:1 nearby:1 charles:1 bridge:1 movement:1 follow:1 describe:2 ironically:1 lennonism:1 authority:2 people:1 variously:1 alcoholic:1 mentally:1 derange:1 sociopathic:1 agent:1 western:1 capitalism:1 continuously:1 undergoes:1 change:1 original:1 portrait:1 long:1 lose:1 layer:1 new:1 paint:1 even:1 repaint:1 second:1 day:1 full:1 poem:1 flower:1 today:1 represent:1 symbol:1 youth:1 ideal:1 love:1 peace:1 bust:1 knight:1 maltese:1 cross:1 allow:1 continue:1 locate:1 velkopřevorské:1 náměstí:1 grand:1 priory:1 square:1 malá:1 strana:1 see:1 also:1 tsoi:1 similar:1 near:1 arbat:1 street:1 moscow:1 list:1 famous:1 external:1 link:1 photography:1 image:1 article:1 erasmuspc:1 world:1 citypoem:1 collection:1 book:1 |@bigram prague_czech:1 czech_republic:1 lennon_lennon:1 external_link:1 |
4,644 | Louis_Armstrong | Louis He preferred that his name be pronounced Louie. "It's like Louis Armstrong - he spelled his name Louis, but he liked it to be said as Louie", recalls Louie Bellson . Armstrong was registered as "Lewie" for the 1920 U.S. Census. On various live records he's called as "Louie" on stage, such as on the 1952 "Can Anyone Explain?" from the live album In Scandinavia vol.1. It should also be noted that "Lewie" is the French pronunciation of "Louis" and is commonly used in Louisiana. After his death, the mainstream pronunciation slowly drifted to "Louis". However, when referring to himself in "Hello Dolly!", he pronounces his name as "Lewis" ("Hello, Dolly. This is Lewis, Dolly"), pronouncing the 's'. Daniel Armstrong (August 4, 1901 Armstrong said he was not sure exactly when he was born, but celebrated his birthday on July 4. He usually gave the year as 1900 when speaking in public (although he used 1901 on his Social Security and other papers filed with the government). Using Roman Catholic Church documents from when his grandmother took him to be baptized, New Orleans music researcher Tad Jones established Armstrong’s actual date of birth as August 4, 1901. With various other collaborative evidence, this date is now accepted by Armstrong scholars. See also age fabrication. – July 6, 1971), nicknamed Satchmo For "satchel-mouth". or Pops, was an American jazz trumpeter and singer. Coming to prominence in the 1920s as an innovative cornet and trumpet player, Armstrong was a foundational influence on jazz, shifting the music's focus from collective improvisation to solo performers. With his distinctive gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer, demonstrating great dexterity as an improviser, bending the lyrics and melody of a song for expressive purposes. He was also greatly skilled at scat singing, or wordless vocalizing. Renowned for his charismatic stage presence and deep, instantly recognizable voice almost as much as for his trumpet-playing, Armstrong's influence extended well beyond jazz, and by the end of his career in the '60s, he was widely regarded as a profound influence on popular music in general: critic Steve Leggett describes Armstrong as "perhaps the most important American musician of the 20th century." allmusic ((( The Essential Louis Armstrong {Columbia\Legacy} > Overview ))). Biography Early life Armstrong often stated in public interviews that he was born on July 4, 1900, The TIME 100. Louis Armstrong. TIME, Stanley Crouch, June 8, 1998. "For many years it was thought that Armstrong was born in New Orleans on July 4, 1900, a perfect day for the man who wrote the musical Declaration of Independence for Americans of this century. But the estimable writer Gary Giddins discovered the birth certificate that proves Armstrong was born Aug. 4, 1901." Accessed January 8, 2009 a date that has been noted in many biographies. Although he died in 1971, it wasn't until the mid-1980s that his true birth date of August 4, 1901 was discovered through the examination of baptismal records. When is Louis Armstrong's birthday? The Official Site of the Louis Armstrong House & Archives. He was recorded as an out-of-wedlock black child. Armstrong was born into a very poor family in New Orleans, Louisiana, the grandson of slaves. He spent his youth in poverty in a rough neighborhood of Uptown New Orleans, known as “Back of Town”, as his father, William Armstrong (1881–1922), abandoned the family when Louis was an infant and took up with another woman. His mother, Mary "Mayann" Albert (1886–1942), then left Louis and his younger sister Beatrice Armstrong Collins (1903–1987) in the care of his grandmother, Josephine Armstrong and at times, his Uncle Isaac. At five, he moved back to live with his mother and her relatives, and saw his father only in parades. He attended the Fisk School for Boys where he likely had his first exposure to Creole music. He brought in some money as a paperboy and also by finding discarded food and selling it to restaurants but it wasn’t enough to keep his mother from prostitution. He hung out in dance halls, particularly the “Funky Butt,” which was the closest to his home, where he observed everything from licentious dancing to the quadrille. He hauled coal to Storyville, the famed red-light district, and listened to the bands playing in the brothels and dance halls, especially Pete Lala’s where Joe "King" Oliver performed and other famous musicians would drop in to jam. Armstrong grew up at the bottom of the social ladder in a highly segregated city but one which lived in a constant fervor of music, which was generally called “ragtime” - not yet “jazz”. Despite the hard early days, Armstrong seldom looked back at his youth as the worst of times but instead drew inspiration from it, “Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans...It has given me something to live for.” After dropping out of the Fisk School at eleven, Armstrong joined a quartet of boys in similar straits as he and they sang in the streets for money. He also started to get into trouble. Cornet player Bunk Johnson said he taught Armstrong (then 11) to play by ear at Dago Tony's Tonk in New Orleans, Current Biography 1944, pp15-17 although in his later years Armstrong gave the credit to Oliver. His first cornet was bought with money loaned to him by the Karnofskys, a Russian-Jewish immigrant family who had a junk hauling business and gave him odd jobs. To express gratitude towards the Karnofskys, who took him in as almost a family member and fed and nurtured him, Armstrong wore a Star of David pendant for the rest of his life. Armstrong with his first trumpet instructor, Peter Davis in 1965. Armstrong developed his cornet playing seriously in the band of the New Orleans Home for Colored Waifs, where he had been sent multiple times for general delinquency, most notably for a long term after firing his stepfather's pistol into the air at a New Year's Eve celebration, as police records confirm. Professor Peter Davis (who frequently appeared at the Home at the request of its administrator, Captain Joseph Jones) Current Biography 1944 p16 instilled discipline in and provided musical training to the otherwise self-taught Armstrong. Eventually, Davis made Armstrong the band leader. The Home band played around New Orleans and the thirteen year old Louis began to draw attention by his cornet playing, starting him on a musical career. Bergreen, 1997, p. 78. At fourteen he was released from the Home, living again with his father and new stepmother and then back with his mother and also back to the streets and their temptations. Armstrong got his first dance hall job at Henry Ponce’s where Black Benny became his protector and guide. He hauled coal by day and played his cornet at night. He also played in the city's frequent brass band parades and listened to older musicians every chance he got, learning from Bunk Johnson, Buddy Petit, Kid Ory, and above all, Joe "King" Oliver, who acted as a mentor and father figure to the young musician. Later, he played in the brass bands and riverboats of New Orleans and first started traveling with the well-regarded band of Fate Marable which toured on a steamboat up and down the Mississippi River. He described his time with Marable as "going to the University," since it gave him a much wider experience working with written arrangements. In 1919, Joe Oliver decided to go north and he resigned his position in Kid Ory's band, then regarded as the best hot jazz group in New Orleans. Armstrong replaced his mentor and played second cornet. Soon he was promoted to first cornet and he also became second trumpet for the Tuxedo Brass Band, a society band. Bergreen, 1997, p. 142. Louis Armstrong was also a Freemason, Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall), New York. Early career Muggles Skokiaan Mack The Knife “Heebie Jeebies” by Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five On March 19, 1918, Louis married Daisy Parker from Gretna, Louisiana. They adopted a 3-year-old boy, Clarence Armstrong, whose mother, Louis's cousin Flora, died soon after giving birth. Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled (the result of a head injury at an early age) and Louis would spend the rest of his life taking care of him. "Satchuated" Gary Giddins, Village Voice April 16 - 22, 2003, retrieved 10/17/2007 Louis's marriage to Parker failed quickly and they separated. She died shortly after the divorce. Through his riverboat experience Armstrong’s musicianship began to mature. At twenty, he could now read music and he started to be featured in extended trumpet solos, one of the first jazzmen to do this, injecting his own personality and style into his solo turns. He had learned how to create a unique sound and also started using singing and patter in his performances. Bergreen, 1997, p. 170. In 1922, Armstrong joined the exodus to Chicago, where he had been invited by his mentor, Joe "King" Oliver, to join his Creole Jazz Band and where he could make a sufficient income so that he no longer needed to supplement his music with day labor jobs. It was a boom time in Chicago and though race relations were poor, the “Windy City” was teeming with jobs for blacks, who were making good wages in factories and had plenty to spend on entertainment. Oliver's band was the best and most influential hot jazz band in Chicago in the early 1920s, at a time when Chicago was the center of the jazz universe. Armstrong lived like a king in Chicago, in his own apartment with his own private bath (his first). Excited as he was to be in Chicago, he began his career-long pastime of writing nostalgic letters to friends in New Orleans. As Armstrong’s reputation grew, he was challenged to “cutting contests” by hornmen trying to displace the new phenom, who could blow two hundred high C’s in a row. Bergreen, 1997, p. 199. Armstrong made his first recordings on the Gennett and Okeh labels (jazz records were starting to boom across the country), including taking some solos and breaks, while playing second cornet in Oliver's band in 1923. At this time, he met Hoagy Carmichael (with whom he would collaborate later) who was introduced by pal Bix Beiderbecke, who now had his own Chicago band. Armstrong enjoyed working with Oliver, but Louis's second wife, pianist Lil Hardin Armstrong, urged him to seek more prominent billing and develop his newer style away from the influence of Oliver. Armstrong took the advice of his wife and left Oliver's band. For a year Armstrong played in Fletcher Henderson's band in New York on many recordings. After playing in New York, Armstrong returned to Chicago, playing in large orchestras; there he created his most important early recordings. www.britannica.com Lil had her husband play classical music in church concerts to broaden his skill and improve his solo play and she prodded him into wearing more stylish attire to make him look sharp and to better offset his growing girth. Lil’s influence eventually undermined Armstrong’s relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional moneys that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members. Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong received an invitation to go to New York City to play with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, the top African–American band of the day. Armstrong switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section. His influence upon Henderson's tenor sax soloist, Coleman Hawkins, can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period. Armstrong quickly adapted to the more tightly controlled style of Henderson, playing trumpet and even experimenting with the trombone and the other members quickly took up Armstrong’s emotional, expressive pulse. Soon his act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers. Bergreen, 1997, p. 247. The Henderson Orchestra was playing in the best venues for white-only patrons, including the famed Roseland Ballroom, featuring the classy arrangements of Don Redman. Duke Ellington’s orchestra would go to Roseland to catch Armstrong’s performances and young hornmen around town tried in vain to outplay him, splitting their lips in their attempts. During this time, Armstrong also made many recordings on the side, arranged by an old friend from New Orleans, pianist Clarence Williams; these included small jazz band sides with the Williams Blue Five (some of the best pairing Armstrong with one of Armstrong's few rivals in fiery technique and ideas, Sidney Bechet) and a series of accompaniments with Blues singers, including Bessie Smith, Ma Rainey, and Alberta Hunter. Armstrong returned to Chicago in 1925 due mostly to the urging of his wife, who wanted to pump up Armstrong’s career and income. He was content in New York but later would concede that she was right and that the Henderson Orchestra was limiting his artistic growth. In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed him as “the World’s Greatest Trumpet Player”. At first he was actually a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and working for his wife. Bergreen, 1997, p. 260. He began recording under his own name for Okeh with his famous Hot Five and Hot Seven groups, producing hits such as "Potato Head Blues", "Muggles" (a reference to marijuana, for which Armstrong had a lifelong fondness), and "West End Blues", the music of which set the standard and the agenda for jazz for many years to come. The group included Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), wife Lil on piano, and usually no drummer. Armstrong’s bandleading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted, "One felt so relaxed working with him and he was very broad-minded ... always did his best to feature each individual". Bergreen, 1997, p. 274. His recordings soon after with pianist Earl "Fatha" Hines (most famously their 1928 Weatherbird duet) and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to "West End Blues" remain some of the most famous and influential improvisations in jazz history. Armstrong was now free to develop his personal style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as "whip that thing, Miss Lil" and "Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, do that clarinet, boy!" Bergreen, 1997, p. 264. Armstrong also played with Erskine Tate’s Little Symphony, actually a quintet, which played mostly at the Vendome Theatre. They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as “Madame Butterfly”, which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. He began to scat sing (improvised vocal jazz using non-sensical words) and was among the first to record it, on Heebie Jeebies in 1926. So popular was the recording the group became the most famous jazz band in America even though they as yet had not performed live to any great degree. Young musicians across the country, black and white, were turned on by Armstrong’s new type of jazz. Bergreen, 1997, p. 267. After separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the Sunset Café for Al Capone's associate Joe Glaser in the Carroll Dickerson Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was soon renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers, though Hines was the music director and Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong became fast friends as well as successful collaborators. Armstrong returned to New York, in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra of the successful musical Hot Chocolate, an all-black revue written by Andy Razaf and pianist/composer Fats Waller. He also made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of "Ain't Misbehavin'", his version of the song becoming his biggest selling record to date. Louis Armstrong & his Orchestra Armstrong started to work at Connie's Inn in Harlem, the second nightspot in fame to the Cotton Club and a front for gangster Dutch Schultz. Armstrong also had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of famous songs composed by his old friend Hoagy Carmichael. His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the new RCA ribbon microphone, introduced in 1931, which imparted a characteristic warmth to vocals and immediately became an intrinsic part of the 'crooning' sound of artists like Bing Crosby. Armstrong's famous interpretation of Hoagy Carmichael's "Stardust" became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that had already become standards. Armstrong's radical re-working of Sidney Arodin and Carmichael's "Lazy River" (recorded in 1931) encapsulated many features of his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trumpet solo, then the main melody is stated by sobbing horns which are memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: "Yeah! ..."Uh-huh" ..."Sure" ... "Way down, way down". In the first verse, he ignores the notated melody entirely and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In the second stanza he breaks into an almost fully improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong "scat singing." As with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation stone for the art of jazz vocal interpretation. The uniquely gritty coloration of his voice became a musical archetype that was much imitated and endlessly impersonated. His scat singing style was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as "Lazy River" exerted a huge influence on younger white singers such as Bing Crosby. The Depression of the early Thirties was especially hard on the Jazz scene. The Cotton Club closed in 1936 after a long downward spiral and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated. Bix Beiderbecke died and Fletcher Henderson’s band broke up. King Olivier made a few records but otherwise struggled. Sidney Bechet became a tailor and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens. Bergreen, 1997, p. 320. Armstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 seeking new opportunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in LA with Lionel Hampton on drums and the band drew the Hollywood crowd which could still afford a lavish night life and radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie, Ex-Flame. Armstrong was convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence. He returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the Guy Lombardo vein and he recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he get out of town, Armstrong visited New Orleans, got a hero’s welcome and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team known as “Armstrong’s Secret Nine” and got a cigar named after himself. Bergreen, 1997, p. 344. But soon he was on the road again and after a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, Armstrong decided to go to Europe to escape. After returning to the States, he undertook several exhausting tours. His agent Johnny Collins’ erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Finally, he hired Joe Glaser as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer, who began to straighten out his legal mess, his mob troubles, and his debts. Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, which were aggravated by his unorthodox playing style. As a result he branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. He appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit Pennies from Heaven. In 1937, Armstrong substituted for Rudy Vallee on the CBS radio network and became the first black to host a sponsored, national broadcast. Bergreen, 1997, p. 385. He finally divorced Lil in 1938 and married longtime girlfriend Alpha. After spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York in 1943 in contentment with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject to the vicissitudes of Tin Pan Alley and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, he continued to develop his playing. He recorded Hoagy Carmichael's Rockin' Chair for Okeh Records. During the subsequent thirty years, Armstrong played more than three hundred gigs a year. Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes: ballrooms closed, and there was competition from television and from other types of music becoming more popular than big band music. It became impossible under such circumstances to support and finance a 16-piece touring band. The All Stars Following a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring Armstrong with trombonist/singer Jack Teagarden, Armstrong's manager Joe Glaser dissolved the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947 and established a six-piece small group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, Earl Hines and other top swing and dixieland musicians, most of them ex-big band leaders. The new group was announced at the opening of Billy Berg's Supper Club. This group was called All Stars' and included at various times Earl "Fatha" Hines, Barney Bigard, Edmond Hall, Jack Teagarden, Trummy Young, Arvell Shaw, Billy Kyle, Marty Napoleon, Big Sid Catlett, Cozy Cole, Tyree Glenn, Barrett Deems and the Filipino-American percussionist, Danny Barcelona. During this period, Armstrong made many recordings and appeared in over thirty films. He appeared on the cover of Time Magazine on February 21, 1949. In 1964, he recorded his biggest-selling record, "Hello, Dolly!". The song went to #1 on the pop chart, making Armstrong (age 63) the oldest person to ever accomplish that feat. In the process, Armstrong dislodged The Beatles from the #1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs. Hale, James (editor of Jazzhouse.org), Danny Barcelona (1929-2007), Drums, Armstrong All-Star, The Last Post, 2007, retrieved on: July 4, 2007 Armstrong kept up his busy tour schedule until a few years before his death in 1971. In his later years he would sometimes play some of his numerous gigs by rote, but other times would enliven the most mundane gig with his vigorous playing, often to the astonishment of his band. He also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under sponsorship of the US State Department with great success, earning the nickname "Ambassador Satch." While failing health restricted his schedule in his last years, within those limitations he continued playing until the day he died. Autograph of Armstrong on the muretto of Alassio Personality The nickname Satchmo or Satch is short for Satchelmouth (describing his embouchure). In 1932, then Melody Maker magazine editor Percy Brooks greeted Armstrong in London with "Hello, Satchmo!", and it stuck. Early on he was also known as Dippermouth. This is a reference to the propensity he had for refreshing himself with the "dipper" or ladle from a bucket of sugar water which was always present on stage with Joe Oliver's band in Chicago in the early nineteen-twenties. The damage to his embouchure from his high pressure approach to playing is acutely visible in many pictures of Louis from the mid-twenties. It also led to his emphasizing his singing career because at certain periods he was unable to play. However, after having set his trumpet aside for a while, he amended his playing style and continued his trumpet career. Friends and fellow musicians usually called him Pops, which is also how Armstrong usually addressed his friends and fellow musicians (except for Pops Foster, whom Armstrong always called "George"). Satchmo's autograph from the 1960s He was also criticized for accepting the title of "King of The Zulus" -- in the New Orleans African-American community, an honored role as head of leading black Carnival Krewe, but bewildering or offensive to outsiders with their traditional costume of grass-skirts and blackface makeup satirizing southern white attitudes -- for Mardi Gras 1949. Whatever the case, where some saw a gregarious and outgoing personality, others saw someone trying too hard to appeal to white audiences and essentially becoming a minstrel caricature. Some musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of segregated audiences, and for not taking a strong enough stand in the civil rights movement suggesting that he was an Uncle Tom. Billie Holiday countered, however, "Of course Pops toms, but he toms from the heart." Armstrong, in fact, was a major financial supporter of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil rights activists, but mostly preferred to work quietly behind the scenes, not mixing his politics with his work as an entertainer. The few exceptions made it more effective when he did speak out. Armstrong's criticism of President Eisenhower, calling him "two-faced" and "gutless" because of his inaction during the conflict over school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957 made national news. As a protest, Armstrong canceled a planned tour of the Soviet Union on behalf of the State Department saying "The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell" and that he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people. See also, from September 23, 2007, *David Margolick, The Day Louis Armstrong Made Noise The FBI kept a file on Armstrong, for his outspokenness about integration. Bergreen, 1997, p. 472. When asked about his religion, Armstrong would answer that he was raised a Baptist, always wore a Star of David, and was friends with the Pope. Armstrong wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnofsky family, who took him in as a child and lent him the money to buy his first cornet. Louis Armstrong was, in fact, baptized as a Catholic at the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans, and he met popes Pius XII and Paul VI, though there is no evidence that he considered himself Catholic. Armstrong seems to have been tolerant towards various religions, but also found humor in them. He was an extremely generous man, who was said to have given away as much money as he kept for himself. Armstrong was also greatly concerned with his health and bodily functions. He made frequent use of laxatives as a means of controlling his weight, a practice he advocated both to personal acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title Lose Weight the Satchmo Way. Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was Pluto Water, but he then became an enthusiastic convert when he discovered the herbal remedy Swiss Kriss. He would extol its virtues to anyone who would listen and pass out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the British Royal Family. (Armstrong also appeared in humorous, albeit risqué, advertisements for Swiss Kriss; the ads bore a picture of him sitting on a toilet — as viewed through a keyhole — with the slogan "Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya!'''") The concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as "Cheesecake", "Cornet Chop Suey", Satchmo.net. 'Red Beans and Ricely yours, Louis Armstrong.' though "Struttin’ with Some Barbecue" was written about a fine-looking companion, not about food. Jive Dictionary, by Cab Calloway: "Barbecue (n.) -- the girl friend, a beauty". Accessed February 10, 2009. He kept a strong connection throughout his life to the cooking of New Orleans, always signing his letters, "Red beans and ricely yours,". Elie p.327 Although Armstrong is not known to have fathered any children, he loved children and would go out of his way to entertain the neighborhood kids in Corona and to encourage young musicians. Armstrong’s gregariousness extended to writing. On the road, he wrote constantly. Many of the favorite themes of his life he shared with correspondents around the world. He avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy “medicinal” marijuana use and even his bowel movements which were gleefully described. Bergreen, 1997, p.4. He had a fondness for lewd jokes and dirty limericks as well. Armstrong was an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career. He enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, he had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio. Michael Cogswell, Louis Armstrong: The Offstage Story of Satchmo (Collector's Press, Portland, Oregon, 2003) ISBN 1-88805481-6 pp.66-68 Death Armstrong died just after a heart attack on July 6, 1971, at age 69, Meckna, Michael; Satchmo, The Louis Armstrong Encyclopedia, Greenwood Press, Connecticut & London, 2004 11 months after playing a famous show at the Waldorf-Astoria's Empire Room. Shortly before his death he stated, "I think I had a beautiful life. I didn't wish for anything that I couldn't get and I got pretty near everything I wanted because I worked for it." Bergreen, 1997, p. 491. He was residing in Corona, Queens, New York City, at the time of his death. He was interred in Flushing Cemetery, Flushing, in Queens, New York City. His honorary pallbearers included Governor Rockefeller, Mayor Lindsay, Bing Crosby, Ella Fitzgerald, Guy Lombardo, Duke Ellington, Dizzy Gillespie, Pearl Bailey, Count Basie, Harry James, Frank Sinatra, Ed Sullivan, Earl Wilson, Alan King, Johnny Carson, David Frost, Merv Griffin, Dick Cavett and Bobby Hackett. Peggy Lee sang The Lord's Prayer at the services while Al Hibbler sang Nobody Knows The Trouble I've Seen and Fred Robbins, a long time friend, gave the eulogy. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1971/12295509436546-1/#title "Louis Armstrong Dies: 1971 Year in Review, UPI.com" Music Armstrong gained fame as a horn player, then later became better known as a bandleader, vocalist, musical ambassador and founding figure in much modern American music. Horn playing and early jazz In his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet. The greatest trumpet playing of his early years can be heard on his Hot Five and Hot Seven records. The improvisations which he made on these records of New Orleans jazz standards and popular songs of the day continue to stack up brilliantly alongside those of any other later jazz performer. The older generation of New Orleans jazz musicians often referred to their improvisations as "variating the melody"; Armstrong's improvisations were daring and sophisticated for the time while often subtle and melodic. He often essentially re-composed pop-tunes he played, making them more interesting. Armstrong's playing is filled with joyous, inspired original melodies, creative leaps, and subtle relaxed or driving rhythms. The genius of these creative passages is matched by Armstrong's playing technique, honed by constant practice, which extended the range, tone and capabilities of the trumpet. In these records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what was essentially a collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression. Armstrong's work in the 1920s shows him playing at the outer limits of his abilities. The Hot Five records, especially, often have minor flubs and missed notes, which do little to detract from listening enjoyment since the energy of the spontaneous performance comes through. By the mid 1930s, Armstrong achieved a smooth assurance, knowing exactly what he could do and carrying out his ideas to perfection. Vocal popularity As his music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it. He had a hit with his playing and scat singing on "Heebie Jeebies" when, according to some legends, the sheet music fell on the floor and he simply started singing nonsense syllables. Armstrong stated in his memoirs that this actually occurred. He also sang out "I done forgot the words" in the middle of recording "I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas". Such records were hits and scat singing became a major part of his performances. Long before this, however, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, using his voice as creatively as his trumpet. Colleagues and followers During his long career he played and sang with the most important instrumentalists and vocalists; among the many, singing brakeman Jimmie Rodgers, Bing Crosby, Duke Ellington, Fletcher Henderson, Bessie Smith and notably with Ella Fitzgerald. His influence upon Bing Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music: Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably "Just One More Chance" (1931). The New Grove Dictionary Of Jazz describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name: "Crosby...was important in introducing into the mainstream of popular singing an Afro-American concept of song as a lyrical extension of speech...His techniques - easing the weight of the breath on the vocal cords, passing into a head voice at a low register, using forward production to aid distinct enunciation, singing on consonants (a practice of black singers), and making discreet use of appoggiaturas, mordents, and slurs to emphasize the text - were emulated by nearly all later popular singers". Armstrong recorded three albums with Ella Fitzgerald: Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, and Porgy and Bess for Verve Records, with the sessions featuring the backing musicianship of the Oscar Peterson Trio and drummer Buddy Rich. His recordings Satch Plays Fats, all Fats Waller tunes, and Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy in the 1950s were perhaps among the last of his great creative recordings, but even oddities like Disney Songs the Satchmo Way are seen to have their musical moments. And, his participation in Dave Brubeck's high-concept jazz musical The Real Ambassadors was critically acclaimed. For the most part, however, his later output was criticized as being overly simplistic or repetitive. Hits and later career Armstrong had many hit records including "Stardust", "What a Wonderful World", "When The Saints Go Marching In", "Dream a Little Dream of Me", "Ain't Misbehavin'", and "Stompin' at the Savoy". "We Have All the Time in the World" featured on the soundtrack of the James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service, and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it featured on a Guinness advert. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released. In 1964, Armstrong knocked the Beatles off the top of the Billboard Top 100 chart with "Hello, Dolly", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a #1 song. His 1964 song, "Bout Time" later featured in the film "Bewitched" (2005). Armstrong performed in Italy at the 1968 Sanremo Music Festival where he sang "Mi Va di Cantare" "Hit Parade Italia" Hit Parade Italia - Festival di Sanremo 1968 alongside his friend, the Eritrean-born Italian singer Lara Saint Paul. "Mi va di cantare" Lara Saint Paul - lavocedelledonne.it In February 1968, he also appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian Rai television channel where he performed "Grassa e Bella", a track he sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I. label. Louis Armstrong: "Grassa e bella" Louis Armstrong Discography In 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the United Kingdom with the highly sentimental pop song "What a Wonderful World", which topped the British charts for a month; however, the single did not chart at all in America. The song gained greater currency in the popular consciousness when it was used in the 1987 movie Good Morning, Vietnam, its subsequent rerelease topping many charts around the world. Armstrong even appeared on the October 28, 1970 Johnny Cash Show, where he sang Nat "King" Cole's hit "Rambling Rose" and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on "Blue Yodel # 9". Stylistic range Armstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of Guy Lombardo, to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Armstrong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted Armstrong to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an early influence. Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the hard rocking version of "St. Louis Blues" from the WC Handy album, show that the influence went in both directions. Literature, radio, films and TV Armstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a band leader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader cum narrator in the 1956 musical, High Society, in which he sang the title song and performed a duet with Bing Crosby on "Now You Has Jazz". In 1947, he played himself in the movie New Orleans opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the Storyville district and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago. He was the first African American to host a nationally broadcast radio show in the 1930s. In 1969, Armstrong had a cameo role in the film version of Hello, Dolly! as the bandleader, Louis, to which he sang the title song with actress Barbra Streisand. His solo recording of Hello, Dolly! is one of his most recognizable performances. He was heard on such radio programs as The Story of Swing (1937) and This Is Jazz (1947), and he also made countless television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. Louis Armstrong has a record star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on 7601 Hollywood Boulevard. Many of Armstrong's recordings remain popular. Almost four decades since his passing, a larger number of his recordings from all periods of his career are more widely available than at any time during his lifetime. His songs are broadcast and listened to every day throughout the world, and are honored in various movies, TV series, commercials, and even anime and computer games. "A Kiss to Build a Dream On" was included in the computer game Fallout 2, accompanying the intro cinematic. It was also used in the 1993 film Sleepless in Seattle. His 1923 recordings, with Joe Oliver and his Creole Jazz Band, continue to be listened to as documents of ensemble style New Orleans jazz, but more particularly as ripper jazz records in their own right. All too often, however, Armstrong recorded with stiff, standard orchestras leaving only his sublime trumpet playing as of interest. "Melancholy Blues," performed by Armstrong and his Hot Seven was included on the Voyager Golden Record sent into outer space to represent one of the greatest achievements of humanity. Most familiar to modern listeners is his ubiquitous rendition of "What a Wonderful World." In 2008, Armstrong's recording of Edith Piaf's famous "La Vie En Rose" was used in a scene of the popular Disney/Pixar film WALL-E. Argentine writer Julio Cortázar, a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called Cronopios that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories. Cortázar once called Louis Armstrong himself "Grandísimo Cronopio" (Most Enormous Cronopio). Armstrong also appears as a minor character in Harry Turtledove's Timeline-191 series. When he and his band escape from a Nazi-like Confederacy, they enhance the insipid mainstream music of the North. There is a pivotal scene in 1980's Stardust Memories in which Woody Allen is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's Stardust and experiences a nostalgic epiphany. The combination of the music and the perfect moment is the catalyst for much of the film's action, prompting the protagonist to fall in love with an ill-advised woman . Louis Armstrong is also referred to in The Trumpet of the Swan along with Ella Fitzgerald and Billie Holiday. Three siblings in the film are named Louis, Billie, and Ella. The main character, Louis, plays a trumpet, an obvious nod to Armstrong. In the original EB White book, he is referred to by name by a child who hears Louis playing and comments "He sounds just like Louis Armstrong, the famous trumpet player". Awards and honors Grammy Awards Armstrong was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the field of recording. Lifetime Achievement Award Grammy Award Year Category Title Genre Label Result 1964 Male Vocal Performance "Hello, Dolly!" Pop Kapp Winner Grammy Hall of Fame Recordings of Armstrong were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least twenty-five years old, and that have "qualitative or historical significance." Grammy Hall of Fame Database 2008 Grammy Hall of Fame List Grammy Hall of Fame Year Recorded Title Genre Label Year Inducted Notes 1929 St. Louis Blues Jazz (Single) OKeh 2008 1928 Weather Bird Jazz (Single) OKeh 2008 with Earl Hines 1930 Blue Yodel #9(Standing on the Corner) Country (Single) Victor 2007 Jimmie Rodgers (Featuring Louis Armstrong) 1932 All of Me Jazz (Single) Columbia 2005 1958 Porgy and Bess Jazz (Album) Verve 2001 with Ella Fitzgerald 1964 Hello Dolly! Pop (Single) Kapp 2001 1926 Heebie Jeebies Jazz (Single) OKeh 1999 1968 What a Wonderful World Jazz (Single) ABC 1999 1955 Mack the Knife Jazz (Single) Columbia 1997 1925 St. Louis Blues Jazz (Single) Columbia 1993 Bessie Smith with Louis Armstrong, cornet 1928 West End Blues Jazz (Single) OKeh 1974 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed a song by Armstrong on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll. 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll Year Recorded Title Label Group 1928 West End Blues Okeh Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five Inductions and honors In 1995, the U.S. Post Office issued a Louis Armstrong 32 cents commemorative postage stamp. Year Inducted Title Results Notes 2007 The Louisiana Music Hall Of Fame 2007 Gennett Records Walk of Fame, Richmond, Indiana 2007 Long Island Music Hall of Fame 2004 Nesuhi Ertegün Jazz Hall of Fameat Jazz at Lincoln Center 1990 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Early influence 1978 Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame 1958 Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame Hollywood Walk of Fame Star at 7601 Hollywood Blvd. Legacy Today, the house where Louis Armstrong lived for close to 28 years (and which was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1977) is a museum. The Louis Armstrong House Museum, at 34-56 107th Street (between 34th and 37th Avenues) in Corona, Queens, presents concerts and educational programs, operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research. The museum is operated by the City University of New York's Queens College, following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will. The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003. A visitors center is currently being planned, and estimated to open in 2011. The influence of Armstrong on the development of jazz is virtually immeasurable. Yet, his irrepressible personality both as a performer, and as a public figure later in his career, was so strong that to some it sometimes overshadowed his contributions as a musician and singer. As a virtuoso trumpet player, Armstrong had a unique tone and an extraordinary talent for melodic improvisation. Through his playing, the trumpet emerged as a solo instrument in jazz and is used widely today. He was a masterful accompanist and ensemble player in addition to his extraordinary skills as a soloist. With his innovations, he raised the bar musically for all who came after him. Some critics contend that Armstrong essentially invented jazz singing. Though widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing, Ethel Waters precedes his scatting on record in the 1930s according to Gary Giddens and others. See Ken Burns' Jazz CD Set liner notes Billie Holiday and Frank Sinatra are just two singers who were greatly indebted to him. Holiday said that she always wanted Bessie Smith's 'big' sound and Armstrong's feeling in her singing. On August 4, 2001, the centennial of Armstrong's birth, New Orleans's airport was renamed Louis Armstrong International Airport in his honor. In 2002, the Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings (1925-1928) are preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of recordings selected yearly by the National Recording Preservation Board for preservation in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. Library of Congress archive The US Open tennis tournament's former main stadium was named Louis Armstrong Stadium in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site. Ashe & Armstrong Stadiums Discography Louis Armstrong albums Louis Armstrong songs Notes References Armstrong, Louis. Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans. ISBN 0-306-80276-7 Armstrong, Louis and Thomas Brothers. Armstrong, in His Own Words: Selected Writings. ISBN 0-19-514046-X Bergreen, Laurence. "Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life". ISBN 0-553-06768-0 Brothers, Thomas "Louis Armstrong's New Orleans" ISBN 0-393-06109 Jones Max and John Chilton. Louis Armstrong Story. ISBN 0-306-803240 Cogswell, Michael. Armstrong: The Offstage Story. ISBN 1-888054-81-6 Meckna, Michael. Satchmo: The Louis Armstrong Encyclopedia. ISBN 0-313-30137-9 Elie, Lolis Eric. A Letter from New Orleans. Originally printed in Gourmet. Reprinted in Best Food Writing 2006,'' Edited by Holly Hughes, ISBN 1-56924-287-9 External links louis-armstrong.net - SONY BMG MUSIC ENTERTAINMENT Louis Armstrong by Nat Hentoff Obituary, NY Times Quotes and tributes Discography Filmography @ imdb.com Seeing Black jazz critic on the Uncle Tom question the official website of the Louis Armstrong House & Archives "Louis Armstrong Transcription Project - john p birchall" Louis Armstrong at pbskids.org David Margolick, The Day Louis Armstrong Made Noise Smithsonian Louis Armstrong: A Cultural Legacy Louis Armstrong Memorial at Find A Grave Louis Armstrong at NPR Music Louis Armstrong: discography and early recordings (Real Player format): on the Red Hot Jazz website. | Louis_Armstrong |@lemmatized louis:72 prefer:2 name:9 pronounce:3 louie:4 like:7 armstrong:208 spell:1 say:7 recall:1 bellson:1 register:3 lewie:2 u:5 census:1 various:5 live:11 record:42 call:8 stage:3 anyone:2 explain:1 album:4 scandinavia:1 vol:1 also:32 note:9 french:1 pronunciation:2 commonly:1 use:15 louisiana:4 death:5 mainstream:3 slowly:1 drift:1 however:7 refer:4 hello:9 dolly:9 lewis:2 daniel:1 august:5 sure:2 exactly:2 bear:5 celebrate:1 birthday:2 july:6 usually:5 give:10 year:25 speak:2 public:6 although:6 social:2 security:1 paper:1 file:2 government:3 roman:1 catholic:3 church:3 document:2 grandmother:2 take:13 baptize:2 new:48 orleans:27 music:31 researcher:1 tad:1 jones:3 establish:3 actual:1 date:6 birth:5 collaborative:1 evidence:2 accept:2 scholar:1 see:6 age:4 fabrication:1 nickname:3 satchmo:11 satchel:1 mouth:1 pop:9 american:10 jazz:50 trumpeter:1 singer:10 come:4 prominence:1 innovative:2 cornet:13 trumpet:26 player:8 foundational:1 influence:13 shift:1 focus:1 collective:2 improvisation:7 solo:10 performer:5 distinctive:1 gravelly:1 voice:6 influential:3 demonstrate:1 great:8 dexterity:1 improviser:1 bend:1 lyric:1 melody:8 song:23 expressive:2 purpose:1 greatly:3 skilled:1 scat:9 singing:9 wordless:1 vocalizing:1 renowned:1 charismatic:1 presence:1 deep:1 instantly:1 recognizable:2 almost:5 much:7 playing:16 extend:3 well:6 beyond:1 end:6 career:12 widely:4 regard:4 profound:1 popular:11 general:2 critic:3 steve:1 leggett:1 describes:2 perhaps:2 important:6 musician:16 century:2 allmusic:1 essential:1 columbia:4 legacy:3 overview:1 biography:4 early:16 life:9 often:7 state:8 interview:1 time:21 stanley:1 crouch:1 june:1 many:18 think:2 perfect:2 day:11 man:2 write:9 musical:9 declaration:1 independence:1 estimable:1 writer:2 gary:3 giddins:2 discover:3 certificate:1 prove:1 aug:1 access:2 january:1 die:6 mid:3 true:1 examination:1 baptismal:1 official:2 site:2 house:5 archive:4 wedlock:1 black:10 child:5 poor:2 family:6 grandson:1 slave:1 spend:4 youth:2 poverty:1 rough:1 neighborhood:2 uptown:1 know:8 back:7 town:4 father:5 william:1 abandon:1 infant:1 another:1 woman:2 mother:5 mary:1 mayann:1 albert:1 leave:5 younger:1 sister:1 beatrice:1 collins:2 care:2 josephine:1 uncle:3 isaac:1 five:9 move:2 relative:1 saw:4 parade:4 attend:1 fisk:2 school:3 boy:4 likely:1 first:19 exposure:1 creole:3 bring:1 money:6 paperboy:1 find:3 discard:1 food:5 sell:1 restaurant:1 enough:2 keep:5 prostitution:1 hang:1 dance:4 hall:20 particularly:3 funky:1 butt:1 close:5 home:7 observe:1 everything:2 licentious:1 quadrille:1 haul:2 coal:2 storyville:2 famed:2 red:4 light:1 district:2 listen:8 band:37 play:41 brothel:1 especially:6 pete:1 lala:1 joe:9 king:9 oliver:14 perform:6 famous:9 would:12 drop:2 jam:1 grow:4 bottom:1 ladder:1 highly:3 segregated:2 city:7 one:9 constant:2 fervor:1 generally:1 ragtime:1 yet:3 despite:1 hard:4 seldom:1 look:4 bad:1 instead:1 draw:3 inspiration:1 every:3 eye:1 blow:2 mine:1 right:5 heart:4 good:5 old:12 something:1 eleven:1 join:4 quartet:1 similar:1 strait:1 sing:19 street:3 start:9 get:8 trouble:3 bunk:2 johnson:2 teach:1 ear:1 dago:1 tony:1 tonk:1 current:2 late:8 credit:1 buy:2 loan:1 karnofskys:2 russian:1 jewish:1 immigrant:1 junk:1 hauling:1 business:2 odd:1 job:4 express:1 gratitude:1 towards:2 member:5 fed:1 nurture:1 wear:4 star:9 david:6 pendant:1 rest:2 instructor:1 peter:2 davis:3 develop:5 seriously:1 colored:1 waif:1 send:2 multiple:1 delinquency:1 notably:3 long:8 term:1 fire:1 stepfather:1 pistol:1 air:1 eve:1 celebration:1 police:1 confirm:1 professor:1 frequently:1 appear:10 request:1 administrator:1 captain:1 joseph:1 instill:1 discipline:1 provide:1 training:1 otherwise:2 self:2 taught:1 eventually:2 make:23 leader:3 around:5 thirteen:1 begin:8 attention:1 bergreen:16 p:17 fourteen:1 release:2 stepmother:1 temptation:1 henry:1 ponce:1 benny:1 become:18 protector:1 guide:1 night:2 frequent:2 brass:3 older:1 chance:2 learn:2 buddy:2 petit:1 kid:5 ory:4 act:2 mentor:4 figure:3 young:8 later:7 riverboats:1 travel:1 fate:1 marable:2 tour:7 steamboat:1 mississippi:1 river:3 describe:4 go:10 university:2 since:3 wide:1 experience:6 work:9 arrangement:3 decide:2 north:2 resign:1 position:2 best:7 hot:14 group:9 replace:1 second:6 soon:6 promote:1 tuxedo:1 society:2 freemason:1 montgomery:1 lodge:1 prince:1 york:11 muggles:2 skokiaan:1 mack:2 knife:2 heebie:4 jeebies:4 march:2 marry:2 daisy:1 parker:2 gretna:1 adopt:1 clarence:3 whose:1 cousin:1 flora:1 mentally:1 disabled:1 result:4 head:4 injury:1 satchuated:1 village:1 april:1 retrieve:2 marriage:1 failed:1 quickly:3 separate:2 shortly:3 divorce:2 riverboat:1 musicianship:2 mature:1 twenty:4 could:6 read:1 feature:11 extended:1 jazzman:1 inject:1 personality:4 style:11 turn:3 create:5 unique:3 sound:5 patter:1 performance:9 exodus:2 chicago:12 invite:1 sufficient:1 income:2 longer:1 need:1 supplement:1 labor:1 boom:2 though:6 race:1 relation:1 windy:1 teem:1 wage:1 factory:1 plenty:1 entertainment:2 center:3 universe:1 apartment:1 private:1 bath:1 excite:1 pastime:1 nostalgic:2 letter:3 friend:11 reputation:1 challenge:1 cut:1 contest:1 hornmen:2 try:3 displace:1 phenom:1 two:3 hundred:2 high:4 c:3 row:1 recording:28 gennett:2 okeh:8 label:5 across:3 country:4 include:18 break:3 meet:2 hoagy:4 carmichael:5 collaborate:1 introduce:3 pal:1 bix:2 beiderbecke:2 enjoy:4 wife:6 pianist:4 lil:8 hardin:2 urge:1 seek:2 prominent:1 billing:1 newer:1 away:2 advice:1 fletcher:4 henderson:8 return:6 large:4 orchestra:10 www:2 britannica:1 com:4 husband:1 classical:3 concert:4 broaden:1 skill:2 improve:1 prod:1 stylish:1 attire:1 sharp:1 offset:1 girth:1 undermine:1 relationship:1 concern:3 salary:1 additional:1 hold:1 part:4 amicably:1 afterward:1 receive:2 invitation:1 top:6 african:3 switch:1 blend:1 section:1 upon:2 tenor:1 sax:1 soloist:4 coleman:1 hawkins:1 judge:1 period:4 adapt:1 tightly:1 control:2 even:6 experiment:1 trombone:2 emotional:1 pulse:1 tell:1 tale:1 character:3 preacher:1 venue:1 white:6 patron:1 roseland:2 ballroom:2 classy:1 redman:1 duke:3 ellington:3 catch:1 vain:1 outplay:1 split:1 lip:2 attempt:1 side:3 arrange:1 williams:2 small:3 blue:14 pairing:1 rival:1 fiery:1 technique:3 idea:2 sidney:3 bechet:2 series:3 accompaniment:1 bessie:4 smith:4 rainey:1 alberta:1 hunter:1 due:2 mostly:3 urging:1 want:4 pump:1 content:1 concede:1 limit:2 artistic:2 growth:1 publicity:1 chagrin:1 bill:1 world:9 actually:3 seven:4 produce:1 hit:10 potato:1 reference:3 marijuana:3 lifelong:1 fondness:2 west:4 set:3 standard:5 agenda:1 johnny:7 dodds:2 clarinet:2 st:5 cyr:2 banjo:1 piano:2 drummer:2 bandleading:1 easygoing:1 felt:1 relaxed:2 broad:1 mind:1 always:6 individual:2 earl:6 fatha:2 hines:7 famously:1 weatherbird:1 duet:2 introduction:1 remain:2 history:1 free:1 personal:2 wish:2 heavy:2 dose:1 effervescent:1 jive:2 whip:1 thing:1 miss:1 mr:1 aw:1 erskine:1 tate:1 little:4 symphony:2 quintet:1 vendome:1 theatre:1 furnish:1 silent:1 movie:6 show:8 version:6 madame:1 butterfly:1 form:2 host:3 audience:4 improvised:2 vocal:11 non:1 sensical:1 word:3 among:3 america:2 degree:1 type:4 sunset:1 café:1 al:2 capone:1 associate:1 glaser:4 carroll:1 dickerson:1 renamed:1 stomper:1 director:1 manage:1 fast:1 successful:4 collaborator:1 pit:1 chocolate:1 revue:1 andy:1 razaf:1 composer:1 fat:3 waller:2 cameo:2 appearance:4 vocalist:3 regularly:1 steal:1 rendition:2 misbehavin:2 big:9 selling:2 connie:1 inn:1 harlem:1 nightspot:1 fame:18 cotton:3 club:7 front:2 gangster:2 dutch:1 schultz:1 considerable:1 success:2 compose:2 full:1 advantage:1 rca:1 ribbon:1 microphone:1 impart:1 characteristic:1 warmth:1 immediately:1 intrinsic:1 croon:1 artist:2 bing:7 crosby:11 interpretation:2 stardust:4 ever:2 showcasing:1 approach:3 already:1 radical:1 working:1 arodin:1 lazy:2 encapsulate:1 groundbreaking:1 phrasing:2 brief:1 main:3 sob:1 horn:3 memorably:1 punctuate:1 growling:1 interjection:1 bar:2 yeah:1 uh:1 huh:1 way:7 verse:1 ignore:1 notated:1 entirely:1 sings:1 pitch:1 line:1 single:13 strongly:1 syncopate:1 stanza:1 fully:1 evolve:1 classic:1 passage:2 innovation:2 serve:1 foundation:1 stone:1 art:3 uniquely:1 gritty:1 coloration:1 archetype:1 imitate:1 endlessly:1 impersonate:1 enrich:1 matchless:1 resonant:1 velvety:1 lower:1 tone:3 bubble:1 cadence:1 exert:1 huge:1 depression:1 thirty:3 scene:4 downward:1 spiral:1 stop:1 altogether:1 evaporate:1 olivier:1 struggle:1 tailor:1 raise:3 chicken:1 los:1 angeles:1 opportunity:1 la:2 lionel:1 hampton:1 drum:2 hollywood:6 crowd:1 still:1 afford:1 lavish:1 radio:6 broadcast:4 connect:2 celebrity:1 regular:1 ex:2 flame:1 convict:1 possession:1 suspended:1 sentence:1 guy:3 lombardo:3 vein:1 mob:4 insist:1 visit:1 hero:1 welcome:1 sponsor:1 local:1 baseball:1 team:1 secret:2 nine:1 cigar:1 road:4 shadow:1 europe:2 escape:2 undertake:1 several:1 exhausting:1 agent:1 erratic:1 behavior:1 spending:1 short:3 cash:3 breach:1 contract:1 violation:1 plague:1 finally:2 hire:1 manager:2 tough:1 wheeler:1 dealer:1 straighten:1 legal:1 mess:1 debt:2 problem:1 finger:1 aggravate:1 unorthodox:1 branch:1 theatrical:1 penny:1 heaven:1 substitute:1 rudy:1 vallee:1 cbs:1 network:1 sponsored:1 national:7 longtime:1 girlfriend:1 alpha:1 settle:1 permanently:1 queen:5 contentment:1 fourth:1 lucille:2 subject:2 vicissitude:1 tin:1 pan:1 alley:1 ridden:1 anti:1 prejudice:1 continue:5 rockin:1 chair:1 subsequent:3 three:4 gig:3 booking:1 taper:1 change:1 taste:1 competition:1 television:3 impossible:1 circumstance:1 support:1 finance:1 piece:2 follow:2 may:1 trombonist:1 jack:2 teagarden:3 dissolve:1 six:1 initially:1 swing:2 dixieland:1 announce:1 opening:1 billy:2 berg:1 supper:1 barney:1 bigard:1 edmond:1 trummy:1 arvell:1 shaw:1 kyle:1 marty:1 napoleon:1 sid:1 catlett:1 cozy:1 cole:2 tyree:1 glenn:1 barrett:1 deems:1 filipino:1 percussionist:1 danny:2 barcelona:2 film:10 cover:1 magazine:2 february:3 chart:6 person:1 accomplish:1 feat:1 process:1 dislodge:1 beatles:2 occupy:1 consecutive:1 week:1 different:1 hale:1 james:3 editor:2 jazzhouse:1 org:2 last:4 post:2 busy:1 schedule:2 sometimes:4 numerous:1 rote:1 enliven:1 mundane:1 vigorous:1 astonishment:1 africa:1 asia:1 sponsorship:1 department:2 earn:1 ambassador:3 satch:4 fail:1 health:3 restrict:1 within:1 limitation:1 autograph:2 muretto:1 alassio:1 satchelmouth:1 embouchure:2 maker:1 percy:1 brook:1 greet:1 london:2 stick:1 dippermouth:1 propensity:1 refresh:1 dipper:1 ladle:1 bucket:1 sugar:1 water:3 present:3 nineteen:1 damage:1 pressure:1 acutely:1 visible:1 picture:2 lead:2 emphasize:2 certain:1 unable:1 aside:1 amend:1 fellow:2 address:1 except:1 foster:1 george:1 criticize:3 title:9 zulu:1 community:1 honored:1 role:5 carnival:1 krewe:1 bewilder:1 offensive:1 outsider:1 traditional:1 costume:1 grass:1 skirt:1 blackface:1 makeup:1 satirize:1 southern:1 attitude:1 mardi:1 gras:1 whatever:2 case:1 gregarious:1 outgoing:1 others:2 someone:1 appeal:1 essentially:4 minstrel:1 caricature:1 strong:3 stand:2 civil:2 movement:2 suggest:1 tom:3 billie:5 holiday:5 counter:1 course:1 toms:1 fact:2 major:2 financial:1 supporter:1 dr:1 martin:1 luther:1 jr:1 activist:1 quietly:1 behind:2 mix:1 politics:1 entertainer:1 exception:1 effective:1 criticism:1 president:1 eisenhower:1 face:1 gutless:1 inaction:1 conflict:2 desegregation:1 rock:8 arkansas:1 news:1 protest:1 cancel:1 planned:1 soviet:1 union:1 behalf:1 treat:1 people:2 south:1 hell:1 represent:2 abroad:1 september:1 margolick:2 noise:2 fbi:1 outspokenness:1 integration:1 ask:1 religion:2 answer:1 baptist:1 pope:2 honor:7 karnofsky:1 lent:1 sacred:1 jesus:1 pius:1 xii:1 paul:4 vi:1 consider:1 seem:1 tolerant:1 humor:1 extremely:1 generous:1 bodily:1 function:1 laxative:2 mean:1 weight:4 practice:3 advocate:1 acquaintance:1 diet:1 plan:2 publish:1 lose:1 preference:1 pluto:1 enthusiastic:1 convert:1 herbal:1 remedy:1 swiss:2 kris:2 extol:1 virtue:1 pass:2 packet:1 everyone:1 encounter:1 british:2 royal:1 humorous:1 albeit:1 risqué:1 advertisement:1 ad:1 bore:1 sit:1 toilet:1 view:1 keyhole:1 slogan:1 ya:1 balance:1 love:3 reflect:1 cheesecake:1 chop:1 suey:1 net:2 bean:2 ricely:2 struttin:1 barbecue:2 fine:1 companion:1 dictionary:2 cab:1 calloway:1 n:1 girl:1 beauty:1 connection:1 throughout:2 cooking:1 sign:1 elie:2 entertain:1 corona:3 encourage:1 gregariousness:1 constantly:1 favorite:1 theme:1 share:1 correspondent:1 avidly:1 stationery:1 hand:1 instant:1 sex:1 childhood:1 memory:2 medicinal:1 bowel:1 gleefully:1 lewd:1 joke:1 dirty:1 limerick:1 avid:1 audiophile:1 collection:1 reel:2 tape:1 trunk:1 compare:1 musically:2 den:1 audio:2 equipment:1 rehearse:1 along:2 michael:4 cogswell:2 offstage:2 story:5 collector:1 press:2 portland:1 oregon:1 isbn:9 pp:1 attack:1 meckna:2 encyclopedia:2 greenwood:1 connecticut:1 month:2 waldorf:1 astoria:1 empire:1 room:1 beautiful:1 anything:1 pretty:1 near:1 reside:1 inter:1 flush:1 cemetery:1 flushing:1 honorary:1 pallbearer:1 governor:1 rockefeller:1 mayor:1 lindsay:1 ella:8 fitzgerald:5 dizzy:1 gillespie:1 pearl:1 bailey:1 count:1 basie:1 harry:2 frank:2 sinatra:2 ed:1 sullivan:1 wilson:1 alan:1 carson:2 frost:1 merv:1 griffin:1 dick:1 cavett:1 bobby:1 hackett:1 peggy:1 lee:1 lord:1 prayer:1 service:2 hibbler:1 sang:1 nobody:1 fred:1 robbins:1 eulogy:1 http:1 upi:2 event:1 dy:1 review:1 gain:2 bandleader:3 founding:1 modern:2 virtuosity:1 hear:3 stack:1 brilliantly:1 alongside:2 generation:1 variating:1 dare:1 sophisticated:1 subtle:2 melodic:2 tune:2 interesting:1 fill:1 joyous:1 inspired:1 original:2 creative:4 leap:1 drive:1 rhythm:1 genius:1 match:1 hone:1 range:2 capability:1 handedly:1 folk:1 tremendous:1 possibility:1 expression:1 outer:1 ability:1 minor:2 flub:1 missed:1 detract:1 enjoyment:1 energy:1 spontaneous:1 achieve:1 smooth:1 assurance:1 carry:1 perfection:1 popularity:3 progress:1 masterful:2 help:1 popularize:1 accord:2 legend:1 sheet:1 fell:1 floor:1 simply:1 nonsense:1 syllable:1 memoir:1 occurred:1 forget:1 middle:1 ding:1 dong:1 daddy:1 dumas:1 shorten:1 lengthen:1 phrase:1 interject:1 creatively:1 colleague:1 follower:1 instrumentalist:1 brakeman:1 jimmie:3 rodgers:3 development:2 admire:1 copy:1 evident:1 grove:1 precise:1 detail:1 acknowledge:1 afro:1 concept:2 lyrical:1 extension:1 speech:1 ease:1 breath:1 cord:1 low:1 forward:1 production:1 aid:1 distinct:1 enunciation:1 consonant:1 discreet:1 appoggiatura:1 mordents:1 slur:1 text:1 emulate:1 nearly:1 porgy:2 verve:2 session:1 oscar:1 peterson:1 trio:1 rich:1 w:1 handy:2 oddity:1 disney:2 moment:2 participation:1 dave:1 brubeck:1 real:2 critically:1 acclaim:1 output:1 overly:1 simplistic:1 repetitive:1 wonderful:4 saint:4 dream:3 stompin:1 savoy:1 soundtrack:1 bond:1 majesty:1 renew:1 uk:1 guinness:1 advert:1 reach:1 number:3 knock:1 billboard:1 bout:1 bewitch:1 italy:1 sanremo:2 festival:2 mi:2 va:2 di:3 cantare:2 italia:2 eritrean:1 born:1 italian:4 lara:3 lavocedelledonne:1 rai:1 channel:1 grassa:2 e:3 bella:2 track:1 market:1 discography:4 score:1 united:2 kingdom:1 sentimental:1 currency:1 consciousness:1 morning:1 vietnam:1 rerelease:1 october:2 nat:2 ramble:1 rise:2 backing:1 yodel:2 stylistic:1 latin:1 folksong:1 opera:1 incorporated:1 source:1 bewilderment:1 fan:1 stay:1 convenient:1 narrow:1 category:2 induct:4 roll:6 wc:1 direction:1 literature:1 tv:2 dozen:1 familiar:2 cum:1 narrator:1 opposite:1 chronicle:1 demise:1 ensue:1 nationally:1 actress:1 barbra:1 streisand:1 program:2 countless:1 tonight:1 walk:3 boulevard:1 four:1 decade:1 passing:1 available:2 lifetime:4 commercial:1 anime:1 computer:2 game:2 kiss:1 build:1 fallout:1 accompany:1 intro:1 cinematic:1 sleepless:1 seattle:1 ensemble:2 ripper:1 stiff:1 sublime:1 interest:1 melancholy:1 voyager:1 golden:1 space:1 achievement:3 humanity:1 listener:1 ubiquitous:1 edith:1 piaf:1 vie:1 en:1 pixar:1 wall:1 argentine:1 julio:1 cortázar:3 admirer:1 assert:1 théâtre:1 des:1 champ:1 élysées:1 paris:1 significant:1 inspire:1 fictional:1 creature:1 cronopios:1 grandísimo:1 cronopio:2 enormous:1 turtledove:1 timeline:1 nazi:1 confederacy:1 enhance:1 insipid:1 pivotal:1 woody:1 allen:1 overwhelm:1 epiphany:1 combination:1 catalyst:1 action:1 prompt:1 protagonist:1 fall:1 ill:1 advised:1 swan:1 sibling:1 obvious:1 nod:1 eb:1 book:2 comment:1 award:8 grammy:9 posthumously:1 academy:2 science:1 special:2 merit:1 vote:1 trustee:1 contribution:2 outstanding:1 significance:2 field:1 genre:2 male:1 kapp:2 winner:1 least:1 qualitative:1 historical:1 database:1 list:3 weather:1 bird:1 corner:1 victor:1 abc:1 shape:2 induction:1 office:1 issue:1 cent:1 commemorative:1 postage:1 stamp:1 richmond:1 indiana:1 island:1 nesuhi:1 ertegün:1 fameat:1 lincoln:1 beat:1 blvd:1 today:2 declare:1 historic:2 landmark:1 museum:5 avenue:1 educational:1 operate:2 material:1 writing:2 memorabilia:1 research:1 college:1 dictate:1 open:3 visitor:1 currently:1 estimate:1 virtually:1 immeasurable:1 irrepressible:1 overshadow:1 virtuoso:1 extraordinary:2 talent:1 emerge:1 instrument:1 accompanist:1 addition:1 contend:1 invented:1 recognize:1 pioneer:1 ethel:1 precedes:1 giddens:1 ken:1 burn:1 cd:1 liner:1 indebted:1 feeling:1 centennial:1 airport:2 rename:1 international:1 preserve:1 registry:3 select:2 yearly:1 preservation:2 board:1 library:2 congress:2 tennis:1 tournament:1 former:1 stadium:3 block:1 ashe:1 albums:1 thomas:2 brother:2 x:1 laurence:1 extravagant:1 max:1 john:2 chilton:1 lolis:1 eric:1 originally:1 print:1 gourmet:1 reprint:1 edit:1 holly:1 hughes:1 external:1 link:1 sony:1 bmg:1 hentoff:1 obituary:1 ny:1 quote:1 tribute:1 filmography:1 imdb:1 question:1 website:2 transcription:1 project:1 birchall:1 pbskids:1 smithsonian:1 cultural:1 memorial:1 grave:1 npr:1 format:1 |@bigram hello_dolly:8 celebrate_birthday:1 jazz_trumpeter:1 scat_singing:5 instantly_recognizable:1 declaration_independence:1 birth_certificate:1 orleans_louisiana:1 express_gratitude:1 kid_ory:4 mentally_disabled:1 hoagy_carmichael:4 bix_beiderbecke:2 fletcher_henderson:4 shortly_afterward:1 coleman_hawkins:1 duke_ellington:3 bessie_smith:4 scat_sing:3 earl_hines:3 pianist_composer:1 cameo_appearance:1 bing_crosby:7 downward_spiral:1 los_angeles:1 lionel_hampton:1 marijuana_possession:1 erratic_behavior:1 pan_alley:1 accomplish_feat:1 melody_maker:1 mardi_gras:1 billie_holiday:4 martin_luther:1 soviet_union:1 pope_pius:1 pius_xii:1 herbal_remedy:1 extol_virtue:1 chop_suey:1 reel_reel:1 reel_tape:1 portland_oregon:1 waldorf_astoria:1 ella_fitzgerald:5 dizzy_gillespie:1 count_basie:1 frank_sinatra:2 johnny_carson:2 merv_griffin:1 dick_cavett:1 http_www:1 www_upi:1 upi_com:2 review_upi:1 single_handedly:1 nonsense_syllable:1 jimmie_rodgers:3 vocal_cord:1 dave_brubeck:1 critically_acclaim:1 overly_simplistic:1 johnny_cash:1 hall_fame:13 barbra_streisand:1 walk_fame:3 hollywood_boulevard:1 julio_cortázar:1 champ_élysées:1 harry_turtledove:1 woody_allen:1 grammy_award:3 grammy_lifetime:1 lifetime_achievement:2 induct_grammy:1 commemorative_postage:1 postage_stamp:1 hollywood_blvd:1 historic_landmark:1 liner_note:1 external_link:1 sony_bmg:1 obituary_ny:1 imdb_com:1 |
4,645 | Lake_Ontario | Lake Ontario is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. The lake is bounded on the north by the Canadian province of Ontario and on the south by Ontario's Niagara Peninsula and by the U.S. state of New York. It is the smallest of the Great Lakes and the only one that does not border with Michigan. Name The lake's name is derived from ontarío, a Huron word meaning "great lake". Mithun, Marianne (2000). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 312 The Canadian province of Ontario was later named after the lake. The lake was previously identified in some maps under different names. In a map drawn in the Relation des Jésuites (1662-1663), the lake has the legend "Lac Ontario ou des Iroquois" and in smaller type "Ondiara". A French map produced in 1712 (currently in the Canadian Museum of Civilization ), created by military engineer Jean-Baptiste de Couagne, identified Lake Ontario as "Lac Frontenac". Iroquois people called the lake "Skanadario." Geography Lake Ontario (43.7° N, 77.9° W) is the eastern-most and smallest in surface area (7,540 square miles, 19,529 km²) of the Great Lakes, although it exceeds Lake Erie in volume (393 cubic miles, 1639 km³). It is the 14th largest lake in the world and has a shoreline 712 miles (1146 km) long. Lake Ontario has an elevation of 246 feet (75 m) above sea level. Its length is 193 miles (311 km), and its width is 53 miles (85 km). The average depth is 283 feet (86 m), with a maximum depth of 802 feet (244 m). Lake Ontario and the other Great Lakes Its primary inlet is the Niagara River (from Lake Erie) and primary outlet is the St. Lawrence River. Other major rivers which flow into it include the Don River; Humber River; Trent River; the Cataraqui River; the Genesee River; the Oswego River; the Black River; and the Salmon River. Other notable geographic features include Hamilton Harbour, the Bay of Quinte, the Toronto Islands, Irondequoit Bay and the Thousand Islands. The Bay of Quinte separates most of Prince Edward County from the north shore except for a 2 mile (3km) stretch of land connecting it to the mainland. The largest island on the lake is Wolfe Island located near Kingston at the St. Lawrence River entrance. It is accessible by ferry from both Canada and the U.S. A portion of the Great Lakes Waterway passes through the lake, which is accessible from upstream by the Welland Canal and from downstream by the St. Lawrence Seaway. The Trent-Severn Waterway for pleasure boats connects Lake Ontario at the Bay of Quinte to Georgian Bay of Lake Huron passing through the inland Lake Simcoe. The Rideau Waterway, also for pleasure boats, connects Lake Ontario at Kingston to the Ottawa River at Ottawa. The Oswego Canal connects the lake at Oswego to the New York State Canal System, with outlets to the Hudson River, Lake Erie, and Lake Champlain. A large conurbation called the Golden Horseshoe (including major cities of Toronto and Hamilton, Ontario) is on the Canadian side at the western end of the lake. Other centres on the Canadian side with ports include St. Catharines, Oshawa, Cobourg and Kingston near the St. Lawrence River inlet. Close to 9 million people or over a quarter of Canada's population lives within the watershed of Lake Ontario. The American shore of the lake is largely rural, with the exception of Rochester, New York and the much smaller port at Oswego, New York. The city of Syracuse is 40 miles (65 km) inland from the lakeshore and is connected to it by the New York State Canal System. Over 2 million people live in Lake Ontario's American watershed. A high-speed passenger/vehicle ferry service across Lake Ontario between Toronto and Rochester was launched on June 17, 2004, using the vessel Spirit of Ontario I. The service was canceled on January 10, 2006. The Crystal Lynn II, out of Irondequoit, New York has been operating on Lake Ontario between Irondequoit Bay and Henderson Harbor since May 2000, Operated by Capt. Bob Tein. On the south shore, breezes off the cool lake tend to retard fruit bloom until the spring frost danger is past, and the area has become a major fruit growing area, with apples, cherries, pears, plums, and peaches grown in many commercial orchards on both sides of Rochester. The Canadian part of the south shore, known as the Niagara Peninsula is also a major fruit-growing and wine-making area located between Stoney Creek and Niagara-on-the-Lake. Apple varieties that tolerate a more extreme climate are grown on the lake's north shore, around Cobourg. Great Lakes Circle Tour The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. Great Lakes Circle Tour. Geology The lake was carved out of soft, weak Silurian rocks by the Wisconsonian ice age glacier, which expanded the preglacial Ontarian River valley of approximately the same orientation. The material that was pushed southward was piled in central and western New York in the form of drumlins, kames, and moraines, which reorganized entire drainage systems. As the glacier retreated from New York, it still dammed the present St. Lawrence valley, so that the lake was at a higher level. This state is known as Lake Iroquois. During that time the lake drained through present-day Syracuse, New York into the Mohawk River. The old shoreline that was created during this lake stage can be easily recognized by the (now dry) beaches and wave-cut hills 10 to 25 miles (15 to 40 km) south of the present shoreline. When the glacier finally melted from the St. Lawrence valley, the outlet was below sea level, and the lake became for a short time a bay of the ocean. Gradually the land rebounded from the release of the weight of about 6,500 feet (2000 m) of ice that had been stacked on it. It is still rebounding about 12 inches (30 cm) per century in the St. Lawrence area. Since the ice left that area last, that is the area where the most rapid rebound still is occurring. This means that the lake bed is gradually tilting southward, inundating the south shore and turning river valleys into bays. Both north and south shores have shoreline erosion, but the tilting amplifies this effect on the south shore, causing loss to property owners. History The lake was a border between the Huron and their vassals and the Iroquois Confederacy in pre-European times. The first documented European to reach the lake was Étienne Brûlé in 1615. Artifacts which are believed to be of Norse origin have been found in the area, indicating possible earlier visits by Europeans, but as yet unproven. A series of trading posts was established by both the British and French, such as Fort Oswego in 1722 and Fort Rouillé 1750 (in Toronto). After the French and Indian War, all the forts were under British control. This remained the case even in the years following the American Revolution until the signing of the Jay Treaty in 1794, when forts on the U.S. side of lake became American. Permanent, non-military European settlement began during the American Revolution and occurred before the other great lakes. It became a hub of commercial activity following the War of 1812 with canal building on both sides of the border and was heavily traveled by lake steamers, which reached their peak activity in the mid-19th century before competition from railway lines. Ecology Climate The lake has a natural seiche rhythm of eleven minutes. The seiche effect normally is only about ¾ inches (2 cm) but can be greatly amplified by earth movement, winds, and atmospheric pressure changes. Because of its great depth, the entire lake rarely freezes in winter. During the winter months, the lake typically develops an ice sheet covering between 10% and 90% of the lake area depending on the severity of the winter. Ice sheets typically form along the shoreline and in slack water bays, where the lake is not as deep. The winters of 1977 through 1981 were especially severe, and ice sheet coverage was up to 95-100% in some eastern sections of the lake. When the cold winds of winter pass over the warmer water of the lake, they pick up moisture and drop it as lake effect snow. Since the prevailing winter winds are from the northwest, the southern and southeastern shoreline of the lake is referred to as the snowbelt. In some winters the area between Oswego and Pulaski may receive twenty or more feet (600 cm) of snowfall. Also impacted by lake effect snow is the Tug Hill Plateau, an area of elevated land that is about 20 miles to the east of Lake Ontario. Tug Hill's elevation, along with ample moisture from the lake, creates ideal conditions for snowfall. The "Hill", as it is often referred to, typically receives more snow than any other region in the eastern United States. As a result, Tug Hill is a popular location for winter enthusiasts, such as snowmobilers and cross-country skiers. The combination of lake-effect snow often reaches inland to Syracuse, which often takes the crown for the most winter snowfall accumulation of any large city in the United States and, on average, receives more snow annually than any other major city in the world. Smaller towns in Michigan's Upper Peninsula like Houghton or Calumet do receive more snow. The lake also produces microclimates, they have the effect of delaying the onset of fall frost (particularly on the south shore) allowing for tender fruit production in a continental climate. Cool onshore winds also retards early bloom of plants and flowers until later in the spring season, protecting them from possible frost damage. Foggy conditions (particularly in fall) can be created by thermal contrasts and can be an impediment for recreational boaters. In a normal winter, Lake Ontario will be at most one quarter ice-covered, in a mild winter almost completely unfrozen. Lake Ontario has completely frozen over on only two recorded occasions: during the winter of 1874-75, and in February 1934. Environmental concerns During modern times, the lake became heavily polluted from industrial chemicals, agricultural fertilizers, untreated sewage such as phosphates in laundry detergents, and chemicals. Some pollutant chemicals that have been found in the lake include DDT, benzo[a]pyrene and other pesticides; PCBs, aramite, lead, mirex, mercury, and carbon tetrachloride. By the 1960s and 1970s the lake was dying, with frequent algal blooms occurring in summer. These blooms killed large numbers of fish, and left decomposing piles of filamentous algae and dead fish along the shores. At times the blooms became so thick that waves could not break. Since the 1960s and 1970s, environmental concerns have forced a cleanup of industrial and municipal wastes. Cleanup has been accomplished through better treatment plants and tighter environmental regulations: Phosphates were banned from detergents, and farm runoff was regulated more closely. Today, Lake Ontario has recovered much of its pristine quality. For example, walleye, a fish species considered as a marker of clean water, are now found. The lake has also become an important sport fishery, with introduced Coho and Chinook salmon now thriving there. Invasive species are a problem for Lake Ontario, particularly lamprey and zebra mussels. Lamprey are being controlled by poisoning in the juvenile stage in the streams where they breed. Zebra mussels in particular are difficult to control, and pose major challenges for the lake and its waterways. Images References See also Lake Ontario Waterkeeper Great Lakes in General Great Lakes Great Lakes Areas of Concern Great Lakes census statistical areas Great Lakes Commission Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal Great Storm of 1913 International Boundary Waters Treaty List of cities along the Great Lakes Seiche Sixty Years' War for control of the Great Lakes Third Coast External links Lake Ontario United Lake Ontario Waterkeeper EPA's Great Lakes Atlas Great Lakes Coast Watch Pollution in the Great Lakes Lake Ontario Bathymetry | Lake_Ontario |@lemmatized lake:85 ontario:26 one:3 five:1 great:24 north:6 america:2 bound:1 canadian:6 province:2 south:8 niagara:4 peninsula:3 u:3 state:6 new:9 york:9 small:5 border:3 michigan:2 name:4 derive:1 ontarío:1 huron:3 word:1 meaning:1 mithun:1 marianne:1 language:1 native:1 cambridge:2 university:1 press:1 pg:1 later:2 previously:1 identify:2 map:3 different:1 drawn:1 relation:1 des:1 jésuites:1 legend:1 lac:2 ou:1 de:2 iroquois:4 type:1 ondiara:1 french:3 produce:2 currently:1 museum:1 civilization:1 create:4 military:2 engineer:1 jean:1 baptiste:1 couagne:1 frontenac:1 people:3 call:2 skanadario:1 geography:1 n:1 w:1 eastern:3 surface:1 area:13 square:1 mile:9 although:1 exceed:1 erie:3 volume:1 cubic:1 large:5 world:2 shoreline:6 km:5 long:1 elevation:2 foot:5 sea:2 level:3 length:1 width:1 average:2 depth:3 maximum:1 lakes:6 primary:2 inlet:2 river:19 outlet:3 st:9 lawrence:8 major:6 flow:1 include:5 humber:1 trent:2 cataraqui:1 genesee:1 oswego:6 black:1 salmon:2 notable:1 geographic:1 feature:1 hamilton:2 harbour:1 bay:9 quinte:3 toronto:4 island:4 irondequoit:3 thousand:1 separate:1 prince:1 edward:1 county:1 shore:10 except:1 stretch:1 land:3 connect:3 mainland:1 wolfe:1 locate:2 near:2 kingston:3 entrance:1 accessible:2 ferry:2 canada:2 portion:1 waterway:4 pass:2 upstream:1 welland:1 canal:6 downstream:1 seaway:1 severn:1 pleasure:2 boat:2 connects:3 georgian:1 inland:3 simcoe:1 rideau:1 also:7 ottawa:2 system:4 hudson:1 champlain:1 conurbation:1 golden:1 horseshoe:1 city:5 side:5 western:2 end:1 centre:1 port:2 catharines:1 oshawa:1 cobourg:2 close:1 million:2 quarter:2 population:1 life:1 within:1 watershed:2 american:5 largely:1 rural:1 exception:1 rochester:3 much:2 syracuse:3 lakeshore:1 live:1 high:2 speed:1 passenger:1 vehicle:1 service:2 across:1 launch:1 june:1 use:1 vessel:1 spirit:1 cancel:1 january:1 crystal:1 lynn:1 ii:1 operate:2 henderson:1 harbor:1 since:4 may:2 capt:1 bob:1 tein:1 breeze:1 cool:2 tend:1 retard:2 fruit:4 bloom:5 spring:2 frost:3 danger:1 past:1 become:7 grow:3 apple:2 cherry:1 pear:1 plum:1 peach:1 many:1 commercial:2 orchard:1 part:1 know:2 growing:1 wine:1 make:1 stoney:1 creek:1 variety:1 tolerate:1 extreme:1 climate:3 around:1 circle:3 tour:3 designated:1 scenic:1 road:1 geology:1 carve:1 soft:1 weak:1 silurian:1 rock:1 wisconsonian:1 ice:7 age:1 glacier:3 expand:1 preglacial:1 ontarian:1 valley:4 approximately:1 orientation:1 material:1 push:1 southward:2 pile:2 central:1 form:2 drumlin:1 kames:1 moraine:1 reorganize:1 entire:2 drainage:1 retreat:1 still:3 dam:1 present:3 time:5 drain:1 day:1 mohawk:1 old:1 stage:2 easily:1 recognize:1 dry:1 beach:1 wave:2 cut:1 hill:5 finally:1 melt:1 short:1 ocean:1 gradually:2 rebound:3 release:1 weight:1 stack:1 inch:2 cm:3 per:1 century:2 leave:2 last:1 rapid:1 occur:3 mean:1 bed:1 tilt:1 inundate:1 turn:1 erosion:1 tilting:1 amplify:2 effect:6 cause:1 loss:1 property:1 owner:1 history:1 vassal:1 confederacy:1 pre:1 european:4 first:1 documented:1 reach:3 étienne:1 brûlé:1 artifact:1 believe:1 norse:1 origin:1 find:3 indicate:1 possible:2 earlier:1 visit:1 yet:1 unproven:1 series:1 trading:1 post:1 establish:1 british:2 fort:4 rouillé:1 indian:1 war:3 control:4 remain:1 case:1 even:1 year:2 follow:2 revolution:2 signing:1 jay:1 treaty:2 permanent:1 non:1 settlement:1 begin:1 hub:1 activity:2 building:1 heavily:2 travel:1 steamer:1 peak:1 mid:1 competition:1 railway:1 line:1 ecology:1 natural:1 seiche:3 rhythm:1 eleven:1 minute:1 normally:1 greatly:1 earth:1 movement:1 wind:4 atmospheric:1 pressure:1 change:1 rarely:1 freeze:2 winter:12 month:1 typically:3 develop:1 sheet:3 cover:2 depend:1 severity:1 along:4 slack:1 water:4 deep:1 especially:1 severe:1 coverage:1 section:1 cold:1 pas:1 warm:1 pick:1 moisture:2 drop:1 snow:6 prevailing:1 northwest:1 southern:1 southeastern:1 refer:2 snowbelt:1 pulaski:1 receive:4 twenty:1 snowfall:3 impact:1 tug:3 plateau:1 elevated:1 east:1 ample:1 ideal:1 condition:2 often:3 region:1 united:3 result:1 popular:1 location:1 enthusiast:1 snowmobilers:1 cross:1 country:1 skier:1 combination:1 take:1 crown:1 accumulation:1 annually:1 town:1 upper:1 like:1 houghton:1 calumet:1 microclimates:1 delay:1 onset:1 fall:2 particularly:3 allow:1 tender:1 production:1 continental:1 onshore:1 early:1 plant:2 flower:1 season:1 protect:1 damage:1 foggy:1 thermal:1 contrast:1 impediment:1 recreational:1 boater:1 normal:1 mild:1 almost:1 completely:2 unfrozen:1 two:1 record:1 occasion:1 february:1 environmental:3 concern:3 modern:1 pollute:1 industrial:2 chemical:3 agricultural:1 fertilizer:1 untreated:1 sewage:1 phosphate:2 laundry:1 detergent:2 pollutant:1 ddt:1 benzo:1 pyrene:1 pesticide:1 pcbs:1 aramite:1 lead:1 mirex:1 mercury:1 carbon:1 tetrachloride:1 die:1 frequent:1 algal:1 summer:1 kill:1 number:1 fish:3 decompose:1 filamentous:1 algae:1 dead:1 thick:1 could:1 break:1 force:1 cleanup:2 municipal:1 waste:1 accomplish:1 good:1 treatment:1 tight:1 regulation:1 ban:1 farm:1 runoff:1 regulate:1 closely:1 today:1 recover:1 pristine:1 quality:1 example:1 walleye:1 specie:2 consider:1 marker:1 clean:1 important:1 sport:1 fishery:1 introduce:1 coho:1 chinook:1 thrive:1 invasive:1 problem:1 lamprey:2 zebra:2 mussel:2 poison:1 juvenile:1 stream:1 breed:1 particular:1 difficult:1 pose:1 challenge:1 image:1 reference:1 see:1 waterkeeper:2 general:1 census:1 statistical:1 commission:1 recycling:1 northern:1 development:1 storm:1 international:1 boundary:1 list:1 sixty:1 third:1 coast:2 external:1 link:1 epa:1 atlas:1 watch:1 pollution:1 bathymetry:1 |@bigram jean_baptiste:1 lake_erie:3 mile_km:5 genesee_river:1 bay_quinte:3 welland_canal:1 lawrence_seaway:1 lake_huron:1 lake_champlain:1 golden_horseshoe:1 st_catharines:1 designated_scenic:1 inch_cm:2 iroquois_confederacy:1 atmospheric_pressure:1 ice_sheet:3 heavily_pollute:1 untreated_sewage:1 laundry_detergent:1 benzo_pyrene:1 carbon_tetrachloride:1 algal_bloom:1 invasive_specie:1 zebra_mussel:2 external_link:1 |
4,646 | Politics | Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions. The term is generally applied to behaviour within civil governments, but politics has been observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. It consists of "social relations involving authority or power" Definition of politics from die.net and refers to the regulation of a political unit, Politics (definition)@Everything2.com and to the methods and tactics used to formulate and apply policy. Definition of politics from "The Free Dictionary" "Politics" ultimately comes from the Greek word "polis" meaning state or city. "Politikos" describes anything concerning the state or city affairs. In Latin, this was "politicus" and in French "politique". Thus it became "politics" in the English language. As an academic discipline Political science, the study of politics, examines the acquisition and application of power. Related areas of study include political philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public behaviour, political economy, which attempts to develop understandings of the relationships between politics and the economy and the governance of the two, and public administration, which examines the practices of governance. Spectra Left-right politics Recently in history, political analysts and politicians divide politics into left wing and right wing politics, often also using the idea of center politics as a middle path of policy between the right and left. This classification is comparatively recent (it was not used by Aristotle or Hobbes, for instance), and dates from the French Revolution era, when those members of the National Assembly who opposed the monarchy sat on the left, while those who supported it sat on the right. The Architecture of Parliaments: Legislative Houses and Political Culture Charles T. Goodsell British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1988), pp. 287-302 The original meaning disappeared quickly. A particularly influential event was the publication of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels in 1848. The Manifesto suggested a course of action for a proletarian revolution to overthrow the bourgeois society and abolish private property, in the belief that this would lead to a classless and stateless society. The meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies considerably between different countries and at different times, but generally speaking, it can be said that the right wing often values tradition and capitalism while the left wing often values egalitarianism. According to Norberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality, while the Right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian. Bobbio, Norberto, "Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction" (translated by Allan Cameron), 1997, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226062465 Some ideologies, notably Christian Democracy, claim to combine left and right wing politics; according to Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, "In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles." Roberts and Hogwood, European Politics Today, Manchester University Press, 1997 Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide include Gaullism in France, Peronism in Argentina, and National Action Politics in Mexico. Authoritarian-libertarian politics Authoritarianism and libertarianism refer to the amount of individual freedom each person possesses in that society relative to the state. One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where "individual rights and goals are subjugated to group goals, expectations and conformities", while a libertarian political system is one in which individual rights and civil liberties are paramount. More extreme than libertarians are anarchists, who argue for the total abolition of government, while the most extreme authoritarians are totalitarians who support state control over all aspects of society. For instance, classical liberalism (also known as laissez-faire liberalism Ian Adams, Political Ideology Today (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), 20. , or, in much of the world, simply liberalism) is a doctrine stressing individual freedom and limited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individual property rights, free markets, natural rights, the protection of civil liberties, constitutional limitation of government, and individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of John Locke, Adam Smith, David Hume, David Ricardo, Voltaire, Montesquieu and others. According to the libertarian Institute for Humane Studies, "the libertarian, or 'classical liberal,' perspective is that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by 'as much liberty as possible' and 'as little government as necessary.'" What Is Libertarian?, Institute for Humane Studies See also Lists Politics of present-day states List of years in politics Related topics Activism Food politics Government simulation game Music and politics Official statistics Political activism Political compass Political corruption Political criticism Political economy Political fiction (list) Political movement Political party (list by country) Political philosophy Political psychology Political science (outline) Political sociology Political spectrum References be-x-old:Палітыка | Politics |@lemmatized politics:22 process:1 group:3 people:1 make:1 decision:1 term:2 generally:2 apply:2 behaviour:2 within:2 civil:3 government:6 observe:1 human:2 interaction:1 include:4 corporate:1 academic:2 religious:1 institution:1 consist:1 social:5 relation:1 involve:1 authority:1 power:2 definition:3 die:1 net:1 refers:1 regulation:1 political:24 unit:1 com:1 method:1 tactic:1 use:3 formulate:1 policy:2 free:2 dictionary:1 ultimately:1 come:1 greek:1 word:1 polis:1 meaning:3 state:5 city:2 politikos:1 describe:2 anything:1 concern:1 affair:1 latin:1 politicus:1 french:2 politique:1 thus:1 become:1 english:1 language:1 discipline:1 science:3 study:4 examine:2 acquisition:1 application:1 related:2 area:1 philosophy:2 seek:1 rationale:1 ethic:1 public:2 economy:3 attempt:3 develop:1 understanding:1 relationship:1 governance:2 two:1 administration:1 practice:1 spectrum:2 leave:3 right:14 recently:1 history:1 analyst:1 politician:1 divide:2 left:7 wing:7 often:3 also:3 idea:1 center:1 middle:1 path:1 classification:1 comparatively:1 recent:1 aristotle:1 hobbes:1 instance:2 date:1 revolution:2 era:1 member:1 national:2 assembly:1 oppose:1 monarchy:1 sit:2 support:2 architecture:1 parliament:1 legislative:1 house:1 culture:1 charles:1 goodsell:1 british:1 journal:1 vol:1 jul:1 pp:1 original:1 disappear:1 quickly:1 particularly:1 influential:1 event:1 publication:1 communist:1 manifesto:2 karl:1 marx:1 frederick:1 engels:1 suggest:1 course:1 action:2 proletarian:1 overthrow:1 bourgeois:1 society:4 abolish:1 private:1 property:2 belief:1 would:1 lead:1 classless:1 stateless:1 varies:1 considerably:1 different:2 country:2 time:1 speaking:1 say:1 value:2 tradition:1 capitalism:1 egalitarianism:1 accord:3 norberto:2 bobbio:2 one:3 major:1 exponent:1 distinction:2 believe:1 eradicate:1 inequality:3 regard:1 result:1 ineradicable:1 natural:2 see:2 enforce:1 equality:1 utopian:1 authoritarian:4 significance:1 translate:1 allan:1 cameron:1 university:3 chicago:1 press:3 isbn:1 ideology:3 notably:1 christian:3 democracy:2 claim:3 combine:1 geoffrey:1 k:1 robert:2 patricia:1 hogwood:2 incorporate:1 many:1 view:1 hold:1 liberal:2 conservative:1 socialist:1 wider:1 framework:1 moral:1 principle:1 european:1 today:2 manchester:3 movement:2 formerly:1 gaullism:1 france:1 peronism:1 argentina:1 mexico:1 libertarian:6 authoritarianism:1 libertarianism:1 refer:1 amount:1 individual:7 freedom:3 person:1 possess:1 relative:1 author:1 system:2 goal:2 subjugate:1 expectation:1 conformity:1 liberty:3 paramount:1 extreme:2 anarchist:1 argue:1 total:1 abolition:1 totalitarian:1 control:1 aspect:1 classical:2 liberalism:3 know:1 laissez:1 faire:1 ian:1 adam:2 much:2 world:1 simply:1 doctrine:1 stress:1 limited:1 importance:1 rationality:1 market:1 protection:1 constitutional:1 limitation:1 restraint:1 exemplify:1 writing:1 john:1 locke:1 smith:1 david:2 hume:1 ricardo:1 voltaire:1 montesquieu:1 others:1 institute:2 humane:2 perspective:1 well:1 prosperity:1 harmony:1 foster:1 possible:1 little:1 necessary:1 list:4 present:1 day:1 year:1 topic:1 activism:2 food:1 simulation:1 game:1 music:1 official:1 statistic:1 compass:1 corruption:1 criticism:1 fiction:1 party:1 psychology:1 outline:1 sociology:1 reference:1 x:1 old:1 палітыка:1 |@bigram karl_marx:1 proletarian_revolution:1 classical_liberalism:1 laissez_faire:1 manchester_manchester:1 david_hume:1 |
4,647 | Gigabyte | Gigabyte is an SI-multiple of the unit byte for digital information storage. Since the giga prefix means 109, gigabyte means (10003, 109). However, this term is also often used meaning (10243, 230). Originally the binary use of SI prefixes (kilo, mega, giga, etc.) was confined to contexts where the quantities were inherently determined in powers of two by the computer word or address size, like memory or disk sizes, so that confusion was unlikely. Later, disk design was not constrained by address word sizes or other physical details and disk blocks were numbered consecutively in decimal numbers (logical block addressing), creating the opportunity for confusion when size was still reported with binary interpretation of the prefix. Today the usage of the word "gigabyte" is ambiguous: the value depends on the context. When referring to RAM sizes it traditionally has a binary interpretation of 10243 bytes. Some operating systems list file sizes in SI units, but using the binary interpretation. Today, when referring to disk storage capacities it usually means 10003 bytes. This also applies to data transmission volumes over telecommunication lines, as the telecommunications industry has always used the SI prefixes with their standards-based meaning. In order to address this confusion, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has been promoting the use of the term gibibyte for the binary definition. This position is endorsed by other standards organizations including the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) but has seen limited acceptance. Gigabyte is commonly abbreviated GB or Gbyte (not to be confused with Gb, which is used for a gigabit) while Gibibyte is abbreviated GiB. Gigabytes vs. gigabits In conventional modern usage, a byte is 8 bits. One gigabyte is equivalent to eight gigabits. In computer networking the conventional SI units are followed. Manufacturers of networking equipment always use 1000-bit kilobits as their basic unit of measurement. Abbreviation No. of bytes Usage gigabytesGB (Note: uppercase "B") 10003 Computer storage (e.g., 500 GB hard disk) gigabytesGB (Note: uppercase "B") 10243 Computer memory (e.g., 4 GB RAM) gibibytesGiB (Note: uppercase "B") 10243 Computer storage (e.g., 34 GiB file) gigabitGbit or Gb 125*10002 Network throughput (eg 1 Gbit/s data transfer rate) Consumer confusion Since the early 2000s most consumer hard drive capacities are grouped in certain size classes measured in gigabytes. The exact capacity of a given drive is usually some number above or below the class designation. Although most manufacturers of hard disk drives and flash-memory disk devices define 1 gigabyte as , the computer operating systems used by most users usually calculate size in gigabytes by dividing the total capacity in bytes (whether it is disk capacity, file size, or system RAM) by . This distinction can be a cause of confusion, as a hard disk with a manufacturer-rated capacity of 400 gigabytes may be reported by the operating system as only 372 GB large, depending on the type of report. The JEDEC memory standards uses the IEEE 100 nomenclatures which defines a gigabyte as . The difference between units based on SI and binary prefixes increases exponentially—for example, the SI kilobyte value is nearly 98% of the kibibyte, but a megabyte is under 96% of a mebibyte, and a gigabyte is just over 93% of a gibibyte value. This means that a 300 GB (279 GiB) hard disk drive can appear as 279 GB. As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, this difference becomes even more pronounced. Some legal challenges have been waged over this confusion such as a legal challenge against Western Digital. The settlement of the legal challenge against Western Digital included directions to add a disclaimer that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity. Because of its physical design, computer memory is addressed in multiples of base 2, thus, memory size can always be factored by a power of two (for instance, 384 MiB = 3×227 bytes). It is thus convenient to use binary units for non-disk memory devices at the hardware level (for example, in using DIMM memory boards). Most software applications have no particular need to use or report memory in binary multiples and operating systems often use varying granularity when allocating it. Other computer measurements, like storage hardware size, data transfer rates, clock speeds, operations per second, etc., do not have an inherent base, and are usually presented in decimal units. Examples of gigabyte-sized storage One hour of SDTV video at 2.2 Mbit/s is approximately 1 GB. One hour of HDTV video at 19.39 Mbit/s is approximately 8.7 GB. A basic Unix system installation uses less than 1 GB. 114 minutes of uncompressed CD-quality audio at 1.4 Mbit/s is approximately 1 GB. See also Megabyte Terabyte Binary prefix JEDEC memory standards Orders of magnitude (data) References External links http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html http://www.iec.ch/zone/si/si_bytes.htm http://www.quinion.com/words/turnsofphrase/tp-kib1.htm http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/techbeat/tb9903.htm be-x-old:Гігабайт | Gigabyte |@lemmatized gigabyte:13 si:8 multiple:3 unit:9 byte:7 digital:3 information:1 storage:7 since:2 giga:2 prefix:6 mean:4 however:1 term:2 also:3 often:2 use:15 meaning:2 originally:1 binary:10 kilo:1 mega:1 etc:2 confine:1 contexts:1 quantity:1 inherently:1 determine:1 power:2 two:2 computer:8 word:4 address:5 size:12 like:2 memory:10 disk:11 confusion:6 unlikely:1 later:1 design:2 constrain:1 physical:2 detail:1 block:2 number:3 consecutively:1 decimal:2 logical:1 create:1 opportunity:1 still:1 report:4 interpretation:3 today:2 usage:3 ambiguous:1 value:3 depend:2 context:1 refer:2 ram:3 traditionally:1 operate:3 system:6 list:1 file:3 capacity:8 usually:4 apply:1 data:4 transmission:1 volume:1 telecommunication:2 line:1 industry:1 always:3 standard:5 base:4 order:2 international:2 electrotechnical:1 commission:1 iec:2 promote:1 gibibyte:3 definition:1 position:1 endorse:1 organization:1 include:2 institute:2 electrical:1 electronics:1 engineer:1 ieee:2 committee:1 weight:1 measure:2 cipm:1 national:1 technology:1 nist:3 see:2 limited:1 acceptance:1 commonly:1 abbreviated:1 gb:12 gbyte:1 confuse:1 gigabit:3 abbreviate:1 gib:3 vs:1 conventional:2 modern:1 bit:2 one:3 equivalent:1 eight:1 network:2 follow:1 manufacturer:3 networking:1 equipment:1 kilobit:1 basic:2 measurement:2 abbreviation:1 gigabytesgb:2 note:3 uppercase:3 b:3 e:3 g:3 hard:5 gibibytesgib:1 gigabitgbit:1 throughput:1 eg:1 gbit:1 transfer:2 rate:2 consumer:2 early:1 drive:4 group:1 certain:1 class:2 exact:1 give:1 designation:1 although:1 flash:1 device:2 define:2 user:1 calculate:1 divide:1 total:1 whether:1 distinction:1 cause:1 rat:1 may:2 operating:1 large:2 type:1 jedec:2 nomenclature:1 difference:2 increase:2 exponentially:1 example:3 kilobyte:1 nearly:1 kibibyte:1 megabyte:2 mebibyte:1 appear:1 sizes:1 become:1 even:1 pronounced:1 legal:3 challenge:3 wag:1 western:2 settlement:1 direction:1 add:1 disclaimer:1 usable:1 differ:1 advertised:1 thus:2 factor:1 instance:1 mib:1 convenient:1 non:1 hardware:2 level:1 dimm:1 board:1 software:1 application:1 particular:1 need:1 vary:1 granularity:1 allocate:1 clock:1 speed:1 operation:1 per:1 second:1 inherent:1 present:1 hour:2 sdtv:1 video:2 mbit:3 approximately:3 hdtv:1 unix:1 installation:1 less:1 minute:1 uncompressed:1 cd:1 quality:1 audio:1 terabyte:1 magnitude:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 http:4 physic:1 gov:2 cuu:1 html:1 www:3 ch:1 zone:1 htm:3 quinion:1 com:1 turnsofphrase:1 tp:1 techbeat:1 x:1 old:1 гігабайт:1 |@bigram si_prefix:2 prefix_kilo:1 kilo_mega:1 international_electrotechnical:1 electrotechnical_commission:1 measure_cipm:1 external_link:1 nist_gov:2 http_www:3 |
4,648 | Autumn | Autumn (also known as Fall in North American English) is one of the four temperate seasons. Autumn marks the transition from summer into winter, usually in late March (southern hemisphere) or late September (northern hemisphere) when the arrival of night becomes noticeably earlier. Meteorological Astronomical Northern hemisphere 1 September – 30 November NOAA's National Weather Service Glossary. Autumnal equinox (22–23 September) – Winter solstice (21–22 December) Southern hemisphere 10 March – 31 May 20 March – 21 June In theory, astronomically, the equinoxes ought to be the middle of the respective seasons, but temperature lag (caused by the thermal latency of the ground and sea) means that seasons appear later than dates calculated from a purely astronomical perspective. The actual lag varies with region, so some cultures regard the autumnal equinox as "mid-autumn" whilst other treat it as the start of autumn (as shown in the above table). Autumn starts on or around 15 September and ends on about 6 November in solar term. In Ireland, the autumn months according to the national meteorological service, Met Eireann, are September, October and November. However, according to the Irish Calendar which is based on ancient Celtic traditions, autumn begins August 1 and ends October 31. In Australia, autumn begins on 1 March and ends May 31. Etymology The word autumn comes from the Old French word autompne (automne in modern French), and was later normalized to the original Latin word autumnus. Etymology of 'autumn' - New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 1997 Edition There are rare examples of its use as early as the 12th century, but it became common by the 16th century. Before the 16th century, harvest was the term usually used to refer to the season. However as more people gradually moved from working the land to living in towns (especially those who could read and write, the only people whose use of language we now know), the word harvest lost its reference to the time of year and came to refer only to the actual activity of reaping, and fall, as well as autumn, began to replace it as a reference to the season. The alternative word fall is now mostly a North American English word for the season. It traces its origins to old Germanic languages. The exact derivation is unclear, the Old English fiæll or feallan and the Old Norse fall all being possible candidates. However, these words all have the meaning "to fall from a height" and are clearly derived either from a common root or from each other. The term came to denote the season in the 16th century, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year". Online Etymology Dictionary origins of the divers usages of the word "fall" During the 17th century, English immigration to the colonies in North America was at its peak, and the new settlers took their language with them. While the term fall gradually became obsolescent in Britain, it became the more common term in North America, where autumn is nonetheless preferred in scientific and often in literary contexts. In popular culture Harvest association Personification of Autumn (Currier & Ives Lithograph, 1871). John Everett Millais, "Autumn Leaves". Association with the transition from warm to cold weather, and its related status as the season of the primary harvest, has dominated its themes and popular images. In Western cultures, personifications of autumn are usually pretty, well-fed females adorned with fruits, vegetables and grains and wheat that ripen at this time. Most ancient cultures featured autumnal celebrations of the harvest, often the most important on their calendars. Still extant echoes of these celebrations are found in the mid-autumn Thanksgiving holiday of the United States, and the Jewish Sukkot holiday with its roots as a full moon harvest festival of "tabernacles" (huts wherein the harvest was processed and which later gained religious significance). There are also the many North American Indian festivals tied to harvest of autumnally ripe foods gathered in the wild, the Chinese Mid-Autumn or Moon festival, and many others. The predominant mood of these autumnal celebrations is a gladness for the fruits of the earth mixed with a certain melancholy linked to the imminent arrival of harsh weather. This view is presented in John Keats' poem To Autumn where he describes the season as a time of bounteous fecundity, a time of 'mellow fruitfulness'. Melancholy association Autumn in poetry has often been associated with melancholy. The possibilities of summer are gone, and the chill of winter is on the horizon. Skies turn grey, and people turn inward, both physically and mentally. Cyclical Regenerative Time - (c) Autumn (from 'Symbolism of Place', symbolism.org website) Rainer Maria Rilke, a German poet, has expressed such sentiments in one of his most famous poems, Herbsttag (Autumn Day), which reads Who now has no house, will not build one (anymore). Who now is alone, will remain so for long, will wake, and read, and write long letters and back and forth on the boulevards will restlessly wander, while the leaves blow. Similar examples may be found in William Butler Yeats' poem The Wild Swans at Coole where the maturing season that the poet observes symbolically represents his own aging self. Like the natural world that he observes he too has reached his prime and now must look forward to the inevitability of old age and death. Paul Verlaine's "Chanson d'automne" ("Autumn Song") is likewise characterized by strong, painful feelings of sorrow. Keats' To Autumn, written in September 1819, echoes this sense of melancholic reflection, but also emphasises the lush abundance of the season. Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness, Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run; To bend with apples the moss’d cottage-trees, And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core; To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells With a sweet kernel; to set budding more, And still more, later flowers for the bees, Until they think warm days will never cease, For Summer has o’er-brimm’d their clammy cells. Other associations In North America, autumn is also associated with the Halloween season (which in turn was influenced by Samhain, a Celtic autumn festival), Halloween (from the Microsoft Encarta encyclopedia) and with it a widespread marketing campaign that promotes it. The television, film, book, costume, home decoration, and confectionery industries use this time of year to promote products closely associated with such holiday, with promotions going from early September to 31 October, since their themes rapidly lose strength once the holiday ends, and advertising starts concentrating on Christmas. Since 1997, Autumn has been one of the top 100 names for girls in the United States. Popular Baby Names, Social Security Online. Tourism Although color change in leaves occurs wherever deciduous trees are found, colored autumn foliage is most famously noted in two regions of the world: most of Canada and the United States; and Eastern Asia, including China, Korea, and Japan. It can also be very significant in Argentina, Australia, Chile and New Zealand, but not to the same degree. Eastern Canada and the New England region of the United States are famous for the brilliance of their autumnal foliage, and a seasonal tourist industry has grown up around the few weeks in autumn when the leaves are at their peak. References External links Online Etymology Dictionary How To Photograph Autumn Color | Autumn |@lemmatized autumn:29 also:5 know:2 fall:9 north:6 american:3 english:6 one:4 four:1 temperate:1 season:13 mark:1 transition:2 summer:3 winter:3 usually:3 late:3 march:4 southern:2 hemisphere:4 september:7 northern:2 arrival:2 night:1 becomes:1 noticeably:1 earlier:1 meteorological:2 astronomical:2 november:3 noaa:1 national:2 weather:3 service:2 glossary:1 autumnal:5 equinox:3 solstice:1 december:1 may:3 june:1 theory:1 astronomically:1 ought:1 middle:2 respective:1 temperature:1 lag:2 cause:1 thermal:1 latency:1 ground:1 sea:1 mean:1 appear:1 later:3 date:1 calculate:1 purely:1 perspective:1 actual:2 varies:1 region:3 culture:4 regard:1 mid:3 whilst:1 treat:1 start:3 show:1 table:1 around:2 end:4 solar:1 term:5 ireland:1 month:1 accord:2 meet:1 eireann:1 october:3 however:3 irish:1 calendar:2 base:1 ancient:2 celtic:2 tradition:1 begin:3 august:1 australia:2 etymology:4 word:8 come:3 old:5 french:2 autompne:1 automne:2 modern:1 normalize:1 original:1 latin:1 autumnus:1 new:4 shorter:1 oxford:1 dictionary:3 edition:1 rare:1 example:2 use:4 early:2 century:5 become:3 common:3 harvest:8 refer:2 people:3 gradually:2 move:1 work:1 land:1 live:1 town:1 especially:1 could:1 read:3 write:3 whose:1 language:3 lose:2 reference:3 time:6 year:3 activity:1 reaping:1 well:2 replace:1 alternative:1 mostly:1 trace:1 origin:2 germanic:1 exact:1 derivation:1 unclear:1 fiæll:1 feallan:1 norse:1 possible:1 candidate:1 meaning:1 height:1 clearly:1 derive:1 either:1 root:2 denote:1 contraction:1 expression:1 like:2 leaf:4 online:3 diver:1 usage:1 immigration:1 colony:1 america:3 peak:2 settler:1 take:1 obsolescent:1 britain:1 nonetheless:1 prefer:1 scientific:1 often:3 literary:1 context:1 popular:3 association:4 personification:2 currier:1 ives:1 lithograph:1 john:2 everett:1 millais:1 leave:1 warm:2 cold:1 related:1 status:1 primary:1 dominate:1 theme:2 image:1 western:1 pretty:1 fed:1 female:1 adorn:1 fruit:4 vegetable:1 grain:1 wheat:1 ripen:1 feature:1 celebration:3 important:1 still:2 extant:1 echo:2 find:3 thanksgiving:1 holiday:4 united:4 state:4 jewish:1 sukkot:1 full:1 moon:2 festival:4 tabernacle:1 hut:1 wherein:1 process:1 gain:1 religious:1 significance:1 many:2 indian:1 tie:1 autumnally:1 ripe:1 food:1 gather:1 wild:2 chinese:1 others:1 predominant:1 mood:1 gladness:1 earth:1 mixed:1 certain:1 melancholy:3 link:2 imminent:1 harsh:1 view:1 present:1 keats:2 poem:3 describe:1 bounteous:1 fecundity:1 mellow:2 fruitfulness:2 poetry:1 associate:3 possibility:1 go:2 chill:1 horizon:1 sky:1 turn:3 grey:1 inward:1 physically:1 mentally:1 cyclical:1 regenerative:1 c:1 symbolism:2 place:1 org:1 website:1 rainer:1 maria:1 rilke:1 german:1 poet:2 express:1 sentiment:1 famous:2 herbsttag:1 day:2 house:1 build:1 anymore:1 alone:1 remain:1 long:2 wake:1 letter:1 back:1 forth:1 boulevard:1 restlessly:1 wander:1 blow:1 similar:1 william:1 butler:1 yeats:1 swan:1 coole:1 maturing:1 observe:2 symbolically:1 represent:1 age:2 self:1 natural:1 world:2 reach:1 prime:1 must:1 look:1 forward:1 inevitability:1 death:1 paul:1 verlaine:1 chanson:1 song:1 likewise:1 characterize:1 strong:1 painful:1 feeling:1 sorrow:1 sense:1 melancholic:1 reflection:1 emphasise:1 lush:1 abundance:1 mist:1 close:1 bosom:1 friend:1 mature:1 sun:1 conspire:1 load:1 bless:1 vine:1 round:1 thatch:1 eve:1 run:1 bend:1 apple:1 moss:1 cottage:1 tree:2 fill:1 ripeness:1 core:1 swell:1 gourd:1 plump:1 hazel:1 shell:1 sweet:1 kernel:1 set:1 bud:1 flower:1 bee:1 think:1 never:1 cease:1 er:1 brimm:1 clammy:1 cell:1 halloween:2 influence:1 samhain:1 microsoft:1 encarta:1 encyclopedia:1 widespread:1 marketing:1 campaign:1 promote:2 television:1 film:1 book:1 costume:1 home:1 decoration:1 confectionery:1 industry:2 product:1 closely:1 promotion:1 since:2 rapidly:1 strength:1 advertising:1 concentrate:1 christmas:1 top:1 name:2 girl:1 baby:1 social:1 security:1 tourism:1 although:1 color:2 change:1 occur:1 wherever:1 deciduous:1 colored:1 foliage:2 famously:1 note:1 two:1 canada:2 eastern:2 asia:1 include:1 china:1 korea:1 japan:1 significant:1 argentina:1 chile:1 zealand:1 degree:1 england:1 brilliance:1 seasonal:1 tourist:1 grow:1 week:1 external:1 photograph:1 |@bigram southern_hemisphere:2 northern_hemisphere:2 autumnal_equinox:2 winter_solstice:1 everett_millais:1 fruit_vegetable:1 physically_mentally:1 rainer_maria:1 maria_rilke:1 butler_yeats:1 paul_verlaine:1 microsoft_encarta:1 deciduous_tree:1 external_link:1 |
4,649 | Claude_Auchinleck | Field Marshal Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, GCB, GCIE, CSI, DSO, OBE (21 June 1884 – 23 March 1981), nicknamed The Auk, was a British army commander during World War II. He was a career soldier who spent much of his military career in India, where he developed a love of the country and a lasting affinity for the soldiers he commanded. Early life and career The Auchinlecks were an Ulster-Scots family from County Fermanagh, where they had settled in the 17th century. Claude Auchinleck was born in Aldershot, son of Colonel John and Mary Auchinleck, while his father's regiment was stationed there Ulster Scot Newsletter: Famous Ulster Generals . His father died in 1892, when he was eight years old, and Auchinleck grew up in impoverished circumstances, but he was able, through hard work and scholarships, to graduate from Wellington College and the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst. Auchinleck applied to join the Indian Army and, having achieved in 1903 a qualifying position in the entrance examination, in 1904 he joined the 62nd Punjab Regiment. He was able to learn Punjabi rapidly and, able to speak fluently with his soldiers, he absorbed a knowledge of local dialects and customs. This familiarity engendered a lasting mutual respect, enhanced by his own personality . During World War I, he served in the Middle East in Egypt, Palestine and Mesopotamia. Auchinleck's division was the last of four offered by the Indian government and, while en route for France, it was reassigned to defend the Suez Canal from a potential Turkish attack. When the attack occurred in February 1915, Auchinleck's regiment prevented the Turks from crossing the canal and he led a counter-attack which defeated them. The Turks subsequently surrendered. The 6th Indian Division, of which the 62nd Punjabis were a part, was landed at Basra on 31 December 1915 for the Mesopotamian campaign. In early 1916 Auchinleck was promoted Acting Major and made second in command of the regiment. North of Basra, the Punjabis were in heavy action in dreadful conditions: cold, rain and mud as well as determined Turkish defence reduced the regiment to 247 men and Auchinleck took temporary command when his regimental commander was wounded. Further hard fighting ensued: the Turkish army inflicted a humiliating reversal on the British and eventual success was hard won. Auchinleck was mentioned in despatches and received the Distinguished Service Order in 1917 for his service in Mesopotamia. Auchinleck took a number of practical lessons from his experiences in Mesopotamia. Firstly, soldiers' health and well-being was critical to an army's effectiveness and he became convinced of the need of adequate rest, hygiene, good food and medical supplies for the troops. Secondly, he had seen the futility of inadequately prepared attacks against dug-in, well-armed defenders and this fuelled his later reluctance to initiate precipitate actions advocated by his political and military superiors. Between the wars, Auchinleck served in India. He was both a student and an instructor at the Staff College at Quetta and also attended the Imperial Defence College. In 1929 he had been appointed to command his regiment which had become in the 1923 reorganisation of the British Indian Army the 1st battalion, 1st Punjab Regiment. In 1933, he took command of the Peshawar Brigade, which was active in the pacification of the adjacent tribal areas. A serious operation in the Mohmand area in 1935, led to the first use of tanks in India. Auchinleck was Mentioned in Despatches and received the CSI and CB for his skill in managing the operation. In 1938 Major-General Auchinleck was appointed to chair a committee to consider the modernisation, composition and re-equipment of the British Indian Army. The committee's recommendations formed the basis of the 1939 Chatfield Report which outlined the transformation of the Indian Army which grew to over 2,250,000 men by the end of the war from 183,000 in 1939. World War II Norway On the outbreak of war Auchinleck was appointed to command Indian 3rd Infantry Division but in January 1940 was summoned to the United Kingdom to command IV Corps, the only time in the war that a wholly British corps was commanded by an Indian Army officer. Mead, p.52 In May 1940 Auchinleck took over command of the Anglo-French ground forces in Norway, a military operation that was doomed to fail. After the fall of Norway, in July 1940 he briefly commanded V Corps before becoming General Officer Commander-in-Chief, Southern Command, where he had an uneasy relationship with his subordinate Bernard Montgomery, the new V Corps commander. Montgomery later wrote Montgomery, Bernard Memoirs of a Field Marshal, p.71 In January 1941 Auchinleck was recalled to India to become Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army. India 1941-2 When in April 1941 the large British airforce base at Habbaniya in Iraq was threatened by the new pro-Axis regime of Rashid Ali. General Archibald Wavell, C-in-C Middle East Command, was reluctant to intervene, despite the urgings of Winston Churchill, because of his pressing commitments in the Western Desert and Greece. Auchinleck, however, acted decisively, sending a battalion of the King's Own Royal Regiment by air to Habbaniya and shipping Indian 10th Infantry Division by sea to Basra. Wavell was prevailed upon by London to send Habforce, a relief column, from the British Mandate of Palestine but by the time it arrived in Habbaniya on 18 May the Anglo-Iraqi War was virtually over. Mead, p.53 North Africa Following the see-saw of Allied and Axis successes and reverses in North Africa, Auchinleck was appointed to succeed General (later Field Marshal) Sir Archibald Wavell as C-in-C Middle East Command in July 1941; Wavell took up Auchinleck's post as C-in-C of the Indian Army, swapping jobs with him. General Auchinleck as C-in-C Middle East was based in Cairo, with responsibility not just for North Africa but also for Persia and the Middle East; the Eighth Army confronting the German Afrika Corps and the Italian Army was commanded successively by Lieutenant-Generals Sir Alan Cunningham and Neil Ritchie. The first major offensive by Eighth Army following Auchinleck's appointment, Operation Crusader in November 1941 resulted in the defeat of much of the British armour and the breakdown of Cunningham. Auchinleck relieved Cunningham, and ordered the battle to continue. Despite heavy losses, the Eighth Army drove the Axis forces back to El Agheila. Auchinleck then appointed Ritchie to command Eighth Army. While Auchinleck resumed overall strategic direction of the Middle East theatre, he continued to dictate operational matters to Ritchie. Auchinleck appears to have believed that enemy had been defeated, writing on 12 January 1942 that the Axis forces were "beginning to feel the strain" and were "hard pressed". Stewart.A, The Early Battle of Eighth Army: crusader to the Alamein Line 1941-1942, p.46 In fact Afrika Korps had been reinforced, and a few days after Auchinleck's wildly optimistic appreciation, struck at the dispersed and weakened British forces, driving them back to the Gazala positions near Tobruk. The British Chief of Imperial General staff, Alan Brooke, was compelled to write in his diary that it was "Nothing less than bad generalship on the part of Auchinleck". Alanbrooke Diaries, 30 January 1942 Rommel's attack at the Battle of Gazala of 25 May 1942 resulted in a significant defeat for the British. Once more, Auchinleck's appreciation of the situation was faulty (Auchinleck had believed the Axis forces would attack the centre of the British line, whereas Rommel's attack outflanked the British from the south). The Eighth Army retreated into Egypt; Tobruk fell on 21 June. Once more Auchinleck stepped in to take direct command of the Eighth Army, having lost confidence in Ritchie's ability to control and direct his forces. Auchinleck discarded Ritchie's plan to stand at Mersa Matruh, deciding to fight only a delaying action there, while withdrawing to the more easily defendable position at El Alamein. Here Auchinleck tailored a defence that took advantage of the terrain and the fresh troops at his disposal, stopped the exhausted German/Italian advance in the First Battle of El Alamein. Enjoying a considerable superiority of material and men over the weak German/Italian forces, Auchinleck organised a series of counter-attacks. Poorly conceived and badly coordinated, these attacks achieved little. Barr.N, Pendulum of War: The Three Battles of Alamein, pp.83-184 "The Auk", as he was known, appointed a number of senior commanders who proved to be unsuitable for their positions, and command arrangements were often characterised by bitter personality clashes. Auchinleck was an Indian Army officer and was criticised for apparently having little direct experience or understanding of British and Dominion troops. His controversial chief of operations, Major-General Dorman-Smith, was regarded with considerable distrust by many of the senior commanders in Eighth Army. By July 1942 Auchinleck had lost the confidence of Dominion commanders and relations with his British commanders had become strained. Like his foe Rommel (and his predecessor Wavell and successor Montgomery), Auchinleck was subjected to constant political interference, having to weather a barrage of hectoring telegrams and instructions from Prime Minister Churchill throughout late 1941 and the spring and summer of 1942. Churchill constantly sought an offensive from Auchinleck, and was (understandably) downcast at the military reverses in Egypt and Cyrenaica. Churchill was desperate for some sort of British victory before the planned Allied landings in North Africa, Operation Torch, scheduled for November 1942. He badgered Auchinleck immediately after the Eighth Army had all but exhausted itself after the first battle of El Alamein. Churchill and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Alan Brooke, flew to Cairo in early August 1942, to meet Auchinleck, but it is now obvious that Churchill and Brooke had already lost confidence in Auchinleck. He was replaced as C-in-C Middle East Command by General Sir Harold Alexander (later Field Marshal Earl Alexander of Tunis) and as GOC Eighth Army by Lieutenant-General William Gott, who was killed in Egypt before taking up command. On Gott's death, Lieutenant-General (later Field Marshal Viscount) Bernard Montgomery was appointed commander of the Eighth Army. Auchinleck's reputation (along with that of many other officers) subsequently suffered at the hands of Montgomery and others. India Churchill offered Auchinleck command of the newly created Persia and Iraq Command (this having been hived off Alexander's command), but Auchinleck declined this post, possibly as Tenth Army, which at the time, formed the bulk of the troops, was commanded by his Indian Army friend and colleague Lieut.-General Sir Edward Quinan. His stated reasons were more pragmatic, that the new arrangements would not be workable in practice, and were set out in his letter to the CIGS dated 14 August 1942. The post was accepted in his stead by General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson. Instead he returned to India, where he spent almost a year "unemployed" before in 1943 being again appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, General Wavell meanwhile having been appointed Viceroy. C-in-C India had become a rear area appointment with the prosecution of the Burma Campaign the responsibility of the Supreme Commander, Admiral Louis Mountbatten. Nevertheless, Auchinleck played an important role and made the supply of Fourteenth Army, with probably the worst lines of communication of the war, his immediate priority Mead, p.57 ; as William Slim, commander of the Fourteenth Army was later to write: Slim, Defeat into Victory, p.176 Auchinleck continued in the post after the end of the war, being promoted field marshal in June 1946. Post-war life Auchinleck as C-in-C of the Indian Army, with the then Viceroy Wavell and Montgomery. Much against his own convictions, Auchinleck helped prepare the future Indian and Pakistani armies prior to Partition scheduled for August 1947. In November 1945, Auchinleck was forced to commute the sentence of transportation for life awarded to three officers of the Indian National Army in face of growing unease and unrest both within the Indian Population, and the British Indian Army. In 1946 he was promoted to field marshal but he refused to accept a peerage, lest he be thought associated with a policy (i.e. Partition) that he thought fundamentally dishonourable. Having disagreed sharply with Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, he resigned as C-in-C and retired in 1947. In 1948 Sir Claude returned to Britain, his wife having left him for Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Peirse in 1946. Although a somewhat dour character, he was known as a generous and welcoming host. Despite being a general for longer than almost any other soldier, he was never pompous, and hated all forms of display and affectation. Above all, he was a soldier of the utmost integrity, whose reputation, unlike that of many Allied officers, has grown with passing years. In retirement, Sir Claude moved to Marrakech, where he lived quietly in a modest flat for many years, taking his morning coffee at the La Rennaisance Café in the new part of the city, where he was known by all simply as le marechal. He was befriended and aided by Corporal Malcolm James Millward, a serving soldier in the Queen's Regiment for three and a half years up until the death of Sir Claude on 23 March 1981 aged 96. He was buried in Ben M'Sik European Cemetery, Casablanca, in the Commonwealth War Graves Commission plot in the cemetery, coincidentally next to the grave of Raymond Steed who was the youngest non-civilian Commonwealth casualty of the Second World War. Cemetery details—Ben M'Sik European Cemetery, Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Retrieved on 22 April 2009. A memorial plaque was erected in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral. The tour guides relate how in 1979, as plaques for the other great WW2 military leaders were being installed, no one in the establishment had been in contact for some years. Cathedral officials telephoned to enquire the date of death only to be told "Auchinleck here -but I won't be keeping you much longer!" Source of quote, Richard Palmer of St Paul's cathedral. Army career summary Commissioned 62nd Punjab Regiment, India, 1904 Promoted Captain, 1912 Promoted Acting Major, second in command 62nd Punjab Regiment, 1916 Acting Lieutenant-Colonel, temporary commander 62nd Punjab Regiment, 1917 Promoted Major, GSO2 Mesopotamia, 1918 Temporary Lieutenant-Colonel, GSO1 Mesopotamia, 1919 Brevett Lieutenant-Colonel, Kurdistan, 1919 Deputy Assistant Quartermaster-General, India, 1923 - 1924 Imperial Defence College, 1927 Commanding Officer 1st Battalion 1st Punjab Regiment, 1929 - 1930 Promoted Colonel, 1930 Instructor at Command and Staff College, Quetta, India, 1930 - 1933 Honorary Colonel 1st bn 1st Punjab Regiment, 1933 Temporary Brigadier, Commanding Officer Peshawar Brigade, 1933 - 1936 Promoted Major-General, 1935 Deputy Chief General Staff, India, 1936 - 1938 Chairman, Expert Committee on the Defence of India, 1938 District Officer Commanding Meerut District, India, 1938 - 1940 Honorary Colonel 1st battalion 4th Bombay Grenadiers, 1939 General Officer Commanding IV Corps, 1940 Promoted Lieutenant-General, 1940 General Officer Commanding Northern Norway, 1940 General Officer Commanding V Corps, 1940 General Officer Commander-in-Chief Southern Command, 1940 Commander-in-Chief, India, Promoted General, 1941 Honorary Colonel Inniskilling Fusiliers, 1941 Commander-in-Chief Middle East Command, 1941 - 1942 Aide-de-Camp General to the King, 1941 - 1946 Temporary General Officer Commanding Eighth Army, 1942 Commander-in-Chief, India, 1943 - 1947 Honorary Colonel 4th Bombay Grenadiers, 1944 Promoted Field Marshal, 1946 Supreme Commander in India & Pakistan, 1947 Retired 1947 Styles 1884-1904: Claude John Eyre Auchinleck 1904-1912: Second Lieutenant Claude John Eyre Auchinleck 1912-1916: Captain Claude John Eyre Auchinleck 1916-1917: Captain (Actg. Major)Claude John Eyre Auchinleck 1917-1918: Captain (Actg. Lieutenant-Colonel) Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, DSO 1918-1919: Major Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, DSO 1919-1930: Major (Bvt. Lieutenant-Colonel) Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, DSO, OBE 1930-1933: Colonel Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, DSO, OBE 1933-1934: Colonel (Temp. Brigadier) Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, DSO, OBE 1934-1935: Colonel (Temp. Brigadier) Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, CB, DSO, OBE 1935-1936: Major-General Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, CB, DSO, OBE 1936-1940: Major-General Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, CB, CSI, DSO, OBE 1940-1941: Lieutenant-General Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, GCIE, CB, CSI, DSO, OBE 1941-1945: General Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, GCIE, CB, CSI, DSO, OBE 1945-1946: General Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, GCB, GCIE, CSI, DSO, OBE 1946-1981: Field Marshal Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, GCB, GCIE, CSI, DSO, OBE References Footnotes and citations footnotes citations External links | Claude_Auchinleck |@lemmatized field:9 marshal:10 sir:14 claude:21 john:18 eyre:17 auchinleck:66 gcb:3 gcie:5 csi:7 dso:13 obe:11 june:3 march:2 nickname:1 auk:2 british:17 army:34 commander:19 world:4 war:15 ii:2 career:4 soldier:7 spend:2 much:4 military:6 india:18 develop:1 love:1 country:1 lasting:2 affinity:1 command:34 early:4 life:3 auchinlecks:1 ulster:3 scot:2 family:1 county:1 fermanagh:1 settle:1 century:1 bear:1 aldershot:1 son:1 colonel:14 mary:1 father:2 regiment:14 station:1 newsletter:1 famous:1 general:33 die:1 eight:1 year:6 old:1 grow:4 impoverished:1 circumstance:1 able:3 hard:4 work:1 scholarship:1 graduate:1 wellington:1 college:5 royal:2 academy:1 sandhurst:1 apply:1 join:2 indian:19 achieve:2 qualify:1 position:4 entrance:1 examination:1 punjab:7 learn:1 punjabi:3 rapidly:1 speak:1 fluently:1 absorb:1 knowledge:1 local:1 dialect:1 custom:1 familiarity:1 engender:1 mutual:1 respect:1 enhance:1 personality:2 serve:3 middle:8 east:8 egypt:4 palestine:2 mesopotamia:5 division:4 last:2 four:1 offer:2 government:1 en:1 route:1 france:1 reassign:1 defend:1 suez:1 canal:2 potential:1 turkish:3 attack:9 occur:1 february:1 prevent:1 turk:2 cross:1 lead:2 counter:2 defeat:5 subsequently:2 surrender:1 part:3 land:1 basra:3 december:1 mesopotamian:1 campaign:2 promote:10 act:4 major:12 make:2 second:4 north:5 heavy:2 action:3 dreadful:1 condition:1 cold:1 rain:1 mud:1 well:3 determine:1 defence:5 reduce:1 men:3 take:9 temporary:5 regimental:1 wound:1 far:1 fight:2 ensue:1 inflict:1 humiliating:1 reversal:1 eventual:1 success:2 mention:2 despatch:2 receive:2 distinguish:1 service:2 order:2 number:2 practical:1 lesson:1 experience:2 firstly:1 health:1 critical:1 effectiveness:1 become:6 convinced:1 need:1 adequate:1 rest:1 hygiene:1 good:1 food:1 medical:1 supply:2 troop:4 secondly:1 see:2 futility:1 inadequately:1 prepared:1 dug:1 arm:1 defender:1 fuel:1 late:5 reluctance:1 initiate:1 precipitate:1 advocate:1 political:2 superior:1 student:1 instructor:2 staff:5 quetta:2 also:2 attend:1 imperial:4 appoint:9 reorganisation:1 battalion:4 peshawar:2 brigade:2 active:1 pacification:1 adjacent:1 tribal:1 area:3 serious:1 operation:6 mohmand:1 first:4 use:1 tank:1 cb:6 skill:1 manage:1 chair:1 committee:3 consider:1 modernisation:1 composition:1 equipment:1 recommendation:1 form:3 basis:1 chatfield:1 report:1 outline:1 transformation:1 end:2 norway:4 outbreak:1 infantry:2 january:4 summon:1 united:1 kingdom:1 iv:2 corp:7 time:3 wholly:1 officer:14 mead:3 p:6 may:3 anglo:2 french:1 ground:1 force:8 doom:1 fail:1 fall:1 july:3 briefly:1 v:3 chief:12 southern:2 uneasy:1 relationship:1 subordinate:1 bernard:3 montgomery:7 new:4 later:2 write:4 memoir:1 recall:1 april:2 large:1 airforce:1 base:2 habbaniya:3 iraq:2 threaten:1 pro:1 axis:5 regime:1 rashid:1 ali:1 archibald:2 wavell:7 c:16 reluctant:1 intervene:1 despite:3 urging:1 winston:1 churchill:7 press:2 commitment:1 western:1 desert:1 greece:1 however:1 decisively:1 send:2 king:2 air:2 ship:1 sea:1 prevail:1 upon:1 london:1 habforce:1 relief:1 column:1 mandate:1 arrive:1 iraqi:1 virtually:1 africa:4 follow:2 saw:1 allied:3 revers:2 succeed:1 post:5 swap:1 job:1 cairo:2 responsibility:2 persia:2 eighth:12 confront:1 german:3 afrika:2 italian:3 successively:1 lieutenant:11 alan:3 cunningham:3 neil:1 ritchie:5 offensive:2 appointment:2 crusader:2 november:3 result:2 armour:1 breakdown:1 relieve:1 battle:6 continue:3 loss:1 drive:2 back:2 el:4 agheila:1 resume:1 overall:1 strategic:1 direction:1 theatre:1 dictate:1 operational:1 matter:1 appear:1 believe:2 enemy:1 begin:1 feel:1 strain:1 stewart:1 alamein:5 line:3 fact:1 korps:1 reinforce:1 day:1 wildly:1 optimistic:1 appreciation:2 strike:1 dispersed:1 weaken:1 gazala:2 near:1 tobruk:2 brooke:3 compel:1 diary:2 nothing:1 less:1 bad:2 generalship:1 alanbrooke:1 rommel:3 significant:1 situation:1 faulty:1 would:2 centre:1 whereas:1 outflank:1 south:1 retreat:1 fell:1 step:1 direct:3 lose:3 confidence:3 ability:1 control:1 discard:1 plan:2 stand:1 mersa:1 matruh:1 decide:1 delay:1 withdraw:1 easily:1 defendable:1 tailor:1 advantage:1 terrain:1 fresh:1 disposal:1 stop:1 exhausted:1 advance:1 enjoy:1 considerable:2 superiority:1 material:1 weak:1 organise:1 series:1 poorly:1 conceive:1 badly:1 coordinate:1 little:2 barr:1 n:1 pendulum:1 three:3 pp:1 know:3 senior:2 prove:1 unsuitable:1 arrangement:2 often:1 characterise:1 bitter:1 clash:1 criticise:1 apparently:1 understanding:1 dominion:2 controversial:1 dorman:1 smith:1 regard:1 distrust:1 many:4 relation:1 strained:1 like:1 foe:1 predecessor:1 successor:1 subject:1 constant:1 interference:1 weather:1 barrage:1 hector:1 telegram:1 instruction:1 prime:1 minister:1 throughout:1 spring:1 summer:1 constantly:1 seek:1 understandably:1 downcast:1 cyrenaica:1 desperate:1 sort:1 victory:2 landing:1 torch:1 schedule:2 badger:1 immediately:1 exhaust:1 fly:1 august:3 meet:1 obvious:1 already:1 replace:1 harold:1 alexander:3 earl:1 tunis:1 goc:1 william:2 gott:2 kill:1 death:3 viscount:1 reputation:2 along:1 suffer:1 hand:1 others:1 newly:1 create:1 hive:1 decline:1 possibly:1 tenth:1 bulk:1 friend:1 colleague:1 lieut:1 edward:1 quinan:1 stated:1 reason:1 pragmatic:1 workable:1 practice:1 set:1 letter:1 cigs:1 date:2 accept:2 stead:1 henry:1 maitland:1 wilson:1 instead:1 return:2 almost:2 unemployed:1 meanwhile:1 viceroy:3 rear:1 prosecution:1 burma:1 supreme:2 admiral:1 louis:1 mountbatten:2 nevertheless:1 play:1 important:1 role:1 fourteenth:2 probably:1 communication:1 immediate:1 priority:1 slim:2 conviction:1 help:1 prepare:1 future:1 pakistani:1 prior:1 partition:2 commute:1 sentence:1 transportation:1 award:1 national:1 face:1 unease:1 unrest:1 within:1 population:1 refuse:1 peerage:1 lest:1 think:2 associate:1 policy:1 e:1 fundamentally:1 dishonourable:1 disagree:1 sharply:1 lord:1 resign:1 retire:1 britain:1 wife:1 leave:1 richard:2 peirse:1 although:1 somewhat:1 dour:1 character:1 generous:1 welcome:1 host:1 long:1 never:1 pompous:1 hat:1 display:1 affectation:1 utmost:1 integrity:1 whose:1 unlike:1 pass:1 retirement:1 move:1 marrakech:1 live:1 quietly:1 modest:1 flat:1 morning:1 coffee:1 la:1 rennaisance:1 café:1 city:1 simply:1 le:1 marechal:1 befriend:1 aid:1 corporal:1 malcolm:1 james:1 millward:1 queen:1 half:1 age:1 bury:1 ben:2 sik:2 european:2 cemetery:4 casablanca:1 commonwealth:3 graf:1 commission:3 plot:1 coincidentally:1 next:1 grave:2 raymond:1 steed:1 young:1 non:1 civilian:1 casualty:1 detail:1 retrieve:1 memorial:1 plaque:2 erect:1 crypt:1 st:2 paul:2 cathedral:3 tour:1 guide:1 relate:1 great:1 leader:1 instal:1 one:1 establishment:1 contact:1 official:1 telephone:1 enquire:1 tell:1 win:1 keep:1 longer:1 source:1 quote:1 palmer:1 summary:1 captain:4 brevett:1 kurdistan:1 deputy:2 assistant:1 quartermaster:1 promoted:1 honorary:4 bn:1 brigadier:3 chairman:1 expert:1 district:2 meerut:1 bombay:2 grenadier:2 northern:1 inniskilling:1 fusilier:1 aide:1 de:1 camp:1 pakistan:1 retired:1 style:1 actg:2 bvt:1 temp:2 reference:1 footnote:2 citation:2 external:1 link:1 |@bigram eyre_auchinleck:17 csi_dso:6 dso_obe:11 ulster_scot:2 county_fermanagh:1 claude_auchinleck:1 academy_sandhurst:1 punjab_regiment:7 speak_fluently:1 en_route:1 suez_canal:1 mention_despatch:2 commander_chief:7 archibald_wavell:2 winston_churchill:1 mandate_palestine:1 afrika_korps:1 alan_brooke:2 el_alamein:3 prime_minister:1 alexander_tunis:1 commute_sentence:1 memorial_plaque:1 lieutenant_colonel:5 inniskilling_fusilier:1 auchinleck_dso:5 external_link:1 |
4,650 | Oligocene | The Oligocene is a geologic epoch of the Paleogene period and extends from about 33.9 million to 23 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the period are well identified but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The name Oligocene comes from the Greek (oligos, few) and (kainos, new), and refers to the sparsity of additional modern mammalian faunas after a burst of evolution during the Eocene. The Oligocene follows the Eocene epoch and is followed by the Miocene epoch. The Oligocene is the third and final epoch of the Paleogene period. The Oligocene is often considered an important time of transition, a link between "[the] archaic world of the tropical Eocene and the more modern-looking ecosystems of the Miocene." Haines, Tim; Walking with Beasts: A Prehistoric Safari, (New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, Inc., 1999) The Oligocene change in ecosystems is a global expansion of grasslands, and a regression of tropical broad leaf forests to the equatorial belt. The start of the Oligocene is marked by a major extinction event, a faunal replacement of European with Asian fauna except for the endemic rodent and marsupial families called the Grande Coupure. The Oligocene-Miocene boundary is not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer late Oligocene [26,23 Ma] and the relatively cooler Miocene. Subdivisions Oligocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are: Chattian or Late Oligocene (28.4 ± 0.1 – 23.03 mya) Rupelian or Early Oligocene (33.9 ± 0.1 – 28.4 ± 0.1 mya) Climate The Paleogene Period general temperature decline is interrupted by a Oligocene 7M-year stepwise climate change. A deeper 8.2oC 0.4M-year temperature depression leads the 2oC 7M-year stepwise climate change 33.5Ma. A.Zanazzi (et al.) 2007 'Large Temperature Drop across the Eocene Oligocene in central North America' Nature, Vol. 445, 8 February 2007 C.R.Riesselman (et al.) 2007 'High Resolution stable isotope and carbonate variability during the early Oligocene climate transition: Walvis Ridge (ODP Site 1263) USGS OF-2007-1047 The stepwise climate spanned 7M-years 25.5Ma thru 32.5Ma as depicted in the PaleoTemps chart. The Oligocene climate change was a global Lorraine E. Lisiecki Nov 2004; A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records Brown University, PALEOCEANOGRAPHY, VOL. 20 increase in ice volume and a 55m decrease in sea level (35.7-33.5Ma) with a closely related (25.5-32.5Ma) temperature depression. Kenneth G. Miller Jan-Feb 2006; Eocene–Oligocene global climate and sea-level changes St. Stephens Quarry, Alabama GSA Bulletin, Rutgers University, NJ The 7M-year depression abruptly terminated within 1-2M-year of the La Garita Caldera volcanism event 28-26 Ma. The Oligocene Miocene boundary climate was relatively stable. Paleogeography During this period, the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Antarctica continued to become more isolated and finally developed a permanent ice cap.(Haines) Mountain building in western North America continued, and the Alps started to rise in Europe as the African plate continued to push north into the Eurasian plate, isolating the remnants of the Tethys Sea. A brief marine incursion marks the early Oligocene in Europe. Oligocene marine exposures are rare in North America. There appears to have been a land bridge in the early Oligocene between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. During sometime in the Oligocene, South America was finally detached from Antarctica and drifted north towards North America. It also allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to flow, rapidly cooling the continent. Flora Angiosperms continued their expansion throughout the world; tropical and sub-tropical forests were replaced by temperate deciduous woodlands. Open plains and deserts became more common. Grasses expanded from the water-bank habitat in the Eocene and moved out into open tracts; however even at the end of the period it was not quite common enough for modern savanna.(Haines) In North America, subtropical species dominated with cashews and lychee trees present, and temperate trees such as roses, beech and pine were common. The legumes of the pea and bean family spread, and sedges, bulrushes and ferns continued their ascent. Fauna Hyaenodon. Important Oligocene land faunas are found on all continents except Australia. Even more open landscapes allowed animals to grow to larger sizes than they had earlier in the Paleogene. Marine faunas became fairly modern, as did terrestrial vertebrate faunas in the northern continents. This was probably more as a result of older forms dying out than as a result of more modern forms evolving. Many groups during this time, such as horses, entelodonts, rhinoceroses, oreodonts, and camels, became more cursorial during this time, adapting to the plains that were spreading as the Eocene rainforests receded. Mesohippus. South America was isolated from the other continents and evolved a quite distinct fauna during the Oligocene, home to strange animals such as pyrotheres and astrapotheres, as well as litopterns and notoungulates. Sebecosuchian crocodiles, terror birds, and carnivorous marsupials like the borhyaenids remained the dominant predators. Brontotheres died out in the Earliest Oligocene, and creodonts died out outside Africa and the Middle East at the end of the period. Multituberculates, an ancient lineage of primitive mammals, also went extinct in the Oligocene. The Oligocene was home to a wide variety of strange mammals. A good example of this would be in the White River Badlands of the United States, which were formerly a semi-arid prairie home to many different types of endemic mammals, including entelodonts like Archaeotherium, camels, running rhinos, three-toed horses, nimravids, protoceratids, and early dogs like Hesperocyon. Oreodonts, an endemic american group, were very diverse during this time. In Asia during the Oligocene, a group of running rhinos gave rise to the indricotheres, like Indricotherium, which were the largest land mammals ever to walk the Earth. The marine animals of Oligocene oceans resembled today's fauna, such as the bivalves. The fossil record of marine mammals is a little spotty during this time, and not as well known as the Eocene or Miocene, but some fossils have been found. The baleen and toothed cetaceans (whales) just appeared, and their ancestors, the archaeocete cetaceans began to decrease in diversity due to their lack of echolocation, which was very useful as the water became colder and cloudier. Other factors to their decline could include climate changes and competition with today's modern cetaceans and the carcharhinid sharks, which also appeared in this epoch. Early desmostylians, like Behemotops, are known from the Oligocene. Pinnipeds probably appeared near the end of the epoch from a bear-like or otter-like ancestor. Oceans Oceans continued to cool, particularly around Antarctica. Impact Events Recorded extraterrestrial impacts: Nunavut, Canada (23 Ma, crater 24 km diameter,) Supervolcanic explosions La Garita Caldera (28 thru 26 million years ago, VEI=9.2) See also List of fossil sites (with link directory) Turgai Sea References Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's) http://www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm Accessed April 30, 2006. External links Paleos: Oligocene UCMP Berkeley Oligocene Page Prehistoric Pictures, in the Public Domain Oligocene Leaf Fossils Olicgocene Fish Fossils PaleoMap Project: Oligocene | Oligocene |@lemmatized oligocene:34 geologic:2 epoch:6 paleogene:4 period:9 extend:1 million:3 year:8 present:3 old:3 rock:1 bed:1 define:1 well:3 identify:2 exact:1 date:1 start:3 end:4 slightly:1 uncertain:1 name:1 come:1 greek:1 oligos:1 kainos:1 new:2 refers:1 sparsity:1 additional:1 modern:6 mammalian:1 fauna:9 burst:1 evolution:1 eocene:8 follow:2 miocene:6 third:1 final:1 often:1 consider:1 important:2 time:5 transition:2 link:3 archaic:1 world:2 tropical:4 look:1 ecosystem:2 haines:3 tim:1 walk:2 beast:1 prehistoric:2 safari:1 york:1 dorling:1 kindersley:1 publishing:1 inc:1 change:6 global:4 expansion:2 grassland:1 regression:1 broad:1 leaf:2 forest:2 equatorial:1 belt:1 mark:2 major:1 extinction:1 event:4 faunal:2 replacement:1 european:1 asian:1 except:2 endemic:3 rodent:1 marsupial:2 family:2 call:1 grande:1 coupure:1 boundary:4 set:1 easily:1 worldwide:1 rather:1 regional:1 warmer:1 late:2 relatively:2 cool:3 subdivision:1 stage:1 young:1 chattian:1 mya:2 rupelian:1 early:7 climate:9 general:1 temperature:4 decline:2 interrupt:1 stepwise:3 deep:1 depression:3 lead:1 zanazzi:1 et:2 al:2 large:3 drop:1 across:1 central:1 north:8 america:8 nature:1 vol:2 february:1 c:1 r:1 riesselman:1 high:1 resolution:1 stable:2 isotope:1 carbonate:1 variability:1 walvis:1 ridge:1 odp:1 site:2 usgs:1 span:1 thru:2 depict:1 paleotemps:1 chart:1 lorraine:1 e:1 lisiecki:1 nov:1 pliocene:1 pleistocene:1 stack:1 globally:1 distribute:1 benthic:1 record:3 brown:1 university:2 paleoceanography:1 increase:1 ice:2 volume:1 decrease:2 sea:4 level:2 closely:1 relate:1 kenneth:1 g:1 miller:1 jan:1 feb:1 st:1 stephen:1 quarry:1 alabama:1 gsa:1 bulletin:1 rutgers:1 nj:1 abruptly:1 terminate:1 within:1 la:2 garita:2 caldera:2 volcanism:1 paleogeography:1 continent:5 continue:7 drift:2 toward:1 position:1 antarctica:3 become:5 isolated:1 finally:2 develop:1 permanent:1 cap:1 mountain:1 building:1 western:1 alp:1 rise:2 europe:3 african:1 plate:2 push:1 eurasian:1 isolate:2 remnant:1 tethys:1 brief:1 marine:5 incursion:1 exposure:1 rare:1 appear:4 land:3 bridge:1 since:1 two:1 region:1 similar:1 sometime:1 south:2 detach:1 towards:1 also:4 allow:2 antarctic:1 circumpolar:1 current:1 flow:1 rapidly:1 flora:1 angiosperm:1 throughout:1 sub:1 replace:1 temperate:2 deciduous:1 woodland:1 open:3 plain:2 desert:1 common:3 grass:1 expand:1 water:2 bank:1 habitat:1 move:1 tract:1 however:1 even:2 quite:2 enough:1 savanna:1 subtropical:1 specie:1 dominate:1 cashew:1 lychee:1 tree:2 rose:1 beech:1 pine:1 legume:1 pea:1 bean:1 spread:2 sedge:1 bulrush:1 fern:1 ascent:1 hyaenodon:1 find:2 australia:1 landscape:1 animal:3 grow:1 size:1 earlier:1 fairly:1 terrestrial:1 vertebrate:1 northern:1 probably:2 result:2 form:2 die:3 evolve:2 many:2 group:3 horse:2 entelodonts:2 rhinoceros:1 oreodonts:2 camel:2 cursorial:1 adapt:1 rainforests:1 recede:1 mesohippus:1 distinct:1 home:3 strange:2 pyrotheres:1 astrapotheres:1 litopterns:1 notoungulates:1 sebecosuchian:1 crocodile:1 terror:1 bird:1 carnivorous:1 like:7 borhyaenids:1 remain:1 dominant:1 predator:1 brontotheres:1 creodonts:1 outside:1 africa:1 middle:1 east:1 multituberculates:1 ancient:1 lineage:1 primitive:1 mammal:5 go:1 extinct:1 wide:1 variety:1 good:1 example:1 would:1 white:1 river:1 badlands:1 united:1 state:1 formerly:1 semi:1 arid:1 prairie:1 different:1 type:1 include:2 archaeotherium:1 run:2 rhino:2 three:1 toed:1 nimravids:1 protoceratids:1 dog:1 hesperocyon:1 american:1 diverse:1 asia:1 give:1 indricotheres:1 indricotherium:1 ever:1 earth:1 ocean:3 resemble:1 today:2 bivalve:1 fossil:5 little:1 spotty:1 know:2 baleen:1 toothed:1 cetacean:3 whale:1 ancestor:2 archaeocete:1 begin:1 diversity:1 due:1 lack:1 echolocation:1 useful:1 cold:1 cloudy:1 factor:1 could:1 competition:1 carcharhinid:1 shark:1 desmostylians:1 behemotops:1 pinnipeds:1 near:1 bear:1 otter:1 particularly:1 around:1 impact:2 extraterrestrial:1 nunavut:1 canada:1 crater:1 km:1 diameter:1 supervolcanic:1 explosion:1 ago:1 vei:1 see:1 list:1 directory:1 turgai:1 reference:1 ogg:1 jim:1 june:1 overview:1 stratotype:1 section:1 point:1 gssp:2 http:1 www:1 stratigraphy:1 org:1 htm:1 access:1 april:1 external:1 paleos:1 ucmp:1 berkeley:1 page:1 picture:1 public:1 domain:1 olicgocene:1 fish:1 paleomap:1 project:1 |@bigram paleogene_period:3 eocene_oligocene:3 eocene_epoch:1 miocene_epoch:1 dorling_kindersley:1 oligocene_miocene:2 faunal_stage:1 et_al:2 stable_isotope:1 pliocene_pleistocene:1 closely_relate:1 jan_feb:1 la_garita:2 garita_caldera:2 eurasian_plate:1 antarctic_circumpolar:1 circumpolar_current:1 pea_bean:1 terrestrial_vertebrate:1 semi_arid:1 toed_horse:1 ogg_jim:1 boundary_stratotype:1 stratotype_section:1 http_www:1 stratigraphy_org:1 org_gssp:1 gssp_htm:1 external_link:1 ucmp_berkeley:1 |
4,651 | Battle_of_Lostwithiel | There were two Battles of Lostwithiel, both in the First English Civil War in the 1640s. First Battle of Lostwithiel, 1642 Second Battle of Lostwithiel, 1644 After defeating the Army of Sir William Waller at the Battle of Cropredy Bridge, King Charles marched west in pursuit of the Parliamentarian army of the Earl of Essex, who was invading the Royalist stronghold of Cornwall. Essex had been misled into believing that he could expect substantial support from the people of Cornwall. When he had reached Bodmin on 28 July, he found that there was no chance of supplies or recruits, and he also learned that the Royalist army was at Launceston, close to his rear. He withdrew to Lostwithiel, covering the port of Fowey. Essex had previously arranged to rendezvous at Fowey with the Parliamentarian fleet under the Earl of Warwick, but no ships appeared. Warwick was unable to leave Portsmouth because of westerly winds. King Charles's army had been reinforced as it marched, and outnumbered that of Essex by nearly two to one. The first clashes took place on 2 August, but little action took place for several days, as the King waited for all his forces to arrive and Essex waited for the fleet. On 13 August, the Royalists began to attack in earnest, occupying several outposts on the east bank of the River Fowey, making it even more difficult for help to reach Essex. A Parliamentarian attempt to send a relieving force under Lieutenant General Middleton was defeated at Bridgwater in Somerset. On 21 August, the Royalists attacked Essex's positions north of Lostwithiel, capturing the ruins of Restormel Castle. Royalist cavalry threatened to cut the Parliamentarians off from Fowey. Essex realised that there was no hope of relief and ordered his cavalry to break out of the encirclement. Under Sir William Balfour, they broke through the Royalist lines on the night of 31 August, eventually reaching Plymouth 30 miles to the east. The increasingly demoralised Parliamentarian infantry fell back towards Fowey in pouring rain. They were forced to abandon several guns which became bogged down in the muddy roads. On 1 September, the pursuing Royalists captured Castle Dore, another ruined fortification which the Parliamentarians were using to anchor their lines. Essex left Sir Philip Skippon, his Sergeant Major General of Foot, in command while he himself escaped to Plymouth in a fishing boat. On 2 September, Skippon, having been told that his infantry were unable to break out as the cavalry had done, and having been offered generous terms by the King, surrendered 6,000 infantry and all his army's guns and train. The disarmed soldiers marched westward to Portsmouth in continuing bad weather, being continually robbed and threatened by local people. About 1,000 died of exposure and hunger, and 1,000 more deserted or fell sick. Charles meanwhile wheeled about and marched toward London. This setback for Parliament in Cornwall, and the last major victory for the Royalists, was reversed by Sir Thomas Fairfax leading the New Model Army at or near Tresillian Bridge, close to Truro on 12 March 1645. Further reading Cornwall in the Great Civil War and Interregnum 1642 - 1660 Mary Coates Battles Royal - Charles I and the Civil War in Cornwall and the West by H Miles Brown (Libra Books, 1982) ISBN 0950800902 The Civil War in the South-West England 1642-1646 by John Barratt ISBN 9781844151462 Civil War battles in Cornwall, 1642 to 1646 by Richard Holmes, (Mercia, 1989) ISBN 0948087323 Faction and faith: politics and religion of the Cornish gentry before the Civil War by Anne Duffin, (University of Exeter, 1996) ISBN 9780859894357 Carew: A Story of Civil War in the West Country by Dennis Russell, (Aidan Ellis Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0856282987 | Battle_of_Lostwithiel |@lemmatized two:2 battle:6 lostwithiel:5 first:3 english:1 civil:7 war:7 second:1 defeat:2 army:6 sir:4 william:2 waller:1 cropredy:1 bridge:2 king:4 charles:4 march:5 west:4 pursuit:1 parliamentarian:6 earl:2 essex:9 invade:1 royalist:8 stronghold:1 cornwall:6 mislead:1 believe:1 could:1 expect:1 substantial:1 support:1 people:2 reach:3 bodmin:1 july:1 find:1 chance:1 supply:1 recruit:1 also:1 learn:1 launceston:1 close:2 rear:1 withdraw:1 cover:1 port:1 fowey:5 previously:1 arrange:1 rendezvous:1 fleet:2 warwick:2 ship:1 appear:1 unable:2 leave:2 portsmouth:2 westerly:1 wind:1 reinforce:1 outnumber:1 nearly:1 one:1 clash:1 take:2 place:2 august:4 little:1 action:1 several:3 day:1 wait:2 force:3 arrive:1 begin:1 attack:2 earnest:1 occupy:1 outpost:1 east:2 bank:1 river:1 make:1 even:1 difficult:1 help:1 attempt:1 send:1 relieve:1 lieutenant:1 general:2 middleton:1 bridgwater:1 somerset:1 position:1 north:1 capture:2 ruin:2 restormel:1 castle:2 cavalry:3 threaten:2 cut:1 realise:1 hope:1 relief:1 order:1 break:3 encirclement:1 balfour:1 line:2 night:1 eventually:1 plymouth:2 mile:2 increasingly:1 demoralised:1 infantry:3 fell:2 back:1 towards:1 pour:1 rain:1 abandon:1 gun:2 become:1 bogged:1 muddy:1 road:1 september:2 pursuing:1 dore:1 another:1 fortification:1 use:1 anchor:1 philip:1 skippon:2 sergeant:1 major:2 foot:1 command:1 escape:1 fishing:1 boat:1 tell:1 offer:1 generous:1 term:1 surrender:1 train:1 disarmed:1 soldier:1 westward:1 continue:1 bad:1 weather:1 continually:1 rob:1 local:1 die:1 exposure:1 hunger:1 deserted:1 sick:1 meanwhile:1 wheel:1 toward:1 london:1 setback:1 parliament:1 last:1 victory:1 reverse:1 thomas:1 fairfax:1 lead:1 new:1 model:1 near:1 tresillian:1 truro:1 far:1 read:1 great:1 interregnum:1 mary:1 coates:1 royal:1 h:1 brown:1 libra:1 book:1 isbn:5 south:1 england:1 john:1 barratt:1 richard:1 holmes:1 mercia:1 faction:1 faith:1 politics:1 religion:1 cornish:1 gentry:1 anne:1 duffin:1 university:1 exeter:1 carew:1 story:1 country:1 dennis:1 russell:1 aidan:1 elli:1 publishing:1 |@bigram earl_essex:1 earl_warwick:1 westerly_wind:1 |
4,652 | Greek_fire | Byzantine ship using Greek fire in the late 11th century. Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. Engraving showing 13th-century trebuchet for throwing Greek fire, from Harper's Magazine, 1869 Greek fire was an incendiary weapon used by the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines typically used it in naval battles to great effect as it could continue burning even on water. It provided a technological advantage, and was responsible for many key Byzantine military victories, most notably the salvation of Constantinople from two Arab sieges, thus securing the Empire's survival. The impression made by Greek fire on the Western Crusaders was such that the name was applied to any sort of incendiary weapon, including those used by Arabs, the Chinese, and the Mongols. These however were different mixtures and not the Byzantine formula, which was a closely guarded state secret, whose composition has now been lost. As a result, its ingredients are a much debated topic, with proposals including naphtha, quicklime, sulfur, and niter. What set the Byzantine use of incendiary mixtures apart however was their use of pressurized siphons to project the liquid onto the enemy. Although the term "Greek fire" is general in English and most other languages since the Crusades, in the original Byzantine sources it is called by a variety of names, such as "sea fire" (), "Roman fire" (), "war fire" (), "liquid fire" (), or "processed fire" (). History Origins Incendiary and flaming weapons had been used in warfare for centuries prior to the invention of Greek fire, including a number of sulphur-, petroleum- and bitumen-based mixtures. Incendiary arrows and pots containing combustible substances were used as early as the 9th century BC by the Assyrians, and were extensively used in the Greco-Roman world. Furthermore, Thucydides mentions the use of tubed flame-throwers in the siege of Delium in 424 BC. In naval warfare, the fleet of the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I is recorded by the chronicler John Malalas as having used a sulphur-based mixture to defeat a revolt in AD 513, following the advice of a philosopher from Athens called Proclus. Greek fire proper however was invented in ca. 672, and is ascribed by the chronicler Theophanes to Kallinikos, an architect from Heliopolis in the former province of Phoenice. The historicity and exact chronology of this account is open to question, however; the historian James Partington thinks it likely that "Greek fire was really invented by chemists in Constantinople who had inherited the discoveries of the Alexandrian chemical school". Indeed, the 11th-century chronicler George Kedrenos records that Kallinikos came from Heliopolis in Egypt, but most scholars reject this as an error. Kedrenos also records the implausible story that Kallinikos' descendants, a family called "Lampros" ("Brilliant"), kept the secret of the fire's manufacture, and continued doing so to his day. Theophanes also reports the equipping of fire-carrying and siphon-equipped ships by the Byzantines a couple of supposed years before the arrival of Kallinikos at Constantinople. If this is not due to chronological confusion, it may suggest that Kallinikos merely introduced an improved version of an established weapon. ; The importance placed on Greek fire during the Empire's struggle against the Arabs would lead to its discovery being ascribed to divine intervention. The Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos (r. 945–959) in his book De Administrando Imperio, advises his son and heir, Romanos II, to never reveal the secrets of its construction, as it was "shown and revealed by an angel to the great and holy first Christian emperor Constantine" and that the angel bound him "not to prepare this fire but for Christians, and only in the imperial city". Use by the Byzantines The invention of Greek fire came at a critical moment in the Byzantine Empire's history: weakened by its long wars with Persia, the Byzantines had been unable to effectively resist the onslaught of the Muslim conquests. Within a generation, Syria, Palestine and Egypt had fallen to the Arabs, who in ca. 672 set out to conquer the imperial capital of Constantinople. The Greek fire was used to great effect against the Muslim fleets, helping to repel the Muslims at the first and second Arab sieges of the imperial capital, Constantinople. The Byzantines also used the weapon to devastating effect against the various Rus' raids to the Bosporus and especially during the war of 941, as well as against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204). It quickly became one of the most feared weapons of the medieval world. The early 20th-century historian C.W.C. Oman paraphrases an account by the Byzantine historian Anna Komnene (1083–1153)—daughter of Alexios I Komnenos—about a sea battle between the Pisans and Byzantines near Rhodes in the year 1103: [Alexios] had fixed to the bows of each of his galleys a tube ending in the head of a lion or other beast wrought in brass or iron, 'so that the animals might seem to vomit flames'. The fleet came up with the Pisans between Rhodes and Patara, but as its vessels were pursuing them with too great zeal it could not attack as a single body. The first to reach the enemy was the Byzantine admiral Landulph, who shot off his fire too hastily, missed his mark and accomplished nothing. But Count Eleemon, who was the next to close, had better fortune; he rammed the stern of a Pisan vessel, so that the bows of his ship got stuck in its steering-oar tackle. Then, shooting forth the fire, he set it ablaze, after which he pushed off and successfully discharged his tube into three other vessels, all of which were soon in flames. The Pisans then fled in disorder, 'having had no previous knowledge of the device, and wondering that fire, which usually burns upwards, could be directed downwards or to either hand, at the will of the engineer who discharged it'. Manufacture and deployment As Constantine Porphyrogennetos' admonitions show, the ingredients and the processes of manufacture and deployment of Greek fire were very carefully guarded military secrets. So strict was the secrecy that it remains a source of speculation to this day. The only information we have is indirect, or through secondary sources like Anna Komnene, who provides a description of an incendiary weapon, which however is not identifiable with Greek fire: ; "This fire is made by the following arts. From the pine and the certain such evergreen trees inflammable resin is collected. This is rubbed with sulfur and put into tubes of reed, and is blown by men using it with violent and continuous breath. Then in this manner it meets the fire on the tip and catches light and falls like a fiery whirlwind on the faces of the enemies." Despite the focus by many researchers on the mixture's formula however, the Greek fire is best understood as a complete weapon system of many components, all of which were needed to render it effective. The whole "system" comprised not only the formula of its composition, but also the specialized dromons, the device used to prepare the substance by heating and pressurizing it, the siphon which projected it, and the special training of the siphōnarioi who used it. Knowledge of the whole system was highly compartmentalized, with operators and technicians aware of the "secrets" of only one component, thus ensuring that no enemy could gain knowledge of it in its entirety. It is characteristic that when the Bulgarians took Mesembria and Debeltos in 814, they captured 36 siphons and even quantities of the substance itself, but were unable to make use of them. ; In attempting to reconstruct the Greek fire system, the only concrete evidence, as it emerges from the contemporary literary references, provides the following characteristics: It burned in water, and, according to some interpretations, was ignited by water. In addition, as numerous writers testify, it could only be extinguished by sand, which deprived it of oxygen, as well as by strong vinegar and old urine, presumably by some sort of chemical reaction. ; It was a liquid substance, and not some sort of projectile, as verified both by descriptions and the very name "liquid fire". At sea, it was usually ejected from siphons, although earthenware pots or grenades filled with it or similar substances were also used. The discharge of Greek fire was accompanied by "thunder" and "much smoke". Leo VI, Tactica, XIX.59, transl. in Composition The first, and for long time most popular, theory regarding the composition of Greek fire held that its chief ingredient was saltpeter, making it thus an early form of gunpowder. ; This argument was based on the "thunder and smoke" description, as well as on the distance the flame could be projected from a siphon, which suggested an explosive discharge. From the times of Isaac Vossius, several scholars adhered to this position, most notably the so-called "French school" during the 19th century, which included the famed chemist Marcellin Berthelot. ; This view has been rejected since, as saltpeter does not appear to have been used in warfare before the 13th century, and is totally absent from the accounts of the Arabs, the foremost chemists of the Mediterranean world, before the same period. In addition, the nature of the proposed mixture would have been radically different from the siphon-projected substance that Byzantine sources describe. A second view, based on the fact that Greek fire was inextinguishable by water – rather, some sources suggest that pouring water on it intensified the flames – considered that the destructive power of Greek fire was the result of the explosive reaction between water and quicklime. Although quicklime was certainly known and used by the Byzantines and the Arabs in warfare, the theory is refuted by literary and empirical evidence. A quicklime-based substance would have to come in contact with water to ignite, while Emperor Leo's Tactica indicate that Greek fire was often poured directly on the decks of enemy ships. Leo VI, Tactica, XIX.67, transl. in Likewise, Leo prescribes the use of grenades, Leo VI, Tactica, XIX.63, transl. in which further reinforces the view that contact with water was not necessary for the substance's ignition. Furthermore, C. Zenghelis pointed out that, based on experiments, the actual result of the water-quicklime reaction would be negligible in the open sea. Another similar proposition suggested that Kallinikos had in fact discovered calcium phosphide. On contact with water, calcium phosphide releases phosphine, which ignites spontaneously. However, extensive experiments with it failed to reproduce the described intensity of Greek fire. ; Although the presence of either quicklime or saltpeter in the mixture cannot be excluded, they were consequently not the primary ingredient. Most modern scholars agree that the actual Greek fire was based on petroleum, whether crude or refined, with resins possibly added as a thickener. The Byzantines had easy access to crude oil from the naturally occurring wells around the Black Sea (e.g., the wells around Tmutorakan noted by Constantine Porphyrogennetos) or in various locations throughout the Middle East. ; ; Indeed, an alternate name for Greek fire was , "Median fire", and the 6th-century historian Procopius, records that crude oil, which was called naphtha (νάφθα, from naft) by the Persians, was known to the Greeks as Median oil (). Procopius, De bello Gothico, IV.11.36, cited in This seems to corroborate the use of naphtha as a basic ingredient of Greek fire. There is also a surviving 9th-century Latin text, preserved at Wolfenbüttel in Germany, which mentions the ingredients of what appears to be Greek fire and the operation of the siphons used to project it. Although the text contains some inaccuracies, it clearly identifies the main component as naphtha. A 12th-century treatise prepared by Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi for Saladin records an Arab version of Greek fire, called naft, which also had a petroleum base, with sulfur and various resins added. Any direct relation however with the Byzantine formula is very unlikely. Methods of deployment The chief method of deployment of Greek fire, and which set it apart from similar substances, was its projection through a tube (siphōn), for use aboard ships or in sieges. Portable projectors (cheirosiphōnes) were also invented, reputedly by Emperor Leo VI. The Byzantine military manuals also mention that jars (kytrai or tzykalia) filled with Greek fire and caltrops wrapped with tow and soaked in the substance were thrown by catapults, while pivoting cranes (gerania) were employed to pour it upon enemy ships. The cheirosiphōnes especially were prescribed for use at land and in sieges, both against siege machines and against defenders on the walls, by several 10th-century military authors, and their use is depicted in the Poliorcetica of Hero of Byzantium. ; At sea the Byzantine dromons usually had one installed on their prow, but additional devices could also on occasion be placed elsewhere on the ship. Thus in 941, when facing the vastly more numerous Rus' fleet, siphones were placed also amidships and even astern. Siphons The use of siphons is amply attested in the contemporary sources, and information is provided on the composition and function of the whole mechanism. The Wolfenbüttel manuscript provides the following description: "...having built a furnace right at the front of the ship, they set on it a copper vessel full of these things, having put fire underneath. And one of them, having made a bronze tube similar to that which the rustics call a squitiatoria, "squirt", with which boys play, they spray [it] at the enemy." Another, possibly first-hand, account of the use of Greek fire comes from the 11th-century Yngvars saga víðförla, where the Viking Ingvar the Far-Travelled faces ships equipped with Greek fire siphons: "[They] began blowing with smiths’ bellows at a furnace in which there was fire and there came from it a great din. There stood there also a brass [or bronze] tube and from it flew much fire against one ship, and it burned up in a short time so that all of it became white ashes..." The account, albeit embellished, corresponds with many of the characteristics of Greek fire known from other sources, such as a loud roar that accompanied its discharge. Taken together with the Byzantine sources, it is clear that the entire apparatus consisted of three main components: a bronze pump (the σίφων, siphōn proper), which was used to pressurize the oil; a brazier, used to heat the oil (πρόπυρον, propyron, "pre-heater"); and the nozzle, which was covered in bronze and mounted on a swivel (στρεπτόν, strepton). These ingredients were apparently heated in a cauldron and then pumped out through a siphon or large syringe (handled by a specialist known as siphōnarios or siphōnatōr) mounted on the bow of the ship. Such a ship was herself called a siphōnophoros dromōn. Larger vessels could also have two more siphons, one on each side. Greek fire could also be used in hand grenades made of earthenware vessels. If a pyrophoric reaction was involved, perhaps these grenades contained chambers for the fluids, which mixed and ignited when the vessel broke on impact with the target. Grenades Clay grenades that were filled with Greek fire, 10th-12th centuries, National Historical Museum, Athens, Greece In its earliest form, Greek fire was hurled onto enemy forces by firing a burning cloth-wrapped ball, perhaps containing a flask, using a form of light catapult, most probably a seaborne variant of the Roman light catapult or onager. These were capable of hurling light loads—around —a distance of . Later technological improvements in machining technology enabled the devising of a pump mechanism discharging a stream of burning fluid (flame thrower) at close ranges, devastating wooden ships in naval warfare and also very effective on land as a counter-force suppression weapon used on besieging forces. Effectiveness Although the destructiveness of Greek fire is indisputable, it should not be seen as some sort of "wonder weapon", nor did it make the Byzantine navy invincible: in its siphon-deployed version, it had a limited range, and it could only be used safely in a calm sea and with favorable wind conditions. Testimony The medieval text The Rise of Gawain, Nephew of Arthur contains one of the earliest European references to the processing and projection of Greek fire. The unusual description mixes magic and folklore into the process of creating the substance, but would have created a working compound similar to napalm. The Memoirs of Jean de Joinville, a 13th-century French nobleman, include these observations of a weapon similar to Greek fire during the Seventh Crusade: The History of Greek Fire. Accessed on July 11, 2007. Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville English version, by Ethel Wedgwood. ordotempli.org. Retrieved on May 17, 2008 It happened one night, whilst we were keeping night-watch over the tortoise-towers, that they brought up against us an engine called a perronel, (which they had not done before) and filled the sling of the engine with Greek fire. When that good knight, Lord Walter of Cureil, who was with me, saw this, he spoke to us as follows: "Sirs, we are in the greatest peril that we have ever yet been in. For, if they set fire to our turrets and shelters, we are lost and burnt; and if, again, we desert our defences which have been entrusted to us, we are disgraced; so none can deliver us from this peril save God alone. My opinion and advice therefore is: that every time they hurl the fire at us, we go down on our elbows and knees, and beseech Our Lord to save us from this danger." So soon as they flung the first shot, we went down on our elbows and knees, as he had instructed us; and their first shot passed between the two turrets, and lodged just in front of us, where they had been raising the dam. Our firemen were all ready to put out the fire; and the Saracens, not being able to aim straight at them, on account of the two pent-house wings which the King had made, shot straight up into the clouds, so that the fire-darts fell right on top of them. This was the fashion of the Greek fire: it came on as broad in front as a vinegar cask, and the tail of fire that trailed behind it was as big as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded like the thunder of heaven. It looked like a dragon flying through the air. Such a bright light did it cast, that one could see all over the camp as though it were day, by reason of the great mass of fire, and the brilliance of the light that it shed. Thrice that night they hurled the Greek fire at us, and four times shot it from the tourniquet crossbow. See Also Flamethrower Flame tank Notes Sources Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Spears, W.H., Jr. (1969). Greek Fire: The Fabulous Secret Weapon That Saved Europe. ISBN 0-9600106-3-7 Wilhelm, James J. (1994). The Romance of Arthur. New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8153-1511-2 External links Greek Fire at LoveToKnow 1911 "Technoporn: Greek Fire". Wired Blog. December 29, 2006. Greek Fire - The Best Kept Secret of the Ancient World. By Richard Groller. | Greek_fire |@lemmatized byzantine:24 ship:13 use:35 greek:46 fire:70 late:2 century:15 madrid:1 skylitzes:1 manuscript:2 engrave:1 show:3 trebuchet:1 throw:2 harper:1 magazine:1 incendiary:6 weapon:12 empire:4 typically:1 naval:3 battle:2 great:8 effect:3 could:11 continue:2 burn:7 even:3 water:10 provide:5 technological:2 advantage:1 responsible:1 many:4 key:1 military:5 victory:1 notably:2 salvation:1 constantinople:5 two:4 arab:8 siege:6 thus:4 secure:1 survival:1 impression:1 make:9 western:1 crusader:1 name:4 apply:1 sort:4 include:5 chinese:1 mongol:1 however:8 different:2 mixture:7 formula:4 closely:1 guarded:1 state:1 secret:7 whose:1 composition:5 lose:2 result:3 ingredient:7 much:3 debate:1 topic:1 proposal:1 naphtha:4 quicklime:6 sulfur:3 niter:1 set:6 apart:2 pressurized:1 siphon:14 project:5 liquid:4 onto:2 enemy:8 although:6 term:1 general:1 english:2 language:1 since:2 crusade:3 original:1 source:9 call:9 variety:1 sea:7 roman:3 war:3 process:3 history:3 origin:1 flaming:1 warfare:5 prior:1 invention:2 number:1 sulphur:2 petroleum:3 bitumen:1 base:8 arrow:1 pot:2 contain:5 combustible:1 substance:11 early:5 bc:2 assyrian:1 extensively:1 greco:1 world:4 furthermore:2 thucydides:1 mention:3 tubed:1 flame:7 thrower:2 delium:1 fleet:4 emperor:5 anastasius:1 record:5 chronicler:3 john:1 malalas:1 defeat:1 revolt:1 ad:1 follow:2 advice:2 philosopher:1 athens:2 proclus:1 proper:2 invent:3 ca:2 ascribe:2 theophanes:2 kallinikos:6 architect:1 heliopolis:2 former:1 province:1 phoenice:1 historicity:1 exact:1 chronology:1 account:6 open:2 question:1 historian:4 james:2 partington:1 think:1 likely:1 really:1 chemist:3 inherit:1 discovery:2 alexandrian:1 chemical:3 school:2 indeed:2 george:1 kedrenos:2 come:8 egypt:2 scholar:3 reject:2 error:1 also:16 implausible:1 story:1 descendant:1 family:1 lampros:1 brilliant:1 keep:2 manufacture:3 day:3 report:1 equipping:1 carrying:1 equip:2 couple:1 supposed:1 year:2 arrival:1 due:1 chronological:1 confusion:1 may:2 suggest:4 merely:1 introduce:1 improved:1 version:4 establish:1 importance:1 place:3 struggle:1 would:5 lead:1 divine:1 intervention:1 constantine:4 porphyrogennetos:3 r:1 book:2 de:3 administrando:1 imperio:1 advise:1 son:1 heir:1 romanos:1 ii:1 never:1 reveal:2 construction:1 angel:2 holy:1 first:7 christian:2 bind:1 prepare:3 imperial:3 city:1 critical:1 moment:1 weaken:1 long:2 persia:1 unable:2 effectively:1 resist:1 onslaught:1 muslim:3 conquest:1 within:1 generation:1 syria:1 palestine:1 fall:2 conquer:1 capital:2 help:1 repel:1 second:2 devastate:2 various:3 ru:2 raid:1 bosporus:1 especially:2 well:6 venetian:1 fourth:1 quickly:1 become:2 one:9 feared:1 medieval:2 c:3 w:2 oman:1 paraphrase:1 anna:2 komnene:2 daughter:1 alexios:2 komnenos:1 pisans:3 near:1 rhodes:2 fix:1 bow:3 galley:1 tube:6 end:1 head:1 lion:1 beast:1 wrought:1 brass:2 iron:1 animal:1 might:1 seem:2 vomit:1 patara:1 vessel:7 pursue:1 zeal:1 attack:1 single:1 body:1 reach:1 admiral:1 landulph:1 shoot:3 hastily:1 miss:1 mark:1 accomplish:1 nothing:1 count:1 eleemon:1 next:1 close:2 fortune:1 ram:1 stern:1 pisan:1 get:1 stick:1 steer:1 oar:1 tackle:1 forth:1 ablaze:1 push:1 successfully:1 discharge:6 three:2 soon:2 flee:1 disorder:1 previous:1 knowledge:3 device:3 wonder:2 usually:3 upwards:1 direct:2 downwards:1 either:2 hand:3 engineer:1 deployment:4 admonition:1 carefully:1 guard:1 strict:1 secrecy:1 remain:1 speculation:1 information:2 indirect:1 secondary:1 like:4 description:5 identifiable:1 following:3 art:1 pine:1 certain:1 evergreen:1 tree:1 inflammable:1 resin:3 collect:1 rub:1 put:3 reed:1 blow:2 men:1 violent:1 continuous:1 breath:1 manner:1 meet:1 tip:1 catch:1 light:6 fiery:1 whirlwind:1 face:3 despite:1 focus:1 researcher:1 best:2 understood:1 complete:1 system:4 component:4 need:1 render:1 effective:2 whole:3 comprise:1 specialized:1 dromons:2 heat:3 pressurize:2 special:1 training:1 siphōnarioi:1 highly:1 compartmentalize:1 operator:1 technician:1 aware:1 ensure:1 gain:1 entirety:1 characteristic:3 bulgarian:1 take:2 mesembria:1 debeltos:1 capture:1 quantity:1 attempt:1 reconstruct:1 concrete:1 evidence:2 emerge:1 contemporary:2 literary:2 reference:2 accord:1 interpretation:1 ignite:4 addition:2 numerous:2 writer:1 testify:1 extinguish:1 sand:1 deprive:1 oxygen:1 strong:1 vinegar:2 old:1 urine:1 presumably:1 reaction:4 projectile:1 verify:1 eject:1 earthenware:2 grenade:6 fill:4 similar:6 accompany:2 thunder:3 smoke:2 leo:6 vi:4 tactica:4 xix:3 transl:3 time:5 popular:1 theory:2 regard:1 hold:1 chief:2 saltpeter:3 form:3 gunpowder:2 argument:1 distance:2 explosive:2 isaac:1 vossius:1 several:2 adhere:1 position:1 french:2 famed:1 marcellin:1 berthelot:1 view:3 appear:2 totally:1 absent:1 foremost:1 mediterranean:1 period:1 nature:1 propose:1 radically:1 describe:1 fact:2 inextinguishable:1 rather:1 pour:3 intensify:1 consider:1 destructive:1 power:1 certainly:1 know:4 refute:1 empirical:1 contact:3 indicate:1 often:1 directly:1 deck:1 likewise:1 prescribe:2 reinforce:1 necessary:1 ignition:1 zenghelis:1 point:1 experiment:2 actual:2 negligible:1 another:2 proposition:1 discover:1 calcium:2 phosphide:2 release:1 phosphine:1 spontaneously:1 extensive:1 fail:1 reproduce:1 described:1 intensity:1 presence:1 cannot:1 exclude:1 consequently:1 primary:1 modern:1 agree:1 whether:1 crude:3 refine:1 possibly:2 add:2 thickener:1 easy:1 access:2 oil:5 naturally:1 occur:1 around:3 black:1 e:1 g:1 tmutorakan:1 note:2 location:1 throughout:1 middle:1 east:1 alternate:1 median:2 procopius:2 νάφθα:1 naft:2 persian:1 bello:1 gothico:1 iv:1 cite:1 corroborate:1 basic:1 survive:1 latin:1 text:3 preserve:1 wolfenbüttel:2 germany:1 operation:1 inaccuracy:1 clearly:1 identify:1 main:2 treatise:1 mardi:1 bin:1 ali:1 al:1 tarsusi:1 saladin:1 relation:1 unlikely:1 method:2 projection:2 siphōn:2 aboard:1 portable:1 projector:1 cheirosiphōnes:2 reputedly:1 manual:1 jar:1 kytrai:1 tzykalia:1 caltrop:1 wrap:2 tow:1 soak:1 catapult:3 pivot:1 crane:1 gerania:1 employ:1 upon:1 land:2 machine:2 defender:1 wall:1 author:1 depict:1 poliorcetica:1 hero:1 byzantium:1 instal:1 prow:1 additional:1 occasion:1 elsewhere:1 vastly:1 siphones:1 amidships:1 astern:1 amply:1 attest:1 function:1 mechanism:2 build:1 furnace:2 right:2 front:3 copper:1 full:1 thing:1 underneath:1 bronze:4 rustic:1 squitiatoria:1 squirt:1 boys:1 play:1 spray:1 yngvars:1 saga:1 víðförla:1 viking:1 ingvar:1 far:1 travelled:1 begin:1 smith:1 bellow:1 din:1 stand:1 fly:2 short:1 white:1 ash:1 albeit:1 embellish:1 correspond:1 loud:1 roar:1 together:1 clear:1 entire:1 apparatus:1 consist:1 pump:3 σίφων:1 brazier:1 πρόπυρον:1 propyron:1 pre:1 heater:1 nozzle:1 cover:1 mount:2 swivel:1 στρεπτόν:1 strepton:1 apparently:1 cauldron:1 large:2 syringe:1 handle:1 specialist:1 siphōnarios:1 siphōnatōr:1 siphōnophoros:1 dromōn:1 side:1 pyrophoric:1 involve:1 perhaps:2 chamber:1 fluid:2 mix:2 break:1 impact:1 target:1 clay:1 national:1 historical:1 museum:1 greece:1 hurl:4 force:3 cloth:1 ball:1 flask:1 probably:1 seaborne:1 variant:1 onager:1 capable:1 load:1 improvement:1 technology:3 enable:1 devising:1 stream:1 range:2 wooden:1 counter:1 suppression:1 besiege:1 effectiveness:1 destructiveness:1 indisputable:1 see:3 navy:1 invincible:1 deploy:1 limited:1 safely:1 calm:1 favorable:1 wind:1 condition:1 testimony:1 rise:1 gawain:1 nephew:1 arthur:2 european:1 processing:1 unusual:1 magic:1 folklore:1 create:2 work:1 compound:1 napalm:1 memoir:2 jean:1 joinville:2 nobleman:1 observation:1 seventh:1 july:1 lord:3 ethel:1 wedgwood:1 ordotempli:1 org:1 retrieve:1 happen:1 night:3 whilst:1 watch:1 tortoise:1 tower:1 bring:1 u:9 engine:2 perronel:1 sling:1 good:1 knight:1 walter:1 cureil:1 saw:1 speak:1 sir:1 peril:2 ever:1 yet:1 turret:2 shelter:1 desert:1 defence:1 entrust:1 disgrace:1 none:1 deliver:1 save:3 god:1 alone:1 opinion:1 therefore:1 every:1 go:2 elbow:2 knee:2 beseech:1 danger:1 fling:1 shot:3 instruct:1 pass:1 lodge:1 raise:1 dam:1 fireman:1 ready:1 saracen:1 able:1 aim:1 straight:2 pent:1 house:1 wing:1 king:1 cloud:1 dart:1 fell:1 top:1 fashion:1 broad:1 cask:1 tail:1 trail:1 behind:1 big:1 spear:2 noise:1 sound:1 heaven:1 look:1 dragon:1 air:1 bright:1 cast:1 camp:1 though:1 reason:1 mass:1 brilliance:1 shed:1 thrice:1 four:1 tourniquet:1 crossbow:1 flamethrower:1 tank:1 needham:1 joseph:1 science:1 civilization:1 china:1 volume:1 chemistry:1 part:1 epic:1 taipei:1 cave:1 ltd:1 h:1 jr:1 fabulous:1 europe:1 isbn:2 wilhelm:1 j:1 romance:1 new:1 york:1 garland:1 external:1 link:1 lovetoknow:1 technoporn:1 wire:1 blog:1 december:1 kept:1 ancient:1 richard:1 groller:1 |@bigram closely_guarded:1 combustible_substance:1 greco_roman:1 flame_thrower:2 john_malalas:1 de_administrando:1 administrando_imperio:1 anna_komnene:2 alexios_komnenos:1 marcellin_berthelot:1 crude_oil:2 de_bello:1 elbow_knee:2 needham_joseph:1 taipei_cave:1 external_link:1 kept_secret:1 |
4,653 | Aegina | Aegina () is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of Aeacus, who was born in and ruled the island. During ancient times, Aegina was a rival to Athens, the great sea power of the era. The island, along with offshore islets, comprises the Municipality of Aegina in Piraeus Prefecture, a part of the Attica region. The capital is the town of Aegina (pop. 7,410 in 2001 census), situated at the northwestern end of the island. Due to its proximity to Athens, it is a popular quick getaway during the summer months, with quite a few Athenians owning second houses on the island. Besides the town of Aegina, the largest other towns and villages on the island are Kypséli (pop. 1,949), Vathý (1,474), Mesagrós (682), Pérdika (682), Agía Marína (426), Vaïa (239), Álones (233), and Kontós (178). Geography Aegina is roughly triangular in shape, approximately from east to west and from north to south, with an area of about . An extinct volcano constitutes two thirds of Aegina. The northern and western side consist of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton, vines, almonds, olives and figs, but the most characteristic crop of Aegina today (2000s) is pistachio. Economically, the sponge fisheries are of notable importance. The southern volcanic part of the island is rugged and mountainous, and largely barren. Its highest rise is the conical Mount Oros (531 m) in the south, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either side. The beaches are also a popular tourist attraction. Hydrofoil ferries from Piraeus take only forty minutes to reach Aegina; the regular ferry takes about an hour, with ticket prices for adults within the 4-15 euro range. There are regular bus services from Aegina town to destinations throughout the island such as Agia Marina. History Prehistory Prehistoric archaeological findings of settlements with obsidian tools points to an early inhabitation of the island. Earliest history (2,000 - 7th century BC) Mycenaean and Minoan influence Aegina, according to Herodotus, Herodotus v. 83, viii.46; Pausanias 2.29.9 was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally subject. Its placement between Attica and the Peloponnesus made it a center of trade even earlier, and its earliest inhabitant came from Asia Minor. Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976 Minoan ceramics have been found in contexts of ca. 2000 BC. The discovery in the island of a number of gold ornaments belonging to the latest period of Mycenaean art suggests the inference that the Mycenaean culture held its own in Aegina for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon. A. J. Evans, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xiii. p. 195 It is probable that the island was not doricized before the 9th century BC. Political Alliances One of the earliest historical facts is its membership in the League of Calauria (Calaurian Amphictyony, ca. 8th century BC), which included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenus, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia and Prasiae, and was probably an organization of city-states that were still Mycenaean, for the purpose of suppressing piracy in the Aegean that arose as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes. Aegina appears to have belonged to the Eretrian league during the Lelantine War; hence, perhaps, we may explain the war with Samos, a leading member of the rival Chalcidian league in the reign of King Amphicrates (Herod. iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier half of the 7th century BC. Rise as a sea power (6th - 5th century BC) RIGHT|Greek drachm of Aegina. Obverse: Land tortoise / Reverse: ΑΙΓ(INA) and dolphin It follows, therefore, that the maritime importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times. It is usually stated on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon of Argos established a mint in Aegina. For example, Kydonia on Crete began minting coins by overstriking Aeginian specimens. Thus it was the Aeginetes who, within 30 or 40 years of the invention of coinage by the Lydians (c. 700 BC), introduced coinage to the western world. The fact that the Aeginetan scale of coins, weights and measures (developed in the mid-7th century) was one of the two scales in general use in the Greek world (the other being the Euboic-Attic) is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the island. During the naval expansion of Aegina during the Archaic Period, Kydonia was an ideal maritime stop for Aegina's fleet on its way to other Mediterranean ports controlled by the emerging sea-power Aegina. C. Michael Hogan, Cydonia, Modern Antiquarian, January 23, 2008 During the next century Aegina is one of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Naucratis, and it is the only state of European Greece that has a share in this factory. Herodotus ii. 178 At the beginning of the 5th century it seems to have been an entrepôt of the Pontic grain trade, at a later date an Athenian monopoly Herodotus vii. 147 Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries BC, such as Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina founded no colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement. Rivalry with Athens (5th century BC) The history of Aegina, as it has come down to us, is almost exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state of Athens, which began to compete with the thalassocracy of Aegina at the beginning of the sixth century. Solon passed laws limiting Aeginetan commerce in Attica. The legendary history of these relations, as recorded by Herodotus (v. 79-89; vi. 49-51, 73, 85-94), involve critical problems of some difficulty and interest. He traces back the hostility of the two states to a dispute about the images of the goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetes had carried off from Epidauros, their parent state. The Epidaurians had been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal of the Aeginetes to continue these offerings, the Athenians endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was miraculously frustrated – according to the Aeginetan version, the statues fell upon their knees – and only a single survivor returned to Athens, there to fall a victim to the fury of his comrades' widows, who pierced him with their brooch-pins. No date is assigned by Herodotus for this old feud; recent writers, e.g. J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan, suggest the period between Solon and Peisistratus, circa 570 BC. It may be questioned, however, whether the whole episode is not mythical. A critical analysis of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetiological traditions (explanatory of cults and customs, e.g. of the kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian to the Ionian style. The account which Herodotus gives of the hostilities between the two states in the early years of the 5th century BC is to the following effect. Thebes, after the defeat by Athens about 507 BC, appealed to Aegina for assistance. The Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subsequently, however, they entered into an alliance, and ravaged the seaboard of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and content themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of Hippias. In 501 BC Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (earth and water) to Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I, one of the Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful; but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages. After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the Aeginetans retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island. An engagement followed in which the Aeginetans were defeated. Subsequently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the Athenian fleet. All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are expressly referred by Herodotus to the interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 BC and the invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC (cf. Herod. vi. 49 with 94). There are difficulties in this story, of which the following are the principal elements: – (i.) Herodotus nowhere states or implies that peace was concluded between the two states before 481 BC, nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period. Hence it would follow that the war lasted from shortly after 507 BC down to the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 BC (ii.) It is only for two years (490 and 491) out of the twenty-five that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no incidents are recorded in the period between Marathon and Salamis, since at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war is described as the most important one then being waged in Greece (Herod. vii. 145). (iii.) It is improbable that Athens would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in 499 BC if at the time she was at war with Aegina. (iv.) There is an incidental indication of time, which points to the period after Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens (Herod. v. 89). Ruins of the Temple of Apollo As the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 B.C., the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 BC as the date of the dedication of the precinct and the outbreak of hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes for the war against Aegina on the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the Constitution of Athens as 483-482 BC (Herod. vii. 144; Ath. Pol. r2. 7). It is probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and Aegina (c. 507 BC) and in putting the episode of Nicodromus before Marathon. Overtures were unquestionably made by Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. 507 BC, but they came to nothing. The refusal of Aegina was veiled under the diplomatic form of sending the Aeacidae. The real occasion of the outbreak of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lasted from 488 to 481. That Athens had the worst of it in this war is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was necessary. It may be noted, in confirmation of this view, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490-480 (Eusebius, Chron. Can. p. 337). Persian, Peloponnesian, & Corinthian wars In the repulse of Xerxes I it is possible that the Aeginetans played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus. The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of the Athenian (Herod. viii. 91). There are other indications, too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. Greek History, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the Philo-laconian policy of Cimon secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 461, led to what is sometimes called the First Peloponnesian War, in which the brunt of the fighting fell upon Corinth and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456 BC). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents. By the terms of the Thirty Years' Truce (445 BC) Athens covenanted to restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained a dead letter. In the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC) Athens expelled the Aeginetans, and established a cleruchy in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour.1 A force landed under Nicias in 424, and put most of them to the sword. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for operations against Athens in the Corinthian War. Its greatness, however, was at an end. The part which it plays henceforward is insignificant. Economic decline It would be a mistake to attribute the fall of Aegina solely to the development of the Athenian navy. It is probable that the power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as relatively, to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which appears to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from the war with Persia. Her medism in 491 is to be explained by her commercial relations with the Persian Empire. She was forced into patriotism in spite of herself, and the glory won by Salamis was paid for by the loss of her trade and the decay of her marine. The completeness of the ruin of so powerful a state – we should look in vain for an analogous case in the history of the modern world – finds an explanation in the economic conditions of the island, the prosperity of which rested upon a basis of slave-labour. It is impossible, indeed, to accept Aristotle's (cf. Athenaeus vi. 272) estimate of 470,000 as the number of the slave-population; it is clear, however, that the number must have been out of all proportion to that of the free inhabitants. In this respect the history of Aegina does but anticipate the history of Greece as a whole. The constitutional history of Aegina is unusually simple. So long as the island retained its independence the government was an oligarchy. There is no trace of the heroic monarchy and no tradition of a tyrannis. The story of Nicodromus, while it proves the existence of a democratic party, suggests, at the same time, that it could count upon little support. Pericles called Aegina the eye-sore (leme) of the Peiraeus. Roman rule Aegina passed with the rest of Greece under the successive dominations of Macedon, the Aetolians, Attalus of Pergamum and Rome. Byzantine period The Aegina town centre. Church construction activity in the 9th century AD provides evidence of a flourishing economy on the island before its eventual abandonment sometime in the second half of the ninth century as a consequence of Arab raids. 12th c. Emigration and the exactions of the Byzantine officials completed the tales of Michael Choniates in the late 12th century. In 1198, he addressed a memorial to the Emperor Alexios Komnenos III, on behalf of the Athenians, from which we learn that the city was free from the jurisdiction of the provincial governor, who resided at Thebes and who was not even allowed to enter the city, which like Patras and Monemvasia was governed by its own άρχοντες. Piracy Benedict of Peterborough gives a graphic account of Greece, as it was in 1191, that many of the islands were uninhabited from fear of pirates and that others were their chosen lairs. The islands of Aegina, Salamis and Makronesos were strongholds of corsairs. They injured the property of the Athenian Church and dangerously wounded the nephew of Michael Choniates, who found it almost impossible to collect the ecclesiastical revenues of Aegina. Most of the Aeginetan population had fled therefore, while those who remained had fraternized with the pirates. At the time of the Latin conquest most Greece was still nominally under the authority of the Byzantine Emperor. Continental Greece, from the Isthmus to the river Peneios in the north, and to Aetolia in the west, composed the «Θέμα Ελλάδος», which thus included Attica, Boeotia, Phokis, Lokris, part of Thessaly and the islands of Euboea and Aegina. This Theme was at the time administrated together with the Theme of Peloponnese by the same official. The Franks and Venetians after 1204 Venetians took all the best harbors and markets in the Levant: The Ionian Islands: Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Leukas Oreos (north) and to the South, Karystos Aegina, Salamis and the province of Sunium with the Cyclades Crete Aegina and its external history All the commercial privileges, which they had enjoyed in the time of the Byzantine Empire should be continued to them. Burgundian Athens embraced Attica, Boeotia, the Megarid, the ancient Opuntian Lokris and the fortresses of Nauplia and Argos and at least 4 ports ( Piraeus, Nauplia, Atalante, Livadostro ( Corinth )). They did a little amateur piracy. Thebes was the capital. Athens, Thebes, Peloponnese, Euboea In 1225 Othon de la Roche departed for Burgundy, leaving his nephew Guy as Duke. For 50 years, Athens enjoyed peace, till a fratricidal war between Guillaume de Villeardouin (Prince of Achaia) and the great Barons of Euboea involved Guy, who took the side of the Barons. He became regent of Achaia after the end of it. Guillaume de Villeardouin was captured by the Byzantines and when he was freed, he was accepted by the Duke of Athens in Thebes. There the Treaty of Thebes was signed between the Prince of Achaia, Venice and the Triarchs. William recognized Guglielmo da Verona, Narzotto dale Carceri and Grapella as Triarchs and they in turn recognized him as their suzerain and promised to destroy the Castle of Negroponte. Venice engaged to cancel all her fiefs by her Bailie since the death of Carintana. When the Latin Empire of Constantinople fell, the Emperor Baldwin II spend time in the Duchy of Athens. Othon de Cicon, Lord of Karystos and Aegina came to attend him along with other lords. He had played so active a part in the Euboean war and had lent him 5000 Hyperpera in his sore need. Baldwin liquidated his dept to the baron of Karystos with an arm of St. John the Baptist, which the pious Othon subsequently presented to the Burgundian Abbey of Citeaux. John (son of Guy) got involved in the war of Thessaly and Constantinople. He helped the Sevastokrator of Thessaly Ioannes I` Angelos against Emperor Michael VIII and he wan the imperial army. As a reward he took Ioannes’ daughter, Helena, as a bride for his younger brother William and he extended his influence as far as north as Thessaly. At a battle at Negroponte he was caught prisoner by the Greeks and was carried to Constantinople. Michael took ransom. A year later (1280) he died. William (Guy’s brother) reigned the next 7 years as the leading figure of Frankish Greece. [The Angevin Kings of Naples had become overlords of Achaia by the treaty of Viterbo.] He spent money on the defense of Peloponnese and Euboea. Helena Angelina (William’s Greek wife) left to rule after William’s death. She married his brother-in-law Hugh de Brienne. Helena's son Guy II, at the ceremony of his coming of age and becoming Duke of Athens (1294), made Bonifate of Verona a knight and as a reward for his service, he gave him 13 castles on the mainland and Salamis (to bring him in revenue 50,000 sols ) and he bestowed the hand of Agnes de Cicon (daughter of Othon de Cicon), cousin of the Duke of Athens, lady of Euboea, Karystos (was at the time in the hands of Greeks) and Aegina. Attica now for the first time supplies Euboea with grain. Guy II died in 1308. Walter de Brienne (Count of Lecce ) became the new Duke. He thought he might use the coming Catalans against the Duke of Thessaly (Ioannes II`), who made alliance with the Despot of Epeiros and the Emperor. The Catalans won but at the end turned against their employer and occupied the regions from Thessaly to Athens (1311). Only four survived: Boniface of Verona, Roger Deslaur, the eldest son of the Duke of Naxos and Jean de Maisy ( άρχοντας of Euboea). The Catalans in Aegina (1311-1451) The Catalan company annexed to Attica and Boeotia the Duchy of Neopatras, including part of Thessaly, while Catalan lords held the castles of Salona and Karystos and the island of Aegina. The Company needed a leader and they offered the post to Boniface, but he refused. Then they turned to Roger Deslaur, who accepted for a while. King Frederick II of Sicily sent as their Duke his (bastard) son Manfred Fadrigo. He was among the Principal Catalans in 1335 and he died in 1338 leaving castles to his sons: His second son, Don Jaime, succeeded his elder brother (or cousin?) Don Pedro in his estates, held for a time the island of Aegina—because the people of the island rebelled against him—and became later on vicar-general of the Company. Yet another son, Bonifacio, inherited Karystos and Lamia and received from Don Jaime, with certain reservations, Aegina, thereby reuniting the old possessions of his namesake and grandfather, Bonifacio da Verona. [The island of Salamis seems to have been subdued by the Greeks and paid taxes to the Byzantine governor of Monemvasia.] Administration The feudal system continued to exist, but not anymore under the Assizes, but under the Customs of Barcelona. And the official common language was now Catalan and not French. Fiefs of the Duchies of Athens and Neopatras (over the last years) Κομητεία Δημητριάδος Μαρκιονεία Βοδονίτσης Κομητεία Σαλώνων Count Ludwig Fadrique (1365-1381) was master of Lidoriki and Zetouni and later of Siderokastron (Delphoi) and Aegina. Αυθεντεία Σιδηροκάστρου Stefan Melissenos (1318-1333) => Othon de Novelles, marshal of the Duke, husband of Stefan’s sister => Count Ludwig Fadrique (1365-1381) => Maria Fadrique Cantacouzena (1382-1384?) Αυθεντεία Αιγίνης Αυθεντεία Στειρίου (Φωκίδα) Αυθεντείαι Καρδίτσης και Αταλάντης Αυθεντεία Καπραίνης (Χαιρώνεια) Αυθεντεία Estanyol Chief-officials = vicar-general , marshal in Thebes. Always chosen from the ranks of the Company and particularly from the house of de Novelles since 1363. Soon both offices were represented by one man, beginning at 1368 with Roger de Lluria. They minted no coins and they had no ducal Aula. Each city and district—on the example of Sicily—had its own local governor (veguer, castellano, capitan), whose term of office was fixed at 3 years and who was nominated by the Duke, the vicar or the local representatives. The principal towns and villages were represented by the sindici, which had their own councils and officers. Judges and notaries were elected for life or even as inherited offices. The Catalan state was declining under the Turkish and the Venetian (of Negroponte) threats; and also a new threat by Nerio Acciajuoli, Baron of Corinth. Frederick II sent his son Don Alfonso Fadrique as “President of the fortunate army of Franks in the Duchy of Athens. He married Marulla of Euboea, the heiress of Boniface and so received back everything that Guy II had given to her father. The Venetians renewed their truce with the Catalans. In 1355, he became also King of Sicily by the title of Frederick III. Frederick III dies in 1377. The Navarrese Company makes its appearance till the early 1380s. Problems with people of Athens and Salona wanting independence. Livadia—always a privileged town in the Catalan period—received confirmation of its rights by Pedro IV (king of Aragon and new Duke of Athens) and became the seat of the Order of St. George in Greece, an honor due to the fact that the head of the saint was then preserved there. In 1380, Thebes and Livadia were still in the hands of the Navarrese. Don Louis Fadrique begged the king to bestow him and his heirs the dignity of Counts of Malta, to confirm to him the castle of Siderokastron, the island of Aegina and any castles, which he might be able to recover from the Navarrese and their allies before the arrival of the new vicar-general. The king, conscious to the Count of Salona’s services, granted all these requests and received the envoy’s homage. Then he notified his subjects his intention to send Rocaberti to govern them. Rocaberti arrived in Athens in autumn of 1380. Louis Fadrique and Galcerán de Peralta handed over their office to him. His instructions were: to establish friendly relations with all the neighbouring potentates to grant a general amnesty in his master's name to all the inhabitants of the duchies to reward those who had been conspicuous of their loyalty to the King to restore to the rebel branch of the Fadrique clan all the castles and goods which they had forfeited. Among these was the classic island of Aegina, which thus came to hands of Boniface's son, John. to grant exemption from taxes for 2 years to all Greeks and Albanians who would come and settle in the depleted duchies. He wanted to cover the gaps in the population cause of the invasion of the Navarrese Company. At the request of the people of Livadia, he established in their town, where the head of St. George was preserved, a branch of the Order of that Saint. He privately ordered Rocaberti to bring the relic of the Saint to Spain, an order never executed. Caopena in Aegina The Catalan company disappeared from the face of Attica, while 2 branches of the Fadrique family lingered on for a time, the one at Salona, the other at Aegina, where we find their connections, the family of Caopena, ruling till 1451. From John Fadrique, it passed—presumably by the marriage of his daughter—to the family of Caopena, then settled at Nauplia, whose name undoubtedly points to a Catalan origin. The Catalans conveyed the head of St. George and thence the Venetians found it in Aegina when they became possessed of the island and transported it to Venice—to the church of St. Giorgio Maggiore—in 1462. In 1425, Alioto Caopena, at that time ruler of Aegina, placed himself with treaty under the protection of Venice in order to escape the danger of a Turkish raid. The island must then have been fruitful, for one of the conditions under which Venice accorded him her protection, was that he should supply grain to her colonies. He agreed to surrender the island to Venice if his family became extinct. Antonio Acciajuoli was against the treaty for one of his adopted daughters had married the future lord of Aegina, Antonello Caopena. Venetians in Aegina (1451-1537) In 1451, Aegina became Venetian. The islanders welcomed the Venetian rule; the claims of Antonello’ s uncle Arnà, who had lands in Argolis, were satisfied by a pension. A Venetian governor (rettore) was appointed, who was dependent on the authorities of Nauplia. After Arnà's death, his son Alioto renewed his claim to the island but was told that the republic was firmly resolved to keep it. He and his family were pensioned and one of them aided in the defence of Aegina against the Turks, in 1537, was captured with his family and died in a Turkish dungeon. Ιn 1463 came the Turco-Venetian war, which was destined to cost the Venetians: Aegina, Myconos, the Northern Sporades and their colonies in Morea. Peace was concluded in 1479. Venice still retained: Lepanto, Nauplia, Monemvasia, Coron, Modon, Navarino, Northern Sporades, Crete, Myconos and Tenos. Aegina remained subject of Nauplia. Administration Aegina obtained money for her defences by the unwilling sacrifice of her cherished relic, the head of St. George, which had been carried there from Livadia by the Catalans. In 1462, the Venetian Senate ordered the relic to be removed to St. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice. On 12 November, it was transported from Aegina, by Vettore Cappello, the famous Venetian commander. The Senate gave the Aeginetans 100 ducats apiece towards fortifying the island. In 1519, the government was reformed. The system of having two rectors was found to lead in frequent quarrels and the republic thenceforth sent out a single official styled Bailie and Captain, assisted by two councilors, who performed the duties of camerlengo by turns. The Bailie’ s authority extended over the rector of Aegina, whereas Kastri (opposite Hydra) had been granted to two families, the Palaiologoi and the Alberti. A democratic wave passed over the colony. Society at Nauplia was divided into 3 classes: nobles, citizens and plebeians; and it had been the ancient usage that the nobles alone should hold the much-coveted local offices, such as the judge of the inferior court ad inspector of weights and measures. The populace now demanded its share and the Home Government ordered that at least one of the 3 inspectors should be a man of the people. Aegina had always been exposed to the raids of the corsairs and was cursed with oppressive governors during these last 30 years of Venetian rule. Venetian nobles weren't willing to go to this island. In 1533, three rectors of Aegina were punished for their acts of injustice and we have a graphic account of the reception given by the Aeginetans to the captain of Nauplia, who came to hold and enquiry into the administration of these delinquents. [Vid. Inscription over the entrance of St. George the Catholic in Paliachora.] The rectors had spurned their ancient right to elect islander to keep one key of the money-chest. They had also threatened to leave the island in a body with the commissioner, unless the captain avenged their wrongs. In order to spare the pockets of the community, it was ordered that appeals from the governor’ s decision should lie to Crete, instead of Venice. The republic should pay a bakshish to the Turkish governor of the Morea and to the Voevode who was stationed at the frontier of Thermisi (opposite Hydra). The fortifications too, were allowed to fall into despair and were inadequately guarded. 16th Century After the fall of the Duchy of Athens and the principality of Achaia, the only Latin possessions left on the mainland of Greece were the papal city of Monemvasia, the fortress of Vonitsa, the Messenian stations Coron and Modon, Navarino, the castles of Argos and Nauplia, to which the island of Aegina was subordinate, Lepanto and Pteleon. In 1502/03, the new peace left Venice with nothing but Cephalonia, Monemvasia and Nauplia, with their appurtenances in the Morea. And against the sack of Megara, she had to set the temporary capture of the castle of Aegina by Kemal Reis and the carrying off of 2000 Aeginetans. This treaty was renewed in 1513 and 1521. All the supplies of grain of Nauplia and Monemvasia had now to be imported from the Turkish possessions, while corsairs rendered dangerous all traffic by sea. In 1537, Suleyman the Magnificent declared war upon Venice and his admiral Khairedin Barbarossa spread fire and sword upon the Ionian Islands and in October fell upon the island of Aegina. On the 4th day Palaiochora fell, but the church of St George (Latin church) was spared. He massacred all the adult male population and took away 6000 women and children as slaves. So complete was the destruction of the Aeginetans, that when a French admiral, Baron de Blancard, touched the island soon afterwards, he found it devoid of inhabitants. There, as usual, an Albanian immigration replenished, at least to some extent, the devastated sites, but Aegina couldn’t recover its former prosperity. Thence Barbarossa sailed to Naxos, whence he carried off an immense booty, compelling the Duke of Naxos to purchase his further independence by a tribute of 5000 ducats. With the peace of 1540, Venice ceded Nauplia and Monemvasia. For nearly 150 years after, Venice did not own an inch of soil on the mainland of Greece, except the Ionian dependencies of Parga and Butrinto, but of her insular dominions Cyprus, Crete, Tenos and 6 Ionian islands still remained. Ottoman Turks (1540-1687) First desolation of the island by Morosini (1654) Second desolation of the island by Morosini and occupation of Aegina (1687). Siege of Athens (1688) and plague led to the escape of the Athenians to Aegina. The Venetian revival (1687-1715) In 1684, the outbreak of war between Venice and the Ottoman Empire led to the temporary re-conquest of a large part of the country by the soldiers of the West and the reappearance of the lion of St. Mark in the South of Greece. Occupation of Attica by Morosini In 1687 the Venetian army arrived in Piraeus and took command of Attica. The number of the Athenians at that time exceeded 6000, the Albanians from the villages of Attica excluded, and whilst in 1674 the population of Aegina did not seem to exceed 3000 inhabitants, 2/3 of which were women. The Aeginetans had been led to seediness to pay their taxes. The most significant plague epidemic though began in Attica in 1688, an occasion that caused the massive migration of all the Athenians toward south; most of them settled in Aegina. In 1693 Morosini resumed the command, but his only acts were to refortify the castle of Aegina, which he had demolished during the Cretan war in 1655, the cost of upkeep being paid, as long as the war lasted, by the Athenian, and to place it and Salamis under Malipiero as Governor. This led the Athenians to send him a request for the renewal of Venetian protection and an offer of an annual tribute. He died in 1694 and Zeno was appointed at his place. In 1699, thanks to the English mediation, the war ended with the peace of Carlovitz by which Venice retained possession of the 7 Ionian islands, Butrinto and Parga, Morea, Spinalonga and Suda, Tenos, Santa Maura and Aegina and ceased to pay a tribute for Zante, but restored to Sultan Lepanto. The burden of having to contribute to the maintenance of Cerigo and Aegina, both united administratively with the Morea since the peace, the peninsula not only paid all the expenses of administration, but furnished a substantial balance to the naval defence of Venice, in which it was directly interested. Ottoman Turks (1715-1770) Russians (1770-1772) Ottoman Turks (1772-1821) After the Greek revolution of 1821, in the year 1828 Aegina becomes for 2 years the first capital of the new Greek State, under the Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias. Landmarks Panorama of the main harbour on Aegina. The Monastery of Saint Nectarios. Temple of Aphaea, dedicated to its namesake, a goddess which was later associated with Athena; the temple was part of a pre-Christian, equilateral holy triangle of temples including the Athenian Parthenon and the temple of Poseidon at Sounion. Monastery of Agios Nectarios, dedicated to Saint Nectarios, a recent saint of the Greek Orthodox Church. Ioannis Kapodistrias, the first leader of free modern Greece (1776-1831) had a large building erected intended for a barracks, which was subsequently used as a museum, a library and a school. The museum was the first institution of its kind in Greece, but the collection was transferred to Athens in 1834. A statue in the principal square commemorates him. Culture Mythology In Greek mythology, Aegina was a daughter of the river god Asopus and the nymph Metope. She bore at least two children: Menoetius by Actor, and Aeacus by Zeus. When Zeus abducted Aegina, he took her to Oenone, an island close to Attica. This island would later be called Aegina. Here, Aegina gave birth to Aeacus, who would later become king of Oenone; henceforth, the island's name Aegina. Aegina is the gathering place of Myrmidons, in Aegina they gathered and they trained. Zeus needed an elite army and at first thought that Aegina who at the time did not have any villagers was the perfect place. So he turned the ants (, Myrmigia) into warriors who had 6 hands and wore black armors. Later on Myrmidons were known as the most fearsome fighting unit in Greece led by Achilles. Famous Aeginetans Aeacus the first king of Aegina according to mythology Onatas (5th century BC) sculptor Ptolichus (5th century BC) sculptor Cosmas II Atticus (2nd century) Patriarch of Constantinople Paul of Aegina (7th century) medical scholar and physician Saint Athanasia of Aegina (9th century) abbess and saint The influential Leoussi family has originated from the isle of Aigina and their roots go as far as the 15th century. Historical population Year Town population Change Municipal/Island population Change Density 1981 6,730 - 11,127 - 127.3/km² 1991 6,373 -357/-5.30% 11,639 +512/+4.60% 133.2/km² 2001 7,410 +1,037/+16.27% 13,552 +1,913/+16.44% 155.0/km² Communities and villages Aegina (city) Agia Marina Alones Anitseon Kavos Kontos Kypseli Marathon Mesagros Metochi Pacheia Rachi Perdika Portes Sfentouri Souvala Tzikides Vaia Vathy References Notes Welter Gabriel, Aigina, Archäol. Inst. d. Deutschen Reiches, Berlin 1938. Miller William, Essays on the Latin orient, Rome 1921 (reprint: Amsterdam 1964). Miller William, «Η Παληαχώρα της Αιγίνης. Ηρημωμένη ελληνική πόλις», Νέος Ελληνομνήμων Κ΄ (1926), p.363-365. Rubio y Lluch A., «Συμβολαί εις την ιστορίαν των Καταλωνίων εν Ελλάδι», Δελτίον της Ιστορικής και Εθνολογικής Εταιρείας της Ελλάδος Β΄(1885), p.458-466. Lambros Spyridon ed., Έγγραφα αναφερόμενα εις την μεσαιωνικήν ιστορίαν των Αθηνών, Athens 1906. D’ Olwer Nic., Les seigneurs Catalans d’ Egine, τόμος εις μνήμην του Σπυρίδωνος Λάμπρου, Athens 1935. Koulikourdi Georgia, Αίγινα, 2 vols., Athens 1990. Moutsopoulos Nikolaos, Η Παλιαχώρα της Αιγίνης. Ιστορική και μορφολογική εξέτασις των μνημείων, Athens 1962. Nikoloudis Nikolaos, "Η Αίγινα κατά τον Μεσαίωνα και την Τουρκοκρατία", Βυζαντινός Δόμος 7(1993-4), p.13-21. Pennas Charalambos, The Byzantine Aegina, Athens 2004. External links Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976: "Aigina, Greece" Map of Ancient Greece (includes Aegina Island) | Aegina |@lemmatized aegina:103 one:15 saronic:2 island:53 greece:18 gulf:1 athens:45 tradition:4 derive:1 name:4 mother:1 aeacus:6 bear:1 rule:6 ancient:6 time:18 rival:2 great:2 sea:4 power:4 era:1 along:2 offshore:1 islet:1 comprise:1 municipality:1 piraeus:4 prefecture:1 part:9 attica:14 region:2 capital:3 town:9 pop:2 census:1 situate:1 northwestern:1 end:6 due:2 proximity:1 popular:2 quick:1 getaway:1 summer:1 month:1 quite:1 athenian:28 second:5 house:2 besides:2 large:5 village:4 kypséli:1 vathý:1 mesagrós:1 pérdika:1 agía:1 marína:1 vaïa:1 álones:1 kontós:1 geography:1 roughly:1 triangular:1 shape:1 approximately:1 east:1 west:3 north:4 south:5 area:1 extinct:2 volcano:1 constitutes:1 two:10 third:1 northern:3 western:2 side:3 consist:1 stony:1 fertile:2 plain:1 well:2 cultivate:1 produce:1 luxuriant:1 crop:2 grain:5 cotton:1 vine:1 almond:1 olive:2 fig:1 characteristic:1 today:1 pistachio:1 economically:1 sponge:1 fishery:1 notable:1 importance:4 southern:1 volcanic:1 rugged:1 mountainous:1 largely:1 barren:1 high:1 rise:2 conical:1 mount:1 oros:1 panhellenian:1 ridge:1 stretch:1 northward:1 narrow:1 valley:1 either:1 beach:1 also:4 tourist:1 attraction:1 hydrofoil:1 ferry:2 take:9 forty:1 minute:1 reach:1 regular:2 hour:1 ticket:1 price:1 adult:2 within:2 euro:1 range:1 bus:1 service:4 destination:1 throughout:1 agia:2 marina:2 history:11 prehistory:1 prehistoric:1 archaeological:1 finding:1 settlement:2 obsidian:1 tool:1 point:3 early:8 inhabitation:1 century:22 bc:28 mycenaean:5 minoan:2 influence:2 accord:4 herodotus:14 v:3 viii:4 pausanias:1 colony:5 epidaurus:1 state:18 originally:1 subject:4 placement:1 peloponnesus:1 make:8 center:1 trade:5 even:4 earlier:1 inhabitant:6 come:11 asia:1 minor:1 richard:2 stillwell:2 ed:3 princeton:2 encyclopedia:2 classical:2 site:3 ceramic:1 find:7 context:1 ca:2 discovery:1 number:6 gold:1 ornament:1 belong:2 late:4 period:9 art:1 suggest:3 inference:2 culture:2 hold:5 generation:1 dorian:3 conquest:3 argo:4 lacedaemon:1 j:2 evans:1 journal:1 hellenic:1 study:1 vol:1 xiii:1 p:5 probable:3 doricized:1 political:1 alliance:5 historical:2 fact:4 membership:1 league:4 calauria:1 calaurian:1 amphictyony:1 include:5 minyan:1 boeotian:1 orchomenus:1 troezen:1 hermione:1 nauplia:13 prasiae:1 probably:1 organization:1 city:7 still:5 purpose:1 suppress:1 piracy:3 aegean:1 arise:1 result:1 decay:2 naval:4 supremacy:2 prince:3 appear:3 eretrian:1 lelantine:1 war:25 hence:2 perhaps:1 may:3 explain:2 samos:1 leading:2 member:2 chalcidian:1 reign:2 king:11 amphicrates:1 herod:6 iii:5 e:4 later:9 half:2 right:3 greek:13 drachm:1 obverse:1 land:3 tortoise:1 reverse:1 αιγ:1 ina:1 dolphin:1 follow:4 therefore:3 maritime:2 date:6 back:5 pre:2 usually:1 authority:5 ephorus:1 pheidon:1 establish:4 mint:3 example:2 kydonia:2 crete:5 begin:4 coin:3 overstriking:1 aeginian:1 specimen:1 thus:3 aeginetes:3 year:24 invention:1 coinage:2 lydian:1 c:7 introduce:1 world:3 aeginetan:6 scale:2 weight:2 measure:2 develop:1 mid:1 general:5 use:5 euboic:1 attic:1 sufficient:1 evidence:2 commercial:4 expansion:1 archaic:1 ideal:1 stop:1 fleet:5 way:1 mediterranean:1 port:3 control:1 emerge:1 michael:5 hogan:1 cydonia:1 modern:3 antiquarian:1 january:1 next:3 three:2 principal:5 emporium:1 naucratis:1 european:1 share:2 factory:1 ii:10 beginning:3 seem:5 entrepôt:1 pontic:1 monopoly:1 vii:3 unlike:1 corinth:5 chalcis:1 eretria:1 miletus:1 found:1 strabo:1 refers:1 cannot:1 regard:1 real:3 exception:1 statement:1 rivalry:1 u:2 almost:2 exclusively:1 relation:4 neighbour:2 compete:1 thalassocracy:1 sixth:1 solon:2 pass:4 law:2 limit:1 commerce:2 legendary:1 record:3 vi:3 involve:3 critical:2 problem:2 difficulty:2 interest:1 trace:3 hostility:4 dispute:1 image:4 goddess:2 damia:2 auxesia:2 carry:8 epidauros:1 parent:1 epidaurians:1 accustom:1 annual:2 offering:2 deity:1 athena:2 erechtheus:1 payment:1 wood:1 statue:3 upon:9 refusal:4 continue:3 endeavour:1 away:2 design:1 miraculously:1 frustrate:1 version:1 fell:5 knee:1 single:2 survivor:1 return:1 fall:4 victim:1 fury:1 comrade:1 widow:1 pierce:1 brooch:1 pin:1 assign:3 old:4 feud:1 recent:2 writer:2 g:2 b:2 bury:1 r:1 w:1 macan:1 peisistratus:1 circa:1 question:1 however:5 whether:1 whole:2 episode:2 mythical:1 analysis:1 narrative:1 reveal:1 little:3 else:1 series:1 aetiological:1 explanatory:1 cult:1 custom:2 kneeling:1 posture:1 native:1 ware:1 instead:2 worship:1 change:4 woman:3 dress:1 ionian:7 style:2 account:3 give:10 following:2 effect:1 thebe:10 defeat:2 appeal:4 assistance:1 aeginetans:11 first:11 content:2 send:8 aeacidae:2 tutelary:1 hero:1 subsequently:4 enter:2 ravage:1 seaboard:1 prepare:1 reprisal:1 spite:2 advice:2 delphic:1 oracle:2 desist:1 attack:2 thirty:4 meanwhile:1 dedicate:3 precinct:3 project:1 interrupt:1 spartan:4 intrigue:1 restoration:1 hippias:1 symbol:1 submission:1 earth:1 water:1 persia:2 sparta:3 punish:2 act:3 medism:2 cleomenes:2 cross:1 arrest:1 responsible:1 attempt:1 unsuccessful:1 deposition:1 demaratus:1 visit:1 accompany:1 new:8 colleague:1 leotychides:2 seize:3 ten:1 lead:8 citizen:2 deposit:1 hostage:3 death:4 restore:6 retaliate:1 festival:1 sunium:2 thereupon:1 concert:1 plot:2 nicodromus:4 leader:3 democratic:3 party:2 betrayal:1 aid:3 day:2 seventy:1 vessel:4 fail:1 owe:1 arrival:2 force:4 already:1 flee:2 engagement:1 succeed:2 win:3 victory:4 incident:2 subsequent:1 expressly:1 refer:2 interval:1 sending:1 herald:1 invasion:2 datis:1 artaphernes:1 cf:3 story:2 element:1 nowhere:1 implies:1 peace:7 conclude:2 distinguish:1 different:1 would:8 last:5 shortly:1 congress:2 isthmus:2 twenty:5 five:1 detail:1 remarkable:1 marathon:5 salami:8 since:4 isthmian:1 describe:1 important:1 wag:1 improbable:1 iv:2 incidental:1 indication:2 true:1 event:1 viz:1 elapse:1 dedication:2 final:2 ruin:2 temple:5 apollo:1 outbreak:3 support:2 building:3 trireme:1 themistocles:2 constitution:1 ath:1 pol:1 error:1 put:2 overture:1 unquestionably:1 nothing:2 veil:1 diplomatic:1 form:1 occasion:2 bad:1 certain:2 initial:1 success:1 able:2 proposal:1 devote:1 surplus:1 fund:1 imply:1 convince:1 supreme:1 effort:1 necessary:1 note:2 confirmation:2 view:2 chronology:1 precisely:1 eusebius:1 chron:1 persian:3 peloponnesian:4 corinthian:2 repulse:1 xerxes:1 possible:1 play:3 concede:1 main:2 naturally:1 seek:1 obscure:1 rather:1 prize:1 valour:1 award:1 destruction:2 much:2 work:1 contingent:1 scheme:1 defence:4 consideration:1 become:12 difficult:1 credit:1 sect:1 philo:1 laconian:1 policy:2 cimon:2 secure:1 foreign:1 consequent:1 ostracism:1 sometimes:1 call:3 brunt:1 fighting:2 latter:1 surrender:2 siege:2 accept:4 position:1 ally:2 tribute:4 fix:2 talent:1 term:2 truce:2 covenant:1 autonomy:1 clause:1 remain:4 dead:1 letter:1 winter:1 expel:1 cleruchy:1 exile:1 settle:4 thyreatis:1 frontier:2 laconia:1 argolis:2 home:2 safe:1 rancour:1 nicias:1 sword:2 lysander:1 scattered:1 remnant:1 base:1 operation:1 greatness:2 henceforward:1 insignificant:1 economic:2 decline:4 mistake:1 attribute:1 solely:1 development:1 navy:1 steadily:1 absolutely:1 relatively:1 source:1 principally:1 levant:2 must:3 suffer:1 seriously:1 empire:4 patriotism:1 glory:1 pay:7 loss:1 marine:1 completeness:1 powerful:1 look:1 vain:1 analogous:1 case:1 explanation:1 condition:2 prosperity:2 rest:2 basis:1 slave:3 labour:1 impossible:2 indeed:1 aristotle:1 athenaeus:1 estimate:1 population:8 clear:1 proportion:1 free:4 respect:1 anticipate:1 constitutional:1 unusually:1 simple:1 long:2 retain:3 independence:3 government:3 oligarchy:1 heroic:1 monarchy:1 tyranni:1 prove:1 existence:1 could:1 count:6 pericles:1 eye:1 sore:2 leme:1 peiraeus:1 roman:1 successive:1 domination:1 macedon:1 aetolians:1 attalus:1 pergamum:1 rome:2 byzantine:7 centre:1 church:6 construction:1 activity:1 ad:2 provide:1 flourish:1 economy:1 eventual:1 abandonment:1 sometime:1 ninth:1 consequence:1 arab:1 raid:3 emigration:1 exaction:1 official:5 complete:2 tale:1 choniates:2 address:1 memorial:1 emperor:5 alexios:1 komnenos:1 behalf:1 learn:1 jurisdiction:1 provincial:1 governor:9 reside:1 allow:2 like:1 patras:1 monemvasia:7 govern:2 άρχοντες:1 benedict:1 peterborough:1 graphic:2 many:1 uninhabited:1 fear:1 pirate:2 others:1 chosen:1 lair:1 makronesos:1 stronghold:1 corsair:3 injure:1 property:1 dangerously:1 wound:1 nephew:2 collect:1 ecclesiastical:1 revenue:2 fraternize:1 latin:5 nominally:1 continental:1 river:2 peneios:1 aetolia:1 compose:1 θέμα:1 ελλάδος:2 boeotia:3 phokis:1 lokris:2 thessaly:7 euboea:8 theme:2 administrate:1 together:1 peloponnese:3 frank:2 venetian:18 best:1 harbor:1 market:1 corfu:1 cephalonia:2 zante:2 leukas:1 oreo:1 karystos:6 province:1 cyclades:1 external:2 privilege:1 enjoy:1 burgundian:2 embrace:1 megarid:1 opuntian:1 fortress:2 least:4 atalante:1 livadostro:1 amateur:1 othon:5 de:14 la:1 roche:1 depart:1 burgundy:1 leave:6 guy:7 duke:12 enjoyed:1 till:3 fratricidal:1 guillaume:2 villeardouin:2 achaia:5 baron:5 regent:1 capture:3 treaty:5 sign:1 venice:16 triarchs:2 william:7 recognize:2 guglielmo:1 da:2 verona:4 narzotto:1 dale:1 carceri:1 grapella:1 turn:5 suzerain:1 promise:1 destroy:1 castle:10 negroponte:3 engage:1 cancel:1 fief:2 bailie:3 carintana:1 constantinople:4 baldwin:2 spend:2 duchy:7 cicon:3 lord:4 attend:1 active:1 euboean:1 lend:1 hyperpera:1 need:3 liquidate:1 dept:1 arm:1 st:10 john:4 baptist:1 pious:1 present:1 abbey:1 citeaux:1 son:10 get:1 help:1 sevastokrator:1 ioannes:3 angelos:1 wan:1 imperial:1 army:4 reward:3 daughter:5 helena:3 bride:1 young:1 brother:4 extend:2 far:2 battle:1 catch:1 prisoner:1 ransom:1 die:5 figure:1 frankish:1 angevin:1 naples:1 overlord:1 viterbo:1 money:3 defense:1 angelina:1 wife:1 marry:3 hugh:1 brienne:2 ceremony:1 age:1 bonifate:1 knight:1 mainland:3 bring:2 sol:1 bestow:2 hand:6 agnes:1 cousin:2 lady:1 supply:3 walter:1 lecce:1 think:1 might:2 catalan:15 despot:1 epeiros:1 employer:1 occupy:1 four:1 survive:1 boniface:4 roger:3 deslaur:2 eldest:1 naxos:3 jean:1 maisy:1 άρχοντας:1 company:7 annex:1 neopatras:2 salona:4 offer:2 post:1 refuse:1 frederick:4 sicily:3 bastard:1 manfred:1 fadrigo:1 among:2 jaime:2 elder:1 pedro:2 estate:1 people:4 rebel:2 vicar:4 yet:1 another:1 bonifacio:2 inherit:1 lamia:1 receive:4 reservation:1 thereby:1 reunite:1 possession:4 namesake:2 grandfather:1 subdue:1 tax:3 administration:4 feudal:1 system:2 exist:1 anymore:1 assize:1 barcelona:1 common:1 language:1 french:2 κομητεία:2 δημητριάδος:1 μαρκιονεία:1 βοδονίτσης:1 σαλώνων:1 ludwig:2 fadrique:9 master:2 lidoriki:1 zetouni:1 siderokastron:2 delphoi:1 αυθεντεία:5 σιδηροκάστρου:1 stefan:2 melissenos:1 novelles:2 marshal:2 husband:1 sister:1 maria:1 cantacouzena:1 αιγίνης:3 στειρίου:1 φωκίδα:1 αυθεντείαι:1 καρδίτσης:1 και:4 αταλάντης:1 καπραίνης:1 χαιρώνεια:1 estanyol:1 chief:1 always:3 choose:1 rank:1 particularly:1 soon:2 office:5 represent:2 man:2 lluria:1 ducal:1 aula:1 district:1 local:3 veguer:1 castellano:1 capitan:1 whose:2 nominate:1 representative:1 sindici:1 council:1 officer:1 judge:2 notary:1 elect:2 life:1 inherited:1 turkish:5 threat:2 nerio:1 acciajuoli:2 alfonso:1 president:1 fortunate:1 marulla:1 heiress:1 everything:1 father:1 renew:3 title:1 dy:1 navarrese:4 appearance:1 want:2 livadia:4 privileged:1 aragon:1 seat:1 order:9 george:6 honor:1 head:4 saint:8 preserve:2 louis:2 beg:1 heir:1 dignity:1 malta:1 confirm:1 recover:2 conscious:1 grant:4 request:3 envoy:1 homage:1 notify:1 intention:1 rocaberti:3 arrive:2 autumn:1 galcerán:1 peralta:1 instruction:1 friendly:1 potentate:1 amnesty:1 conspicuous:1 loyalty:1 branch:3 clan:1 good:1 forfeit:1 classic:1 exemption:1 albanian:3 depleted:1 cover:1 gap:1 cause:2 privately:1 relic:3 spain:1 never:1 execute:1 caopena:5 disappear:1 face:1 family:8 linger:1 connection:1 presumably:1 marriage:1 undoubtedly:1 origin:1 convey:1 thence:2 possess:1 transport:2 giorgio:2 maggiore:2 alioto:2 ruler:1 place:5 protection:3 escape:2 danger:1 fruitful:1 agree:1 antonio:1 adopted:1 future:1 antonello:2 islander:2 welcome:1 claim:2 uncle:1 arnà:2 satisfy:1 pension:2 rettore:1 appoint:2 dependent:1 tell:1 republic:3 firmly:1 resolve:1 keep:2 turk:4 dungeon:1 ιn:1 turco:1 destine:1 cost:2 myconos:2 sporades:2 morea:5 lepanto:3 coron:2 modon:2 navarino:2 tenos:3 obtain:1 unwilling:1 sacrifice:1 cherished:1 senate:2 remove:1 november:1 vettore:1 cappello:1 famous:2 commander:1 ducat:2 apiece:1 towards:1 fortify:1 reform:1 rector:4 frequent:1 quarrel:1 thenceforth:1 captain:3 assist:1 councilors:1 perform:1 duty:1 camerlengo:1 whereas:1 kastri:1 opposite:2 hydra:2 palaiologoi:1 alberti:1 wave:1 society:1 divide:1 class:1 noble:3 plebeian:1 usage:1 alone:1 coveted:1 inferior:1 court:1 inspector:2 populace:1 demand:1 expose:1 curse:1 oppressive:1 willing:1 go:2 injustice:1 reception:1 enquiry:1 delinquent:1 vid:1 inscription:1 entrance:1 catholic:1 paliachora:1 spurn:1 key:1 chest:1 threaten:1 body:1 commissioner:1 unless:1 avenge:1 wrong:1 spare:1 pocket:1 community:2 decision:1 lie:1 bakshish:1 voevode:1 station:2 thermisi:1 fortification:1 despair:1 inadequately:1 guard:1 principality:1 papal:1 vonitsa:1 messenian:1 subordinate:1 pteleon:1 appurtenance:1 sack:1 megara:1 set:1 temporary:2 kemal:1 import:1 render:1 dangerous:1 traffic:1 suleyman:1 magnificent:1 declared:1 admiral:2 khairedin:1 barbarossa:2 spread:1 fire:1 october:1 palaiochora:1 spar:1 massacre:1 male:1 child:2 blancard:1 touch:1 afterwards:1 devoid:1 usual:1 immigration:1 replenish:1 extent:1 devastate:1 former:1 sail:1 whence:1 immense:1 booty:1 compel:1 purchase:1 cede:1 nearly:1 inch:1 soil:1 except:1 dependency:1 parga:2 butrinto:2 insular:1 dominion:1 cyprus:1 ottoman:4 desolation:2 morosini:4 occupation:2 plague:2 revival:1 country:1 soldier:1 reappearance:1 lion:1 mark:1 command:2 exceed:2 exclude:1 whilst:1 seediness:1 significant:1 epidemic:1 though:1 massive:1 migration:1 toward:1 resume:1 refortify:1 demolish:1 cretan:1 upkeep:1 salamis:1 malipiero:1 renewal:1 zeno:1 thanks:1 english:1 mediation:1 carlovitz:1 spinalonga:1 suda:1 santa:1 maura:1 cease:1 sultan:1 burden:1 contribute:1 maintenance:1 cerigo:1 united:1 administratively:1 peninsula:1 expense:1 furnish:1 substantial:1 balance:1 directly:1 interested:1 russian:1 revolution:1 becomes:1 ioannis:2 kapodistrias:2 landmarks:1 panorama:1 harbour:1 monastery:2 nectarios:3 aphaea:1 associate:1 christian:1 equilateral:1 holy:1 triangle:1 parthenon:1 poseidon:1 sounion:1 agio:1 orthodox:1 erect:1 intend:1 barrack:1 museum:2 library:1 school:1 institution:1 kind:1 collection:1 transfer:1 square:1 commemorate:1 mythology:3 god:1 asopus:1 nymph:1 metope:1 bore:1 menoetius:1 actor:1 zeus:3 abduct:1 oenone:2 close:1 birth:1 henceforth:1 gather:2 myrmidon:2 train:1 elite:1 thought:1 villager:1 perfect:1 ant:1 myrmigia:1 warrior:1 wear:1 black:1 armor:1 know:1 fearsome:1 unit:1 achilles:1 onatas:1 sculptor:2 ptolichus:1 cosmas:1 atticus:1 patriarch:1 paul:1 medical:1 scholar:1 physician:1 athanasia:1 abbess:1 influential:1 leoussi:1 originate:1 isle:1 aigina:3 root:1 municipal:1 density:1 alones:1 anitseon:1 kavos:1 kontos:1 kypseli:1 mesagros:1 metochi:1 pacheia:1 rachi:1 perdika:1 sfentouri:1 souvala:1 tzikides:1 vaia:1 vathy:1 reference:1 welter:1 gabriel:1 archäol:1 inst:1 deutschen:1 reich:1 berlin:1 miller:2 essay:1 orient:1 reprint:1 amsterdam:1 η:3 παληαχώρα:1 της:4 ηρημωμένη:1 ελληνική:1 πόλις:1 νέος:1 ελληνομνήμων:1 κ:1 rubio:1 lluch:1 συμβολαί:1 εις:3 την:3 ιστορίαν:2 των:3 καταλωνίων:1 εν:1 ελλάδι:1 δελτίον:1 ιστορικής:1 εθνολογικής:1 εταιρείας:1 β:1 lambros:1 spyridon:1 έγγραφα:1 αναφερόμενα:1 μεσαιωνικήν:1 αθηνών:1 olwer:1 nic:1 le:1 seigneurs:1 egine:1 τόμος:1 μνήμην:1 του:1 σπυρίδωνος:1 λάμπρου:1 koulikourdi:1 georgia:1 αίγινα:2 vols:1 moutsopoulos:1 nikolaos:2 παλιαχώρα:1 ιστορική:1 μορφολογική:1 εξέτασις:1 μνημείων:1 nikoloudis:1 κατά:1 τον:1 μεσαίωνα:1 τουρκοκρατία:1 βυζαντινός:1 δόμος:1 pennas:1 charalambos:1 link:1 map:1 |@bigram saronic_gulf:1 tourist_attraction:1 archaeological_finding:1 richard_stillwell:2 stillwell_ed:2 michael_hogan:1 almost_exclusively:1 delphic_oracle:1 athens_sparta:1 isthmus_corinth:1 outbreak_hostility:1 peloponnesian_war:3 alexios_komnenos:1 port_piraeus:1 athens_thebe:2 la_roche:1 eldest_son:1 soon_afterwards:1 ottoman_turk:3 ottoman_empire:1 plague_epidemic:1 pay_tribute:1 patriarch_constantinople:1 external_link:1 |
4,654 | Alexander_I_of_Scotland | Alexander I or Alaxandair mac Maíl Coluim (Modern Gaelic: Alasdair mac Mhaol Chaluim) (c. 1078 – 23 April 1124), called "The Fierce", This nickname however is not attested for another three centuries, in the work of Andrew of Wyntoun. King of the Scots or King of Alba, was the fourth son of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada by his wife Margaret of Wessex, grand-niece of Edward the Confessor. He was named for Pope Alexander II. Alexander was his unmarried brother Edgar's heir, perhaps throughout his reign, and certainly by 1104 when he was the senior layman present at the examination of the remains of Saint Cuthbert at Durham prior to their reinterrment. He held lands in Scotland north of the Forth and in Lothian. Barrow, p. 154. On the death of Edgar in 1107 he succeeded to the Scottish crown; but, in accordance with Edgar's instructions, their brother David was granted an appanage in southern Scotland. Edgar's will granted David the lands of the former kingdom of Strathclyde or Cumbria, and this was apparently agreed in advance by Edgar, Alexander, David and their brother-in-law Henry I of England. However, in 1113, perhaps at Henry's instigation, and with the support of his Anglo-Norman, David demanded, and received, additional lands in Lothian along the Upper Tweed and Teviot. David did not receive the title of king, but of "prince of the Cumbrians", and his lands remained under Alexander's final authority. Oram, pp. 60–63. The dispute over Upper Tweeddale and Teviotdale does not appear to have damaged relations between Alexander and David, although it was unpopular in some quarters. A Gaelic poem laments:It's bad what Malcolm's son has done,dividing us from Alexander;he causes, like each king's son before,the plunder of stable Alba. Oram, p. 66 citing Clancy, The Triumph Tree. The dispute over the eastern marches does not appear to have caused lasting trouble between Alexander and Henry of England. In 1114 he joined Henry on campaign in Wales against Gruffydd ap Cynan of Gwynedd. Oram, p. 65. Alexander's marriage with Henry's illegitimate daughter Sybilla de Normandy may have occurred as early as 1107, or as at late as 1114. Oram, p. 65; a date around 1114 would place the marriage at about the same time as that of David and Maud of Huntingdon. William of Malmesbury's account attacks Sybilla, but the evidence argues that Alexander and Sybilla were a devoted but childless couple and Sybilla was of noteworthy piety. Duncan,p. 65; Oram, p. 71. Sybilla died in unrecorded circumstances at Eilean nam Ban (Kenmore on Loch Tay) in July, 1122 and was buried at Dunfermline Abbey. Alexander did not remarry and Walter Bower wrote that he planned an Augustinian Priory at the Eilean nam Ban dedicated to Sybilla's memory, and he may have taken steps to have her venerated. Oram, p. 71. The reverse of the seal of Alexander I, enhanced as a 19th century steel engraving. Alexander had at least one illegitimate child, Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair, who was later to be involved in a revolt against David I in the 1130s. He was imprisoned at Roxburgh for many years afterwards, perhaps until his death some time after 1157. Oram, p. 77. The identity of this person may be still in question, see Meic Uilleim and MacHeths. Alexander was, like his brothers Edgar and David, a notably pious king. He was responsible for foundations at Scone and Inchcolm. His mother's chaplain and hagiographer Thurgot was named Bishop of Saint Andrews (or Cell Rígmonaid) in 1107, presumably by Alexander's order. The case of Thurgot's would-be successor Eadmer shows that Alexander's wishes were not always accepted by the religious community, perhaps because Eadmer had the backing of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Ralph d'Escures, rather than Thurstan of York. Alexander also patronised Saint Andrews, granting lands intended for an Augustinian Priory, which may have been the same as that intended to honour his wife. Barrow, p. 156. For all his religiosity, Alexander was not remembered as a man of peace. John of Fordun says of him: He manifested the terrible aspect of his character in his reprisals in the Mormaerdom of Moray. Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland says that Alexander was holding court at Invergowrie when he was attacked by "men of the Isles". Wyntoun, cxxvii. Walter Bower says the attackers were from Moray and Mearns. Alexander pursued them north, to "Stockford" in Ross (near Beauly) where he defeated them. This, says Wyntoun, is why he was named the "Fierce". The dating of this is uncertain, as are his enemies' identity. However, in 1116 the Annals of Ulster report: "Ladhmann son of Domnall, grandson of the king of Scotland, was killed by the men of Moray." The king referred to is Alexander's father, Malcolm III, and Domnall was Alexander's half brother. The Mormaerdom or Kingdom of Moray was ruled by the family of Macbeth (Mac Bethad mac Findláich) and Lulach (Lulach mac Gille Coemgáin); not overmighty subjects, but a family who had ruled Alba within little more than a lifetime. Who the Mormaer or King was at this time is not known, it may have been Óengus of Moray or his father, whose name is not known. As for the Mearns, the only known Mormaer of Mearns, Máel Petair, had murdered Alexander's half-brother Duncan II (Donnchad mac Maíl Coluim) in 1094. MacDonald, pp. 23–24, deals with this affair. Alexander died in April 1124 at his court at Stirling; his brother David, probably the acknowledged heir since the death of Sybilla, succeeded him. Oram, pp.71–72. Ancestry </center> Notes References Barrow, G.W.S., The Kingdom of the Scots. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2003. ISBN 0-7486-1803-1 Duncan, A.A.M., The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292: Succession and Independence. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2002. ISBN 0-7486-1626-8 Oram, Richard, David I: The King Who Made Scotland. Tempus, Stroud, 2004. ISBN 0-7524-2825-X McDonald, R. Andrew, Outlaws of Medieval Scotland: Challenges to the Canmore Kings, 1058–1266. Tuckwell Press, East Linton, 2003. ISBN 1-86232-236-8 | Alexander_I_of_Scotland |@lemmatized alexander:24 alaxandair:2 mac:8 maíl:2 coluim:4 modern:1 gaelic:2 alasdair:1 mhaol:1 chaluim:1 c:1 april:2 call:1 fierce:2 nickname:1 however:3 attest:1 another:1 three:1 century:2 work:1 andrew:5 wyntoun:4 king:10 scot:3 alba:3 fourth:1 son:4 máel:3 donnchada:1 wife:2 margaret:1 wessex:1 grand:1 niece:1 edward:1 confessor:1 name:4 pope:1 ii:2 unmarried:1 brother:7 edgar:6 heir:2 perhaps:4 throughout:1 reign:1 certainly:1 senior:1 layman:1 present:1 examination:1 remains:1 saint:3 cuthbert:1 durham:1 prior:1 reinterrment:1 hold:2 land:5 scotland:6 north:2 forth:1 lothian:2 barrow:3 p:9 death:3 succeed:2 scottish:1 crown:1 accordance:1 instruction:1 david:11 grant:3 appanage:1 southern:1 former:1 kingdom:3 strathclyde:1 cumbria:1 apparently:1 agree:1 advance:1 law:1 henry:5 england:2 instigation:1 support:1 anglo:1 norman:1 demand:1 receive:2 additional:1 along:1 upper:2 tweed:1 teviot:1 title:1 prince:1 cumbrians:1 remain:1 final:1 authority:1 oram:9 pp:3 dispute:2 tweeddale:1 teviotdale:1 appear:2 damage:1 relation:1 although:1 unpopular:1 quarter:1 poem:1 lament:1 bad:1 malcolm:2 divide:1 u:1 cause:2 like:2 plunder:1 stable:1 cite:1 clancy:1 triumph:1 tree:1 eastern:1 march:1 last:1 trouble:1 join:1 campaign:1 wale:1 gruffydd:1 ap:1 cynan:1 gwynedd:1 marriage:2 illegitimate:2 daughter:1 sybilla:7 de:1 normandy:1 may:5 occur:1 early:1 late:1 date:1 around:1 would:2 place:1 time:3 maud:1 huntingdon:1 william:1 malmesbury:1 account:1 attack:2 evidence:1 argue:1 devote:1 childless:1 couple:1 noteworthy:1 piety:1 duncan:3 die:2 unrecorded:1 circumstance:1 eilean:2 nam:2 ban:2 kenmore:1 loch:1 tay:1 july:1 bury:1 dunfermline:1 abbey:1 remarry:1 walter:2 bower:2 write:1 plan:1 augustinian:2 priory:2 dedicate:1 memory:1 take:1 step:1 venerate:1 reverse:1 seal:1 enhance:1 steel:1 engrave:1 least:1 one:1 child:1 later:1 involve:1 revolt:1 imprison:1 roxburgh:1 many:1 year:1 afterwards:1 identity:2 person:1 still:1 question:1 see:1 meic:1 uilleim:1 macheths:1 notably:1 pious:1 responsible:1 foundation:1 scone:1 inchcolm:1 mother:1 chaplain:1 hagiographer:1 thurgot:2 bishop:1 cell:1 rígmonaid:1 presumably:1 order:1 case:1 successor:1 eadmer:2 show:1 wish:1 always:1 accept:1 religious:1 community:1 backing:1 archbishop:1 canterbury:1 ralph:1 escures:1 rather:1 thurstan:1 york:1 also:1 patronise:1 intend:2 honour:1 religiosity:1 remember:1 man:1 peace:1 john:1 fordun:1 say:4 manifest:1 terrible:1 aspect:1 character:1 reprisal:1 mormaerdom:2 moray:5 orygynale:1 cronykil:1 court:2 invergowrie:1 men:2 isle:1 cxxvii:1 attacker:1 mearns:3 pursue:1 stockford:1 ross:1 near:1 beauly:1 defeat:1 dating:1 uncertain:1 enemy:1 annals:1 ulster:1 report:1 ladhmann:1 domnall:2 grandson:1 kill:1 refer:1 father:2 iii:1 half:2 rule:2 family:2 macbeth:1 bethad:1 findláich:1 lulach:2 gille:1 coemgáin:1 overmighty:1 subject:1 within:1 little:1 lifetime:1 mormaer:2 know:2 óengus:1 whose:1 known:1 petair:1 murder:1 donnchad:1 macdonald:1 deal:1 affair:1 stirling:1 probably:1 acknowledge:1 since:1 ancestry:1 center:1 note:1 reference:1 g:1 w:1 edinburgh:4 university:2 press:3 isbn:4 kingship:1 succession:1 independence:1 richard:1 make:1 tempus:1 stroud:1 x:1 mcdonald:1 r:1 outlaw:1 medieval:1 challenge:1 canmore:1 tuckwell:1 east:1 linton:1 |@bigram mac_maíl:2 maíl_coluim:2 andrew_wyntoun:2 máel_coluim:2 coluim_mac:2 mac_donnchada:1 edward_confessor:1 william_malmesbury:1 loch_tay:1 dunfermline_abbey:1 archbishop_canterbury:1 john_fordun:1 annals_ulster:1 mac_bethad:1 bethad_mac:1 mac_gille:1 gille_coemgáin:1 donnchad_mac:1 duncan_kingship:1 kingship_scot:1 |
4,655 | Electron_shell | An electron shell may be thought of as an orbit followed by electrons around an atom nucleus. Because each shell can contain only a fixed number of electrons, each shell is associated with a particular range of electron energy, and thus each shell must fill completely before electrons can be added to an outer shell. The electrons in the outermost shell determine the chemical properties of the atom (see Valence shell). For an explanation of why electrons exist in these shells see electron configuration. Corrosion Source - Electron Subshells History The existence of electron shells was first observed experimentally in Charles Barkla's and Henry Moseley's X-ray absorption studies. Barkla labeled them with the letters K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q. The origin of this terminology was alphabetic. A J series was also suspected, though later experiments indicated that the K absorption lines are produced by the innermost electrons. These letters were later found to correspond to the n-values 1, 2, 3, etc. They are used in the spectroscopic Siegbahn notation. The name for electron shells is derived from the Bohr model, in which groups of electrons were believed to orbit the nucleus at certain distances, so that their orbits formed "shells" around the nucleus. The physical chemist Gilbert Lewis was responsible for much of the early development of the theory of the participation of valence shell electrons in chemical bonding. Linus Pauling later generalized and extended the theory while applying insights from quantum mechanics. Shells The electron shells are labelled K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q; or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7; going from innermost shell outwards. Electrons in outer shells have higher average energy and travel further from the nucleus than those in inner shells. This makes them more important in determining how the atom reacts chemically and behaves as a conductor, because the pull of the atom's nucleus upon them is weaker and more easily broken. In this way, a given element's reactivity is highly dependent upon its electronic configuration. Subshells Each shell is composed of one or more subshells, which are themselves composed of atomic orbitals. For example, the first (K) shell has one subshell, called "1s"; the second (L) shell has two subshells, called "2s" and "2p"; the third shell has "3s", "3p", and "3d"; and so on. The various possible subshells are shown in the following table: Subshell label l Max electrons Shells containing it Historical name s 0 2 Every shell sharp p 1 6 2nd shell and higher principal d 2 10 3rd shell and higher diffuse f 3 14 4th shell and higher fundamental g 4 18 5th shell and higher h 5 22 6th shell and higher i 6 26 7th shell and higher The first column is the "subshell label", a lowercase-letter label for the type of subshell. For example, the "4s subshell" is a subshell of the fourth (N) shell, with the type ("s") described in the first row. The second column is the azimuthal quantum number of the subshell. The precise definition involves quantum mechanics, but it is a number that characterizes the subshell. The third column is the maximum number of electrons that can be put into a subshell of that type. For example, the top row says that each s-type subshell ("1s", "2s", etc.) can have at most two electrons in it. The fourth column says which shells have a subshell of that type. For example, looking at the top two rows, every shell has an s subshell, while only the second shell and higher have a p subshell (i.e., there is no "1p" subshell). The final column gives the historical origin of the labels s, p, d, and f. They come from early studies of atomic spectral lines. Although it is commonly stated that all the electrons in a shell have the same energy, this is an approximation. However, the electrons in a subshell do have exactly the same level of energy, The statement that the electrons in a subshell have exactly the same level of energy is true in an isolated atom, where it follows quantum-mechanically from the spherical symmetry of the system. When the atom is part of a molecule, this no longer holds; see, for example, crystal field theory. with later subshells having more energy per electron than earlier ones. This effect is great enough that the energy ranges associated with shells can overlap (see Valence shells and Aufbau Principle). Number of electrons in each shell Each s subshell holds at most 2 electrons Each p subshell holds at most 6 electrons Each d subshell holds at most 10 electrons Each f subshell holds at most 14 electrons Therefore, the K shell, which contains only an s subshell, can hold up to 2 electrons; the L shell, which contains an s and a p, can hold up to 2+6=8 electrons; and so forth. The general formula is that the nth shell can in principle hold up to 2n2 electrons. Although that formula gives the maximum in principle, in fact that maximum can only be achieved (by known elements) for the first four shells (K,L,M,N). In fact, no known element has more than 32 electrons in any one shell. Chem4Kids - Orbitals Electron & Shell Configuration This is because the subshells are filled according to the Aufbau principle. The first elements to have more than 32 electrons in one shell would belong to the g-block of period 8 of the periodic table. These elements would have some electrons in their 5g subshell and thus have more than 32 electrons in the O shell (fifth principal shell). Valence shells The valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom. It is usually (and misleadingly) said that the electrons in this shell make up its valence electrons, that is, the electrons that determine how the atom behaves in chemical reactions. While atoms with complete valence shells (noble gases) are the most chemically non-reactive, those with only one electron in their valence shells (alkalis) or just missing one electron from having a complete shell (halogens) are the most reactive. Vision Learning - Chemical Reactions However, the truth is more complicated. The electrons that determine how an atom reacts chemically are those that travel furthest from the nucleus - i.e. those with the most energy. As stated in Subshells, electrons in the inner subshells have less energy than those in outer subshells. This effect is great enough that the 3d electrons have more energy than 4s electrons, and are therefore more important in chemical reactions, hence making them valence electrons although they are not in the so-called valence shell. Chemguide - Atomic Orbitals List of elements with electrons per shell The list below gives the elements arranged by increasing atomic number and shows the number of electrons per shell. At a glance, one can see that subsets of the list show obvious patterns. In particular, the seven elements (in light blue) before a noble gas (group 18, in yellow) higher than helium have the number of electrons in the valence shell in arithmetic progression. Whether this extends to Ununseptium remains to be determined. Sorting the table by chemical group shows additional patterns, especially with respect to the last two outermost shells. (Elements 57 to 71 belong to the lanthanides, while 89 to 103 are the actinides.) It is also seen that palladium (atomic number 46) is unique, being the only known element such that there are elements with smaller atomic number having more electron shells. Z Element No. of electrons/shell Group 1 Hydrogen 1 1 2 Helium 2 18 3 Lithium 2, 1 1 4 Beryllium 2, 2 2 5 Boron 2, 3 13 6 Carbon 2, 4 14 7 Nitrogen 2, 5 15 8 Oxygen 2, 6 16 9 Fluorine 2, 7 17 10 Neon 2, 8 18 11 Sodium 2, 8, 1 1 12 Magnesium 2, 8, 2 2 13 Aluminium 2, 8, 3 13 14 Silicon 2, 8, 4 14 15 Phosphorus 2, 8, 5 15 16 Sulfur 2, 8, 6 16 17 Chlorine 2, 8, 7 17 18 Argon 2, 8, 8 18 19 Potassium 2, 8, 8, 1 1 20 Calcium 2, 8, 8, 2 2 21 Scandium 2, 8, 9, 2 3 22 Titanium 2, 8, 10, 2 4 23 Vanadium 2, 8, 11, 2 5 24 Chromium 2, 8, 13, 1 6 25 Manganese 2, 8, 13, 2 7 26 Iron 2, 8, 14, 2 8 27 Cobalt 2, 8, 15, 2 9 28 Nickel 2, 8, 16, 2 10 29 Copper 2, 8, 18, 1 11 30 Zinc 2, 8, 18, 2 12 31 Gallium 2, 8, 18, 3 13 32 Germanium 2, 8, 18, 4 14 33 Arsenic 2, 8, 18, 5 15 34 Selenium 2, 8, 18, 6 16 35 Bromine 2, 8, 18, 7 17 36 Krypton 2, 8, 18, 8 18 37 Rubidium 2, 8, 18, 8, 1 1 38 Strontium 2, 8, 18, 8, 2 2 39 Yttrium 2, 8, 18, 9, 2 3 40 Zirconium 2, 8, 18, 10, 2 4 41 Niobium 2, 8, 18, 12, 1 5 42 Molybdenum 2, 8, 18, 13, 1 6 43 Technetium 2, 8, 18, 13, 2 7 44 Ruthenium 2, 8, 18, 15, 1 8 45 Rhodium 2, 8, 18, 16, 1 9 46 Palladium 2, 8, 18, 18 10 47 Silver 2, 8, 18, 18, 1 11 48 Cadmium 2, 8, 18, 18, 2 12 49 Indium 2, 8, 18, 18, 3 13 50 Tin 2, 8, 18, 18, 4 14 51 Antimony 2, 8, 18, 18, 5 15 52 Tellurium 2, 8, 18, 18, 6 16 53 Iodine 2, 8, 18, 18, 7 17 54 Xenon 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 18 55 Caesium 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1 1 56 Barium 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2 2 57 Lanthanum 2, 8, 18, 18, 9, 2 58 Cerium 2, 8, 18, 19, 9, 2 59 Praseodymium 2, 8, 18, 21, 8, 2 60 Neodymium 2, 8, 18, 22, 8, 2 61 Promethium 2, 8, 18, 23, 8, 2 62 Samarium 2, 8, 18, 24, 8, 2 63 Europium 2, 8, 18, 25, 8, 2 64 Gadolinium 2, 8, 18, 25, 9, 2 65 Terbium 2, 8, 18, 27, 8, 2 66 Dysprosium 2, 8, 18, 28, 8, 2 67 Holmium 2, 8, 18, 29, 8, 2 68 Erbium 2, 8, 18, 30, 8, 2 69 Thulium 2, 8, 18, 31, 8, 2 70 Ytterbium 2, 8, 18, 32, 8, 2 71 Lutetium 2, 8, 18, 32, 9, 2 3 72 Hafnium 2, 8, 18, 32, 10, 2 4 73 Tantalum 2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2 5 74 Tungsten 2, 8, 18, 32, 12, 2 6 75 Rhenium 2, 8, 18, 32, 13, 2 7 76 Osmium 2, 8, 18, 32, 14, 2 8 77 Iridium 2, 8, 18, 32, 15, 2 9 78 Platinum 2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1 10 79 Gold 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1 11 80 Mercury 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 2 12 81 Thallium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3 13 82 Lead 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4 14 83 Bismuth 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5 15 84 Polonium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6 16 85 Astatine 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7 17 86 Radon 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8 18 87 Francium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1 1 88 Radium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2 2 89 Actinium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 9, 2 90 Thorium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 10, 2 91 Protactinium 2, 8, 18, 32, 20, 9, 2 92 Uranium 2, 8, 18, 32, 21, 9, 2 93 Neptunium 2, 8, 18, 32, 22, 9, 2 94 Plutonium 2, 8, 18, 32, 24, 8, 2 95 Americium 2, 8, 18, 32, 25, 8, 2 96 Curium 2, 8, 18, 32, 25, 9, 2 97 Berkelium 2, 8, 18, 32, 27, 8, 2 98 Californium 2, 8, 18, 32, 28, 8, 2 99 Einsteinium 2, 8, 18, 32, 29, 8, 2 100 Fermium 2, 8, 18, 32, 30, 8, 2 101 Mendelevium 2, 8, 18, 32, 31, 8, 2 102 Nobelium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 8, 2 103 Lawrencium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 8, 3 (?) 3 104 Rutherfordium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 10, 2 4 105 Dubnium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2 5 106 Seaborgium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 12, 2 6 107 Bohrium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2 7 108 Hassium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2 8 109 Meitnerium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 15, 2 9 110 Darmstadtium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 17, 1 10 111 Roentgenium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 1 11 112 Ununbium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 2 12 113 Ununtrium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 3 13 114 Ununquadium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 4 14 115 Ununpentium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 5 15 116 Ununhexium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 6 16 117 Ununseptium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 7 (?) 17 118 Ununoctium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 8 18 See also Electron counting 18-Electron rule References | Electron_shell |@lemmatized electron:53 shell:60 may:1 think:1 orbit:3 follow:2 around:2 atom:10 nucleus:6 contain:4 fixed:1 number:10 associate:2 particular:2 range:2 energy:10 thus:2 must:1 fill:2 completely:1 add:1 outer:2 outermost:3 determine:5 chemical:6 property:1 see:7 valence:11 explanation:1 exist:1 configuration:3 corrosion:1 source:1 subshells:10 history:1 existence:1 first:6 observe:1 experimentally:1 charles:1 barkla:2 henry:1 moseley:1 x:1 ray:1 absorption:2 study:2 label:6 letter:3 k:6 l:6 n:5 p:7 q:2 origin:2 terminology:1 alphabetic:1 j:1 series:1 also:3 suspect:1 though:1 late:1 experiment:1 indicate:1 line:2 produce:1 innermost:2 later:3 find:1 correspond:1 value:1 etc:2 use:1 spectroscopic:1 siegbahn:1 notation:1 name:2 derive:1 bohr:1 model:1 group:4 believe:1 certain:1 distance:1 form:1 physical:1 chemist:1 gilbert:1 lewis:1 responsible:1 much:1 early:3 development:1 theory:3 participation:1 bonding:1 linus:1 pauling:1 generalize:1 extend:2 apply:1 insight:1 quantum:4 mechanic:2 go:1 outwards:1 high:9 average:1 travel:2 far:1 inner:2 make:3 important:2 react:1 chemically:3 behave:2 conductor:1 pull:1 upon:2 weak:1 easily:1 break:1 way:1 give:4 element:11 reactivity:1 highly:1 dependent:1 electronic:1 compose:1 one:8 composed:1 atomic:6 orbitals:3 example:5 subshell:22 call:3 second:3 two:4 third:2 various:1 possible:1 show:4 following:1 table:3 max:1 historical:2 every:2 sharp:1 principal:2 diffuse:1 f:3 fundamental:1 g:2 h:1 column:5 lowercase:1 type:5 fourth:2 describe:1 row:3 azimuthal:1 precise:1 definition:1 involve:1 characterize:1 maximum:3 put:1 top:2 say:3 look:1 e:2 final:1 come:1 spectral:1 although:3 commonly:1 state:2 approximation:1 however:2 exactly:2 level:2 statement:1 true:1 isolated:1 mechanically:1 spherical:1 symmetry:1 system:1 part:1 molecule:1 long:1 hold:8 crystal:1 field:1 per:3 effect:2 great:2 enough:2 overlap:1 aufbau:2 principle:4 therefore:2 forth:1 general:1 formula:2 nth:1 fact:2 achieve:1 know:2 four:1 accord:1 would:2 belong:2 block:1 period:1 periodic:1 fifth:1 usually:1 misleadingly:1 reaction:3 complete:2 noble:2 gas:2 non:1 reactive:2 alkali:1 miss:1 halogen:1 vision:1 learn:1 truth:1 complicated:1 reacts:1 furthest:1 less:1 hence:1 chemguide:1 list:3 arrange:1 increase:1 glance:1 subset:1 obvious:1 pattern:2 seven:1 light:1 blue:1 yellow:1 helium:2 arithmetic:1 progression:1 whether:1 ununseptium:2 remains:1 sort:1 additional:1 especially:1 respect:1 last:1 elements:1 lanthanide:1 actinide:1 palladium:2 unique:1 known:1 small:1 z:1 hydrogen:1 lithium:1 beryllium:1 boron:1 carbon:1 nitrogen:1 oxygen:1 fluorine:1 neon:1 sodium:1 magnesium:1 aluminium:1 silicon:1 phosphorus:1 sulfur:1 chlorine:1 argon:1 potassium:1 calcium:1 scandium:1 titanium:1 vanadium:1 chromium:1 manganese:1 iron:1 cobalt:1 nickel:1 copper:1 zinc:1 gallium:1 germanium:1 arsenic:1 selenium:1 bromine:1 krypton:1 rubidium:1 strontium:1 yttrium:1 zirconium:1 niobium:1 molybdenum:1 technetium:1 ruthenium:1 rhodium:1 silver:1 cadmium:1 indium:1 tin:1 antimony:1 tellurium:1 iodine:1 xenon:1 caesium:1 barium:1 lanthanum:1 cerium:1 praseodymium:1 neodymium:1 promethium:1 samarium:1 europium:1 gadolinium:1 terbium:1 dysprosium:1 holmium:1 erbium:1 thulium:1 ytterbium:1 lutetium:1 hafnium:1 tantalum:1 tungsten:1 rhenium:1 osmium:1 iridium:1 platinum:1 gold:1 mercury:1 thallium:1 lead:1 bismuth:1 polonium:1 astatine:1 radon:1 francium:1 radium:1 actinium:1 thorium:1 protactinium:1 uranium:1 neptunium:1 plutonium:1 americium:1 curium:1 berkelium:1 californium:1 einsteinium:1 fermium:1 mendelevium:1 nobelium:1 lawrencium:1 rutherfordium:1 dubnium:1 seaborgium:1 bohrium:1 hassium:1 meitnerium:1 darmstadtium:1 roentgenium:1 ununbium:1 ununtrium:1 ununquadium:1 ununpentium:1 ununhexium:1 ununoctium:1 count:1 rule:1 reference:1 |@bigram electron_outermost:1 outermost_shell:3 valence_shell:9 linus_pauling:1 quantum_mechanic:2 atomic_orbitals:2 quantum_mechanically:1 periodic_table:1 valence_electron:2 lithium_beryllium:1 cobalt_nickel:1 copper_zinc:1 ruthenium_rhodium:1 indium_tin:1 osmium_iridium:1 iridium_platinum:1 americium_curium:1 californium_einsteinium:1 |
4,656 | Leonardo_da_Vinci | For the 17th century Italian composer, see Leonardo Vinci Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (, April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519) was an Italian polymath, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter, sculptor, architect, botanist, musician and writer. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the renaissance man, a man whose unquenchable curiosity was equaled only by his powers of invention. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived. Vasari, Boltraffio, Castiglione, "Anonimo" Gaddiano, Berensen, Taine, Fuseli, Rio, Bortolon, etc. See specific quotations under heading "Leonardo, the legend". Helen Gardner says "The scope and depth of his interests were without precedent...His mind and personality seem to us superhuman, the man himself mysterious and remote". Born as the illegitimate son of a notary, Piero da Vinci, and a peasant woman, Caterina, at Vinci in the region of Florence, Leonardo was educated in the studio of the renowned Florentine painter, Verrocchio. Much of his earlier working life was spent in the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan. He later worked in Rome, Bologna and Venice and spent his last years in France, at the home awarded him by Francis I. Leonardo was and is renowned primarily as a painter. Two of his works, the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, are the most famous, most reproduced and most parodied portrait and religious painting of all time, respectively, their fame approached only by Michelangelo's Creation of Adam. Leonardo's drawing of the Vitruvian Man is also regarded as a cultural icon, Vitruvian Man is referred to as "iconic" at the following websites and many others:Vitruvian Man, Fine Art Classics, Key Images in the History of Science; Curiosity and difference; The Guardian: The Real da Vinci Code being reproduced on everything from the Euro to text books to t-shirts. Perhaps fifteen of his paintings survive, the small number due to his constant, and frequently disastrous, experimentation with new techniques, and his chronic procrastination. There are 15 significant artworks which are ascribed, either in whole or in large part, to Leonardo by most art historians. This number is made up principally of paintings on panel but includes a mural, a large drawing on paper and two works which are in the early stages of preparation. There are a number of other works that have also been variously attributed to Leonardo. Nevertheless, these few works, together with his notebooks, which contain drawings, scientific diagrams, and his thoughts on the nature of painting, comprise a contribution to later generations of artists only rivalled by that of his contemporary, Michelangelo. Leonardo is revered for his technological ingenuity. He conceptualised a helicopter, a tank, concentrated solar power, a calculator, the double hull and outlined a rudimentary theory of plate tectonics. Replica of Leonardo's Adding Machine Relatively few of his designs were constructed or were even feasible during his lifetime, Modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance. but some of his smaller inventions, such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire, entered the world of manufacturing unheralded. A number of Leonardo's most practical inventions are displayed as working models at the Museum of Vinci. As a scientist, he greatly advanced the state of knowledge in the fields of anatomy, civil engineering, optics, and hydrodynamics. See expanded in article Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci Life Childhood, 1452–1466 Leonardo's childhood home in Anchiano. Leonardo's earliest known drawing, the Arno Valley, (1473) - Uffizi Leonardo was born on April 15, 1452, "at the third hour of the night" in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the lower valley of the Arno River in the territory of Florence. His birth is recorded in the diary of his paternal grandfather Ser Antonio, as cited by della Chiesa He was the illegitimate son of Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine notary, and Caterina, a peasant who may have been a slave from the Middle East. According to Alessandro Vezzosi, Head of the Leonardo Museum in Vinci, there is evidence that Piero owned a Middle Eastern slave called Caterina who gave birth to a boy called Leonardo. That Leonardo had Middle Eastern blood is supported by the reconstruction of a fingerprint as reported by Marta Falconi, Associated Press Writer, "Experts Reconstruct Leonardo Fingerprint" December 12, 2001 Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense, "da Vinci" simply meaning "of Vinci": his full birth name was "Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci", meaning "Leonardo, (son) of (Mes)ser Piero from Vinci". Little is known about Leonardo's early life. He spent his first five years in the hamlet of Anchiano, then lived in the household of his father, grandparents and uncle, Francesco, in the small town of Vinci. His father had married a sixteen-year-old girl named Albiera, who loved Leonardo but died young. In later life, Leonardo only recorded two childhood incidents. One, which he regarded as an omen, was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing his face. The second occurred while exploring in the mountains. He discovered a cave and was both terrified that some great monster might lurk there, and driven by curiosity to find out what was inside. Leonardo's early life has been the subject of historical conjecture. Vasari, the 16th-century biographer of Renaissance painters tells of how a local peasant requested that Ser Piero ask his talented son to paint a picture on a round plaque. Leonardo responded with a painting of snakes spitting fire which was so terrifying that Ser Piero sold it to a Florentine art dealer, who sold it to the Duke of Milan. Meanwhile, having made a profit, Ser Piero bought a plaque decorated with a heart pierced by an arrow, which he gave to the peasant. Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists, 1568; this edition Penguin Classics, trans. George Bull 1965, ISBN 0-14-044-164-6 The Baptism of Christ (1472–1475)—Uffizi, by Verrocchio and Leonardo Verrocchio's workshop, 1466–1476 In 1466, at the age of fourteen, Leonardo was apprenticed to one of the most successful artists of his day, Andrea di Cione, known as Verrocchio. Verrocchio's workshop was at the centre of the intellectual currents of Florence, assuring the young Leonardo of an education in the humanities. Other famous painters apprenticed or associated with the workshop include Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli, and Lorenzo di Credi. Leonardo would have been exposed to a vast range of technical skills and had the opportunity to learn drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry as well as the artistic skills of drawing, painting, sculpting and modelling. Theophilus On Divers Arts, translators:J.G.Hawthorne and C.S. Smith, University of Chicago Press, 1963; reprinted New York: Dover Publications 1979. This is a Medieval practical handbook of skills for the artisan, and includes a brief instruction for mixing oil paint. Cennino d’A. Cennini Il Libro dell’ Arte, ed. D. V. Thompson Jr. (1933) New Haven: Yale University Press. A practical handbook of painting written in the early 15th century. Much of the painted production of Verrocchio's workshop was done by his employees. According to Vasari, Leonardo collaborated with Verrocchio on his Baptism of Christ, painting the young angel holding Jesus's robe in a manner that was so far superior to his master's that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again. This is probably an exaggeration. On close examination, the painting reveals much that has been painted or touched up over the tempera using the new technique of oil paint, the landscape, the rocks that can be seen through the brown mountain stream and much of the figure of Jesus bearing witness to the hand of Leonardo. Leonardo himself may have been the model for two works by Verrocchio, including the bronze statue of David in the Bargello, and the Archangel Michael in Tobias and the Angel. By 1472, at the age of twenty, Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of St Luke, the guild of artists and doctors of medicine, but even after his father set him up in his own workshop, his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to collaborate with him. Leonardo's earliest known dated work is a drawing in pen and ink of the Arno valley, drawn on August 5, 1473. This work is now in the collection of the Uffizi, Drawing No. 8P. Professional life, 1476–1513 The Adoration of the Magi, (1481)—Uffizi. Court records of 1476 show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy, Homosexual acts were illegal in Florence at the time. and acquitted. From that date until 1478 there is no record of his work or even of his whereabouts, although it is assumed that Leonardo had his own workshop in Florence between 1476 and 1481. He was commissioned to paint an altarpiece in 1478 for the Chapel of St Bernard and The Adoration of the Magi in 1481 for the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. This important commission was interrupted when Leonardo went to Milan. In 1482 Leonardo, who according to Vasari was a most talented musician, created a silver lyre in the shape of a horse's head. Lorenzo de’ Medici sent Leonardo, bearing the lyre as a gift, to Milan, to secure peace with Ludovico il Moro, Duke of Milan. At this time Leonardo wrote an often-quoted letter to Ludovico, describing the many marvellous and diverse things that he could achieve in the field of engineering and informing the Lord that he could also paint. Leonardo continued work in Milan between 1482 and 1499. He was commissioned to paint the Virgin of the Rocks for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception, and The Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie. While living in Milan between 1493 and 1495 Leonardo listed a woman called Caterina among his dependents in his taxation documents. When she died in 1495, the list of funeral expenditure suggests that she was his mother. Codex II, 95 r, Victoria and Albert Museum, as cited by della Chiesa He worked on many different projects for Ludovico, including the preparation of floats and pageants for special occasions, designs for a dome for Milan Cathedral and a model for a huge equestrian monument to Francesco Sforza, Ludovico's predecessor. Seventy tons of bronze were set aside for casting it. The monument remained unfinished for several years, which was not unusual for Leonardo. In 1492 the clay model of the horse was completed. It surpassed in size the only two large equestrian statues of the Renaissance, Donatello's statue of Gattemelata in Padua and Verrocchio's Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice, and became known as the "Gran Cavallo". Verrocchio's statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni was not cast until 1488, after his death, and after Leonardo had already begun work on the statue for Ludovico. Study of horse from Leonardo's journals – Royal Library, Windsor Castle Leonardo began making detailed plans for its casting, however, Michelangelo rudely implied that Leonardo was unable to cast it. In November 1494 Ludovico gave the bronze to be used for cannons to defend the city from invasion by Charles VIII. At the start of the Second Italian War in 1499, the invading French troops used the life-size clay model for the "Gran Cavallo" for target practice. With Ludovico Sforza overthrown, Leonardo, with his assistant Salai and friend, the mathematician Luca Pacioli, fled Milan for Venice, where he was employed as a military architect and engineer, devising methods to defend the city from naval attack. On his return to Florence in 1500, he and his household were guests of the Servite monks at the monastery of Santissima Annunziata and were provided with a workshop where, according to Vasari, Leonardo created the cartoon of The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist, a work that won such admiration that "men and women, young and old" flocked to see it "as if they were attending a great festival". In 1502 Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, acting as a military architect and engineer and travelling throughout Italy with his patron. He returned to Florence where he rejoined the Guild of St Luke on October 18, 1503, and spent two years designing and painting a great mural of The Battle of Anghiari for the Signoria, with Michelangelo designing its companion piece, The Battle of Cascina. In Florence in 1504, he was part of a committee formed to relocate, against the artist's will, Michelangelo's statue of David. Gaetano Milanesi, Epistolario Buonarroti, Florence (1875), as cited by della Chiesa. In 1506 he returned to Milan. Many of Leonardo's most prominent pupils or followers in painting either knew or worked with him in Milan, including Bernardino Luini, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio and Marco D'Oggione. D'Oggione is known in part for his contemporary copies of the Last Supper. However, he did not stay in Milan for long because his father had died in 1504, and in 1507 he was back in Florence trying to sort out problems with his brothers over his father's estate. By 1508 he was back in Milan, living in his own house in Porta Orientale in the parish of Santa Babila. Old age, 1513-1519 Clos Lucé in France, where Leonardo died in 1519 From September 1513 to 1516, Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere in the Vatican in Rome, where Raphael and Michelangelo were both active at the time. In October 1515, Francis I of France recaptured Milan. On December 19, Leonardo was present at the meeting of Francis I and Pope Leo X, which took place in Bologna. Georges Goyau, François I], Transcribed by Gerald Rossi. The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VI. Published 1909. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved on 2007-10-04 It was for Francis that Leonardo was commissioned to make a mechanical lion which could walk forward, then open its chest to reveal a cluster of lilies. In 1516, he entered François' service, being given the use of the manor house Clos Lucé Clos Lucé, also called Cloux, is now a public museum. near the king's residence at the royal Chateau Amboise. It was here that he spent the last three years of his life, accompanied by his friend and apprentice, Count Francesco Melzi, supported by a pension totalling 10,000 scudi. Leonardo died at Clos Lucé, on May 2, 1519. Francis I had become a close friend. Vasari records that the King held Leonardo's head in his arms as he died, although this story, beloved by the French and portrayed in romantic paintings by Ingres, Ménageot and other French artists, as well as by Angelica Kauffmann, may be legend rather than fact. On the day of Leonardo's death, a royal edict was issued by the King at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, a two-day journey from Clos Lucé. This has been taken as evidence that King François cannot have been present at Leonardo's deathbed. However, White in Leonardo: The First Scientist points out that the edict was not signed by the king himself. For such images, see Cultural depictions of Leonardo da Vinci. Vasari also tells us that in his last days, Leonardo sent for a priest to make his confession and to receive the Holy Sacrament. In accordance to his will, sixty beggars followed his casket. He was buried in the Chapel of Saint-Hubert in the castle of Amboise. Melzi was the principal heir and executor, receiving as well as money, Leonardo's paintings, tools, library and personal effects. Leonardo also remembered his other long-time pupil and companion, Salai and his servant Battista di Vilussis, who each received half of Leonardo's vineyards, his brothers who received land, and his serving woman who received a black cloak of good stuff with a fur edge. Some twenty years after Leonardo's death, Francis was reported by the goldsmith and sculptor Benevenuto Cellini as saying: "There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great philosopher." Relationships and influences Ghiberti's Gates of Paradise, (1425-1452) were a source of communal pride. Many artists assisted in their creation. Florence — Leonardo's artistic and social background Leonardo commenced his apprenticeship with Verrocchio in 1466, the year that Verrocchio's master, the great sculptor Donatello, died. The painter Uccello whose early experiments with perspective were to influence the development of landscape painting, was a very old man. The painters Piero della Francesca and Fra Filippo Lippi, sculptor Luca della Robbia, and architect and writer Alberti were in their sixties. The successful artists of the next generation were Leonardo's teacher Verrocchio, Antonio Pollaiuolo and the portrait sculptor, Mino da Fiesole whose lifelike busts give the most reliable likenesses of Lorenzo Medici's father Piero and uncle Giovanni. Leonardo's youth was spent in a Florence that was ornamented by the works of these artists and by Donatello's contemporaries, Masaccio whose figurative frescoes were imbued with realism and emotion and Ghiberti whose Gates of Paradise, gleaming with gold leaf, displayed the art of combining complex figure compositions with detailed architectural backgrounds. Piero della Francesca had made a detailed study of perspective, and was the first painter to make a scientific study of light. These studies and Alberti's Treatise were to have a profound effect on younger artists and in particular on Leonardo's own observations and artworks. Massaccio's depiction of the naked and distraught Adam and Eve leaving the Garden of Eden created a powerfully expressive image of the human form, cast into three dimensions by the use of light and shade which was to be developed in the works of Leonardo in a way that was to be influential in the course of painting. The Humanist influence of Donatello's David can be seen in Leonardo's late paintings, particularly John the Baptist. Small devotional picture by Verrocchio, c. 1470 A prevalent tradition in Florence was the small altarpiece of the Virgin and Child. Many of these were created in tempera or glazed terracotta by the workshops of Filippo Lippi, Verrocchio and the prolific della Robbia family. Leonardo's early Madonnas such as the The Madonna with a carnation and The Benois Madonna followed this tradition while showing indiosyncratic departures, particularly in the case of the Benois Madonna in which the Virgin is set at an oblique angle to the picture space with the Christ Child at the opposite angle. This compositional theme was to emerge in Leonardo's later paintings such as The Virgin and Child with St. Anne. Leonardo was a contemporary of Botticelli, Ghirlandaio and Perugino, who were all slightly older than he was. He would have met them at the workshop of Verrocchio, with whom they had associations, and at the Academy of the Medici. Botticelli was a particular favourite of the Medici family and thus his success as a painter was assured. Ghirlandaio and Perugino were both prolific and ran large workshops. They competently delivered commissions to well-satisfied patrons who appreciated Ghirlandaio's ability to portray the wealthy citizens of Florence within large religious frescoes, and Perugino's ability to deliver a multitude of saints and angels of unfailing sweetness and innocence. The Portinari Altarpiece, by Hugo van der Goes for a Florentine family These three were among those commissioned to paint the walls of the Sistine Chapel, the work commencing with Perugino's employment in 1479. Leonardo was not part of this prestigious commission. His first significant commission, The Adoration of the Magi for the Monks of Scopeto, was never completed. In 1476, during the time of Leonardo's association with Verrocchio's workshop, Hugo van der Goes arrived in Florence, bringing the Portinari Altarpiece and the new painterly techniques from Northern Europe which were to profoundly effect Leonardo, Ghirlandaio, Perugino and others. In 1479, the Sicilian painter Antonello da Messina, who worked exclusively in oils, travelled north on his way to Venice, where the leading painter, Giovanni Bellini adopted the technique of oil painting, quickly making it the preferred method in Venice. Leonardo was also later to visit Venice. Like the two contemporary architects, Bramante and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder, Leonardo experimented with designs for centrally planned churches, a number of which appear in his journals, as both plans and views, although none was ever realised. Lorenzo de' Medici between Antonio Pucci and Francesco Sassetti, with Giulio de' Medici, fresco by Ghirlandaio Leonardo's political contemporaries were Lorenzo Medici (il Magnifico), who was three years older, and his popular younger brother Giuliano who was slain in the Pazzi Conspiracy in 1478. Ludovico il Moro who ruled Milan between 1479–1499 and to whom Leonardo was sent as ambassador from the Medici court, was also of Leonardo's age. With Alberti, Leonardo visited the home of the Medici and through them came to know the older Humanist philosophers of whom Marsiglio Ficino, proponent of Neo Platonism, Cristoforo Landino, writer of commentaries on Classical writings, and John Argyropoulos, teacher of Greek and translator of Aristotle were foremost. Also associated with the Academy of the Medici was Leonardo's contemporary, the brilliant young poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola. Leonardo later wrote in the margin of a journal "The Medici made me and the Medici destroyed me." While it was through the action of Lorenzo that Leonardo was to receive his important Milanese commissions, it is not known exactly what Leonardo meant by this cryptic comment. Although usually named together as the three giants of the High Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael were not of the same generation. Leonardo was twenty-three when Michelangelo was born and thirty-one when Raphael was born. The short-lived Raphael died in 1520, the year after Leonardo, but Michelangelo went on creating for another 45 years. Study for a portrait of Isabella d'Este (1500) Louvre. Personal life Within Leonardo's lifetime, his extraordinary powers of invention, his "outstanding physical beauty", "infinite grace", "great strength and generosity", "regal spirit and tremendous breadth of mind" as described by Vasari attracted the curiosity of others. Many authors have speculated on various aspects of Leonardo's personality. One such aspect is his respect for life evidenced by his vegetarianism and his habit, described by Vasari, of purchasing caged birds and releasing them. Eugene Muntz, Leonardo da Vinci Artist, Thinker, and Man of Science (1898), quoted at Leonardo da Vinci's Ethical Vegetarianism Leonardo had many friends who are now renowned either in their fields or for their historical significance. They included the mathematician Luca Pacioli, with whom he collaborated on a book in the 1490s, as well as Franchinus Gaffurius and Isabella d'Este.Leonardo appears to have had no close relationships with women except for his friendship with Isabella d'Este. He drew a portrait of her while on a journey which took him through Mantua, and which appears to have been used to create a painted portrait now lost. Beyond friendship, Leonardo kept his private life secret. His sexuality has often been the subject of study, analysis and speculation. This trend began in the mid-16th century and was revived in the 19th and 20th centuries, most notably by Sigmund Freud. Sigmund Freud, Eine Kindheitserinnerung des Leonardo da Vinci, (1910), as cited by Daniel Arasse in his prologue Leonardo and Freud, Leonardo da Vinci. Salai as John the Baptist (c. 1514)—Louvre Assistants and pupils Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno, nicknamed Salai or Il Salaino ("The Little Unclean One" i.e., the devil), entered his household in 1490. After only a year, Leonardo made a list of his misdemeanours, calling him "a thief, a liar, stubborn, and a glutton", after he had made off with money and valuables on at least five occasions, and spent a fortune on clothes. Leonardo, Codex C. 15v, Institut of France. Trans. Richter Nevertheless, Leonardo's notebooks during their early years contain many drawings of the student, who remained within Leonardo's household for the next thirty years. Salai executed a number of paintings under the name of Andrea Salai, but although Vasari claims that Leonardo "taught him a great deal about painting", his work is generally considered to be of less artistic merit than others among Leonardo's pupils such as Marco d'Oggione and Boltraffio. In 1515 he painted a nude version of the Mona Lisa, known as Monna Vanna. Salai owned the Mona Lisa at the time of his death in 1525, and in his will it was assessed at 505 lire, an exceptionally high valuation for a small panel portrait. In 1506, Leonardo took on another pupil, Count Francesco Melzi, the son of a Lombard aristocrat, who is considered to have been his favourite student. He travelled to France with Leonardo, and remained with him until the latter's death. Upon Leonardo's death, Melzi inherited the artistic and scientific works, manuscripts, and collections of Leonardo, and would henceforth faithfully administer the estate. Painting Annunciation (1475–1480)—Uffizi, is thought to be Leonardo's earliest complete work Despite the recent awareness and admiration of Leonardo as a scientist and inventor, for the better part of four hundred years his enormous fame rested on his achievements as a painter and on a handful of works, either authenticated or attributed to him that have been regarded as among the supreme masterpieces ever created. By the 1490s Leonardo had already been described as a "Divine" painter. His fame is discussed by Daniel Arasse in Leonardo da Vinci, pp.11-15 These paintings are famous for a variety of qualities which have been much imitated by students and discussed at great length by connoisseurs and critics. Among the qualities that make Leonardo's work unique are the innovative techniques that he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, botany and geology, his interest in physiognomy and the way in which humans register emotion in expression and gesture, his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition and his use of the subtle gradation of tone. All these qualities come together in his most famous painted works, the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper and the Virgin of the Rocks. These qualities of Leonardo's works are discussed by Frederick Hartt in A History of Italian Renaissance Art, pp.387-411. Unfinished painting of St. Jerome in the Wilderness, (c. 1480), Vatican Early works Leonardo's early works begin with the Baptism of Christ painted in conjunction with Verrocchio. Two other paintings appear to date from his time at the workshop, both of which are Annunciations. One is small, long and high. It is a "predella" to go at the base of a larger composition, in this case a painting by Lorenzo di Credi from which it has become separated. The other is a much larger work, long. In both these Annunciations, Leonardo has used a formal arrangement, such as in Fra Angelico's two well known pictures of the same subject, of the Virgin Mary sitting or kneeling to the right of the picture, approached from the left by an angel in profile, with rich flowing garment, raised wings and bearing a lily. Although previously attributed to Ghirlandaio, the larger work is now almost universally attributed to Leonardo. In the smaller picture Mary averts her eyes and folds her hands in a gesture that symbolised submission to God's will. In the larger picture, however, Mary is not in the least submissive. The beautiful girl, interrupted in her reading by this unexpected messenger, puts a finger in her bible to mark the place and raises her hand in a formal gesture of greeting or surprise. This calm young woman appears to accept her role as the Mother of God not with resignation but with confidence. In this painting the young Leonardo presents the Humanist face of the Virgin Mary, recognising humanity's role in God's incarnation. Paintings of the 1480s In the 1480s Leonardo received two very important commissions, and commenced another work which was also of ground-breaking importance in terms of composition. Unfortunately two of the three were never finished and the third took so long that it was subject to lengthy negotiations over completion and payment. One of these paintings is that of St. Jerome in the Wilderness. Bortolon associates this picture with a difficult period of Leonardo's life, and the signs of melancholy in his diary: "I thought I was learning to live; I was only learning to die." Although the painting is barely begun the composition can be seen and it is very unusual. Jerome, as a penitent, occupies the middle of the picture, set on a slight diagonal and viewed somewhat from above. His kneeling form takes on a trapezoid shape, with one arm stretched to the outer edge of the painting and his gaze looking in the opposite direction. J. Wasserman points out the link between this painting and Leonardo's anatomical studies. Across the foreground sprawls his symbol, a great lion whose body and tail make a double spiral across the base of the picture space. The other remarkable feature is the sketchy landscape of craggy rocks against which the figure is silhouetted. The daring display of figure composition, the landscape elements and personal drama also appear in the great unfinished masterpiece, the Adoration of the Magi, (see above ) a commission from the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. It is a very complex composition about . Leonardo did numerous drawings and preparatory studies, including a detailed one in linear perspective of the ruined classical architecture which makes part of the backdrop to the scene. But in 1482 Leonardo went off to Milan at the behest of Lorenzo de’ Medici in order to win favour with Ludovico il Moro and the painting was abandoned. The third important work of this period is the Virgin of the Rocks which was commissioned in Milan for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. The painting, to be done with the assistance of the de Predis brothers, was to fill a large complex altarpiece, already constructed. Leonardo chose to paint an apocryphal moment of the infancy of Christ when the Infant John the Baptist, in protection of an angel, met the Holy Family on the road to Egypt. In this scene, as painted by Leonardo, John recognizes and worships Jesus as the Christ. The painting demonstrates an eerie beauty as the graceful figures kneel in adoration around the infant Christ in a wild landscape of tumbling rock and whirling water. While the painting is quite large, about , it is not nearly as complex as the painting ordered by the monks of St Donato, having only four figures rather than about fifty and a rocky landscape rather than architectural details. The painting was eventually finished; in fact, two versions of the painting were finished, one which remained at the chapel of the Confraternity and the other which Leonardo carried away to France. But the Brothers did not get their painting, or the de Predis their payment, until the next century. The Last Supper (1498)—Convent of Sta. Maria delle Grazie, Milan, Italy Paintings of the 1490s Leonardo's most famous painting of the 1490s is The Last Supper, also painted in Milan. The painting represents the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his capture and death. It shows specifically the moment when Jesus has said "one of you will betray me". Leonardo tells the story of the consternation that this statement caused to the twelve followers of Jesus. The novelist Matteo Bandello observed Leonardo at work and wrote that some days he would paint from dawn till dusk without stopping to eat, and then not paint for three or four days at a time. This, according to Vasari, was beyond the comprehension of the prior, who hounded him until Leonardo asked Ludovico to intervene. Vasari describes how Leonardo, troubled over his ability to adequately depict the faces of Christ and the traitor Judas, told the Duke that he might be obliged to use the prior as his model. When finished, the painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design and characterisation, but it deteriorated rapidly, so that within a hundred years it was described by one viewer as "completely ruined". Leonardo, instead of using the reliable technique of fresco, had used tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso, resulting in a surface which was subject to mold and to flaking. Despite this, the painting has remained one of the most reproduced works of art, countless copies being made in every medium from carpets to cameos. Paintings of the 1500s Mona Lisa or La Gioconda (1503–1505/1507)—Louvre, Paris, France Among the works created by Leonardo in the 1500s is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa or "la Gioconda", the laughing one. The painting is famous, in particular, for the elusive smile on the woman's face, its mysterious quality brought about perhaps by the fact that the artist has subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. The shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called "sfumato" or Leonardo's smoke. Vasari, who is generally thought to have known the painting only by repute, said that "the smile was so pleasing that it seemed divine rather than human; and those who saw it were amazed to find that it was as alive as the original". Other characteristics found in this work are the unadorned dress, in which the eyes and hands have no competition from other details, the dramatic landscape background in which the world seems to be in a state of flux, the subdued colouring and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique, employing oils, but laid on much like tempera and blended on the surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable. Vasari expressed the opinion that the manner of painting would make even "the most confident master ... despair and lose heart." The perfect state of preservation and the fact that there is no sign of repair or overpainting is extremely rare in a panel painting of this date. In the Virgin and Child with St. Anne (see below ) the composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape which Wasserman describes as "breathtakingly beautiful" and harks back to the St Jerome picture with the figure set at an oblique angle. What makes this painting unusual is that there are two obliquely set figures superimposed. Mary is seated on the knee of her mother, St Anne. She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice. This painting, which was copied many times, was to influence Michelangelo, Raphael, and Andrea del Sarto, and through them Pontormo and Correggio. The trends in composition were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese. The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist (c. 1499–1500)—National Gallery, London Drawings Leonardo was not a prolific painter, but he was a most prolific draftsman, keeping journals full of small sketches and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that took his attention. As well as the journals there exist many studies for paintings, some of which can be identified as preparatory to particular works such as The Adoration of the Magi, The Virgin of the Rocks and The Last Supper. His earliest dated drawing is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the mountains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail. Among his famous drawings are the Vitruvian Man, a study of the proportions of the human body, the Head of an Angel, for The Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre, a botanical study of Star of Bethlehem and a large drawing (160×100 cm) in black chalk on coloured paper of the The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist in the National Gallery, London. This drawing employs the subtle sfumato technique of shading, in the manner of the Mona Lisa. It is thought that Leonardo never made a painting from it, the closest similarity being to The Virgin and Child with St. Anne in the Louvre. Other drawings of interest include numerous studies generally referred to as "caricatures" because, although exaggerated, they appear to be based upon observation of live models. Vasari relates that if Leonardo saw a person with an interesting face he would follow them around all day observing them. There are numerous studies of beautiful young men, often associated with Salai, with the rare and much admired facial feature, the so-called "Grecian profile". The "Grecian profile" has a continuous straight line from forehead to nose-tip, the bridge of the nose being exceptionally high. It is a feature of many Classical Greek statues. These faces are often contrasted with that of a warrior. Salai is often depicted in fancy-dress costume. Leonardo is known to have designed sets for pageants with which these may be associated. Other, often meticulous, drawings show studies of drapery. A marked development in Leonardo's ability to draw drapery occurred in his early works. Another often-reproduced drawing is a macabre sketch that was done by Leonardo in Florence in 1479 showing the body of Bernardo Baroncelli, hanged in connection with the murder of Giuliano, brother of Lorenzo de'Medici, in the Pazzi Conspiracy. With dispassionate integrity Leonardo has registered in neat mirror writing the colours of the robes that Baroncelli was wearing when he died. Leonardo as observer, scientist and inventor The Vitruvian Man (c. 1485) Accademia, Venice Journals Renaissance humanism saw no mutually exclusive polarities between the sciences and the arts, and Leonardo's studies in science and engineering are as impressive and innovative as his artistic work, recorded in notebooks comprising some 13,000 pages of notes and drawings, which fuse art and natural philosophy (the forerunner of modern science). These notes were made and maintained daily throughout Leonardo's life and travels, as he made continual observations of the world around him. The journals are mostly written in mirror-image cursive. The reason may have been more a practical expediency than for reasons of secrecy as is often suggested. Since Leonardo wrote with his left hand, it is probable that it was easier for him to write from right to left. Left-handed writers using a split nib or quill pen experience difficulty pushing the pen from left to right across the page. A page from Leonardo's journal showing his study of a foetus in the womb (c. 1510) Royal Library, Windsor Castle His notes and drawings display an enormous range of interests and preoccupations, some as mundane as lists of groceries and people who owed him money and some as intriguing as designs for wings and shoes for walking on water. There are compositions for paintings, studies of details and drapery, studies of faces and emotions, of animals, babies, dissections, plant studies, rock formations, whirl pools, war machines, helicopters and architecture. These notebooks—originally loose papers of different types and sizes, distributed by friends after his death—have found their way into major collections such as the Royal Library at Windsor Castle, the Louvre, the Biblioteca Nacional de España, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan which holds the twelve-volume Codex Atlanticus, and British Library in London which has put a selection from its notebook BL Arundel MS 263 online. The Codex Leicester is the only major scientific work of Leonardo's in private hands. It is owned by Bill Gates, and is displayed once a year in different cities around the world. Leonardo's journals appear to have been intended for publication because many of the sheets have a form and order that would facilitate this. In many cases a single topic, for example, the heart or the human foetus, is covered in detail in both words and pictures, on a single sheet. Windsor Castle, Royal Library, sheets RL 19073v-19074v and RL 19102 respectively. This method of organisation minimises of loss of data in the case of pages being mixed up or destroyed. Why they were not published within Leonardo's lifetime is unknown. Scientific studies Rhombicuboctahedron as published in Pacioli's De Divina Proportione Leonardo's approach to science was an observational one: he tried to understand a phenomenon by describing and depicting it in utmost detail, and did not emphasize experiments or theoretical explanation. Since he lacked formal education in Latin and mathematics, contemporary scholars mostly ignored Leonardo the scientist, although he did teach himself Latin. In the 1490s he studied mathematics under Luca Pacioli and prepared a series of drawings of regular solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as plates for Pacioli's book De Divina Proportione, published in 1509. It appears that from the content of his journals he was planning a series of treatises to be published on a variety of subjects. A coherent treatise on anatomy was said to have been observed during a visit by Cardinal Louis D'Aragon's secretary in 1517. Aspects of his work on the studies of anatomy, light and the landscape were assembled for publication by his pupil Francesco Melzi and eventually published as Treatise on Painting by Leonardo da Vinci in France and Italy in 1651, and Germany in 1724, with engravings based upon drawings by the Classical painter Nicholas Poussin. According to Arasse, the treatise, which in France went into sixty two editions in fifty years, caused Leonardo to be seen as "the precursor of French academic thought on art". A recent and exhaustive analysis of Leonardo as Scientist by Frtijof Capra Capra, Fritjof. The Science of Leonardo; Inside the Mind of the Genius of the Renaissance. (New York, Doubleday, 2007) argues that Leonardo was a fundamentally different kind of scientist from Galileo, Newton and other scientists who followed him. Leonardo's experimentation followed clear scientific method approaches, and his theorising and hypothesising integrated the arts and particularly painting, these, and Leonardo's unique integrated, holistic views of science make him a forerunner of modern systems theory and complexity schools of thought. Anatomical study of the arm, (c. 1510) Anatomy Leonardo's formal training in the anatomy of the human body began with his apprenticeship to Andrea del Verrocchio, his teacher insisting that all his pupils learn anatomy. As an artist, he quickly became master of topographic anatomy, drawing many studies of muscles, tendons and other visible anatomical features. As a successful artist, he was given permission to dissect human corpses at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence and later at hospitals in Milan and Rome. From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his studies with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre and together they prepared a theoretical work on anatomy for which Leonardo made more than 200 drawings. It was published only in 1680 (161 years after his death) under the heading Treatise on painting. Leonardo drew many studies of the human skeleton and its parts, as well as muscles and sinews, the heart and vascular system, the sex organs, and other internal organs. He made one of the first scientific drawings of a fetus in utero. As an artist, Leonardo closely observed and recorded the effects of age and of human emotion on the physiology, studying in particular the effects of rage. He also drew many figures who had significant facial deformities or signs of illness. He also studied and drew the anatomy of many other animals as well, dissecting cows, birds, monkeys, bears, and frogs, and comparing in his drawings their anatomical structure with that of humans. He also made a number of studies of horses. Engineering and inventions A design for a flying machine, (c. 1488) Institut de France, Paris During his lifetime Leonardo was valued as an engineer. In a letter to Ludovico il Moro he claimed to be able to create all sorts of machines both for the protection of a city and for siege. When he fled to Venice in 1499 he found employment as an engineer and devised a system of moveable barricades to protect the city from attack. He also had a scheme for diverting the flow of the Arno River in order to flood Pisa. His journals include a vast number of inventions, both practical and impractical. They include musical instruments, hydraulic pumps, reversible crank mechanisms, finned mortar shells, and a steam cannon. In 1502, Leonardo produced a drawing of a single span 720-foot (240 m) bridge as part of a civil engineering project for Ottoman Sultan Beyazid II of Istanbul. The bridge was intended to span an inlet at the mouth of the Bosporus known as the Golden Horn. Beyazid did not pursue the project, because he believed that such a construction was impossible. Leonardo's vision was resurrected in 2001 when a smaller bridge based on his design was constructed in Norway. The Leonardo Bridge Project On May 17, 2006, the Turkish government decided to construct Leonardo's bridge to span the Golden Horn. For much of his life, Leonardo was fascinated by the phenomenon of flight, producing many studies of the flight of birds, including his c. 1505 Codex on the Flight of Birds, as well as plans for several flying machines, including a helicopter and a light hang glider. Most were impractical, but the hang glider has been successfully constructed and demonstrated. The U.S. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), aired in October 2005, a television programme called "Leonardo's Dream Machines", about the building and successful flight of a glider based on Leonardo's design Leonardo the legend Within Leonardo's own lifetime his fame was such that the King of France carried him away like a trophy, and was claimed to have supported him in his old age and held him in his arms as he died. see reference to this in section "Old age". Vasari, in his Lives of the Artists written about thirty years after Leonardo's death, described him as having talents that "transcended nature". The interest in Leonardo has never slackened. The crowds still queue to see his most famous artworks, T-shirts bear his most famous drawing and writers, like Vasari, continue to marvel at his genius and speculate about his private life and, particularly, about what one so intelligent actually believed in. Statue of Leonardo da Vinci at the Uffizi, Florence Giorgio Vasari, in the enlarged edition of Lives of the Artists, 1568, introduced his chapter on Leonardo da Vinci with the following words: The continued admiration that Leonardo commanded from painters, critics and historians is reflected in many other written tributes. Baldassare Castiglione, author of Il Cortegiano ("The Courtier"), wrote in 1528: "... Another of the greatest painters in this world looks down on this art in which he is unequalled ..." while the biographer known as "Anonimo Gaddiano" wrote, c. 1540: "His genius was so rare and universal that it can be said that nature worked a miracle on his behalf ...". "Anonimo Gaddiani", elaborating on Libro di Antonio Billi, 1537–1542 The 19th century brought a particular admiration for Leonardo's genius, causing Henry Fuseli to write in 1801: "Such was the dawn of modern art, when Leonardo da Vinci broke forth with a splendour that distanced former excellence: made up of all the elements that constitute the essence of genius ..." This is echoed by A. E. Rio who wrote in 1861: "He towered above all other artists through the strength and the nobility of his talents." By the 19th century, the scope of Leonardo's notebooks was known, as well as his paintings. Hippolyte Taine wrote in 1866: "There may not be in the world an example of another genius so universal, so incapable of fulfilment, so full of yearning for the infinite, so naturally refined, so far ahead of his own century and the following centuries." The famous art historian Bernard Berenson wrote in 1896: "Leonardo is the one artist of whom it may be said with perfect literalness: Nothing that he touched but turned into a thing of eternal beauty. Whether it be the cross section of a skull, the structure of a weed, or a study of muscles, he, with his feeling for line and for light and shade, forever transmuted it into life-communicating values." The interest in Leonardo's genius has continued unabated; experts study and translate his writings, analyse his paintings using scientific techniques, argue over attributions and search for works which have been recorded but never found. Liana Bortolon, writing in 1967, said: "Because of the multiplicity of interests that spurred him to pursue every field of knowledge ... Leonardo can be considered, quite rightly, to have been the universal genius par excellence, and with all the disquieting overtones inherent in that term. Man is as uncomfortable today, faced with a genius, as he was in the 16th century. Five centuries have passed, yet we still view Leonardo with awe." See also List of paintings by Leonardo da Vinci Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo da Vinci's personal life Cultural depictions of Leonardo da Vinci Italian Renaissance painting List of Italian painters Renaissance technology Aerial perspective Medical Renaissance History of the internal combustion engine Leonardo da Vinci Airport Leonardo da Vinci Art Institute Footnotes References Bibliography {{cite book | author = Ilan Rachum| title = The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia | publisher = Octopus | year = 1979 | isbn = 0-7064-0857-8}} 2 volumes. A reprint of the original 1883 edition. Complete text & images of Richter's translation of the Notebooks Vasari Life of Leonardo: in Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects. Web Gallery of Leonardo Paintings Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci Da Vinci Decoded Article from The Guardian'' The true face of Leonardo Da Vinci? Leonardo da Vinci's Ethical Vegetarianism be-x-old:Леанарда да Вінчы | Leonardo_da_Vinci |@lemmatized century:12 italian:6 composer:1 see:14 leonardo:203 vinci:35 di:8 ser:7 piero:12 da:31 april:2 may:10 polymath:1 scientist:9 mathematician:3 engineer:5 inventor:3 anatomist:1 painter:21 sculptor:6 architect:6 botanist:1 musician:2 writer:6 often:9 describe:9 archetype:1 renaissance:12 man:12 whose:6 unquenchable:1 curiosity:4 equal:1 power:3 invention:8 widely:1 consider:4 one:19 great:13 time:12 perhaps:3 diversely:1 talented:3 person:2 ever:3 live:7 vasari:20 boltraffio:3 castiglione:2 anonimo:3 gaddiano:2 berensen:1 taine:2 fuseli:2 rio:2 bortolon:3 etc:1 specific:1 quotation:1 head:5 legend:3 helen:1 gardner:1 say:8 scope:2 depth:1 interest:7 without:2 precedent:1 mind:3 personality:2 seem:3 u:3 superhuman:1 mysterious:2 remote:1 born:1 illegitimate:2 son:6 notary:2 peasant:4 woman:7 caterina:4 region:1 florence:18 educate:1 studio:1 renowned:4 florentine:4 verrocchio:21 much:12 early:15 work:46 life:22 spend:7 service:4 ludovico:12 il:9 moro:5 milan:21 later:5 rome:3 bologna:2 venice:8 last:11 year:21 france:11 home:3 award:1 francis:6 primarily:1 two:15 mona:7 lisa:7 supper:7 famous:10 reproduce:2 parodied:1 portrait:7 religious:2 painting:52 respectively:2 fame:4 approach:5 michelangelo:10 creation:2 adam:2 drawing:25 vitruvian:5 also:17 regard:3 cultural:3 icon:1 refer:2 iconic:1 following:3 website:1 many:20 others:4 fine:1 art:15 classic:2 key:1 image:5 history:3 science:10 difference:1 guardian:2 real:1 code:1 everything:1 euro:1 text:2 book:4 shirt:2 fifteen:1 survive:1 small:11 number:8 due:1 constant:1 frequently:1 disastrous:1 experimentation:2 new:7 technique:9 chronic:1 procrastination:1 significant:3 artwork:3 ascribe:1 either:4 whole:1 large:12 part:8 historian:3 make:25 principally:1 panel:3 include:13 mural:2 paper:3 stage:1 preparation:2 variously:1 attribute:4 nevertheless:2 together:4 notebook:7 contain:2 scientific:9 diagram:1 thought:3 nature:5 comprise:2 contribution:1 late:3 generation:3 artist:19 rival:1 contemporary:8 revere:1 technological:1 ingenuity:1 conceptualise:1 helicopter:3 tank:1 concentrate:1 solar:1 calculator:1 double:2 hull:1 outline:1 rudimentary:1 theory:2 plate:2 tectonics:1 replica:1 add:1 machine:7 relatively:1 design:11 construct:5 even:4 feasible:1 lifetime:5 modern:5 metallurgy:2 engineering:6 infancy:2 automated:1 bobbin:1 winder:1 test:1 tensile:1 strength:3 wire:1 enter:4 world:7 manufacturing:1 unheralded:1 practical:5 display:5 model:8 museum:5 greatly:1 advance:1 state:3 knowledge:3 field:4 anatomy:10 civil:2 optic:1 hydrodynamics:1 expand:1 article:2 childhood:3 anchiano:2 know:18 arno:5 valley:4 uffizi:6 bear:9 third:3 hour:1 night:1 tuscan:1 hill:1 town:2 low:1 river:3 territory:1 birth:3 record:9 diary:2 paternal:1 grandfather:1 antonio:7 cite:5 della:9 chiesa:3 messer:1 fruosino:1 slave:2 middle:4 east:1 accord:6 alessandro:1 vezzosi:1 evidence:3 eastern:2 call:8 give:6 boy:1 blood:1 support:3 reconstruction:1 fingerprint:2 report:2 marta:1 falconi:1 associated:1 press:3 expert:2 reconstruct:1 december:2 surname:1 sense:1 simply:1 mean:2 full:3 name:4 meaning:1 little:2 first:5 five:3 hamlet:1 household:4 father:6 grandparent:1 uncle:2 francesco:6 marry:1 sixteen:1 old:10 girl:2 albiera:1 love:1 die:11 young:11 incident:1 omen:1 kite:1 drop:1 sky:1 hover:1 cradle:1 tail:2 feather:1 brush:2 face:9 second:2 occur:2 explore:1 mountain:3 discover:1 cave:1 terrify:2 monster:1 might:2 lurk:1 drive:1 find:6 inside:2 subject:6 historical:2 conjecture:1 biographer:2 tell:4 local:1 request:1 ask:2 paint:29 picture:12 round:1 plaque:2 respond:1 snake:1 spit:1 fire:1 sell:2 dealer:1 duke:3 meanwhile:1 profit:1 buy:1 decorate:1 heart:4 pierce:1 arrow:1 giorgio:2 edition:4 penguin:1 trans:2 george:2 bull:1 isbn:2 baptism:3 christ:9 workshop:12 age:7 fourteen:1 apprentice:3 successful:4 day:7 andrea:4 cione:1 centre:1 intellectual:1 current:1 assure:2 education:2 humanity:2 associate:5 ghirlandaio:7 perugino:6 botticelli:3 lorenzo:9 credi:2 would:7 expose:1 vast:2 range:2 technical:1 skill:3 opportunity:1 learn:4 drafting:1 chemistry:1 metal:1 working:2 plaster:1 casting:2 leather:1 mechanic:1 carpentry:1 well:11 artistic:5 sculpt:1 theophilus:1 diver:1 translator:2 j:2 g:1 hawthorne:1 c:12 smith:1 university:2 chicago:1 reprint:2 york:3 dover:1 publication:3 medieval:1 handbook:2 artisan:1 brief:1 instruction:1 mix:1 oil:5 cennino:1 cennini:1 libro:2 dell:1 arte:1 ed:1 v:1 thompson:1 jr:1 yale:1 write:17 painted:2 production:1 employee:1 collaborate:4 angel:6 hold:4 jesus:6 robe:2 manner:4 far:2 superior:1 master:5 put:3 never:7 probably:1 exaggeration:1 close:4 examination:1 reveals:1 touch:2 tempera:4 use:15 landscape:10 rock:9 brown:1 stream:1 figure:10 witness:1 hand:7 bronze:3 statue:8 david:3 bargello:1 archangel:1 michael:1 tobias:1 twenty:3 qualify:1 guild:3 st:17 luke:2 doctor:2 medicine:1 set:7 attachment:1 continue:3 dated:1 draw:9 pen:3 ink:1 drawn:1 august:1 collection:3 professional:1 adoration:6 magi:5 court:2 show:7 three:9 men:3 charge:1 sodomy:1 homosexual:1 act:2 illegal:1 acquit:1 date:4 whereabouts:1 although:9 assume:1 commission:12 altarpiece:5 chapel:4 bernard:2 monk:5 san:2 donato:3 scopeto:3 important:4 interrupt:2 go:7 create:9 silver:1 lyre:2 shape:2 horse:4 de:12 medici:14 send:2 gift:1 secure:1 peace:1 quote:2 letter:2 marvellous:1 diverse:1 thing:3 could:3 achieve:1 inform:1 lord:1 continued:2 virgin:15 confraternity:3 immaculate:2 conception:2 monastery:2 santa:3 maria:3 delle:2 grazie:2 list:6 among:7 dependent:1 taxation:1 document:1 funeral:1 expenditure:1 suggest:2 mother:3 codex:5 ii:2 r:1 victoria:2 albert:2 different:4 project:4 float:1 pageant:2 special:1 occasion:2 dome:1 cathedral:1 huge:1 equestrian:2 monument:2 sforza:2 predecessor:1 seventy:1 ton:1 aside:1 cast:4 remain:5 unfinished:3 several:2 unusual:3 clay:2 complete:4 surpass:1 size:3 donatello:4 gattemelata:1 padua:1 bartolomeo:2 colleoni:2 become:4 gran:2 cavallo:2 death:10 already:3 begin:6 study:32 journal:11 royal:6 library:6 windsor:4 castle:6 detailed:6 plan:5 however:4 rudely:1 imply:1 unable:1 november:1 cannon:2 defend:2 city:5 invasion:1 charles:1 viii:1 start:1 war:2 invade:1 french:4 troop:1 target:1 practice:1 overthrow:1 assistant:2 salai:9 friend:5 luca:4 pacioli:5 flee:2 employ:3 military:2 devise:2 method:4 naval:1 attack:2 return:3 guest:1 servite:1 santissima:1 annunziata:1 provide:1 cartoon:1 child:9 anne:7 john:8 baptist:6 win:2 admiration:4 flock:1 attend:1 festival:1 cesare:1 borgia:1 pope:2 alexander:1 vi:2 travel:4 throughout:2 italy:3 patron:2 rejoin:1 october:3 battle:2 anghiari:1 signoria:1 companion:2 piece:1 cascina:1 committee:1 form:6 relocate:1 gaetano:1 milanesi:1 epistolario:1 buonarroti:1 prominent:1 pupil:7 follower:2 bernardino:1 luini:1 giovanni:3 marco:2 oggione:3 copy:3 stay:1 long:5 back:3 try:2 sort:2 problem:1 brother:6 estate:2 house:2 porta:1 orientale:1 parish:1 babila:1 clos:5 lucé:5 september:1 spent:1 living:1 belvedere:1 vatican:2 raphael:5 active:1 recapture:1 present:3 meeting:1 leo:1 x:2 take:7 place:2 goyau:1 françois:3 transcribe:1 gerald:1 rossi:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:2 volume:3 publish:7 robert:1 appleton:1 company:1 retrieve:1 mechanical:1 lion:2 walk:2 forward:2 open:1 chest:1 reveal:1 cluster:1 lily:2 manor:1 cloux:1 public:2 near:1 king:6 residence:1 chateau:1 amboise:2 accompany:1 count:2 melzi:5 pension:1 total:1 scudi:1 arm:4 story:2 beloved:1 portray:2 romantic:1 ingres:1 ménageot:1 angelica:1 kauffmann:1 rather:4 fact:4 edict:2 issue:1 saint:3 germain:1 en:1 laye:1 journey:2 cannot:2 deathbed:1 white:1 point:2 sign:5 depiction:3 sent:1 priest:1 confession:1 receive:7 holy:2 sacrament:1 accordance:1 sixty:3 beggar:1 follow:5 casket:1 bury:1 hubert:1 principal:1 heir:1 executor:1 money:3 tool:1 personal:4 effect:5 remember:1 servant:1 battista:1 vilussis:1 half:1 vineyard:1 land:1 serve:1 black:2 cloak:1 good:2 stuff:1 fur:1 edge:2 goldsmith:1 benevenuto:1 cellini:1 another:7 sculpture:1 architecture:3 philosopher:3 relationship:2 influence:4 ghiberti:2 gate:3 paradise:2 source:1 communal:1 pride:1 assist:1 social:1 background:3 commence:3 apprenticeship:2 uccello:1 experiment:3 perspective:4 development:2 francesca:2 fra:2 filippo:2 lippi:2 robbia:2 alberti:3 next:3 teacher:3 pollaiuolo:1 mino:1 fiesole:1 lifelike:1 bust:1 reliable:2 likeness:1 youth:1 ornament:1 masaccio:1 figurative:2 fresco:4 imbue:1 realism:1 emotion:4 gleam:1 gold:1 leaf:1 combine:1 complex:4 composition:10 architectural:2 light:6 treatise:6 profound:1 particular:7 observation:3 massaccio:1 naked:1 distraught:1 eve:1 leave:5 garden:1 eden:1 powerfully:1 expressive:1 human:11 dimension:1 shade:3 develop:1 way:4 influential:1 course:1 humanist:3 particularly:4 devotional:1 prevalent:1 tradition:2 glaze:1 terracotta:1 prolific:4 family:4 madonna:4 carnation:1 benois:2 indiosyncratic:1 departure:1 case:4 oblique:2 angle:3 space:2 opposite:2 compositional:1 theme:2 emerge:1 slightly:1 meet:2 association:2 academy:2 favourite:2 thus:1 success:1 run:1 competently:1 deliver:2 satisfied:1 appreciate:1 ability:4 wealthy:1 citizen:1 within:6 multitude:1 unfailing:1 sweetness:1 innocence:1 portinari:2 hugo:2 van:2 der:2 wall:1 sistine:1 employment:2 prestigious:1 arrive:1 bring:3 painterly:2 northern:1 europe:1 profoundly:1 sicilian:1 antonello:1 messina:1 exclusively:1 north:1 leading:1 bellini:1 adopt:2 quickly:2 preferred:1 visit:3 like:4 bramante:1 sangallo:1 elder:1 centrally:1 church:1 appear:9 view:4 none:1 realise:1 pucci:1 sassetti:1 giulio:1 political:1 magnifico:1 popular:1 giuliano:2 slay:1 pazzi:2 conspiracy:2 rule:1 ambassador:1 come:3 marsiglio:1 ficino:1 proponent:1 neo:1 platonism:1 cristoforo:1 landino:1 commentary:1 classical:4 writing:2 argyropoulos:1 greek:2 aristotle:1 foremost:1 brilliant:1 poet:1 pico:1 mirandola:1 margin:1 destroy:2 action:1 milanese:1 exactly:1 cryptic:1 comment:1 usually:1 giant:1 high:4 thirty:3 short:1 isabella:3 este:3 louvre:6 extraordinary:1 outstanding:1 physical:1 beauty:3 infinite:2 grace:1 generosity:1 regal:1 spirit:1 tremendous:1 breadth:1 attract:1 author:3 speculate:2 various:1 aspect:3 respect:1 vegetarianism:3 habit:1 purchase:1 cage:1 bird:4 release:1 eugene:1 muntz:1 thinker:1 ethical:2 significance:1 franchinus:1 gaffurius:1 except:1 friendship:2 mantua:1 lose:2 beyond:3 keep:2 private:3 secret:1 sexuality:1 analysis:2 speculation:1 trend:2 mid:1 revive:1 notably:1 sigmund:2 freud:3 eine:1 kindheitserinnerung:1 daniel:2 arasse:3 prologue:1 gian:1 giacomo:1 caprotti:1 oreno:1 nickname:1 salaino:1 unclean:1 e:2 devil:1 misdemeanour:1 thief:1 liar:1 stubborn:1 glutton:1 valuable:1 least:2 fortune:1 clothes:1 institut:2 richter:2 student:3 execute:1 claim:3 teach:2 deal:1 generally:3 less:1 merit:1 nude:1 version:2 monna:1 vanna:1 assess:1 lira:1 exceptionally:2 valuation:1 lombard:1 aristocrat:1 latter:1 upon:3 inherit:1 manuscript:1 henceforth:1 faithfully:1 administer:1 annunciation:3 think:4 despite:2 recent:2 awareness:1 four:3 hundred:2 enormous:2 rest:1 achievement:1 handful:1 authenticate:1 supreme:1 masterpiece:3 divine:2 discuss:3 pp:2 variety:2 quality:6 imitate:1 length:1 connoisseur:1 critic:2 unique:2 innovative:3 lay:2 botany:1 geology:1 physiognomy:1 register:2 expression:1 gesture:3 subtle:2 gradation:1 tone:1 frederick:1 hartt:1 jerome:4 wilderness:2 conjunction:1 predella:1 base:6 separate:1 formal:4 arrangement:1 angelico:1 mary:5 sitting:1 kneeling:1 right:3 profile:3 rich:1 flow:2 garment:1 raise:2 wing:2 previously:1 almost:1 universally:1 avert:1 eye:3 fold:1 symbolise:1 submission:1 god:3 submissive:1 beautiful:3 reading:1 unexpected:1 messenger:1 finger:1 bible:1 mark:1 greet:1 surprise:1 calm:1 accept:1 role:2 resignation:1 confidence:1 recognise:1 incarnation:1 ground:2 break:2 importance:1 term:2 unfortunately:1 finish:4 lengthy:1 negotiation:1 completion:1 payment:2 difficult:1 period:2 melancholy:1 barely:1 penitent:1 occupy:1 slight:1 diagonal:1 somewhat:1 kneel:2 trapezoid:1 stretch:1 outer:1 gaze:1 look:2 direction:1 wasserman:2 link:1 anatomical:4 across:3 foreground:1 sprawl:1 symbol:1 body:4 spiral:1 remarkable:1 feature:4 sketchy:1 craggy:1 silhouette:1 dare:1 element:2 drama:1 numerous:3 preparatory:2 linear:1 ruined:1 backdrop:1 scene:2 behest:1 order:4 favour:1 abandon:1 assistance:1 predis:2 fill:1 choose:1 apocryphal:1 moment:2 infant:2 protection:2 road:1 egypt:1 recognizes:1 worship:1 demonstrate:2 eerie:1 graceful:1 around:4 wild:1 tumble:1 whirling:1 water:2 quite:2 nearly:1 fifty:2 rocky:1 detail:6 eventually:2 carry:2 away:2 get:1 convent:1 sta:1 represent:1 meal:1 share:1 disciple:1 capture:1 specifically:1 betray:1 consternation:1 statement:1 cause:3 twelve:2 novelist:1 matteo:1 bandello:1 observe:3 dawn:2 till:1 dusk:1 stop:1 eat:1 comprehension:1 prior:2 hound:1 intervene:1 describes:1 trouble:1 adequately:1 depict:3 traitor:1 juda:1 oblige:1 acclaim:1 characterisation:1 deteriorate:1 rapidly:1 viewer:1 completely:1 ruin:1 instead:1 mainly:1 gesso:1 result:1 surface:2 mold:1 flake:1 reproduced:2 countless:1 every:2 medium:1 carpet:1 cameos:1 la:2 gioconda:2 paris:2 laugh:1 elusive:1 smile:3 subtly:1 shadow:1 corner:1 mouth:2 exact:1 determine:1 shadowy:1 sfumato:2 smoke:1 repute:1 please:1 saw:3 amaze:1 alive:1 original:2 characteristic:1 unadorned:1 dress:2 competition:1 dramatic:1 flux:1 subdue:1 colouring:1 extremely:2 smooth:1 blend:1 brushstrokes:1 indistinguishable:1 express:1 opinion:1 confident:1 despair:1 perfect:2 preservation:1 repair:1 overpainting:1 rare:3 pick:1 breathtakingly:1 hark:1 obliquely:1 superimpose:1 seat:1 knee:1 lean:1 restrain:1 play:1 roughly:1 lamb:1 impending:1 sacrifice:1 del:2 sarto:1 pontormo:1 correggio:1 venetian:1 tintoretto:1 veronese:1 national:2 gallery:3 london:3 draftsman:1 sketch:2 attention:1 exist:1 identify:1 montelupo:1 farmland:1 proportion:1 botanical:1 star:1 bethlehem:1 cm:1 chalk:1 coloured:1 similarity:1 caricature:1 exaggerate:1 relate:1 interesting:1 admire:1 facial:2 grecian:2 continuous:1 straight:1 line:2 forehead:1 nose:2 tip:1 bridge:6 contrast:1 warrior:1 fancy:1 costume:1 meticulous:1 drapery:3 marked:1 macabre:1 bernardo:1 baroncelli:2 hang:3 connection:1 murder:1 dispassionate:1 integrity:1 neat:1 mirror:2 colour:1 wear:1 observer:1 accademia:1 humanism:1 mutually:1 exclusive:1 polarity:1 impressive:1 page:4 note:3 fuse:1 natural:1 philosophy:1 forerunner:2 maintain:1 daily:1 continual:1 mostly:2 cursive:1 reason:2 expediency:1 secrecy:1 since:2 left:1 probable:1 easier:1 split:1 nib:1 quill:1 experience:1 difficulty:1 push:1 foetus:2 womb:1 preoccupation:1 mundane:1 grocery:1 people:1 owe:1 intriguing:1 shoe:1 animal:2 baby:1 dissection:1 plant:1 formation:1 whirl:1 pool:1 originally:1 loose:1 type:1 distribute:1 major:2 biblioteca:2 nacional:1 españa:1 ambrosiana:1 atlanticus:1 british:1 selection:1 bl:1 arundel:1 ms:1 online:1 leicester:1 bill:1 intend:2 sheet:3 facilitate:1 single:3 topic:1 example:2 cover:1 word:2 rl:2 organisation:1 minimises:1 loss:1 data:1 mixed:1 unknown:1 rhombicuboctahedron:1 divina:2 proportione:2 observational:1 understand:1 phenomenon:2 utmost:1 emphasize:1 theoretical:2 explanation:1 lack:1 latin:2 mathematics:2 scholar:1 ignore:1 prepare:2 series:2 regular:1 solid:1 skeletal:1 engrave:1 content:1 coherent:1 cardinal:1 louis:1 aragon:1 secretary:1 assemble:1 germany:1 engraving:1 nicholas:1 poussin:1 precursor:1 academic:1 exhaustive:1 frtijof:1 capra:2 fritjof:1 genius:9 doubleday:1 argue:2 fundamentally:1 kind:1 galileo:1 newton:1 clear:1 theorising:1 hypothesising:1 integrate:2 holistic:1 system:3 complexity:1 school:1 training:1 insisting:1 topographic:1 muscle:3 tendon:1 visible:1 permission:1 dissect:2 corps:1 hospital:2 nuova:1 marcantonio:1 torre:1 heading:1 skeleton:1 sinew:1 vascular:1 sex:1 organ:2 internal:2 fetus:1 utero:1 closely:1 observed:1 physiology:1 rage:1 deformity:1 illness:1 cow:1 monkey:1 frog:1 compare:1 structure:2 flying:1 value:2 able:1 siege:1 moveable:1 barricade:1 protect:1 scheme:1 divert:1 flood:1 pisa:1 impractical:2 musical:1 instrument:1 hydraulic:1 pump:1 reversible:1 crank:1 mechanism:1 fin:1 mortar:1 shell:1 steam:1 produce:2 span:3 foot:1 ottoman:1 sultan:1 beyazid:2 istanbul:1 inlet:1 bosporus:1 golden:2 horn:2 pursue:2 believe:2 construction:1 impossible:1 vision:1 resurrect:1 norway:1 turkish:1 government:1 decide:1 fascinate:1 flight:4 fly:1 glider:3 successfully:1 broadcasting:1 pbs:1 air:1 television:1 programme:1 dream:1 building:1 trophy:1 reference:2 section:2 talent:2 transcended:1 slacken:1 crowd:1 still:2 queue:1 marvel:1 intelligent:1 actually:1 enlarged:1 introduce:1 chapter:1 command:1 reflect:1 tribute:1 baldassare:1 cortegiano:1 courtier:1 unequalled:1 universal:3 miracle:1 behalf:1 gaddiani:1 elaborate:1 billi:1 henry:1 forth:1 splendour:1 distance:1 former:1 excellence:2 constitute:1 essence:1 echo:1 tower:1 nobility:1 hippolyte:1 incapable:1 fulfilment:1 yearn:1 naturally:1 refine:1 ahead:1 berenson:1 literalness:1 nothing:1 turn:1 eternal:1 whether:1 cross:1 skull:1 weed:1 feeling:1 forever:1 transmute:1 communicate:1 unabated:1 translate:1 analyse:1 attribution:1 search:1 liana:1 multiplicity:1 spur:1 rightly:1 par:1 disquiet:1 overtone:1 inherent:1 uncomfortable:1 today:1 pass:1 yet:1 awe:1 technology:1 aerial:1 medical:1 combustion:1 engine:1 airport:1 institute:1 footnote:1 bibliography:1 ilan:1 rachum:1 title:1 illustrated:1 publisher:1 octopus:1 translation:1 eminent:1 web:1 decode:1 true:1 леанарда:1 да:1 вінчы:1 |@bigram ser_piero:6 da_vinci:27 polymath_scientist:1 painter_sculptor:2 sculptor_architect:2 helen_gardner:1 ludovico_il:5 il_moro:5 mona_lisa:7 vitruvian_man:5 plate_tectonics:1 tensile_strength:1 leonardo_da:20 paternal_grandfather:1 giorgio_vasari:2 penguin_classic:1 lorenzo_di:2 dover_publication:1 dell_arte:1 bronze_statue:1 archangel_michael:1 pen_ink:1 adoration_magi:5 immaculate_conception:2 santa_maria:2 francesco_sforza:1 equestrian_statue:1 windsor_castle:4 luca_pacioli:3 cesare_borgia:1 clos_lucé:5 raphael_michelangelo:1 pope_leo:1 robert_appleton:1 saint_germain:1 germain_en:1 en_laye:1 battista_di:1 piero_della:2 della_francesca:2 filippo_lippi:2 adam_eve:1 garden_eden:1 van_der:2 sistine_chapel:1 giovanni_bellini:1 centrally_plan:1 il_magnifico:1 pazzi_conspiracy:2 neo_platonism:1 pico_della:1 della_mirandola:1 isabella_este:3 sigmund_freud:2 freud_sigmund:1 fra_angelico:1 virgin_mary:2 jesus_christ:1 hark_back:1 andrea_del:2 del_sarto:1 renaissance_humanism:1 mutually_exclusive:1 biblioteca_nacional:1 de_divina:2 divina_proportione:2 hydraulic_pump:1 hang_glider:2 uffizi_florence:1 baldassare_castiglione:1 henry_fuseli:1 bernard_berenson:1 continue_unabated:1 par_excellence:1 internal_combustion:1 combustion_engine:1 |
4,657 | Lock_(device) | Padlock Simple three-disc locking mechanism from a wooden box recovered from the Swedish ship Vasa, sunk in 1628 Medieval lock in Kathmandu A lock is a mechanical fastening device which may be used on a door, vehicle, or container, restricting access to the area or property enclosed. Commonly, it can be released by using a key or combination. History of locks Securing one's property has long been a concern of people throughout the world. Beyond hiding the objects or constantly guarding them the most frequently used option is to secure them with a device. Early solutions included knots to either detect, like the Thief knot, or hamper, like the Gordian Knot. Wooden locks and keys were in use as early as 4,000 years ago in Assyria . The first known lock with a key is a pin lock. The lock is strung on a rope hanging out of a hole in a door. A cylinder of wood with a hole drilled through its axis is the key, the length of the cylinder being the critical factor. The key is inserted into the hole and the bolt is pushed the correct distance. To lock the door the rope was pulled to extract the key cylinder, simultaneously pulling the bolt closed. This type of lock is still in use in certain parts of the world. A disadvantage of this lock is that a vandal can push the rope into the hole — an ancient equivalent of putting glue into a lock. Early improvements in pin locks included increasing the number of pins to increase security, and changing the orientation of the pins to allow the key to provide the unlocking force instead of a rope, thus establishing the principles of the modern pin tumbler lock. Next was developed a warded lock that is still used in modern times when the security required is not high and cost is a significant factor. It is the first lock design to have a key recognizable to a modern western person. Lock puzzles were used to obscure the locking mechanism or even provide a non-functioning lock for the thief to waste time on. Famous locksmiths Al-Jazari described the first combination lock in 1309 Robert Barron patented a double-acting tumbler lock in 1778, the first reasonable improvement in lock security. Joseph Bramah patented the safety lock in 1784. It was considered unpickable for 67 years until A.C. Hobbs picked it, taking over 50 hours. Jeremiah Chubb patented his detector lock in 1818. It won him the reward offered by the Government for a lock which could not be opened by any but its own key. James Sargent described the first successful key-changeable combination lock in 1857. His lock became popular with safe manufacturers and the United States Treasury Department. In 1873, he patented a time lock mechanism, the prototype for those used in contemporary bank vaults. Samuel Segal invented the first jimmy proof locks in 1916. Harry Soref founded the Master Lock Company in 1921 and patented an improved padlock in 1924 with a patent lock casing constructed out of laminated steel. Linus Yale, Sr. invented a pin tumbler lock in 1848. Linus Yale, Jr. improved upon his father's lock in 1861, using a smaller, flat key with serrated edges that is the basis of modern pin-tumbler locks. Yale developed the modern combination lock in 1862. Types of locks A type of padlock side view. Door with two locks, one in the door knob and a separate deadbolt. Locks may be entirely mechanical, or electromechanical. They may be operated by turning some form of removable key, by keying or dialling in a combination which directly or via electromechanical means operates the lock, with some form of magnetic or other card reader, or by moving a part on a safety lock intended to prevent accidental operation rather than to prevent unauthorized access. Bicycle lock Cam lock Child safety lock Combination lock Cruciform (or Zeiss) lock Cylinder lock Deadbolt Disc tumbler lock Electronic lock Electric strike Magnetic lock Keycard lock Lever tumbler lock Chubb detector lock Protector lock Magnetic keyed lock Padlock Pin tumbler lock Police Lock Rim lock Tubular pin tumbler lock Time lock Turner lock Wafer tumbler lock Warded lock Security door locks See also Key relevance Lock picking Locksmithing Physical security Bored cylindrical lock and Mortice lock, two different approaches to locking mechanisms External links History of Locks from the Chubb website Locksmithing Throughout the Ages The History of Locks West Coast Lock Collectors Association American Lock Collectors Association Further reading Phillips, Bill. (2005). The Complete Book of Locks and Locksmithing. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0071448292. | Lock_(device) |@lemmatized padlock:4 simple:1 three:1 disc:2 lock:71 mechanism:3 wooden:2 box:1 recover:1 swedish:1 ship:1 vas:1 sunk:1 medieval:1 kathmandu:1 mechanical:2 fastening:1 device:2 may:3 use:9 door:6 vehicle:1 container:1 restrict:1 access:2 area:1 property:2 enclose:1 commonly:1 release:1 key:15 combination:6 history:3 secure:2 one:2 long:1 concern:1 people:1 throughout:2 world:2 beyond:1 hide:1 object:1 constantly:1 guard:1 frequently:1 option:1 early:3 solution:1 include:2 knot:3 either:1 detect:1 like:2 thief:2 hamper:1 gordian:1 year:2 ago:1 assyria:1 first:6 know:1 pin:9 string:1 rope:4 hang:1 hole:4 cylinder:4 wood:1 drill:1 axis:1 length:1 critical:1 factor:2 insert:1 bolt:2 push:2 correct:1 distance:1 pull:2 extract:1 simultaneously:1 close:1 type:3 still:2 certain:1 part:2 disadvantage:1 vandal:1 ancient:1 equivalent:1 put:1 glue:1 improvement:2 increase:2 number:1 security:5 change:1 orientation:1 allow:1 provide:2 unlocking:1 force:1 instead:1 thus:1 establish:1 principle:1 modern:5 tumbler:9 next:1 develop:2 warded:1 time:4 require:1 high:1 cost:1 significant:1 design:1 recognizable:1 western:1 person:1 puzzle:1 obscure:1 locking:1 even:1 non:1 functioning:1 waste:1 famous:1 locksmith:1 al:1 jazari:1 describe:2 robert:1 barron:1 patent:6 double:1 act:1 reasonable:1 joseph:1 bramah:1 safety:3 consider:1 unpickable:1 c:1 hobbs:1 pick:2 take:1 hour:1 jeremiah:1 chubb:3 detector:2 win:1 reward:1 offer:1 government:1 could:1 open:1 james:1 sargent:1 successful:1 changeable:1 become:1 popular:1 safe:1 manufacturer:1 united:1 state:1 treasury:1 department:1 prototype:1 contemporary:1 bank:1 vault:1 samuel:1 segal:1 invent:2 jimmy:1 proof:1 harry:1 soref:1 found:1 master:1 company:1 improved:1 case:1 construct:1 laminated:1 steel:1 linus:2 yale:3 sr:1 jr:1 improve:1 upon:1 father:1 small:1 flat:1 serrated:1 edge:1 basis:1 side:1 view:1 two:2 knob:1 separate:1 deadbolt:2 entirely:1 electromechanical:2 operate:2 turn:1 form:2 removable:1 dial:1 directly:1 via:1 mean:1 magnetic:3 card:1 reader:1 move:1 intend:1 prevent:2 accidental:1 operation:1 rather:1 unauthorized:1 bicycle:1 cam:1 child:1 cruciform:1 zeiss:1 electronic:1 electric:1 strike:1 keycard:1 lever:1 protector:1 police:1 rim:1 tubular:1 turner:1 wafer:1 ward:1 see:1 also:1 relevance:1 locksmithing:3 physical:1 bore:1 cylindrical:1 mortice:1 different:1 approach:1 mechanisms:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 age:1 west:1 coast:1 collector:2 association:2 american:1 far:1 read:1 phillips:1 bill:1 complete:1 book:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 isbn:1 |@bigram hole_drill:1 pin_tumbler:5 tumbler_lock:9 locking_mechanism:1 al_jazari:1 external_link:1 mcgraw_hill:1 |
4,658 | Boxing_Day | Christmas box redirects here; it may also refer to shrubs of the genus Sarcococca. Boxing Day is a bank holiday or a public holiday in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Hong Kong, and countries in the Commonwealth of Nations with a mainly Christian population. In South Africa this public holiday is now known as the Day of Goodwill. The holiday is not recognized in the United States. It is based on the tradition of giving gifts (a "Christmas box") to the less fortunate members of society. Boxing Day is usually celebrated on December 26, the day after Christmas Day American Heritage Dictionary, Fourth Edition - 'Boxing Day' Oxford English ; however, unlike St. Stephen's Day, Boxing Day is not always on December 26: its associated public holiday can be moved to the next weekday if December 26 is a Saturday or Sunday. The movement of Boxing Day varies between countries. The name derives from the fact that the day is traditionally marked by the giving of Christmas boxes, or gifts, to service workers (such as service staff, postal workers and trades people) in the United Kingdom. This day is commonly thought to be the UK's name for St. Stephen's Day. Saint Stephen was the first Christian martyr, being stoned to death in Jerusalem around A.D. 34–35. St. Stephen's Day is usually celebrated on December 26, which is a public holiday in some countries and areas in Europe (including the , Germany, Italy, Alsace and the northern part of Lorraine in France, Catalonia in Spain) and around the world in countries with predominantly Christian populations. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, St Stephen's Day is celebrated on the 27th of December, although in Greece the Greek Boxing Day (Synaxis Theotokou, Σύναξις Θεοτόκου) is also celebrated as a public holiday on December 26 and is not related to the British version. In Ireland — when it was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland — the UK's Bank Holidays Act 1871 established the feast day of St. Stephen's Day as a non-moveable public holiday on December 26, although since Partition, the name "Boxing Day" is used by the authorities in Northern Ireland, (which remained part of the United Kingdom), and it has become a moveable public holiday in line with the rest of the United Kingdom The Banking and Financial Dealings Act of 1971 established "Boxing Day" as a public holiday in Scotland. In the Australian state of South Australia, December 26 is a public holiday known as Proclamation Day. Date In the countries that observe this holiday December 26 is commonly referred to as Boxing Day and St Stephen's Day, no matter what day of the week it occurs. BBC Radio 4 schedule, 26 December 2004 However, in some countries, holidays falling on Saturday or Sunday are often observed on the next weekday. Technically, Boxing Day cannot be on a Sunday — that day being the officially recognised day of worship, so traditionally it was the next working day of the week following Christmas Day, (i.e. any day from Monday to Saturday). In recent times this tradition has been either forgotten or ignored, and December 26 is considered by most to be Boxing Day when it falls on a Sunday. The last year December 26 was called Christmas Sunday in the United Kingdom and Canada, was in 1993. The next time the date fell on a Sunday (1999), it was known as Boxing Day. If Boxing Day falls on a Saturday, then Monday December 28 is declared a bank or public holiday. In the United Kingdom and some other countries this is accomplished by Royal Proclamation. In some Canadian provinces, Boxing Day is a statutory holiday Boxing day is not a statutory holiday in Manitoba — and is always celebrated on 26 December. As with most statutory holidays in Canada if it falls on a Saturday or Sunday, compensation days are given in the following week In Manitoba, Remembrance Day is an exception to the general holiday rules — a day in lieu is not given if Remembrance Day falls on a Saturday or Sunday — http://www.gov.mb.ca/labour/standards/doc,remembrance-day,factsheet.html . If Boxing Day falls on a Sunday, then in countries where it is a bank or public holiday the Statutory Holiday is moved to Monday December 27. Bank Holidays Act 1871 (UK and Republic of Ireland) Banks and Bank Holidays Act (NSW) 1912 — Fourth Schedule Holidays Act (Qld) 1983 In that event, Christmas Day would be on a Saturday, so Tuesday December 28 would be declared a holiday in its stead, that being the next available working day — thus the Boxing Day holiday occurs before the substitute Christmas holiday. If Christmas Day falls on a Sunday, then Boxing Day is on Monday December 26, and no Royal Proclamation is required. In such a circumstance, a 'substitute bank holiday in the place of Christmas Day' is declared for Tuesday December 27, again with the Boxing Day holiday occurring before the substitute Christmas holiday. Although the same legislation—the Bank Holidays Act 1871—originally established the bank holidays throughout the United Kingdom, the day after Christmas was defined as Boxing Day in England and Wales, and the feast day of St. Stephen's Day in Ireland. DTI information on bank and public holidays in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Note that a 'substitute bank holiday in place of 26th December' is only possible in Northern Ireland, reflecting the legal difference in that St. Stephen's Day does not automatically shift to the Monday in the same way as Boxing Day. References External links Snopes: The Origins of Boxing Day Boxing Day Celebrations | Boxing_Day |@lemmatized christmas:12 box:18 redirect:1 may:1 also:2 refer:2 shrubs:1 genus:1 sarcococca:1 day:55 bank:12 holiday:34 public:12 united:9 kingdom:8 australia:2 canada:3 new:1 zealand:1 hong:1 kong:1 country:8 commonwealth:1 nation:1 mainly:1 christian:3 population:2 south:2 africa:1 know:3 goodwill:1 recognize:1 state:2 base:1 tradition:2 give:4 gift:2 less:1 fortunate:1 member:1 society:1 usually:2 celebrate:5 december:19 american:1 heritage:1 dictionary:1 fourth:2 edition:1 oxford:1 english:1 however:2 unlike:1 st:8 stephen:9 always:2 associated:1 move:2 next:5 weekday:2 saturday:7 sunday:10 movement:1 varies:1 name:3 derive:1 fact:1 traditionally:2 mark:1 service:2 worker:2 staff:1 postal:1 trade:1 people:1 commonly:2 think:1 uk:3 saint:1 first:1 martyr:1 stone:1 death:1 jerusalem:1 around:2 area:1 europe:1 include:1 germany:1 italy:1 alsace:1 northern:4 part:3 lorraine:1 france:1 catalonia:1 spain:1 world:1 predominantly:1 eastern:1 orthodox:1 church:1 although:3 greece:1 greek:1 boxing:8 synaxis:1 theotokou:1 σύναξις:1 θεοτόκου:1 relate:1 british:1 version:1 ireland:7 great:1 britain:1 act:6 establish:3 feast:2 non:1 moveable:2 since:1 partition:1 use:1 authority:1 remain:1 become:1 line:1 rest:1 banking:1 financial:1 dealing:1 scotland:1 australian:1 proclamation:3 date:2 observe:2 matter:1 week:3 occur:3 bbc:1 radio:1 schedule:2 fall:7 often:1 technically:1 cannot:1 officially:1 recognised:1 worship:1 working:1 follow:1 e:1 monday:5 recent:1 time:2 either:1 forget:1 ignore:1 consider:1 last:1 year:1 call:1 fell:1 declare:3 accomplish:1 royal:2 canadian:1 province:1 statutory:4 manitoba:2 compensation:1 following:1 remembrance:3 exception:1 general:1 rule:1 lieu:1 http:1 www:1 gov:1 mb:1 ca:1 labour:1 standard:1 doc:1 factsheet:1 html:1 republic:1 nsw:1 qld:1 event:1 would:2 tuesday:2 stead:1 available:1 work:1 thus:1 substitute:4 require:1 circumstance:1 place:2 legislation:1 originally:1 throughout:1 define:1 england:2 wale:2 dti:1 information:1 note:1 possible:1 reflect:1 legal:1 difference:1 automatically:1 shift:1 way:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 snopes:1 origin:1 celebration:1 |@bigram hong_kong:1 saturday_sunday:4 eastern_orthodox:1 monday_saturday:1 statutory_holiday:4 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
4,659 | Flynn_effect | The Flynn effect is the rise of the average intelligence quotient (IQ) test scores over generations (IQ gains over time). It is an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at greatly varying rates. It is named after James R. Flynn, who did much to document it and promote awareness of its implications. This increase has been continuous and roughly linear from the earliest days of testing to the present. "Test scores are certainly going up all over the world, but whether intelligence itself has risen remains controversial," psychologist Ulric Neisser wrote in an article in 1997 in The American Scientist. Rising Scores on Intelligence Test Neisser, U. (1997). American Scientist, 85, 440-447. The Flynn effect may have ended in some developed nations starting in the mid 1990s although other studies, such as Black Americans reduce the racial IQ gap: Evidence from standardization samples (Dickens, Flynn; 2006), still show gains between 1972 and 2002. The rise IQ tests are re-normalized periodically, in order to hold the average score for an age group at 100. In fact, the necessity for this re-normalization provided Flynn with an initial indication that IQ was changing over time. The revised versions are standardized on new samples and scored with respect to those samples alone, so the only way to compare the difficulty of two versions of a test is to conduct a separate study in which the same subjects take both versions. Doing so confirms IQ gains over time. The average rate of rise seems to be around three IQ points per decade. Because children attend school longer now and have become much more familiar with the testing of school-related material, one might expect the greatest gains to occur on such school content-related tests as vocabulary, arithmetic or general information. Just the opposite is the case: abilities such as these have experienced relatively small gains and even occasional declines over the years. The largest Flynn effects appear instead on general intelligence factor loaded (g-loaded) tests such as Raven's Progressive Matrices. For example, Dutch conscripts gained 21 points in only 30 years, or 7 points per decade, between 1952 and 1982. Some studies focusing on the distribution of scores have found the Flynn effect to be primarily a phenomenon in the lower end of the distribution. Teasdale and Owen (1987), for example, found the effect primarily reduced the number of low-end scores, resulting in an increased number of moderately high scores, with no increase in very high scores. Teasdale, Thomas W., and David R. Owen. (1987). ‘National secular trends in intelligence and education: a twenty year cross-sectional study’, Nature, 325, 119-21. However, Raven (2000) found that, as Flynn suggested, data reported by many previous researchers that had previously been interpreted as showing a decrease in many abilities with increasing age must be re-interpreted as showing that there has been a dramatic increase in these abilities with date of birth. On many tests this occurs at all levels of ability. Raven, J. (2000). The Raven’s Progressive Matrices: Change and stability over culture and time. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 1-48. Two large samples of Spanish children were assessed with a 30-year gap. Comparison of the IQ distributions indicated that the mean IQ had increased by 9.7 points (the Flynn effect), the gains were concentrated in the lower half of the distribution and negligible in the top half, and the gains gradually decreased from low to high IQ. Taken at face value, these changes are considered large by some. Ulric Neisser, who in 1995 headed an American Psychological Association task force writing a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research, estimates that if American children of 1932 could take an IQ test normed in 1997 their average IQ would have been only about 80. In other words, half of the children in 1932 would be classified as having borderline mental retardation or worse in 1997. Looking at Ravens, Neisser estimates that if you extrapolate beyond the data, which shows a 21 point gain between 1952 and 1982, an even larger gain of 35 IQ points can be argued, however Arthur Jensen warns that extrapolating beyond the data leads to results such as an IQ of -1000 for Aristotle (even assuming he would have scored 200 in his day). The g factor by Arthur Jensen pg 328 Proposed explanations Attempted explanations have included improved nutrition, a trend towards smaller families, better education, greater environmental complexity, and heterosis . Another proposition is greater familiarity with multiple-choice questions and experience with brain-teaser IQ problems. Many studies find that children who do not attend school for one reason or another score lower on the tests than their regularly attending peers. In the 1960s, when some Virginia counties closed their public schools to avoid racial integration, compensatory private schooling was available only for white children. On average, the African-American children who received no formal education during that period fell back at a rate of about six IQ points per year. Length of average schooling has steadily increased. One problem with this explanation is that if comparing older and more recent subjects with similar educational levels, then the IQ gains appear almost undiminished in each such group considered individually. Mathematics has been proposed as particularly important. Rising mean IQ: Cognitive demand of mathematics education for young children, population exposure to formal schooling, and the neurobiology of the prefrontal cortex Clancy Blair, David Gamson, Steven Thorne, David Baker. Intelligence 33 (2005) 93-106 Another explanation is an increased familiarity of the general population with tests and testing. For example, children who take the very same IQ test a second time usually gain 5 or 6 points by doing so. However, this seems to set an upper limit on the effects of test sophistication. One problem with this explanation and other related to the schooling is, as noted above, that those subsets one would expect to be affected the most show the smallest increases. Another theory is that many parents are now interested in their children's intellectual development and are probably doing more to encourage it than parents did in the past. Early intervention programs have shown mixed results. Some preschool (age 3-4) intervention programs like "Head Start" do not produce lasting changes in IQ, although they do confer other important benefits. The "Abecedarian Early Intervention Project", an all-day program that provided various forms of environmental enrichment to children from infancy onward, showed IQ gains that did not diminish over time; the IQ difference between the groups was still present at age twelve. This very intensive intervention resulted in a gain of five IQ points, and not all such projects have been successful. Also, such IQ gains can diminish until the age of 18. Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., Craig, I. W., & McGuffin, P. (2003). Behavioral genetics in the postgenomic era. 4th Ed. Several other studies have also found lasting cognitive gains. Contributions of early childhood education to age-14 performance Cathy Wylie, Edith Hodgen, Hilary Ferral, and Jean Thompson. NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH TE RÜNANGA O AOTEAROA MÖ TE RANGAHAU I TE MÄTAURANGA WELLINGTON 2006 Still another theory is that the general environment today is much more complex and stimulating. One of the most striking 20th-century changes in the human intellectual environment has come from the increase in exposure to many types of visual media. From pictures on the wall to movies to television to video games to computers, each successive generation has been exposed to far richer optical displays than the one before and may have become more adept at visual analysis. This would explain why tests like the Raven's have shown the greatest increases, since they depend on such analysis. This explanation may imply that IQ tests do not necessarily measure a general intelligence factor, especially not Raven's as often argued, but instead may measure different forms of intelligence that are developed by different experiences (this argument stands against the notion of an underlying general intelligence, or g factor). An increase only in particular form(s) of intelligence would explain why the Flynn effect has not caused a "cultural renaissance too great to be overlooked." Related to this, James Flynn's current explanation (Flynn 2007) is that environmental changes arising from modernization - such as more intellectually demanding work, greater use of technology and smaller families - have meant that people are far more used to manipulating abstract concepts such as hypotheses and categories than a century ago. Substantial portions of IQ tests deal with these abilities. He gives as an example the question 'What do a dog and a rabbit have in common?' - a modern respondent might say they are both mammals (an abstract answer), whereas someone a century ago might say that you catch rabbits with dogs (a concrete answer). Improved nutrition is another explanation. Today's average adult from an industrialized nation stands much taller than the comparable adult of a century ago. That increase in stature, almost certainly the result of general improvements in nutrition and health, has come at a rate of more than a centimeter per decade. Available data suggest that these gains have been accompanied by analogous increases in head size, and presumably by an increase in the average size of the brain. This argument has the difficulty that groups who tend to be of smaller overall body size (e.g. women, people of Asian descent) do not show lower average IQs. A 2005 study presented data supporting the nutrition hypothesis, which predicts that gains in IQ will predominantly occur at the low end of the distribution where nutritional deprivation is (was) most severe. Richard Lynn first proposed the nutrition hypothesis and defends it as the only plausible explanation for the Flynn Effect in most samples. Lynn argues that cultural factors can not typically explain the Flynn Effect because it is observed even on infant development tests, thus nutrition at the earliest stages of life is the best explanation. Possibly related to the Flynn effect is change in cranial vault size and shape during the last 150 years in the US. These changes must occur by early childhood because of the early development of the vault. "Changes in vault dimensions must occur by early childhood because of the early development of the vault." Secular change in craniofacial morphology "During the 125 years under consideration, cranial vaults have become markedly higher, somewhat narrower, with narrower faces. The changes in cranial morphology are probably in large part due to changes in growth at the cranial base due to improved environmental conditions. The changes are likely a combination of phenotypic plasticity and genetic changes over this period." Cranial change in Americans: 1850-1975. Flynn earlier argued that the very large increase indicates that IQ tests do not measure intelligence well but only a minor sort of "abstract problem-solving ability" with little practical significance.. This speaks to the validity of IQ tests, and whether they assess something akin to most people's everyday understanding of "intelligence". Some have argued that if IQ gains do reflect increases in intelligence in this sense, there would have been consequent changes in our society that have not been observed(given the presumed non-occurrence of the "cultural renaissance" referred to above. Dickens and Flynn in 2001 presented a model for resolving several contradictory findings regarding IQ. They argue that the measure "heritability" includes both a direct effect of the genotype on IQ and also indirect effects where the genotype changes the environment, in turn affecting IQ. That is, those with a higher IQ tend to seek out stimulating environments that further increase IQ. These reciprocal effects result in gene environment correlation. The direct effect can initially have been very small but feedback loops can create large differences in IQ. In their model an environmental stimulus can have a very large effect on IQ, even in adults, but this effect also decays over time unless the stimulus continues (the model could be adapted to include possible factors, like nutrition in early childhood, that may cause permanent effects). The Flynn effect can be explained by a generally more stimulating environment for all people. The authors suggest that programs aiming to increase IQ would be most likely to produce long-term IQ gains if they taught children how to replicate outside the program the kinds of cognitively demanding experiences that produce IQ gains while they are in the program and motivate them to persist in that replication long after they have left the program. William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn, Heritability Estimates Versus Large Environmental Effects:The IQ Paradox Resolved, Psychological Review 2001. Vol. 108, No. 2. 346-369. William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn, "The IQ Paradox: Still Resolved," Psychological Review 109, no. 4 (2002). However if the Flynn Effect is caused by intellectual stimulation, this may suggest that the Flynn Effect is unrelated to g because according to Jensen "the preponderance of evidence argues that variance in the level of g is not a psychologically manipulable variable, but rather a biological phenomenon under the control both of the genes and of those external physical variables that affect the physiological and biochemical functioning of the central nervous system, which mediates the behavioral manifestations of g The g factor by Arthur Jensen pg 336 ...Anything less than very early and intensive intervention, including medical and nutritional advances, during the preschool years (and also prenatally) is probably inadequate to cause a lasting increase in the child's level of g." The g factor by Arthur Jensen pg 344 However, Dickens and Flynn's paper, which was written after Jensen's book, disputes Jensen's claims, for example arguing that using Jensen's methodology the Flynn effect is found to be substantially due to genetic improvements, an extremely unlikely cause. Their theory explains such contradictions. Some researchers, such as J. Phillipe Rushton argue the Flynn effect largely has not changed the general intelligence factor (g), which would mean practical significance of the effect would be limited. More recent studies have found that g has improved substantially Studies that make use of multi group confirmatory factor analysis test for "measurement invariance." Where tenable, invariance demonstrates that group differences exist in the latent constructs the tests contain and not, for example, as a result of measurement artifacts or cultural bias. Wicherts et al. (2004) found evidence from five data sets that IQ scores are not measurement invariant over time, and thus "the gains cannot be explained solely by increases at the level of the latent variables (common factors), which IQ tests purport to measure". In other words, according to this study, some of the inter-generational difference in IQ is attributable to bias or other artifacts, and not real gains in general intelligence or higher-order ability factors. (links to PDF file) A 2003 study looking at the Flynn effect in Kenya between 1984 and 1998 found that the increase was best explained by parents' literacy, family structure, and children's nutrition and health. A 2006 study from Brazil looked at data from testing children in 1930 and 2002–2004, the largest gap ever considered. The results are consistent with both the cognitive stimulation and the nutritional hypotheses. In the end a number of varied phenomena may be contributing to the Flynn effect. Has progression ended? William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn write that blacks have gained 5 or 6 IQ points on non-Hispanic whites between 1972 and 2002. This graph shows the gains for various tests. Black Americans reduce the racial IQ gap: Evidence from standardization samples William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn. Oct. 2006 The Flynn effect may have ended in some developed nations starting in the mid 1990s. Teasdale & Owen (2005) "report intelligence test results from over 500,000 young Danish men, tested between 1959 and 2004, showing that performance peaked in the late 1990s, and has since declined moderately to pre-1991 levels." They speculate that "a contributing factor in this recent fall could be a simultaneous decline in proportions of students entering 3-year advanced-level school programs for 16–18 year olds." In 2004, Jon Martin Sundet of the University of Oslo and colleagues published an article documenting scores on intelligence tests given to Norwegian conscripts between the 1950s and 2002, showing that the increase in scores of general intelligence stopped after the mid-1990s and in numerical reasoning subtests, declined. Some have claimed that the Flynn effect was masking a dysgenic decline in human reproduction and that in developed countries the only direction that IQ scores will now move is downwards. However, even if there is a decline, then this may have other causes than dysgenics. Genetic changes usually happen relatively slowly. For example, the Flynn effect has been too rapid for a genetic explanation. Researchers have warned that constantly greater exposure to industrial chemicals shown to damage the nervous system, especially in children, in industrialized nations may be responsible for a "silent pandemic" of brain development disorders. Also, if the Flynn effect has ended for the majority, it may still continue for minorities, especially for groups like immigrants where many may have received poor nutrition during early childhood. For example, William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn write in their 2006 paper Black Americans reduce the racial IQ gap: Evidence from standardization samples that blacks have gained 5 or 6 IQ points on non-Hispanic whites between 1972 and 2002. Gains have been fairly uniform across the entire range of black cognitive ability. J. Philippe Rushton and Arthur R. Jensen have disputed their findings, calculating a mean gain for Blacks of only 3.44 IQ points, and questioned the exclusion of four independent tests that showed low or negative IQ gains. References Further reading Flynn, J. R. (1984). The mean IQ of Americans: Massive gains 1932 to 1978. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 29-51. Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 171-191. Flynn, J. R., What is Intelligence?: Beyond the Flynn Effect, Cambridge University Press (2007). Ulric Neisser et al.: The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains in IQ and Related Measures. American Psychological Association (APA), 1998, ISBN 1-55798-503-0. See also Intelligence Dysgenics Heterosis Gene-environment correlation External links The Flynn Effect by Indiana University. Marguerite Holloway, Flynn's effect, Scientific American, January 1999; online edition Increasing intelligence: the Flynn effect Flynn biography "An Explanation for the Flynn Effect" "Heritability Estimates Versus Large Environmental Effects: The IQ Paradox Resolved" - article by Dickens and Flynn Heredity, Environment, and Cranial Form: A Reanalysis of Boas’s Immigrant Data Did Boas get it right or wrong? "Dome Improvement" (Wired article) Malcolm Gladwell from the New Yorker on race, I.Q., and the Flynn effect | Flynn_effect |@lemmatized flynn:45 effect:39 rise:7 average:9 intelligence:22 quotient:1 iq:58 test:31 score:15 generation:2 gain:32 time:8 see:2 part:2 world:2 although:3 greatly:1 vary:1 rate:4 name:1 james:6 r:12 much:4 document:2 promote:1 awareness:1 implication:1 increase:22 continuous:1 roughly:1 linear:1 early:13 day:3 present:4 certainly:2 go:1 whether:2 remain:1 controversial:1 psychologist:1 ulric:3 neisser:5 write:5 article:4 american:12 scientist:2 u:2 may:12 end:8 developed:3 nation:5 start:3 mid:3 study:12 black:7 reduce:4 racial:4 gap:5 evidence:5 standardization:3 sample:7 dickens:9 still:5 show:14 normalize:1 periodically:1 order:2 hold:1 age:6 group:7 fact:1 necessity:1 normalization:1 provide:2 initial:1 indication:1 change:19 revised:1 version:3 standardize:1 new:3 respect:1 alone:1 way:1 compare:2 difficulty:2 two:2 conduct:1 separate:1 subject:2 take:4 confirms:1 seem:2 around:1 three:1 point:12 per:4 decade:3 child:16 attend:2 school:6 longer:1 become:3 familiar:1 testing:1 relate:4 material:1 one:7 might:3 expect:2 great:7 occur:5 content:1 related:2 vocabulary:1 arithmetic:1 general:10 information:1 opposite:1 case:1 ability:8 experience:4 relatively:2 small:6 even:6 occasional:1 decline:6 year:10 large:11 appear:2 instead:2 factor:13 load:2 g:12 raven:7 progressive:2 matrix:2 example:8 dutch:1 conscript:2 focus:1 distribution:5 find:9 primarily:2 phenomenon:3 low:7 teasdale:3 owen:3 number:3 result:9 increased:2 moderately:2 high:5 thomas:1 w:2 david:3 national:1 secular:2 trend:2 education:5 twenty:1 cross:1 sectional:1 nature:1 however:6 suggest:4 data:8 report:2 many:7 previous:1 researcher:3 previously:1 interpret:2 decrease:2 must:3 dramatic:1 date:1 birth:1 level:7 j:7 stability:1 culture:1 cognitive:5 psychology:1 spanish:1 assess:2 comparison:1 indicate:2 mean:6 concentrate:1 half:3 negligible:1 top:1 gradually:1 face:2 value:1 consider:3 head:3 psychological:6 association:2 task:1 force:1 consensus:1 statement:1 state:1 research:2 estimate:4 could:3 normed:1 would:10 word:2 classify:1 borderline:1 mental:1 retardation:1 worse:1 look:3 extrapolate:2 beyond:3 argue:8 arthur:5 jensen:9 warn:2 lead:1 aristotle:1 assume:1 pg:3 propose:3 explanation:12 attempt:1 include:4 improve:3 nutrition:9 towards:1 family:3 good:1 environmental:7 complexity:1 heterosis:2 another:6 proposition:1 familiarity:2 multiple:1 choice:1 question:3 brain:3 teaser:1 problem:4 reason:1 lower:1 regularly:1 attending:1 peer:1 virginia:1 county:1 close:1 public:1 avoid:1 integration:1 compensatory:1 private:1 schooling:4 available:2 white:3 african:1 receive:2 formal:2 period:2 fell:1 back:1 six:1 length:1 steadily:1 old:2 recent:3 similar:1 educational:2 almost:2 undiminished:1 individually:1 mathematics:2 particularly:1 important:2 demand:3 young:2 population:2 exposure:3 neurobiology:1 prefrontal:1 cortex:1 clancy:1 blair:1 gamson:1 steven:1 thorne:1 baker:1 second:1 usually:2 set:2 upper:1 limit:2 sophistication:1 note:1 subset:1 affect:3 theory:3 parent:3 interested:1 intellectual:3 development:5 probably:3 encourage:1 past:1 intervention:5 program:8 mixed:1 preschool:2 like:4 produce:3 last:3 confer:1 benefit:1 abecedarian:1 project:2 various:2 form:4 enrichment:1 infancy:1 onward:1 diminish:2 difference:4 twelve:1 intensive:2 five:2 successful:1 also:7 plomin:1 defries:1 c:1 craig:1 mcguffin:1 p:1 behavioral:2 genetics:1 postgenomic:1 era:1 ed:1 several:2 contribution:1 childhood:5 performance:2 cathy:1 wylie:1 edith:1 hodgen:1 hilary:1 ferral:1 jean:1 thompson:1 zealand:1 council:1 te:3 rünanga:1 aotearoa:1 mö:1 rangahau:1 mätauranga:1 wellington:1 environment:8 today:2 complex:1 stimulate:2 striking:1 century:4 human:2 come:2 type:1 visual:2 medium:1 picture:1 wall:1 movie:1 television:1 video:1 game:1 computer:1 successive:1 expose:1 far:3 richer:1 optical:1 display:1 adept:1 analysis:3 explain:6 since:2 depend:1 imply:1 necessarily:1 measure:7 especially:3 often:1 different:2 develop:1 argument:2 stand:2 notion:1 underlying:1 particular:1 cause:6 cultural:4 renaissance:2 overlook:1 jam:1 current:1 arise:1 modernization:1 intellectually:1 work:1 use:3 technology:1 people:4 used:1 manipulate:1 abstract:3 concept:1 hypothesis:4 category:1 ago:3 substantial:1 portion:1 deal:1 give:3 dog:2 rabbit:2 common:2 modern:1 respondent:1 say:2 mammal:1 answer:2 whereas:1 someone:1 catch:1 concrete:1 adult:3 industrialized:2 tall:1 comparable:1 stature:1 improvement:3 health:2 centimeter:1 accompany:1 analogous:1 size:4 presumably:1 tend:2 overall:1 body:1 e:1 woman:1 asian:1 descent:1 support:1 predict:1 predominantly:1 nutritional:3 deprivation:1 severe:1 richard:1 lynn:2 first:1 defend:1 plausible:1 typically:1 observe:2 infant:1 thus:2 stage:1 life:1 best:2 possibly:1 cranial:6 vault:5 shape:1 dimension:1 craniofacial:1 morphology:2 consideration:1 markedly:1 higher:1 somewhat:1 narrow:2 due:3 growth:1 base:1 improved:1 condition:1 likely:2 combination:1 phenotypic:1 plasticity:1 genetic:4 well:1 minor:1 sort:1 solve:1 little:1 practical:2 significance:2 speak:1 validity:1 something:1 akin:1 everyday:1 understanding:1 reflect:1 sense:1 consequent:1 society:1 presumed:1 non:3 occurrence:1 refer:1 model:3 resolve:4 contradictory:1 finding:2 regard:1 heritability:3 direct:2 genotype:2 indirect:1 turn:1 seek:1 reciprocal:1 gene:3 correlation:2 initially:1 feedback:1 loop:1 create:1 stimulus:2 decay:1 unless:1 continue:2 adapt:1 possible:1 permanent:1 generally:1 stimulating:1 author:1 aim:1 long:3 term:2 teach:1 replicate:1 outside:1 kind:1 cognitively:1 motivate:1 persist:1 replication:1 leave:1 william:5 versus:2 paradox:3 review:2 vol:1 stimulation:2 unrelated:1 accord:2 preponderance:1 argues:1 variance:1 psychologically:1 manipulable:1 variable:3 rather:1 biological:1 control:1 external:2 physical:1 physiological:1 biochemical:1 functioning:1 central:1 nervous:2 system:2 mediate:1 manifestation:1 anything:1 less:1 medical:1 advance:2 prenatally:1 inadequate:1 lasting:1 paper:2 book:1 dispute:2 claim:2 methodology:1 substantially:2 extremely:1 unlikely:1 explains:1 contradiction:1 phillipe:1 rushton:2 largely:1 make:1 multi:1 confirmatory:1 measurement:3 invariance:2 tenable:1 demonstrate:1 exist:1 latent:2 construct:1 contain:1 artifact:2 bias:2 wicherts:1 et:2 al:2 invariant:1 cannot:1 solely:1 purport:1 inter:1 generational:1 attributable:1 real:1 link:2 pdf:1 file:1 kenya:1 literacy:1 structure:1 brazil:1 ever:1 consistent:1 varied:1 contribute:1 progression:1 hispanic:2 graph:1 oct:1 danish:1 men:1 peak:1 late:1 pre:1 speculate:1 contributing:1 fall:1 simultaneous:1 proportion:1 student:1 enter:1 jon:1 martin:1 sundet:1 university:3 oslo:1 colleague:1 publish:1 norwegian:1 stop:1 numerical:1 reasoning:1 subtests:1 mask:1 dysgenic:1 reproduction:1 country:1 direction:1 move:1 downwards:1 dysgenics:2 happen:1 slowly:1 rapid:1 constantly:1 industrial:1 chemical:1 damage:1 responsible:1 silent:1 pandemic:1 disorder:1 majority:1 minority:1 immigrant:2 poor:1 fairly:1 uniform:1 across:1 entire:1 range:1 philippe:1 calculate:1 exclusion:1 four:1 independent:1 negative:1 reference:1 read:1 massive:2 bulletin:2 really:1 cambridge:1 press:1 curve:1 apa:1 isbn:1 indiana:1 marguerite:1 holloway:1 scientific:1 january:1 online:1 edition:1 biography:1 heredity:1 reanalysis:1 boa:1 boas:1 get:1 right:1 wrong:1 dome:1 wired:1 malcolm:1 gladwell:1 yorker:1 race:1 q:1 |@bigram dickens_flynn:4 cross_sectional:1 cognitive_psychology:1 mental_retardation:1 arthur_jensen:4 formal_schooling:1 prefrontal_cortex:1 plausible_explanation:1 feedback_loop:1 preponderance_evidence:1 et_al:2 contributing_factor:1 philippe_rushton:1 association_apa:1 external_link:1 |
4,660 | Djbdns | The djbdns software package is a DNS implementation created by Daniel J. Bernstein due to his frustrations with repeated BIND security holes. A $1000 prize for the first person to find a privilege escalation security hole in djbdns was awarded in March of 2009 to Matthew Dempsky. , djbdns's tinydns component was the second most popular DNS server. djbdns has never been vulnerable to the cache poisoning vulnerability reported in July 2008 , but it has been discovered that it is vulnerable to a related attack . The main djbdns components The djbdns software consists of server, client, and some miscellaneous configuration tools. Servers dnscache — the dns resolver and cache. tinydns — a database-driven dns server. walldns — a "reverse DNS wall", providing IP to domain name lookup only. rbldns — a server designed for dns blacklisting service. pickdns — a database-driven server that chooses from matching records depending on the requester's location. (This feature is now a standard part of tinydns.) axfrdns — a zone-transfer server. Client tools axfr-get — a zone-transfer client. dnsip — simple address from name lookup. dnsipq — address from name lookup with rewriting rules. dnsname — simple name from address lookup. dnstxt — simple text record from name lookup. dnsmx — mail exchanger lookup. dnsfilter — looks up names for addresses read from stdin, in parallel. dnsqr — recursive general record lookup. dnsq — non-recursive general record lookup, useful for debugging. dnstrace (and dnstracesort) — comprehensive testing of the chains of authority over dns servers and their names. Design In djbdns, different features and services, such as AXFR zone transfers, are split off into separate programs. Zone file parsing, DNS caching, and recursive resolving are also implemented as separate programs. The result of these design decisions is a dramatic reduction in code size and complexity of the daemon program that answers lookup requests. Daniel J. Bernstein (and many others) feel that this is true to the spirit of the Unix operating system, and makes security verification much simpler. Copyright status On December 28, 2007, Bernstein released djbdns into the public domain. Formerly, the package was distributed as license-free software, which created challenges for inclusion in some Linux distributions. See also Comparison of DNS server software References External links djbdns official homepage A guide to djbdns The djbdns section of FAQTS Unofficial website A djbdns guide and tutorial with addon — Jonathan de Boyne Pollard's debunking of several myths relating to djbdns — Jonathan de Boyne Pollard's list of the several known problems in djbdns Supporting newer record formats through generic records. LWN (Linux weekly news) looks at djbdns | Djbdns |@lemmatized djbdns:15 software:4 package:2 dns:9 implementation:1 create:2 daniel:2 j:2 bernstein:3 due:1 frustration:1 repeat:1 bind:1 security:3 hole:2 prize:1 first:1 person:1 find:1 privilege:1 escalation:1 award:1 march:1 matthew:1 dempsky:1 tinydns:3 component:2 second:1 popular:1 server:9 never:1 vulnerable:2 cache:2 poisoning:1 vulnerability:1 report:1 july:1 discover:1 related:1 attack:1 main:1 consist:1 client:3 miscellaneous:1 configuration:1 tool:2 dnscache:1 resolver:1 database:2 driven:1 walldns:1 reverse:1 wall:1 provide:1 ip:1 domain:2 name:7 lookup:9 rbldns:1 design:3 blacklisting:1 service:2 pickdns:1 drive:1 choose:1 match:1 record:6 depend:1 requester:1 location:1 feature:2 standard:1 part:1 axfrdns:1 zone:4 transfer:3 axfr:2 get:1 dnsip:1 simple:3 address:4 dnsipq:1 rewriting:1 rule:1 dnsname:1 dnstxt:1 text:1 dnsmx:1 mail:1 exchanger:1 dnsfilter:1 look:2 read:1 stdin:1 parallel:1 dnsqr:1 recursive:3 general:2 dnsq:1 non:1 useful:1 debug:1 dnstrace:1 dnstracesort:1 comprehensive:1 testing:1 chain:1 authority:1 different:1 split:1 separate:2 program:3 file:1 parsing:1 caching:1 resolving:1 also:2 implement:1 result:1 decision:1 dramatic:1 reduction:1 code:1 size:1 complexity:1 daemon:1 answer:1 request:1 many:1 others:1 feel:1 true:1 spirit:1 unix:1 operating:1 system:1 make:1 verification:1 much:1 simpler:1 copyright:1 status:1 december:1 release:1 public:1 formerly:1 distribute:1 license:1 free:1 challenge:1 inclusion:1 linux:2 distribution:1 see:1 comparison:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 homepage:1 guide:2 section:1 faqts:1 unofficial:1 website:1 tutorial:1 addon:1 jonathan:2 de:2 boyne:2 pollard:2 debunking:1 several:2 myth:1 relate:1 list:1 know:1 problem:1 support:1 new:1 format:1 generic:1 lwn:1 weekly:1 news:1 |@bigram privilege_escalation:1 dns_server:4 external_link:1 |
4,661 | Electric_light | Most of the industrialized world is lit by electric lights, which are used both at night and to provide additional light during the daytime. These lights are normally powered by the electric grid, but some run on local generators, and emergency generators serve as backups in hospitals and other locations where a loss of power could be catastrophic. Battery-powered lights, usually called "flashlights" or "torches", are used for portability and as backups when the main lights fail. Types Types of electric lighting include: incandescent light bulbs arc lamps gas discharge lamps, e.g., fluorescent lights and Compact fluorescent lamps, neon lamps, flood lamps, modern photographic flashes lasers light-emitting diodes, including OLEDs sulfur lamps Different types of lights have vastly differing efficiencies and color of light. Name optical spectrum nominal efficiency (lm/W) Lifetime (MTBF) (hours) Colour temperature (kelvins) Colour Colorrenderingindex Incandescent light bulb Continuous 12-17 1000-2500 2700 Warm white (yellowish) 100 Halogen lamp Continuous 16-23 3000-6000 3200 Warm white (yellowish) 100 Fluorescent lamp Mercury line + Phosphor 52-100 8000-20000 2700-5000* White (with a tinge of green) 15-85 Metal halide lamp quasi-Continuous 50-115 6000-20000 3000-4500 Cold White 65-93 Sulfur lamp Continuous 80-110 15000-20000 6000 Pale green 79 High pressure sodium broadband 55-140 10000-40000 1800-2200* Pinkish orange 0-70 Low pressure sodium narrow line 100-200 18000-20000 1800* Yellow, virtually no color rendering 0 *Color temperature is defined as the temperature of a black body emitting a similar spectrum; these spectra are quite different from those of black bodies. The most efficient source of electric light is the low-pressure sodium lamp. It produces an almost monochromatic orange light, which severely distorts color perception. For this reason, it is generally reserved for outdoor public lighting usages. Low-pressure sodium lights are favoured for public lighting by astronomers, since the light pollution that they generate can be easily filtered, contrary to broadband or continuous spectra. Incandescent light bulb Incandescent light bulb as we know it today, with a coiled filament of tungsten, was commercialised in the 1920s developed from the carbon filament lamp introduced in about 1880. As well as bulbs for normal illumination, there is a very wide range, including low voltage, low-power types often used as components in equipment, but now largely displaced by LEDs There is currently interest in banning some types of filament lamp in some countries, such as Australia planning to ban standard incandescent light bulbs by 2010, because they are inefficient at converting electricity to light.Sri Lanka has already banned importing filament bulbs because of high use of electricity and less light. Less than 3% of the input energy is converted into usable light. Nearly all of the input energy ends up as heat that, in warm climates, must then be removed from the building by ventilation or air conditioning, often resulting in more energy consumption. In colder climates where heating and lighting is required during the cold and dark winter months, the heat byproduct has at least some value. Halogen lamp Halogen lamps are usually much smaller than standard incandescents, because for successful operation a bulb temperature over 200°C is generally necessary. For this reason, most have a bulb of fused silica (quartz), but sometimes aluminosilicate glass. This is often sealed inside an additional layer of glass. The outer glass is a safety precaution, reducing UV emission and because halogen bulbs can occasionally explode during operation. One reason is if the quartz bulb has oily residue from fingerprints. The risk of burns or fire is also greater with bare bulbs, leading to their prohibition in some places unless enclosed by the luminaire. Those designed for 12V or 24V operation have compact filaments, useful for good optical control, also they have higher efficacies (lumens per watt) and better lives than non halogen types. The light output remains almost constant throughout life. Fluorescent lamp Fluorescent lamps have much higher efficacy than filament lamps. For the same amount of light generated, they typically use around ¼ to ⅓ the power of an incandescent. Fluorescents were mostly limited to linear and a round 'Circline' lamp until the 1980s, with other shapes never gaining much popularity. The compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) was commercialised in the early 1980s. Most CFLs have a built-in electrical ballast and fit into a standard screw or bayonet base. Some make use of a separate ballast so that the ballast and tube can be replaced separately. Typical average lifetime ratings for linear fluorescent tubes are 10,000 and 20,000 hours, compared to 750 hours (110 V) and 1000 hours (240 V) for filament lamps. Some types of fluorescent lamp ballast have difficulty starting lamps in very cold conditions, so lights used outdoors in cold climates need to be designed for outdoor use to work reliably. Fluorescents come in a range of different colour temperatures. In some countries cool white (CW) is most popular, while in some, warmer whites predominate. In America, fluorescents most often come in cool white (CW), with some home bulbs being a warm white (WW), which has a pinkish color. In between there is an "enhanced white" (EW), which is more neutral. There is also a very cold daylight white (DW). Compact fluorescent lamps are usually considered warm white, though many have a yellowish cast like an incandescent. "Warm" and "cool" are entirely relative terms and almost arbitrary so color temperature and the color rendering index (CRI) are used as absolute scales of color for fluorescents, and sometimes for other types of lighting. LED lamp Solid state LEDs have been popular as indicator lights since the 1970s. In recent years, efficacy and output have risen to the point where LEDs are now being used in niche lighting applications. Indicator LEDs are known for their extremely long life, up to 100,000 hours, but lighting LEDs are operated much less conservatively (due to high LED cost per watt), and consequently have much shorter lives. Due to the relatively high cost per watt, LED lighting is most useful at very low powers, typically for lamp assemblies of under 10w. LEDs are currently most useful and cost-effective in low power applications, such as nightlights and flashlights. Colored LEDs can also be used for accent lighting, such as for glass objects, and even in fake ice cubes for drinks at parties. They are also being increasingly used as holiday lighting. LED efficacies vary over a very wide range. Some have lower efficacy than filament lamps, and some significantly higher. LED performance in this respect is prone to being misinterpreted, as the inherent directionality of LEDs gives them a much higher light intensity in one direction per given total light output. Single colour LEDs are well developed technology, but white LEDs at time of writing still have some unresolved issues. CRI is not particularly good, resulting in less than accurate colour rendition. The light distribution from the phosphor does not fully match the distribution of light from the LED die, so colour temperature varies at differing angles. Phosphor performance degrades over time, resulting in change of colour temperature and falling output. With some LEDs degradation can be quite fast. Limited heat tolerance means that the amount of power packable into a lamp assembly is a fraction of the power usable in a similarly sized incandescent lamp. LED technology is useful for lighting designers because of its low power consumption, low heat generation, instantaneous on/off control, and in the case of single colour LEDs, continuity of color throughout the life of the diode and relatively low cost of manufacture. In the last few years, software has been developed to merge lighting and video by enabling lighting designers to stream video content to their LED fixtures, creating low resolution video walls. For general domestic lighting, total cost of ownership of LED lighting is still much higher than for other well established lighting types. Carbon arc lamp Carbon arc lamps consist of 2 carbon rod electrodes in open air, supplied by a current-limiting ballast. The electric arc is struck by touching the rods then separating them. The ensuing arc heats the carbon tips to white heat. These lamps have higher efficacy than filament lamps, but the carbon rods are short lived and require constant adjustment in use. The lamps produce significant ultra-violet output, they require ventilation when used indoors, and due to their intensity they need protecting from direct sight. Carbon arc lamps operate at high powers, and had high efficacy compared to other pre-1920s light sources. They also are a point source of light. These properties made them ideally suited to search lights, follow spots and film projector lights. Their need for ongoing attendance and adjustment, and frequent rod replacement made them ill suited to general lighting, though they were used for high power lighting in the years when nothing else with comparable output power existed. Carbon arcs fell out of use even for niche applications during and after World War 2. Discharge lamp A discharge lamp has a glass or silica envelope containing 2 metal electrodes separated by a gas. Gases used include, neon, argon, xenon, sodium, metal halide, and mercury. The core operating principle is much the same as the carbon arc lamp, but the term 'arc lamp' is normally used to refer to carbon arc lamps, with more modern types of gas discharge lamp normally called 'discharge lamps'. With some discharge lamps, very high voltage is used to strike the arc. This requires an electrical circuit called an igniter, which is part of the ballast circuitry. After the arc is struck, the internal resistance of the lamp drops to a low level, and the ballast limits the current to the operating current. Without a ballast, excess current would flow, causing rapid destruction of the lamp. Some lamp types contain a little neon, which permits striking at normal running voltage, with no external ignitor circuitry. Low pressure sodium lamps operate this way. The simplest ballasts are just an inductor, and are chosen where cost is the deciding factor, such as street lighting. More advanced electronic ballasts may be designed to maintain constant light output over the life of the lamp, may drive the lamp with a square wave to maintain completely flicker-free output, and shut down in the event of certain faults. These more complex ballasts are chosen in the film industry for example. Lamp Life Expectancy Life expectancy is defined as the number of hours of operation for a lamp until 50% of them fail. This means that it is possible for some lamps to fail after a short amount of time and for some to last significantly longer than the rated lamp life. This is an average (median) life expectancy. Production tolerances as low as 1% can create a variance of 25% in lamp life. For LEDs, lamp life is when 50% of lamps have lumen output drop to 70% or less. Lamps are also sensitive to switching cycles. The rapid heating of a lamp filament or electrodes when a lamp is turned on is the most stressful event on the lamp. Most test cycles have the lamps on for 3 hours and then off for 20 minutes. (Some standard had to be used since it's unknown how the lamp will be used by consumers.) This switching cycle repeats until the lamps fail and the data is recorded. If switching is increased to only 1 hour on, the lamp life is usually reduced because the number of times the lamp has been turned on has increased. Rooms with frequent switching (bathroom, bedrooms, etc.) can expect much shorter lamp life than what is printed on the box. Vendors GE Lighting Osram Philips Public lighting The total amount of artificial light (especially from street light) is sufficient for cities to be easily visible at night from the air, and from space. This wasted light is the source of light pollution that burdens astronomers and others. <center> Human-made lights highlight particularly developed or populated areas of the Earth's surface, including the seaboards of Europe, the eastern United States, and Japan. </center> See also Daylighting (a cheaper way of providing light in buildings) List of light sources Henry Woodward (inventor) Solar lamp | Electric_light |@lemmatized industrialized:1 world:2 light:51 electric:5 use:20 night:2 provide:2 additional:2 daytime:1 normally:3 power:12 grid:1 run:2 local:1 generator:2 emergency:1 serve:1 backup:2 hospital:1 location:1 loss:1 could:1 catastrophic:1 battery:1 powered:1 usually:4 call:3 flashlight:2 torch:1 portability:1 main:1 fail:4 type:11 include:5 incandescent:8 bulb:13 arc:12 lamp:62 gas:4 discharge:6 e:1 g:1 fluorescent:12 compact:4 neon:3 flood:1 modern:2 photographic:1 flash:1 laser:1 emit:2 diode:2 oled:1 sulfur:2 lamps:5 different:3 vastly:1 differ:2 efficiency:2 color:10 name:1 optical:2 spectrum:4 nominal:1 lm:1 w:1 lifetime:2 mtbf:1 hour:8 colour:8 temperature:8 kelvin:1 colorrenderingindex:1 continuous:5 warm:7 white:13 yellowish:3 halogen:5 mercury:2 line:2 phosphor:3 tinge:1 green:2 metal:3 halide:2 quasi:1 cold:5 pale:1 high:14 pressure:5 sodium:6 broadband:2 pinkish:2 orange:2 low:15 narrow:1 yellow:1 virtually:1 render:2 define:2 black:2 body:2 similar:1 quite:2 efficient:1 source:5 produce:2 almost:3 monochromatic:1 severely:1 distort:1 perception:1 reason:3 generally:2 reserve:1 outdoor:2 public:3 lighting:12 usage:1 favour:1 astronomer:2 since:3 pollution:2 generate:2 easily:2 filter:1 contrary:1 know:2 today:1 coiled:1 filament:10 tungsten:1 commercialise:2 develop:3 carbon:10 introduce:1 well:3 normal:2 illumination:1 wide:2 range:3 voltage:3 often:4 component:1 equipment:1 largely:1 displace:1 led:14 currently:2 interest:1 ban:3 country:2 australia:1 plan:1 standard:4 inefficient:1 convert:2 electricity:2 sri:1 lanka:1 already:1 import:1 less:5 input:2 energy:3 usable:2 nearly:1 end:1 heat:6 climate:3 must:1 remove:1 building:2 ventilation:2 air:3 conditioning:1 result:3 consumption:2 colder:1 heating:2 require:4 dark:1 winter:1 month:1 byproduct:1 least:1 value:1 much:9 small:1 incandescents:1 successful:1 operation:4 c:1 necessary:1 fuse:1 silica:2 quartz:2 sometimes:2 aluminosilicate:1 glass:5 seal:1 inside:1 layer:1 outer:1 safety:1 precaution:1 reduce:2 uv:1 emission:1 occasionally:1 explode:1 one:2 oily:1 residue:1 fingerprint:1 risk:1 burn:1 fire:1 also:8 great:1 bare:1 lead:9 prohibition:1 place:1 unless:1 enclose:1 luminaire:1 design:3 useful:4 good:3 control:2 efficacy:7 lumen:2 per:4 watt:3 life:14 non:1 output:9 remain:1 constant:3 throughout:2 amount:4 typically:2 around:1 mostly:1 limit:2 linear:2 round:1 circline:1 shape:1 never:1 gain:1 popularity:1 cfl:1 early:1 cfls:1 build:1 electrical:2 ballast:11 fit:1 screw:1 bayonet:1 base:1 make:4 separate:3 tube:2 replace:1 separately:1 typical:1 average:2 rating:1 compare:2 v:2 difficulty:1 start:1 condition:1 outdoors:1 need:3 work:1 reliably:1 come:2 cool:3 cw:2 popular:2 predominate:1 america:1 fluorescents:1 home:1 ww:1 enhance:1 ew:1 neutral:1 daylight:1 dw:1 consider:1 though:2 many:1 cast:1 like:1 entirely:1 relative:1 term:2 arbitrary:1 index:1 cri:2 absolute:1 scale:1 solid:1 state:2 indicator:2 recent:1 year:3 rise:1 point:2 niche:2 application:3 extremely:1 long:1 operate:3 conservatively:1 due:3 cost:6 consequently:1 short:4 relatively:2 assembly:2 effective:1 nightlights:1 accent:1 object:1 even:2 fake:1 ice:1 cube:1 drink:1 party:1 increasingly:1 holiday:1 vary:1 significantly:2 performance:2 respect:1 prone:1 misinterpret:1 inherent:1 directionality:1 give:2 intensity:2 direction:1 total:3 single:2 developed:1 technology:2 time:4 write:1 still:2 unresolved:1 issue:1 particularly:2 accurate:1 rendition:1 distribution:2 fully:1 match:1 die:1 varies:1 angle:1 degrades:1 change:1 fall:1 degradation:1 fast:1 limited:1 tolerance:2 mean:2 packable:1 fraction:1 similarly:1 size:1 designer:2 generation:1 instantaneous:1 case:1 continuity:1 manufacture:1 last:2 software:1 merge:1 video:3 enable:1 stream:1 content:1 fixture:1 create:2 resolution:1 wall:1 general:2 domestic:1 ownership:1 establish:1 consist:1 rod:4 electrode:3 open:1 supply:1 current:4 limiting:1 strike:4 touch:1 ensue:1 tip:1 lived:1 adjustment:2 significant:1 ultra:1 violet:1 used:1 indoors:1 protect:1 direct:1 sight:1 pre:1 property:1 ideally:1 suit:2 search:1 follow:1 spot:1 film:2 projector:1 ongoing:1 attendance:1 frequent:2 replacement:1 ill:1 nothing:1 else:1 comparable:1 exist:1 fell:1 war:1 envelope:1 contain:2 argon:1 xenon:1 core:1 operating:2 principle:1 refer:1 circuit:1 igniter:1 part:1 circuitry:2 internal:1 resistance:1 drop:2 level:1 without:1 excess:1 would:1 flow:1 cause:1 rapid:2 destruction:1 little:1 permit:1 external:1 ignitor:1 way:2 simple:1 inductor:1 choose:2 decide:1 factor:1 street:2 advanced:1 electronic:1 may:2 maintain:2 drive:1 square:1 wave:1 completely:1 flicker:1 free:1 shut:1 event:2 certain:1 fault:1 complex:1 industry:1 example:1 expectancy:3 number:2 possible:1 longer:1 rat:1 median:1 production:1 variance:1 sensitive:1 switch:1 cycle:3 turn:2 stressful:1 test:1 minute:1 unknown:1 consumer:1 switching:3 repeat:1 data:1 record:1 increase:2 room:1 bathroom:1 bedroom:1 etc:1 expect:1 print:1 box:1 vendor:1 ge:1 osram:1 philip:1 artificial:1 especially:1 sufficient:1 city:1 visible:1 space:1 wasted:1 burden:1 others:1 center:2 human:1 highlight:1 populate:1 area:1 earth:1 surface:1 seaboard:1 europe:1 eastern:1 united:1 japan:1 see:1 daylighting:1 cheap:1 list:1 henry:1 woodward:1 inventor:1 solar:1 |@bigram battery_powered:1 incandescent_light:5 light_bulb:5 arc_lamp:5 discharge_lamp:6 compact_fluorescent:3 fluorescent_lamp:7 neon_lamp:1 emit_diode:1 halogen_lamp:3 filament_lamp:6 sri_lanka:1 air_conditioning:1 colder_climate:1 safety_precaution:1 ice_cube:1 incandescent_lamp:1 short_lived:1 ultra_violet:1 ideally_suit:1 neon_argon:1 life_expectancy:3 |
4,662 | Asparagales | Asparagales is an order of flowering plants. The order must include the family Asparagaceae, but other families included in the order have varied markedly between different classifications. No one is sure, but it is supposed that this group of plants evolved between late and early Cretaceous. But because of the difficult classification of the families it's not entirely certain when they evolved. APG II system The APG II system of 2003, places the order in the clade monocots and uses the following circumscription: order Asparagales family Alliaceae [+ family Agapanthaceae] [+ family Amaryllidaceae] family Asparagaceae [+ family Agavaceae] [+ family Aphyllanthaceae] [+ family Hesperocallidaceae] [+ family Hyacinthaceae] [+ family Laxmanniaceae] [+ family Ruscaceae] [+ family Themidaceae] family Asteliaceae family Blandfordiaceae family Boryaceae family Doryanthaceae family Hypoxidaceae family Iridaceae family Ixioliriaceae family Lanariaceae family Orchidaceae family Tecophilaeaceae family Xanthorrhoeaceae [+ family Asphodelaceae] [+ family Hemerocallidaceae] family Xeronemataceae Note: "+ ..." = optional segregrate family, that may be split off from the preceding family. APG II has consolidated some of the families in the earlier APG system, while recognizing an alternative, that allows smaller families to be seggregated and still follow the 'APG system'. Under the new classification system a taxonomist could, for example, correctly choose to include the daylilies (Hemerocallis) in family Hemerocallidaceae, or in family Xanthorrhoeaceae. APG system (1998) The APG system of 1998 also placed the order in the clade monocots but used this circumscription: order Asparagales family Agapanthaceae family Agavaceae family Alliaceae family Amaryllidaceae family Anemarrhenaceae family Anthericaceae family Aphyllanthaceae family Asparagaceae family Asphodelaceae family Asteliaceae family Behniaceae family Blandfordiaceae family Boryaceae family Convallariaceae family Doryanthaceae family Hemerocallidaceae family Herreriaceae family Hyacinthaceae family Hypoxidaceae family Iridaceae family Ixioliriaceae family Lanariaceae family Laxmanniaceae family Orchidaceae family Tecophilaeaceae family Themidaceae family Xanthorrhoeaceae family Xeronemataceae Kubitzki system The volume (1998) in the Kubitzki series of reference books on vascular plants used this circumscription: order Asparagales family Agapanthaceae family Agavaceae family Alliaceae family Amaryllidaceae family Anemarrhenaceae family Anthericaceae family Aphyllanthaceae family Asparagaceae family Asphodelaceae family Asteliaceae family Behniaceae family Blandfordiaceae family Boryaceae family Convallariaceae family Doryanthaceae family Dracaenaceae family Eriospermaceae family Hemerocallidaceae family Herreriaceae family Hyacinthaceae family Hostaceae family Hypoxidaceae family Iridaceae family Ixioliriaceae family Johnsoniaceae family Lanariaceae family Lomandraceae family Nolinaceae family Orchidaceae family Ruscaceae family Tecophilaeaceae family Themidaceae family Xanthorrhoeaceae Dahlgren system The Dahlgren system placed the order in superorder Lilianae in subclass Liliidae [= monocotyledons] of class Magnoliopsida [= angiosperms] and used this circumscription: order Asparagales family Agavaceae family Alliaceae family Amaryllidaceae family Anthericaceae family Aphyllanthaceae family Asparagaceae family Asphodelaceae family Asteliaceae family Blandfordiaceae family Calectasiaceae family Convallariaceae family Cyanastraceae family Dasypogonaceae family Doryanthaceae family Dracaenaceae family Eriospermaceae family Hemerocallidaceae family Herreriaceae family Hostaceae family Hyacinthaceae family Hypoxidaceae family Ixioliriaceae family Lanariaceae family Luzuriagaceae family Nolinaceae family Philesiaceae family Phormiaceae family Ruscaceae family Tecophilaeaceae family Xanthorrhoeaceae Other systems The Cronquist system did not recognise the order, and placed many of the plants involved in order Liliales (in subclass Liliidae in class Liliopsida [= monocotyledons]). Some genera were even included in family Liliaceae. The Wettstein system, last revision of 1935, did not recognise such an order, and placed many of the plants involved in order Liliiflorae in class Monocotyledones. References Kubitzki, K. (1998). Conspectus of Families treated in this Volume. In: Kubitzki, K.(Editor): The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, Vol.3. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Germany. ISBN 3-540-64060-6 External links Asparagales in Angiosperm Phylogeny Website NCBI Taxonomy Browser | Asparagales |@lemmatized asparagales:6 order:14 flower:1 plant:6 must:1 include:4 family:128 asparagaceae:5 vary:1 markedly:1 different:1 classification:3 one:1 sure:1 suppose:1 group:1 evolve:2 late:1 early:2 cretaceous:1 difficult:1 entirely:1 certain:1 apg:7 ii:3 system:13 place:5 clade:2 monocot:2 use:4 following:1 circumscription:4 alliaceae:4 agapanthaceae:3 amaryllidaceae:4 agavaceae:4 aphyllanthaceae:4 hesperocallidaceae:1 hyacinthaceae:4 laxmanniaceae:2 ruscaceae:3 themidaceae:3 asteliaceae:4 blandfordiaceae:4 boryaceae:3 doryanthaceae:4 hypoxidaceae:4 iridaceae:3 ixioliriaceae:4 lanariaceae:4 orchidaceae:3 tecophilaeaceae:4 xanthorrhoeaceae:5 asphodelaceae:4 hemerocallidaceae:5 xeronemataceae:2 note:1 optional:1 segregrate:1 may:1 split:1 precede:1 consolidate:1 recognize:1 alternative:1 allow:1 small:1 seggregated:1 still:1 follow:1 new:1 taxonomist:1 could:1 example:1 correctly:1 choose:1 daylily:1 hemerocallis:1 also:1 anemarrhenaceae:2 anthericaceae:3 behniaceae:2 convallariaceae:3 herreriaceae:3 kubitzki:4 volume:2 series:1 reference:2 book:1 vascular:2 dracaenaceae:2 eriospermaceae:2 hostaceae:2 johnsoniaceae:1 lomandraceae:1 nolinaceae:2 dahlgren:2 superorder:1 lilianae:1 subclass:2 liliidae:2 monocotyledon:2 class:3 magnoliopsida:1 angiosperm:2 calectasiaceae:1 cyanastraceae:1 dasypogonaceae:1 luzuriagaceae:1 philesiaceae:1 phormiaceae:1 cronquist:1 recognise:2 many:2 involve:2 liliales:1 liliopsida:1 genus:2 even:1 liliaceae:1 wettstein:1 last:1 revision:1 liliiflorae:1 monocotyledones:1 k:2 conspectus:1 treat:1 editor:1 vol:1 springer:1 verlag:1 berlin:1 germany:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 phylogeny:1 website:1 ncbi:1 taxonomy:1 browser:1 |@bigram family_asparagaceae:5 asparagaceae_family:5 clade_monocot:2 order_asparagales:4 asparagales_family:4 family_alliaceae:4 family_agapanthaceae:3 family_themidaceae:3 family_xanthorrhoeaceae:5 family_asphodelaceae:4 family_hemerocallidaceae:5 hemerocallidaceae_family:5 vascular_plant:2 springer_verlag:1 external_link:1 angiosperm_phylogeny:1 ncbi_taxonomy:1 |
4,663 | Bromine | Bromine ( or ), , meaning "stench (of he-goats)" Gemoll W, Vretska K: Griechisch-Deutsches Schul- und Handwörterbuch ("Greek-German dictionary"), 9th ed., published by öbvhpt, ISBN 3-209-00108-1 ), is a chemical element with the symbol Br and atomic number 35. A halogen element, bromine is a reddish-brown volatile liquid at standard room temperature that is intermediate in reactivity between chlorine and iodine. Bromine vapours are corrosive and toxic. Approximately 556,000 metric tonnes were produced in 2007. Jack F. Mills "Bromine" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology Wiley-VCH Verlag; Weinheim, 2002. DOI: 10.1002/14356007.a04_391 The main applications for bromine are in fire retardants and fine chemicals. History Bromine was discovered independently by two chemists Antoine Balard and Carl Jacob Löwig in 1825 and 1826. Balard found bromide salts in the ash of sea weed from the salt marshes of Montpellier in 1826. The sea weed was used to produce iodine, but also contained bromine. Balard distilled the bromine from a solution of seaweed ash saturated with chlorine. The properties of the resulting substance resembled that of an intermediate of chlorine and iodine, with those results he tried to prove that the substance was iodine monochloride (ICl), but after failing to do so he was sure that he found a new element and named it muride, derived from the Latin word muria for brine. Carl Jacob Löwig isolated bromine from mineral water spring from his home town Bad Kreuznach in 1825. Löwig used a solution of the mineral salt saturated with chlorine and extracted the bromine with diethylether. After evaporation of the ether a brown liquid remained. With this liquid as a sample for his work he applied for a position in the laboratory of Leopold Gmelin in Heidelberg. The publication of the results was delayed and Balard published his results first. After the French chemists Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, Louis Jacques Thénard, and Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac approved the experiments of the young pharmacist Balard, the results where presented at a lecture of the Académie des Sciences and published in Annales de Chimie et Physique . In his publication Balard states that he changed the name from muride to brôme on the proposal of M. Anglada. Other sources claim that the French chemist and physicist Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac suggested the name brôme due to the characteristic smell of the vapors. Bromine was not produced in quantity until 1860. The first commercial use, besides some minor medical applications, was the use of bromine for the daguerreotype. In 1840 it was discovered that bromine had some advantages over the previous used iodine vapour to create the light sensitive silver halide layer used for daguerreotypy. Potassium bromide and sodium bromide were used as anticonvulsants and sedatives in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, until they were gradually superseded by chloral hydrate and then the barbiturates. Characteristics Bromine is the only liquid nonmetallic element at room temperature, and one of only six elements on the periodic table that are liquid at or close to room temperature. The melting point of bromine is −7.2 °C and has the boiling point 58.8 °C. The pure chemical element has the physical form of a diatomic molecule, Br2. It is a dense, mobile, reddish-brown liquid, that evaporates easily at standard temperature and pressures to give a red vapor (its color resembles nitrogen dioxide) that has a strong disagreeable odor resembling that of chlorine. Bromine is a halogen, and is less reactive than chlorine and more reactive than iodine. Bromine is slightly soluble in water, and highly soluble in carbon disulfide, aliphatic alcohols (such as methanol), and acetic acid. It bonds easily with many elements and has a strong bleaching action. Bromine, like chlorine, is also used in maintenance of swimming pools. Certain bromine-related compounds have been evaluated to have an ozone depletion potential or bioaccumulate in living organisms. As a result many industrial bromine compounds are no longer manufactured, are being restricted, or scheduled for phasing out. The Montreal Protocol mentions several organobromine compounds for this phase out. Bromine is a powerful oxidizing agent. It reacts vigorously with metals, especially in the presence of water, as well as most organic compounds, especially upon illumination. Isotopes Bromine has 2 stable isotopes: 79Br (50.69 %) and 81Br (49.31%). At least another 23 radioisotopes are known to exist. Many of the bromine isotopes are fission products. Several of the heavier bromine isotopes from fission are delayed neutron emitters. All of the radioactive bromine isotopes are relatively short lived. The longest half life is the neutron deficient 77Br at 2.376 days. The longest half life on the neutron rich side is 82Br at 1.471 days. A number of the bromine isotopes exhibit metastable isomers. Stable 79Br exhibits a radioactive isomer, with a half life of 4.86 seconds. It decays by isomeric transition to the stable ground state. Occurrence and production See also Halide minerals. World bromine production trend The diatomic element Br2 does not occur naturally. Instead, bromine exists exclusively as bromide salts in diffuse amounts in crustal rock. Due to leaching, bromide salts have accumulated in sea water (65 ppm), but at a lower concentration than chloride. Bromine may be economically recovered from bromide-rich brine wells and from the Dead Sea waters (up to 50000 ppm). View of salt evaporation pans on the Dead Sea, where Jordan (right) and Israel (left) produce salt and bromine Approximately 556,000 metric tons (worth around US$2.5 billion) of bromine are produced per year (2007) worldwide with the United States, Israel, and China being the primary producers. Bromine production has increased sixfold since the 1960s. The largest bromine reserve in the United States is located in Columbia and Union County, Arkansas, U.S. Bromine:An Important Arkansas Industry, Butler Center for Arkansas Studies China's bromine reserves are located in the Shandong Province and Israel's bromine reserves are contained in the waters of the Dead Sea. The bromide-rich brines are treated with chlorine gas, flushing through with air. In this treatment, bromide anions are oxidized to bromine by the chlorine gas. 2 Br− + Cl2 → 2 Cl− + Br2 Because of its commercial availability and long shelf-life, bromine is not typically prepared. Small amounts of bromine can however be generated through the reaction of solid sodium bromide with concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The first stage is formation of hydrogen bromide (HBr), which is a gas, but under the reaction conditions some of the HBr is oxidized further by the sulfuric acid to form bromine (Br2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). NaBr (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → HBr (aq) + NaHSO4 (aq) 2 HBr (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Br2 (g) + SO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) Similar alternatives, such as the use of dilute hydrochloric acid with sodium hypochlorite, are also available. The most important thing is that the anion of the acid (in the above examples, sulfate and chloride, respectively) be more electronegative than bromine, allowing the substitution reaction to occur. Reaction between a strong oxidizing agent such as potassium permanganate on bromide ions in the presence of an acid also gives bromine. An acidic solution of bromate ions and bromide ions will also disproportionate slowly to give bromine. Bromine is only slightly soluble in water. But the solubility can be increased by the presence of bromide ions. However, concentrated solutions of bromine are rarely prepared in the lab as they will continually give off toxic red-brown bromine gas due to its very high vapour pressure. Sodium thiosulphate is an excellent reagent for getting rid of bromine completely including the stains and odour. Compounds Organic chemistry N-Bromosuccinimide Organic compounds are brominated by either addition or substitution reactions. Bromine undergoes electrophilic addition to the double-bonds of alkenes, via a cyclic bromonium intermediate. In non-aqueous solvents such as carbon disulfide, this affords the di-bromo product. For example, reaction with ethylene will produce 1,2-dibromoethane. Bromine also undergoes electrophilic addition to phenols and anilines. When used as bromine water, a small amount of the corresponding bromohydrin is formed as well as the dibromo compound. So reliable is the reactivity of bromine that bromine water is employed as a reagent to test for the presence of alkenes, phenols, and anilines. Like the other halogens, bromine participates in free radical reactions. For example hydrocarbons are brominated upon treatment with bromine in the presence of light. Bromine, sometimes with a catalytic amount of phosphorus, easily brominates carboxylic acids at the α-position. This method, the Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction, is the basis of the commercial route to bromoacetic acid. N-Bromosuccinimide is commonly used as a substitute for elemental bromine, being easier to handle, and reacting more mildly and thus more selectively. Organic bromides are often preferable relative to the less reactive chlorides and more expensive iodide-containing reagents. Thus, Grignard and organolithium compound are most often generated from the corresponding bromides. Inorganic chemistry Oxidation statesof bromine<small> -1 +1 +3 +5 +5 − +7 − Bromine is an oxidizer, and it will oxidize iodide ions to iodine, being itself reduced to bromide: Br2 + 2 I− → 2 Br− + I2 Bromine will also oxidize metals and metalloids to the corresponding bromides. Anhydrous bromine is less reactive toward many metals than hydrated bromine, however. Dry bromine reacts vigorously with aluminium, titanium, mercury as well as alkaline earths and alkali metals. If bromine is dissolved in hydroxide containing water not only bromide (Br−) is formed, but also the hypobromite (OBr−). This hypobromite is responsible for the bleaching abilities of bromide solutions. In warm solutions the disproportion reaction of the hypobromite is quantitive. The resulting bromate is a strong oxidation reagent and very similar to the chlorate. 3 OBr− → BrO3− + 2 Br− The perbromates are not accessible through electrolysis like the perchlorates, but only by reacting bromate solutions with fluorine. OBr− + H2O + F2 → BrO4− + 2 HF Applications A wide variety of organobromine compounds are used in industry. Some are prepared from bromine and others are prepared from hydrogen bromide, which is obtained by burning hydrogen in bromine. Illustrative of the addition reaction is the preparation of 1,2-Dibromoethane, the organobromine compound produced in the largest amounts: C2H4 + Br2 → CH2BrCH2Br Flame retardant right | Tetrabromobisphenol A Brominated flame retardants represent a commodity of growing importance. If the material burns the flame retardents produce hydrobromic acid which interferes in the radical chain reaction of the oxidation reaction of the fire. The highly reactive hydrogen oxygen and hydroxy radicals react with hydrobromic acid and form less reactive bromine radicals. The bromine containing compounds can be placed in the polymeres either during polymerisation if a small amount of brominated monomer is added or the bromine containing compound is added after polymerisation. Tetrabromobisphenol A can be added to produce polyesters or epoxy resins. An epoxy resigns used for printed circuit boards (PCB) are normally made from flame retardant resigns, indicated by the FR in the abbreviation of the products (FR-4 and FR-2. Vinyl bromide can be used in the production of polyethylene, polyvinylchloride or polypropylene. Decabromodiphenyl ether can be added to the final polymeres. Gasoline additive Ethylene bromide was an additive in gasolines containing lead anti-engine knocking agents. It scavenges lead by forming volatile lead bromide, which is exhausted from the engine. This application accounted for 77% of the bromine uses in 1966 in the US. This application has declined since the 1970s due to environmental regulations. Ethylene bromide is also used as a fumigant, but again this application is declining. Pesticide 80px | Methyl bromide (Bromomethane) Methyl bromide was widely used as pesticide to fumigate soil. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone scheduled the phase out for the ozone depleting chemical until 2005. In 1991, an estimated 35,000 metric tonnes of the chemical were used to control nematodes, fungi, weeds and other soil-borne diseases. Other Use Orange fluoresces of DNA Ethidium bromide intercalate The bromides of calcium, sodium, and zinc account for a sizable part of the bromine market. These salts form dense solutions in water that are used as drilling fluids sometimes called clear brine fluids. Bromine is also used in for the production of brominated vegetable oil, which is used as an emulsifier in many citrus-flavored soft drinks (e.g. Mountain Dew). After the introduction in the 1940s the compound was extensively used until the UK and the US limited its use in the mid 1970s and alternative emulsifers were developed. By 1997 in the US still soft drinks are available containing brominated vegetable oil. 80px |Tralomethrin Several dyes, agrichemicals, and pharmaceuticals are organobromine compounds. 1-Bromo-3-chloropropane, 1-bromoethylbenzene, and 1-bromoalkanes are prepared by the antimarkovnikov addition of HBr to alkenes. Ethidium bromide, EtBr, is used as a DNA stain in gel electrophoresis. High refractive index compounds Water purification compounds, Disinfectants Potassium bromide is used in some photographic developers to inhibit the formation of fog (undesired reduction of silver). Vapor is used as the second step in sensitizing daguerreotype plates to be developed under Mercury (Hg) vapor. Bromine acts as an accelerator to the light sensitivity of the previously iodized plate. Biological role Tyrian purple Bromine has no known role in human health, but organobromine compounds do occur naturally. Marine organisms are the main source of organobromine compounds. In 1999 over 1600 compounds were identified. The most abundant one is methyl bromide with a estimate amount of 56000 metric tons produced by marine algae. The essential oil of the Hawaiian alga Asparagopsis taxiformis consists of 80% methyl bromide. A famous example of a bromine-containing organic compound that has been used by humans for a long time is Tyrian purple. The brominated indigo is produced by a medium-sized predatory sea snail, the marine gastropod Murex brandaris. It took until 1909 before the organobromine nature of the compound was discovered by Paul Friedländer. Most organobromine compounds in nature arise via the action of vanadium bromoperoxidase. Safety Elemental bromine is toxic and causes burns. As an oxidizing agent, it is incompatible with most organic and inorganic compounds. Care needs to be taken when transporting bromine; it is commonly carried in steel tanks lined with lead, supported by strong metal frames. When certain ionic compounds containing bromine are mixed with potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and an acidic substance, they will form a pale brown cloud of bromine gas. This gas smells like bleach and is very irritating to the mucus membranes. Upon exposure, one should move to fresh air immediately. If symptoms arise, medical attention is needed. List of highly toxic gases References External links Los Alamos National Laboratory – Bromine WebElements.com – Bromine Theodoregray.com – Bromine USGS Minerals Information: Bromine Bromine Science and Environmental Forum (BSEF) Thermal Conductivity of BROMINE Viscosity of BROMINE | Bromine |@lemmatized bromine:85 mean:1 stench:1 goat:1 gemoll:1 w:1 vretska:1 k:1 griechisch:1 deutsches:1 schul:1 und:1 handwörterbuch:1 greek:1 german:1 dictionary:1 ed:1 publish:3 öbvhpt:1 isbn:1 chemical:6 element:8 symbol:1 br:5 atomic:1 number:2 halogen:3 reddish:2 brown:5 volatile:2 liquid:6 standard:2 room:3 temperature:4 intermediate:3 reactivity:2 chlorine:9 iodine:7 vapour:3 corrosive:1 toxic:4 approximately:2 metric:4 tonne:2 produce:11 jack:1 f:1 mill:1 ullmann:1 encyclopedia:1 technology:1 wiley:1 vch:1 verlag:1 weinheim:1 doi:1 main:2 application:6 fire:2 retardant:4 fine:1 history:1 discover:3 independently:1 two:1 chemist:3 antoine:1 balard:6 carl:2 jacob:2 löwig:3 find:2 bromide:32 salt:8 ash:2 sea:7 weed:3 marsh:1 montpellier:1 use:27 also:11 contain:9 distil:1 solution:8 seaweed:1 saturate:2 property:1 result:7 substance:4 resemble:2 try:1 prove:1 monochloride:1 icl:1 fail:1 sure:1 new:1 name:3 muride:2 derive:1 latin:1 word:1 muria:1 brine:4 isolate:1 mineral:4 water:12 spring:1 home:1 town:1 bad:1 kreuznach:1 extract:1 diethylether:1 evaporation:2 ether:2 remain:1 sample:1 work:1 apply:1 position:2 laboratory:2 leopold:1 gmelin:1 heidelberg:1 publication:2 delay:2 first:3 french:2 louis:4 nicolas:1 vauquelin:1 jacques:1 thénard:1 joseph:2 gay:2 lussac:2 approve:1 experiment:1 young:1 pharmacist:1 present:1 lecture:1 académie:1 des:1 science:2 annales:1 de:1 chimie:1 et:1 physique:1 state:4 change:1 brôme:2 proposal:1 anglada:1 source:2 claim:1 physicist:1 suggest:1 due:4 characteristic:2 smell:2 vapor:4 quantity:1 commercial:3 besides:1 minor:1 medical:2 daguerreotype:2 advantage:1 previous:1 used:1 create:1 light:3 sensitive:1 silver:2 halide:2 layer:1 daguerreotypy:1 potassium:4 sodium:5 anticonvulsant:1 sedative:1 late:1 early:1 century:1 gradually:1 supersede:1 chloral:1 hydrate:2 barbiturate:1 nonmetallic:1 one:3 six:1 periodic:1 table:1 close:1 melt:1 point:2 c:2 boiling:1 pure:1 physical:1 form:8 diatomic:2 molecule:1 dense:2 mobile:1 evaporate:1 easily:3 pressure:2 give:4 red:2 color:1 resembles:1 nitrogen:1 dioxide:2 strong:5 disagreeable:1 odor:1 less:4 reactive:6 slightly:2 soluble:3 highly:3 carbon:2 disulfide:2 aliphatic:1 alcohol:1 methanol:1 acetic:1 acid:10 bond:2 many:5 bleaching:2 action:2 like:4 maintenance:1 swimming:1 pool:1 certain:2 related:1 compound:24 evaluate:1 ozone:3 depletion:1 potential:1 bioaccumulate:1 living:1 organism:2 industrial:1 longer:1 manufacture:1 restrict:1 schedule:2 phase:3 montreal:2 protocol:2 mention:1 several:3 organobromine:8 powerful:1 oxidizing:2 agent:4 react:5 vigorously:2 metal:5 especially:2 presence:5 well:4 organic:6 upon:3 illumination:1 isotope:5 stable:3 least:1 another:1 radioisotope:1 know:2 exist:2 fission:2 product:3 heavy:1 neutron:3 emitter:1 radioactive:2 relatively:1 short:1 live:1 long:4 half:3 life:4 deficient:1 day:2 rich:3 side:1 isotopes:1 exhibit:2 metastable:1 isomer:2 second:2 decay:1 isomeric:1 transition:1 ground:1 occurrence:1 production:5 see:1 world:1 trend:1 occur:3 naturally:2 instead:1 exclusively:1 diffuse:1 amount:7 crustal:1 rock:1 leach:1 accumulate:1 ppm:2 low:1 concentration:1 chloride:3 may:1 economically:1 recover:1 dead:3 view:1 pan:1 jordan:1 right:2 israel:3 leave:1 ton:2 worth:1 around:1 u:5 billion:1 per:1 year:1 worldwide:1 united:2 china:2 primary:1 producer:1 increase:2 sixfold:1 since:2 large:2 reserve:3 locate:2 columbia:1 union:1 county:1 arkansas:3 important:2 industry:2 butler:1 center:1 study:1 shandong:1 province:1 treat:1 gas:7 flush:1 air:2 treatment:2 anion:2 oxidize:5 cl:1 availability:1 shelf:1 typically:1 prepared:2 small:4 however:3 generate:2 reaction:12 solid:1 concentrated:2 sulfuric:2 stage:1 formation:2 hydrogen:4 hbr:5 condition:1 far:1 sulfur:1 nabr:1 aq:5 g:3 l:1 similar:2 alternative:2 dilute:1 hydrochloric:1 hypochlorite:1 available:2 thing:1 example:4 sulfate:1 respectively:1 electronegative:1 allow:1 substitution:2 permanganate:2 ion:5 acidic:2 bromate:3 disproportionate:1 slowly:1 solubility:1 rarely:1 prepare:3 lab:1 continually:1 high:2 thiosulphate:1 excellent:1 reagent:4 get:1 rid:1 completely:1 include:1 stain:2 odour:1 chemistry:2 n:2 bromosuccinimide:2 brominate:5 either:2 addition:5 undergoes:1 electrophilic:2 double:1 alkene:3 via:2 cyclic:1 bromonium:1 non:1 aqueous:1 solvent:1 afford:1 di:1 bromo:2 ethylene:3 dibromoethane:2 undergo:1 phenol:2 aniline:2 corresponding:3 bromohydrin:1 dibromo:1 reliable:1 employ:1 test:1 participates:1 free:1 radical:4 hydrocarbon:1 sometimes:2 catalytic:1 phosphorus:1 carboxylic:1 α:1 method:1 hell:1 volhard:1 zelinsky:1 basis:1 route:1 bromoacetic:1 commonly:2 substitute:1 elemental:2 easy:1 handle:1 mildly:1 thus:2 selectively:1 often:2 preferable:1 relative:1 expensive:1 iodide:2 containing:1 grignard:1 organolithium:1 inorganic:2 oxidation:3 statesof:1 oxidizer:1 reduce:1 metalloids:1 anhydrous:1 toward:1 dry:1 aluminium:1 titanium:1 mercury:2 alkaline:1 earth:1 alkali:1 dissolve:1 hydroxide:1 hypobromite:3 obr:3 responsible:1 ability:1 warm:1 disproportion:1 quantitive:1 chlorate:1 perbromates:1 accessible:1 electrolysis:1 perchlorate:1 fluorine:1 hf:1 wide:1 variety:1 others:1 obtain:1 burn:3 illustrative:1 preparation:1 flame:4 tetrabromobisphenol:2 brominated:3 represent:1 commodity:1 grow:1 importance:1 material:1 retardents:1 hydrobromic:2 interfere:1 chain:1 oxygen:1 hydroxy:1 place:1 polymeres:2 polymerisation:2 monomer:1 add:4 polyester:1 epoxy:2 resin:1 resigns:2 printed:1 circuit:1 board:1 pcb:1 normally:1 make:1 indicate:1 fr:3 abbreviation:1 vinyl:1 polyethylene:1 polyvinylchloride:1 polypropylene:1 decabromodiphenyl:1 final:1 gasoline:2 additive:2 lead:4 anti:1 engine:2 knock:1 scavenge:1 exhaust:1 account:2 decline:2 environmental:2 regulation:1 fumigant:1 pesticide:2 methyl:4 bromomethane:1 widely:1 fumigate:1 soil:2 deplete:2 estimated:1 control:1 nematode:1 fungi:1 borne:1 disease:1 orange:1 fluoresces:1 dna:2 ethidium:2 intercalate:1 calcium:1 zinc:1 sizable:1 part:1 market:1 drilling:1 fluid:2 call:1 clear:1 vegetable:2 oil:3 emulsifier:1 citrus:1 flavored:1 soft:2 drink:2 e:1 mountain:1 dew:1 introduction:1 extensively:1 uk:1 limit:1 mid:1 emulsifers:1 develop:2 still:1 tralomethrin:1 dye:1 agrichemicals:1 pharmaceutical:1 chloropropane:1 bromoethylbenzene:1 bromoalkanes:1 antimarkovnikov:1 etbr:1 gel:1 electrophoresis:1 refractive:1 index:1 purification:1 disinfectant:1 photographic:1 developer:1 inhibit:1 fog:1 undesired:1 reduction:1 step:1 sensitize:1 plate:2 hg:1 act:1 accelerator:1 sensitivity:1 previously:1 iodize:1 biological:1 role:2 tyrian:2 purple:2 human:2 health:1 marine:3 identify:1 abundant:1 estimate:1 algae:1 essential:1 hawaiian:1 alga:1 asparagopsis:1 taxiformis:1 consist:1 famous:1 time:1 indigo:1 medium:1 sized:1 predatory:1 snail:1 gastropod:1 murex:1 brandaris:1 take:2 nature:2 paul:1 friedländer:1 arise:2 vanadium:1 bromoperoxidase:1 safety:1 cause:1 incompatible:1 care:1 need:2 transport:1 carry:1 steel:1 tank:1 line:1 support:1 frame:1 ionic:1 mixed:1 pale:1 cloud:1 bleach:1 irritate:1 mucus:1 membrane:1 exposure:1 move:1 fresh:1 immediately:1 symptoms:1 attention:1 list:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 los:1 alamos:1 national:1 webelements:1 com:2 theodoregray:1 usgs:1 information:1 forum:1 bsef:1 thermal:1 conductivity:1 viscosity:1 |@bigram reddish_brown:2 metric_tonne:2 ullmann_encyclopedia:1 wiley_vch:1 fire_retardant:1 nicolas_vauquelin:1 gay_lussac:2 académie_des:1 de_chimie:1 chemist_physicist:1 silver_halide:1 potassium_bromide:2 periodic_table:1 boiling_point:1 diatomic_molecule:1 nitrogen_dioxide:1 chlorine_bromine:1 carbon_disulfide:2 alcohol_methanol:1 acetic_acid:1 swimming_pool:1 ozone_depletion:1 organobromine_compound:7 powerful_oxidizing:1 oxidizing_agent:2 react_vigorously:2 organic_compound:3 stable_isotope:1 metastable_isomer:1 crustal_rock:1 metric_ton:2 concentrated_sulfuric:1 sulfuric_acid:2 sulfur_dioxide:1 aq_aq:2 hydrochloric_acid:1 sodium_hypochlorite:1 potassium_permanganate:2 organic_chemistry:1 electrophilic_addition:2 carboxylic_acid:1 inorganic_chemistry:1 metal_metalloids:1 alkali_metal:1 flame_retardant:3 hydrobromic_acid:2 epoxy_resin:1 methyl_bromide:4 deplete_ozone:1 ethidium_bromide:2 soft_drink:2 mountain_dew:1 gel_electrophoresis:1 refractive_index:1 tyrian_purple:2 organic_inorganic:1 inorganic_compound:1 external_link:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 webelements_com:1 usgs_mineral:1 thermal_conductivity:1 |
4,664 | Muscovite | Muscovite (also known as Common mica, Isinglass, or Potash mica Encyclopædia Britannica ) is a phyllosilicate mineral of aluminium and potassium with formula KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2, or (KF)2(Al2O3)3(SiO2)6(H2O). It has a highly-perfect basal cleavage yielding remarkably-thin laminæ (sheets) which are often highly elastic. Sheets of muscovite 5 metres by 3 metres have been found in Nellore, India. The Complete Encyclopedia of Minerals by P. Korbel and M. Novak Muscovite has a Mohs hardness of 2–2.25 parallel to the [001] face, 4 perpendicular to the [001] and a specific gravity of 2.76–3. It can be colorless or tinted through grays, browns, greens, yellows, or (rarely) violet or red, and can be transparent or translucent. The green, chromium-rich variety is called fuchsite. Muscovite is the most common mica, found in granites, pegmatites, gneisses, and schists, and as a contact metamorphic rock or as a secondary mineral resulting from the alteration of topaz, feldspar, kyanite, etc. In pegmatites, it is often found in immense sheets that are commercially valuable. Muscovite is in demand for the manufacture of fireproofing and insulating materials and to some extent as a lubricant. The name of muscovite comes from Muscovy-glass, a name formerly used for the mineral because of its use in Russia for windows. It is anisotropic and has high birefringence. Its crystal system is monoclinic. See also List of minerals Mica References | Muscovite |@lemmatized muscovite:6 also:2 know:1 common:2 mica:4 isinglass:1 potash:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 phyllosilicate:1 mineral:5 aluminium:1 potassium:1 formula:1 f:1 oh:1 kf:1 highly:2 perfect:1 basal:1 cleavage:1 yield:1 remarkably:1 thin:1 laminæ:1 sheet:3 often:2 elastic:1 metre:2 find:3 nellore:1 india:1 complete:1 encyclopedia:1 p:1 korbel:1 novak:1 mohs:1 hardness:1 parallel:1 face:1 perpendicular:1 specific:1 gravity:1 colorless:1 tint:1 gray:1 brown:1 green:2 yellow:1 rarely:1 violet:1 red:1 transparent:1 translucent:1 chromium:1 rich:1 variety:1 call:1 fuchsite:1 granite:1 pegmatite:2 gneiss:1 schist:1 contact:1 metamorphic:1 rock:1 secondary:1 result:1 alteration:1 topaz:1 feldspar:1 kyanite:1 etc:1 immense:1 commercially:1 valuable:1 demand:1 manufacture:1 fireproofing:1 insulating:1 material:1 extent:1 lubricant:1 name:2 come:1 muscovy:1 glass:1 formerly:1 use:2 russia:1 window:1 anisotropic:1 high:1 birefringence:1 crystal:1 system:1 monoclinic:1 see:1 list:1 reference:1 |@bigram encyclopædia_britannica:1 mohs_hardness:1 metamorphic_rock:1 |
4,665 | John_Major | Sir John Major, KG, CH, ACIB (born 29 March 1943), is a retired British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party during the period 1990 to 1997. During his time as Prime Minister, the world went through a period of transition after the end of the Cold War. This included the growing importance of the European Union and the debate surrounding Britain's ratification of the Maastricht Treaty. Major and his government were also responsible for the United Kingdom's exit from the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) after Black Wednesday on 16 September 1992. Before becoming Prime Minister, Major was a Cabinet minister under Margaret Thatcher. He was Foreign Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer, making him one of the few people to have served in three of the four Great Offices of State. Early life Major was born at St. Helier Hospital, Carshalton on 29 March 1943, the son of Abraham Thomas Ball, a former music-hall artiste. He was christened John Roy Major, but only John is shown on his birth certificate. He used the middle name Roy until the early 1980s. Major attended primary school at Cheam Common. From 1954, when he passed the eleven-plus, he attended Rutlish Grammar School in Merton, since converted to a comprehensive school and renamed Rutlish School. There he had an undistinguished education. In the 1950s his father's garden ornaments business failed, and the family was forced to move to Brixton in 1955. He watched his first debate in the House of Commons in 1956, and attributes his political ambitions to that event and a chance meeting with Clement Attlee in the King's Road. Major left school at 16 in 1959, with three O-levels: History, English Language, and English Literature. He later gained three more by correspondence course, in British Constitution, Mathematics and Economics. Shortly after becoming prime minister, when pressed about his precise qualifications, he answered "he couldn't remember" what he had attained. Major applied to become a bus conductor after leaving school but was beaten to the post by another applicant. Many accounts have said this was due to his height: early media reports claimed wrongly that this was due to poor arithmetic. His first job was as a clerk in an insurance brokerage firm Pratt & Sons in 1959. Disliking this, he quit and for a time he helped with his father's garden ornaments business with his brother, Terry Major-Ball. He joined the Young Conservatives in Brixton at this time. After a spell of unemployment, he started working at the London Electricity Board (where his successor as PM Tony Blair also worked when young) in 1963, and decided to undertake a correspondence course in banking. He took up a post as an executive at Standard Chartered Bank in May 1965 and rose quickly through the ranks; he was sent to Nigeria by the bank in 1967, and nearly died after a car accident there. Political career Major was interested in politics from an early age. Encouraged by fellow conservative Derek Stone, he started giving speeches on a soap-box in Brixton market. He stood as a candidate for Lambeth Borough Council at the age of 21 in 1964, and was unexpectedly elected in the Conservative landslide in 1968. While on the council he was Chairman of the Housing Committee, being responsible for the building of several council housing estates. Despite moving to a ward which was easier for the Conservatives to win, he lost his seat in May 1971. Major was an active Young Conservative and according to his biographer Anthony Seldon brought "youthful exuberance" to the Tories in Brixton, but was often in trouble with the professional agent Marion Standing. Also according to Seldon, the formative political influence on Major was Jean Kierans, a divorcée 13 years his elder who became his political mentor and lover. Seldon writes "She... made Major smarten his appearance, groomed him politically and made him more ambitious and worldly." Their relationship lasted from 1963 to sometime after 1968. He stood for election to Parliament in St Pancras North in both general elections in 1974, but did not win this traditionally Labour seat. In November 1976 he was selected by Huntingdonshire Conservatives as their candidate, winning the safe seat in the 1979 general election. Following boundary changes, Major became Member of Parliament (MP) for Huntingdon in 1983 and retained the seat in the General Elections in 1987, 1992 and 1997. His political agent in all three elections was Peter Brown. His majority in 1992 was a record 36,230 votes. He stood down at the 2001 general election. He was a Parliamentary Private Secretary from 1981 and an assistant whip from 1983. He was made Under-Secretary of State for Social Security in 1985 and became minister of the same department in 1986. He entered the Cabinet as Chief Secretary to the Treasury in 1987, and in a surprise re-shuffle on 24 July 1989 a relatively inexperienced Major was appointed Foreign Secretary, succeeding Geoffrey Howe. He spent only three months in that post before becoming Chancellor of the Exchequer after Nigel Lawson's resignation in October 1989. Major presented only one budget (the first one to be televised), in spring 1990. He publicised it as a budget for savings and announced the Tax-Exempt Special Savings Account (TESSA), arguing that measures were required to address the marked fall in the household savings ratio that had been apparent during the previous financial year. When Michael Heseltine's challenge to Margaret Thatcher's leadership of the Conservative Party in 1990 forced the contest to a second round, Major entered the contest alongside Douglas Hurd after Thatcher withdrew. Though he fell two votes short of the required winning margin of 187 in the second ballot, the result was sufficient to secure immediate concessions from his rivals. He was named Leader of the Conservative Party on 27 November 1990, and was summoned to Buckingham Palace and was appointed Prime Minister the following day. Prime minister The Gulf War Major was Prime Minister during the first Gulf War of 1991, and played a key role in persuading American president George H. W. Bush to support no-fly zones. Soap Box election The economy slid into recession again during Major's first year in office, though the signs of this were appearing during Thatcher's final months as Prime Minister, and Major's Conservatives were widely expected to lose the 1992 election to Neil Kinnock's Labour Party. Major took his campaign onto the streets, delivering many addresses from an upturned soapbox as in his Lambeth days. This "common touch" approach stood in contrast to the Labour Party's seemingly slicker campaign and it chimed with the electorate, along with hard-hitting negative campaign advertising focusing on the issue of Labour's approach to taxation. Major won in excess of 14 million votes, the highest popular vote recorded by a British political party in a general election. However, this translated into a reduced majority of 21 seats enough to form a practicable but weak majority. John Major with then-US President George H. W. Bush at Camp David in 1992 Black Wednesday The Conservative majority proved too small for effective control over his backbenchers, particularly after the United Kingdom's forced exit from the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) on "Black Wednesday", 16 September 1992, just five months into the new parliament, when billions of pounds were spent in a futile attempt to defend the currency's value. After the release of Black Wednesday government documents, it became apparent that Major came very close to stepping down from office at this point, having even prepared an unsent letter of resignation addressed to the Queen. Major kept his economic team unchanged for seven months after Black Wednesday before he replaced Norman Lamont with Kenneth Clarke as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Such a delay, on top of the crisis, was exploited by Major's critics as proof of the indecisiveness that was to undermine his authority through the rest of his premiership. The UK's forced withdrawal from the ERM was succeeded by a partial economic recovery with a new policy of flexible exchange rates, allowing lower interest rates and devaluation - increased demand for UK goods in export markets. Political infighting over Europe Rather than capitalise on the economic 'good news', the Conservative Party soon fell into political infighting over the subject of Europe: Major took a moderate approach but he found himself undermined by the Eurosceptic wing of the party and the Cabinet. In particular, his policy towards the European Union aroused opposition as the Government attempted to ratify the Maastricht Treaty. Although the Labour opposition supported the treaty, they were prepared to tactically oppose certain provisions in order to weaken the government. This opposition included passing an amendment that required a vote on the social chapter aspects of the treaty before it could be ratified. Several Conservative MPs, known as the Maastricht Rebels, voted against the treaty, and the Government was defeated. Major called another vote on the following day, 23 July 1993, which he declared a vote of confidence. He won by 40 votes, but the damage had been done to his authority in parliament. Later that day, Major gave an interview to ITN's Michael Brunson. During an unguarded moment when Major thought that the microphones had been switched off, Brunson asked why he did not sack the ministers who were conspiring against him. He replied: "Just think it through from my perspective. You are the prime minister, with a majority of 18... where do you think most of the poison is coming from? From the dispossessed and the never-possessed. Do we want three more of the bastards out there? What's Lyndon B. Johnson's maxim?" The maxim referred to is Johnson's famous comment about J. Edgar Hoover: Johnson had once sought a way to remove Hoover from his post as head of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), but upon realising that the problems involved in such a plan were insurmountable, he accepted Hoover's presence philosophically, reasoning that it would be "better to have him inside the tent pissing out, than outside pissing in". Major later said that he had picked the number three from the air and that he was referring to "former ministers who had left the government and begun to create havoc with their anti-European activities", Major, John (1999). Autobiography, pp343-4. but many journalists suggested that the three were Peter Lilley, Michael Portillo and Michael Howard, three of the more prominent "Eurosceptics" within his Cabinet. Throughout the rest of Major's premiership the exact identity of the three was blurred, with John Redwood's name frequently appearing in a list along with two of the others. The tape of this conversation was leaked to the Daily Mirror and widely reported, embarrassing Major. "Sleaze" At the 1993 Conservative Party Conference, Major began the "Back to Basics" campaign, which he intended to be about the economy, education, policing, and other such issues, but it was interpreted by many (including Conservative cabinet ministers) as an attempt to revert to the moral and family values that the Conservative Party were often associated with. "Back to Basics", however, became synonymous with scandal, often exposed by tabloid newspapers such as The Sun. David Mellor, a cabinet minister, was exposed as having an extramarital affair, and for accepting hospitality from the daughter of a leading member of the PLO. The wife of the Earl of Caithness committed suicide amongst rumours of the Earl committing adultery. David Ashby was 'outed' by his wife after sleeping with men. A string of other conservative MPs, including Alan Amos, Tim Yeo and Michael Brown, were involved in sexual scandals. Other debilitating scandals included "Cash for Questions", in which first Graham Riddick, and David Tredinnick accepted money to ask questions in the House of Commons in a newspaper "sting", and later Tim Smith and Neil Hamilton were found to have received money from Mohamed Al Fayed, also to ask questions in the House. Later, David Willetts resigned as Paymaster General after he was accused of rigging evidence to do with Cash for Questions. Defence Minister Jonathan Aitken, whose Parliamentary Aide was Stephen Milligan, was accused by the ITV investigative journalism series World In Action and The Guardian newspaper of secretly doing deals with leading Saudi princes. He denied all accusations and promised to wield the "sword of truth" in libel proceedings which he brought against The Guardian and the producers of World In Action Granada Television. At an early stage in the trial however, it became apparent that he had lied under oath, and he was subsequently convicted of perjury and sentenced to a term of imprisonment. Milligan later died a spectacularly bizarre autoerotic death. Northern Ireland Major opened talks with the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) upon taking office. When he declared to the House of Commons in November 1993 that "to sit down and talk with Mr. Adams and the Provisional IRA... would turn my stomach", Sinn Féin gave the media an outline of the secret talks indeed held regularly since that February. The Downing Street Declaration was issued on 15 December 1993 by Major and Albert Reynolds, the Irish Taoiseach, with whom he had a friendly relationship: an IRA ceasefire followed in 1994. In the House of Commons Major refused to sign-up to the first draft of the "Mitchell Principles", which resulted in the ending of the ceasefire. Major paved the way for the Belfast Agreement, also known as the 'Good Friday Agreement', which was signed after he left office. In March 1995, Major refused to answer the phone calls of United States President Bill Clinton for several days because of his anger at Clinton's decision to invite Gerry Adams to the White House for St Patrick's Day. Leadership challenge On 22 June 1995, tired of continual threats of leadership challenges that never arose, Major resigned as Leader of the Conservative Party and announced he would be contesting the resulting leadership election. John Redwood, the Secretary of State for Wales stood against him. Major won by 218 votes to Redwood's 89 (with 12 spoiled ballots, eight abstentions and two MPs abstaining), easily enough to win in the first round, but only three more than the target he had privately set himself. Major, John (1999). Autobiography (The Conservative Party has since changed its rules to allow a simple vote of no confidence in the leader, rather than requiring a challenger to stand; this mechanism was later used to remove Iain Duncan Smith from the leadership). 1997 general election defeat Major's re-election as leader of the party failed to restore his authority. Despite efforts to restore (or at least improve) the popularity of the Conservative party, Labour remained far ahead in the opinion polls as the 1997 election loomed. By December 1996 the Conservatives had lost their majority in the House of Commons. Major managed to survive to the end of the Parliament, but called an election on 17 March 1997 as the five-year limit for its timing approached. Major delayed the election in the hope that a still improving economy would help the Conservatives win a greater number of seats, but it did not. Few then were surprised when Major's Conservatives lost the 1997 general election to Tony Blair's "New Labour", though the immense scale of the defeat was not widely predicted: the Conservative party suffered the worst electoral defeat since the Great Reform Act of 1832. In the new parliament Labour held 418 seats, the Conservatives 165, and the Liberal Democrats 46, giving Labour a majority of 179. Major was re-elected in his constituency of Huntingdon with a majority of 18,140. However, 179 other Conservative MPs were defeated, including present and former Cabinet ministers such as Norman Lamont, Sir Malcolm Rifkind and Michael Portillo. At about noon on 2 May 1997, Major officially returned his seals of office as Prime Minister to Queen Elizabeth II. Shortly before his resignation, he gave his final statement from 10 Downing Street, in which he said "when the curtain falls, it is time to get off the stage". Major then famously told the press that he intended to go with his family to The Oval to watch cricket. Following his resignation as Prime Minister, Major briefly became Leader of the Opposition and remained in this post until the election of William Hague as leader of the Conservative Party in June 1997. His Resignation Honours were announced in August 1997. Major retired from the House of Commons at the 2001 general election, made public on the Breakfast show with David Frost. BBC news - Interview on Breakfast With Frost Summary of Major's premiership Major's mild-mannered style and moderate political stance made him theoretically well-placed to act as a conciliatory leader of his party. However, conflict raged within the Conservative Party, particularly over the extent of Britain's integration with the European Union. Major never succeeded in reconciling the relatively small group of "Euro-rebels" among his MPs to his European policy, and episodes such as the Maastricht Rebellion inflicted serious political damage on him and his government. During the 1990s, the bitterness on the right wing of the Conservative Party at the manner in which Lady Thatcher had been removed from office did not make Major's task any easier. On the other hand, it was during Major's premiership that the British economy recovered from the recession of 1990-1992. Conservatives subsequently spoke of Tony Blair's government inheriting a "golden legacy" in 1997, and both parties from 1992 onwards presided over the longest period of economic growth in British history. Paddy Ashdown, the leader of the Liberal Democrats during Major's term of office, once described him in the House of Commons as a "decent and honourable man". Few observers doubted that he was an honest man, or that he made sincere and sometimes successful attempts to improve life in Britain and to unite his deeply divided party. He was also, however, perceived as a weak and ineffectual figure, and his approval ratings for most of his time in office were low, particularly after "Black Wednesday" in September 1992. Conversely on occasions he attracted criticism for dogmatically pursuing complex and unworkable schemes favoured by the right of his party, notably the privatisation of British Rail, and for closing down most of the coal industry. The former Labour MP Tony Banks said of Major in 1994 that "He was a fairly competent chairman of Housing [on Lambeth Council]. Every time he gets up now I keep thinking, 'What on earth is Councillor Major doing?' I can't believe he's here and sometimes I think he can't either." Retirement Major at Newlands Cricket Ground, January 2000. Since leaving office Major has tended to take a low profile retirement, indulging his love of cricket as president of Surrey County Cricket Club until 2002. He has been a member of Carlyle Group's European Advisory Board since 1998 and was appointed Chairman of Carlyle Europe in May 2001. John Major appointed European Chairman of the Carlyle Group He stood down in August 2004. In March 2001, he gave the tribute to Colin Cowdrey (Lord Cowdrey of Tonbridge) at his memorial service in Westminster Abbey. Cowdrey remembered In 2005 he was elected to the Committee of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), historically the governing body of the sport, and still guardian of the laws of the game. MCC Committee 2006-07 Following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, Major was appointed a special guardian to Princes William and Harry, with responsibility for legal and administrative matters. Major/Currie affair Major's post retirement low-profile was disrupted by the revelation by Edwina Currie in September 2002 that, prior to his promotion to the Cabinet, Major had had a four-year extramarital affair with her. Major and Currie had four-year affair The Major-Currie affair - what the papers say Commentators were quick to refer to Major's previous "Back to Basics" platform to throw charges of hypocrisy. In a press statement, Major said that he was "embarrassed" by the affair and that his wife had forgiven him. Since 2005 Major in 2007 at the memorial service for Lord Weatherill, former speaker of the House of Commons. In February 2005, it was reported that Major and Norman Lamont delayed the release of papers on Black Wednesday under the Freedom of Information Act. Treasury releases 1992 ERM papers Major denied doing so, saying that he had not heard of the request until the scheduled release date and had merely asked to look at the papers himself. He told BBC News that he and Lamont had been the victims of "whispering" to the press. Major denies blocking ERM papers He later publicly approved the release of the papers. Major permits release of Black Wednesday papers According to the Evening Standard, Major has become a prolific after-dinner speaker. He earns over £25,000 per engagement for his "insights and his own opinions on the expanding European Union, the future of the world in the 21st century, and also about Britain", according to his agency. In December 2006, Major led calls for an independent inquiry into Tony Blair's decision to invade Iraq, following revelations made by Carne Ross, a former British senior diplomat, that contradict Blair's case for the invasion. He was touted as a possible Conservative candidate for the Mayor of London elections in 2008, but turned down an offer from Conservative leader David Cameron. A spokesperson for Major said "his political future is behind him". Representation in the media During his leadership of the Conservative Party, Major was portrayed as honest ("Honest John") but was unable to rein in the philandering and bickering within his party. Major's appearance was noted in its greyness, his prodigious philtrum, and large glasses, all of which were exaggerated in caricatures. For example, in Spitting Image, Major's puppet was changed from a circus performer to that of a grey man who ate dinner with his wife in silence, occasionally saying "nice peas, dear". The media (particularly The Guardian cartoonist Steve Bell) used the allegation by Alastair Campbell that he had observed Major tucking his shirt into his underpants to caricature him wearing his pants outside his trousers, as a pale grey echo of both Superman and Supermac, a parody of Harold Macmillan. Bell also used the humourous possibilities of the National Cones Hotline, a means for the public to inform the authorities of uncollected Traffic cones, which was a pet project of Major himself. Private Eye parodied Sue Townsend's The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole, age 13¾ to write The Secret Diary of John Major, age 47¾, featuring "my wife Norman" and "Mr Dr Mawhinney" as recurring characters. The magazine still runs one-off specials of this diary (with the age updated) on occasions when Sir John is in the news, such as on the breaking of the Edwina Currie story or the publication of his autobiography. The magazine also ran a series of cartoons called 101 Uses for a John Major, in which Major was illustrated serving a number of bizarre purposes, such as a train-spotter's anorak. Major's Brixton roots were used in a campaign poster during the Conservative Party's 1992 election campaign: "What does the Conservative Party offer a working class kid from Brixton? They made him Prime Minister." Major was often mocked for his nostalgic evocation of what sounded like the lost England of the 1950s. Page 29, John Major by Robert Taylor, Haus 2006 He once said: Major complained in his memoirs that these words (which drew upon a passage in the socialist writer George Orwell's "The Lion and the Unicorn") had been misrepresented as being more naive and romantic than he had intended. Titles and honours Styles from birth John Major in the robes of a Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter John Major, (1943 – 1979) John Major, MP (1979 – 1987) The Rt Hon John Major, MP (1987 – 1999) The Rt Hon John Major, CH, MP (1999 – 2001) The Rt Hon John Major, CH (2001 – 2005) The Rt Hon Sir John Major, KG, CH (2005 – ) Honours Lord of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (1987) Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (1987 - present) Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (1999) Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (2005) In the New Year's Honours List of 1999 Major was made a Companion of Honour for his work on the Northern Ireland peace process. Major leads honours list for peace In a 2003 interview he spoke about his hopes for peace in the region. John Major speaks out for NI peace On 23 April 2005 Major was made a Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter by Queen Elizabeth II. He was installed at St. George's Chapel, Windsor on 13 June. Membership of the Order of the Garter is limited in number to 24, and is an honour traditionally bestowed on former British Prime Ministers and a personal gift of the Queen. Former PM Major becomes Sir John Major has so far declined the customary life peerage awarded to former Prime Ministers on standing down from Parliament. Major to turn down peerage - accessed 15 August 2006 On 20 June 2008 Major was granted the Freedom of the City of Cork Freedom of the City 2008 . Personal life Major married Norma Johnson (now Dame Norma Major, DBE) on 3 October 1970. She was a teacher and a member of the Young Conservatives. They met on polling day for the Greater London Council elections in London. They became engaged after only ten days. Profile at number10.gov.uk They had two children; a son, James, and a daughter, Elizabeth. They have a holiday home on the coast of north Norfolk, near Weybourne, that has round-the-clock police surveillance. Major is an Associate of the Institute of Bankers. Major's elder brother, Terry, who died in 2007, became a minor media personality during Major's period in Downing Street, writing an autobiography and newspaper columns, and appearing on TV shows such as Have I Got News For You. He faced brickbats about his brother but always remained loyal. He also had an affair with Edwina Currie and he was voted "The most boring man of the 1900s" by a recent poll. His son James married and divorced model Emma Noble. Previously she modelled prizes with Bruce Forsyth on The Price is Right game show. References Further reading Major, John (1999) – Autobiography (London: Harper Collins, ISBN 0-00-257004-1) Major, John (2007) – More Than A Game: The Story of Cricket's Early Years (London: Harper Collins, ISBN 978-0-00-718364-7) External links Unofficial John Major website John Major's "bastard" quote from The Observer The Public Whip – John Major MP voting record Ubben Lecture at DePauw University More about John Major on the Downing Street website. 'Prime-Ministers in the Post-War World: John Major', lecture by Vernon Bogdanor at Gresham College on 21 June 2007 (with video and audio files available for download). Recordings and Photos of the visit by Sir John to the College Historical Society for the Inaugural Meeting. List of books and articles relating to John Major on Royal Historical Society Bibliography. | John_Major |@lemmatized sir:6 john:32 major:119 kg:2 ch:4 acib:1 born:1 march:5 retired:1 british:8 politician:1 serve:3 prime:15 minister:23 united:4 kingdom:3 leader:10 conservative:36 party:26 period:4 time:6 world:5 go:2 transition:1 end:3 cold:1 war:4 include:6 grow:1 importance:1 european:8 union:4 debate:2 surround:1 britain:4 ratification:1 maastricht:4 treaty:5 government:8 also:10 responsible:2 exit:2 exchange:3 rate:4 mechanism:3 erm:5 black:8 wednesday:8 september:4 become:14 cabinet:8 margaret:2 thatcher:5 foreign:2 secretary:6 chancellor:3 exchequer:3 make:12 one:4 people:1 three:11 four:3 great:4 office:10 state:4 early:6 life:4 bear:1 st:4 helier:1 hospital:1 carshalton:1 son:4 abraham:1 thomas:1 ball:2 former:9 music:1 hall:1 artiste:1 christen:1 roy:2 show:4 birth:2 certificate:1 use:5 middle:1 name:3 attend:2 primary:1 school:6 cheam:1 common:10 pass:2 eleven:1 plus:1 rutlish:2 grammar:1 merton:1 since:7 convert:1 comprehensive:1 rename:1 undistinguished:1 education:2 father:2 garden:2 ornament:2 business:2 fail:2 family:3 force:4 move:2 brixton:6 watch:2 first:8 house:10 attribute:1 political:11 ambition:1 event:1 chance:1 meeting:2 clement:1 attlee:1 king:1 road:1 left:1 level:1 history:2 english:2 language:1 literature:1 later:8 gain:1 correspondence:2 course:2 constitution:1 mathematics:1 economics:1 shortly:2 press:4 precise:1 qualification:1 answer:2 remember:2 attain:1 apply:1 bus:1 conductor:1 leave:4 beat:1 post:7 another:2 applicant:1 many:4 account:2 say:10 due:2 height:1 medium:5 report:3 claim:1 wrongly:1 poor:1 arithmetic:1 job:1 clerk:1 insurance:1 brokerage:1 firm:1 pratt:1 dislike:1 quit:1 help:2 brother:3 terry:2 join:1 young:4 spell:1 unemployment:1 start:2 work:3 london:6 electricity:1 board:2 successor:1 pm:2 tony:5 blair:5 decide:1 undertake:1 banking:1 take:5 executive:1 standard:2 charter:1 bank:3 may:4 rise:1 quickly:1 rank:1 send:1 nigeria:1 nearly:1 die:3 car:1 accident:1 career:1 interested:1 politics:1 age:5 encourage:1 fellow:1 derek:1 stone:1 give:6 speech:1 soap:2 box:2 market:2 stand:8 candidate:3 lambeth:3 borough:1 council:7 unexpectedly:1 elect:3 landslide:1 chairman:4 housing:3 committee:3 building:1 several:3 estate:1 despite:2 ward:1 easy:2 win:8 lose:4 seat:7 active:1 accord:4 biographer:1 anthony:1 seldon:3 bring:2 youthful:1 exuberance:1 tory:1 often:4 trouble:1 professional:1 agent:2 marion:1 standing:1 formative:1 influence:1 jean:1 kierans:1 divorcée:1 year:8 elder:2 mentor:1 lover:1 write:3 smarten:1 appearance:2 groom:1 politically:1 ambitious:1 worldly:1 relationship:2 last:1 sometime:1 election:21 parliament:7 pancras:1 north:2 general:9 traditionally:2 labour:10 november:3 select:1 huntingdonshire:1 safe:1 follow:5 boundary:1 change:3 member:6 mp:11 huntingdon:2 retain:1 peter:2 brown:2 majority:8 record:3 vote:12 parliamentary:2 private:2 assistant:1 whip:2 social:2 security:1 department:1 enter:2 chief:1 treasury:2 surprise:2 shuffle:1 july:2 relatively:2 inexperienced:1 appoint:5 succeed:3 geoffrey:1 howe:1 spend:2 month:4 nigel:1 lawson:1 resignation:5 october:2 present:3 budget:2 televise:1 spring:1 publicise:1 saving:3 announce:3 tax:1 exempt:1 special:3 tessa:1 argue:1 measure:1 require:3 address:3 marked:1 fall:2 household:1 ratio:1 apparent:3 previous:2 financial:1 michael:6 heseltine:1 challenge:3 leadership:6 contest:3 second:2 round:3 alongside:1 douglas:1 hurd:1 withdrew:1 though:3 fell:2 two:4 short:1 required:1 margin:1 ballot:2 result:3 sufficient:1 secure:1 immediate:1 concession:1 rival:1 summon:1 buckingham:1 palace:1 following:2 day:8 gulf:2 play:1 key:1 role:1 persuade:1 american:1 president:4 george:4 h:2 w:2 bush:2 support:2 fly:1 zone:1 economy:4 slide:1 recession:2 sign:3 appear:3 final:2 widely:3 expect:1 neil:2 kinnock:1 campaign:6 onto:1 street:5 deliver:1 upturned:1 soapbox:1 touch:1 approach:4 contrast:1 seemingly:1 slicker:1 chime:1 electorate:1 along:2 hard:1 hit:1 negative:1 advertise:1 focus:1 issue:3 taxation:1 excess:1 million:1 high:1 popular:1 however:6 translate:1 reduced:1 enough:2 form:1 practicable:1 weak:2 u:1 camp:1 david:7 prove:1 small:2 effective:1 control:1 backbencher:1 particularly:4 five:2 new:5 billion:1 pound:1 futile:1 attempt:4 defend:1 currency:1 value:2 release:6 document:1 come:2 close:2 step:1 point:1 even:2 prepare:2 unsent:1 letter:1 queen:4 keep:2 economic:4 team:1 unchanged:1 seven:1 replace:1 norman:4 lamont:4 kenneth:1 clarke:1 delay:3 top:1 crisis:1 exploit:1 critic:1 proof:1 indecisiveness:1 undermine:2 authority:4 rest:2 premiership:4 uk:3 withdrawal:1 partial:1 recovery:1 policy:3 flexible:1 allow:2 low:4 interest:1 devaluation:1 increased:1 demand:1 good:4 export:1 infighting:2 europe:3 rather:2 capitalise:1 news:5 soon:1 subject:1 moderate:2 find:2 eurosceptic:1 wing:2 particular:1 towards:1 arouse:1 opposition:4 ratify:2 although:1 tactically:1 oppose:1 certain:1 provision:1 order:6 weaken:1 amendment:1 chapter:1 aspect:1 could:1 know:2 rebel:2 defeat:5 call:5 declare:2 confidence:2 damage:2 interview:3 itn:1 brunson:2 unguarded:1 moment:1 thought:1 microphone:1 switch:1 ask:4 sack:1 conspire:1 reply:1 think:3 perspective:1 poison:1 dispossess:1 never:3 possess:1 want:1 bastard:2 lyndon:1 b:1 johnson:4 maxim:2 refer:3 famous:1 comment:1 j:1 edgar:1 hoover:3 seek:1 way:2 remove:3 head:1 federal:1 bureau:1 investigation:1 fbi:1 upon:3 realise:1 problem:1 involve:2 plan:1 insurmountable:1 accept:3 presence:1 philosophically:1 reason:1 would:4 inside:1 tent:1 piss:1 outside:2 pissing:1 pick:1 number:4 air:1 begin:2 create:1 havoc:1 anti:1 activity:1 autobiography:5 journalist:1 suggest:1 lilley:1 portillo:2 howard:1 prominent:1 eurosceptics:1 within:3 throughout:1 exact:1 identity:1 blur:1 redwood:3 frequently:1 list:4 others:1 tape:1 conversation:1 leak:1 daily:1 mirror:1 embarrass:2 sleaze:1 conference:1 back:3 basic:3 intend:3 policing:1 interpret:1 revert:1 moral:1 associate:2 synonymous:1 scandal:3 expose:2 tabloid:1 newspaper:4 sun:1 mellor:1 extramarital:2 affair:7 hospitality:1 daughter:2 leading:1 plo:1 wife:5 earl:2 caithness:1 commit:2 suicide:1 amongst:1 rumour:1 adultery:1 ashby:1 sleep:1 men:1 string:1 alan:1 amos:1 tim:2 yeo:1 sexual:1 debilitate:1 cash:2 question:4 graham:1 riddick:1 tredinnick:1 money:2 sting:1 smith:2 hamilton:1 receive:1 mohamed:1 al:1 fayed:1 willetts:1 resign:2 paymaster:1 accuse:2 rig:1 evidence:1 defence:1 jonathan:1 aitken:1 whose:1 aide:1 stephen:1 milligan:2 itv:1 investigative:1 journalism:1 series:2 action:2 guardian:5 secretly:1 deal:1 lead:3 saudi:1 prince:2 deny:2 accusation:1 promise:1 wield:1 sword:1 truth:1 libel:1 proceeding:1 producer:1 granada:1 television:1 stage:2 trial:1 lie:1 oath:1 subsequently:2 convict:1 perjury:1 sentence:1 term:2 imprisonment:1 spectacularly:1 bizarre:2 autoerotic:1 death:2 northern:2 ireland:2 open:1 talk:3 provisional:2 irish:2 republican:1 army:1 ira:3 sit:1 mr:2 adam:2 turn:3 stomach:1 sinn:1 féin:1 outline:1 secret:3 indeed:1 hold:2 regularly:1 february:2 declaration:1 december:3 albert:1 reynolds:1 taoiseach:1 friendly:1 ceasefire:2 refuse:2 draft:1 mitchell:1 principle:1 pave:1 belfast:1 agreement:2 friday:1 phone:1 bill:1 clinton:2 anger:1 decision:2 invite:1 gerry:1 white:1 patrick:1 june:5 tire:1 continual:1 threat:1 arise:1 wale:2 spoiled:1 eight:1 abstention:1 abstain:1 easily:1 target:1 privately:1 set:1 rule:1 simple:1 challenger:1 iain:1 duncan:1 restore:2 effort:1 least:1 improve:3 popularity:1 remain:3 far:3 ahead:1 opinion:2 poll:3 loom:1 manage:1 survive:1 limit:2 timing:1 hope:2 still:3 immense:1 scale:1 predict:1 suffer:1 bad:1 electoral:1 reform:1 act:3 liberal:2 democrat:2 constituency:1 malcolm:1 rifkind:1 noon:1 officially:1 return:1 seal:1 elizabeth:3 ii:2 statement:2 curtain:1 get:3 famously:1 tell:2 oval:1 cricket:6 briefly:1 william:2 hague:1 honour:8 august:3 retire:1 public:3 breakfast:2 frost:2 bbc:2 summary:1 mild:1 mannered:1 style:2 stance:1 theoretically:1 well:1 place:1 conciliatory:1 conflict:1 rag:1 extent:1 integration:1 reconcile:1 group:3 euro:1 among:1 episode:1 rebellion:1 inflict:1 serious:1 bitterness:1 right:3 manner:1 lady:1 task:1 hand:1 recover:1 speak:2 inherit:1 golden:1 legacy:1 onwards:1 preside:1 long:1 growth:1 paddy:1 ashdown:1 describe:1 decent:1 honourable:3 man:4 observer:2 doubt:1 honest:3 sincere:1 sometimes:2 successful:1 unite:1 deeply:1 divide:1 perceive:1 ineffectual:1 figure:1 approval:1 rating:1 conversely:1 occasion:2 attract:1 criticism:1 dogmatically:1 pursue:1 complex:1 unworkable:1 scheme:1 favour:1 notably:1 privatisation:1 rail:1 coal:1 industry:1 fairly:1 competent:1 every:1 thinking:1 earth:1 councillor:1 believe:1 either:1 retirement:3 newlands:1 ground:1 january:1 tend:1 profile:3 indulge:1 love:1 surrey:1 county:1 club:2 carlyle:3 advisory:1 tribute:1 colin:1 cowdrey:3 lord:3 tonbridge:1 memorial:2 service:2 westminster:1 abbey:1 marylebone:1 mcc:2 historically:1 govern:1 body:1 sport:1 law:1 game:3 diana:1 princess:1 harry:1 responsibility:1 legal:1 administrative:1 matter:1 currie:6 disrupt:1 revelation:2 edwina:3 prior:1 promotion:1 paper:7 commentator:1 quick:1 platform:1 throw:1 charge:1 hypocrisy:1 forgive:1 weatherill:1 speaker:2 freedom:3 information:1 hear:1 request:1 scheduled:1 date:1 merely:1 look:1 victim:1 whisper:1 denies:1 block:1 publicly:1 approve:1 permit:1 prolific:1 dinner:2 earn:1 per:1 engagement:1 insight:1 expand:1 future:2 century:1 agency:1 independent:1 inquiry:1 invade:1 iraq:1 carne:1 ross:1 senior:1 diplomat:1 contradict:1 case:1 invasion:1 tout:1 possible:1 mayor:1 offer:2 cameron:1 spokesperson:1 behind:1 representation:1 portray:1 unable:1 rein:1 philandering:1 bickering:1 note:1 greyness:1 prodigious:1 philtrum:1 large:1 glass:1 exaggerate:1 caricature:2 example:1 spit:1 image:1 puppet:1 circus:1 performer:1 grey:2 eat:1 silence:1 occasionally:1 nice:1 pea:1 dear:1 cartoonist:1 steve:1 bell:2 allegation:1 alastair:1 campbell:1 observe:1 tuck:1 shirt:1 underpants:1 wear:1 pant:1 trouser:1 pale:1 echo:1 superman:1 supermac:1 parody:2 harold:1 macmillan:1 humourous:1 possibility:1 national:1 cone:2 hotline:1 mean:1 inform:1 uncollected:1 traffic:1 pet:1 project:1 eye:1 sue:1 townsend:1 diary:3 adrian:1 mole:1 feature:1 dr:1 mawhinney:1 recur:1 character:1 magazine:2 run:2 update:1 breaking:1 story:2 publication:1 cartoon:1 us:1 illustrate:1 purpose:1 train:1 spotter:1 anorak:1 root:1 poster:1 working:1 class:1 kid:1 mock:1 nostalgic:1 evocation:1 sound:1 like:1 lost:1 england:1 page:1 robert:1 taylor:1 haus:1 complain:1 memoir:1 word:1 draw:1 passage:1 socialist:1 writer:1 orwell:1 lion:1 unicorn:1 misrepresent:1 naive:1 romantic:1 title:1 robe:1 knight:3 companion:5 garter:4 rt:4 hon:4 majesty:2 privy:2 noble:2 peace:4 process:1 region:1 speaks:1 ni:1 april:1 instal:1 chapel:1 windsor:1 membership:1 bestow:1 personal:2 gift:1 becomes:1 decline:1 customary:1 peerage:2 award:1 access:1 grant:1 city:2 cork:1 marry:2 norma:2 dame:1 dbe:1 teacher:1 meet:1 engage:1 ten:1 gov:1 child:1 james:2 holiday:1 home:1 coast:1 norfolk:1 near:1 weybourne:1 clock:1 police:1 surveillance:1 institute:1 banker:1 minor:1 personality:1 column:1 tv:1 face:1 brickbat:1 always:1 loyal:1 boring:1 recent:1 divorce:1 model:2 emma:1 previously:1 prize:1 bruce:1 forsyth:1 price:1 reference:1 read:1 harper:2 collins:2 isbn:2 external:1 link:1 unofficial:1 website:2 quote:1 voting:1 ubben:1 lecture:2 depauw:1 university:1 vernon:1 bogdanor:1 gresham:1 college:2 video:1 audio:1 file:1 available:1 download:1 recording:1 photo:1 visit:1 historical:2 society:2 inaugural:1 book:1 article:1 relate:1 royal:1 bibliography:1 |@bigram prime_minister:15 maastricht_treaty:2 margaret_thatcher:2 chancellor_exchequer:3 st_helier:1 birth_certificate:1 clement_attlee:1 insurance_brokerage:1 tony_blair:4 st_pancras:1 geoffrey_howe:1 michael_heseltine:1 buckingham_palace:1 w_bush:2 neil_kinnock:1 norman_lamont:3 lyndon_b:1 edgar_hoover:1 bureau_investigation:1 michael_portillo:2 tabloid_newspaper:1 extramarital_affair:2 commit_suicide:1 commit_adultery:1 investigative_journalism:1 provisional_ira:1 sinn_féin:1 ira_ceasefire:1 bill_clinton:1 gerry_adam:1 iain_duncan:1 opinion_poll:1 liberal_democrat:2 queen_elizabeth:2 bbc_news:2 mild_mannered:1 approval_rating:1 advisory_board:1 westminster_abbey:1 marylebone_cricket:1 diana_princess:1 harold_macmillan:1 george_orwell:1 mp_rt:3 rt_hon:4 privy_council:2 chapel_windsor:1 harper_collins:2 external_link:1 depauw_university:1 gresham_college:1 |
4,666 | Military_of_the_Falkland_Islands | The Falkland Islands are an overseas territory of the United Kingdom and, as such, rely on the UK for guarantee of their security. The other UK territories in the South Atlantic, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, fall under the protection of the British forces on the Falklands (also known as British Forces Falkland Islands or British Forces South Atlantic Islands), which includes commitments from the British Army, Royal Air Force and Royal Navy. They are headed by the Commander of the British Forces South Atlantic Islands (CBFSAI). The maintenance of only a token military force before the Falklands War allowed Argentina to start that conflict by easily capturing the islands. Following the reclamation of the territory in 1982, the UK invested heavily in the defence of the islands, the centrepiece of which is the new airfield at RAF Mount Pleasant, 25 miles west of the previous base at Stanley. The base was opened in 1985, and became fully operational in 1986. Falkland Islands Defence Force The Falkland Islands maintains its own part-time volunteer force, the Falkland Islands Defence Force (FIDF), previously known as the Falkland Islands Volunteer Corps. Although this unit existed in 1982 as a reinforcement for the Governor's detachment of Royal Marines, it did not play any part in the main conflict during the war of 1982, its members having spent the duration of the hostilities under house arrest by the Argentines after their surrender on Argentine capture of the islands. Royal Navy RAF Mount Pleasant has its own port facility called Mare Harbour, and the Royal Navy maintains a presence in the area with a frigate or destroyer in the South Atlantic and a patrol ship permanently close to the islands. In addition, an Ice Patrol Ship, HMS Endurance, is on station close to Antarctica for six months of the year. The warship carries out the South Atlantic Patrol Task mission which "provides a maritime presence to protect the UK's interests in the region". The Type 42 destroyer HMS Edinburgh took over the South Atlantic Patrol Task in October 2006 , replacing HMS Southampton. Prior to Southampton's deployment in August 2005 the role was filled by HMS Cardiff, which was decommissioned on return to the UK. The Falkland Islands Patrol ship was formerly a Castle class vessel. In 2007 HMS Clyde relieved HMS Dumbarton Castle and HMS Leeds Castle. It is planned that she will stay permanently in the South Atlantic until 2012. The Royal Navy also has Swiftsure and Trafalgar class attack submarines that it can deploy to the area, though such deployments are classified. The threat from submarines to hostile ships was demonstrated during the Falklands War when HMS Conqueror sank the Argentine cruiser ARA General Belgrano. The Royal Navy's submarines also carry BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missiles which have a range of 1500 miles and can strike at targets within an enemy country. British Army The British Army maintains a small garrison on the Falkland Islands based at Mount Pleasant. The total deployment is about 500 personnel made up of an roulement infantry company, an engineer squadron, a signals unit (part of the Joint Communications Unit - see below), a logistics group and supporting services. Currently (October 2008) infantry units are provided primarily from the Grenadier Guards. The British Army contributes to the Joint Service Explosive Ordnance Disposal group (see below) in the Falkland Islands, providing 33 Engineer Regiment (EOD) and RLC EOD teams. Royal Air Force RAF Mount Pleasant, built following the surrender of Argentine invasion forces, is capable of accepting trans-Atlantic aircraft such as the Lockheed Tristar. The Tristar was purchased mainly for the UK-Falklands route, until their entry into service of leased 747s and 767s. The RAF's Tornado F3s provide air defence for the islands and surrounding territories. The four aircraft, and the crews that fly them, are rotated with UK based assets. The aircraft are housed in non-hardened shelters, sixteen of which were built for surge operations in times of tension or hostility. In response to recent reassertions of claims by Argentina, the Ministry of Defence has announced that No. 1435 Flight is converting to the Eurofighter Typhoon by the end of 2007 instead of 2009. The VC10 provides air transport and aerial refueling for the fighters. When a fighter is launched it is almost immediately followed by the VC10 as changeable weather conditions might make diversion to another airfield necessary. The Hercules provides resupply missions through the use of air-drops and also carries out maritime patrol. The latter is an important mission to the Falkland Islands government as the Hercules verifies that all fishing vessels are licensed; at £1,000 per licence per season this is an extremely lucrative source of income. The helicopters of No. 1564 Flight (formerly No. 78 Squadron) provide air transport missions. The Sea Kings carry out short and medium range search and rescue missions. The sole remaining Chinook was returned to the UK in October 2006 to be redeployed to Afghanistan. Organisation No. 1435 Flight 4 Tornado F3s No. 1312 Flight 1 Vickers VC-10, 1 Hercules C3 No. 1564 Flight 2 Sea King HAR3s. Joint Service The Joint Communications Unit Falkland Islands (JCUFI) provides the electronic warfare and command and control systems for the Royal Navy, Army and RAF stationed there. It incorporates the Army's signals unit and RAF personnel. Joint Service Explosive Ordnance Disposal in the Falkland Islands consists of 33 Engineer Regiment (EOD), RAF and RLC EOD teams. It is mainly based in Stanley but there is also a detachment at Mount Pleasant. The groups operates the Joint Service Explosive Ordnance Disposal Operations Center. The group destroys munitions from the Falklands War that did not explode at the time and briefs troops, tourists and citizens on the areas which are safe and the minefield marking which have been put in place. http://maic.jmu.edu/JOURNAL/5.2/focus/falklands.htm Augmentation forces The UK maintains a Joint Rapid Reaction Force containing elements of all three services which could be deployed to the islands in the event of receiving intelligence of a specific threat to the islands. Expenditure The estimated Sterling figure (FY04/05) was £365 million which came from the UK defence budget. This equates to a US Dollar figure (FY04/05) of $657 million and as a percent of British GDP (2004) amounts to approximately 0.03%. Commanders The following have served as Commander British Forces Falkland Islands / South Atlantic Islands: Peter de la Billière (1984-85) Air Vice-Marshal Kip Kemball (1986) list incomplete Brigadier David Nicholls (1999) Brigadier Geoff Sheldon (2000) list incomplete Commodore R J Ibbotson (2002) list incomplete Air Commodore Richard Lacey (2004) list incomplete Commodore Moncrieff (2006) Brigadier N R Davies (2007) Air Commodore Gordon Moulds (2008) Sources | Military_of_the_Falkland_Islands |@lemmatized falkland:13 island:18 overseas:1 territory:4 united:1 kingdom:1 rely:1 uk:10 guarantee:1 security:1 south:10 atlantic:9 georgia:1 sandwich:1 fall:1 protection:1 british:10 force:14 falklands:6 also:5 know:2 include:1 commitment:1 army:6 royal:9 air:9 navy:6 head:1 commander:3 cbfsai:1 maintenance:1 token:1 military:1 war:4 allow:1 argentina:2 start:1 conflict:2 easily:1 capture:2 follow:4 reclamation:1 invest:1 heavily:1 defence:6 centrepiece:1 new:1 airfield:2 raf:7 mount:5 pleasant:5 mile:2 west:1 previous:1 base:5 stanley:2 open:1 become:1 fully:1 operational:1 islands:6 maintain:4 part:3 time:3 volunteer:2 fidf:1 previously:1 corp:1 although:1 unit:6 exist:1 reinforcement:1 governor:1 detachment:2 marine:1 play:1 main:1 member:1 spend:1 duration:1 hostility:2 house:2 arrest:1 argentine:4 surrender:2 port:1 facility:1 call:1 mare:1 harbour:1 presence:2 area:3 frigate:1 destroyer:2 patrol:6 ship:4 permanently:2 close:2 addition:1 ice:1 hms:3 endurance:1 station:2 antarctica:1 six:1 month:1 year:1 warship:1 carry:4 task:2 mission:5 provide:8 maritime:2 protect:1 interest:1 region:1 type:1 hm:5 edinburgh:1 take:1 october:3 replace:1 southampton:2 prior:1 deployment:3 august:1 role:1 fill:1 cardiff:1 decommission:1 return:2 formerly:2 castle:3 class:2 vessel:2 clyde:1 relieve:1 dumbarton:1 leeds:1 plan:1 stay:1 swiftsure:1 trafalgar:1 attack:1 submarine:3 deploy:2 though:1 classify:1 threat:2 hostile:1 demonstrate:1 conqueror:1 sink:1 cruiser:1 ara:1 general:1 belgrano:1 bgm:1 tomahawk:1 cruise:1 missile:1 range:2 strike:1 target:1 within:1 enemy:1 country:1 small:1 garrison:1 total:1 personnel:2 make:2 roulement:1 infantry:2 company:1 engineer:3 squadron:2 signal:2 joint:7 communication:2 see:2 logistics:1 group:4 support:1 service:7 currently:1 primarily:1 grenadier:1 guard:1 contributes:1 explosive:3 ordnance:3 disposal:3 regiment:2 eod:4 rlc:2 team:2 build:2 invasion:1 capable:1 accept:1 trans:1 aircraft:3 lockheed:1 tristar:2 purchase:1 mainly:2 route:1 entry:1 lease:1 tornado:2 surround:1 four:1 crew:1 fly:1 rotate:1 asset:1 non:1 harden:1 shelter:1 sixteen:1 surge:1 operation:2 tension:1 response:1 recent:1 reassertion:1 claim:1 ministry:1 announce:1 flight:5 convert:1 eurofighter:1 typhoon:1 end:1 instead:1 transport:2 aerial:1 refueling:1 fighter:2 launch:1 almost:1 immediately:1 changeable:1 weather:1 condition:1 might:1 diversion:1 another:1 necessary:1 hercules:3 resupply:1 use:1 drop:1 latter:1 important:1 government:1 verifies:1 fishing:1 license:1 per:2 licence:1 season:1 extremely:1 lucrative:1 source:2 income:1 helicopter:1 sea:2 king:2 short:1 medium:1 search:1 rescue:1 sole:1 remain:1 chinook:1 redeploy:1 afghanistan:1 organisation:1 vickers:1 vc:1 jcufi:1 electronic:1 warfare:1 command:1 control:1 system:1 incorporate:1 consist:1 operate:1 center:1 destroy:1 munition:1 explode:1 brief:1 troop:1 tourist:1 citizen:1 safe:1 minefield:1 mark:1 put:1 place:1 http:1 maic:1 jmu:1 edu:1 journal:1 focus:1 htm:1 augmentation:1 rapid:1 reaction:1 contain:1 element:1 three:1 could:1 event:1 receive:1 intelligence:1 specific:1 expenditure:1 estimated:1 sterling:1 figure:2 million:2 come:1 budget:1 equate:1 u:1 dollar:1 percent:1 gdp:1 amount:1 approximately:1 serve:1 peter:1 de:1 la:1 billière:1 vice:1 marshal:1 kip:1 kemball:1 list:4 incomplete:4 brigadier:3 david:1 nicholls:1 geoff:1 sheldon:1 commodore:4 r:2 j:1 ibbotson:1 richard:1 lacey:1 moncrieff:1 n:1 davy:1 gordon:1 mould:1 |@bigram mount_pleasant:5 falkland_islands:6 tomahawk_cruise:1 cruise_missile:1 grenadier_guard:1 explosive_ordnance:3 ordnance_disposal:3 eurofighter_typhoon:1 aerial_refueling:1 maritime_patrol:1 |
4,667 | Economy_of_Indonesia | Indonesia has the largest economy in Southeast Asia, and is one of the emerging market economies of the world. It has a market-based economy in which the government plays a significant role by owning more than 164 state-owned enterprises and administers prices on several basic goods, including fuel, rice, and electricity. In the aftermath of the financial and economic crisis that began in mid-1997, the government took custody of a significant portion of private sector assets through acquisition of nonperforming bank loans and corporate assets through the debt restructuring process. History Under the "New Order" GDP per capita grew 545% from 1970 to 1980 as a result of the sudden increase in oil export revenues from 1973 to 1979. However, in the 1980s oil glut, the GDP per capita shrank 20% from 1980 to 1990 and by 13% from 1990 to 2000. http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/economics-business/variable-638.html GDP info During the thirty years of president Suharto's "New Order" government, Indonesia's economy grew from a per capita GDP of $70 to more than $1,000 by 1996. Through prudent monetary and fiscal policies, inflation was held between 5%–10%, the rupiah was stable and predictable, and the government avoided domestic financing of budget deficits. Much of the development budget was financed by concessional foreign aid. In the mid-1980s, the government began eliminating regulatory obstacles to economic activity. The steps were aimed primarily at the trade and finance sectors and were designed to stimulate employment and growth in the non-oil export sector. Annual real GDP growth averaged nearly 7% from 1987–1997, and most analysts recognized Indonesia as a newly industrialized economy and emerging market. High levels of economic growth from 1987–1997 masked a number of structural weaknesses in Indonesia's economy. The legal system was very weak, and there was no effective way to enforce contracts, collect debts, or sue for bankruptcy. Banking practices were very unsophisticated, with collateral-based lending the norm and widespread violation of prudential regulations, including limits on connected lending. Non-tariff barriers, rent-seeking by state-owned enterprises, domestic subsidies, barriers to domestic trade and export restrictions all created economic distortions. East Asian Financial Crisis The East Asian financial crisis that began to affect Indonesia in mid-1997 became an economic and political crisis. Indonesia's initial response was to float the rupiah, raise key domestic interest rates, and tighten fiscal policy. In October 1997, Indonesia and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reached agreement on an economic reform program aimed at macroeconomic stabilization and elimination of some of the country's most damaging economic policies, such as the National Car Program and the clove monopoly, both involving family members of President Suharto. The rupiah failed to stabilize for any significant period of time, however, and President Suharto was forced to resign in May 1998. In August 1998, Indonesia and the IMF agreed on an Extended Fund Facility (EFF) under President B.J Habibie that included significant structural reform targets. President Abdurrahman Wahid took office in October 1999, and Indonesia and the IMF signed another EFF in January 2000. The new program also has a range of economic, structural reform and governance targets. The effects of the financial and economic crisis were severe. In 1998 real GDP contracted by 13.7%. The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 and real GDP growth for the year was 0.3%. Inflation reached 77% in 1998 but slowed to 2% in 1999. The rupiah, which had been in the Rp 2,400/USD1 range in 1997 reached Rp 17,000/USD1 at the height of the 1998 violence, returned to the Rp 6,500–8,000/USD1 range in late 1998. It has traded in the Rp 6,500–9,000/USD1 range ever since, with significant volatility. Although a severe drought in 1997–1998 forced Indonesia to import record amounts of rice, overall imports dropped precipitously in the early stage of the crisis in response to the unfavorable exchange rate, reduced domestic demand, and absence of new investment. Formal sector employment contracted significantly. Post Suharto In late 2005 Indonesia faced a 'mini-crisis' due to international oil prices rises and imports. The currency reached Rp 12,000/USD1 before stabilizing. The government was forced to cut its massive fuel subsidies, which were planned to cost $14 billion for 2005, in October. This led to a more than doubling in the price of consumer fuels, resulting in double-digit inflation. The situation has stabilized, but the economy continues to struggle with inflation at 17% in 2005. To mitigate consequent economic hardship, the government has offered one-time subsidies to eligible citizens, effectively becoming Indonesia's first significant government-funded social security benefit scheme. For 2006, Indonesia's economic outlook was more positive. Economic growth accelerated to 5.1% in 2004 and reached 5.6% in 2005. Real per capita income has reached fiscal year 1996/1997 levels. Growth was driven primarily by domestic consumption, which accounts for roughly three-fourths of Indonesia's gross domestic product. The Jakarta Stock Exchange was the best performing market in Asia in 2004 up by 42%. Problems that continue to put a drag on growth include low foreign investment levels, bureaucratic red tape, and very widespread corruption which causes 51.43 trillion Rupiah or 5.6573 billion US Dollar or approximately 1.4% of GDP to be lost on a yearly basis. However, there is very strong optimism with the conclusion of peaceful elections during the year 2004 and the election of the reformist president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. Global Financial Crisis Indonesia has been less affected by the crisis compared to many other Asian nations. The GDP of Indonesia grew 4.4% in the three months to March 31, 2009 from a year earlier. Investment Since the late 1980s, Indonesia has made significant changes to its regulatory framework to encourage economic growth. This growth was financed largely from private investment, both foreign and domestic. U.S. investors dominated the oil and gas sector and undertook some of Indonesia's largest mining projects. In addition, the presence of US banks, manufacturers, and service providers expanded, especially after the industrial and financial sector reforms of the 1980s. Other major foreign investors included Japan, the United Kingdom, Singapore, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea. The economic crisis made continued private financing imperative but problematic. New foreign investment approvals fell by almost two-thirds between 1997 and 1999. The crisis further highlighted areas where additional reform was needed. Frequently cited areas for improving the investment climate were establishment of a functioning legal and judicial system, adherence to competitive processes, and adoption of internationally acceptable accounting and disclosure standards. Despite improvements in the laws in recent years, Indonesia's intellectual property rights regime remains weak; lack of effective enforcement is a major concern. Under Suharto, Indonesia had moved toward private provision of public infrastructure, including electric power, toll roads, and telecommunications. The financial crisis brought to light serious weaknesses in the process of dispute resolution, however, particularly in the area of private infrastructure projects. Although Indonesia continued to have the advantages of a large labor force, abundant natural resources and modern infrastructure, private investment in new projects largely ceased during the crisis. The stock market capitalization of listed companies in Indonesia was valued at $81,428 million in 2005 by the World Bank. Data - Finance Even though the Indonesian Investment Coordinating Board (www.bkpm.go.id) likes to project the impression that foreign direct investment is welcome in the country, many of the country's laws and regulations are tilted against foreign investors. For example, potential foreign investors and their executive staff cannot maintain own bank accounts in Indonesia, unless they are tax-paying local residents (paying tax in Indonesia for their worldwide income). Economic relations with the United States U.S. exports to Indonesia in 1999 totaled $2.0 billion, down significantly from $4.5 billion in 1997. The main exports were construction equipment, machinery, aviation parts, chemicals, and agricultural products. U.S. imports from Indonesia in 1999 totaled $9.5 billion and consisted primarily of clothing, machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum, natural rubber, and footwear. Economic assistance to Indonesia is coordinated through the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI), formed in 1989. It includes 19 donor countries and 13 international organizations that meet annually to coordinate donor assistance. Indonesian exports in 2006 The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has provided development assistance to Indonesia since 1950. Initial assistance focused on the most urgent needs of the new republic, including food aid, infrastructure rehabilitation, health care, and training. Through the 1970s, a time of great economic growth in Indonesia, USAID played a major role in helping the country achieve self-sufficiency in rice production and in reducing the birth rate. USAID's current program aims to support Indonesia as it recovers from the financial crisis by providing food aid, employment generating activities, and maintaining critical public health services. USAID is also providing technical advisers to help the Indonesian Government implement economic reforms and fiscal decentralization and is supporting democratization and civil society development activities through non-governmental organizations. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Indonesia at market prices http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcselm.cfm?G=2001 estimated by the IMF with figures in millions of rupiah. Year GDP USD exchange(rupiah) Inflation index(2000=100)</tr> 1980 60,143,191 626.98 12</tr> 1985 112,969,792 1,110.58 20</tr> 1990 233,013,290 1,842.80 29</tr> 1995 502,249,558 2,248.60 44</tr> 2000 1,389,769,700 8,396.33 100</tr> 2005 2,678,664,096 9,705.16 155</tr> For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US dollar is exchanged at 3,094.57 rupiah only. Average wages in 2007 were approximately $9-10 per day. Structure of the economy Agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery Statistics Indonesia provisionally valued food crop yields at 213,529,700 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 35% growth since 2003. Gross Domestics Product Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued estate crop yields at 62,690,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 34% growth since 2003. Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued livestock and its derivative products at 51,276,400 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 37% growth since 2003. Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued forestry at 30,017,000 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 63% growth since 2003. Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued fishery at 72,979,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 60% growth since 2003. Mining and quarrying Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the oil and gas mining industry at 187,893,200 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 97% growth since 2003. Indonesia was the only Asian member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) outside of the Middle East until 2008 and is currently a net oil importer. In early , Indonesian crude oil and condensate output was 1.07 million barrels per day. This is a substantial decline from the 1990s, due primarily to aging oil fields and a lack of investment in oil production equipment. In 1999, Crude and condensate output averaged 1.5 million barrels (240,000 m³) per day, and in the 1998 calendar year the oil and gas sector, including refining, contributed approximately 9% to GDP. This decline in production since the 1990s has been accompanied by a substantial increase in domestic consumption, about 5.4% per year, leading to an expected US$1.2 billion cost for importing oil in 2005. The state owns all petroleum and mineral rights. Foreign firms participate through production-sharing and work contracts. Oil and gas contractors are required to finance all exploration, production, and development costs in their contract areas; they are entitled to recover operating, exploration, and development costs out of the oil and gas produced. Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment. As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil and had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing US$ 7 billion in 2004 . The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages . In order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens. The government has stated the cuts in subsidies are aimed at reducing the budget deficit to 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) this year, down from around 1.6% last year. Non-oil and gas mining Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the non-oil and gas mining industry at 130,861,000 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 145% growth since 2003. Indonesia is the world's largest tin market. Although mineral production traditionally centered on bauxite, silver, and tin, Indonesia is expanding its copper, nickel, gold, and coal output for export markets. In mid-1993, the Department of Mines and Energy reopened the coal sector to foreign investment, with the result that the leading Indonesian coal producer now is a joint venture between UK firms - BP and Rio Tinto. Total coal production reached 74 million metric tons in 1999, including exports of 55 million tons. Two US firms operate three copper/gold mines in Indonesia, with a Canadian and British firm holding significant other investments in nickel and gold, respectively. In 1998, the value of Indonesian gold production was $1 billion and copper, $843 million. Receipts from gold, copper, and coal comprised 84% of the $3 billion. Earned in 1998 by the mineral mining sector. Quarrying Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the quarrying industry at 35,872,700 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 87% growth since 2003. Manufacturing Oil and gas manufacturing Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the petroleum refinery industry at 119,833,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 139% growth since 2003 while the liquefied natural gas industry was valued at 53,791,300 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 94% growth since 2003. Non-oil and gas manufacturing Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the food, beverage and tobacco industry at 213,173,300 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 38% growth since 2003. Textile, leather products and footwear industry was valued at 90,871,700 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 34% growth since 2003. Wood and wood products industry was valued at 44,410,400 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 48% growth since 2003. Paper and printing products industry was valued at 39,968,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 43% growth since 2003. Fertilizers, chemicals and rubber products industry was valued at 95,765,000 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 68% growth since 2003. Cement and non-metallic quarry products industry was valued at 29,015,100 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 50% growth since 2003. Iron, steel and other basic metals industry was valued at 20,492,200 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 52% growth since 2003. Transport equipment, machinery and apparatus industry was valued at 221,891,800 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 87% growth since 2003. Other manufacturing industries were valued at 7,148,300 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 67% growth since 2003. Electricity, gas and water supply Electricity Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the electricity industry at 21,247,200 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 51% growth since 2003. The vast majority of production is with conventional fossil units, but hydroelectric and other renewables make a contribution. Total electric production in 2005 was 100 TWh. Indonesia has expressed interest recently in possible use of nuclear plants. City gas Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the city gas industry at 5,036,100 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 119% growth since 2003. Water supply Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the water supply industry at 4,115,200 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 43% growth since 2003. Construction Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the construction industry at 249,127,800 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 98% growth since 2003. Trade, hotel and restaurant Wholesale and retail trade Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the wholesale and retail trades at 386,872,500 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 48% growth since 2003. Hotels Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the hotel industry at 17,248,800 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 52% growth since 2003. Restaurants Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the restaurant industry at 92,214,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 45% growth since 2003. Transportation and communication Transportation Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued railway transport at 1,345,000 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 16% growth since 2003. Road transport was valued at 81,449,500 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 106% growth since 2003. Sea transport was valued at 16,120,700 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 34% growth since 2003. River, lake and ferry transport was valued at 4,510,700 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 53% growth since 2003. Air transport was valued at 14,685,200 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 96% growth since 2003. Other services allied to transport industry were valued at 24,868,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 49% growth since 2003. Communication Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the communication industry at 87,941,600 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 123% growth since 2003. Finance, real estate and business services Banking Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the banking industry at 97,708,300 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 31% growth since 2003. Non-bank finance institutions Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the non-bank finance industry at 26,682,500 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 87% growth since 2003. Services allied to finance Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued other services allied to finance industry at 2,006,300 million rupiahs in 2006thus registering over 82% growth since 2003. Real estate Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the real estate industry at 97,764,400 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 72% growth since 2003. Business services Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued other business support services at 47,381,600 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 71% growth since 2003. Other services General government Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued government administration and defence services at 103,508,800 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 63% growth since 2003. Other government services were valued at 64,290,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 67% growth since 2003. Private Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the social and community services at 60,319,400 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 92% growth since 2003. Amusement and recreational services were valued at 10,018,800 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 46% growth since 2003. Personal and household services were valued at 100,247,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 69% growth since 2003. Public expenditure Since the Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s, which brought down the Suharto regime in its wake in May 1998, Indonesia’s public finances have undergone a major transformation. The financial crisis itself caused a huge economic contraction and a commensurate decline in public spending. Not surprisingly, debt and subsidies increased dramatically, while development spending was sharply curtailed. Now, one decade later, Indonesia has moved out of crisis and into a situation in which the country once again has sufficient financial resources to address its development needs. This change has come about as a result of prudent macroeconomic policies, the most important of which has been very low budget deficits. Also, the way in which the government spends money has been transformed by the 2001 ‘big bang’ decentralization, which has resulted in over one-third of all government spending being transferred to sub-national governments by 2006. Equally important, in 2005, spiraling international oil prices caused Indonesia’s domestic fuel subsidies to run out of control, threatening the country’s hard won macroeconomic stability. Despite the political risks of major price hikes in fuel driving more general inflation, the government took the brave decision to slash fuel subsidies. This decision freed up an extra US$10 billion for government spending on development programs. Meanwhile, by 2006 an additional US$5 billion had become available thanks to a combination of increased revenues boosted by steady growth of the overall economy, and declining debt service payments, a hangover from the economic crisis. This meant that in 2006 the government had an extra US$15 billion to spend on development programs. The country has not seen “fiscal space” of such magnitude since the revenue windfall experienced during the oil boom of the mid-1970s. However, an important difference is that the 1970s oil revenue windfall was just that: a lucky and unforeseen financial boon. In contrast, the current fiscal space has been achieved as a direct result of sound and carefully thought through government policy decisions. However, while Indonesia has made tremendous progress in freeing up financial resources for its development needs, and this situation is set to continue in the newt few years, subsidies continue to place a heavy burden on the government’s budget. The 2005 reductions on subsidies notwithstanding, total subsidies still accounted for some US$10 billion in government spending in 2006, or a significant 15 percent of the total budget. Thanks to the decision of the Habibie government (May 1998 to August 2001) to decentralize power across the country in 2001, increasingly high shares of government spending are being channeled through sub-national governments. As a result, provincial and district governments in Indonesia now spend 37 percent of total public funds, which represents a level of fiscal decentralization that is even higher than the OECD average. Given the level of decentralization that has occurred in Indonesia and the fiscal space now available, the Indonesian government has a unique opportunity to revamp the country’s neglected public services. If carefully managed, this could allow the lagging regions of eastern Indonesian to catch up with other more affluent areas of the country in terms of social indicators. It could also enable Indonesian to focus on the next generation of reforms, namely improving quality of public services and targeted infrastructure provision. In effect, the correct allocation of public funds and the careful management of those funds once they have been allocated have become the main issues for public spending in Indonesia going forward. For example, while education spending has now reached 17.2 percent of total public spending ─ the highest share of any sector and a share of 3.9 percent of GDP in 2006, compared with only 2.0 percent of GDP in 2001 ─ in contrast total public health spending remains below 1.0 percent of GDP. Meanwhile, public infrastructure investment has still not fully recovered from its post-crisis lows and remains at only 3.4 percent of GDP. One other area of concern is that the current level of expenditure on administration is excessively high. Standing at 15 percent in 2006, this suggests a significant waste of public resources. See also G-20 major economies G20 developing nations Next Eleven Taxation in Indonesia WTO References External links Positive market perception of Indonesian stock market (2007) | Economy_of_Indonesia |@lemmatized indonesia:48 large:4 economy:11 southeast:1 asia:2 one:6 emerge:2 market:10 world:3 base:2 government:29 play:2 significant:11 role:2 state:5 enterprise:2 administers:1 price:9 several:2 basic:2 good:1 include:10 fuel:9 rice:3 electricity:4 aftermath:1 financial:13 economic:22 crisis:19 begin:3 mid:6 take:3 custody:1 portion:1 private:7 sector:10 asset:2 acquisition:1 nonperforming:1 bank:6 loan:1 corporate:1 debt:4 restructuring:1 process:3 history:1 new:8 order:3 gdp:16 per:8 caput:3 grow:3 result:8 sudden:1 increase:3 oil:24 export:9 revenue:4 however:6 glut:1 shrink:1 http:2 earthtrends:1 wri:1 org:2 text:1 economics:1 business:4 variable:1 html:1 info:1 thirty:1 year:13 president:7 suharto:6 prudent:2 monetary:2 fiscal:8 policy:5 inflation:6 hold:2 rupiah:51 stable:1 predictable:1 avoid:1 domestic:13 financing:2 budget:6 deficit:3 much:1 development:11 finance:11 concessional:1 foreign:10 aid:3 eliminate:1 regulatory:2 obstacle:1 activity:3 step:1 aim:4 primarily:4 trade:6 design:1 stimulate:1 employment:3 growth:54 non:9 annual:1 real:7 average:4 nearly:1 analyst:1 recognize:1 newly:1 industrialize:1 high:5 level:6 mask:1 number:1 structural:3 weakness:2 legal:2 system:2 weak:2 effective:2 way:2 enforce:1 contract:5 collect:1 sue:1 bankruptcy:1 banking:3 practice:1 unsophisticated:1 collateral:1 lend:1 norm:1 widespread:2 violation:1 prudential:1 regulation:2 limit:1 connected:1 lending:1 tariff:1 barrier:2 rent:1 seek:1 owned:1 subsidy:12 restriction:1 create:1 distortion:1 east:3 asian:5 affect:2 become:4 political:2 initial:2 response:2 float:1 raise:1 key:1 interest:2 rate:3 tighten:1 october:3 international:5 fund:6 imf:5 reach:9 agreement:1 reform:7 program:6 macroeconomic:3 stabilization:1 elimination:1 country:12 damaging:1 national:3 car:1 clove:1 monopoly:1 involve:1 family:1 member:2 fail:1 stabilize:3 period:1 time:4 force:4 resign:1 may:3 august:2 agree:1 extended:1 facility:1 eff:2 b:1 j:1 habibie:2 target:2 abdurrahman:1 wahid:1 office:1 sign:1 another:1 january:1 also:5 range:4 governance:1 effect:2 severe:2 low:5 point:1 slow:1 rp:5 height:1 violence:1 return:1 late:4 ever:1 since:49 volatility:1 although:3 drought:1 import:5 record:1 amount:1 overall:2 drop:1 precipitously:1 early:2 stage:2 unfavorable:1 exchange:4 reduce:3 demand:1 absence:1 investment:14 formal:1 significantly:3 post:2 face:1 mini:1 due:2 rise:1 currency:1 cut:2 massive:1 plan:1 cost:5 billion:13 lead:3 double:2 consumer:1 digit:1 situation:3 continue:5 struggle:1 mitigate:1 consequent:1 hardship:2 offer:2 eligible:1 citizen:2 effectively:1 first:1 social:3 security:1 benefit:1 scheme:1 outlook:1 positive:2 accelerate:1 capita:1 income:2 drive:1 consumption:2 account:3 roughly:1 three:3 fourth:1 gross:4 product:11 jakarta:1 stock:3 best:1 perform:1 problem:1 put:1 drag:1 bureaucratic:1 red:1 tape:1 corruption:1 cause:3 trillion:1 u:14 dollar:2 approximately:3 lose:1 yearly:1 basis:1 strong:1 optimism:1 conclusion:1 peaceful:1 election:2 reformist:1 susilo:1 bambang:1 yudhoyono:1 global:1 less:1 compare:2 many:2 nation:2 month:1 march:1 earlier:1 make:4 change:2 framework:1 encourage:1 largely:2 investor:4 dominate:1 gas:13 undertake:1 mining:6 project:4 addition:1 presence:1 manufacturer:1 service:17 provider:1 expand:2 especially:1 industrial:1 major:6 japan:1 united:2 kingdom:1 singapore:1 netherlands:1 hong:1 kong:1 taiwan:1 south:1 korea:1 continued:1 imperative:1 problematic:1 approval:1 fell:1 almost:1 two:2 third:2 far:1 highlight:1 area:6 additional:2 need:4 frequently:1 cite:1 improve:2 climate:1 establishment:1 functioning:1 judicial:1 adherence:1 competitive:1 adoption:1 internationally:1 acceptable:1 accounting:1 disclosure:1 standard:1 despite:3 improvement:1 law:2 recent:1 intellectual:1 property:1 right:2 regime:2 remain:3 lack:3 enforcement:1 concern:2 move:2 toward:1 provision:2 public:14 infrastructure:6 electric:2 power:3 toll:1 road:2 telecommunication:1 bring:2 light:1 serious:1 dispute:1 resolution:1 particularly:1 advantage:1 labor:1 abundant:1 natural:3 resource:4 modern:1 cease:1 capitalization:1 listed:1 company:1 value:45 million:50 data:2 even:2 though:1 indonesian:10 coordinate:3 board:1 www:2 bkpm:1 go:2 id:1 like:1 impression:1 direct:2 welcome:1 tilt:1 example:2 potential:1 executive:1 staff:1 cannot:1 maintain:2 unless:1 tax:2 pay:2 local:1 resident:1 worldwide:1 relation:1 total:9 main:2 construction:3 equipment:5 machinery:3 aviation:1 part:1 chemical:2 agricultural:1 consist:1 clothing:1 transportation:3 petroleum:4 rubber:2 footwear:2 assistance:4 consultative:1 group:1 cgi:1 form:1 donor:2 organization:3 meet:1 annually:1 agency:1 usaid:4 provide:3 focus:2 urgent:1 republic:1 food:4 rehabilitation:1 health:3 care:1 training:1 great:1 help:2 achieve:2 self:1 sufficiency:1 production:11 birth:1 current:4 support:3 recover:3 generating:1 critical:1 technical:1 adviser:1 implement:1 decentralization:4 democratization:1 civil:1 society:1 governmental:1 macro:1 trend:2 chart:1 external:2 pub:1 ft:1 weo:1 dbcselm:1 cfm:1 g:2 estimate:1 figure:1 usd:1 index:1 tr:7 purchase:1 parity:1 comparison:1 wage:1 day:3 structure:1 agriculture:1 livestock:2 forestry:2 fishery:2 statistic:1 provisionally:26 crop:2 yield:2 thus:42 register:42 badan:25 pusat:25 statistik:25 estate:4 derivative:1 quarry:4 industry:26 opec:1 outside:1 middle:1 currently:1 net:2 importer:2 crude:3 condensate:2 output:3 barrel:2 substantial:2 decline:5 age:2 field:2 calendar:1 refining:1 contribute:1 accompany:1 expect:1 mineral:3 firm:4 participate:1 sharing:1 work:1 contractor:1 require:1 exploration:2 entitle:1 operating:1 produce:1 owe:1 exporter:1 previously:1 subsidize:1 keep:1 mandate:1 reduction:2 alleviate:1 qualify:1 around:1 last:1 tin:2 traditionally:1 center:1 bauxite:1 silver:1 copper:4 nickel:2 gold:5 coal:5 department:1 mine:2 energy:1 reopen:1 producer:1 joint:1 venture:1 uk:1 bp:1 rio:1 tinto:1 metric:1 ton:2 operate:1 canadian:1 british:1 respectively:1 receipt:1 comprise:1 earn:1 manufacture:2 manufacturing:2 refinery:1 liquefied:1 beverage:1 tobacco:1 textile:1 leather:1 wood:2 paper:1 printing:1 fertilizer:1 cement:1 metallic:1 iron:1 steel:1 metal:1 transport:7 apparatus:1 water:3 supply:3 vast:1 majority:1 conventional:1 fossil:1 unit:1 hydroelectric:1 renewables:1 contribution:1 twh:1 express:1 recently:1 possible:1 use:1 nuclear:1 plant:1 city:2 hotel:3 restaurant:3 wholesale:2 retail:2 communication:3 railway:1 sea:1 river:1 lake:1 ferry:1 air:1 ally:3 institution:1 registering:1 general:2 administration:2 defence:1 community:1 amusement:1 recreational:1 personal:1 household:1 expenditure:2 wake:1 undergo:1 transformation:1 huge:1 contraction:1 commensurate:1 spending:9 surprisingly:1 dramatically:1 sharply:1 curtail:1 decade:1 later:1 sufficient:1 address:1 come:1 important:3 spend:4 money:1 transform:1 big:1 bang:1 transfer:1 sub:2 equally:1 spiral:1 run:1 control:1 threaten:1 hard:1 win:1 stability:1 risk:1 hike:1 driving:1 brave:1 decision:4 slash:1 free:2 extra:2 meanwhile:2 available:2 thanks:2 combination:1 increased:1 boost:1 steady:1 payment:1 hangover:1 meant:1 see:2 space:3 magnitude:1 windfall:2 experience:1 boom:1 difference:1 lucky:1 unforeseen:1 boon:1 contrast:2 sound:1 carefully:2 think:1 tremendous:1 progress:1 set:1 newt:1 place:1 heavy:1 burden:1 notwithstanding:1 still:2 percent:8 decentralize:1 across:1 increasingly:1 share:3 channel:1 provincial:1 district:1 represent:1 oecd:1 give:1 occur:1 unique:1 opportunity:1 revamp:1 neglect:1 manage:1 could:2 allow:1 lagging:1 region:1 eastern:1 catch:1 affluent:1 term:1 indicator:1 enable:1 next:2 generation:1 namely:1 quality:1 targeted:1 correct:1 allocation:1 careful:1 management:1 allocate:1 issue:1 forward:1 education:1 fully:1 excessively:1 stand:1 suggest:1 waste:1 develop:1 eleven:1 taxation:1 wto:1 reference:1 link:1 perception:1 |@bigram southeast_asia:1 per_caput:3 wri_org:1 caput_gdp:1 monetary_fiscal:1 budget_deficit:3 tariff_barrier:1 owned_enterprise:1 monetary_fund:1 fund_imf:1 macroeconomic_stabilization:1 abdurrahman_wahid:1 severe_drought:1 drop_precipitously:1 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 gross_domestic:4 stock_exchange:1 hong_kong:1 toll_road:1 market_capitalization:1 health_care:1 self_sufficiency:1 http_www:1 ft_weo:1 million_rupiah:44 tr_tr:6 forestry_fishery:1 provisionally_value:26 rupiah_thus:42 badan_pusat:25 pusat_statistik:25 statistik_provisionally:25 crude_oil:2 net_importer:1 copper_nickel:1 joint_venture:1 rio_tinto:1 metric_ton:1 petroleum_refinery:1 vast_majority:1 production_twh:1 wholesale_retail:2 real_estate:3 big_bang:1 macroeconomic_stability:1 external_link:1 |
4,668 | Complete_metric_space | In mathematical analysis, a metric space M is said to be complete (or Cauchy) if every Cauchy sequence of points in M has a limit that is also in M or alternatively if every Cauchy sequence in M converges in M. Intuitively, a space is complete if there are no "points missing" from it (inside or at the boundary). For instance, the set of rational numbers is not complete, because is "missing" from it, even though one can construct a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers that converges to it. (See the examples below.) It is always possible to "fill all the holes", leading to the completion of a given space, as will be explained below. Examples The space Q of rational numbers, with the standard metric given by the absolute value, is not complete. Consider for instance the sequence defined by x1 := 1 and xn+1 := xn/2 + 1/xn. This is a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers, but it does not converge towards any rational limit: Such a limit x of the sequence would have the property that x2 = 2, but no rational numbers have that property. But considered as a sequence of real numbers R it converges towards the irrational number , the square root of two. The open interval (0,1), again with the absolute value metric, is not complete either. The sequence (1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, ...) is Cauchy, but does not have a limit in the space. However the closed interval [0,1] is complete; the sequence above has the limit 0 in this interval. The space R of real numbers and the space C of complex numbers (with the metric given by the absolute value) are complete, and so is Euclidean space Rn. In contrast, infinite-dimensional normed vector spaces may or may not be complete; those which are, are the Banach spaces. The space C[a,b] of continuous real-valued functions on a closed and bounded interval is a Banach space, and so a complete metric space, with respect to the supremum norm. However, the supremum norm does not give a norm on the space C(a,b) of continuous functions on (a,b), for it may contain unbounded functions. Instead, with the topology of compact convergence, C(a,b) can be given the structure of a Fréchet space: a locally convex topological vector spaces whose topology can be induced by a complete translation-invariant metric. The space Qp of p-adic numbers is complete for any prime number p. This space completes Q with the p-adic metric in the same way that R completes Q with the usual metric. If S is an arbitrary set, then the set SN of all sequences in S becomes a complete metric space if we define the distance between the sequences (xn) and (yn) to be 1/N, where N is the smallest index for which xN is distinct from yN, or 0 if there is no such index. This space is homeomorphic to the product of a countable number of copies of the discrete space S. Some theorems A metric space X is complete if and only if every decreasing sequence of non-empty closed subsets of X, with diameters tending to 0, has a non-empty intersection: if Fn is closed and non-empty, for every n, and diam(Fn) → 0, then there is a point x ∈ X common to all sets Fn. Every compact metric space is complete. In fact, a metric space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded. This is a generalization of the Heine-Borel Theorem, which states that any closed and bounded subspace S of Rn is compact and therefore complete. Introduction to Metric and Topological Spaces, Ian Stewart, ISBN 978-0-19-853161-6 A closed subspace of a complete space is complete. Conversely, a complete subset of a metric space is closed. . If X is a set and M is a complete metric space, then the set B(X, M) of all bounded functions ƒ from X to M is a complete metric space. Here we define the distance in B(X, M) in terms of the distance in M as If X is a topological space and M is a complete metric space, then the set Cb(X, M) consisting of all continuous bounded functions ƒ from X to M is a closed subspace of B(X, M) and hence also complete. The Baire category theorem says that every complete metric space is a Baire space. That is, the union of countably many nowhere dense subsets of the space has empty interior. The Banach fixed point theorem states that a contraction mapping on a complete metric space admits a fixed point. Since a typical proof of it relies on the fixed point theorem, the inverse function theorem is usually proved on complete metric spaces such as Banach spaces. The expansion constant of a metric space is the infimum of all constants such that whenever the family intersects pairwise, the intersection is nonempty. A metric space is complete if and only if its expansion constant is . B. Grünbaum, Some applications of expansion constants. Pacific J. Math. Volume 10, Number 1 (1960), 193-201. Completion For any metric space M, one can construct a complete metric space M''' (which is also denoted as ), which contains M as a dense subspace. It has the following universal property: if N is any complete metric space and f is any uniformly continuous function from M to N, then there exists a unique uniformly continuous function f' from M' to N which extends f. The space M is determined up to isometry by this property, and is called the completion of M. The completion of M can be constructed as a set of equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences in M. For any two Cauchy sequences (xn)n and (yn)n in M, we may define their distance as d(x,y) = limn d(xn,yn). (This limit exists because the real numbers are complete.) This is only a pseudometric, not yet a metric, since two different Cauchy sequences may have the distance 0. But "having distance 0" is an equivalence relation on the set of all Cauchy sequences, and the set of equivalence classes is a metric space, the completion of M. The original space is embedded in this space via the identification of an element x of M with the equivalence class of sequences converging to x (i.e. the equivalence class containing the sequence with constant value x). This defines an isometry onto a dense subspace, as required. Notice, however, that this construction makes explicit use of the completeness of the real numbers, so completion of the rational numbers needs a slightly different treatment. Cantor's construction of the real numbers is similar to the above construction; the real numbers are the completion of the rational numbers using the ordinary absolute value to measure distances. The additional subtlety to contend with is that it is not logically permissible to use the completeness of the real numbers in their own construction. Nevertheless, equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences are defined as above, and the set of equivalence classes is easily shown to be a field which has the rational numbers as a subfield. This field is complete, admits a natural total ordering, and is the unique totally ordered complete field (up to isomorphism). It is defined to be the field of real numbers (see also Construction of the real numbers for more details). One way to visualize this identification with the real numbers as usually viewed is that the equivalence class consisting of those Cauchy sequences of rational numbers that "ought" to have a given real limit is identified with that real number. The truncations of the decimal expansion give just one choice of Cauchy sequence in the relevant equivalence class. For a prime p, the p-adic numbers arise by completing the rational numbers with respect to a different metric. If the earlier completion procedure is applied to a normed vector space, the result is a Banach space containing the original space as a dense subspace, and if it is applied to an inner product space, the result is a Hilbert space containing the original space as a dense subspace. Topologically complete spaces Note that completeness is a property of the metric and not of the topology, meaning that a complete metric space can be homeomorphic to a non-complete one. An example is given by the real numbers, which are complete but homeomorphic to the open interval (0,1), which is not complete. Another example is given by the irrational numbers, which are not complete as a subspace of the real numbers but are homeomorphic to NN (a special case of an example in Examples above). In topology one considers topologically complete (or completely metrizable) spaces', spaces for which there exists at least one complete metric inducing the given topology. Completely metrizable spaces can be characterized as those spaces which can be written as an intersection of countably many open subsets of some complete metric space. Since the conclusion of the Baire category theorem is purely topological, it applies to these spaces as well. A topological space homeomorphic to a separable complete metric space is called a Polish space. Alternatives and generalizations Since Cauchy sequences can also be defined in general topological groups, an alternative to relying on a metric structure for defining completeness and constructing the completion of a space is to use a group structure. This is most often seen in the context of topological vector spaces, but requires only the existence of a continuous "subtraction" operation. In this setting, the distance between two points and is gauged not by a real number via the metric in the comparison , but by an open neighbourhood of via subtraction in the comparison . A common generalisation of these definitions can be found in the context of a uniform space, where an entourage is a set of all pairs of points that are at no more than a particular "distance" from each other, and the uniform structure is the given collection of entourages for the space. It is also possible to replace Cauchy sequences in the definition of completeness by Cauchy nets or Cauchy filters. If every Cauchy net (or equivalently every Cauchy filter) has a limit in X, then X is called complete. One can furthermore construct a completion for an arbitrary uniform space similar to the completion of metric spaces. The most general situation in which Cauchy nets apply is Cauchy spaces; these too have a notion of completeness and completion just like uniform spaces. A topological space may be completely uniformisable without being completely metrisable; it is then still not topologically complete. See also Knaster–Tarski theorem Completion (ring theory) References Kreyszig, Erwin, Introductory functional analysis with applications'' (Wiley, New York, 1978). ISBN 0-471-03729-X Lang, Serge, "Real and Functional Analysis" ISBN 0-387-94001-4 | Complete_metric_space |@lemmatized mathematical:1 analysis:3 metric:36 space:72 say:2 complete:46 cauchy:21 every:8 sequence:23 point:8 limit:8 also:7 alternatively:1 converges:1 intuitively:1 miss:2 inside:1 boundary:1 instance:2 set:12 rational:11 number:32 even:1 though:1 one:8 construct:5 converge:4 see:4 example:5 always:1 possible:2 fill:1 hole:1 lead:1 completion:13 give:11 explain:1 examples:1 q:3 standard:1 absolute:4 value:6 consider:2 define:9 xn:7 towards:2 x:20 would:1 property:5 real:17 r:3 irrational:2 square:1 root:1 two:4 open:4 interval:5 either:1 however:3 closed:5 c:4 complex:1 euclidean:1 rn:2 contrast:1 infinite:1 dimensional:1 normed:2 vector:4 may:6 banach:5 b:8 continuous:6 function:8 bounded:1 respect:2 supremum:2 norm:3 contain:5 unbounded:1 instead:1 topology:5 compact:4 convergence:1 structure:4 fréchet:1 locally:1 convex:1 topological:8 whose:1 induce:2 translation:1 invariant:1 qp:1 p:5 adic:3 prime:2 way:2 completes:1 usual:1 arbitrary:2 sn:1 becomes:1 distance:9 yn:4 n:8 small:1 index:2 distinct:1 homeomorphic:5 product:2 countable:1 copy:1 discrete:1 theorems:1 decrease:1 non:4 empty:4 close:3 subset:4 diameter:1 tend:1 intersection:3 fn:3 diam:1 common:2 fact:1 totally:2 bound:4 generalization:2 heine:1 borel:1 theorem:7 state:2 subspace:8 therefore:1 introduction:1 ian:1 stewart:1 isbn:3 conversely:1 ƒ:2 term:1 cb:1 consist:1 hence:1 baire:3 category:2 union:1 countably:2 many:2 nowhere:1 dense:5 interior:1 fix:1 contraction:1 mapping:1 admit:2 fixed:2 since:4 typical:1 proof:1 rely:2 inverse:1 usually:2 prove:1 expansion:4 constant:5 infimum:1 whenever:1 family:1 intersect:1 pairwise:1 nonempty:1 grünbaum:1 application:2 pacific:1 j:1 math:1 volume:1 denote:1 following:1 universal:1 f:3 uniformly:2 exist:3 unique:2 extend:1 determine:1 isometry:2 call:3 equivalence:9 class:8 limn:1 pseudometric:1 yet:1 different:3 relation:1 original:3 embed:1 via:3 identification:2 element:1 e:1 onto:1 require:2 notice:1 construction:5 make:1 explicit:1 use:4 completeness:6 need:1 slightly:1 treatment:1 cantor:1 similar:2 ordinary:1 measure:1 additional:1 subtlety:1 contend:1 logically:1 permissible:1 nevertheless:1 easily:1 show:1 field:4 subfield:1 natural:1 total:1 ordering:1 ordered:1 isomorphism:1 detail:1 visualize:1 view:1 consisting:1 ought:1 identify:1 truncation:1 decimal:1 choice:1 relevant:1 arise:1 early:1 procedure:1 apply:4 result:2 inner:1 hilbert:1 topologically:3 note:1 mean:1 another:1 nn:1 special:1 case:1 considers:1 completely:4 metrizable:2 least:1 characterize:1 write:1 conclusion:1 purely:1 well:1 separable:1 polish:1 alternative:2 general:2 group:2 often:1 context:2 existence:1 subtraction:2 operation:1 setting:1 gauge:1 comparison:2 neighbourhood:1 generalisation:1 definition:2 find:1 uniform:4 entourage:2 pair:1 particular:1 collection:1 replace:1 net:3 filter:2 equivalently:1 furthermore:1 situation:1 notion:1 like:1 uniformisable:1 without:1 metrisable:1 still:1 knaster:1 tarski:1 ring:1 theory:1 reference:1 kreyszig:1 erwin:1 introductory:1 functional:2 wiley:1 new:1 york:1 lang:1 serge:1 |@bigram cauchy_sequence:13 xn_xn:2 closed_interval:1 infinite_dimensional:1 normed_vector:2 banach_space:4 supremum_norm:2 fréchet_space:1 locally_convex:1 xn_yn:2 heine_borel:1 borel_theorem:1 topological_space:4 baire_category:2 nowhere_dense:1 contraction_mapping:1 dense_subspace:4 uniformly_continuous:2 equivalence_relation:1 totally_ordered:1 metrizable_space:2 cauchy_filter:2 |
4,669 | Popular_music | Justice in concert (2007). Popular music is music that is accessible to the general public and disseminated by one or more of the mass media. It belongs to any of a number of musical genres, and stands in contrast to art music, "Arnold, Denis (1983) "Art Music, Art Song," in The New Oxford Companion Music, Volume 1: A-J, Oxford University Press, p.111. ISBN 0-19-311316-3 "Popular music" in The New Oxford Companion to Music, Volume 2: K-Z, Oxford University Press, p.1467. ISBN 0-19-311316-3 and traditional music which was disseminated orally. Arnold, Denis (1983). " Art Music, Art Song,"idem " Popular music," Ibid vol.2 p.1467 . Although popular music sometimes is known as "pop music", the term pop music usually refers to a specific musical genre. Form Form in popular music is most often sectional, the most common sections being verse, chorus or refrain, and bridge. Genres Popular music dates at least as far back as the mid 19th century, and is commonly subdivided into genres. Different genres often appeal to different age groups. These often, but not always, are the people who were young when the music was new. Thus, for instance, Big band music continues to have a following, but it is probably a rather older group, on average, than the audience for rap. For some genres, such as ragtime music, the original target generation may have died out almost entirely. With the increasing social and economic independence of young people, this "generation gap" has grown wider and wider since the second World War. Music hall and other forms before the 1940s were not so clearly marked by generation. From the Depression through the end of the war, Bing Crosby was the highest-selling recording artist in the United States. His fan base had no age division. The average Kraft Music Hall listener was 21 years old. But after Crosby's semi-retirement in 1954, a large generation gap emerged. Elvis Presley became the most popular recording artist among teenagers, while Frank Sinatra was most popular among adults. See also Music radio Popular culture List of popular music performers Popular music pedagogy Experimental pop music Sources Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-15275-9. Bennett (1980). Birrer, Frans A. J. (1985). "Definitions and research orientation: do we need a definition of popular music?" in D. Horn, ed., Popular Music Perspectives, 2 (Gothenburge, Exeter, Ottawa and Reggio Emilia), p.99-106. Hall, S. (1978). "Popular culture, politics, and history", in Popular Culture Bulletin, 3, Open University duplicated paper. Everett, Walter (1997). "Swallowed by a Song: Paul Simon's Crisis of Chromaticism", Understanding Rock: Essays in Musical Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510004-2. Hamm, Charles (1979). Yesterdays: Popular Song in America. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-01257-3. Manuel, Peter (1988). Popular Musics of the Non-Western World: An Introductory Survey. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505342-7. References External links Famous Music Videos - Music Video Database - YouTube, Google Video, MySpace TV, MetaCafe, DailyMotion, Veoh, Current.com, ClipFish.de, MyVideo.de, Break.com and EyeSpot Pop and Rock Argues that Pop and Rock are inferior musical genres. The 1950s-2000's Week-By-Week - Looks at pop music/albums/radio and music news through these decades. Pop Culture Madness Features the most requested pop songs 1920s through today The Daily Vault music reviews | Popular_music |@lemmatized justice:1 concert:1 popular:18 music:33 accessible:1 general:1 public:1 disseminate:2 one:1 mass:1 medium:1 belong:1 number:1 musical:4 genre:7 stand:1 contrast:1 art:5 arnold:2 denis:2 song:5 new:6 oxford:6 companion:2 volume:2 j:2 university:6 press:5 p:4 isbn:6 k:1 z:1 traditional:1 orally:1 idem:1 ibid:1 vol:1 although:1 sometimes:1 know:1 pop:8 term:1 usually:1 refer:1 specific:1 form:3 often:3 sectional:1 common:1 section:1 verse:1 chorus:1 refrain:1 bridge:1 date:1 least:1 far:1 back:1 mid:1 century:1 commonly:1 subdivide:1 different:2 appeal:1 age:2 group:2 always:1 people:2 young:2 thus:1 instance:1 big:1 band:1 continue:1 following:1 probably:1 rather:1 old:2 average:2 audience:1 rap:1 ragtime:1 original:1 target:1 generation:4 may:1 die:1 almost:1 entirely:1 increase:1 social:1 economic:1 independence:1 gap:2 grow:1 wider:2 since:1 second:1 world:2 war:2 hall:3 clearly:1 mark:1 depression:1 end:1 bing:1 crosby:2 high:1 sell:1 record:2 artist:2 united:1 state:1 fan:1 base:1 division:1 kraft:1 listener:1 year:1 semi:1 retirement:1 large:1 emerge:1 elvis:1 presley:1 become:1 among:2 teenager:1 frank:1 sinatra:1 adult:1 see:1 also:1 radio:2 culture:4 list:1 performer:1 pedagogy:1 experimental:1 source:1 middleton:1 richard:1 study:1 philadelphia:1 open:2 bennett:1 birrer:1 frans:1 definition:2 research:1 orientation:1 need:1 horn:1 ed:1 perspective:1 gothenburge:1 exeter:1 ottawa:1 reggio:1 emilia:1 politics:1 history:1 bulletin:1 duplicate:1 paper:1 everett:1 walter:1 swallow:1 paul:1 simon:1 crisis:1 chromaticism:1 understand:1 rock:3 essay:1 analysis:1 york:3 hamm:1 charles:1 yesterday:1 america:1 w:2 norton:1 company:1 manuel:1 peter:1 non:1 western:1 introductory:1 survey:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 famous:1 video:3 database:1 youtube:1 google:1 myspace:1 tv:1 metacafe:1 dailymotion:1 veoh:1 current:1 com:2 clipfish:1 de:2 myvideo:1 break:1 eyespot:1 argues:1 inferior:1 week:2 look:1 album:1 news:1 decade:1 madness:1 feature:1 requested:1 today:1 daily:1 vault:1 review:1 |@bigram bing_crosby:1 elvis_presley:1 frank_sinatra:1 reggio_emilia:1 w_norton:1 external_link:1 |
4,670 | House_of_Ascania | The House of Ascania () was a dynasty of German rulers. It was also known as the House of Anhalt, after Anhalt, its longest possession. The Ascanians are named after Ascania (or Ascaria) Castle, which is located near and named after Aschersleben. The castle was seat of the County of Ascania, a title that was later subsumed into the titles of the princes of Anhalt. The earliest known member of the House is Esiko, Count of Ballenstedt. He was first mentioned in 1036, and is assumed to have been a grandson (through his mother) of Odo I, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark. From Odo, the Ascanians inherited large properties in the Saxon Eastern March. Esiko's grandson was Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, who died in 1123. By Otto's marriage to Eilika, daughter of Magnus, Duke of Saxony, the Ascanians became heirs to half of the property of the House of Billung, former dukes of Saxony. Otto's son, Albert the Bear, became, with the help of his mother's inheritance, the first Ascanian duke of Saxony in 1139. But he lost control of Saxony soon to the rival House of Guelph. However, Albert inherited the Margraviate of Brandenburg from its last Wendish ruler, Pribislav, in 1150, and became the first Ascanian margrave. Albert, and his descendants of the House of Ascania, then made considerable progress in Christianizing and Germanizing the lands. As a borderland between German and Slavic cultures, the country was known as a march. In 1237 and 1244 two towns, Coelln and Berlin were founded during the rule of Otto and Johann, grandsons of Margrave Albert the Bear, (later they were united into one city, Berlin). The emblem of the House of Ascania, red eagle and bear, became the heraldric emblems of Berlin. In 1320 the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end. After the Emperor had deposed the Guelph rulers of Saxony in 1180, Ascanians returned to rule the Duchy of Saxony, which had been reduced to its eastern half by the Emperor. However, even in eastern Saxony, the Ascanians could establish control only in limited areas, mostly near the River Elbe. In the 13th century, the Principality of Anhalt was split off from the Duchy, and later, the remaining state was split into Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg. The Ascanian dynasties in the two Saxon states became extinct in 1689 and in 1422, respectively, but Ascanians continued to rule in the smaller state of Anhalt and its various subdivisions until monarchy was abolished in 1918. List of states ruled by the House of Ascania County, Principality, and Duchy of Anhalt: c. 1100-1918 Duchy of Saxony: 1112, 1139-1142, 1180-1422 County of Weimar-Orlamünde: 1112-1486 Margravate of Brandenburg: 1150-1320 Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg: 1269-1689 Principality of Lüneburg: 1369-1388 Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg: 1252-1468 and 1603-1863 Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst: 1252-1396 and 1544-1796 Principality of Anhalt-Aschersleben: 1252-1315 Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Köthen: 1396-1561 and 1603-1847 Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau 1396-1561 and 1603-1863 Principality of Anhalt-Plötzkau 1544-1553 and 1603-1665 Principality of Anhalt-Harzgerode 1635-1709 Principality of Anhalt-Mühlingen: 1667-1714 Principality of Anhalt-Dornburg: 1667-1742 Principality of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym: 1718-1812 Russian Empire: 1762-1796 External links the House of Ascania official web site GENEALOGY.EU: Genealogy of the House of Ascania Stirnet: Ascania1 (genealogy of an earlier and possibly separate House of Ascania) Stirnet: Brandenburg1 (genealogy of the Houses of Ascania and Brandenburg) References Askanien, Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1888 Trillmich, Werner, Kaiser Konrad II. und seine Zeit, Bonn, 1991 | House_of_Ascania |@lemmatized house:12 ascania:10 dynasty:2 german:2 ruler:3 also:1 know:2 anhalt:16 long:1 possession:1 ascanians:6 name:2 ascaria:1 castle:2 locate:1 near:2 aschersleben:2 seat:1 county:3 title:2 later:3 subsume:1 prince:1 early:2 known:1 member:1 esiko:2 count:2 ballenstedt:2 first:3 mention:1 assume:1 grandson:3 mother:2 odo:2 margrave:3 saxon:3 ostmark:1 inherit:2 large:1 property:2 eastern:3 march:2 otto:4 die:1 marriage:1 eilika:1 daughter:1 magnus:1 duke:3 saxony:8 become:5 heir:1 half:2 billung:1 former:1 son:1 albert:4 bear:3 help:1 inheritance:1 ascanian:4 lose:1 control:2 soon:1 rival:1 guelph:2 however:2 margraviate:1 brandenburg:4 last:1 wendish:1 pribislav:1 descendant:1 make:1 considerable:1 progress:1 christianize:1 germanizing:1 land:1 borderland:1 slavic:1 culture:1 country:1 two:2 town:1 coelln:1 berlin:3 found:1 rule:4 johann:1 unite:1 one:1 city:1 emblem:2 red:1 eagle:1 heraldric:1 line:1 come:1 end:1 emperor:2 depose:1 return:1 duchy:8 reduce:1 even:1 could:1 establish:1 limited:1 area:1 mostly:1 river:1 elbe:1 century:1 principality:13 split:2 remain:1 state:4 saxe:3 lauenburg:2 wittenberg:1 extinct:1 respectively:1 continue:1 small:1 various:1 subdivision:1 monarchy:1 abolish:1 list:1 c:1 weimar:1 orlamünde:1 margravate:1 lüneburg:1 bernburg:2 zerbst:1 köthen:1 dessau:1 plötzkau:1 harzgerode:1 mühlingen:1 dornburg:1 schaumburg:1 hoym:1 russian:1 empire:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 web:1 site:1 genealogy:4 eu:1 stirnet:2 possibly:1 separate:1 reference:1 askanien:1 meyers:1 konversationslexikon:1 trillmich:1 werner:1 kaiser:1 konrad:1 ii:1 und:1 seine:1 zeit:1 bonn:1 |@bigram house_ascania:8 duke_saxony:3 margraviate_brandenburg:1 principality_anhalt:8 duchy_anhalt:4 anhalt_dessau:1 external_link:1 und_seine:1 |
4,671 | Christadelphians | Christadelphians (from the Greek for Brothers of Christ / Christ's Brethren: Christou Adelphoi; cf. Greek of —"brethren in Christ") . are a Christian group that developed in the United Kingdom and North America in the 19th century. The name was coined by John Thomas, who was the group's founder. Although no official membership figures are published the Columbia Encyclopedia gives an estimated figure of 50,000 Christadelphians 'Christadelphians', The Columbia Enclyclopedia. Available online in 120 countries CBM Worldwide Guide 2006, Christadelphian Bible Mission (UK), 2006 established in many countries throughout the world, Ecclesias Around the World from Christadelphia World Wide along with isolated members. Census statistics are available for some countries. Estimates for the main centres of Christadelphian population are as follows: United Kingdom (18,000), UK Christian Handbook 2004, as quoted in 'Focus on Christadelphian Community', Multicultural Matters, October 2004 (London: Building Bridges, 2004). Available online Australia (9,987), Religious Affiliation—Australia: 2001 and 1996 Census Malawi (7,000), Mozambique (5,300), United States (6,500), 'Christadelphians', The Columbia Encyclopedia. Available online, Canada (3,375), 'Christadelphians', The Canadian Encyclopedia. Available online New Zealand (1,782), 2006 Census figures from Zealand Statistics Kenya (1,700), India (1,300) and Tanzania (1,000). Statistics for Malawi, Mozambique, Kenya, and Tanzania from Christadelphian Bible Mission (UK); statistics for India from CBM Worldwide Guide 2007, Christadelphian Bible Mission (UK), 2007 This puts the figure at over 55,000. History and development The Restoration movement and John Thomas (up to 1871) The Christadelphian religious group can be traced back to Dr John Thomas, who moved to America from England in the mid-19th century. Following a near shipwreck he vowed to find out the truth about life and God through personal Biblical study. Initially he sought to avoid the kind of sectarianism he had seen in England. In this he found sympathy with the rapidly emerging Restoration Movement in America at the time. This movement sought for a reform based upon the Bible alone as a sufficient guide and rejected all creeds. However this liberality eventually led to dissent as John Thomas developed in his personal beliefs and started to question mainstream orthodox Christian beliefs. Whilst they accepted his ability to have his own beliefs, when he started preaching that they were essential to salvation, it led to a fierce series of debates with a notable leader of the movement, Alexander Campbell. John Thomas believed that scripture, as God's word, did not sustain a multiplicity of differing beliefs, and challenged the leaders to continue with the process of restoring first century Christian beliefs and correct interpretation through a process of debate. The history of this process can be read in the book Dr. Thomas, His Life and Work by a Christadelphian, Robert Roberts. Available online http://www.angelfire.com/bc2/Bereans/Cornerstones/Pioneers/Life/toc.html During this period of formulating his ideas he was baptised twice John Thomas was baptised by Walter Scott of the Disciples of Christ in 1832 and again in 1847 (probably by John Tomline Walsh, according to Peter Hemingray John Thomas—His Friends and His Faith 2003 p.145) after publishing A Confession and Abjuration in which he renounced previously held beliefs as false. , the second time after renouncing the beliefs he previously held. His new position was based on a new appreciation for the reign of Christ on David's throne Available online http://www.antipas.org/books/faith_in_last_days/fld_014.html . It was this renunciation of his former beliefs that eventually led to him being disfellowshipped by the Restoration Movement. Following his disfellowship he toured England, and wrote in 1849 (a decade and a half before the name Christadelphian was conceived) Elpis Israel John Thomas, Elpis Israel: an exposition of the Kingdom of God with reference to the time of the end and the age to come (London: 1849). Available online (Elpis being Greek for hope) in which he laid out his understanding of the main doctrines of the Bible. Since his medium for bringing change was print and debate, it was natural for the origins of the Christadelphian body to be associated with journals and books, namely the 'Herald of the Kingdom' and 'The Ambassador' (which later became 'The Christadelphian'). In this desire to seek to establish Biblical truth and test out orthodox Christian beliefs through independent scriptural study he was not alone and, amongst other churches, he also had links with the Adventist and Church of the Blessed Hope. Although the Christadelphian movement can be shown to originate through the activities of John Thomas, he never saw himself as setting up disciples. Rather he believed he had rediscovered first century beliefs and sought to prove that through a process of challenge and debate and writing journals. Through that process a number of people were convinced and set up various fellowships that had sympathy with that position. Groups associated with John Thomas met under various names, including Believers, Baptised Believers, the Royal Association of Believers, Baptised Believers in the Kingdom of God, Nazarines (or Nazarenes) and The Antipas until the time of the American Civil War. At that time, church affiliation was required to register for conscientious objector status and in 1865 Thomas chose for registration purposes the name Christadelphian. Thomas preferred the name Brethren in Christ, but settled on Christadelphian. He once wrote in a letter, 'I did not know a better denomination that would be given to such a class of believers, than Brethren in Christ. This declares their true status; and, as officials prefer words to phrases, the same fact expressed in another form by the word Christadelphians, or Christou Adelphoi, Christ’s Brethren. This matter settled to their satisfaction ... ' (). Robert Roberts, debates, divisions and Statements of Faith Through the teaching of John Thomas and the need in the American civil war for a name the Christadelphians emerged as a denomination, but they were formed into a lasting structure through a keen admirer of his, Robert Roberts. At the age of 10 he was taken by his mother to hear a talk given by John Thomas in Aberdeen Scotland. At the age of 13 he read Thomas's Elpis Israel and was subsequently baptised in 1853 at the age of 14 in the River Dee and joined the "Baptised Believers". He was 're-baptised' in 1863 "on attaining to an understanding of the things concerning the name of Jesus, of which he was ignorant at his first immersion" The Christadelphian Vol. 11 1874, p.610(Birmingham: Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association) . In 1864 he began to publish "The Ambassador" magazine. This was renamed "The Christadelphian" in 1869 and continues to be published under that name The Christadelphian is published by The Christadelphian Magazine & Publishing Association Ltd (Birmingham, UK) . Roberts was prominent in the period following the death of John Thomas and helped craft the structures of the Christadelphian body Andrew Wilson writes of Roberts that "The organising ability of Robert Roberts was very important: he gave the movement its rules, institutions and much of its literature". Andrew Wilson, History of the Christadelphians 1864-1885: the emergence of a denomination 1997 p.399. Robert Roberts was absolutely certain that John Thomas had rediscovered the truth, and it is largely down to Roberts' organisation that the Christadelphian body exists in its present form. His life was characterised by debates over issues that arose within the fledgling organisation and some of this process can be found in the book 'Robert Roberts—A study of his life and character' by Islip Collyer. He also wrote a booklet called a A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias. Robert Roberts, A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias (Birmingham: 1883). Available online which has been significant in establishing the basic structure most ecclesias follow today. Initially the denomination grew in the English-speaking world, particularly in the English Midlands and parts of North America. In the early days after the death of John Thomas the group could have moved in many directions and many doctrinal issues arose. Not everyone believed that John Thomas had established the truth exactly right and many issues arose, debates were held and statements of faith were created and amended as other issues arose. These attempts were felt necessary by many to both settle and define a doctrinal stance for the newly emerging denomination and to keep out error by setting boundaries to belief. A number left in 1873 and became known as the Nazarene Fellowship, a small, separate religious denomination still in existence. In 1884-5 a dispute arose concerning the inspiration of the Bible. Robert Ashcroft, a leading member, wrote an article which challenged commonly held views about inspiration which led to a division in the main body. One group formed a new ecclesia which later met in Suffolk Street, Birmingham. Other ecclesias throughout the world which supported them became known as the Suffolk Street Fellowship to distinguish itself from the group they were separated from, which became known as the Temperance Hall fellowship. The Unamended Fellowship developed after 1898 as a result of differing views on the atonement and the judgment at the return of Christ. The majority of Christadelphians believed that the judgment would include anyone who had sufficient knowledge of the gospel message, and was not limited to baptized believers. They amended their statement of faith accordingly. Those who opposed the amendment became known as the Unamended Fellowship and held the position that God either could not or would not raise those who had no covenant relationship with him. Opinions vary as to what the established position was on this subject prior to the controversy. For example: Website claiming views held by Amended community were original Christadelphian beliefs Versus Website claiming views held by Unamended community were original Christadelphian beliefs. . Those who have associated on the basis of the amended statement become known in contrast to the Unamended Fellowship, as the Amended Fellowship. The Berean Fellowship was formed in 1923 as a result of varying views on military service and the atonement within the Temperance Hall Fellowship. The majority of the fellowship re-joined Temperance Hall in the 1950s; the remainder continue as a separate community to the present day. The Dawn Fellowship Dawn Christadelphians was formed from the Berean Fellowship due to differences concerning divorce and remarriage. The Twentieth century and the World Wars The Christadelphian position on conscientious objection came to the fore with the introduction of conscription during the First World War. Varying degrees of exemption from military service were granted to Christadelphians in the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand and the United States. In the Second World War, this frequently required the person seeking exemption to undertake civilian work under the direction of the authorities. During the Second World War the Christadelphians in England assisted in the Kindertransport, helping to relocate a number of Jewish children away from Nazi persecution. The post-war period saw an increase in co-operation and interaction between ecclesias, resulting in the establishment of a number of week-long Bible schools and the formation of national and international organisations such as the Christadelphian Bible Mission History of the Christadelphian Bible Mission (for preaching) and the Christadelphian Meal-A-Day Fund (for pastoral and humanitarian work). This was accompanied by expansion in the developing world, which now accounts for around 40% of Christadelphians. Based on figures from CBM Worldwide Guide 2006, Christadelphian Bible Mission (UK), 2006 A movement towards reunions The emphasis on the restoration of truth has led to a history of division and schism that many have felt unpleasant and that has divided friends and families. Moves have been made to try to solve them with some success. In the early 1950s the majority of the Berean Fellowship re-joined the Temperance Hall Fellowship, with the remainder continuing as a separate community. In 1957-1958, there was further reunion with the Suffolk Street Fellowship, which had already incorporated many of the Unamended Fellowship outside North America. This re-united group, which now included the large majority of Christadelphians, became known as the Central Fellowship The first use of the term "Birmingham (Central) fellowship" in The Christadelphian magazine was in volume 70, 1933, p. 376. The term was used to distinguish those ecclesias in fellowship with the Birmingham (Central) ecclesia from those in the "Suffolk Street Fellowship". By 1939 the word "Birmingham" was dropped and the term "Central Fellowship" was thereafter used with some regularity (342 times between 1939 and 2000) in The Christadelphian magazine named after the Birmingham Central ecclesia. In Australia and New Zealand a union occurred in 1958 between the Central fellowship and the Shield fellowship (which was allied to the Suffolk Street fellowship) through an understanding expressed in a document called the Cooper-Carter Addendum. Those who held that the reasons for separation from the Suffolk Street Fellowship remained, opposed the re-union and formed the Old Paths Fellowship. Old Paths Fellowship (Australia) Old Paths Fellowship (UK) There is also some co-operation between the Central (Amended) and Unamended Fellowships in North America, but they remain separate communities despite attempts at re-union under a North American Statement of Understanding (NASU) North American Statement of Understanding in recent years. Despite success in reuniting large sections of the wider Christadelphian community and periodic efforts at reuniting smaller offshoots, there are still a number of groups who remain separate from other bodies of Christadelphians. These include the Berean Fellowship (who use precisely the same BASF as the central fellowship) Berean Christadelphians , the Dawn Fellowship, the Old Paths Fellowship, the Companion Fellowship Companion Christadelphians and the Pioneer-Maranatha Fellowship. The Pioneer and Maranatha fellowships united in August 2008 Pioneer-Maranatha Christadelphians . However, Dawn Christadelphians and Lightstand Christadelphian Fellowships united in November 2007.. Most of the divisions still in existence within the Christadelphian community today stem from further divisions of the Berean fellowship. Phillips, Jim, The Berean Christadelphians: Why the Bereans? Other historical groups and individuals with some shared doctrines One criticism of the Christadelphian movement has been over the claim of John Thomas and Roberts Roberts to have rediscovered scriptural truth. Christendom Astray, Robert Roberts, written 1862, Lecture 1: 'Do you mean to say, asks the incredulous enquirer, that the Bible has been studied by men of learning for eighteen centuries without being understood? and that the thousands of ministers set apart for the very purpose of ministering in its holy pages are all mistaken?' He then goes on to suggest that social conditioning, self interest by the clergy and an incomplete reformation prevented its rediscovery. In an article 'A Glance at The History and Mystery of Christadelphianism', a contemporary of John Thomas, David King, from the Restoration Movement 1881, argues that a complete losing of truth would have been unlikely. Available online However, although both men believed that they had recovered the true doctrines for themselves and contemporaries, they also believed there had always existed a group of true believers throughout the ages, albeit marred by the apostasy. 'An arrangement of this sort was absolutely necessary for the preservation and protection of the One Body, witnessing for the truth against "the worshipping of the daemonials and idols," in the midst of the nations, and "before the God of the earth;" the weapons of whose warfare were civil disabilities, and the infernal tortures of anti-heretical crusaders and inquisitions.', John Thomas, 'Eureka' (1915 edition), volume 2, chapter 11, section 2.1 'Thus, the history of the ages and the generations of the unmeasured Court is in strict harmony with this prophecy of the witnesses. For a period considerably over a thousand years after Rome renounced its old gods for the ghosts, dry bones, and fables of the catholic superstition, the Spirit had provided himself with Two Witnessing Classes, to whose custody he providentially committed the truth, and its judicial vindication by fire and sword.', John Thomas, 'Eureka', volume 2, chapter 11, section 2.2 'Though the apostles died, their work continued, and the generation of believers that went to the grave with them were succeeded by other believers who maintained the integral structure of the temple of God, founded in Europe. True, the work was marred and corrupted by the apostasy of the mass: still, a real work—a real temple, existed, consisting of the remnant of true believers preserved by God as His witnesses in the midst of the prevailing corruption.', Robert Roberts, 'Thirteen Lectures On The Apocalypse' (4th edition 1921), page 98 Considerable evidence can be provided that since the first century CE there have been various groups and individuals who have held certain individual Christadelphian beliefs or similar ones. However, no consistent line of people or groups which have held all their beliefs have been discovered. The most notable attempts to find a continuity of those with doctrinal similarities have been Alan Eyre's two books 'The Brethren in Christ' and 'The Protesters' in which he shows that many individual Christadelphian doctrines had been previously believed. Eyre focused in particular on the Radical Reformation, and also among the Socinians and other early Unitarians. In this way, Eyre was able to demonstrate substantial historical precedents for individual Christadelphian teachings and practices, and believed that the Christadelphian community was the 'inheritor of a noble tradition, by which elements of the Truth were from century to century hammered out on the anvil of controversy, affliction and even anguish' Alan Eyre, 'The Protestors', page 8 (1975) . Although noting in the introduction to 'The Protestors' that 'Some recorded herein perhaps did not have "all the truth"—so the writer has been reminded', Alan Eyre, 'The Protestors', page 8 (1975) Eyre nevertheless claimed that the purpose of the work was to 'tell how a number of little-known individuals, groups and religious communities strove to preserve or revive the original Christianity of apostolic times', Alan Eyre, 'The Protestors', page 11 (1975) and that 'In faith and outlook they were far closer to the early springing shoots of first-century Christianity and the penetrating spiritual challenge of Jesus himself than much that has passed for the religion of the Nazarene in the last nineteen centuries'. Alan Eyre, 'The Protestors', pages 11-12 (1975) Eyre's research has not withstood close examination from his Christadelphian peers. Both of Eyre’s works were criticized thoroughly by Ruth McHaffie's exhaustively researched work 'Finding Founders and Facing Facts' (2001), in which considerable evidence was presented demonstrating that Eyre had significantly misread or misrepresented a number of his sources, and that the bulk of his claims could not be supported from (and were often contradicted by) the available historical evidence. As a result of this and other criticisms of Eyre's work, Christadelphian commentary on the subject was subsequently far more cautious and circumspect, with caveats being issued concerning Eyre's claims, 'But some, though having neither time nor opportunity to search archives, knew enough to realise that the claims were exaggerated, however praiseworthy the intention. Moreover, misgivings increased as the years passed and when members examined the subject more closely for themselves. As explained in the November 1993 issue of The Endeavour Magazine, Brother Ron Coleman in 1986, when preparing an address for the Oxford ecclesia to commemorate the 450th anniversary of William Tyndale's death, not only sought information from The Protesters but also from Tyndale's own writings. He was surprised to find serious misrepresentations in our community's publication.', Ruth McHaffie, 'Founding Fathers And Facing Facts', (2001), page 8 'In 1989 when an article by Brother Alan appeared in The Christadelphian containing a number of inaccuracies on the hymn writer Isaac Watts, Ron Coleman wrote to Brother Michael Ashton, editor of The Christadelphian, and subsequently corresponded with Alan in the manner which becomes Brethren. Scholarly evidence to disprove Ron's criticisms was not forthcoming with regard to either Tyndale or Watts, and the editor was requested to publish a short note of amendment on both writers, but there appears to have been no response.', Ruth McHaffie, 'Founding Fathers And Facing Facts', (2001), page 8 and the two books less used and publicized than in previous years. Other examples of shared doctrines can be found amongst many 16th century Socinian beliefs (e.g. the rejection of the doctrines of the trinity, immortal souls, a literal hell of fire, original sin) correspond closely to those of Christadelphians. Also, recent discoveries and research have shown a large similarity between Christadelphian beliefs and those held by Isaac Newton who, among other things, rejected the doctrines of the trinity, immortal souls, a personal devil and literal demons; the same is true of John Epps. Taking, as an example, the concept of the devil and/or demons, the following people also rejected them as literal supernatural agents of evil: Thomas Hobbes (1651); Balthasar Bekker (1695); Arthur Sykes (1737); Nathaniel Lardner (1742); Richard Meade (1755); Hugh Farmer (at least in the account of Christ’s temptation; 1761); William Ashdowne (1791); and John Simpson (1804). Organisation Fellowships today Today the Christadelphian body remains divided into fellowships, the largest being the Central Fellowship, named after the now-defunct Birmingham Central ecclesia, once its largest and most influential ecclesia. The first use of the term "Birmingham (Central) fellowship" in The Christadelphian magazine was in volume 70, 1933, p. 376. The term was used to distinguish those ecclesias in fellowship with the Birmingham (Central) ecclesia from those in the "Suffolk Street Fellowship". By 1939 the word "Birmingham" was dropped and the term "Central Fellowship" was thereafter used with some regularity (342 times between 1939 and 2000) in The Christadelphian magazine . There remains a large number of Unamended Christadelphians, particularly in the US and Canada. Smaller fellowships are the Berean Christadelphians, the Dawn Christadelphians, and the Old Paths Christadephians. There are other fellowships, but their numbers are too small to be worthy of much consideration here. The number of aderents to these smaller groups of Christadelphians varies from approximately 1,850 members (the Unamended Christadelphians as of 2006) 2006 Christadelphian Ecclesial Directory. Also see Unamended Christadelphian Wikipedia entry here to groups made up of little more than one or two immediate families For example, the short-lived Antipas Fellowship. Ref: . They tend to operate organisationally fairly similarly, although there are different emphases. For instance the Berean Christadelphians focus on the pioneer Christadelphians and the Dawn Christadelphians put a huge importance on the need to follow a consistent set of disciplines regarding divorce and remarriage Dawn Christadelphians . These different Christadelphian fellowships are to some degree localised. For example, the Unamended Fellowship exists only in North America, and some of the others are confined to the English-speaking world. For example, the Maranatha Fellowship is limited to Southern California, New Zealand and Australia. Ref: Each fellowship has a Statement of Faith, the most common of which is the Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith (BASF), named after an ecclesia in Birmingham. This is used by all Old Paths ecclesias without amendment from the days of Robert Roberts. The Unamended have a similar Statement of Faith called the Birmingham Unamended Statement of Faith (BUSF) Birmingham Unamended Statement of Faith. Available online with one clause being different. The Dawn Christadelphians Dawn Christadelphians use a statement of faith which is based on the original 1886 statement of faith, but has four additions addressing issues that have arisen since that time. The Berean Christadelphians have an amendment in the doctrines to be rejected which prohibits a person being a police constable. Some Christadelphian groups which are separated to a greater or lesser degree from the main body of Christadelphians use statements of faith which differ in some regard from the BASF and from each other. Individual ecclesias also may have their own statement of faith, whilst still accepting the statement of faith of their fellowship. General organisation In the absence of centralised organisation, some differences exist amongst Christadelphians on some matters of belief and practice. This is because each congregation (commonly styled 'ecclesias') is organisation autonomously, typically following common practices which have altered little since the 19th century. Most ecclesias have a constitution Example here , which includes a Statement of Faith, a list of doctrines to be rejected and a formalized list of 'the Commandments of Christ'. With no central authority individual congregations are responsible for maintaining orthodoxy in belief and practice, and the Statement of Faith is seen by many as useful to this end. The Statement of Faith acts as the official standard of most ecclesias to determine fellowship within and between ecclesias, and as the basis for co-operation between ecclesias. Congregational discipline and conflict resolution are applied using various forms of consultation, mediation, and discussion, with disfellowship (similar to excommunication) being the final response to those with unorthodox practices or beliefs. Robert Roberts, A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias (Birmingham: 1883), Sections 32, 35-36 The relative uniformity of organisation and practice is undoubtedly due to the influence of a booklet, written early in Christadelphian history, called A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias. Robert Roberts, A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias (Birmingham: 1883). Available online It recommends a basically democratic arrangement by which congregational members elect 'brothers' to arranging and serving duties, Robert Roberts, A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias (Birmingham: 1883), Sections 17-27 and includes guidelines for the organisation of committees, as well as conflict resolution between congregational members and between congregations. Robert Roberts, A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias (Birmingham: 1883), Sections 35-38, 41-42 Christadelphians do not have paid ministers. Male members are assessed by the congregation for their eligibility to teach and perform other duties, which are usually assigned on a rotation basis, as opposed to having a permanently appointed preacher. Congregational governance typically follows a democratic model, with an elected arranging committee for each individual ecclesia. This unpaid committee is responsible for the day-to-day running of the ecclesia and is answerable to the rest of the ecclesia's members.Anyone who publicly assents to the doctrines described in this statement and is in good standing in their "home ecclesia" is generally welcome to participate in the activities of any other ecclesia. Inter-ecclesial organisations co-ordinate the running of, among other things, Christadelphian schools For example: Christadelphian Heritage College, Cooranbong and Christadelphian Heritage College Sydney, Kemps Creek. and elderly care homes, the Christadelphian Isolation League (which cares for those prevented by distance or infirmity from attending an ecclesia regularly) and the publication of Christadelphian magazines. Major Christadelphian beliefs in the Statements of Faith Due to the way the Christadelphian body is organised there is no central authority to establish and maintain a standardised set of beliefs and it depends what Statement of Faith is adhered to and how liberal the ecclesia is, but there are core doctrines most Christadelphians would accept. In the formal statements of faith a more complete list is found. For instance in the Central Fellowship, the BASF the official Statement of Faith has 30 doctrines to be accepted and 35 to be rejected. Despite their differences Christadelphians state that their beliefs A Declaration of the Truth revealed in the Bible (Birmingham: Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association). An early summary of Christadelphian beliefs. Available online are based wholly on the Bible, and they accept no other texts as inspired by God. They believe that God is the creator of all things and the father of true believers, that he is a separate being from his son, Jesus Christ, and that the Holy Spirit is the power of God used in creation and for salvation. They also believe that the phrase Holy Spirit sometimes refers to God's character/mind, depending on the context in which the phrase appears, but reject the orthodox Christian view that we need strength, guidance and power from the Holy Spirit to live the Christian life, believing instead that the spirit a believer needs within themselves is the mind/character of God, which is developed in a believer by their reading of the Bible and trying to live by what it says during the events of their lives which God uses to help shape their character. Christadelphian Hall in Bath, United Kingdom Christadelphians believe that Jesus is the promised Jewish Messiah, in whom the prophecies and promises of the Old Testament find their fulfilment. They believe he is the Son of Man, in that he inherited sinful human nature from his mother, and the Son of God by virtue of his miraculous conception by the power of God. Although he was tempted, Jesus committed no sin, and was therefore a perfect representative sacrifice to bring salvation to sinful humankind. They believe that God raised Jesus from death and gave him immortality, and he ascended to Heaven, God's dwelling place. Christadelphians believe that he will return to the earth in person to set up the Kingdom of God in fulfilment of the promises made to Abraham and David. This includes the belief that the coming Kingdom will be the restoration of God's first Kingdom of Israel, which was under David and Solomon. For Christadelphians, this is the focal point of the gospel taught by Jesus and the apostles. Christadelphians believe that people are separated from God because of their sins, but can be reconciled to him by becoming disciples of Jesus Christ. This is by belief in correct doctrine, through repentance, and through baptism by total immersion in water. They do not believe we can be sure of being saved believing instead that salvation comes as a result of a life of obedience to the commands of Christ Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith, Doctrine to be Rejected no 24 'That the gospel alone will save without the obedience of Christ's commandments', After death, believers are in a state of non-existence, knowing nothing until the Resurrection at the return of Christ. Following the judgement at that time, the accepted receive the gift of immortality, and live with Christ on a restored Earth, assisting him to establish the Kingdom of God and to rule over the mortal population for a thousand years (the Millennium). Christadelphians believe that the Kingdom will be centred upon Israel, but Jesus Christ will also reign over all the other nations on the earth. Some believe that the Kingdom itself is not worldwide but limited to the land of Israel promised to Abraham and ruled over in the past by David, with a worldwide empire. See What is the true Gospel?, available online Christadelphians reject a number of doctrines held by many other Christians, notably the immortality of the soul, trinitarianism, the pre-existence of Jesus Christ, the baptism of infants, the personhood of the Holy Spirit and the present-day possession of the gifts of the Holy Spirit. They believe that the words devil and satan are references to sin and human nature in opposition to God. According to Christadelphians, these terms are used in reference to specific political systems or individuals in opposition or conflict. Hell is understood to refer to death and the grave, rather than being a place of eternal torment. Doctrines to be Rejected—an appendix to the Christadelphian statement of faith Christadelphians do not believe that anyone can go to Heaven. Instead, they believe that only Christ Jesus went to Heaven, and when Christ Jesus comes back to the earth the true believers will live in the land of Israel. Christadelphians believe the doctrines they reject were introduced into Christendom after the 1st century, Answering Common Questions about the Christadelphians from Christadelphian Articles and cannot be demonstrated from the Bible. Marriage and family life are important. Christadelphians believe that sexual relationships are limited to heterosexual marriage between baptised believers. Michael Ashton, Homosexuality and the Church: Bible Answers to Moral Questions (Birmingham: Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association). Available online Practices Christadelphians are organised into local congregations, that commonly call themselves ecclesias, which is taken from usage in the New Testament e.g. see Greek of Acts 5:11; 7:38 and is Greek for gathering of those summoned. "Ecclesia." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03 Feb. 2009. Available here Congregational worship, which usually takes place on Sunday, centres on the remembrance of the death and celebration of the resurrection of Jesus Christ by the taking part in the "memorial service". Additional meetings are often organised for worship, prayer, evangelism and Bible study. Ecclesias are typically involved in evangelism in the form of public lectures on Bible teaching, Examples of lecture titles on Handsworth Christadelphians website college-style seminars on reading the Bible, For example: Learn to Read the Bible Effectively and Bible Reading Groups. Correspondence courses For example: This is Your Bible are also used widely, particularly in areas where there is no established Christadelphian presence. Some ecclesias, organisations or individuals also preach through other media like video, For example: Christadelphian Auxiliary Lecturing Society (CALS) videos, Williamsburgh Christadelphian Foundation (WCF) videos, the Christadelphians of Southern California's videos, and Christadelphian YouPreach on YouTube. podcasts For example: Washwood Heath Christadelphians' podcasts, Bible Study Podcasts and Search for Hope podcasts. and internet forums. For example: Open Bible Forum and Bible Truth Discussion Forum Only baptised believers are considered members of the ecclesia. However, the children of members are encouraged to attend Christadelphian Sunday Schools and youth groups. Interaction between youth from different ecclesias is encouraged through regional and national youth gatherings. Many ecclesias organise holidays for young people, the most popular form in the UK being camping holidays. Christadelphians understand the Bible to teach that male and female believers are equal in God's sight, and also that there is a distinction between the roles of male and female members. Women are typically not eligible to teach in formal gatherings of the ecclesia when male believers are present, and do not sit on ecclesial arranging committees. They do, however: participate in other ecclesial and inter-ecclesial committees; participate in discussions; teach children, other women and non-members; perform music; discuss and vote on business matters; and engage in the majority of other activities. There are ecclesially-accountable committees for co-ordinated evangelism, youth and Sunday School work, military service issues, care of the elderly, and humanitarian work. These do not have any legislative authority, and are wholly dependent upon ecclesial support. Ecclesias in an area may regularly hold joint activities combining youth groups, fellowship, preaching, and Bible study. Christadelphians refuse to participate in any military because they are conscientious objectors. While Christadelphians are not pacifists and say the time will come when military coercion and conflict will be required to establish Christ's kingdom. There is a strong emphasis on personal Bible reading and study 'They are characterized by holding a firm belief in the inspired status of the Bible and place enormous emphasis upon biblical study', Evans, John S, 'The Prophecies of Daniel 2', page 251, USA:Xulon Press (2008) 'Christadelphian devotion centers on daily Bible study and weekly meetings', page 421, Fahlbusch, Erwin and Bromiley, Geoffrey W, 'The Encyclopedia of Christianity', USA:Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999) 'Christadelphians are devoted students of the Bible, which they believe to be the infallible and inerrant word of God', Edwards, Linda, 'A Brief Guide to Beliefs', page 421, USA:Westminster John Knox Press (2001) 'Daily Bible study is enjoined', Powles, Lilian V, 'The Faith and Practice of Heretical Sects', page 23, Michigan:Mothers' Union (1962) and many Christadelphians use the Bible Companion to help them systematically read the Bible each year The BBC Website Worship Christadelphians are a non-liturgical denomination. Christadelphian ecclesias are autonomous and free to adopt whatever pattern of worship they choose. However, in the English-speaking world, there tends to be a great deal of uniformity in order of service and hymnody. Christadelphian hymnody makes considerable use of the hymns of the Anglican and British Protestant traditions (even in North American ecclesias the hymnody is typically more British than American). In many Christadelphian hymn books a sizeable proportion of hymns are drawn from the Scottish Psalter and non-Christadelphian hymn-writers including Isaac Watts, Charles Wesley, William Cowper and John Newton. Despite incorporating non-Christadelphian hymns however, Christadelphian hymnody preserves the essential teachings of the community. 'Hymnody was an important part of Christadelphianism from its beginning, and, along with the journal, The Christadelphian, gave independent ecclesias a broader fellowship. Hymns reflected the essential doctrines and principles of their faith. These principles were anti-Trinitarianism. They also believed that God would establish his kingdom on earth through the return of Jesus to reign a thousand years in Jerusalem', Wesley Roberts, Professor of Music, Campbellsville University, Kentucky, in the magazine 'Hymn', July 1997 The first Christadelphian hymn book was published for the use of Baptised Believers in the Kingdom of God (an early name for Christadelphians Peter Hemingray, John Thomas: His Friends and His Faith 2003 p. 235 ) by George Dowie in Edinburgh in 1864. Andrew Wilson, History of the Christadelphians 1864-1885: the emergence of a denomination 1997 p. 326 In 1865 Robert Roberts published a collection of Scottish psalms and hymns called The Golden Harp (which was subtitled "Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual Songs, compiled for the use of Immersed Believers in 'The Things concerning the Kingdom of God and the Name of Jesus Christ'"). Peter Hemingray, John Thomas: His Friends and His Faith 2003 p. 195 This was replaced only five years later by the first "Christadelphian Hymn Book" (1869), compiled by J. J. and A. Andrew Ambassador of the Coming Age Vol. 6, P. 148 , and this was revised and expanded in 1874, 1932 and 1964. A thorough revision by the Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association resulted in the latest (2002) edition The CMPA online bookshop which is almost universally used by English-speaking Christadelphian ecclesias. In addition some Christadelphian fellowships have published their own hymn books. A more contemporary worship style is now popular in some quarters. The Praise the Lord songbook Praise the Lord (Hoddesdon Christadelphian Service, 1993, 2000) was produced with the aim of making contemporary songs which are consistent with Christadelphian theology more widely available. In the English-speaking world, worship is typically accompanied by organ or piano, though in recent years a few ecclesias have promoted the use of other instruments and the involvement of worship leaders. This trend has also seen the emergence of some Christadelphian bands An example is the Christadelphian folk rock band Fisher's Tale and the establishment of the Christadelphian Arts Trust Christadelphian Arts Trust to support performing, visual and dramatic arts within the Christadelphian community. In other countries, hymnbooks have been produced in local languages e.g. Liedboek van de Broeders in Christus (Holland, circa 1980) , sometimes resulting in styles of worship which reflect the local culture. It has been noted that Christadelphian hymnody has historically been a consistent witness to Christadelphian beliefs, and that hymnody occupies a significant role in the community. 'Considering the scope of hymnic literature by Christadelphians, we might conclude that few branches of Christianity can claim such a close relationship between hymn writing and their own religious development, and such a high percentage of hymnists in their membership. As their hymns become better known, this close relationship will reveal that the heritage and faith of Christadelphians has been enhanced through a strong emphasis on hymnody, from their beginnings to the present day', Wesley Roberts, Professor of Music, Campbellsville University, Kentucky, in the magazine 'Hymn', July 1997 References and footnotes Further reading Fred Pearce, Who are the Christadelphians? (Birmingham, England: The Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association Ltd). Available online Stephen Hill, The Life of Brother John Thomas – 1805 to 1871 (2006). Peter Hemingray, John Thomas, His Friends and His Faith (Canton, MI: The Christadelphian Tidings, 2003 ISBN 81-7887-012-6). Andrew R. Wilson, The History of the Christadelphians 1864-1885 The Emergence of a Denomination (Shalom Publications, 1997 ISBN 0-646-22355-0). Charles H. Lippy, The Christadelphians in North America Studies in American Religion Volume 43 (Lewiston/Queenston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1989 ISBN 0-88946-647-5). Harry Tennant, The Christadelphians: What they believe and preach (Birmingham, England: The Christadelphian, 1986 ISBN 0-85189-119-5). Bryan R. Wilson, Sects and Society: A Sociological Study of the Elim Tabernacle, Christian Science and Christadelphians (London: Heinemann, 1961; Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961). BBC article, Religion & Ethics—Chrisitanity: Subdivisions: Christadelphians. Available online Rob Hyndman, The Christadelphians (Brothers and Sisters in Christ): Introducing a Bible-based Community (Beechworth, VIC: Bethel Publications, 1999 ISBN 81-87409-34-7). Available online | Christadelphians |@lemmatized christadelphians:70 greek:5 brother:14 christ:26 christou:2 adelphoi:2 cf:1 christian:9 group:20 develop:4 united:7 kingdom:17 north:9 america:8 century:14 name:13 coin:1 john:30 thomas:29 founder:2 although:6 official:4 membership:2 figure:5 publish:16 columbia:3 encyclopedia:4 give:6 estimated:1 enclyclopedia:1 available:21 online:19 country:4 cbm:3 worldwide:5 guide:12 christadelphian:100 bible:35 mission:6 uk:8 establish:9 many:14 throughout:3 world:13 ecclesias:31 around:2 christadelphia:1 wide:1 along:2 isolated:1 member:12 census:3 statistic:4 estimate:1 main:4 centre:3 population:2 follow:9 handbook:1 quote:1 focus:3 community:15 multicultural:1 matter:4 october:1 london:3 building:1 bridge:1 australia:5 religious:5 affiliation:2 malawi:2 mozambique:2 state:4 canada:3 canadian:1 new:8 zealand:5 kenya:2 india:2 tanzania:2 put:2 history:10 development:2 restoration:6 movement:10 trace:1 back:2 dr:2 move:3 england:6 mid:1 near:1 shipwreck:1 vow:1 find:9 truth:13 life:10 god:29 personal:4 biblical:3 study:13 initially:2 seek:5 avoid:1 kind:1 sectarianism:1 see:6 sympathy:2 rapidly:1 emerge:3 time:12 reform:1 base:6 upon:4 alone:3 sufficient:2 reject:11 creed:1 however:9 liberality:1 eventually:2 lead:5 dissent:1 belief:27 start:2 question:3 mainstream:1 orthodox:3 whilst:2 accept:5 ability:2 preach:4 essential:3 salvation:4 fierce:1 series:1 debate:7 notable:2 leader:3 alexander:1 campbell:1 believe:28 scripture:1 word:7 sustain:1 multiplicity:1 differ:3 challenge:4 continue:5 process:6 restore:1 first:11 correct:2 interpretation:1 read:5 book:10 work:12 robert:37 http:2 www:2 angelfire:1 com:1 bereans:2 cornerstone:1 pioneer:5 toc:1 html:2 period:4 formulate:1 idea:1 baptise:8 twice:1 walter:1 scott:1 disciple:3 probably:1 tomline:1 walsh:1 accord:2 peter:4 hemingray:4 friend:5 faith:30 p:9 confession:1 abjuration:1 renounce:3 previously:3 hold:14 beliefs:2 false:1 second:3 position:5 appreciation:1 reign:3 david:5 throne:1 antipas:3 org:1 renunciation:1 former:1 disfellowshipped:1 disfellowship:2 tour:1 write:8 decade:1 half:1 conceive:1 elpis:4 israel:7 exposition:1 reference:4 end:2 age:7 come:7 hope:3 lay:1 understanding:4 doctrine:18 since:4 medium:2 bring:2 change:1 print:1 natural:1 origin:1 body:9 associate:3 journal:3 namely:1 herald:1 ambassador:3 later:3 become:10 desire:1 test:1 independent:2 scriptural:2 amongst:3 church:4 also:17 link:1 adventist:1 bless:1 show:3 originate:1 activity:4 never:1 saw:2 set:7 rather:2 rediscover:3 prove:1 writing:2 number:12 people:5 convince:1 various:4 fellowship:59 meet:2 include:8 believer:22 royal:1 association:7 nazarines:1 nazarene:3 american:7 civil:3 war:7 require:3 register:1 conscientious:3 objector:2 status:3 chose:1 registration:1 purpose:3 prefer:2 settle:3 letter:1 know:11 good:3 denomination:9 would:6 class:2 declare:1 true:9 phrase:3 fact:4 express:2 another:1 form:10 satisfaction:1 division:5 statement:26 teaching:4 need:4 lasting:1 structure:4 keen:1 admirer:1 take:5 mother:3 hear:1 talk:1 aberdeen:1 scotland:1 subsequently:3 river:1 dee:1 join:3 attain:1 thing:5 concern:5 jesus:15 ignorant:1 immersion:2 vol:2 birmingham:25 magazine:15 begin:1 rename:1 ltd:2 prominent:1 death:7 help:4 craft:1 andrew:5 wilson:5 writes:1 organise:5 important:3 rule:3 institution:1 much:3 literature:2 emergence:4 absolutely:2 certain:2 largely:1 roberts:1 organisation:11 exist:5 present:6 characterise:1 issue:8 arise:5 within:6 fledgling:1 character:4 islip:1 collyer:1 booklet:2 call:6 formation:8 conduct:7 significant:2 basic:1 today:4 grow:1 english:6 speaking:5 particularly:3 midland:1 part:3 early:7 day:8 could:3 direction:2 doctrinal:3 everyone:1 exactly:1 right:1 create:1 amend:6 attempt:3 felt:2 necessary:2 define:1 stance:1 newly:1 keep:1 error:1 boundary:1 leave:1 small:5 separate:9 still:5 existence:4 dispute:1 arose:1 inspiration:2 ashcroft:1 leading:1 article:5 commonly:3 view:6 one:6 ecclesia:18 suffolk:7 street:7 support:4 distinguish:3 temperance:4 hall:5 unamended:13 result:7 atonement:2 judgment:2 return:4 majority:5 anyone:3 knowledge:1 gospel:4 message:1 limit:4 baptize:1 accordingly:1 oppose:3 amendment:4 either:2 raise:2 covenant:1 relationship:4 opinion:1 vary:3 subject:3 prior:1 controversy:2 example:15 website:4 claim:8 original:5 versus:1 basis:3 amended:2 contrast:1 berean:10 military:5 service:6 remainder:2 dawn:9 due:3 difference:3 divorce:2 remarriage:2 twentieth:1 objection:1 fore:1 introduction:2 conscription:1 degree:3 exemption:2 grant:1 frequently:1 person:3 undertake:1 civilian:1 authority:4 assist:2 kindertransport:1 relocate:1 jewish:2 child:3 away:1 nazi:1 persecution:1 post:1 increase:2 co:5 operation:3 interaction:2 establishment:2 week:1 long:1 school:4 national:2 international:1 meal:1 fund:1 pastoral:1 humanitarian:2 accompany:2 expansion:1 developing:1 account:2 towards:1 reunion:2 emphasis:5 schism:1 unpleasant:1 divide:2 family:3 make:5 try:2 solve:1 success:2 already:1 incorporate:2 outside:1 large:6 central:16 use:22 term:7 volume:5 drop:2 thereafter:2 regularity:2 union:4 occur:1 shield:1 ally:1 document:1 cooper:1 carter:1 addendum:1 reason:1 separation:1 remain:5 old:8 paths:4 despite:4 understand:3 nasu:1 recent:3 year:9 reunite:2 section:6 wider:1 periodic:1 effort:1 offshoot:1 precisely:1 basf:4 companion:3 maranatha:4 unite:2 august:1 lightstand:1 november:2 stem:1 phillips:1 jim:1 historical:3 individual:11 share:2 criticism:3 christendom:2 astray:1 lecture:4 mean:1 say:3 ask:1 incredulous:1 enquirer:1 men:2 learn:2 eighteen:1 without:3 thousand:4 minister:3 apart:1 holy:6 page:12 mistaken:1 go:4 suggest:1 social:1 conditioning:1 self:1 interest:1 clergy:1 incomplete:1 reformation:2 prevent:2 rediscovery:1 glance:1 mystery:1 christadelphianism:2 contemporary:4 king:1 argue:1 complete:2 losing:1 unlikely:1 recover:1 always:1 albeit:1 mar:2 apostasy:2 arrangement:2 sort:1 preservation:1 protection:1 witness:5 worshipping:1 daemonials:1 idol:1 midst:2 nation:2 earth:6 weapon:1 whose:2 warfare:1 disability:1 infernal:1 torture:1 anti:2 heretical:2 crusader:1 inquisition:1 eureka:2 edition:3 chapter:2 thus:1 generation:2 unmeasured:1 court:1 strict:1 harmony:1 prophecy:3 considerably:1 rome:1 ghost:1 dry:1 bone:1 fable:1 catholic:1 superstition:1 spirit:7 provide:2 two:4 custody:1 providentially:1 commit:2 judicial:1 vindication:1 fire:2 sword:1 though:3 apostle:2 die:1 grave:2 succeed:1 maintain:3 integral:1 temple:2 found:3 europe:1 corrupt:1 mass:1 real:2 consist:1 remnant:1 preserve:3 prevailing:1 corruption:1 thirteen:1 apocalypse:1 considerable:3 evidence:4 ce:1 similar:3 consistent:4 line:1 discover:1 continuity:1 similarity:2 alan:7 eyre:13 protester:2 particular:1 radical:1 among:3 socinian:2 unitarian:1 way:2 able:1 demonstrate:3 substantial:1 precedent:1 practice:8 inheritor:1 noble:1 tradition:2 element:1 hammer:1 anvil:1 affliction:1 even:2 anguish:1 protestors:5 note:3 record:1 herein:1 perhaps:1 writer:4 remind:1 nevertheless:1 tell:1 little:3 strive:1 revive:1 christianity:4 apostolic:1 outlook:1 far:2 close:4 springing:1 shoot:1 penetrate:1 spiritual:2 pass:2 religion:3 last:1 nineteen:1 research:2 withstand:1 examination:1 peer:1 criticize:1 thoroughly:1 ruth:3 mchaffie:3 exhaustively:1 researched:1 face:3 significantly:1 misread:1 misrepresent:1 source:1 bulk:1 often:2 contradict:1 commentary:1 cautious:1 circumspect:1 caveat:1 neither:1 opportunity:1 search:2 archive:1 enough:1 realise:1 exaggerated:1 praiseworthy:1 intention:1 moreover:1 misgiving:1 examine:1 closely:2 explain:1 endeavour:1 ron:3 coleman:2 prepare:1 address:2 oxford:1 commemorate:1 anniversary:1 william:3 tyndale:3 sought:1 information:1 surprise:1 serious:1 misrepresentation:1 publication:4 father:3 appear:3 contain:1 inaccuracy:1 hymn:16 isaac:3 watt:3 michael:2 ashton:2 editor:2 correspond:2 manner:1 scholarly:1 disprove:1 forthcoming:1 regard:3 request:1 short:2 response:2 less:2 publicize:1 previous:1 e:3 g:3 rejection:1 trinity:2 immortal:2 soul:3 literal:3 hell:2 sin:4 discovery:1 newton:2 devil:3 demon:2 epps:1 concept:1 following:1 supernatural:1 agent:1 evil:1 hobbes:1 balthasar:1 bekker:1 arthur:1 sykes:1 nathaniel:1 lardner:1 richard:1 meade:1 hugh:1 farmer:1 least:1 temptation:1 ashdowne:1 simpson:1 defunct:1 influential:1 u:1 path:2 christadephians:1 worthy:1 consideration:1 aderents:1 varies:1 approximately:1 ecclesial:6 directory:1 wikipedia:1 entry:1 immediate:1 live:5 ref:2 tend:2 operate:1 organisationally:1 fairly:1 similarly:1 different:4 instance:2 huge:1 importance:1 discipline:2 localise:1 others:1 confine:1 southern:2 california:3 common:3 busf:1 clause:1 four:1 addition:2 prohibit:1 police:1 constable:1 great:2 may:2 general:1 absence:1 centralised:1 congregation:5 style:4 autonomously:1 typically:6 alter:1 constitution:1 list:3 formalized:1 commandment:2 responsible:2 orthodoxy:1 useful:1 act:2 standard:1 determine:1 congregational:5 conflict:4 resolution:2 apply:1 consultation:1 mediation:1 discussion:3 excommunication:1 final:1 unorthodox:1 relative:1 uniformity:2 undoubtedly:1 influence:1 recommend:1 basically:1 democratic:2 elect:2 arrange:2 serve:1 duty:2 guideline:1 committee:6 well:1 pay:1 male:4 assess:1 eligibility:1 teach:4 perform:2 usually:2 assign:1 rotation:1 permanently:1 appoint:1 preacher:1 governance:1 model:1 arranging:1 unpaid:1 run:1 answerable:1 rest:1 publicly:1 assent:1 describe:1 standing:1 home:2 generally:1 welcome:1 participate:4 inter:2 ordinate:1 running:1 heritage:3 college:3 cooranbong:1 sydney:1 kemps:1 creek:1 elderly:2 care:3 isolation:1 league:1 distance:1 infirmity:1 attend:2 regularly:2 major:1 standardised:1 depend:2 adhere:1 liberal:1 core:1 formal:2 declaration:1 reveal:2 summary:1 wholly:2 text:1 inspire:1 creator:1 son:3 power:3 creation:1 sometimes:2 refers:1 mind:2 context:1 strength:1 guidance:1 instead:3 reading:4 event:1 shape:1 bath:1 promised:1 messiah:1 promise:3 testament:2 fulfilment:2 man:1 inherit:1 sinful:2 human:2 nature:2 virtue:1 miraculous:1 conception:1 tempt:1 therefore:1 perfect:1 representative:1 sacrifice:1 humankind:1 immortality:3 ascend:1 heaven:3 dwell:1 place:4 abraham:2 solomon:1 focal:1 point:1 taught:1 reconcile:1 repentance:1 baptism:2 total:1 water:1 sure:1 save:2 obedience:2 command:1 non:5 nothing:1 resurrection:2 judgement:1 accepted:1 receive:1 gift:2 restored:1 mortal:1 millennium:1 land:2 past:1 empire:1 notably:1 trinitarianism:2 pre:1 infant:1 personhood:1 possession:1 satan:1 opposition:2 specific:1 political:1 system:1 understood:1 refer:1 eternal:1 torment:1 appendix:1 introduce:2 answer:2 cannot:1 marriage:2 sexual:1 heterosexual:1 homosexuality:1 moral:1 local:3 usage:1 gathering:3 summon:1 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 feb:1 worship:8 sunday:3 remembrance:1 celebration:1 memorial:1 additional:1 meeting:2 prayer:1 evangelism:3 involve:1 public:1 title:1 handsworth:1 seminar:1 effectively:1 correspondence:1 course:1 widely:2 area:2 established:1 presence:1 like:1 video:3 auxiliary:1 lecturing:1 society:2 cals:1 videos:1 williamsburgh:1 foundation:1 wcf:1 youpreach:1 youtube:1 podcasts:4 washwood:1 heath:1 internet:1 forum:3 open:1 baptised:2 consider:2 encourage:2 youth:5 regional:1 holiday:2 young:1 popular:2 camp:1 female:2 equal:1 sight:1 distinction:1 role:2 woman:2 eligible:1 sit:1 music:3 discus:1 vote:1 business:1 engage:1 ecclesially:1 accountable:1 ordinated:1 legislative:1 dependent:1 joint:1 combine:1 preaching:1 refuse:1 pacifist:1 coercion:1 strong:2 characterize:1 firm:1 inspired:1 enormous:1 evans:1 daniel:1 usa:3 xulon:1 press:4 devotion:1 center:1 daily:2 weekly:1 fahlbusch:1 erwin:1 bromiley:1 geoffrey:1 w:1 wm:1 b:1 eerdmans:1 devoted:1 student:1 infallible:1 inerrant:1 edward:1 linda:1 brief:1 westminster:1 knox:1 enjoin:1 powles:1 lilian:1 v:1 sect:2 michigan:1 systematically:1 bbc:2 liturgical:1 autonomous:1 free:1 adopt:1 whatever:1 pattern:1 choose:1 deal:1 order:1 hymnody:8 anglican:1 british:2 protestant:1 sizeable:1 proportion:1 draw:1 scottish:2 psalter:1 charles:2 wesley:3 cowper:1 beginning:2 broad:1 reflect:2 principle:2 jerusalem:1 professor:2 campbellsville:2 university:3 kentucky:2 july:2 george:1 dowie:1 edinburgh:1 collection:1 psalm:2 golden:1 harp:1 subtitle:1 song:2 compile:2 immersed:1 replace:1 five:1 j:2 revise:1 expand:1 thorough:1 revision:1 late:1 cmpa:1 bookshop:1 almost:1 universally:1 quarter:1 praise:2 lord:2 songbook:1 hoddesdon:1 produce:2 aim:1 theology:1 organ:1 piano:1 promote:1 instrument:1 involvement:1 trend:1 band:2 folk:1 rock:1 fisher:1 tale:1 art:2 trust:2 arts:1 performing:1 visual:1 dramatic:1 hymnbook:1 language:1 liedboek:1 van:1 de:1 broeders:1 christus:1 holland:1 circa:1 culture:1 historically:1 occupy:1 scope:1 hymnic:1 might:1 conclude:1 branch:1 high:1 percentage:1 hymnists:1 enhance:1 footnote:1 fred:1 pearce:1 stephen:1 hill:1 canton:1 mi:1 tidings:1 isbn:5 r:2 shalom:1 h:1 lippy:1 lewiston:1 queenston:1 edwin:1 mellen:1 harry:1 tennant:1 bryan:1 sociological:1 elim:1 tabernacle:1 science:1 heinemann:1 berkeley:1 los:1 angeles:1 ethic:1 chrisitanity:1 subdivision:1 rob:1 hyndman:1 sister:1 beechworth:1 vic:1 bethel:1 |@bigram religious_affiliation:1 kenya_tanzania:1 http_www:2 conscientious_objector:2 christadelphian_ecclesias:9 ecclesias_birmingham:5 unamended_fellowship:6 berean_fellowship:5 dawn_christadelphians:7 divorce_remarriage:2 twentieth_century:1 conscientious_objection:1 berean_christadelphians:5 alan_eyre:5 commemorate_anniversary:1 william_tyndale:1 isaac_newton:1 thomas_hobbes:1 co_ordinate:1 jesus_christ:6 holy_spirit:5 ascend_heaven:1 immortality_soul:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_encyclopædia:1 britannica_online:1 male_female:2 xulon_press:1 wm_b:1 christadelphian_hymn:5 william_cowper:1 psalm_hymn:2 edwin_mellen:1 mellen_press:1 los_angeles:1 |
4,672 | Byzantium | Byzantium (Greek: Βυζάντιον / Byzántion, Latin: , ) was an ancient Greek city, which was founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 667 BC and named after their king Byzas or Byzantas (Βύζας or Βύζαντας in Greek). The name "Byzantium" is a Latinization of the original name Byzantion. The city is what later evolved to be the center of the Byzantine Empire (the Greek-speaking Roman Empire of late Antiquity and the Middle Ages) under the name of Constantinople. Constantinople fell to the Turkish Ottoman Empire in 1453. The name of the city was changed to Istanbul in 1930 following the establishment of modern Turkey. History The city of Byzantium was dedicated to the Greek goddess Artemis in 667 BC, whose symbol, the crescent moon, was used as the symbol of the city for nearly 1000 years between 667 BC and 330 AD. The origins of Byzantium are shrouded in legend. The traditional legend has it that Byzas from Megara (a town near Athens), founded Byzantium in 667 BC, when he sailed northeast across the Aegean Sea. Byzas had consulted the Oracle at Delphi to ask where to make his new city. The Oracle told him to find it "opposite the blind." At the time, he did not know what this meant. But when he came upon the Bosporus he realized what it meant: on the east shore was a Greek city, Chalcedon. However, according to legend, they had not noticed the land that lay a half-mile away. Byzas founded his city here on the European coast and named it Byzantion after himself. It was mainly a trading city due to its strategic location at the Black Sea's only entrance. Byzantion later conquered Chalcedon, across the Bosporus on the Asiatic side. After siding with Pescennius Niger against the victorious Septimius Severus, the city was besieged by Roman forces and suffered extensive damage in 196 AD. Byzantium was rebuilt by Septimius Severus, now emperor, and quickly regained its previous prosperity. The location of Byzantium attracted Roman Emperor Constantine I who, in 330 AD, refounded it as Nova Roma. After his death the city was called Constantinople (Greek Κωνσταντινούπολις or Konstantinoupolis) ('city of Constantine'). It remained the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, which was later called the Byzantine Empire by historians. This combination of imperialism and location would affect Constantinople's role as the crossing point between two continents: Europe and Asia. It was a commercial, cultural, and diplomatic magnet. With its strategic position, Constantinople could control the route between Asia and Europe, as well as the passage from the Mediterranean Sea to the Black Sea. On May 29, 1453, the city fell to the Ottoman Turks, and again became the capital of a powerful state, the Ottoman Empire. The Turks called the city Istanbul (though not officially renamed until 1930) and it has remained Turkey's largest (and arguably its most important) city, although Ankara is now the capital. Emblem Byzantium first produced coins with the crescent and star symbol in the 4th century BC. According to legend, this was to honour the moon-goddess Hecate, who the inhabitants believed had saved the city from attack by Philip II of Macedon in 340-339 BC. Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece by Nigel Guy Wilson (Routledge, 2006) p. 136. The Complete Dictionary of Symbols by Jack Tresidder (Chronicle Books, 2005) p. 127. In 330 AD Constantine I added the Virgin Mary's star to the flag. Byzantium would then also be the first attested nation or empire to use the combination of the crescent moon and star together as an emblem. The crescent moon and star was not completely abandoned by the Christian world after the fall of Constantinople. To date the official flag of the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem is a labarum of white, a church building with two towers, and on either side of the arms, at the top, are the outline in black of a crescent moon facing center and a star with rays. Notable people Homerus, tragedian, lived in the early 3rd century BC Philo, engineer, lived ca. 280 BC–ca. 220 BC Epigenes of Byzantium, astrologer, lived in the 3rd–2nd century BC See also Constantinople details the history of the city before the Turkish conquest of 1453. Istanbul details the history of the city from 1453 on, and describes the modern city. Sarayburnu is the geographic location of ancient Byzantium Notes References Harris, Jonathan, Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (Hambledon/Continuum, London, 2007). ISBN 978 1847251794 Jeffreys, Elizabeth and Michael, and Moffatt, Ann, Byzantine Papers: Proceedings of the First Australian Byzantine Studies Conference, Canberra, 17-19 May 1978 (Australian National University, Canberra, 1979). Istanbul Historical Information - Istanbul Informative Guide To The City. Retrieved January 6, 2005. The Useful Information about Istanbul. Retrieved January 6, 2005. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0195046528 External links Society for the Promotion of Byzantine Studies : www.byzantium.ac.uk Vasilief, A History of the Byzantine Empire, hyperlinked with notes and more resources, at Elpenor. Description of Byzantine monetary system - fifth Century BC : History of money FAQs | Byzantium |@lemmatized byzantium:14 greek:8 βυζάντιον:1 byzántion:1 latin:1 ancient:3 city:20 found:3 colonist:1 megara:2 bc:11 name:6 king:1 byzas:4 byzantas:1 βύζας:1 βύζαντας:1 latinization:1 original:1 byzantion:3 later:3 evolve:1 center:2 byzantine:7 empire:8 speaking:1 roman:4 late:1 antiquity:1 middle:1 age:1 constantinople:8 fell:2 turkish:2 ottoman:3 change:1 istanbul:6 follow:1 establishment:1 modern:2 turkey:2 history:5 dedicate:1 goddess:2 artemis:1 whose:1 symbol:4 crescent:5 moon:5 use:2 nearly:1 year:1 ad:4 origin:1 shroud:1 legend:4 traditional:1 town:1 near:1 athens:1 sail:1 northeast:1 across:2 aegean:1 sea:4 consult:1 oracle:2 delphi:1 ask:1 make:1 new:1 tell:1 find:1 opposite:1 blind:1 time:1 know:1 meant:1 come:1 upon:1 bosporus:2 realize:1 mean:1 east:1 shore:1 chalcedon:2 however:1 accord:2 notice:1 land:1 lay:1 half:1 mile:1 away:1 european:1 coast:1 mainly:1 trading:1 due:1 strategic:2 location:4 black:3 entrance:1 conquer:1 asiatic:1 side:3 pescennius:1 niger:1 victorious:1 septimius:2 severus:2 besiege:1 force:1 suffer:1 extensive:1 damage:1 rebuild:1 emperor:2 quickly:1 regain:1 previous:1 prosperity:1 attract:1 constantine:3 refounded:1 nova:1 rom:1 death:1 call:3 κωνσταντινούπολις:1 konstantinoupolis:1 remain:2 capital:4 eastern:1 historian:1 combination:2 imperialism:1 would:2 affect:1 role:1 cross:1 point:1 two:2 continent:1 europe:2 asia:2 commercial:1 cultural:1 diplomatic:1 magnet:1 position:1 could:1 control:1 route:1 well:1 passage:1 mediterranean:1 may:2 turks:1 become:1 powerful:1 state:1 turk:1 though:1 officially:1 rename:1 large:1 arguably:1 important:1 although:1 ankara:1 emblem:2 first:3 produce:1 coin:1 star:5 century:4 honour:1 hecate:1 inhabitant:1 believe:1 save:1 attack:1 philip:1 ii:1 macedon:1 encyclopedia:1 greece:1 nigel:1 guy:1 wilson:1 routledge:1 p:2 complete:1 dictionary:2 jack:1 tresidder:1 chronicle:1 book:1 add:1 virgin:1 mary:1 flag:2 also:2 attested:1 nation:1 together:1 completely:1 abandon:1 christian:1 world:1 fall:1 date:1 official:1 orthodox:1 patriarch:1 jerusalem:1 labarum:1 white:1 church:1 build:1 tower:1 either:1 arm:1 top:1 outline:1 face:1 ray:1 notable:1 people:1 homerus:1 tragedian:1 live:3 early:1 philo:1 engineer:1 ca:2 epigenes:1 astrologer:1 see:1 detail:2 conquest:1 describe:1 sarayburnu:1 geographic:1 note:2 reference:1 harris:1 jonathan:1 hambledon:1 continuum:1 london:1 isbn:2 jeffreys:1 elizabeth:1 michael:1 moffatt:1 ann:1 paper:1 proceeding:1 australian:2 study:2 conference:1 canberra:2 national:1 university:2 historical:1 information:2 informative:1 guide:1 retrieve:2 january:2 useful:1 oxford:2 press:1 external:1 link:1 society:1 promotion:1 www:1 ac:1 uk:1 vasilief:1 hyperlinked:1 resource:1 elpenor:1 description:1 monetary:1 system:1 fifth:1 money:1 faq:1 |@bigram ottoman_empire:2 crescent_moon:4 aegean_sea:1 consult_oracle:1 oracle_delphi:1 septimius_severus:2 ottoman_turks:1 goddess_hecate:1 virgin_mary:1 hambledon_continuum:1 external_link:1 |
4,673 | Covalent_bond | A covalent bond is a form of chemical bonding that is characterized by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms, or between atoms and other covalent bonds. In short, attraction-to-repulsion stability that forms between atoms when they share electrons is known as covalent bonding. Covalent bonding includes many kinds of interaction, including σ-bonding, π-bonding, metal to non-metal bonding, agostic interactions, and three-center two-electron bonds. March, J. “Advanced Organic Chemistry” 4th Ed. J. Wiley and Sons, 1991: New York. ISBN 0-471-60180-2. G. L. Miessler and D. A. Tarr “Inorganic Chemistry” 3rd Ed, Pearson/Prentice Hall publisher, ISBN 0-13-035471-6. The term covalent bond dates from 1939. Merriam-Webster - Collegiate Dictionary (2000). The prefix co- means jointly, associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree, etc.; thus a "co-valent bond", essentially, means that the atoms share "valence", such as is discussed in valence bond theory. In the molecule H2, the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent bonding. Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativities. Thus, covalent bonding does not necessarily require the two atoms be of the same elements, only that they be of comparable electronegativity. Although covalent bonding entails sharing of electrons, it is not necessarily delocalized. Furthermore, in contrast to electrostatic interactions ("ionic bonds") the strength of covalent bond depends on the angular relation between atoms in polyatomic molecules. History The term "covalence" in regard to bonding was first used in 1919 by Irving Langmuir in a Journal of American Chemical Society article entitled The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules: Langmuir, I. (1919). J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 1919; 41; 868-934. The idea of covalent bonding can be traced several years prior to 1919 to Gilbert N. Lewis, who in 1916 described the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. He introduced the so called Lewis notation or electron dot notation or The Lewis Dot Structure in which valence electrons (those in the outer shell) are represented as dots around the atomic symbols. Pairs of electrons located between atoms represent covalent bonds. Multiple pairs represent multiple bonds, such as double and triple bonds. Some examples of Electron Dot Notation are shown in the following figure. An alternative form of representation, not shown here, has bond-forming electron pairs represented as solid lines. Early concepts in covalent bonding arose from this kind of image of the molecule of methane. Covalent bonding is implied in the Lewis structure that indicates sharing of electrons between atoms. While the idea of shared electron pairs provides an effective qualitative picture of covalent bonding, quantum mechanics is needed to understand the nature of these bonds and predict the structures and properties of simple molecules. Walter Heitler and Fritz London are credited with the first successful quantum mechanical explanation of a chemical bond, specifically that of molecular hydrogen, in 1927. W. Heitler and F. London, Zeitschrift für Physik, vol. 44, p. 455 (1927). English translation in H. Hettema, Quantum Chemistry, Classic Scientific Papers, World Scientific, Singapore (2000). Their work was based on the valence bond model, which assumes that a chemical bond is formed when there is good overlap between the atomic orbitals of participating atoms. These atomic orbitals are known to have specific angular relationships between each other, and thus the valence bond model can successfully predict the bond angles observed in simple molecules. Bond order Bond order is a number that indicates the number of pairs of electrons shared between atoms forming a covalent bond. The term is only applicable to diatomic molecules, but is used to describe bonds within polyatomic compounds as well. The most common type of covalent bond is the single bond, the sharing of only one pair of electrons between two atoms. It usually consists of one sigma bond. All bonds with more than one shared pair are called multiple bonds. Sharing two pairs is called a double bond. An example is in ethylene (between the carbon atoms). It usually consists of one sigma bond and one pi bond. Sharing three pairs is called a triple bond. An example is in hydrogen cyanide (between C and N). It usually consists of one sigma bond and two pi-bonds. Quadruple bonds are found in the transition metals. Molybdenum and rhenium are the elements most commonly observed with this bonding configuration. An example of a quadruple bond is also found in Di-tungsten tetra(hpp). Quintuple bonds have been found to exist in certain dichromium compounds. Sextuple bonds are found in diatomic molybdenum and tungsten. Most bonding of course, is not localized, so the above classification, while powerful and pervasive, is of limited validity. Three-center bonds do not conform readily to the above conventions. Resonance Many bonding situations can be described with more than one valid Lewis Dot Structure (for example, ozone, O3). In an LDS diagram of O3, the center atom will have a single bond with one atom and a double bond with the other. The LDS diagram cannot tell us which atom has the double bond; the first and second adjoining atoms have equal chances of having the double bond. These two possible structures are called resonance structures. In reality, the structure of ozone is a resonance hybrid between its two possible resonance structures. Instead of having one double bond and one single bond, there are actually two 1.5 bonds with approximately three electrons in each at all times. A special resonance case is exhibited in aromatic rings of atoms (for example, benzene). Aromatic rings are composed of atoms arranged in a circle (held together by covalent bonds) that may alternate between single and double bonds according to their LDS. In actuality, the electrons tend to be disambiguously and evenly spaced within the ring. Electron sharing in aromatic structures is often represented with a ring inside the circle of atoms. Lewis Dot Structures for molecules with resonance are shown by creating the dot structure for every possible form, placing brackets around each structure, and connecting the boxes with double-headed arrows. Current theory Today the valence bond model has been augmented by the molecular orbital model. In this model, as atoms are brought together, the atomic orbitals interact to form molecular orbitals, which are linear sums and differences of the atomic orbitals. These molecular orbitals are a cross between the original atomic orbitals and generally extend between the two bonding atoms. Using quantum mechanics, it is possible to calculate the electronic structure, energy levels, bond angles, bond distances, dipole moments, and electromagnetic spectra of simple molecules with a high degree of accuracy. Bond distances and angles can be calculated as accurately as they can be measured (distances to a few pm and bond angles to a few degrees). For small molecules, calculations are sufficiently accurate to be useful for determining thermodynamic heats of formation and kinetic activation energy barriers. See also Metallic bonding Linear combination of atomic orbitals Hybridization Hydrogen bond Noncovalent bonding Disulfide bond Notes References External links Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure Structure and Bonding in Chemistry--Covalent Bonds | Covalent_bond |@lemmatized covalent:19 bond:61 form:7 chemical:4 bonding:16 characterize:1 sharing:4 pair:9 electron:19 atom:24 short:1 attraction:1 repulsion:1 stability:1 share:10 know:2 include:2 many:2 kind:2 interaction:3 σ:1 π:1 metal:3 non:1 agostic:1 three:4 center:3 two:10 march:1 j:3 advance:1 organic:1 chemistry:4 ed:2 wiley:1 son:1 new:1 york:1 isbn:2 g:1 l:1 miessler:1 tarr:1 inorganic:1 pearson:1 prentice:1 hall:1 publisher:1 term:3 date:1 merriam:1 webster:1 collegiate:1 dictionary:1 prefix:1 co:2 mean:2 jointly:1 associate:1 action:1 partner:1 less:1 degree:3 etc:1 thus:3 valent:1 essentially:1 valence:6 discuss:1 theory:2 molecule:10 hydrogen:4 via:1 covalency:1 great:1 similar:1 electronegativity:2 necessarily:2 require:1 element:2 comparable:1 although:1 entails:1 delocalize:1 furthermore:1 contrast:1 electrostatic:1 ionic:1 strength:1 depend:1 angular:2 relation:1 polyatomic:2 history:1 covalence:1 regard:1 first:3 use:3 irving:1 langmuir:2 journal:1 american:1 society:1 article:1 entitle:1 arrangement:1 chem:1 soc:1 idea:2 trace:1 several:1 year:1 prior:1 gilbert:1 n:2 lewis:6 describe:3 introduce:1 called:1 notation:3 dot:7 structure:15 outer:1 shell:1 represent:5 around:2 atomic:7 symbol:1 locate:1 multiple:3 pairs:2 double:8 triple:2 example:6 show:3 following:1 figure:1 alternative:1 representation:1 forming:1 solid:1 line:1 early:1 concept:1 arose:1 image:1 methane:1 imply:1 indicate:2 provide:1 effective:1 qualitative:1 picture:1 quantum:4 mechanic:2 need:1 understand:1 nature:1 predict:2 property:1 simple:3 walter:1 heitler:2 fritz:1 london:2 credit:1 successful:1 mechanical:1 explanation:1 specifically:1 molecular:5 w:1 f:1 zeitschrift:1 für:1 physik:1 vol:1 p:1 english:1 translation:1 h:1 hettema:1 classic:1 scientific:2 paper:1 world:1 singapore:1 work:1 base:1 model:5 assume:1 good:1 overlap:1 orbitals:8 participate:1 specific:1 relationship:1 successfully:1 angle:4 observe:2 order:2 number:2 applicable:1 diatomic:2 within:2 compound:2 well:1 common:1 type:1 single:4 one:10 usually:3 consist:3 sigma:3 call:4 ethylene:1 carbon:1 atoms:1 pi:2 cyanide:1 c:1 quadruple:2 find:4 transition:1 molybdenum:2 rhenium:1 commonly:1 configuration:1 also:2 di:1 tungsten:2 tetra:1 hpp:1 quintuple:1 exist:1 certain:1 dichromium:1 sextuple:1 course:1 localize:1 classification:1 powerful:1 pervasive:1 limited:1 validity:1 conform:1 readily:1 convention:1 resonance:6 situation:1 valid:1 ozone:2 lds:3 diagram:2 cannot:1 tell:1 u:1 second:1 adjoining:1 equal:1 chance:1 possible:4 reality:1 hybrid:1 instead:1 actually:1 approximately:1 time:1 special:1 case:1 exhibit:1 aromatic:3 ring:4 benzene:1 compose:1 arrange:1 circle:2 hold:1 together:2 may:1 alternate:1 accord:1 actuality:1 tend:1 disambiguously:1 evenly:1 space:1 often:1 inside:1 create:1 every:1 place:1 bracket:1 connect:1 box:1 head:1 arrow:1 current:1 today:1 augment:1 orbital:1 bring:1 interact:1 linear:2 sum:1 difference:1 cross:1 original:1 generally:1 extend:1 calculate:2 electronic:1 energy:2 level:1 distance:3 dipole:1 moment:1 electromagnetic:1 spectrum:1 high:1 accuracy:1 accurately:1 measure:1 pm:1 small:1 calculation:1 sufficiently:1 accurate:1 useful:1 determine:1 thermodynamic:1 heat:1 formation:1 kinetic:1 activation:1 barrier:1 see:1 metallic:1 combination:1 hybridization:1 noncovalent:1 disulfide:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram covalent_bond:13 attraction_repulsion:1 covalent_bonding:6 organic_chemistry:1 wiley_son:1 inorganic_chemistry:1 pearson_prentice:1 prentice_hall:1 merriam_webster:1 webster_collegiate:1 valence_bond:4 hydrogen_atom:1 electrostatic_interaction:1 irving_langmuir:1 chem_soc:1 valence_electron:1 quantum_mechanic:2 quantum_mechanical:1 zeitschrift_für:1 für_physik:1 physik_vol:1 atomic_orbitals:6 diatomic_molecule:1 hydrogen_cyanide:1 molybdenum_tungsten:1 aromatic_ring:2 molecular_orbital:1 molecular_orbitals:2 dipole_moment:1 electromagnetic_spectrum:1 hydrogen_bond:1 disulfide_bond:1 external_link:1 |
4,674 | Particle_physics | Collision of 2 beams of gold atoms recorded by RHIC Particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the elementary constituents of matter and radiation, and the interactions between them. It is also called high energy physics, because many elementary particles do not occur under normal circumstances in nature, but can be created and detected during energetic collisions of other particles, as is done in particle accelerators. Research in this area has produced a long list of particles. Subatomic particles An image showing 6 quarks, 6 leptons and the interacting particles, according to the Standard Model Modern particle physics research is focused on subatomic particles, which have less structure than atoms. These include atomic constituents such as electrons, protons, and neutrons (protons and neutrons are actually composite particles, made up of quarks), particles produced by radiative and scattering processes, such as photons, neutrinos, and muons, as well as a wide range of exotic particles. Strictly speaking, the term particle is a misnomer because the dynamics of particle physics are governed by quantum mechanics. As such, they exhibit wave-particle duality, displaying particle-like behavior under certain experimental conditions and wave-like behavior in others (more technically they are described by state vectors in a Hilbert space; see quantum field theory). Following the convention of particle physicists, "elementary particles" refer to objects such as electrons and photons, it is well known that these "particles" display wave-like properties as well. All the particles and their interactions observed to date can almost be described entirely by a quantum field theory called the Standard Model. The Standard Model has 17 species of elementary particles (12 fermions (24 if you count antiparticles separately), 4 vector bosons (5 if you count antiparticles separately), and 1 scalar bosons), which can combine to form composite particles, accounting for the hundreds of other species of particles discovered since the 1960s. The Standard Model has been found to agree with almost all the experimental tests conducted to date. However, most particle physicists believe that it is an incomplete description of nature, and that a more fundamental theory awaits discovery. In recent years, measurements of neutrino mass have provided the first experimental deviations from the Standard Model. Particle physics has had a large impact on the philosophy of science. Some particle physicists adhere to reductionism, a point of view that has been criticized and defended by philosophers and scientists. Part of the debate is described below. History The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles dates to at least the 6th century BC. The philosophical doctrine of atomism and the nature of elementary particles were studied by ancient Greek philosophers such as Leucippus, Democritus and Epicurus; ancient Indian philosophers such as Kanada, Dignāga and Dharmakirti; medieval scientists such as Alhazen, Avicenna and Algazel; and early modern European physicists such as Pierre Gassendi, Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton. The particle theory of light was also proposed by Alhazen, Avicenna, Gassendi and Newton. These early ideas were founded in abstract, philosophical reasoning rather than experimentation and empirical observation. In the 19th century, John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry, concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of particle. Dalton and his contemporaries believed these were the fundamental particles of nature and thus named them atoms, after the Greek word atomos, meaning "indivisible". However, near the end of the century, physicists discovered that atoms were not, in fact, the fundamental particles of nature, but conglomerates of even smaller particles. The early 20th century explorations of nuclear physics and quantum physics culminated in proofs of nuclear fission in 1939 by Lise Meitner (based on experiments by Otto Hahn), and nuclear fusion by Hans Bethe in the same year. These discoveries gave rise to an active industry of generating one atom from another, even rendering possible (although not profitable) the transmutation of lead into gold. They also led to the development of nuclear weapons. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a bewildering variety of particles were found in scattering experiments. This was referred to as the "particle zoo". This term was deprecated after the formulation of the Standard Model during the 1970s in which the large number of particles was explained as combinations of a (relatively) small number of fundamental particles. The Standard Model The current state of the classification of elementary particles is the Standard Model. It describes the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces, using mediating gauge bosons. The species of gauge bosons are the gluons, and and Z bosons, and the photons. The model also contains 24 fundamental particles, which are the constituents of matter. Finally, it predicts the existence of a type of boson known as the Higgs boson, which has yet to be discovered. Experimental Laboratories In particle physics, the major international laboratories are: Brookhaven National Laboratory, located on Long Island, USA. Its main facility is the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider which collides heavy ions such as gold ions and polarized protons. It is the world's first heavy ion collider, and the world's only polarized proton collider. Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (Novosibirsk, Russia) CERN, located on the French-Swiss border near Geneva. Its main project is now the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which had its first beam circulation on 10 September 2008 and will be the world's most energetic collider. Earlier facilities include LEP, the Large Electron Positron collider, which was stopped in 2001 and then dismantled to give way for LHC; and SPS, or the Super Proton Synchrotron, which is being reused as a pre-accelerator for LHC. DESY, located in Hamburg, Germany. Its main facility is HERA, which collides electrons or positrons and protons. Fermilab, located near Chicago, USA. Its main facility is the Tevatron, which collides protons and antiprotons and is presently the highest energy particle collider in the world. KEK, the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization of Japan, located in Tsukuba, Japan. It is the home of a number of experiments such as K2K, a neutrino oscillation experiment and Belle, an experiment measuring the CP-symmetry violation in the B-meson. SLAC, located near Palo Alto, USA. Its main facility is PEP-II, which collides electrons and positrons. Many other particle accelerators exist. The techniques required to do modern experimental particle physics are quite varied and complex, constituting a subspecialty nearly completely distinct from the theoretical side of the field. See :Category:Experimental particle physics for a partial list of the ideas required for such experiments. Theory Theoretical particle physics attempts to develop the models, theoretical framework, and mathematical tools to understand current experiments and make predictions for future experiments. See also theoretical physics. There are several major efforts in theoretical particle physics today and each includes a range of different activities. The efforts in each area are interrelated. There are five most important states in particle theory: one of the major activities in theoretical particle physics is the attempt to better understand the standard model and its tests. By extracting the parameters of the Standard Model from experiments with less uncertainty, this work probes the limits of the Standard Model and therefore expands our understanding of nature. These efforts are made challenging by the difficult nature of calculating many quantities in quantum chromodynamics. Some theorists making these efforts refer to themselves as phenomenologists and may use the tools of quantum field theory and effective field theory. Others make use of lattice field theory and call themselves lattice theorists. Another major effort is in model building where model builders develop ideas for what physics may lie beyond the Standard Model (at higher energies or smaller distances). This work is often motivated by the hierarchy problem and is constrained by existing experimental data. It may involve work on supersymmetry, alternatives to the Higgs mechanism, extra spatial dimensions (such as the Randall-Sundrum models), Preon theory, combinations of these, or other ideas. A third major effort in theoretical particle physics is string theory. String theorists attempt to construct a unified description of quantum mechanics and general relativity by building a theory based on small strings, and branes rather than particles. If the theory is successful, it may be considered a "Theory of Everything". There are also other areas of work in theoretical particle physics ranging from particle cosmology to loop quantum gravity. This division of efforts in particle physics is reflected in the names of categories on the preprint archive : hep-th (theory), hep-ph (phenomenology), hep-ex (experiments), hep-lat (lattice gauge theory). The future Particle physicists internationally agree on the most important goals of particle physics research in the near and intermediate future. The overarching goal, which is pursued in several distinct ways, is to find and understand what physics may lie beyond the standard model. There are several powerful experimental reasons to expect new physics, including dark matter and neutrino mass. There are also theoretical hints that this new physics should be found at accessible energy scales. Most importantly, though, there may be unexpected and unpredicted surprises which will give us the most opportunity to learn about nature. Much of the efforts to find this new physics are focused on new collider experiments. A (relatively) near term goal is the completion of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in 2008 which will continue the search for the Higgs boson, supersymmetric particles, and other new physics. An intermediate goal is the construction of the International Linear Collider (ILC) which will complement the LHC by allowing more precise measurements of the properties of newly found particles. A decision for the technology of the ILC has been taken in August 2004, but the site has still to be agreed upon. Additionally, there are important non-collider experiments which also attempt to find and understand physics beyond the Standard Model. One important non-collider effort is the determination of the neutrino masses since these masses may arise from neutrinos mixing with very heavy particles. In addition, cosmological observations provide many useful constraints on the dark matter, although it may be impossible to determine the exact nature of the dark matter without the colliders. Finally, lower bounds on the very long lifetime of the proton put constraints on Grand Unification Theories at energy scales much higher than collider experiments will be able to probe any time soon. See also Atomic physics Beyond the Standard Model Fundamental particle High pressure physics Introduction to quantum mechanics List of accelerators in particle physics Resonance (particle physics) Rochester conference Standard model (basic details) Stanford Physics Information Retrieval System Subatomic particle References External links The Particle Adventure - educational project sponsored by the Particle Data Group of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) symmetry magazine Introduction to Particle Physics by Matthew Nobes (published on Kuro5hin): Part 1, Part 2, Part 3a, Part 3b | Particle_physics |@lemmatized collision:2 beam:2 gold:3 atom:5 record:1 rhic:1 particle:65 physic:33 branch:1 study:2 elementary:7 constituent:3 matter:6 radiation:1 interaction:2 also:9 call:3 high:6 energy:6 many:4 occur:1 normal:1 circumstance:1 nature:10 create:1 detect:1 energetic:2 accelerator:5 research:4 area:3 produce:2 long:3 list:3 subatomic:3 image:1 show:1 quark:2 lepton:1 interacting:1 accord:1 standard:16 model:21 modern:3 focus:2 less:2 structure:1 include:4 atomic:2 electron:5 proton:8 neutron:2 actually:1 composite:2 make:5 radiative:1 scattering:1 process:1 photon:3 neutrino:5 muon:1 well:3 wide:1 range:3 exotic:1 strictly:1 speak:1 term:3 misnomer:1 dynamic:1 govern:1 quantum:9 mechanic:3 exhibit:1 wave:3 duality:1 display:2 like:3 behavior:2 certain:1 experimental:8 condition:1 others:2 technically:1 describe:4 state:3 vector:2 hilbert:1 space:1 see:4 field:6 theory:17 follow:1 convention:1 physicist:6 refer:3 object:1 know:2 property:2 observe:1 date:3 almost:2 entirely:1 specie:3 fermion:1 count:2 antiparticle:2 separately:2 boson:8 scalar:1 combine:1 form:1 account:1 hundred:1 discover:3 since:2 find:7 agree:3 test:2 conduct:1 however:2 believe:2 incomplete:1 description:2 fundamental:7 awaits:1 discovery:2 recent:1 year:2 measurement:2 mass:4 provide:2 first:3 deviation:1 large:5 impact:1 philosophy:1 science:1 adhere:1 reductionism:1 point:1 view:1 criticize:1 defend:1 philosopher:3 scientist:2 part:5 debate:1 history:1 idea:5 compose:2 least:1 century:4 bc:1 philosophical:2 doctrine:1 atomism:1 ancient:2 greek:2 leucippus:1 democritus:1 epicurus:1 indian:1 kanada:1 dignāga:1 dharmakirti:1 medieval:1 alhazen:2 avicenna:2 algazel:1 early:4 european:1 pierre:1 gassendi:2 robert:1 boyle:1 isaac:1 newton:2 light:1 propose:1 found:1 abstract:1 reason:2 rather:2 experimentation:1 empirical:1 observation:2 john:1 dalton:2 work:5 stoichiometry:1 conclude:1 element:1 single:1 unique:1 type:2 contemporary:1 thus:1 name:2 word:1 atomos:1 mean:1 indivisible:1 near:6 end:1 fact:1 conglomerate:1 even:2 small:4 exploration:1 nuclear:5 culminate:1 proof:1 fission:1 lise:1 meitner:1 base:2 experiment:13 otto:1 hahn:1 fusion:1 han:1 bethe:1 give:3 rise:1 active:1 industry:1 generate:1 one:3 another:2 render:1 possible:1 although:2 profitable:1 transmutation:1 lead:2 development:1 weapon:1 throughout:1 bewildering:1 variety:1 scatter:1 zoo:1 deprecate:1 formulation:1 number:3 explain:1 combination:2 relatively:2 current:2 classification:1 strong:1 weak:1 electromagnetic:1 force:1 use:3 mediate:1 gauge:3 gluon:1 z:1 contain:1 finally:2 predict:1 existence:1 higgs:3 yet:1 laboratory:4 major:5 international:2 brookhaven:1 national:2 locate:6 island:1 usa:3 main:5 facility:5 relativistic:1 heavy:4 ion:4 collider:14 collide:4 polarized:1 world:4 polarize:1 budker:1 institute:1 novosibirsk:1 russia:1 cern:1 french:1 swiss:1 border:1 geneva:1 project:2 hadron:2 lhc:5 circulation:1 september:1 lep:1 positron:3 stop:1 dismantle:1 way:2 sps:1 super:1 synchrotron:1 reuse:1 pre:1 desy:1 hamburg:1 germany:1 hera:1 fermilab:1 chicago:1 tevatron:1 antiproton:1 presently:1 kek:1 organization:1 japan:2 tsukuba:1 home:1 oscillation:1 belle:1 measure:1 cp:1 symmetry:2 violation:1 b:1 meson:1 slac:1 palo:1 alto:1 pep:1 ii:1 exist:2 technique:1 require:2 quite:1 varied:1 complex:1 constitute:1 subspecialty:1 nearly:1 completely:1 distinct:2 theoretical:9 side:1 category:2 partial:1 attempt:4 develop:2 framework:1 mathematical:1 tool:2 understand:4 prediction:1 future:3 several:3 effort:9 today:1 different:1 activity:2 interrelate:1 five:1 important:4 good:1 extract:1 parameter:1 uncertainty:1 probe:2 limit:1 therefore:1 expand:1 understanding:1 challenging:1 difficult:1 calculate:1 quantity:1 chromodynamics:1 theorist:3 phenomenologists:1 may:8 effective:1 lattice:3 building:1 builder:1 lie:2 beyond:4 distance:1 often:1 motivate:1 hierarchy:1 problem:1 constrain:1 data:2 involve:1 supersymmetry:1 alternative:1 mechanism:1 extra:1 spatial:1 dimension:1 randall:1 sundrum:1 preon:1 third:1 string:3 construct:1 unified:1 general:1 relativity:1 build:1 branes:1 successful:1 consider:1 everything:1 cosmology:1 loop:1 gravity:1 division:1 reflect:1 preprint:1 archive:1 hep:4 th:1 ph:1 phenomenology:1 ex:1 lat:1 internationally:1 goal:4 intermediate:2 overarch:1 pursue:1 powerful:1 expect:1 new:5 dark:3 hint:1 accessible:1 scale:2 importantly:1 though:1 unexpected:1 unpredicted:1 surprise:1 u:1 opportunity:1 learn:1 much:2 completion:1 continue:1 search:1 supersymmetric:1 construction:1 linear:1 ilc:2 complement:1 allow:1 precise:1 newly:1 decision:1 technology:1 take:1 august:1 site:1 still:1 upon:1 additionally:1 non:2 determination:1 arise:1 neutrinos:1 mix:1 addition:1 cosmological:1 useful:1 constraint:2 impossible:1 determine:1 exact:1 without:1 low:1 bound:1 lifetime:1 put:1 grand:1 unification:1 able:1 time:1 soon:1 pressure:1 introduction:2 resonance:1 rochester:1 conference:1 basic:1 detail:1 stanford:1 information:1 retrieval:1 system:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 adventure:1 educational:1 sponsor:1 group:1 lawrence:1 berkeley:1 lbnl:1 magazine:1 matthew:1 nobes:1 publish:1 |@bigram elementary_particle:6 particle_accelerator:2 subatomic_particle:3 quark_lepton:1 proton_neutron:2 neutrino_muon:1 quantum_mechanic:3 particle_duality:1 leucippus_democritus:1 pierre_gassendi:1 robert_boyle:1 isaac_newton:1 nuclear_fission:1 lise_meitner:1 otto_hahn:1 han_bethe:1 nuclear_weapon:1 bewildering_variety:1 gauge_boson:2 boson_gluon:1 z_boson:1 boson_photon:1 higgs_boson:2 brookhaven_national:1 ion_collider:2 hadron_collider:2 electron_positron:3 proton_antiproton:1 particle_collider:1 neutrino_oscillation:1 palo_alto:1 quantum_chromodynamics:1 higgs_mechanism:1 spatial_dimension:1 quantum_gravity:1 hep_ph:1 supersymmetric_particle:1 information_retrieval:1 external_link:1 |
4,675 | Wireless_broadband | Three 45 Mbit/s wireless dishes on top of 307 W. 7th Street Fort Worth TX Wireless Broadband is a fairly new technology that provides high-speed wireless internet and data network access over a wide area. The term broadband According to the 802.16-2004 standard, broadband means 'having instantaneous bandwidth greater than around 1 MHz and supporting data rates greater than about 1.5 Mbit/s. This means that Wireless Broadband features speeds roughly equivalent to wired broadband access, such as that of ADSL or a cable modem. Abbreviation The acronym "WiBB" is entering the vernacular as a contraction of "Wireless Broadband", in much the same way as "WiFi" refers to 802.11 or similar wireless networks. Technology and speeds A typical WISP Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) installed on a residence. Few WISPs provide download speeds of over 100 Mbit/s; most broadband wireless access services are estimated to have a range of 50 km (30 miles) from a tower. Technologies used include LMDS and MMDS, as well as heavy use of the ISM bands and one particular access technology is being standardized by IEEE 802.16, also known as WiMAX. WiMAX is highly popular in Europe but has not met full acceptance in the United States because cost of deployment does not meet return on investment figures. In 2005 the Federal Communications Commission adopted a Report and Order that revised the FCC’s rules to open the 3650 MHz band for terrestrial wireless broadband operations. On November 14, 2007 the Commission released Public Notice DA 07-4605 in which the Wireless Telecommunications Bureau announced the start date for licensing and registration process for the 3650-3700 MHz band. Initially, Wireless Internet Service Providers (WISPs) were only found in rural areas not covered by cable or DSL. These early WISPs would employ a high-capacity T-carrier, such as a T1 or DS3 connection, and then broadcast the signal from a high elevation, such as at the top of a water tower. To receive this type of Internet connection, consumers mount a small dish to the roof of their home or office and point it to the transmitter. Line of sight is usually necessary for WISPs operating in the 2.4 and 5GHz bands with 900MHz offering better NLOS performance. Mobile wireless broadband Wireless broadband technologies also include new services from companies such as Verizon, Sprint, and AT&T Mobility, which allow a more mobile version of this broadband access. Consumers can purchase a PC card, laptop card, or USB equipment to connect their PC or laptop to the Internet via cell phone towers. This type of connection would be stable in almost any area that could also receive a strong cell phone connection. These connections can cost more for portable convenience as well as having speed limitations in all but urban environments. Licensing A wireless connection can be either licensed or unlicensed. In the US, licensed connections use a private spectrum the user has secured rights to from the FCC. In other countries, spectrum is licensed from the country's national radio communications authority (such as the ACMA in Australia or NCC in Nigeria). Licensing is usually expensive and often reserved for large companies who wish to guarantee private access to spectrum for use in point to point communication. Because of this, most wireless ISP's use unlicensed spectrum which is publicly shared. See also Broadband Internet access Clearwire CorDECT HIPERMAN IEEE 802.16 Skyriver WiMAX Wireless Broadband Alliance iBurst 802.20 References External links Wireless Internet Service Provider Association | Wireless_broadband |@lemmatized three:1 mbit:3 wireless:16 dish:2 top:2 w:1 street:1 fort:1 worth:1 tx:1 broadband:13 fairly:1 new:2 technology:5 provide:2 high:3 speed:5 internet:6 data:2 network:2 access:7 wide:1 area:3 term:1 accord:1 standard:1 mean:2 instantaneous:1 bandwidth:1 great:2 around:1 mhz:3 support:1 rate:1 feature:1 roughly:1 equivalent:1 wired:1 adsl:1 cable:2 modem:1 abbreviation:1 acronym:1 wibb:1 enter:1 vernacular:1 contraction:1 much:1 way:1 wifi:1 refers:1 similar:1 typical:1 wisp:4 customer:1 premise:1 equipment:2 cpe:1 instal:1 residence:1 wisps:1 download:1 service:4 estimate:1 range:1 km:1 mile:1 tower:3 use:5 include:2 lmds:1 mmds:1 well:2 heavy:1 ism:1 band:4 one:1 particular:1 standardize:1 ieee:2 also:4 know:1 wimax:3 highly:1 popular:1 europe:1 meet:2 full:1 acceptance:1 united:1 state:1 cost:2 deployment:1 return:1 investment:1 figure:1 federal:1 communication:3 commission:2 adopt:1 report:1 order:1 revise:1 fcc:2 rule:1 open:1 terrestrial:1 operation:1 november:1 release:1 public:1 notice:1 da:1 telecommunication:1 bureau:1 announce:1 start:1 date:1 licensing:2 registration:1 process:1 initially:1 provider:2 find:1 rural:1 cover:1 dsl:1 early:1 would:2 employ:1 capacity:1 carrier:1 connection:7 broadcast:1 signal:1 elevation:1 water:1 receive:2 type:2 consumer:2 mount:1 small:1 roof:1 home:1 office:1 point:3 transmitter:1 line:1 sight:1 usually:2 necessary:1 operating:1 offer:1 good:1 nlos:1 performance:1 mobile:2 company:2 verizon:1 sprint:1 mobility:1 allow:1 version:1 purchase:1 pc:2 card:2 laptop:2 usb:1 connect:1 via:1 cell:2 phone:2 stable:1 almost:1 could:1 strong:1 portable:1 convenience:1 limitation:1 urban:1 environment:1 license:4 either:1 unlicensed:2 u:1 private:2 spectrum:4 user:1 secure:1 right:1 country:2 national:1 radio:1 authority:1 acma:1 australia:1 ncc:1 nigeria:1 expensive:1 often:1 reserve:1 large:1 wish:1 guarantee:1 isp:1 publicly:1 share:1 see:1 clearwire:1 cordect:1 hiperman:1 skyriver:1 alliance:1 iburst:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 association:1 |@bigram fort_worth:1 worth_tx:1 wireless_broadband:7 cable_modem:1 abbreviation_acronym:1 broadband_wireless:2 ism_band:1 broadband_internet:1 external_link:1 |
4,676 | Local_area_network | A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a home, office, or small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide-area networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller geographic place, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. ARCNET, Token Ring and many other technologies have been used in the past, and G.hn may be used in the future, but Ethernet over unshielded twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies currently in use. History As larger universities and research labs obtained more computers during the late 1960s, there was increasing pressure to provide high-speed interconnections. A report in 1970 from the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory detailing the growth of their "Octopus" network "OCTOPUS: THE LAWRENCE RADIATION LABORATORY NETWORK", Samuel F. Mendicino "THE LAWRENCE RADIATION LABORATORY OCTOPUS", Courant symposium series on networks, 29 Nov 1970 , gives a good indication of the situation. Cambridge Ring was developed at Cambridge University in 1974 A brief informal history of the Computer Laboratory but was never developed into a successful commercial product. Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC in 1973–1975, and filed as . In 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe and Boggs published their seminal paper - "Ethernet: Distributed Packet-Switching For Local Computer Networks"<ref>Ethernet: Distributed Packet-Switching For Local Computer Networks</ref> ARCNET was developed by Datapoint Corporation in 1976 and announced in 1977 "History", ARCNET Trade Association - and had the first commercial installation in December 1977 at Chase Manhattan Bank in New York "The LAN turns 30, but will it reach 40?" The personal computer The development and proliferation of CP/M-based personal computers from the late 1970s and then DOS-based personal computers from 1981 meant that a single site began to have dozens or even hundreds of computers. The initial attraction of networking these was generally to share disk space and laser printers, which were both very expensive at the time. There was much enthusiasm for the concept and for several years, from about 1983 onward, computer industry pundits would regularly declare the coming year to be “the year of the LAN”. In reality, the concept was marred by proliferation of incompatible physical layer and network protocol implementations, and confusion over how best to share resources. Typically, each vendor would have its own type of network card, cabling, protocol, and network operating system. A solution appeared with the advent of Novell NetWare which provided even-handed support for the 40 or so competing card/cable types, and a much more sophisticated operating system than most of its competitors. Netware dominated Has Microsoft Ever Read the History Books? - IT Channel - IT Channel News by CRN and VARBusiness the personal computer LAN business from early after its introduction in 1983 until the mid 1990s when Microsoft introduced Windows NT Advanced Server and Windows for Workgroups. Of the competitors to NetWare, only Banyan Vines had comparable technical strengths, but Banyan never gained a secure base. Microsoft and 3Com worked together to create a simple network operating system which formed the base of 3Com's 3+Share, Microsoft's LAN Manager and IBM's LAN Server. None of these were particularly successful. In this same timeframe, Unix computer workstations from vendors such as Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, Silicon Graphics, Intergraph, NeXT and Apollo were using TCP/IP based networking. Although this market segment is now much reduced, the technologies developed in this area continue to be influential on the Internet and in both Linux and Apple Mac OS X networking—and the TCP/IP protocol has now almost completely replaced IPX, AppleTalk, NBF and other protocols used by the early PC LANs. Cabling Early LAN cabling had always been based on various grades of co-axial cable, but IBM's Token Ring used shielded twisted pair cabling of their own design, and in 1984 StarLAN showed the potential of simple Cat3 unshielded twisted pair—the same simple cable used for telephone systems. This led to the development of 10Base-T (and its successors) and structured cabling which is still the basis of most LANs today. Technical aspects Although switched Ethernet is now the most common data link layer protocol and IP as a network layer protocol, many different options have been used, and some continue to be popular in niche areas. Smaller LANs generally consist of one or more switches linked to each other—often with one connected to a router, cable modem, or ADSL modem for Internet access. Larger LANs are characterized by their use of redundant links with switches using the spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their ability to manage differing traffic types via quality of service (QoS), and to segregate traffic via VLANs. Larger LANS also contain a wide variety of network devices such as switches, firewalls, routers, load balancers, sensors and so on. LANs may have connections with other LANs via leased lines, leased services, or by 'tunneling' across the Internet using VPN technologies. Depending on how the connections are made and secured, and the distance involved, they become a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), a Wide Area Network (WAN), or a part of the Internet. See also Computer network - general overview Ethernet physical layer LAN messenger LAN party Metropolitan area network Network card Wide area network References External links LAN design and sizing Types of LAN Cables ma:sejal | Local_area_network |@lemmatized local:3 area:9 network:21 lan:19 computer:13 cover:1 small:4 physical:3 like:1 home:1 office:1 group:1 building:1 school:1 airport:1 define:1 characteristic:1 contrast:1 wide:4 wan:2 include:1 usually:1 high:2 data:2 transfer:1 rate:1 geographic:1 place:1 lack:1 need:1 lease:3 telecommunication:1 line:2 arcnet:3 token:2 ring:3 many:2 technology:4 use:11 past:1 g:1 hn:1 may:2 future:1 ethernet:6 unshielded:2 twisted:3 pair:3 cabling:1 wi:1 fi:1 two:1 common:2 currently:1 history:4 large:3 university:2 research:1 lab:1 obtain:1 late:2 increase:1 pressure:1 provide:2 speed:1 interconnection:1 report:1 lawrence:3 radiation:3 laboratory:4 detail:1 growth:1 octopus:3 samuel:1 f:1 mendicino:1 courant:1 symposium:1 series:1 nov:1 give:1 good:1 indication:1 situation:1 cambridge:2 develop:5 brief:1 informal:1 never:2 successful:2 commercial:2 product:1 xerox:1 parc:2 file:1 system:5 deploy:1 metcalfe:1 boggs:1 publish:1 seminal:1 paper:1 distribute:2 packet:2 switching:2 ref:2 datapoint:1 corporation:1 announce:1 trade:1 association:1 first:1 installation:1 december:1 chase:1 manhattan:1 bank:1 new:1 york:1 turn:1 reach:1 personal:4 development:2 proliferation:2 cp:1 base:6 meant:1 single:1 site:1 begin:1 dozen:1 even:2 hundred:1 initial:1 attraction:1 generally:2 share:3 disk:1 space:1 laser:1 printer:1 expensive:1 time:1 much:3 enthusiasm:1 concept:2 several:1 year:3 onward:1 industry:1 pundit:1 would:2 regularly:1 declare:1 come:1 reality:1 mar:1 incompatible:1 layer:4 protocol:7 implementation:1 confusion:1 best:1 resource:1 typically:1 vendor:2 type:4 card:3 cable:10 operating:2 solution:1 appear:1 advent:1 novell:1 netware:3 hand:1 support:1 competing:1 sophisticated:1 competitor:2 dominate:1 microsoft:4 ever:1 read:1 book:1 channel:2 news:1 crn:1 varbusiness:1 business:1 early:3 introduction:1 mid:1 introduce:1 window:2 nt:1 advance:1 server:2 workgroups:1 banyan:2 vine:1 comparable:1 technical:2 strength:1 gain:1 secure:2 work:1 together:1 create:1 simple:3 operate:1 form:1 manager:1 ibm:2 none:1 particularly:1 timeframe:1 unix:1 workstation:1 sun:1 microsystems:1 hewlett:1 packard:1 silicon:1 graphic:1 intergraph:1 next:1 apollo:1 tcp:2 ip:3 networking:2 although:2 market:1 segment:1 reduce:1 continue:2 influential:1 internet:4 linux:1 apple:1 mac:1 os:1 x:1 almost:1 completely:1 replaced:1 ipx:1 appletalk:1 nbf:1 pc:1 always:1 various:1 grade:1 co:1 axial:1 shield:1 design:2 starlan:1 show:1 potential:1 telephone:1 lead:1 successor:1 structure:1 still:1 basis:1 today:1 aspect:1 switched:1 link:4 different:1 option:1 popular:1 niche:1 consist:1 one:2 switch:3 often:1 connect:1 router:2 modem:2 adsl:1 access:1 characterize:1 redundant:1 span:1 tree:1 prevent:1 loop:1 ability:1 manage:1 differ:1 traffic:2 via:3 quality:1 service:2 qos:1 segregate:1 vlans:1 also:2 contain:1 variety:1 device:1 firewall:1 load:1 balancer:1 sensor:1 connection:2 tunnel:1 across:1 vpn:1 depend:1 make:1 distance:1 involve:1 become:1 metropolitan:2 man:1 part:1 see:1 general:1 overview:1 messenger:1 party:1 reference:1 external:1 size:1 sejal:1 |@bigram token_ring:2 twisted_pair:3 wi_fi:1 xerox_parc:1 packet_switching:2 laser_printer:1 novell_netware:1 window_nt:1 window_workgroups:1 sun_microsystems:1 hewlett_packard:1 tcp_ip:2 mac_os:1 cable_modem:1 adsl_modem:1 service_qos:1 external_link:1 |
4,677 | Laurales | The Laurales are an order of flowering plants. They are a basal group of dicots, related to, and formerly sometimes included in, the Magnoliales. The order includes about 2500-2800 species from 85-90 genera, which comprise seven families of trees and shrubs. Most of the species are tropical and subtropical, though a few genera reach the temperate zone. The best known species in this order are those of the Lauraceae (for example bay laurel or Laurus, cinnamon or Cinnamomum, avocado or Persea, and Sassafras), and the spice bush or Calycanthus of the Calycanthaceae. The earliest lauraceous fossils are from to the early Cretaceous. It is possible that the ancient origin of this order is one of the reasons for its highly diverged morphology. Indeed, presently no single morphological property is known, which would unify all the members of Laurales. This fact used to cause much argument among botanists regarding the correct circumscription of the order, and the presently accepted classification is based on recent molecular and genetic analysis. Classification The following families are included in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system: order Laurales family Atherospermataceae family Calycanthaceae family Gomortegaceae family Hernandiaceae family Lauraceae family Monimiaceae family Siparunaceae The current composition and phylogeny of the Laurales. Under the older Cronquist system, the Laurales included a slightly different set of families (current placement, where different, in brackets): Family Amborellaceae (Family Amborellaceae, unplaced) Family Calycanthaceae Family Gomortegaceae Family Hernandiaceae Family Idiospermaceae (= Calycanthaceae pro parte) Family Lauraceae Family Monimiaceae (Cronquist included Atherospermataceae and Siparunaceae in Monimiaceae) Family Trimeniaceae (unplaced in basal group) References K.J. Perleb (1826). Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte des Pflanzenreichs p. 174. Magner, Freiburg im Breisgau, Deutschland. Renner, Susanne S. (May 2001) Laurales. In: Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. London: Nature Publishing Group. doi:10.1038/npg.els.0003695 Abstract, Full text (pdf). Renner S.S. (1999). Circumscription and phylogeny of the Laurales: evidence from molecular and morphological data. American Journal of Botany 86 (9): 1301-1315. Abstract, Full text (pdf). Endress P.K., Igersheim A. (1997). Gynoecium diversity and systematics of the Laurales. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 125 (2): 93-168. doi:10.1006/bojl.1997.0113 Abstract. | Laurales |@lemmatized laurales:8 order:6 flower:1 plant:1 basal:2 group:4 dicot:1 relate:1 formerly:1 sometimes:1 include:5 magnoliales:1 specie:3 genus:2 comprise:1 seven:1 family:19 tree:1 shrub:1 tropical:1 subtropical:1 though:1 reach:1 temperate:1 zone:1 best:1 known:1 lauraceae:3 example:1 bay:1 laurel:1 laurus:1 cinnamon:1 cinnamomum:1 avocado:1 persea:1 sassafras:1 spice:1 bush:1 calycanthus:1 calycanthaceae:4 early:2 lauraceous:1 fossil:1 cretaceous:1 possible:1 ancient:1 origin:1 one:1 reason:1 highly:1 diverge:1 morphology:1 indeed:1 presently:2 single:1 morphological:2 property:1 know:1 would:1 unify:1 member:1 fact:1 use:1 cause:1 much:1 argument:1 among:1 botanist:1 regard:1 correct:1 circumscription:2 accept:1 classification:2 base:1 recent:1 molecular:2 genetic:1 analysis:1 following:1 angiosperm:1 phylogeny:3 system:2 atherospermataceae:2 gomortegaceae:2 hernandiaceae:2 monimiaceae:3 siparunaceae:2 current:2 composition:1 old:1 cronquist:2 slightly:1 different:2 set:1 placement:1 bracket:1 amborellaceae:2 unplaced:2 idiospermaceae:1 pro:1 parte:1 trimeniaceae:1 reference:1 k:2 j:1 perleb:1 lehrbuch:1 der:1 naturgeschichte:1 de:1 pflanzenreichs:1 p:2 magner:1 freiburg:1 im:1 breisgau:1 deutschland:1 renner:2 susanne:1 may:1 nature:2 encyclopedia:1 life:1 science:1 london:1 publish:1 doi:2 npg:1 el:1 abstract:3 full:2 text:2 pdf:2 evidence:1 data:1 american:1 journal:2 botany:1 endress:1 igersheim:1 gynoecium:1 diversity:1 systematics:1 botanical:1 linnean:1 society:1 bojl:1 |@bigram tree_shrub:1 tropical_subtropical:1 temperate_zone:1 bay_laurel:1 angiosperm_phylogeny:1 lehrbuch_der:1 freiburg_im:1 im_breisgau:1 journal_linnean:1 linnean_society:1 |
4,678 | Antoine_Thomson_d'Abbadie | Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie d'Arrast (January 3, 1810 – March 19, 1897), was a French geographer, notable for his travels in Ethiopia during the first half of the 19th century. He was the older brother of Arnaud Michel d'Abbadie. Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 1 They were both born in Dublin, Ireland of a French father and an Irish mother. His grandfather Jean-Pierre was an abbot in the Basque province of Soule and his father Michel was born in Arrast-Larrebieu. The family moved to France in 1818, and there the brothers received a careful scientific education. In 1835 the French Academy sent Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results being published at a later date (1873) under the title of Observations relatives à la physique du globe faites au Bresil et en Ethiopie. The younger Abbadie spent some time in Algeria before, in 1837, the two brothers started for Ethiopia, landing at Massawa in February 1838. They visited various parts of Ethiopia, including the then little-known districts of Ennarea and Kaffa, sometimes together and sometimes separately. They met with many difficulties and many adventures, and became involved in political intrigues, Antoine especially exercising such influence as he possessed in favour of France and the Roman Catholic missionaries. After collecting much valuable information concerning the geography, geology, archaeology and natural history of Ethiopia, the brothers returned to France in 1848 and began to prepare their materials for publication. The more distinguished brother, Antoine, became involved in various controversies relating both to his geographical results and his political intrigues. He was especially attacked by Charles Tilstone Beke, who impugned his veracity, especially with reference to the journey to Kana. But time and the investigations of subsequent explorers have shown that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, though wrong in his contention—hotly contested by Beke—that the Blue Nile was the main stream. The topographical results of his explorations were published in Paris between 1860 and 1873 in Geodesie d'Ethiopie, full of the most valuable information and illustrated by ten maps. Of the Geographie de l'Ethiopie (Paris, 1890) only one volume has been published. In Un Catalogue raisonné de manuscrits ethiopiens (Paris, 1859) is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts collected by Antoine. He also compiled various vocabularies, including a Dictionnaire de la langue amariñña (Paris, 1881), and prepared an edition of the Shepherd of Hermas, with the Latin version, in 1860. He published numerous papers dealing with the geography of Ethiopia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions. Under the title of Reconnaissances magnetiques he published in 1890 an account of the magnetic observations made by him in the course of several journeys to the Red Sea and the Levant. The general account of the travels of the two brothers was published by Arnaud in 1868 under the title of Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie. "Abbadia", Hendaye, by Viollet-le-Duc Both brothers received the grand medal of the Paris Geographical Society in 1850. Antoine was a knight of the Legion of Honour and a member of the French Academy of Sciences. He died in 1897, and bequeathed an estate in Hendaye, yielding 40,000 francs a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition of its producing within fifty years a catalogue of half-a-million stars. His brother Arnaud died in 1893. References | Antoine_Thomson_d'Abbadie |@lemmatized antoine:6 thomson:1 abbadie:4 arrast:2 january:1 march:1 french:4 geographer:1 notable:1 travel:2 ethiopia:5 first:1 half:2 century:1 old:1 brother:8 arnaud:3 michel:2 chamber:1 biographical:1 dictionary:1 isbn:1 page:1 bear:2 dublin:1 ireland:1 father:2 irish:1 mother:1 grandfather:1 jean:1 pierre:1 abbot:1 basque:1 province:1 soule:1 larrebieu:1 family:1 move:1 france:3 receive:2 careful:1 scientific:2 education:1 academy:3 send:1 mission:1 brazil:1 result:3 publish:6 late:1 date:1 title:3 observation:2 relative:1 à:1 la:3 physique:1 du:1 globe:1 faites:1 au:1 bresil:1 et:1 en:1 ethiopie:4 young:1 spend:1 time:2 algeria:1 two:2 start:1 land:1 massawa:1 february:1 visit:1 various:3 part:1 include:2 little:1 know:1 district:1 ennarea:1 kaffa:1 sometimes:2 together:1 separately:1 meet:1 many:2 difficulty:1 adventure:1 become:2 involve:2 political:2 intrigue:2 especially:3 exercise:1 influence:1 possess:1 favour:1 roman:1 catholic:1 missionary:1 collect:2 much:1 valuable:2 information:2 concern:1 geography:2 geology:1 archaeology:1 natural:1 history:1 return:1 begin:1 prepare:2 material:1 publication:1 distinguished:1 controversy:1 relate:1 geographical:2 attack:1 charles:1 tilstone:1 beke:2 impugn:1 veracity:1 reference:2 journey:2 kana:1 investigation:1 subsequent:1 explorer:1 show:1 quite:1 trustworthy:1 fact:1 though:1 wrong:1 contention:1 hotly:1 contest:1 blue:1 nile:1 main:1 stream:1 topographical:1 exploration:1 paris:5 geodesie:1 full:1 illustrate:1 ten:1 map:1 geographie:1 de:3 l:1 one:1 volume:1 un:1 catalogue:2 raisonné:1 manuscrits:1 ethiopiens:1 description:1 ethiopian:2 manuscript:1 also:1 compile:1 vocabulary:1 dictionnaire:1 langue:1 amariñña:1 edition:1 shepherd:1 hermas:1 latin:1 version:1 numerous:1 paper:1 deal:1 coin:1 ancient:1 inscription:1 reconnaissance:1 magnetiques:1 account:2 magnetic:1 make:1 course:1 several:1 red:1 sea:1 levant:1 general:1 douze:1 dans:1 haute:1 abbadia:1 hendaye:2 viollet:1 le:1 duc:1 grand:1 medal:1 society:1 knight:1 legion:1 honour:1 member:1 science:2 die:2 bequeath:1 estate:1 yield:1 franc:1 year:2 condition:1 produce:1 within:1 fifty:1 million:1 star:1 |@bigram chamber_biographical:1 biographical_dictionary:1 jean_pierre:1 hotly_contest:1 catalogue_raisonné:1 la_langue:1 shepherd_hermas:1 viollet_le:1 le_duc:1 |
4,679 | National_Alliance_(Italy) | National Alliance (Alleanza Nazionale, AN) was a conservative political party in Italy. Gianfranco Fini was the leader of the party since its foundation in 1995, however he stepped down in 2008 after being elected to the nominally non-partisan post of President of the Italian Chamber of Deputies and was succeded by Ignazio La Russa, who managed to merge the party into The People of Freedom (PdL). This finally happened in 2009. History Foundation National Alliance was formed by Gianfranco Fini from the Italian Social Movement (MSI), the ex-neo-fascist party, which was declared dissolved in January 1995, and conservative elements of the former Christian Democracy, which had disbanded in 1994 after two years of scandals and various splits due to corruption at its highest levels, exposed by the Mani Pulite investigation, and the Italian Liberal Party, disbanded in the same year. Former MSI members were however still the bulk of the new party. The logo followed a template very similar to the Democratic Party of the Left, with the previous logo in a small circle (as a means of legally preventing others from using it). The name was suggested by an article on the Italian newspaper Il Tempo written in 1992 by Domenico Fisichella, a prominent conservative academic. In January 1995 a party congress officially proclaimed the dissolution of MSI, the rejection of most MSI's ideological stances and the establishment of National Alliance. Government participation The party was part of all three House of Freedoms coalition governments led by Silvio Berlusconi. Gianfranco Fini was notably nominated Deputy Prime Minister after the 2001 general election and was Foreign Minister from November 2004 to May 2006. When Gianfranco Fini visited Israel in late November 2003 in the function of Italian Deputy Prime Minister, he labeled the racial laws issued by the fascist regime in 1938 as "infamous", as also Giorgio Almirante, historic leader of MSI, had done before Il Domenicale . He also referred to the Italian Social Republic as belonging to the most shameful pages of the past, and considered fascism part of an era of "absolute evil", something which was hardly acceptable to the few remaining hardliners of the party. As a result, Alessandra Mussolini, the granddaughter of the former fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, who had been at odds with the party on a number of issues for a long-time, and some hardliners left the party and formed Social Action. Piero Ignazi, Partiti politici in Italia, Il Mulino, Bologna 2008, pp. 27-31. float|Logo of National Alliance for the 2006 general election. In occasion of the 2006 general election, AN ran within the House of Freedoms (with new allies). The centre-right lost by 24,000 votes in favor of the centre-left The Union. Individually AN received nearly 5 million votes, amounting to 12.3%. In July 2007 a group of splinters led by Francesco Storace formed The Right party, which was officially founded on 10 November. Seven MPs of AN, including Teodoro Buontempo and Daniela Santanchè, joined the new party. The People of Freedom In November 2007 Silvio Berlusconi announced that Forza Italia would have soon merged or transformed into the The People of Freedom (PdL) party. Sky tg24 - Tutte le notizie in formato video «Oggi nasce il partito del popolo italiano». Corriere della Sera http://www.ansa.it/opencms/export/site/visualizza_fdg.html_65043240.html After the sudden fall of Prodi II Cabinet in January 2008, the break up of The Union coalition and the subsequent political crisis which lead to a fresh general election, Berlusconi hinted that Forza Italia would have probably contested its last election and the new party would have been officially founded only after that election. In an atmosphere of reconciliation with Gianfranco Fini, Berlusconi also stated that the new party could see the participation of other parties. «Via l'Ici e stretta sulle intercettazioni» Corriere della Sera Finally, on 8 February, Berlusconi and Fini agreed to form a joint list under the banner of the "The People of Freedom", allied with Lega Nord. Svolta di Berlusconi, arriva il Pdl: "Forza Italia-An sotto stesso simbolo" - LASTAMPA.it After the victory of the PdL in the 2008 general election, AN was merged into the PdL in early 2009. Mussolini's heirs merge with Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia party The Telegraph. 23 March 2009 Ideology National Alliance's political program emphasized: traditional values, being often close to the position of the Roman Catholic Church, despite some socially liberal and secular attitudes; law and order, especially laws aimed at controlling immigration and implementing punishment; support for Israel, the United States and European integration; prohibitionism about any kind of drugs, including marijuana. Distinguishing itself from the MSI, the party distanced itself from Benito Mussolini and Fascism and made efforts to improve relations with Jewish groups. With most hardliners leaving the party, it seeked to present itself as a respectable conservative party and to join forces with Forza Italia in the European People's Party and, eventually, in a united party of the centre-right. Although the party approved market economy and held favourable views on liberalizations and the privatization of state industries, however AN was to the left of Forza Italia on economic issues and sometimes supported statist policies. That is why the party was strong in Rome and Lazio, where most civil servants live. Moreover AN presents itself as a party promoting national cohesion, national identity and patriotism. Regarding institutional reforms, the party was a long-time supporter presidentialism and first-past-the-post, and came to support also federalism and to fully accept the alliance with Lega Nord, although the relations with that party were tense at times, especially about issues regarding national unity. Gianfranco Fini, a modernizer who sees Nicolas Sarkozy and David Cameron as models, impressed an ambitious political line to the party, combining the pillars of conservative ideology like security, family values and patriotism with a progressive approach in other areas such as stem-cell research and supporting voting rights for legal aliens. Anyway some of these positions were not shared by many members of the party, most of whom staunchly oppose stem-cell research and artificial insemination. Factions National Alliance was a heterogeneous political party and within it members were divided in different factions, some of them very organized: Protagonist Right (Destra Protagonista), headed by Maurizio Gasparri and Ignazio La Russa, was the bigger faction and the closest to Forza Italia, due to its liberal-conservative stances. New Alliance (Nuova Alleanza), formerly called Right and Freedom (Destra e Libertà), headed by Altero Matteoli and Adolfo Urso, was formed by the staunchest supporters of Gianfranco Fini within the party and supported a liberal political agenda. Social Right (Destra Sociale), led by Gianni Alemanno, advocated a more "social" approach to economic policy and was considered at the right of the party. It had close ties with the General Labour Union. Christian Reformists (Cristiano Riformisti), led by Antonio Mazzochi (ex-DC) and Pietro Armani (ex-PRI), was a Christian-democratic faction within the party, which campaigned for Catholic values and for the admission of the party into the European People's Party. R-Right (D-Destra), led by Francesco Storace and formed as a split from the Social Right, was the most conservative component of the party, proud of the MSI's tradition and the only openly opposing Gianfranco Fini's leadership. In July 2007 Storace and his followers left AN and launched The Right, a new political party to the right of AN. In the party there was also a group named Ethic-Religious Council, whose board members included Gaetano Rebecchini (Founder, ex-DC), Riccardo Pedrizzi (President), Franco Tofoni (Vice President), Luigi Gagliardi (General Secretary), Alfredo Mantovano, Antonio Mazzocchi and Riccardo Migliori. This was not a faction but an official organism within the party and expressed the official position of the party on ethical and religious matters. Sometimes the group criticized Gianfranco Fini for his liberal views on abortion, artificial insemination and stem-cell research, which led some notable ex-DC members as Publio Fiori to leave the party. Some members of the Council, such as Pedrizzi and Mantovano were described as members of an unofficial Catholic Right faction. Popular support The party had roughly 10-15% support across Italy, having its stongholds in Central and Southern Italy (Lazio 18.6%, Umbria 15.2%, Marche 14.3%, Abruzzo 14.3%, Puglia 13.2%, Sardinia 12.9%, Tuscany 12.6% and Campania 12.6% in the last general election), scoring badly in Lombardy (10.2%) and Sicily (10.9%), while competing in the North-East (Friuli-Venezia Giulia 15.5% and Veneto 11.3%). The party had a good showing in the first general election to which it took part (13.5% in 1994) and reached 15.7% in 1996, when Fini tried for the first time to replace Silvio Berlusconi as leader of the centre-right. From that moment the party suffered an electoral decline, but remains the third force of Italian politics. In the 2006 general election, the last election to which the party took party with its own list, it won 12.3% of the vote, securing 71 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 41 in the Senate. In the 2008 general election the party got 90 deputies Excluding Fiamma Nirenstein, Alessandro Ruben and Souad Sbai, whose election was supported both by Forza Italia and National Alliance, http://download.alleanzanazionale.it/Elezioni2008/DeputatiPDLinXVIlegislatura.pdf and 48 senators http://download.alleanzanazionale.it/Elezioni2008/SenatoriPDLinXVILEGISLATURA.pdf elected. The electoral results of National Alliance in the 10 most populated Regions of Italy are shown in the table below. 1994 general1995 regional1996 general1999 European2000 regional2001 general2004 European2005 regional2006 generalPiedmont8.311.212.17.511.99.28.89.511.8Lombardy5.810.09.06.09.78.67.28.710.2Veneto7.710.711.78.39.88.59.08.111.3Emilia-Romagna9.010.311.58.611.49.78.48.910.2Tuscany10.913.115.810.914.913.010.910.912.6Lazio25.324.528.920.323.120.418.423.9 Combined result of National Alliance (16.9%) and Lista Storace (7.0%), personal list of AN regional leader Francesco Storace. 18.6Campania20.318.318.710.711.213.113.210.612.6Apulia27.5 Forza Italia failed to present a list and thus most centre-right voters voted for National Alliance. 20.417.912.715.515.316.012.113.2Calabria17.216.323.410.210.415.215.59.911.0Sicily14.014.1 (1996)16.412.111.3 (2001)10.714.510.6 (2006)10.9ITALY13.5-15.710.3-12.011.3-12.3 Leadership President: Gianfranco Fini (1995–2008), Ignazio La Russa (regent, 2008–2009) Head of Political Secretariat: Donato Lamorte (1995–2002), Andrea Ronchi (2002–2004), Carmelo Briguglio (2002–2004), Donato Lamorte (2004–2009) Spokesman: Maurizio Gasparri (1995–1997), Adolfo Urso (1997–2001), Antonio Landolfi (2001–2005), Andrea Ronchi (2005-2009) President of National Assembly: Domenico Fisichella (1995–2005), Marcello Perina (2005–2006), Francesco Servello (2006–2009) Organizational Coordinator: Giuseppe Tatarella (1995–1998), Altero Matteoli (1998–2002), Donato Lamorte (2002–2004), Italo Bocchino (2004–2005), Marco Martinelli (2005–2009) Party Leader at the Chamber of Deputies: Raffaele Valensise (1994–1996), Giuseppe Tatarella (1996–1998), Gustavo Selva (1998–2001), Ignazio La Russa (2001–2003), Gian Franco Anedda (2003–2004), Iganzio La Russa (2004–2008), Italo Bocchino (deputy-leader of PdL's group, 2008–2009) Party Leader at the Senate: Giulio Maceratini (1994–2001), Domenico Nania (2001–2006), Altero Matteoli (2006-2008), Maurizio Gasparri (leader of PdL's group, 2008–2009) Party Leader at the European Parliament: Cristiana Muscardini (1994–2004), Roberta Angelilli (2004–2009) External links Official website Azione Giovani Factions Protagonist Right New Alliance Social Right Christian Reformists Stephen Roth Institute Continuity or change in the ideology of the Alleanza Nazionale The annual report of Anti-semitism worldwide, 2006 References | National_Alliance_(Italy) |@lemmatized national:14 alliance:13 alleanza:3 nazionale:2 conservative:7 political:8 party:52 italy:4 gianfranco:10 fini:12 leader:9 since:1 foundation:2 however:3 step:1 elect:2 nominally:1 non:1 partisan:1 post:2 president:5 italian:7 chamber:3 deputy:7 succeded:1 ignazio:4 la:5 russa:5 manage:1 merge:4 people:6 freedom:6 pdl:7 finally:2 happen:1 history:1 form:6 social:7 movement:1 msi:7 ex:5 neo:1 fascist:3 declare:1 dissolve:1 january:3 element:1 former:3 christian:4 democracy:1 disband:2 two:1 year:2 scandal:1 various:1 split:2 due:2 corruption:1 high:1 level:1 expose:1 mani:1 pulite:1 investigation:1 liberal:5 member:7 still:1 bulk:1 new:8 logo:3 follow:1 template:1 similar:1 democratic:2 left:2 previous:1 small:1 circle:1 mean:1 legally:1 prevent:1 others:1 use:1 name:2 suggest:1 article:1 newspaper:1 il:5 tempo:1 write:1 domenico:3 fisichella:2 prominent:1 academic:1 congress:1 officially:3 proclaim:1 dissolution:1 rejection:1 ideological:1 stance:2 establishment:1 government:2 participation:2 part:3 three:1 house:2 freedoms:1 coalition:2 lead:7 silvio:4 berlusconi:8 notably:1 nominate:1 prime:2 minister:3 general:11 election:13 foreign:1 november:4 may:1 visit:1 israel:2 late:1 function:1 label:1 racial:1 law:3 issue:4 regime:1 infamous:1 also:5 giorgio:1 almirante:1 historic:1 domenicale:1 refer:1 republic:1 belonging:1 shameful:1 page:1 past:2 consider:2 fascism:2 era:1 absolute:1 evil:1 something:1 hardly:1 acceptable:1 remain:2 hardliner:3 result:3 alessandra:1 mussolini:4 granddaughter:1 dictator:1 benito:2 odds:1 number:1 long:2 time:4 leave:5 action:1 piero:1 ignazi:1 partiti:1 politici:1 italia:10 mulino:1 bologna:1 pp:1 float:1 occasion:1 ran:1 within:5 ally:2 centre:5 right:17 lose:1 vote:4 favor:1 union:3 individually:1 receive:1 nearly:1 million:1 amount:1 july:2 group:6 splinter:1 francesco:4 storace:5 found:2 seven:1 mp:1 include:3 teodoro:1 buontempo:1 daniela:1 santanchè:1 join:2 announce:1 forza:9 would:3 soon:1 transform:1 sky:1 tutte:1 le:1 notizie:1 formato:1 video:1 oggi:1 nasce:1 partito:1 del:1 popolo:1 italiano:1 corriere:2 della:2 serum:2 http:3 www:1 ansa:1 opencms:1 export:1 site:1 html:1 sudden:1 fall:1 prodi:1 ii:1 cabinet:1 break:1 subsequent:1 crisis:1 fresh:1 hint:1 probably:1 contest:1 last:3 atmosphere:1 reconciliation:1 state:3 could:1 see:2 via:1 l:1 ici:1 e:2 stretta:1 sulle:1 intercettazioni:1 february:1 agree:1 joint:1 list:4 banner:1 lega:2 nord:2 svolta:1 di:1 arriva:1 sotto:1 stesso:1 simbolo:1 lastampa:1 victory:1 early:1 heir:1 telegraph:1 march:1 ideology:3 program:1 emphasize:1 traditional:1 value:3 often:1 close:3 position:3 roman:1 catholic:3 church:1 despite:1 socially:1 secular:1 attitude:1 order:1 especially:2 aim:1 control:1 immigration:1 implementing:1 punishment:1 support:7 united:2 european:4 integration:1 prohibitionism:1 kind:1 drug:1 marijuana:1 distinguish:1 distance:1 make:1 effort:1 improve:1 relation:2 jewish:1 seek:1 present:3 respectable:1 force:2 eventually:1 although:2 approve:1 market:1 economy:1 hold:1 favourable:1 view:2 liberalization:1 privatization:1 industry:1 economic:2 sometimes:2 supported:1 statist:1 policy:2 strong:1 rome:1 lazio:2 civil:1 servant:1 live:1 moreover:1 promote:1 cohesion:1 identity:1 patriotism:2 regard:2 institutional:1 reform:1 supporter:2 presidentialism:1 first:3 come:1 federalism:1 fully:1 accept:1 tense:1 unity:1 modernizer:1 nicolas:1 sarkozy:1 david:1 cameron:1 model:1 impress:1 ambitious:1 line:1 combine:1 pillar:1 like:1 security:1 family:1 progressive:1 approach:2 area:1 stem:3 cell:3 research:3 voting:1 legal:1 alien:1 anyway:1 share:1 many:1 staunchly:1 oppose:2 artificial:2 insemination:2 faction:7 heterogeneous:1 divide:1 different:1 organize:1 protagonist:2 destra:4 protagonista:1 head:3 maurizio:3 gasparri:3 big:1 nuova:1 formerly:1 call:1 libertà:1 altero:3 matteoli:3 adolfo:2 urso:2 staunch:1 agenda:1 sociale:1 gianni:1 alemanno:1 advocate:1 tie:1 labour:1 reformist:2 cristiano:1 riformisti:1 antonio:3 mazzochi:1 dc:3 pietro:1 armani:1 pri:1 campaign:1 admission:1 r:1 component:1 proud:1 tradition:1 openly:1 leadership:2 follower:1 launch:1 ethic:1 religious:2 council:2 whose:2 board:1 gaetano:1 rebecchini:1 founder:1 riccardo:2 pedrizzi:2 franco:2 tofoni:1 vice:1 luigi:1 gagliardi:1 secretary:1 alfredo:1 mantovano:2 mazzocchi:1 migliori:1 official:3 organism:1 express:1 ethical:1 matter:1 criticize:1 abortion:1 notable:1 publio:1 fiori:1 describe:1 unofficial:1 popular:1 roughly:1 across:1 stongholds:1 central:1 southern:1 umbria:1 marche:1 abruzzo:1 puglia:1 sardinia:1 tuscany:1 campania:1 score:1 badly:1 lombardy:1 sicily:1 compete:1 north:1 east:1 friuli:1 venezia:1 giulia:1 veneto:1 good:1 showing:1 take:2 reach:1 try:1 replace:1 moment:1 suffer:1 electoral:2 decline:1 third:1 politics:1 win:1 secure:1 seat:1 senate:2 get:1 exclude:1 fiamma:1 nirenstein:1 alessandro:1 ruben:1 souad:1 sbai:1 download:2 alleanzanazionale:2 deputatipdlinxvilegislatura:1 pdf:2 senator:1 senatoripdlinxvilegislatura:1 populated:1 region:1 show:1 table:1 combined:1 lista:1 personal:1 regional:1 fail:1 thus:1 voter:1 regent:1 secretariat:1 donato:3 lamorte:3 andrea:2 ronchi:2 carmelo:1 briguglio:1 spokesman:1 landolfi:1 assembly:1 marcello:1 perina:1 servello:1 organizational:1 coordinator:1 giuseppe:2 tatarella:2 italo:2 bocchino:2 marco:1 martinelli:1 raffaele:1 valensise:1 gustavo:1 selva:1 gian:1 anedda:1 iganzio:1 giulio:1 maceratini:1 nania:1 parliament:1 cristiana:1 muscardini:1 roberta:1 angelilli:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 azione:1 giovani:1 stephen:1 roth:1 institute:1 continuity:1 change:1 annual:1 report:1 anti:1 semitism:1 worldwide:1 reference:1 |@bigram gianfranco_fini:10 chamber_deputy:3 la_russa:5 silvio_berlusconi:4 prime_minister:2 fascist_dictator:1 dictator_benito:1 benito_mussolini:2 il_mulino:1 forza_italia:9 del_popolo:1 corriere_della:2 della_serum:2 http_www:1 lega_nord:2 mussolini_fascism:1 nicolas_sarkozy:1 staunchly_oppose:1 artificial_insemination:2 staunch_supporter:1 vice_president:1 friuli_venezia:1 venezia_giulia:1 external_link:1 anti_semitism:1 |
4,680 | Brian_Boitano | Brian Anthony Boitano (born October 22, 1963) is an American figure skater from Sunnyvale, California. He is a four-time US National Champion (1985-1988), two-time World Champion (1986, 1988) and the 1988 Olympic gold medalist. He became a professional skater following the 1988 season, and once again in 1994 where he came in 6th place. Personal life Brian Boitano was born in Mountain View, California. Boitano is a graduate of Peterson High School in Sunnyvale, California. Who’s Who in Santa Clara Unified?, accessed September 6, 2006. Career Early career Brian Boitano first made his mark on the international scene when he won the bronze medal at the 1978 World Junior Figure Skating Championships, beating future rival Brian Orser for that medal. In 1982, Boitano became the first American to land a triple axel. In 1987, he introduced his signature jump, the 'Tano triple lutz in which the skater raises his left arm above his head. He attempted a quadruple jump throughout the 1986-87 season and at the 1988 World Figure Skating Championships, but did not cleanly land the jump; he double-footed the landing on two occasions. Boitano was known primarily as a jumper early in his career and he, along with several other skaters, helped push the technical envelope of men's skating. It was not until his failure to defend his World title in 1987 that he focused specifically on improving his artistry. Boitano placed second at the 1984 United States Figure Skating Championships, earning himself a trip to the 1984 Winter Olympics. He placed 5th at the Olympics, setting the stage for the next four years. World Champion Following the 1984 Olympics, several skaters emerged as likely medal hopes following the retirement of Scott Hamilton. Boitano won the 1985 United States Figure Skating Championships, the first of his four titles. At the first World Championships of the post-Hamilton era in 1985, Alexander Fadeev won, with Brian Orser finishing 2nd and Boitano 3rd. At the 1986 World Championships, Boitano took the title, while Fadeev had a disastrous free skate despite having been in an excellent position to win; Orser finished 2nd once again. During the 1986-87 season, Boitano had introduced two new elements to his programs: the 'Tano triple lutz and a quadruple toe loop, although he never succeeded in landing a clean quadruple jump in competition. The 1987 World Championships were held in Cincinnati, giving defending World champion Boitano a home-field advantage. The outcome of the event would set the tone for the 1988 Olympics. At Worlds, Boitano fell on his quadruple toe loop attempt and placed second. After losing the world title to Orser at home, Boitano and his coach Linda Leaver decided that some changes needed to be made if Boitano was to become the Olympic champion. Boitano had always been good at the technical requirements ("The first mark"), but he was weak on the artistic ("the second mark"). He was a self-described "jumping robot". In order to help his growth as an artist, he hired choreographer Sandra Bezic to choreograph his programs for the 1987-1988 Olympic season. Bezic choreographed two programs that had clean lines and accentuated the 5' 11" Boitano's skating. The short program was based on Giacomo Meyerbeer's ballet Les Patineurs in which Boitano plays a cocky young man showing off his tricks, using movements dating back to the 19th century. In one famous moment, Boitano wipes ice shavings, also called snow, off his skate blade and tosses it over his shoulder after landing a triple axel combination. The free skating program was based on the film score, Napoleon, detailing various phases of a soldier's life. Boitano debuted his new programs at 1987 Skate Canada, held in the Saddledome in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, the same venue in which he would compete against Brian Orser for the Olympic title three months later. Boitano's new programs were received with standing ovations by the audience. Although Orser won the competition, Boitano skated clean, landing seven triple jumps, including a footwork section into a jump. Boitano, Leaver, and Bezic were so confident about the strength of Boitano's new programs that they omitted the quadruple toe loop, which if landed, could have put him a shoulder above Orser in technical merit. The short program at the 1988 United States Figure Skating Championships proved to be a highlight. Boitano received marks of 6.0 from eight of the nine judges for presentation, the second mark. His free skate was flawed. Due to delays, he did not skate until after midnight. Still, Boitano won the competition, and went into the Olympics as the national champion (U.S.), as did Orser (Canadian). 1988 Olympics--Battle of the Brians Going into the Olympics, Boitano and Brian Orser both had won a World title and both had excellent, balanced repertoire, with Boitano being known as the slightly better technician and Orser as the better artist. Adding to the rivalry, Boitano and Orser were both performing military-themed programs. Boitano's was to the music of Napoleon. The Battle of the Brians at the 1988 Winter Olympics was the highlight of Boitano's amateur career. Boitano and Orser were effectively tied going into the free skating portion of the event and whoever won that portion would win the event. Alexander Fadeev had won the compulsory figures section of the competition with Boitano second and Orser third. In the short program, Orser placed first and Boitano second. The free skating was, at the time, worth 50% of the score, and so Boitano's lead would not be enough to hold him in first place if he lost the free skate. Boitano skated a clean, technically excellent long program, with eight triple jumps, two of them Axels, and a triple-triple combination. Orser made one small mistake on a jump and omitted his planned second triple axel. Boitano won the Battle in a 5-4 split. Boitano won the gold medal wearing skates with American flag appliqués, that are part of the collections of the National Museum of American History at the Smithsonian Institution. Following the Olympics, both Orser and Boitano went to the World Championships, which Boitano won. Boitano turned professional soon after. Professional and return to Amateur Following the Olympics, Boitano went on to dominate competitions in the professional ranks, winning 10 straight professional competitions, including 5 consecutive World Professional Championship titles and 4 consecutive wins at the Challenge of Champions. Boitano also appeared in Carmen on Ice, for which he won an Emmy. However, Boitano wanted to return to amateur competition and make another run at the Olympics. Boitano's lobby proved successful and in June 1993, the International Skating Union (ISU) introduced a clause, commonly known as the "Boitano rule", which allowed professionals to reinstate as 'amateur' or 'eligible' skaters. This had been the result of Boitano's active involvement during the early 1990s, which saw professionals being allowed in the Olympic Games in the sports of tennis and basketball. Boitano reinstated as an amateur to compete in the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway. Boitano competed at the 1994 United States Figure Skating Championships, led after the short program, but lost to Scott Davis in the long program in a 6-3 split decision. Boitano was named to the Olympic team. Going into the Olympics as a medal favorite in a strong field, Boitano missed his triple axel combination during the short program for the first time in career. This mistake proved extremely costly, and knocked Boitano out of medal contention. He skated a good long program and finished 6th. Boitano returned to the professional ranks afterwards. He was inducted into the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame and the United States Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 1996. What Would Brian Boitano Do? A caricature of Boitano as a superhero appears as a semi-recurring character in the cartoon series South Park. The movie South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut (1999), features a musical number titled "What Would Brian Boitano Do?". Boitano also appears in a 1995 Christmas cartoon that was a prototype of South Park, entitled The Spirit of Christmas. The name of the song is a parody of the popular slogan What Would Jesus Do? Boitano skated to a modified version of the song during his Brian Boitano Skating Spectacular in 1999. He also wrote the foreword to the 2009 book "The South Park Guide to Life". Television and Film Boitano won an Emmy Award for his portrayal of Don Jose in Carmen on Ice. Boitano was featured in the Super Bowl XXVI halftime show "Winter Magic" along with Gloria Estefan and Dorothy Hamill. Super Bowl XXVI (1992) (TV) Had a cameo in the 2007 film Blades of Glory as a world skating federation judge Had a cameo in the 2005 Disney film, Ice Princess, as himself as a commentator alongside fellow figure skater Michelle Kwan, who also was herself and a commentator during the Sectionals competition. Competitive highlights Event 1981-1982 1982-1983 1983-1984 1984-1985 1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1993-1994 Winter Olympics 5th 1st 6th World Championships 7th 6th 3rd 1st 2nd 1st U.S. Championships 4th 2nd 2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st 2nd Skate America 3rd 1st 2nd Skate Canada International 2nd References External links Brian Boitano's U.S. Olympic Team bio Brian Boitano's Gold-Medal Skates at the National Museum of American History | Brian_Boitano |@lemmatized brian:12 anthony:1 boitano:63 born:1 october:1 american:5 figure:11 skater:7 sunnyvale:2 california:3 four:3 time:4 u:4 national:4 champion:7 two:5 world:17 olympic:7 gold:3 medalist:1 become:3 professional:9 follow:5 season:4 come:1 place:6 personal:1 life:3 bear:1 mountain:1 view:1 graduate:1 peterson:1 high:1 school:1 santa:1 clara:1 unify:1 access:1 september:1 career:5 early:3 first:8 make:4 mark:5 international:3 scene:1 win:16 bronze:1 medal:7 junior:1 skate:25 championship:12 beat:1 future:1 rival:1 orser:16 land:7 triple:10 axel:4 introduce:3 signature:1 jump:9 tano:2 lutz:2 raise:1 left:1 arm:1 head:1 attempt:2 quadruple:5 throughout:1 cleanly:1 double:1 foot:1 occasion:1 know:3 primarily:1 jumper:1 along:2 several:2 help:2 push:1 technical:3 envelope:1 men:1 skating:5 failure:1 defend:2 title:8 focus:1 specifically:1 improve:1 artistry:1 second:7 united:5 state:5 earn:1 trip:1 winter:5 olympics:14 set:2 stage:1 next:1 year:1 emerge:1 likely:1 hop:1 retirement:1 scott:2 hamilton:2 post:1 era:1 alexander:2 fadeev:3 finish:3 take:1 disastrous:1 free:6 despite:1 excellent:3 position:1 new:4 element:1 program:16 toe:3 loop:3 although:2 never:1 succeed:1 clean:4 competition:8 hold:3 cincinnati:1 give:1 home:2 field:2 advantage:1 outcome:1 event:4 would:7 tone:1 fell:1 lose:3 coach:1 linda:1 leaver:2 decide:1 change:1 need:1 always:1 good:4 requirement:1 weak:1 artistic:1 self:1 describe:1 robot:1 order:1 growth:1 artist:2 hire:1 choreographer:1 sandra:1 bezic:3 choreograph:1 choreographed:1 line:1 accentuate:1 short:5 base:2 giacomo:1 meyerbeer:1 ballet:1 le:1 patineurs:1 play:1 cocky:1 young:1 man:1 show:2 trick:1 use:1 movement:1 date:1 back:1 century:1 one:2 famous:1 moment:1 wipe:1 ice:4 shaving:1 also:5 call:1 snow:1 blade:2 toss:1 shoulder:2 combination:3 film:4 score:2 napoleon:2 detail:1 various:1 phase:1 soldier:1 debut:1 canada:3 saddledome:1 calgary:1 alberta:1 venue:1 compete:3 three:1 month:1 later:1 receive:2 stand:1 ovation:1 audience:1 seven:1 include:2 footwork:1 section:2 confident:1 strength:1 omit:2 could:1 put:1 merit:1 prove:3 highlight:3 eight:2 nine:1 judge:2 presentation:1 flaw:1 due:1 delay:1 midnight:1 still:1 go:6 canadian:1 battle:3 brians:2 balance:1 repertoire:1 slightly:1 technician:1 add:1 rivalry:1 perform:1 military:1 theme:1 music:1 amateur:5 effectively:1 tie:1 portion:2 whoever:1 compulsory:1 third:1 worth:1 lead:2 enough:1 technically:1 long:4 axels:1 small:1 mistake:2 planned:1 split:2 wear:1 flag:1 appliqués:1 part:1 collection:1 museum:2 history:2 smithsonian:1 institution:1 turn:1 soon:1 return:3 dominate:1 rank:2 straight:1 consecutive:2 challenge:1 appear:3 carmen:2 emmy:2 however:1 want:1 another:1 run:1 lobby:1 successful:1 june:1 union:1 isu:1 clause:1 commonly:1 rule:1 allow:2 reinstate:2 eligible:1 result:1 active:1 involvement:1 saw:1 game:1 sport:1 tennis:1 basketball:1 lillehammer:1 norway:1 davis:1 decision:1 name:2 team:2 favorite:1 strong:1 miss:1 extremely:1 costly:1 knock:1 contention:1 afterwards:1 induct:1 hall:2 fame:2 caricature:1 superhero:1 semi:1 recur:1 character:1 cartoon:2 series:1 south:4 park:4 movie:1 big:1 uncut:1 feature:2 musical:1 number:1 christmas:2 prototype:1 entitle:1 spirit:1 song:2 parody:1 popular:1 slogan:1 jesus:1 modified:1 version:1 spectacular:1 write:1 foreword:1 book:1 guide:1 television:1 award:1 portrayal:1 jose:1 super:2 bowl:2 xxvi:2 halftime:1 magic:1 gloria:1 estefan:1 dorothy:1 hamill:1 tv:1 cameo:2 glory:1 federation:1 disney:1 princess:1 commentator:2 alongside:1 fellow:1 michelle:1 kwan:1 sectional:1 competitive:1 championships:1 america:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 bio:1 |@bigram gold_medalist:1 brian_boitano:7 santa_clara:1 bronze_medal:1 figure_skate:8 triple_axel:4 quadruple_jump:2 winter_olympics:4 calgary_alberta:1 stand_ovation:1 gold_medal:2 smithsonian_institution:1 lillehammer_norway:1 hall_fame:2 emmy_award:1 super_bowl:2 gloria_estefan:1 external_link:1 |
4,681 | Oil_painting | Mona Lisa, Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1503-06 Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments that are bound with a medium of drying oil — especially in early modern Europe, linseed oil. Often an oil such as linseed was boiled with a resin such as pine resin or even frankincense; these were called 'varnishes' and were prized for their body and gloss. Other oils occasionally used include poppyseed oil, walnut oil, and safflower oil. These oils confer various properties to the oil paint, such as less yellowing or different drying times. Certain differences are also visible in the sheen of the paints depending on the oil. Painters often use different oils in the same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular feel depending on the medium. Oil paint Although oil paint was first used in western Afghanistan sometime between the 5th and 9th Centuries, it did not gain popularity until the 15th century. Its practice may have migrated westward during the Middle Ages. Oil paint eventually became the principal medium used for creating artworks as its advantages became widely known. The transition began with Early Netherlandish painting in northern Europe, and by the height of the Rennaisance oil painting techniques had almost completely replaced tempera paints in the majority of Europe. Techniques Self portrait, at work, Anders Zorn, 1897 Traditional oil painting techniques often begin with the artist sketching the figure onto the canvas with charcoal or a "clean", which is thinned paint. Oil paint can be mixed with turpentine, linseed oil, artist grade mineral spirits or other solvents to create a thinner, faster drying paint. Then the artist builds the figure in layers. A basic rule of oil paint application is 'fat over lean.' This means that each additional layer of paint should be a bit oilier than the layer below, to allow proper drying. As a painting gets additional layers, the paint must get oilier (leaner to fatter) or the final painting will crack and peel. There are many other painting media that can be used in oil painting, including cold wax, resins, and varnishes. These additional media can aid the painter in adjusting the translucency of the paint, the sheen of the paint, the density or 'body' of the paint, and the ability of the paint to hold or conceal the brushstroke. These variables are closely related to the expressive capacity of oil paint. When looking at original oil paintings, the various traits of oil paint allow one to sense the choices the artist made as they applied the paint. For the viewer, the paint is still, but for the artist, the oil paint is a liquid or semi-liquid and must be moved 'onto' the painting Traditionally, paint was transferred to the painting surface using paint brushes, but there are other methods, including using palette knives, rags, etc. Oil paint remains wet longer than many other types of artists' materials, enabling the artist to change the color, texture or form of the figure. At times, the painter might even remove an entire layer of paint and begin anew. This can be done with a rag and some turpentine for a certain time while the paint is wet, but after a while, the hardened layer must be scraped. Scraping may also be used to smooth a portrait before scumbling and glazing. Many oil paintings reveal evidence of scraping on close inspection, particularly when the surface itself is examined. Oil paint dries by oxidation, not evaporation, and is usually dry to the touch in a day to two weeks. It is generally dry enough to be varnished in six months to a year. Art conservators do not consider an oil painting completely dry until it is 60 to 80 years old. History Recent research supports the likelihood that oil painting was spread to the West from Afghanistan. BBC NEWS | South Asia | Rediscovering treasures of Bamiyan Afghan caves hold world's first oil paintings: expert - ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) Earliest Oil Paintings Discovered Science Magazine 2 May 2008 Surfaces like shields — both those used in tournaments and those hung as decorations — were more durable when painted in oil-based media than when painted in the traditional tempera paints. Most Renaissance sources, in particular Vasari, credited northern European painters of the 15th century, and Jan van Eyck in particular, with the "invention" of painting with oil media on wood panel, however Theophilus (Roger of Helmarshausen?) clearly gives instructions for oil-based painting in his treatise, On Divers Arts, written in 1125. Early Netherlandish painting in the 15th century was however the first to make oil the usual painting medium, followed by the rest of Northern Europe, and only then Italy. The popularity of oil spread through Italy from the North, starting in Venice in the late 15th century. By 1540 the previous method for painting on panel, tempera had become all but extinct, although Italians continued to use fresco for wall paintings, which was more difficult in Northern climates. Ingredients The linseed oil itself comes from the flax seed, and this flax was a common fiber crop. Recent advances in chemistry have produced modern water miscible oil paints that can be used with and cleaned up with water. Small alterations in the molecular structure of the oil creates this water miscible property. A still-newer type of paint, heat-set oils, remain liquid until heated to 265–280 °F (130–138 °C) for about 15 minutes. Since the paint never dries otherwise, cleanup is not needed (except when one wants to use a different color and the same brush). Although not technically true oils (the medium is an unidentified "non-drying synthetic oily liquid, imbedded with a heat sensitive curing agent"), the paintings resemble oil paintings and are usually shown as oil paintings. Carriers Splined canvas Traditional artists' canvas is made from linen, but the less expensive cotton fabric has gained popularity. The artist first prepares a wooden frame called a "stretcher" or "strainer". The difference between the first and second is that stretchers are slightly adjustable, while strainers are rigid and lack adjustable corner notches. The canvas is then pulled across the wooden frame and tacked or stapled tightly to the back edge. The next step is for the artist to apply a "size" to isolate the canvas from the acidic qualities of the paint. Traditionally, the canvas was coated with a layer of animal glue (size), (modern painters will use rabbit skin glue) and primed with lead white paint, sometimes with added chalk. Panels were prepared with a gesso, a mixture of glue and chalk. Modern acrylic "gesso" is made of titanium dioxide with an acrylic binder. It is frequently used on canvas, whereas real gesso is not suitable for that application. The artist might apply several layers of gesso, sanding each smooth after it has dried. Acrylic gesso is very difficult to sand. One manufacturer makes a sandable acrylic gesso, but it is intended for panels only, not canvas. It is possible to tone the gesso to a particular color, but most store-bought gesso is white. The gesso layer will tend to draw the oil paint into the porous surface, depending on the thickness of the gesso layer. Excessive or uneven gesso layers are sometimes visible in the surface of finished paintings as a change in the layer that's not from the paint. Standard sizes for oil paintings were set in France in the 19th century. The standards were used by most artists, not only the French, as it was - and evidently still is - supported by the main suppliers of artist materials. The main separation from size 0 (toile de 0) to size 120 (toile de 120) is divided in separate runs for figures (figure), landscapes (paysage) and marines (marine) which more or less keep the diagonal. Thus a 0 figure corresponds in height with a paysage 1 and a marine 2 . Process The Cliffs at Etretat, Claude Monet, 1885 A palette The process of oil painting varies from artist to artist, but often includes certain steps. First, the artist prepares the surface. Although surfaces like linoleum, wooden panel, paper, slate, pressed wood, and cardboard have been used, the most popular surface since the 16th century has been canvas, although many artists used panel through the 17th century and beyond. Panel is more expensive, heavier, less easy to transport, and prone to warp or split in poor conditions. For fine detail, however, the absolute solidity of a wooden panel gives an advantage. The artist might sketch an outline of their subject prior to applying pigment to the surface. "Pigment" may be any number of natural substances with color, such as sulphur for yellow or cobalt for blue. The pigment is mixed with oil, usually linseed oil but other oils may be used as well. The various oils dry differently creating assorted effects. Traditionally, an artist mixed his or her own paints for each project. Handling and mixing the raw pigments and mediums was prohibitive to transportation. This changed in the late 1800s, when oil paint in tubes became widely available. Artists could mix colors quickly and easily without having to grind their own pigments. Also, the portability of tube paints allowed for plein air, or outdoor painting (common to French Impressionism). The artist most often uses a brush to apply the paint. Brushes are made from a variety of fibers to create different effects. For example, brushes made with hog's bristle might be used for bolder strokes and impasto textures. Fitch hair and mongoose hair brushes are fine and smooth, and thus answer well for portraits and detail work. Even more expensive are red sable brushes (weasel hair). The finest quality brushes are called kolinsky sable; these brush fibers are taken from the tail of the Siberian mink. This hair keeps a superfine point, has smooth handling, and good memory (it returns to its original point when lifted off the canvas); this is known to artists as a brush's "snap." In the past few decades, many synthetic brushes have come on the market. These are very durable and can be quite good, as well as cost efficient. Floppy fibers with no snap, such as squirrel hair, are generally not used by oil painters. Sizes of brushes also are widely varied and used for different effects. For example, a "round" is a pointed brush used for detail work. "Flat" brushes are used to apply broad swaths of color. "Bright" is a flat with shorter brush hairs. "Filbert" is a flat with rounded corners. "Egbert" is a very long "Filbert" and is rare. The artist might also apply paint with a palette knife, which is a flat, metal blade. A palette knife may also be used to remove paint from the canvas when necessary. A variety of unconventional tools, such as rags, sponges, and cotton swabs, may be used. Some artists even paint with their fingers. Most artists paint in layers which is simply called "Indirect Painting". The method was first perfected through an adaptation of the Egg tempera painting technique, and applied by the Flemish painters in Northern Europe with pigments ground in linseed oil. More recently this adaptation has been called the "Mixed Technique" or "Mixed Method". The first coat or "underpainting" is laid down, often painted with egg tempera or turpentine thinned paint. This layer helps to "tone" the canvas, and cover the white of the gesso. Many artists use this layer to sketch out the composition. This layer can be adjusted before moving forward, which is an advantage over the 'cartooning' method used in Fresco technique. After this layer dries, the artist might then proceed by painting a "mosaic" of color swatches, working from darkest to lightest. The borders of the colors are blended together when the "mosaic" is completed. This layer is then left to dry before applying details. The artist may apply several layers of details, using a technique called 'fat over lean.' This means that each additional layer of paint is a bit oilier than the layer below, to allow proper drying. As a painting receives additional layers, the paint itself must become more oleo saturated (leaner to fatter) so that the final painting will not crack and peel. After it is dry, the artist might apply "glaze" to the painting, which is a thin, transparent layer to seal the surface. A classical work might take weeks or even months to layer the paint, but the most skilled early artists, such as Jan van Eyck, could have worked more quickly using the Wet-on-wet method of painting for some details. Artists in later periods such as the impressionist era often used this more widely, blending the wet paint on the canvas without following the Renaissance layering and glazing method. This method is also called "Alla Prima." This method created due to the evolution of painting outdoors rather than inside a studio. While outside an artist did not have the time to let each layer of paint dry before adding a new layer. Several contemporary artists use a blend of both techniques which add bold color as well as the depth of layers. When the image is finished and dried for up to a year, an artist would often seal the work with a layer of varnish typically made from damar gum crystals dissolved in turpentine. Contemporary artists increasingly resist the varnishing of their work, preferring that the surfaces remain varnish-free indefinitely. Examples See also History of painting Oil sketch List of painters faux finishing paper marbling Oil paint The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques, reference book that covers oil painting in depth References | Oil_painting |@lemmatized mona:1 lisa:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 c:2 oil:57 painting:28 process:3 paint:67 pigment:8 bind:1 medium:10 dry:16 especially:1 early:5 modern:4 europe:5 linseed:6 often:8 boil:1 resin:3 pine:1 even:5 frankincense:1 call:7 varnish:5 prize:1 body:2 gloss:1 occasionally:1 use:32 include:4 poppyseed:1 walnut:1 safflower:1 confer:1 various:3 property:2 less:4 yellowing:1 different:5 time:4 certain:3 difference:2 also:9 visible:2 sheen:2 depend:4 painter:8 specific:1 effect:4 desire:1 develop:1 particular:4 feel:1 although:5 first:8 western:1 afghanistan:2 sometime:1 century:8 gain:2 popularity:3 practice:1 may:8 migrate:1 westward:1 middle:1 age:1 eventually:1 become:5 principal:1 create:6 artwork:1 advantage:3 widely:4 know:2 transition:1 begin:3 netherlandish:2 northern:5 height:2 rennaisance:1 technique:9 almost:1 completely:2 replaced:1 tempera:5 majority:1 self:1 portrait:3 work:8 anders:1 zorn:1 traditional:3 artist:36 sketch:4 figure:6 onto:2 canvas:13 charcoal:1 clean:2 thin:3 mixed:4 turpentine:4 grade:1 mineral:1 spirit:1 solvent:1 thinner:1 faster:1 build:1 layer:28 basic:1 rule:1 application:2 fat:2 lean:3 mean:2 additional:5 bit:2 oily:4 allow:4 proper:2 drying:2 get:2 must:4 fatter:2 final:2 crack:2 peel:2 many:6 cold:1 wax:1 aid:1 adjust:2 translucency:1 density:1 ability:1 hold:2 conceal:1 brushstroke:1 variable:1 closely:1 relate:1 expressive:1 capacity:1 look:1 original:2 trait:1 one:3 sense:1 choice:1 make:8 apply:11 viewer:1 still:3 liquid:4 semi:1 move:2 traditionally:3 transfer:1 surface:11 brush:15 method:9 palette:4 knife:3 rag:3 etc:1 remain:3 wet:5 long:2 type:2 material:3 enable:1 change:3 color:9 texture:2 form:1 might:8 remove:2 entire:1 anew:1 harden:1 scrap:2 scraping:1 smooth:4 scumbling:1 glaze:3 reveal:1 evidence:1 close:1 inspection:1 particularly:1 examine:1 oxidation:1 evaporation:1 usually:3 touch:1 day:1 two:1 week:2 generally:2 enough:1 six:1 month:2 year:3 art:2 conservator:1 consider:1 old:1 history:2 recent:2 research:1 support:2 likelihood:1 spread:2 west:1 bbc:1 news:2 south:1 asia:1 rediscover:1 treasure:1 bamiyan:1 afghan:1 cave:1 world:1 expert:1 abc:1 australian:1 broadcasting:1 corporation:1 discover:1 science:1 magazine:1 like:2 shield:1 tournament:1 hung:1 decoration:1 durable:2 base:2 renaissance:2 source:1 vasari:1 credit:1 european:1 jan:2 van:2 eyck:2 invention:1 wood:2 panel:8 however:3 theophilus:1 roger:1 helmarshausen:1 clearly:1 give:2 instruction:1 treatise:1 diver:1 write:1 usual:1 follow:2 rest:1 italy:2 north:1 start:1 venice:1 late:2 previous:1 extinct:1 italian:1 continue:1 fresco:2 wall:1 difficult:2 climate:1 ingredient:1 come:2 flax:2 seed:1 common:2 fiber:4 crop:1 advance:1 chemistry:1 produce:1 water:3 miscible:2 small:1 alteration:1 molecular:1 structure:1 new:2 heat:3 set:2 f:1 minute:1 since:2 never:1 otherwise:1 cleanup:1 need:1 except:1 want:1 technically:1 true:1 unidentified:1 non:1 synthetic:2 imbed:1 sensitive:1 curing:1 agent:1 resemble:1 show:1 carrier:1 splined:1 linen:1 expensive:3 cotton:2 fabric:1 prepare:3 wooden:4 frame:2 stretcher:2 strainer:2 second:1 slightly:1 adjustable:2 rigid:1 lack:1 corner:2 notch:1 pull:1 across:1 tack:1 staple:1 tightly:1 back:1 edge:1 next:1 step:2 size:6 isolate:1 acidic:1 quality:2 coat:2 animal:1 glue:3 rabbit:1 skin:1 prim:1 lead:1 white:3 sometimes:2 added:1 chalk:2 gesso:12 mixture:1 acrylic:4 titanium:1 dioxide:1 binder:1 frequently:1 whereas:1 real:1 suitable:1 several:3 sand:2 manufacturer:1 sandable:1 intend:1 possible:1 tone:2 store:1 bought:1 tend:1 draw:1 porous:1 thickness:1 excessive:1 uneven:1 finished:1 standard:2 france:1 french:2 evidently:1 main:2 supplier:1 separation:1 toile:2 de:2 divide:1 separate:1 run:1 landscape:1 paysage:2 marine:3 keep:2 diagonal:1 thus:2 corresponds:1 cliff:1 etretat:1 claude:1 monet:1 varies:1 linoleum:1 paper:2 slate:1 press:1 cardboard:1 popular:1 beyond:1 heavy:1 easy:1 transport:1 prone:1 warp:1 split:1 poor:1 condition:1 fine:3 detail:6 absolute:1 solidity:1 outline:1 subject:1 prior:1 number:1 natural:1 substance:1 sulphur:1 yellow:1 cobalt:1 blue:1 well:4 differently:1 assorted:1 mix:3 project:1 handling:2 raw:1 prohibitive:1 transportation:1 tubes:1 available:1 could:2 quickly:2 easily:1 without:2 grind:1 portability:1 tube:1 plein:1 air:1 outdoor:1 impressionism:1 variety:2 example:3 hog:1 bristle:1 bolder:1 stroke:1 impasto:1 fitch:1 hair:6 mongoose:1 answer:1 red:1 sable:2 weasel:1 kolinsky:1 take:2 tail:1 siberian:1 mink:1 superfine:1 point:2 good:2 memory:1 return:1 lift:1 snap:2 past:1 decade:1 market:1 quite:1 cost:1 efficient:1 floppy:1 squirrel:1 vary:1 round:1 pointed:1 flat:4 broad:1 swath:1 bright:1 short:1 filbert:2 rounded:1 egbert:1 rare:1 metal:1 blade:1 necessary:1 unconventional:1 tool:1 sponge:1 swab:1 finger:1 simply:1 indirect:1 perfect:1 adaptation:2 egg:2 flemish:1 ground:1 recently:1 underpainting:1 lay:1 help:1 cover:2 composition:1 forward:1 cartoon:1 proceed:1 mosaic:2 swatch:1 dark:1 light:1 border:1 blend:3 together:1 complete:1 leave:1 receive:1 oleo:1 saturate:1 leaner:1 transparent:1 seal:2 classical:1 skilled:1 later:1 period:1 impressionist:1 era:1 layering:1 alla:1 prima:1 due:1 evolution:1 outdoors:1 rather:1 inside:1 studio:1 outside:1 let:1 add:2 contemporary:2 bold:1 depth:2 image:1 finish:2 would:1 typically:1 damar:1 gum:1 crystal:1 dissolve:1 increasingly:1 resist:1 varnishing:1 prefer:1 free:1 indefinitely:1 see:1 list:1 faux:1 marble:1 handbook:1 reference:2 book:1 |@bigram mona_lisa:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 linseed_oil:5 migrate_westward:1 netherlandish_painting:2 closely_relate:1 palette_knife:3 bbc_news:1 broadcasting_corporation:1 van_eyck:2 flax_seed:1 acrylic_gesso:3 titanium_dioxide:1 claude_monet:1 plein_air:1 paint_canvas:2 |
4,682 | Leda_and_the_Swan | Leda and the Swan, a 16th century copy after a lost painting by Michelangelo (National Gallery, London) Leda and the Swan is a motif from Greek mythology, in which Zeus came to Leda in the form of a swan. According to later Greek mythology, Leda bore Helen and Polydeuces, children of Zeus while at the same time bearing Castor and Clytemnestra, children of her husband Tyndareus, the King of Sparta. As the story goes, Zeus took the form of a swan and raped or seduced Leda on the same night she slept with her husband, King Tyndareus. In some versions, she laid two eggs from which the children hatched. This idea, that the semen of more than one male might influence pregnancy, a feature in the origin myth of Theseus, is called telegony; it retained scientific followers until the late nineteenth century. In other versions, Helen is a daughter of Nemesis, the goddess who personified the disaster that awaited those suffering from the pride of Hubris. The motif was rarely seen in the large-scale sculpture of antiquity, although Timotheos is known to have represented Leda in sculpture (compare illustration, below left); small-scale examples survive showing both reclining and standing poses, Malcolm Bull, The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods, Oxford UP, 2005, ISBN 100195219236 Bull p. 167. See External links for examples in cameos and engraved gems, rings, and terracotta oil lamps. Thanks to the literary renditions of Ovid and Fulgentius it was a well-known myth through the Middle Ages, but emerged more prominently as a classicizing theme, with erotic overtones, in the Italian Renaissance. Many artists have their own representative paintings of 'Leda and the Swan'; with the support of Greek mythology. W. B. Yeats has re-written this poem nearly four times. Eroticism Leda and the Swan, Roman marble possibly reflecting a lost work by Timotheos; restored (Prado) The subject undoubtedly owed its sixteenth-century popularity to the paradox that it was considered more acceptable to depict a woman in the act of copulation with a swan than with a man. The earliest depictions show the pair love-making with some explicitness—more so than in any depictions of a human pair made by artists of high quality in the same period. Bull p 167 The fate of the album I Modi some years later shows why this was. The theme remained a dangerous one in the Renaissance, as the fates of the three best known paintings on the subject demonstrate. The earliest depictions were all in the more private medium of the old master print, and mostly from Venice. They were often based on the extremely brief account in the Metamorphoses of Ovid (who does not imply a rape), though Lorenzo de' Medici had both a Roman sarcophagus and an antique carved gem of the subject, both with reclining Ledas. Bull p167 The earliest known explicit Renaissance depiction is one of the many woodcut illustrations to Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, a book published in Venice in 1499. This shows Leda and the Swan making love with gusto, despite being on top of a triumphal car, being pulled along and surrounded by a considerable crowd. Page 166 - Hypnerotomachia Poliphili An engraving dating to 1503 at the latest, by Giovanni Battista Palumba, also shows the couple in coitus, but in deserted countryside. Misattributed to Hans Baldung, near the bottom here Another engraving, certainly from Venice and attributed by many to Giulio Campagnola, shows a love-making scene, but there Leda's attitude is highly ambiguous. Bodkin Prints - Product details Not a woodcut, as Bull (p169) wrongly says (see Hind BM catalogue,The Illustrated Bartsch etc); nor is his view of Leda's expression the only one. Palumba made another engraving in about 1512, presumably influenced by Leonardo's sketches for his earlier composition, showing Leda seated on the ground and playing with her children. The Metropolitan Museum of Art - Special Exhibitions: Poets, Lovers, and Heroes in Italian Mythological Prints There were also significant depictions in the smaller decorative arts, also private media. Benvenuto Cellini made a medallion, now in Vienna, early in his career, and Antonio Abondio one on the obverse of a medal celebrating a Roman courtesan. Abondio, NGA Washington In painting Leda and the Swan, copy by Cesare Sesto after a lost original by Leonardo, 1515-1520, Oil on canvas, Wilton House, England. Leonardo da Vinci began making studies in 1504 for a painting, apparently never executed, of Leda seated on the ground with her children. In 1508 he painted a different composition of the subject, with a nude standing Leda cuddling the Swan, with the two sets of infant twins, and their huge broken egg-shells. The original of this is lost, probably deliberately destroyed, but it is known from many copies. Also lost, and probably deliberately destroyed, is Michelangelo's tempera painting of the pair making love, commissioned in 1529 by Alfonso d'Este for his palazzo in Ferrara. Michelangelo's cartoon for the work— given to his assistant Antonio Mini, who used it for several copies for French patrons before his death in 1533— survived for over a century. This composition is known from many copies, including an engraving by Cornelis de Bos, c. 1563; the marble sculpture by Bartolomeo Ammanati in the Bargello, Florence; two copies by the young Rubens on his Italian voyage, and the painting after Michelangelo, ca. 1530, in the National Gallery, London. Elfriede R. Knauer, "Leda" Jahrbuch der Berliner Museen 11 (1969:5-35) illustrates several copies as well as an engraving of a Roman bas-relief and examples of antique engraved gems that seem to have provided Micelangelo's inspiration and gives a full bibliography of Michelangelo's Leda. The Michelangelo composition, of about 1530, shows Mannerist tendencies of elongation and twisted pose (the figura serpentinata) that were popular at the time. In addition, a sculptural group, similar to the Prado Roman group illustrated, was believed until at least the 19th century to be by Michelangelo. It belonged to John Everett Millais and was included in his 2007 Tate Britain exhibition. Now London, attributed to a 16th-century "follower of Michelangelo". The last very famous Renaissance painting of the subject is Correggio's elaborate composition of c. 1530 (Berlin); this too was damaged whilst in the collection of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the Regent of France in the minority of Louis XV. His son Louis though a great lover of painting, had periodic crises of conscience about his way of life, in one of which he attacked the figure of Leda with a knife. The damage has been repaired, though full restoration to the original condition was not possible. Both the Leonardo and Michelangelo paintings also disappeared when in the collection of the French Royal Family, and are believed to have been destroyed by more moralistic widows or successors of their owners. Bull p169 There were many other depictions in the Renaissance, including cycles of book illustrations to Ovid, but most were derivative of the compositions mentioned above. Bacchiacca (Francesco d'Ubertino): Leda and the Swan | Work of Art | Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art The subject remained largely confined to Italy, and sometimes France – Northern versions are rare. Bull p.170 After something of a hiatus in the 18th and early 19th centuries (apart from a very sensuous Boucher, Leda and the Swan ), Leda and the Swan became again a popular motif in the later 19th and 20th centuries, with many Symbolist and Expressionist treatments. In Modern Art Cézanne Cy Twombly executed an intense version of Leda and the Swan in 1962. It is in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art, New York. MoMA.org | The Collection | Cy Twombly. Leda and the Swan. Rome 1962 Avant-garde filmmaker Kurt Kren along with other members of the Vienna Actionist movement including Otto Muehl and Hermann Nitsch made a film-performance version of Leda and the Swan called 7/64 Leda mit der Schwan in 1964. The film retains the classical motif, portraying, for most of its duration, a young woman embracing a swan. Photographer Charlie White included a portrait of Leda in his "And Jeopardize the Integrity of the Hull" series. Zeus, as the swan, only appears metaphorically. There is a life-sized marble statue of Leda and the Swan at the Jai Vilas Palace Museum in Gwalior, Northern Madhya Pradesh, India. In poetry Ronsard wrote a poem on La Défloration de Lède, perhaps inspired by the Michelangelo, which he may well have known. Like many artists, he imagines the beak penetrating Leda's mouth. Bull p.169 Study for the head of Leda, Leonardo, c. 1506, Pen and ink over black chalk "Leda and the Swan" is a poem by William Butler Yeats first published in 1928 (below). Combining psychological realism with a mystic vision, it describes the swan's raping of Leda. A sudden blow: the great wings beating still Above the staggering girl, her thighs caressed By the dark webs, her nape caught in his bill, He holds her helpless breast upon his breast. How can those terrified vague fingers push The feathered glory from her loosening thighs? And how can body, laid in that white rush, But feel the strange heart beating where it lies? A shudder in the loins engenders there The broken wall, the burning roof and tower "Was this the face that launched a thousand ships/ And burnt the topless towers of Ilium?" (Christopher Marlowe, Doctor Faustus). Both Helen and Clytemnestra were Leda's daughters. And Agamemnon dead. Being so caught up, So mastered by the brute blood of the air, Did she put on his knowledge with his power Before the indifferent beak could let her drop? References External links Leda and the Swan, 1920, 83x50 mm. Etching by the Czech artist T.F. Šimon (1877-1942). Ovid Illustrated - large site from the University of Virginia, where many depictions of Leda and the Swan from Renaissance and later editions of the Metamorphoses will (eventually) be found. Yeats' "Leda and the Swan": an image's coming of age Greek vase from the Getty Samuelson blog with thoughts and pictures 16th century Venetian painting by Il Padovanino Alternative detail view of the Getty vase Roman statue from the Getty Baroque bronze from the Getty Sculpture c 1900 Leda and the swan – Bronze miniature Jupiter+Leda+art Visual Arts Appreciation Pages Jai Vilas Palace Museum, Gwalior, India Rubens' copy of Michelangelo's 'Leda and the Swan' at Harvard's Fogg Museum Leonardo da Vinci's 'Leda and the Swan' at the Borghese Gallery Leonardo da Vinci's 'Leda and the Swan' compared to a figure from Raphael's 'School of Athens' | Leda_and_the_Swan |@lemmatized leda:41 swan:28 century:9 copy:8 lost:1 painting:10 michelangelo:11 national:2 gallery:3 london:3 motif:4 greek:4 mythology:3 zeus:4 come:2 form:2 accord:1 later:2 bore:1 helen:3 polydeuces:1 child:5 time:3 bear:1 castor:1 clytemnestra:2 husband:2 tyndareus:2 king:2 sparta:1 story:1 go:1 take:1 rap:1 seduce:1 night:1 sleep:1 version:5 lay:2 two:3 egg:2 hatch:1 idea:1 semen:1 one:6 male:1 might:1 influence:2 pregnancy:1 feature:1 origin:1 myth:2 theseus:1 call:2 telegony:1 retain:2 scientific:1 follower:2 late:4 nineteenth:1 daughter:2 nemesis:1 goddess:1 personify:1 disaster:1 await:1 suffer:1 pride:1 hubris:1 rarely:1 see:3 large:2 scale:2 sculpture:4 antiquity:1 although:1 timotheos:2 know:7 represent:1 compare:2 illustration:3 leave:1 small:2 example:3 survive:2 show:8 recline:2 stand:1 pose:2 malcolm:1 bull:8 mirror:1 god:2 renaissance:7 artists:1 rediscover:1 pagan:1 oxford:1 isbn:1 p:4 external:2 link:2 cameo:1 engraved:1 gem:3 ring:1 terracotta:1 oil:2 lamp:1 thanks:1 literary:1 rendition:1 ovid:4 fulgentius:1 well:3 middle:1 age:2 emerge:1 prominently:1 classicizing:1 theme:2 erotic:1 overtone:1 italian:3 many:9 artist:4 representative:1 support:1 w:1 b:1 yeats:3 write:2 poem:3 nearly:1 four:1 eroticism:1 roman:6 marble:3 possibly:1 reflect:1 lose:4 work:3 restore:1 prado:2 subject:6 undoubtedly:1 owe:1 sixteenth:1 popularity:1 paradox:1 consider:1 acceptable:1 depict:1 woman:2 act:1 copulation:1 man:1 early:6 depiction:7 pair:3 love:4 make:9 explicitness:1 human:1 high:1 quality:1 period:1 fate:2 album:1 modi:1 year:1 remain:2 dangerous:1 three:1 best:1 demonstrate:1 private:2 medium:2 old:1 master:2 print:3 mostly:1 venice:3 often:1 base:1 extremely:1 brief:1 account:1 metamorphosis:2 imply:1 rape:1 though:3 lorenzo:1 de:3 medici:1 sarcophagus:1 antique:2 carve:1 explicit:1 woodcut:2 hypnerotomachia:2 poliphili:2 book:2 publish:2 gusto:1 despite:1 top:1 triumphal:1 car:1 pull:1 along:2 surround:1 considerable:1 crowd:1 page:2 engrave:2 dating:1 giovanni:1 battista:1 palumba:2 also:5 couple:1 coitus:1 deserted:1 countryside:1 misattributed:1 han:1 baldung:1 near:1 bottom:1 another:2 engraving:4 certainly:1 attribute:2 giulio:1 campagnola:1 scene:1 attitude:1 highly:1 ambiguous:1 bodkin:1 product:1 detail:2 wrongly:1 say:1 hind:1 bm:1 catalogue:1 illustrated:1 bartsch:1 etc:1 view:2 expression:1 presumably:1 leonardo:7 sketch:1 composition:6 seat:2 ground:2 play:1 metropolitan:2 museum:6 art:9 special:1 exhibition:2 poet:1 lover:2 hero:1 mythological:1 significant:1 decorative:1 benvenuto:1 cellini:1 medallion:1 vienna:2 career:1 antonio:2 abondio:2 obverse:1 medal:1 celebrate:1 courtesan:1 nga:1 washington:1 paint:2 cesare:1 sesto:1 original:3 canvas:1 wilton:1 house:1 england:1 da:3 vinci:3 begin:1 study:2 apparently:1 never:1 execute:2 different:1 nude:1 standing:1 cuddle:1 set:1 infant:1 twin:1 huge:1 break:1 shell:1 probably:2 deliberately:2 destroy:3 tempera:1 commission:1 alfonso:1 este:1 palazzo:1 ferrara:1 cartoon:1 give:2 assistant:1 mini:1 use:1 several:2 french:2 patron:1 death:1 include:5 cornelis:1 bos:1 c:4 bartolomeo:1 ammanati:1 bargello:1 florence:1 young:2 rubens:2 voyage:1 ca:1 elfriede:1 r:1 knauer:1 jahrbuch:1 der:2 berliner:1 museen:1 illustrate:3 ba:1 relief:1 seem:1 provide:1 micelangelo:1 inspiration:1 full:2 bibliography:1 mannerist:1 tendency:1 elongation:1 twist:1 figura:1 serpentinata:1 popular:2 addition:1 sculptural:1 group:2 similar:1 believe:2 least:1 belong:1 john:1 everett:1 millais:1 tate:1 britain:1 last:1 famous:1 correggio:1 elaborate:1 berlin:1 damage:2 whilst:1 collection:4 philippe:1 ii:1 duke:1 orléans:1 regent:1 france:2 minority:1 louis:2 xv:1 son:1 great:2 periodic:1 crisis:1 conscience:1 way:1 life:2 attack:1 figure:2 knife:1 repair:1 restoration:1 condition:1 possible:1 disappear:1 royal:1 family:1 moralistic:1 widow:1 successor:1 owner:1 cycle:1 derivative:1 mention:1 bacchiacca:1 francesco:1 ubertino:1 timeline:1 history:1 largely:1 confine:1 italy:1 sometimes:1 northern:2 rare:1 something:1 hiatus:1 apart:1 sensuous:1 boucher:1 become:1 symbolist:1 expressionist:1 treatment:1 modern:2 cézanne:1 cy:2 twombly:2 intense:1 new:1 york:1 moma:1 org:1 rome:1 avant:1 garde:1 filmmaker:1 kurt:1 kren:1 member:1 actionist:1 movement:1 otto:1 muehl:1 hermann:1 nitsch:1 film:2 performance:1 mit:1 schwan:1 classical:1 portraying:1 duration:1 embrace:1 photographer:1 charlie:1 white:2 portrait:1 jeopardize:1 integrity:1 hull:1 series:1 appear:1 metaphorically:1 size:1 statue:2 jai:2 vila:2 palace:2 gwalior:2 madhya:1 pradesh:1 india:2 poetry:1 ronsard:1 la:1 défloration:1 lède:1 perhaps:1 inspire:1 may:1 like:1 imagine:1 beak:2 penetrate:1 mouth:1 head:1 pen:1 ink:1 black:1 chalk:1 william:1 butler:1 first:1 combine:1 psychological:1 realism:1 mystic:1 vision:1 describe:1 raping:1 sudden:1 blow:1 wing:1 beat:1 still:1 staggering:1 girl:1 thigh:2 caress:1 dark:1 web:1 nape:1 caught:1 bill:1 hold:1 helpless:1 breast:2 upon:1 terrified:1 vague:1 finger:1 push:1 feathered:1 glory:1 loosen:1 body:1 rush:1 feel:1 strange:1 heart:1 beating:1 lie:1 shudder:1 loin:1 engenders:1 broken:1 wall:1 burning:1 roof:1 tower:2 face:1 launch:1 thousand:1 ship:1 burn:1 topless:1 ilium:1 christopher:1 marlowe:1 doctor:1 faustus:1 agamemnon:1 dead:1 catch:1 brute:1 blood:1 air:1 put:1 knowledge:1 power:1 indifferent:1 could:1 let:1 drop:1 reference:1 mm:1 etching:1 czech:1 f:1 šimon:1 site:1 university:1 virginia:1 edition:1 eventually:1 find:1 image:1 vase:2 getty:4 samuelson:1 blog:1 thought:1 picture:1 venetian:1 il:1 padovanino:1 alternative:1 baroque:1 bronze:2 miniature:1 jupiter:1 visual:1 appreciation:1 harvard:1 fogg:1 borghese:1 raphael:1 school:1 athens:1 |@bigram leda_swan:21 nineteenth_century:1 external_link:2 metamorphosis_ovid:1 woodcut_illustration:1 giovanni_battista:1 han_baldung:1 oil_canvas:1 leonardo_da:3 da_vinci:3 alfonso_este:1 marble_sculpture:1 ba_relief:1 everett_millais:1 duke_orléans:1 louis_xv:1 avant_garde:1 madhya_pradesh:1 pen_ink:1 butler_yeats:1 christopher_marlowe:1 |
4,683 | Indus_River | The Indus River (Sanskrit: सिन्धु 'Sindhu'; Urdu: Sindh; Sindhi: Sindhu; Punjabi سندھ ; Avestan: Harahauvati; Pashto: Abasin "Father of Rivers"; Persian: "Indigo Waters"; Tibetan: "Lion River"; Chinese: , Sēngé Zàngbù/Shīquán Hé/Yìndù Hé; Greek: Ινδός Indos) is the longest river in Pakistan and the twenty-first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow. It is often considered the life-line of Pakistan by the people of that country. The Europeans used the name "India" for the entire Indian Subcontinent based on Indos, the Greek appellation of this river. Originating in the Tibetan plateau in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar, the river runs a course through Ladakh district of the state of Jammu and Kashmir of India and then the river enters Pakistan in administrative division of Northern Areas (Gilgit-Baltistan), flowing through the North in a southerly direction along the entire length of the country, to merge into the Arabian Sea near Pakistan's port city of Karachi. The total length of the river is 3,180 kilometres (1,976 miles). The river has a total drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 square kilometres (450,000 square miles). The river's estimated annual flow stands at around 207 cubic kilometres. Beginning at the heights of the world with glaciers, the river feeds the ecosystem of temperate forests, plains and arid countryside. Together with the rivers Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Jhelum, Beas and the extinct Sarasvati River, the Indus forms the Sapta Sindhu (Seven Rivers) delta in the Sindh province of Pakistan. The Indus provides the key water resources for the economy of Pakistan - especially the Breadbasket of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nation's agricultural production, and Sindh. The word Punjab is a combination of the Persian words Panj (پنج) meaning Five, and 'āb' (آب) meaning Water, giving the literal meaning of the Land of the Five Rivers. The five rivers after which Punjab is named are the Beas, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. The river also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan. The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet; it begins at the confluence of the Sengge and Gar rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan mountain ranges. The Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok River, Shigar and Gilgit streams carry glacial waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi. The Indus passes gigantic gorges 4,500-5,200 metres (15,000-17,000 feet) high near the Nanga Parbat massif. It flows swiftly across Hazara, and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The Kabul River joins it near Attock. The remainder of its route to the sea is in plains of the Punjab and Sindh, and the river becomes slow-flowing and highly braided. It is joined by Panjnad River at Mithankot. Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named Satnad River (Sat = seven, Nadi = river), as the river was now carrying the waters of the Kabul River, the Indus River and the five Punjab rivers. Passing by Jamshoro, it ends in a large delta to the east of Thatta. The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a tidal bore. The Indus system is largely fed by the snows and glaciers of the Himalayas, Karakoram and the Hindu Kush ranges of Tibet, the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India and the Northern Areas of Pakistan. The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons - it diminishes greatly in the winter, while flooding its banks in the monsoon months from July to September. There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times - it deviated westwards from flowing into the Rann of Kutch. History Indus Valley archaeological sites in Pakistan. Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization in the 3rd millenium BC. The position of the Sindhu River in Vedic period of South Asia. Paleolithic sites have been discovered in Pothohar near Pakistan's capital Islamabad, with the stone tools of the Soan Culture. In ancient Gandhara, near Islamabad, evidence of cave dwellers dated 15,000 years ago has been discovered at Mardan. The major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilization extended from Balochistan to Gujarat, with an upward reach from east of Jhelum River to Ropar on the upper Sutlej. The coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at the Iranian border to Lothal in Gujarat. There is an Indus site on the Oxus river at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan (Kenoyer 1998:96), and the Indus site Alamgirpur at the Hindon River is located only 28 km from Delhi (S.P. Gupta 1995:183). To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Lothal, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi. Only 90-96 of the over-800 known Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. The Sutlej, now a tributary of the Indus, in Harappan times flowed into the Ghaggar-Hakra River, in the watershed of which were more Harappan sites than along the Indus (S.P. Gupta 1995: 183). Most scholars believe that settlements of Gandhara grave culture of the early Indo-Aryans flourished in Gandhara from 1700 BC to 600 BC, when Mohenjo-daro and Harappa had already been abandoned. The name Indus is a Latinization of Hindu, in turn the Iranian variant of Sindhu, the name of the Indus in the Rigveda. The Sanskrit Sindhu generically means river, stream, ocean, probably from a root sidh , to keep off; Sindhu is attested 176 times in the Rigveda, 95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. Already in the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular, for example in the list of rivers of the Nadistuti sukta. This resulted in the anomaly of a river with masculine gender: all other Rigvedic rivers are female, not just grammatically, being imagined as goddesses and compared to cows and mares yielding milk and butter. The Indus has formed a natural boundary between the Indian Subcontinent hinterland and its frontier with the Iranian Plateau, a region which includes Pakistan's Balochistan, North West Frontier Province as well as Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Iran. It has been crossed by the armies of Alexander the Great - His Macedonian forces retreated along the southern course of the river at the end of the Asian campaign after conquering what is now Pakistan and joining it to the Hellenic Empire. The Indus plains have also been under the domination of the Persian empire and the Kushan empire. The Muslim armies of Muhammad bin Qasim, Mahmud of Ghazni, Mohammed Ghori, Tamerlane and Babur also crossed the river to strike into the inner regions of Punjab , Rajasthan and Gujarat. The word "India" is a reference to the Indus River. In ancient times, "India" referred to the region of modern-day Pakistan along the Indus river which traded extensively with the ancient world. It was only after the arrival of the British in the 16th century that name began to be applied to the entire region. Geography Tributaries Astor River Balram River Gar River Ghizar River Gilgit River Gumal River Kabul River Panjnad Shigar River Shyok River Suru River Swaan River Tanubal River Zangskar River Geology Confluence of Indus and Zangskar rivers, Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, India. The Indus is the lower river in this picture. The Indus River feeds the Indus submarine fan located in the Indian Ocean, which is the second largest sediment body on the Earth at around 5 million cubic kilometres of material eroded from the mountains. Studies of the sediment in the modern river indicate that the Karakoram Mountains in northern Pakistan are the single most important source of material, with the Himalayas providing the next largest contribution, mostly via the large rivers of the Punjab (i.e., the Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas and the Sutlej). Analysis of sediments from the Arabian Sea has demonstrated that prior to five million years ago the Indus was not connected to these Punjab rivers which instead flowed east into the Ganges and were captured after that time . Earlier work showed that sand and silt from western Tibet was reaching the Arabian Sea by 45 million years ago, implying the existence of an ancient Indus River by that time . The delta of this proto-Indus river has subsequently been found in the Katawaz Basin, on the Afghan-Pakistan border. Most recently the Indus was paralleled by the ancient Saraswati River, which the Rigveda suggests flowed from the Himalayas between the Sutlej and the Yamuna Rivers, close to modern day Chandigarh. In the Nanga Parbat region, the massive amounts of erosion due to the Indus river following the capture and rerouting through that area is thought to bring middle and lower crustal rocks to the surface . Wildlife Bridge on the Indus River in Pakistan Accounts of the Indus valley from the times of Alexander's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region, which has now considerably receded. The Mughal Emperor Babar writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank in his memoirs (the Babarnama). Extensive deforestation and human interference in the ecology of the Shivalik Hills has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growing conditions. The Indus valley regions are arid with poor vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation works. The Blind Indus River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica minor) is a sub-species of Dolphins found only in the Indus River. It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. Palla fish (Hilsa) of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fishes in the river is moderately high, with Sukkur, Thatta and Kotri being the major fishing centres - all in the lower Sindh course. But damming and irrigation has made fish farming an important economic activity. Located southeast of Karachi, the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world's most important ecological regions. Here the river turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels. Here marine fishes are found in abundance, including Pomfret and Prawns. Economy The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the Punjab and Sindh plains - it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is especially critical as rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley. Irrigation canals were first built by the people of the Indus valley civilization, and later by the engineers of the Kushan Empire and the Mughal Empire. Modern irrigation was introduced by the British East India Company in 1850 - the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals. The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world. The Guddu Barrage is 1,350 metres (4,450 ft) long - irrigating Sukkur, Jacobabad, Larkana and Kalat. The Sukkur Barrage serves over 20,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 acres). After the Partition of India, a water control treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960 guaranteed that Pakistan would receive water from the Indus River independent of upstream control by India. The project, Indus Basin Project, consisted primarily of the construction of two main dams, the Mangla Dam built on the Jhelum River and the Tarbela Dam constructed on the Indus River, together with their subsidiary dams. The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook the construction of the Chashma-Jhelum link canal - linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers - extending water supplies to the regions of Bahawalpur and Multan. Pakistan constructed the Tarbela Dam near Rawalpindi - standing 2743 metres (9,000 ft) long and 143 metres (470 ft) high, with an 80 kilometre (50 mile) long reservoir. The Kotri Barrage near Hyderabad is 915 metres (3,000 ft) long and provides additional supplies for Karachi. The Taunsa Barrage near Dera Ghazi Khan produces 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread water resources to the valley of Peshawar, in the Northwest Frontier Province. The extensive irrigation and dam projects provide the basis for Pakistan's large production of crops such as cotton, sugarcane and wheat. The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centres. People The Indus River near Skardu, Pakistan The inhabitants of the regions through whom the Indus river passes and forms a major natural feature and resource are diverse in ethnicity, religion, national and linguistic backgrounds. On the northern course of the river in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India live the Buddhist people of Ladakh, of Tibetan stock, and the Dards of Indo-Aryan or Dardic stock and practising Islam and Buddhism. Then it descends into Baltistan, passing the main Balti city of Skardu. As it descends into Northern Areas of Pakistan, the Indus river forms a distinctive boundary of ethnicity and cultures - upon the western banks the population is largely Pashtun, Baloch, and of other Iranian stock, with close cultural, economic and ethnic ties to Afghanistan and Iran. The eastern banks are largely populated by peoples of Indo-Aryan stock, such as the Punjabis, the Sindhis and the Seraikis. In northern Punjab and the North-West Frontier Province, ethnic Pashtun tribes live alongside Dardic people in the hills (Khowar, Kalash, Shina, etc.), Burushos (in Hunza), and Punjabi people. In the southern portion of the Punjab province, the Saraiki peoples speak a distinctive tongue and practise distinctive traditions. In the province of Sindh, peoples of Sindhi and Muhajir backgrounds form the local populations. Upon the western banks of the river live the Balochi and Pashtun peoples of Balochistan. Modern issues The Indus is a strategically vital resource for Pakistan's economy and society. After the Partition of India in 1947, the use of the waters of the Indus and its five eastern tributaries became a major dispute between India and Pakistan. The irrigation canals of the Sutlej valley and the Bari Doab were split - with the canals laying primarily in Pakistan and the headwork dams in India are disrupting supply in some parts of Pakistan. The concern over India building large dams over various Punjab rivers that could undercut the supply flowing to Pakistan, as well as the possibility that India could divert rivers in the time of war, caused political consternation in Pakistan. Holding diplomatic talks brokered by the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960. The treaty gave India control of the three easternmost rivers of the Punjab, the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi, while Pakistan gained control of the three western rivers, the Jhelum, the Chenab and the Indus. India retained the right to use of the western rivers for non irrigation projects. (See discussion regarding a recent dispute about a hydroelectric project on the Chenab (not Indus) known as the Baglihar Project). Hindu pilgrimage to holy sites alongside the river has been a source of conflict between the two nations. Pakistan and India do not generally allow each others' citizens to cross borders for religious pilgrimages. With the exception of sikh pilgrims which visit pakistan from india every year regularly with complete support and hospitality from pakistan government 1 There are concerns that extensive deforestation, industrial pollution and global warming are affecting the vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta, while affecting agricultural production as well. There are also concerns that the Indus river may be shifting its course westwards - although the progression spans centuries. On numerous occasions, sediment clogging owing to poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation. In addition, extreme heat has caused water to evaporate, leaving salt deposits that render lands useless for cultivation. References World Atlas, Millennium Edition, pg 265. Jean Fairley, "The Lion River", Karachi, 1978 See also 1974 Hunza earthquake Sindhology External links Blankonthemap The Northern Kashmir WebSite Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library Northern Areas Development Gateway The Mountain Areas Conservancy Project Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute) Indus Treaty Baglihar Dam issue Indus Indus Wildlife First raft and kayak descents of the Indus headwaters in Tibet be-x-old:Інд | Indus_River |@lemmatized indus:64 river:100 sanskrit:2 स:1 न:1 ध:1 sindhu:7 urdu:1 sindh:7 sindhi:3 punjabi:3 سندھ:1 avestan:1 harahauvati:1 pashto:1 abasin:1 father:1 persian:3 indigo:1 water:17 tibetan:3 lion:2 chinese:1 sēngé:1 zàngbù:1 shīquán:1 hé:2 yìndù:1 greek:2 ινδός:1 indos:2 long:5 pakistan:35 twenty:1 first:3 large:9 world:10 term:1 annual:2 flow:11 often:2 consider:1 life:1 line:1 people:11 country:2 european:1 use:4 name:6 india:21 entire:3 indian:3 subcontinent:2 base:1 appellation:1 originate:1 plateau:2 vicinity:1 lake:1 mansarovar:1 run:1 course:6 ladakh:4 district:1 state:3 jammu:4 kashmir:5 enters:1 administrative:1 division:1 northern:9 area:7 gilgit:4 baltistan:3 north:3 southerly:1 direction:1 along:6 length:2 merge:1 arabian:3 sea:5 near:9 port:1 city:4 karachi:4 total:2 kilometre:6 mile:3 drainage:1 exceed:1 square:3 estimate:1 stand:1 around:3 cubic:2 begin:3 height:1 glacier:2 feed:3 ecosystem:1 temperate:1 forest:2 plain:4 arid:2 countryside:1 together:2 chenab:5 ravi:4 sutlej:8 jhelum:8 beas:4 extinct:1 sarasvati:1 form:6 sapta:1 seven:2 delta:5 province:7 provide:5 key:1 resource:7 economy:3 especially:2 breadbasket:1 punjab:13 account:2 nation:2 agricultural:3 production:5 word:4 combination:1 panj:1 پنج:1 mean:2 five:6 āb:1 آب:1 meaning:4 give:2 literal:1 land:2 also:9 support:2 many:2 heavy:2 industry:2 main:4 supply:5 potable:1 ultimate:1 source:3 tibet:4 confluence:3 sengge:1 gar:2 drain:1 nganglong:1 kangri:1 gangdise:1 mountain:3 range:3 northwest:2 south:3 karakoram:3 shyok:2 shigar:2 stream:3 carry:2 glacial:1 gradually:1 bend:1 come:1 hill:3 peshawar:2 rawalpindi:2 pass:3 gigantic:1 gorge:1 metre:5 foot:1 high:3 nanga:2 parbat:2 massif:1 swiftly:1 across:1 hazara:1 dam:12 tarbela:3 reservoir:2 kabul:3 join:3 attock:1 remainder:1 route:1 become:2 slow:1 flowing:1 highly:1 braid:1 panjnad:2 mithankot:1 beyond:1 one:4 time:10 satnad:1 sat:1 nadi:1 passing:1 jamshoro:1 end:2 east:4 thatta:2 exhibit:1 tidal:1 bore:1 system:1 largely:4 snow:1 himalaya:3 hindu:3 kush:1 determine:1 season:1 diminish:1 greatly:1 winter:1 flood:1 bank:6 monsoon:1 month:1 july:1 september:1 evidence:2 steady:1 shift:2 since:1 prehistoric:1 deviate:1 westward:2 rann:1 kutch:1 history:1 valley:11 archaeological:1 site:8 extent:1 major:6 civilization:4 millenium:1 bc:4 position:1 vedic:1 period:1 asia:1 paleolithic:1 discover:3 pothohar:1 capital:1 islamabad:2 stone:1 tool:1 soan:1 culture:3 ancient:6 gandhara:3 cave:1 dweller:1 date:3 year:4 ago:3 mardan:1 harappa:3 mohenjo:3 daro:3 back:1 represent:1 human:2 habitation:1 extend:3 balochistan:3 gujarat:3 upward:1 reach:2 ropar:1 upper:1 coastal:1 settlement:4 sutkagan:1 dor:1 iranian:4 border:3 lothal:2 oxus:1 shortughai:1 afghanistan:3 kenoyer:1 alamgirpur:1 hindon:1 locate:3 km:1 delhi:1 p:2 gupta:2 find:4 mainly:1 general:1 region:11 ghaggar:2 hakra:2 tributary:7 among:1 urban:2 center:1 well:4 dholavira:1 ganeriwala:1 rakhigarhi:1 know:2 harappan:2 watershed:2 scholar:1 believe:1 grave:1 early:2 indo:3 aryan:3 flourish:1 already:2 abandon:1 latinization:1 turn:2 variant:1 rigveda:4 generically:1 ocean:2 probably:1 root:1 sidh:1 keep:1 attest:1 plural:1 generic:1 notably:1 late:1 hymn:1 narrow:1 refer:2 particular:1 example:1 list:1 nadistuti:1 sukta:1 result:1 anomaly:1 masculine:1 gender:1 rigvedic:1 female:1 grammatically:1 imagine:1 goddess:1 compare:1 cow:1 mare:1 yield:1 milk:1 butter:1 natural:2 boundary:2 hinterland:1 frontier:4 include:2 west:2 tajikistan:1 iran:2 cross:3 army:2 alexander:2 great:1 macedonian:1 force:1 retreat:1 southern:2 asian:1 campaign:2 conquer:1 hellenic:1 empire:5 domination:1 kushan:2 muslim:1 muhammad:1 bin:1 qasim:1 mahmud:1 ghazni:1 mohammed:1 ghori:1 tamerlane:1 babur:1 strike:1 inner:1 rajasthan:1 reference:2 modern:6 day:2 trade:1 extensively:1 arrival:1 british:3 century:2 apply:1 geography:1 astor:1 balram:1 ghizar:1 gumal:1 suru:1 swaan:1 tanubal:1 zangskar:2 geology:1 low:4 picture:1 submarine:1 fan:1 second:1 sediment:4 body:1 earth:1 million:3 material:2 erode:1 study:1 indicate:2 mountains:1 single:1 important:4 next:1 contribution:1 mostly:1 via:1 e:1 analysis:1 demonstrate:1 prior:1 connect:1 instead:1 ganges:1 capture:2 work:2 show:1 sand:1 silt:1 western:5 imply:1 existence:1 proto:1 subsequently:1 katawaz:1 basin:2 afghan:1 recently:1 parallel:1 saraswati:1 suggest:1 yamuna:1 close:2 chandigarh:1 massive:1 amount:1 erosion:1 due:2 follow:1 rerouting:1 think:1 bring:1 middle:1 crustal:1 rock:1 surface:1 wildlife:3 bridge:1 healthy:1 cover:1 considerably:1 recede:1 mughal:2 emperor:1 babar:1 writes:1 encounter:1 rhinoceros:1 memoir:1 babarnama:1 extensive:4 deforestation:2 interference:1 ecology:1 shivalik:1 lead:1 marked:1 deterioration:1 vegetation:4 grow:1 condition:1 poor:2 agriculture:2 sustain:1 irrigation:8 blind:1 dolphin:2 platanista:1 gangetica:1 minor:1 sub:1 specie:1 formerly:1 occur:1 palla:1 fish:4 hilsa:1 delicacy:1 live:4 population:3 moderately:1 sukkur:3 kotri:2 fishing:1 centre:2 make:1 farm:1 economic:2 activity:1 southeast:1 recognise:1 conservationist:1 ecological:1 marsh:1 creek:1 meet:1 shallow:1 level:1 marine:1 abundance:1 pomfret:1 prawn:1 supplier:1 backbone:1 food:1 critical:1 rainfall:1 meagre:1 canal:7 build:3 later:1 engineer:1 introduce:1 company:1 construction:4 accompany:1 restoration:1 old:2 supervise:1 complex:1 network:1 guddu:1 barrage:4 ft:4 irrigating:1 jacobabad:1 larkana:1 kalat:1 serve:1 acre:1 partition:2 control:4 treaty:4 sign:2 guaranteed:1 would:1 receive:1 independent:1 upstream:1 project:7 consist:1 primarily:2 two:2 mangla:1 construct:2 subsidiary:1 power:1 development:2 authority:1 undertake:1 chashma:1 link:3 bahawalpur:1 multan:1 standing:1 hyderabad:1 additional:1 taunsa:1 dera:1 ghazi:1 khan:1 produce:1 kilowatt:1 electricity:2 linking:1 help:1 spread:1 basis:1 crop:1 cotton:1 sugarcane:1 wheat:1 generate:1 skardu:2 inhabitant:1 feature:1 diverse:1 ethnicity:2 religion:1 national:1 linguistic:1 background:2 buddhist:1 stock:4 dard:1 dardic:2 practise:2 islam:1 buddhism:1 descend:2 balti:1 distinctive:3 upon:2 pashtun:3 baloch:1 cultural:1 ethnic:2 tie:1 eastern:2 populate:1 seraikis:1 tribe:1 alongside:2 khowar:1 kalash:1 shina:1 etc:1 burushos:1 hunza:2 portion:1 saraiki:1 speak:1 tongue:1 tradition:1 muhajir:1 local:1 balochi:1 issue:2 strategically:1 vital:1 society:1 dispute:2 bari:1 doab:1 split:1 lay:1 headwork:1 disrupt:1 part:1 concern:3 various:1 could:2 undercut:1 possibility:1 divert:1 war:1 cause:2 political:1 consternation:1 hold:1 diplomatic:1 talk:1 broker:1 three:2 easternmost:1 gain:1 retain:1 right:1 non:1 see:2 discussion:1 regard:1 recent:1 hydroelectric:1 baglihar:2 pilgrimage:2 holy:1 conflict:1 generally:1 allow:1 others:1 citizen:1 religious:1 exception:1 sikh:1 pilgrim:1 visit:1 every:1 regularly:1 complete:1 hospitality:1 government:1 industrial:1 pollution:1 global:1 warming:1 affect:3 may:1 although:1 progression:1 span:1 numerous:1 occasion:1 clog:1 owe:1 maintenance:1 addition:1 extreme:1 heat:1 evaporate:1 leave:1 salt:1 deposit:1 render:1 useless:1 cultivation:1 atlas:1 millennium:1 edition:1 pg:1 jean:1 fairley:1 earthquake:1 sindhology:1 external:1 blankonthemap:1 website:1 bibliography:1 international:1 law:1 peace:1 palace:1 library:1 gateway:1 conservancy:1 map:1 institute:1 raft:1 kayak:1 descent:1 headwater:1 x:1 інд:1 |@bigram indian_subcontinent:2 tibetan_plateau:1 jammu_kashmir:4 southerly_direction:1 square_kilometre:2 supply_potable:1 potable_water:1 nanga_parbat:2 punjab_sindh:2 hindu_kush:1 rann_kutch:1 indus_valley:9 millenium_bc:1 cave_dweller:1 mohenjo_daro:3 jhelum_river:3 hakra_river:2 indo_aryan:3 daro_harappa:1 iranian_plateau:1 afghanistan_tajikistan:1 kushan_empire:2 bin_qasim:1 mahmud_ghazni:1 crustal_rock:1 irrigation_canal:2 metre_ft:4 cotton_sugarcane:1 pashtun_tribe:1 global_warming:1 external_link:1 |
4,684 | Meson | In particle physics, mesons are subatomic particles composed of one quark and one antiquark. They are part of the hadron particle family – particles made of quarks. The other members of the hadron family are the baryons – subatomic particles composed of three quarks. The main difference between mesons and baryons is that mesons are bosons while baryons are fermions – that is mesons have integer spin while baryons have half-integer spin – meaning that the Pauli exclusion principle does not apply to them. Since mesons are composed of quarks, they participate in both the weak and strong interactions. Mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction. They are classified according to their quark content, total angular momentum, parity, and various other properties such as C-parity and G-parity. While no meson is stable, those of lower mass are nonetheless more stable than the most massive mesons, and are easier to observe and study in particle accelerators or in cosmic ray experiments. They are also typically less massive than baryons, meaning that they are more easily produced in experiments, and will exhibit higher energy phenomena sooner than baryons would. For example, the charm quark was first seen in the J/Psi meson () in 1974, J.J. Aubert et al. (1974) J.E. Augustin et al. (1974) and the bottom quark in the upsilon meson () in 1977. S.W. Herb et al. (1977) Each meson has a corresponding antiparticle (antimeson) where quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks and vice-versa. For example, a positive pion () is made of one up quark and one down antiquark; and its corresponding antiparticle, the negative pion (), is made of one up antiquark and one down quark. Some experiments show the evidence of tetraquarks – "exotic" mesons made of two quarks and two antiquark, but the particle physics community as a whole does not view their existence as likely, although still possible. C. Amsler et al. (2008): Charmonium States History In 1949 Hideki Yukawa was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for predicting the existence of the meson. He called the particle the meson, from mesos, Greek for intermediate, because its mass was between that of the electron and proton. He had originally named it the 'mesotron', but was corrected by Werner Heisenberg (whose father was a professor in Greek at the University of Munich), who pointed out that there is no 'tr' in the Greek word 'mesos'. Mesons were originally predicted as carriers of the force that binds protons and neutrons together. When first discovered, the muon was identified with this family from its similar mass and was named "mu meson". However it did not show a strong attraction to nuclear matter and is actually a lepton in today's nomenclature. The pion was the first true meson to be discovered. The word meson has at times also been used to mean any force carrier, as in, for instance "Z0 meson". J. Steinberger (1998) This usage has also fallen out of favor. Overview Spin, orbital angular momentum, and total angular momentum Spin (quantum number S) is a vector quantity that represents the "intrinsic" angular momentum of a particle. It comes in increments of ħ (pronounced "h-bar"). The ħ is often dropped because it is the "fundamental" unit of spin, and it is implied that "spin 1" means "spin 1 ħ". In some systems of natural units, ħ is chosen to be 1, therefore does not appear anywhere. Quarks are fermionic particles of spin (S = ). Because spin projections varies in increments of 1 (that is 1 ħ), a single quark has a spin vector of length , and has two spin projections (Sz = + and Sz = −). Two quarks can have their spins aligned, in which case the two spin vectors add to make a vector of length S = 1 and three spin projections (Sz = +1, Sz = 0, and Sz = −1) called the spin-1 triplet. If two quarks have unaligned spins, the spin vectors add up to make a vector of length S = 0 and has only one spin projection (Sz = 0), called the spin-0 singlet etc. Since mesons are made of one quark and one antiquark, they can be found in triplets and singlets spin states. There is another quantity of angular momentum, called the orbital angular momentum (quantum number L), that comes in increments of 1 ħ, which represent the angular moment due to quarks orbiting around each other. The total angular momentum (quantum number J) of a particle is therefore the combination of intrinsic angular momentum (spin) and orbital angular momentum. It can take any value from to , in increments of 1. +Meson angular momentum quantum numbers for L = 0, 1, 2, 3 Spin (S) Orbital angular momentum (L) Total angular momentum (J) Parity (P)(See below) Condensed notation (JP) 0 0 0 − 0− 1 1 + 1+ 2 2 − 2−, 3− 3 3 + 3+, 3+ 1 0 1 − 1− 1 2, 1, 0 + 2+, 1+, 0+ 2 3, 2, 1 − 3−, 2−, 1− 3 4, 3, 2 + 4+, 3+, 2+ Particles physicists are most interested in mesons with no orbital angular momentum (L = 0), therefore the two groups of mesons most studied are the S = 1; L = 0 and S = 0; L = 0, which corresponds to J = 1 and J = 0, although they are not the only ones. It is also possible to obtain J = 1 particles from S = 0 and L = 1. How to distinguish between the S = 1, L = 0 and S = 0, L = 1 mesons is an active area of research in meson spectroscopy. Parity If the universe were reflected in a mirror, most of the laws of physics would be identical – things would behave the same way regardless of what we call "left" and what we call "right". This concept of mirror reflection is called parity (P). Gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the strong interaction all behave in the same way regardless of whether or not the universe is reflected in a mirror, and thus are said to conserve parity (P-symmetry). However, the weak interaction does distinguish "left" from "right", a phenomenon called parity violation (P-violation). Based on this, one might think that if the wavefunction for each particle (more precisely, the quantum field for each particle type) were simultaneously mirror-reversed, then the new set of wavefunctions would perfectly satisfy the laws of physics (apart from the weak interaction). It turns out that this is not quite true: In order for the equations to be satisfied, the wavefunctions of certain types of particles have to be multiplied by −1, in addition to being mirror-reversed. Such particle types are said to have negative or odd parity (P = −1, or alternatively P = –), while the other particles are said to have positive or even parity (P = +1, or alternatively P = +). For mesons, the parity is related to the orbital angular momentum by the relation: C. Amsler et al. (2008): Quark Model P=(-1)L+1 where the L is a result of the parity of the corresponding spherical harmonic of the wavefunction. The +1 comes from the fact that, according to the Dirac equation, a quark and an antiquark have opposite intrinsic parities. Therefore the intrinsic parity of a meson is the product of the intrinsic parities of the quark (+1) and antiquark (−1). As these are different, their product is −1, and so it contributes a +1 in the exponant. As a consequence, mesons with no orbital angular momentum (L = 0) all have odd parity (P = −). C-parity C-parity is only defined for mesons that are their own antiparticle (i.e neutral mesons). It represents whether or not the wavefunction of the meson remains the same under the interchange of their quark with their antiquark. M.S. Sozzi (2008b) If then, the meson is "C even" (C = +1). On the other hand, if then the meson is "C odd" (C = −1). C-parity rarely is studied on its own, but the combination of C- and P-parity into CP-parity. CP-parity was thought to be conserved, but was later found to violated in weak interactions. J.W. Cronin (1980) V.L. Fitch (1980) M.S. Sozzi (2008c) G-parity G parity is a generalizations of the C-parity. Instead of simply comparing the wavefunction after exchanging quarks and antiquarks, it compares the wavefunction after exchanging the meson for the corresponding antimeson, regardless of quark content. K. Gottfried, V.F. Weisskopf (1986) In the case of neutral meson, G-parity is equivalent to C-parity because neutral mesons are their own antiparticles. If then, the meson is "G even" (G = +1). On the other hand, if then the meson is "G odd" (G = −1). Isospin and charge Combinations of one u, d or s quarks and one u, d, or s antiquark in configuration form a nonet. Combinations of one u, d or s quarks and one u, d, or s antiquark in configuration also form a nonet. The concept of isospin was first proposed by Werner Heisenberg in 1932 to explain the similarities between protons and neutrons under the strong interaction. W. Heisengberg (1932) Although they had different electric charges, their masses were so similar that physicists believed they were actually the same particle. The different electric charges were explained as being the result of some unknown excitation similar to spin. This unknown excitation was later dubbed isospin by Eugene Wigner in 1937. E. Wigner (1937) When the first mesons were discovered, they too were seen through the eyes of isospin. The three pions were believed to be the same particle, but in different isospin states. This belief lasted until Murray Gell-Mann proposed the quark model in 1964 (containing originally only the u, d, and s quarks). M. Gell-Mann (1964) The success of the isospin model is now understood to be the result of the similar masses of the u and d quarks. Since the u and d quarks have similar masses, particles made of the same number then also have similar masses. The exact specific u and d quark composition determines the charge, as u quarks carry charge + while d quarks carry charge −. For example the three pions all have different charges ( (), (a quantum superposition of and states), (), but have similar masses (~140 MeV/c2) as they are each made of a total of pairs of up and down quarks and antiquarks. Under the isospin model, they were considered to be a single particle in different charged states. The mathematics of isospin was modeled after that of spin. Isospin projections varied in increments of 1 just like those of spin, and to each projection was associated a "charged state". Since the "pion particle" had three "charged states", it was said to be of isospin I = 1. Its "charged states" , , and , corresponded to the isospin projections Iz = +1, Iz = 0, and Iz = −1 respectively. Another example is the "rho particle", also with three charged states. Its "charged states" , , and , corresponded to the isospin projections Iz = +1, Iz = 0, and Iz = −1 respectively. It was later noted that the isospin projections were related to the up and down quark content of particles by the relation: where the n's are the number of up and down quarks and antiquarks. In the "isospin picture", the three pions and three rhos were thought to be the different states of two particles. However in the quark model, the rhos are excited states of pions. Isospin, although conveying an inaccurate picture of things, is still used to classify hadrons, leading to unnatural and often confusing nomenclature. Since mesons are hadrons, the isospin classification is also used, with Iz = + for up quarks and down antiquarks, and Iz = − for up antiquarks and down quarks. Flavour quantum numbers The strangeness flavour quantum number S (not to be confused with spin) was noticed to go up and down along with particle mass. The higher the mass, the lower the strangeness (the more s quarks). Particles could be described with isospin projections (related to charge) and strangeness (mass) (see the uds nonet figures on the right). As other quarks where discovered, new quantum numbers were made to have similar description of udc and udb nonets. Since only the u and d mass are similar, this description of particle mass and charge in terms of isospin and flavour quantum numbers only works well for the nonets made of one u, one d and one other quark and breaks down for the nonets (for example ucb nonet). If the quarks all had the same mass, their behaviour would be called symmetric, as they would all behave in exactly the same way with respect to the strong interaction. Since quarks do not have the same mass, they do not interact in the same way (exactly like an electron placed in an electric field will accelerate more than a proton placed in the same field because of its lighter mass), and the symmetry is said to be broken. It was noted that charge (Q) was related to the isospin projection (Iz), the baryon number (B) and flavour quantum numbers (S, C, B′, T) by the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula: S.S.M Wong (1998) where S, C, B′, and T represent the strangeness, charmness, bottomness and topness flavour quantum numbers respectively. They are related to the number of strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks and antiquark according to the relations: meaning that the Gell-Man–Nishijima formula is equivalent to the expression of charge in terms of quark content: Classification Mesons are classified into groups according to their isospin (I), total angular momentum (J), parity (P), G-parity (G) or C-parity (C) when applicable, and quark (q) content. The rules for classification are defined by the Particle Data Group, and are rather convoluted. C. Amsler et al. (2008): Naming scheme for hadrons The rules are presented below, in table form for simplicity. Types of Meson Mesons are classified into types according to their spin configurations. Some specific configurations are given special names based on the mathematical properties of their spin configuration. +Types of mesons W.E. Burcham, M. Jobes (1995) Type S L P J JP Pseudoscalar meson 0 0 − 0 0− Pseudovector meson 0 1 + 1 1+ Vector meson 1 0 − 1 1−Scalar meson 1 1 + 0 0+Tensor meson 1 1 + 2 2+ Nomenclature Flavourless mesons Flavourless mesons are mesons made of pair of quark and antiquarks of the same flavour (all their flavour quantum numbers are zero (Iz = 0, S = 0, C = 0, B′ = 0, T = 0)). The rules for flavourless mesons are: +Nomenclature of flavourless mesons content J PC→I ↓ 0−+, 2−+, 4−+, ... 1+−, 3+−, 5+−, ... 1−−, 2−−, 3−−, ... 0++, 1++, 2++, ...− 1 b+b0b− a+a0a− 0 hh′ ff′ 0 hc ψ χc 0 hb χb 0 ht χt † The C parity is only relevant to neutral mesons. †† For JPC=1−−, the ψ is often called the In addition: When the spectroscopic state of the meson is known, it is added in parenthesis. When the spectroscopic state is unknown, mass (in MeV/c2) is added in parenthesis. When the meson is in its ground state, nothing is added in parenthesis. Flavourful mesons Flavourful mesons are mesons made of pair of quark and antiquarks of different flavours. The rules are simpler in this case; The main symbol depends on the quark, and the subscript (if any) depends on the antiquark. In table form, they are: +Nomenclature of flavourful mesonsantiquark →quark ↓ up down strange charm bottom top up — — down — — strange — charm — bottom — top — In addition: If JP is in the "normal series" (i.e., JP = 0+, 1−, 2+, 3−, ...), a superscript ∗ is added. If the meson is not pseudoscalar (JP = 0+) or vector (JP = 1−), J is added as a subscript. When the spectroscopic state of the meson is known, it is added in parenthesis. When the spectroscopic state is unknown, mass (in MeV/c2) is added in parenthesis. When the meson is in its ground state, nothing is added in parenthesis. Lists of mesons These lists detail all known and predicted pseudoscalar (JP = 0−) and vector (JP = 1−) mesons. The symbols encountered in these lists are: I (isospin), J (total angular momentum), P (parity), C (C-parity), G (G-parity), u (up quark), d (down quark), s (strange quark), c (charm quark), b (bottom quark), Q (charge), B (baryon number), S (strangeness), C (charmness), and B′ (bottomness), as well as a wide array of subatomic particles (hover for name). The properties and quark content of the particles are given in the tables; for antiparticles, simply change quarks in antiquarks (and vice-versa), and Q, B, S, C, and B′ would be of opposite signs. Particles with † next to their names have been predicted by the standard model but not yet observed. Values in red have not been firmly established by experiments, but are predicted by the quark model and are consistent with the measurements. See also Baryon Composite particle Hadron List of baryons List of mesons List of particles Quark model Standard Model Subatomic particle External links A table of some mesons and their properties Authoritative information on particle properties is compiled by the Particle Data Group'' http://pdg.lbl.gov hep-ph/0211411: The light scalar mesons within quark models Naming scheme for hadrons (a pdf file) Recent Findings What Happened to the Antimatter? Fermilab's DZero Experiment Finds Clues in Quick-Change Meson CDF experiment's definitive observation of matter-antimatter oscillations in the Bs meson References Bibliography | Meson |@lemmatized particle:38 physic:5 meson:70 subatomic:4 compose:3 one:18 quark:59 antiquark:21 part:1 hadron:7 family:3 make:12 member:1 baryon:10 three:8 main:2 difference:1 boson:1 fermion:1 integer:2 spin:28 half:1 meaning:2 pauli:1 exclusion:1 principle:1 apply:1 since:7 participate:2 weak:4 strong:5 interaction:8 net:1 electric:4 charge:19 also:10 electromagnetic:2 classify:4 accord:5 content:7 total:7 angular:18 momentum:17 parity:34 various:1 property:5 c:25 g:12 stable:2 low:2 mass:18 nonetheless:1 massive:2 easy:1 observe:2 study:3 accelerator:1 cosmic:1 ray:1 experiment:6 typically:1 less:1 mean:3 easily:1 produce:1 exhibit:1 high:2 energy:1 phenomenon:2 sooner:1 would:7 example:5 charm:5 first:5 see:5 j:16 psi:1 aubert:1 et:6 al:6 e:5 augustin:1 bottom:5 upsilon:1 w:4 herb:1 corresponding:5 antiparticle:5 antimeson:2 replace:1 vice:2 versa:2 positive:2 pion:8 negative:2 show:2 evidence:1 tetraquarks:1 exotic:1 two:8 community:1 whole:1 view:1 existence:2 likely:1 although:4 still:2 possible:2 amsler:3 charmonium:1 state:18 history:1 hideki:1 yukawa:1 award:1 nobel:1 prize:1 predict:5 call:10 mesos:2 greek:3 intermediate:1 electron:2 proton:4 originally:3 name:7 mesotron:1 correct:1 werner:2 heisenberg:2 whose:1 father:1 professor:1 university:1 munich:1 point:1 tr:1 word:2 carrier:2 force:3 bind:1 neutron:2 together:1 discover:4 muon:1 identify:1 similar:9 mu:1 however:3 attraction:1 nuclear:1 matter:2 actually:2 lepton:1 today:1 nomenclature:5 true:2 time:1 use:3 instance:1 steinberger:1 usage:1 fall:1 favor:1 overview:1 orbital:7 quantum:13 number:16 vector:9 quantity:2 represent:4 intrinsic:5 come:3 increment:5 ħ:6 pronounce:1 h:1 bar:1 often:3 drop:1 fundamental:1 unit:2 imply:1 system:1 natural:1 choose:1 therefore:4 appear:1 anywhere:1 fermionic:1 projection:11 varies:1 single:2 length:3 sz:6 align:1 case:3 add:10 triplet:2 unaligned:1 singlet:2 etc:1 find:3 another:2 l:14 moment:1 due:1 quarks:1 orbit:1 around:1 combination:4 take:1 value:2 p:14 condense:1 notation:1 jp:8 physicist:1 interested:1 group:4 correspond:3 obtain:1 distinguish:2 active:1 area:1 research:1 spectroscopy:1 universe:2 reflect:2 mirror:5 law:2 identical:1 thing:2 behave:3 way:4 regardless:3 left:2 right:3 concept:2 reflection:1 gravity:1 whether:2 thus:1 say:5 conserve:2 symmetry:2 violation:2 base:2 might:1 think:3 wavefunction:5 precisely:1 field:3 type:7 simultaneously:1 reverse:2 new:2 set:1 wavefunctions:2 perfectly:1 satisfy:2 apart:1 turn:1 quite:1 order:1 equation:2 certain:1 multiply:1 addition:3 odd:4 alternatively:2 even:3 relate:5 relation:3 model:11 result:3 spherical:1 harmonic:1 fact:1 dirac:1 opposite:2 product:2 different:8 contribute:1 exponant:1 consequence:1 define:2 neutral:4 remain:1 interchange:1 sozzi:2 hand:2 rarely:1 cp:2 later:3 violate:1 cronin:1 v:2 fitch:1 generalization:1 instead:1 simply:2 compare:2 exchange:2 k:1 gottfried:1 f:1 weisskopf:1 equivalent:2 isospin:21 u:12 configuration:5 form:4 nonet:4 propose:2 explain:2 similarity:1 heisengberg:1 physicists:1 believe:2 unknown:4 excitation:2 dub:1 eugene:1 wigner:2 eye:1 belief:1 last:1 murray:1 gell:4 mann:3 contain:1 success:1 understood:1 exact:1 specific:2 composition:1 determine:1 carry:2 superposition:1 mev:3 made:1 pair:3 consider:1 mathematics:1 vary:1 like:2 associate:1 iz:10 respectively:3 rho:3 note:2 n:1 picture:2 excite:1 convey:1 inaccurate:1 lead:1 unnatural:1 confusing:1 classification:3 flavour:8 strangeness:5 confuse:1 notice:1 go:1 along:1 could:1 describe:1 uds:1 figure:1 description:2 udc:1 udb:1 nonets:3 term:2 work:1 well:2 break:2 ucb:1 behaviour:1 symmetric:1 exactly:2 respect:1 interact:1 place:2 accelerate:1 light:2 q:4 b:11 nishijima:2 formula:2 wong:1 charmness:2 bottomness:2 topness:1 strange:4 top:3 man:1 expression:1 applicable:1 rule:4 data:2 rather:1 convolute:1 scheme:2 present:1 table:4 simplicity:1 give:2 special:1 mathematical:1 burcham:1 jobes:1 pseudoscalar:3 pseudovector:1 scalar:2 tensor:1 flavourless:4 zero:1 pc:1 hh:1 ff:1 hc:1 ψ:2 χc:1 hb:1 χb:1 ht:1 χt:1 relevant:1 jpc:1 spectroscopic:4 know:3 parenthesis:6 ground:2 nothing:2 flavourful:3 simpler:1 symbol:2 depend:2 subscript:2 mesonsantiquark:1 normal:1 series:1 superscript:1 list:6 detail:1 encounter:1 wide:1 array:1 hover:1 change:2 sign:1 next:1 standard:2 yet:1 red:1 firmly:1 establish:1 consistent:1 measurement:1 composite:1 external:1 link:1 authoritative:1 information:1 compile:1 http:1 pdg:1 lbl:1 gov:1 hep:1 ph:1 within:1 pdf:1 file:1 recent:1 finding:1 happen:1 antimatter:2 fermilab:1 dzero:1 clue:1 quick:1 cdf:1 definitive:1 observation:1 oscillation:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 |@bigram subatomic_particle:4 pauli_exclusion:1 exclusion_principle:1 angular_momentum:17 particle_accelerator:1 cosmic_ray:1 et_al:6 corresponding_antiparticle:2 vice_versa:2 c_amsler:3 amsler_et:3 nobel_prize:1 werner_heisenberg:2 proton_neutron:2 mu_meson:1 orbital_angular:7 intrinsic_angular:2 increment_ħ:3 fermionic_particle:1 projection_sz:3 sz_sz:3 spin_singlet:1 odd_parity:2 spherical_harmonic:1 quark_antiquark:11 intrinsic_parity:3 neutral_meson:4 eugene_wigner:1 murray_gell:1 gell_mann:3 quantum_superposition:1 isospin_projection:6 projection_iz:3 iz_iz:4 nishijima_formula:2 meson_meson:3 quark_quark:1 external_link:1 lbl_gov:1 hep_ph:1 matter_antimatter:1 |
4,685 | Telecommunications_in_Poland | Telephones - main lines in use: 10.336 million (2007) Telephones - mobile cellular: 41.389 million (2007) Telephone system: From the communist era Poland inherited an underdeveloped and outmoded system of telephones, with some areas (e.g. in the extreme South East) being served by manual exchanges. In December 2005 the last analog exchange was shut down. All telephone lines are now served by modern fully computerised exchanges (Siemens EWSD, Alcatel S12, Lucent 5ESS, Alcatel E10). The former state owned telephone monopoly (TPSA) has been mostly privatised, with France Telecom buying the largest share. Various other companies have entered the fixed phone market, but generally aiming for niches (e.g. Sferia with fixed wireless, Netia covering primarily business). Whilst prices have reduced and availability has increased considerably since the introduction of competition, there is little sign of TPSA's market share being seriously reduced. The long waiting list for fixed line telephones helped in a boom in mobile cellular telephone use and all mobile phone operators in Poland use GSM. There are three competing networks with similar market share, Era (Era and Heyah brands), Orange Polska (Orange and POP brands) and Plus GSM (Plus and Sami Swoi brands). The fourth network, Play Mobile, owned by Netia and Novator Telecom, started offering UMTS network services in early 2007. All mobile operators have UMTS services in the major cities, with nationwide coverage planned. Broadband Internet access Domestic cable, open wire, and microwave radio relay; 4 cellular networks; local exchanges 100% digital International satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat, NA Eutelsat, 2 Inmarsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions), and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region) Radio broadcast stations AM 14, FM 777, shortwave 1 (1998) Radios 20.2 million (1997) Television broadcast stations 179 + 256 repeaters (1995) Televisions 13.05 million (1997) Internet Service Providers (ISPs) 19 (1999) Internet Users 16 million (2007) Country code (Top level domain) PL External links Era, a GSM operator Orange Polska, the GSM operator and also the NMT 450 network Plus, a GSM operator Heyah, Poland's first virtual operator Sami Swoi, another virtual operator Satellite Provider in Poland | Telecommunications_in_Poland |@lemmatized telephone:8 main:1 line:3 use:3 million:5 mobile:5 cellular:3 system:2 communist:1 era:4 poland:4 inherit:1 underdeveloped:1 outmoded:1 area:1 e:2 g:2 extreme:1 south:1 east:1 serve:2 manual:1 exchange:4 december:1 last:1 analog:1 shut:1 modern:1 fully:1 computerise:1 siemens:1 ewsd:1 alcatel:2 lucent:1 former:1 state:1 monopoly:1 tpsa:2 mostly:1 privatise:1 france:1 telecom:2 buy:1 large:1 share:3 various:1 company:1 enter:1 fixed:3 phone:2 market:3 generally:1 aim:1 niche:1 sferia:1 wireless:1 netia:2 cover:1 primarily:1 business:1 whilst:1 price:1 reduce:2 availability:1 increase:1 considerably:1 since:1 introduction:1 competition:1 little:1 sign:1 seriously:1 long:1 waiting:1 list:1 help:1 boom:1 operator:7 gsm:5 three:1 compete:1 network:5 similar:1 heyah:2 brand:3 orange:3 polska:2 pop:1 plus:3 sami:2 swoi:2 fourth:1 play:1 novator:1 start:1 offer:1 umts:2 service:3 early:1 major:1 city:1 nationwide:1 coverage:1 plan:1 broadband:1 internet:3 access:1 domestic:1 cable:1 open:1 wire:1 microwave:1 radio:3 relay:1 local:1 digital:1 international:1 satellite:2 earth:1 station:3 intelsat:1 na:1 eutelsat:1 inmarsat:1 atlantic:2 indian:1 ocean:2 region:2 intersputnik:1 broadcast:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 television:2 repeater:1 provider:2 isps:1 user:1 country:1 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 pl:1 external:1 link:1 also:1 nmt:1 first:1 virtual:2 another:1 |@bigram mobile_cellular:2 alcatel_lucent:1 mobile_phone:1 broadband_internet:1 station_intelsat:1 eutelsat_inmarsat:1 inmarsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 repeater_television:1 provider_isps:1 isps_internet:1 external_link:1 |
4,686 | Dziga_Vertov | Dziga Vertov Dziga Vertov (, ) January 15 (New Style), 1896–February 12, 1954) was a Soviet pioneer documentary film, newsreel director and cinema theorist. His filming practices and theories paved the way to Cinéma vérité style of documentary moviemaking. Vertov's brothers Boris Kaufman and Mikhail Kaufman were also notable filmmakers, as was his wife, Elizaveta Svilova. Early years Born David Abelevich Kaufman () into a family of Jewish intellectuals in Białystok, Congress Poland, then a part of the Russian Empire. His father was a librarian. He Russified his Jewish patronymic to Arkadievich at some point after 1918. Kaufman studied music at Białystok Conservatory until his family fled from the invading German army to Moscow in 1915. The Kaufmans soon settled in Petrograd, where Denis Kaufman began writing poetry, science fiction and satire. In 1916-1917 Kaufman was studying medicine at the Psychoneurological Institute in Saint Petersburg and experimenting with "sound collages" in his free time. Kaufman adopted the name "Dziga Vertov", which means "spinning top" Roberts, p. 15 in Ukrainian; Vertov's political writings and his work on the Kino-Pravda newsreel series show a revolutionary romanticism. Career after the October Revolution After the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, at the age of 22, Vertov began editing for Kino-Nedelya (, the Moscow Cinema Committee's weekly film series, and the first newsreel series in Russia), which first came out in June 1918. While working for Kino-Nedelya he met his future wife, the film director and editor, Elizaveta Svilova, who at the time was working as an editor at Goskino. She began collaborating with Vertov, beginning as his editor but becoming assistant and co-director in subsequent films, such as Man with a Movie Camera (1929), and Three Songs About Lenin (1934). Boris Kaufman (cameraman) with Jean Vigo (director) Vertov worked on the Kino-Nedelya series for three years, helping establish and run a film-car on Mikhail Kalinin's agit-train during the ongoing Russian Civil War between Communists and counterrevolutionaries. Some of the cars on the agit-trains were equipped with actors for live performances or printing presses; Vertov's had equipment to shoot, develop, edit, and project film. The trains went to battlefronts on agitation-propaganda missions intended primarily to bolster the morale of the troops; they were also intended to stir up revolutionary fervor of the masses. In 1919, Vertov compiled newsreel footage for his documentary Anniversary of the Revolution; in 1921 he compiled History of the Civil War. The so-called "Council of Three," a group issuing manifestoes in LEF, a radical Russian newsmagazine, was established in 1922; the group's "three" were Vertov, his wife and editor Elizaveta Svilova, and his brother and cinematographer Mikhail Kaufman. Vertov's interest in machinery led to a curiosity about the mechanical basis of cinema. Kino-Pravda In 1922, the year that Nanook of the North was released, Vertov started the Kino-Pravda series. The series took its title from the official government newspaper Pravda. "Kino-Pravda" (literally translated, "film truth") continued Vertov's agit-prop bent. "The Kino-Pravda group began its work in a basement in the centre of Moscow" Vertov explained. He called it damp and dark. There was an earthen floor and holes one stumbled into at every turn. Dziga said, " This dampness prevented our reels of lovingly edited film from sticking together properly, rusted our scissors and our splicers." "Before dawn- damp, cold, teeth chattering- I wrap comrade Svilova in a third jacket." Vertov's driving vision, expounded in his frequent essays, was to capture "film truth"—that is, fragments of actuality which, when organized together, have a deeper truth that cannot be seen with the naked eye. In the "Kino-Pravda" series, Vertov focused on everyday experiences, eschewing bourgeois concerns and filming marketplaces, bars, and schools instead, sometimes with a hidden camera, without asking permission first. The episodes of "Kino-Pravda" usually did not include reenactments or stagings (one exception is the segment about the trial of the Social Revolutionaries: the scenes of the selling of the newspapers on the streets and the people reading the papers in the trolley were both staged for the camera). The cinematography is simple, functional, unelaborate—perhaps a result of Vertov's disinterest in both "beauty" and the "grandeur of fiction." Twenty-three issues of the series were produced over a period of three years; each issue lasted about twenty minutes and usually covered three topics. The stories were typically descriptive, not narrative, and included vignettes and exposés, showing for instance the renovation of a trolley system, the organization of farmers into communes, and the trial of Social Revolutionaries; one story shows starvation in the nascent Marxist state. Propagandistic tendencies are also present, but with more subtlety, in the episode featuring the construction of an airport: one shot shows the former Tsar's tanks helping prepare a foundation, with an intertitle reading "Tanks on the labor front." Vertov clearly intended an active relationship with his audience in the series—in the final segment he includes contact information—but by the 14th episode the series had become so experimental that some critics dismissed Vertov's efforts as "insane". Vertov responds to their criticisms with the assertion that the critics were hacks nipping "revolutionary effort" in the bud, and concludes the essay with his promise to "explode art's tower of Babel." Vertov 1924, p. 47 In Vertov's view, "art's tower of Babel" was the subservience of cinematic technique to narrative, commonly known as the Institutional Mode of Representation. By this point in his career, Vertov was clearly and emphatically dissatisfied with narrative tradition, and expresses his hostility towards dramatic fiction of any kind both openly and repeatedly; he regarded drama as another "opiate of the masses". Vertov freely admitted one criticism leveled at his efforts on the "Kino-Pravda" series--that the series, while influential, had a limited release. By the end of the "Kino-Pravda" series, Vertov made liberal use of stop motion, freeze frames, and other cinematic "artificialities," giving rise to criticisms not just of his trenchant dogmatism, but also of his cinematic technique. Vertov explains himself in "On 'Kinopravda'": in editing "chance film clippings" together for the Kino-Nedelia series, he "began to doubt the necessity of a literary connection between individual visual elements spliced together.... This work served as the point of departure for 'Kinopravda.'" Vertov 1924, p. 42 Towards the end of the same essay, Vertov mentions an upcoming project which seems likely to be Man with the Movie Camera, calling it an "experimental film" made without a scenario; just three paragraphs above, Vertov mentions a scene from "Kino Pravda" which should be quite familiar to viewers of Man with the Movie Camera: the peasant works, and so does the urban woman, and so too, the woman film editor selecting the negative...." Vertov 1924, p. 46 Man with a Movie Camera With Lenin's admission of limited private enterprise through his New Economic Policy, Russia began receiving fiction films from afar, an occurrence that Vertov regarded with undeniable suspicion, calling drama a "corrupting influence" on the proletarian sensibility ("On 'Kinopravda,'" 1924). By this time Vertov had been using his newsreel series as a pedestal to vilify dramatic fiction for several years; he continued his criticisms even after the warm reception of Sergei Eisenstein's Battleship Potemkin in 1925. Potemkin was a heavily fictionalized film telling the story of a mutiny on a battleship which came about as a result of the sailors' mistreatment; the film was an obvious but skillful propaganda piece glorifying the proletariat. Vertov lost his job at Sovkino in January 1927, possibly as a result of criticizing a film which effectively preaches the Communist party line. He was fired for creating "A Sixth Part of the World: Advertising and the Soviet Universe" for the State Trade Organization into a propaganda film, selling the Soviet as an advanced society under the New Economic Policy of Lenin, instead of showing how they fit into the world economy. The Ukraine State Studio hired Vertov to create "man with a Movie Camera". Vertov says in his essay "The Man with a Movie Camera" that he was fighting "for a decisive cleaning up of film-language, for its complete separation from the language of theater and literature." Vertov 1928, p. 83 By the later segments of "Kino-Pravda," Vertov was experimenting heavily, looking to abandon what he considered film clichés (and receiving criticism for it); his experimentation was even more pronounced and dramatic by the time of Man with the Movie Camera (filmed in the Ukraine). Some have criticized the obvious stagings in Man With the Movie Camera as being at odds with Vertov's credos "life as it is" and "life caught unawares": the scene of the woman getting out of bed and getting dressed is obviously staged, as is the reversed shot of the chess pieces being pushed off a chess board and the tracking shot which films Mikhail Kaufman riding in a car filming a third car. However, Vertov's two credos, often used interchangeably, are in fact distinct, as Yuri Tsivian points out in the commentary track on the DVD for Man with the Movie Camera: for Vertov, "life as it is" means to record life as it would be without the camera present. "Life caught unawares" means to record life when surprised, and perhaps provoked, by the presence of a camera (16:04 on the commentary track). This explanation contradicts the common assumption that for Vertov "life caught unawares" meant "life caught unaware of the camera." All of these shots might conform to Vertov's credo "caught unawares." Dziga's slow motion, fast motion, and other camera techniques were a way to dissect the image, Vertov's brother Mikhail described in a interview. It was to be the honest truth of perception. For example, in "Man with a Movie Cameara", two trains are shown almost melting into each other, although we are taught to see trains as not riding that close, Vertov tried to portray the actual sight of two passing trains. Mikhail talked about Eisenstein's films as different from his and his brother Vertov's in that Eisenstein, "came from the theatre, in the theatre one directs dramas, one strings beads." "We all felt...that through documentary film we could develop a new kind of art. Not only documentary art, or the art of chronicle, but rather an art based on images, the creation of an image-oriented journalism" Mikhail explained. More than even film truth, "Man with a Movie Camera," was supposed to be a way to make those in the Soviet Union more efficient in their actions. He slowed down his actions, such as the decision whether to jump or not, you can see the decision in his face, a psychological dissection for the audience. He wanted a peace between the actions of man and the actions of a machine, form them to be in a sense, one. Cine-Eye Dziga Vertov believed his concept of Cine-Eye, or "Kino Eye" would help contemporary man evolve from a flawed creature into a higher, more precise form. He compared man unfavorably to machines: “In the face of the machine we are ashamed of man’s inability to control himself, but what are we to do if we find the unerring ways of electricity more exciting than the disorderly haste of active people [...]” Vertov 1922, p. 69 "I am an eye. I am a mechanical eye. I, a machine, I am showing you a world, the likes of which only I can see" Dziga was quoted as saying. Like other Russian filmmakers, he attempted to connect his ideas and techniques to the advancement of the aims of the Soviet Union. Whereas Sergei Eisenstein viewed his montage of attractions as a propaganda tool through which the film-viewing masses could be subjected to “emotional and psychological influence” and therefore able to perceive “the ideological aspect” of the films they were being shown, Vertov believed the Cine-Eye would influence the actual evolution of man, “from a bumbling citizen through the poetry of the machine to the perfect electric man.” Vertov 1922, pp. 69-71 Vertov believed film was too “romantic” and “theatricalised” due to the influence of literature, theater, and music, and that these psychological film-dramas “prevent man from being as precise as a stop watch and hamper his desire for kinship with the machine.” He desired to move away from “the pre-Revolutionary ‘fictional’ models” of filmmaking to one based on the rhythm of machines, seeking to “bring creative joy to all mechanical labour” Vertov 1922, p. 71 and to “bring men closer to machines.” Late career Vertov's cinema success continued into the 1930s. In 1931, he released Enthusiasm: Symphony of the Donbass, an examination into Soviet miners. Enthusiasm has been called a 'sound film', with sound recorded on location, and these mechanical sounds woven together, producing a symphony-like effect. Three years later, Three Songs about Lenin looked at the revolution through the eyes of the Russian peasantry. For his film, however, Vertov had been hired by Mezhrabpomfilm, a Soviet studio that produced mainly propaganda efforts. To conform to the studio's, and the Soviet government's expectations, the film was edited to include Stalin and provide a more acceptable, 'Stalinesque', ending . With the rise and official sanction of socialist realism in 1934, Vertov was forced to cut his personal artistic output significantly, eventually becoming little more than an editor for Soviet newsreels. Lullaby, perhaps the last film in which Vertov was able to maintain his artistic vision, was released in 1937. Dziga Vertov died of cancer in 1954, after surviving, unscathed, Stalin's purges. Vertov's brother Boris Kaufman was a noted cinematographer who worked much later for directors such as Elia Kazan and Sidney Lumet in America; his other brother, Mikhail Kaufman, worked as Vertov's cinematographer until he became a documentarian in his own right. Influence Vertov's legacy still lives on today. His ideas are echoed in cinéma vérité, the movement of the 1960s named after Vertov's Kino-Pravda. The 1960s and 1970s saw an international revival of interest in Vertov. The independent, exploratory style of Vertov influenced and inspired many filmmakers and directors like the Situationist Guy Debord and companies such as "Vertov Industries". The Dziga Vertov Group borrowed his name. In 1960, Jean Rouch used Vertov's filming theory when making Chronicle of a Summer. His partner Edgar Morin coined Cinéma vérité term when describing the style, using direct translation of Vertov’s KinoPravda. The Free Cinema movement in England in the 1950s, the Direct Cinema in France in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and the Candid Eye series in Canada in the 1950s, all essentially owed a debt to Vertov. This revival of Vertov's legacy included rehabilitation of his reputation in the Soviet Union, with retrospectives of his films, biographical works and writings. In 1962, the first Soviet monograph on Vertov was published, followed by another collection, 'Dziga Vertov: Articles, Diaries, Projects.' To recall the 30th anniversary of Vertov's death, three New York cultural organizations put on the first American retrospective of Vertov's work. New Media theorist Lev Manovich suggested Vertov as on of the early pioneers of database cinema genre in his essay Database as a symbolic form. Quotes "It is far from simple to show the truth, yet the truth is simple." "I am the machine that reveals the world to you as only I alone am able to see it." "I was returning from the railroad station. In my ears, there remained chugs and bursts of steam from a departing train. Somebody cries in laughter, a whistle, the station bell, the clanking locomotive...whispers, shouts, farewells. And walking away I thought I need to find a machine not only to describe but to register, to photograph these sounds. Otherwise, one cannot organize or assemble them. They fly like time. Perhaps a camera? That records the visual. But to organize the visual world and not the audible world? Is this the answer?"- Dziga Vertov "Our eyes see very little and very badly – so people dreamed up the microscope to let them see invisible phenomena; they invented the telescope...now they have perfected the cinecamera to penetrate more deeply into the visible world, to explore and record visual phenomena so that what is happening now, which will have to be taken account of in the future, is not forgotten." Filmography Poster for Kino-Glaz, designed by Aleksandr Rodchenko (1924) 1919 Кинонеделя (Kino Nedelya, Cinema Week) 1919 Годовщина революции (Anniversary of the Revolution) 1922 История гражданской войны (History of the Civil War) 1924 Советские игрушки (Soviet Toys) 1924 Кино-глаз (Kino Glaz, Cinema Eye) 1925 Киноправда (Kino Pravda) 1926 Шестая часть мира (A Sixth of the World/The Sixth Part of the World) 1928 Одиннадцатый (The Eleventh) 1929 Человек с киноаппаратом (Man with a Movie Camera) 1931 Энтузиазм (Enthusiasm) 1934 Три песни о Ленине (Three Songs About Lenin) 1937 Памяти Серго Орджоникидзе (In Memory of Sergo Ordzhonikidze) 1937 Колыбельная (Lullaby) 1938 Три героини (Three Heroines) 1942 Казахстан — фронту! (Kazakhstan for the Front!) 1944 В горах Ала-Тау (In the Mountains of Ala-Tau) 1954 Новости дня (News of the Day) Notes References Books and Articles Erik Barnouw. Documentary: a History of the Non-fiction Film. Oxford University Press. Original copyright 1974. Bohlman, Philip Vilas. "Music, Modernity, and the Foreign in the New Germany." 1994, pgs. 121-152 Cook, Simon. "Our Eyes, Spinning Like Propellers: Wheel of Life, Curve of Velocities, and Dziga Vertov's Theory of the Interval." October, 2007,pages 79-91. Jack C. Ellis. The Documentary Idea: A Critical History of English-Language Documentary Film and Video. Prentice Hall, 1989. Seth Feldman. "'Peace between Man and Machine': Dziga Vertov's The Man with a Movie Camera." in Barry Keith Grant, and Jeannette Sloniowski, eds.Documenting the Documentary: Close Readings of Documentary Film and Video. Wayne State University Press, 1998. pp. 40-53. Feldman, Seth. "Evolution of style in the early work of Dziga Vertov." 1977, Arno Press, New York. Graffy, Julian; Deriabin, Aleksandr ;Sarkisova, Oksana ; Keller, Sarah ; Scandiffio, Theresa . "Lines of resistance : Dziga Vertov and the twenties / edited and with an introduction by Yuri Tsivian." Le Giornate del cinema muto, Gemona, Udine Jeremy Hicks. Dziga Vertov: Defining Documentary Film. London & New York: IB Tauris, 2007. Christie,Ian. "Rushes: Pordenone Retrospective: Gazing into the Future."Sight and Sound. 2005, 15, 1, 4-5, British Film Institute Malcolm Le Grice. Abstract Film and Beyond. Studio Vista, 1977. John MacKay. "Allegory and Accommodation: Vertov's Three Songs of Lenin (1934) as a Stalinist Film." In Film History: An International Journal 18.4 (2006) 376-391. John MacKay. "Disorganized Noise: Enthusiasm and the Ear of the Collective." Available at [www.kinokultura.com/articles/jan05-mackay.html]. John MacKay. "Film Energy: Process and Metanarrative in Dziga Vertov's The Eleventh Year (1928)." October 121 (Summer 2007): 41-78. John MacKay. "The 'Spinning Top' Takes Another Turn: Vertov Today." Available at [www.kinokultura.com/articles/apr05-mackay.html]. Annette Michelson and Malcolm Turvey eds. "New Vertov Studies." Special Issue of October, (October 121 (Summer 2007)). Graham Roberts. The Man with the Movie Camera. I.B.Tauris, 2001. ISBN 1860643949 Ben Singer. "Connoisseurs of Chaos: Whitman, Vertov and the 'Poetic Survey,'" Literature/Film Quarterly 15:4 (Fall 1987): 247-258. Thomas Tode, Barbara Wurm, Austrian Film Museum eds.Dziga Vertov. The Vertov Collection at the Austrian Film Museum, Bilingual (German-English). (Paperback - May 2006), FilmmuseumSynemaPublikationen, available at [www.filmmuseum.at]. Yuri Tsivian, ed. Lines of Resistance: Dziga Vertov and the Twenties. La Giornate del Cinema Muto, 2004. ISBN 88-86155-15-8 Dziga Vertov. On Kinopravda. 1924, and The Man with the Movie Camera. 1928, in Annette Michelson ed. Kevin O'Brien tr. Kino-Eye : The Writings of Dziga Vertov, University of California Press, 1995. Dziga Vertov. We. A Version of a Manifesto. 1922, in Ian Christie, Richard Taylor eds. The Film Factory: Russian and Soviet Cinema in Documents, 1896-1939 Routledge, 1994. ISBN 041505298X Charles Warren ed. Beyond Document: Essays on Nonfiction Film. Wesleyan University Press, 1996. DVDs Dziga Vertov's Man with the Movie Camera DVD, audio commentary track by Yuri Tsivian. Entuziazm (Simfonija Donbassa) DVD, restored version and unrestored version plus documentary on Peter Kubelka's restoration. See also Political Cinema External links Fragments from Dziga Vertov's Kino-Pravda watchable and downloadable with Esperanto subtitles Dziga Vertov's Kino-Eye watchable and downloadable with Esperanto subtitles Dziga Vertov's The Sixth Part Of The World watchable and downloadable with Esperanto subtitles An up-to-date short bio of Vertov | Dziga_Vertov |@lemmatized dziga:26 vertov:96 january:2 new:10 style:5 february:1 soviet:13 pioneer:2 documentary:12 film:50 newsreel:6 director:6 cinema:13 theorist:2 filming:1 practice:1 theory:3 pave:1 way:4 cinéma:3 vérité:3 moviemaking:1 brother:6 boris:3 kaufman:13 mikhail:8 also:5 notable:1 filmmaker:3 wife:3 elizaveta:3 svilova:4 early:4 year:7 bear:1 david:1 abelevich:1 family:2 jewish:2 intellectual:1 białystok:2 congress:1 poland:1 part:4 russian:6 empire:1 father:1 librarian:1 russified:1 patronymic:1 arkadievich:1 point:4 studied:1 music:3 conservatory:1 flee:1 invading:1 german:2 army:1 moscow:3 soon:1 settle:1 petrograd:1 denis:1 begin:7 write:1 poetry:2 science:1 fiction:6 satire:1 study:2 medicine:1 psychoneurological:1 institute:2 saint:1 petersburg:1 experiment:2 sound:6 collage:1 free:2 time:5 adopt:1 name:3 mean:3 spin:3 top:2 robert:2 p:7 ukrainian:1 political:2 writing:3 work:12 kino:24 pravda:15 series:16 show:9 revolutionary:6 romanticism:1 career:3 october:5 revolution:5 bolshevik:1 age:1 edit:6 nedelya:4 committee:1 weekly:1 first:5 russia:2 come:3 june:1 meet:1 future:3 editor:6 goskino:1 collaborate:1 become:4 assistant:1 co:1 subsequent:1 man:24 movie:16 camera:22 three:14 song:4 lenin:6 cameraman:1 jean:2 vigo:1 help:3 establish:2 run:1 car:4 kalinin:1 agit:3 train:7 ongoing:1 civil:3 war:3 communist:2 counterrevolutionary:1 equip:1 actor:1 live:2 performance:1 printing:1 press:6 equipment:1 shoot:1 develop:2 project:3 go:1 battlefront:1 agitation:1 propaganda:5 mission:1 intend:3 primarily:1 bolster:1 morale:1 troop:1 stir:1 fervor:1 mass:3 compile:2 footage:1 anniversary:3 history:5 call:5 council:1 group:4 issue:4 manifesto:2 lef:1 radical:1 newsmagazine:1 cinematographer:3 interest:2 machinery:1 lead:1 curiosity:1 mechanical:4 basis:1 nanook:1 north:1 release:4 start:1 take:3 title:1 official:2 government:2 newspaper:2 literally:1 translate:1 truth:7 continue:3 prop:1 bent:1 basement:1 centre:1 explain:3 damp:2 dark:1 earthen:1 floor:1 hole:1 one:10 stumble:1 every:1 turn:2 say:3 dampness:1 prevent:2 reel:1 lovingly:1 stick:1 together:5 properly:1 rust:1 scissors:1 splicer:1 dawn:1 cold:1 teeth:1 chatter:1 wrap:1 comrade:1 third:2 jacket:1 drive:1 vision:2 expound:1 frequent:1 essay:6 capture:1 fragment:2 actuality:1 organize:3 deep:1 cannot:2 see:8 naked:1 eye:14 focus:1 everyday:1 experience:1 eschew:1 bourgeois:1 concern:1 marketplace:1 bar:1 school:1 instead:2 sometimes:1 hidden:1 without:3 ask:1 permission:1 episode:3 usually:2 include:5 reenactment:1 staging:2 exception:1 segment:3 trial:2 social:2 scene:3 selling:1 street:1 people:3 read:1 paper:1 trolley:2 stag:2 cinematography:1 simple:3 functional:1 unelaborate:1 perhaps:4 result:3 disinterest:1 beauty:1 grandeur:1 twenty:4 produce:3 period:1 last:2 minute:1 cover:1 topic:1 story:3 typically:1 descriptive:1 narrative:3 vignette:1 exposés:1 instance:1 renovation:1 system:1 organization:3 farmer:1 commune:1 starvation:1 nascent:1 marxist:1 state:4 propagandistic:1 tendency:1 present:2 subtlety:1 feature:1 construction:1 airport:1 shot:4 former:1 tsar:1 tank:2 prepare:1 foundation:1 intertitle:1 reading:2 labor:1 front:2 clearly:2 active:2 relationship:1 audience:2 final:1 contact:1 information:1 experimental:2 critic:2 dismiss:1 effort:4 insane:1 responds:1 criticism:4 assertion:1 hack:1 nip:1 bud:1 conclude:1 promise:1 explode:1 art:6 tower:2 babel:2 view:2 subservience:1 cinematic:3 technique:4 commonly:1 know:1 institutional:1 mode:1 representation:1 emphatically:1 dissatisfy:1 tradition:1 express:1 hostility:1 towards:2 dramatic:3 kind:2 openly:1 repeatedly:1 regard:2 drama:4 another:3 opiate:1 freely:1 admit:1 level:1 influential:1 limited:2 end:3 make:4 liberal:1 use:5 stop:2 motion:3 freeze:1 frame:1 artificiality:1 give:1 rise:2 criticisms:1 trenchant:1 dogmatism:1 kinopravda:5 chance:1 clipping:1 nedelia:1 doubt:1 necessity:1 literary:1 connection:1 individual:1 visual:4 element:1 splice:1 serve:1 departure:1 mention:2 upcoming:1 seem:1 likely:1 scenario:1 paragraph:1 quite:1 familiar:1 viewer:1 peasant:1 urban:1 woman:3 select:1 negative:1 admission:1 private:1 enterprise:1 economic:2 policy:2 receive:2 afar:1 occurrence:1 undeniable:1 suspicion:1 corrupting:1 influence:6 proletarian:1 sensibility:1 pedestal:1 vilify:1 several:1 even:3 warm:1 reception:1 sergei:2 eisenstein:4 battleship:2 potemkin:2 heavily:2 fictionalize:1 tell:1 mutiny:1 sailor:1 mistreatment:1 obvious:2 skillful:1 piece:2 glorify:1 proletariat:1 lose:1 job:1 sovkino:1 possibly:1 criticize:2 effectively:1 preach:1 party:1 line:3 fire:1 create:2 sixth:4 world:10 advertising:1 universe:1 trade:1 sell:1 advanced:1 society:1 fit:1 economy:1 ukraine:2 studio:4 hire:2 fight:1 decisive:1 cleaning:1 language:3 complete:1 separation:1 theater:2 literature:3 late:3 look:2 abandon:1 consider:1 clichés:1 experimentation:1 pronounced:1 odds:1 credo:3 life:9 catch:5 unawares:4 get:2 bed:1 dress:1 obviously:1 reversed:1 chess:2 push:1 board:1 tracking:1 riding:1 however:2 two:3 often:1 interchangeably:1 fact:1 distinct:1 yuri:4 tsivian:4 commentary:3 track:3 dvd:3 record:5 would:3 surprise:1 provoke:1 presence:1 explanation:1 contradict:1 common:1 assumption:1 meant:1 unaware:1 might:1 conform:2 slow:2 fast:1 dissect:1 image:3 describe:3 interview:1 honest:1 perception:1 example:1 cameara:1 almost:1 melt:1 although:1 taught:1 rid:1 close:2 try:1 portray:1 actual:2 sight:2 passing:1 talk:1 different:1 theatre:2 direct:3 string:1 bead:1 felt:1 could:2 chronicle:2 rather:1 base:2 creation:1 orient:1 journalism:1 suppose:1 union:3 efficient:1 action:4 decision:2 whether:1 jump:1 face:2 psychological:3 dissection:1 want:1 peace:2 machine:11 form:3 sense:1 cine:3 believe:3 concept:1 contemporary:1 evolve:1 flawed:1 creature:1 high:1 precise:2 compare:1 unfavorably:1 ashamed:1 inability:1 control:1 find:2 unerring:1 electricity:1 exciting:1 disorderly:1 haste:1 like:6 quote:2 attempt:1 connect:1 idea:3 advancement:1 aim:1 whereas:1 montage:1 attraction:1 tool:1 viewing:1 subject:1 emotional:1 therefore:1 able:3 perceive:1 ideological:1 aspect:1 evolution:2 bumbling:1 citizen:1 perfect:2 electric:1 pp:2 romantic:1 theatricalised:1 due:1 watch:1 hamper:1 desire:2 kinship:1 move:1 away:2 pre:1 fictional:1 model:1 filmmaking:1 rhythm:1 seek:1 bring:2 creative:1 joy:1 labour:1 men:1 closer:1 success:1 enthusiasm:4 symphony:2 donbas:1 examination:1 miner:1 location:1 woven:1 effect:1 later:2 peasantry:1 mezhrabpomfilm:1 mainly:1 expectation:1 stalin:2 provide:1 acceptable:1 stalinesque:1 sanction:1 socialist:1 realism:1 force:1 cut:1 personal:1 artistic:2 output:1 significantly:1 eventually:1 little:2 lullaby:2 maintain:1 died:1 cancer:1 survive:1 unscathed:1 purge:1 noted:1 much:1 elia:1 kazan:1 sidney:1 lumet:1 america:1 documentarian:1 right:1 legacy:2 still:1 today:2 echo:1 movement:2 saw:1 international:2 revival:2 independent:1 exploratory:1 inspire:1 many:1 situationist:1 guy:1 debord:1 company:1 industry:1 borrow:1 rouch:1 summer:3 partner:1 edgar:1 morin:1 coin:1 term:1 translation:1 england:1 france:1 candid:1 canada:1 essentially:1 owe:1 debt:1 rehabilitation:1 reputation:1 retrospective:3 biographical:1 monograph:1 publish:1 follow:1 collection:2 article:4 diary:1 recall:1 death:1 york:3 cultural:1 put:1 american:1 medium:1 lev:1 manovich:1 suggest:1 database:2 genre:1 symbolic:1 far:1 yet:1 reveal:1 alone:1 return:1 railroad:1 station:2 ear:2 remain:1 chug:1 burst:1 steam:1 depart:1 somebody:1 cry:1 laughter:1 whistle:1 bell:1 clank:1 locomotive:1 whisper:1 shout:1 farewell:1 walk:1 think:1 need:1 register:1 photograph:1 otherwise:1 assemble:1 fly:1 audible:1 answer:1 badly:1 dream:1 microscope:1 let:1 invisible:1 phenomenon:2 invent:1 telescope:1 cinecamera:1 penetrate:1 deeply:1 visible:1 explore:1 happen:1 account:1 forget:1 filmography:1 poster:1 glaz:2 design:1 aleksandr:2 rodchenko:1 кинонеделя:1 week:1 годовщина:1 революции:1 история:1 гражданской:1 войны:1 советские:1 игрушки:1 toy:1 кино:1 глаз:1 киноправда:1 шестая:1 часть:1 мира:1 одиннадцатый:1 eleventh:2 человек:1 с:1 киноаппаратом:1 энтузиазм:1 три:2 песни:1 о:1 ленине:1 памяти:1 серго:1 орджоникидзе:1 memory:1 sergo:1 ordzhonikidze:1 колыбельная:1 героини:1 heroine:1 казахстан:1 фронту:1 kazakhstan:1 в:1 горах:1 ала:1 тау:1 mountain:1 ala:1 tau:1 новости:1 дня:1 news:1 day:1 note:1 reference:1 book:1 erik:1 barnouw:1 non:1 oxford:1 university:4 original:1 copyright:1 bohlman:1 philip:1 vila:1 modernity:1 foreign:1 germany:1 pgs:1 cook:1 simon:1 propeller:1 wheel:1 curve:1 velocity:1 interval:1 page:1 jack:1 c:1 elli:1 critical:1 english:2 video:2 prentice:1 hall:1 seth:2 feldman:2 barry:1 keith:1 grant:1 jeannette:1 sloniowski:1 ed:7 document:3 wayne:1 arno:1 graffy:1 julian:1 deriabin:1 sarkisova:1 oksana:1 keller:1 sarah:1 scandiffio:1 theresa:1 resistance:2 introduction:1 le:2 giornate:2 del:2 muto:2 gemona:1 udine:1 jeremy:1 hick:1 defining:1 london:1 ib:1 tauris:2 christie:2 ian:2 rush:1 pordenone:1 gazing:1 british:1 malcolm:2 grice:1 abstract:1 beyond:2 vista:1 john:4 mackay:6 allegory:1 accommodation:1 stalinist:1 journal:1 disorganized:1 noise:1 collective:1 available:3 www:3 kinokultura:2 com:2 html:2 energy:1 process:1 metanarrative:1 annette:2 michelson:2 turvey:1 special:1 graham:1 b:1 isbn:3 ben:1 singer:1 connoisseur:1 chaos:1 whitman:1 poetic:1 survey:1 quarterly:1 fall:1 thomas:1 tode:1 barbara:1 wurm:1 austrian:2 museum:2 bilingual:1 paperback:1 may:1 filmmuseumsynemapublikationen:1 filmmuseum:1 la:1 kevin:1 brien:1 tr:1 california:1 version:3 richard:1 taylor:1 factory:1 routledge:1 charles:1 warren:1 nonfiction:1 wesleyan:1 dvds:1 audio:1 entuziazm:1 simfonija:1 donbassa:1 restore:1 unrestored:1 plus:1 peter:1 kubelka:1 restoration:1 external:1 link:1 watchable:3 downloadable:3 esperanto:3 subtitle:3 date:1 short:1 bio:1 |@bigram dziga_vertov:23 cinéma_vérité:3 science_fiction:1 saint_petersburg:1 kino_pravda:14 jean_vigo:1 nanook_north:1 naked_eye:1 tower_babel:2 sergei_eisenstein:2 battleship_potemkin:1 catch_unawares:4 soviet_union:3 elia_kazan:1 sidney_lumet:1 guy_debord:1 jean_rouch:1 prentice_hall:1 b_tauris:1 external_link:1 |
4,687 | Ich_bin_ein_Berliner | Kennedy delivering his speech in Berlin. Plaque commemorating Kennedy's speech next to the front entrance of Rathaus Schöneberg "Ich bin ein Berliner" ("I am a Berliner") is a quotation from a June 26, 1963 speech by U.S. President John F. Kennedy in West Berlin. He was underlining the support of the United States for West Germany shortly after the Soviet-supported Communist state of East Germany erected the Berlin Wall as a barrier to prevent movement between East and West. The speech is considered one of Kennedy's best, and a notable moment of the Cold War. It was a great morale boost for West Berliners, who lived in an enclave deep inside East Germany and feared a possible East German occupation. Speaking from the balcony of Rathaus Schöneberg, Kennedy said, Kennedy came up with the phrase at the last moment, as well as the idea to say it in German. Kennedy asked his interpreter Robert H. Lochner to translate "I am a Berliner" only as they walked up the stairs at the Rathaus (City Hall). With Lochner's help, Kennedy practised the phrase in the office of then-Mayor Willy Brandt, and in his own hand made a cue card with phonetic spelling (the cue card). According to Lochner, Kennedy's National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy felt the speech had gone "a little too far", and the two revised the text for a softer stance before repeating the speech at the Free University later that day. This message of defiance was aimed as much at the Soviets as it was at Berliners, and was a clear statement of U.S. policy in the wake of the construction of the Berlin Wall. However, Kennedy was criticized for making a speech that acknowledged Berlin's status quo as reality. The official status of Berlin at the time was that it was under joint occupation by the four Allied powers, each with primary responsibility for a certain zone. Up to this point the U.S. had asserted that this was its status, even though the actual situation was far different. Kennedy's speech marked the first instance where the U.S. acknowledged that East Berlin was part of the Soviet bloc along with the rest of East Germany. There are commemorative sites to Kennedy in Berlin, such as the John F. Kennedy German-American School Berlin and the John F. Kennedy Institute for North American Studies of the Free University of Berlin. Also, the public square in front of the Rathaus Schöneberg (where Kennedy made the famous speech) has been named "John-F.-Kennedy-Platz" and there is a large plaque dedicated to Kennedy mounted on a column at the entrance of the building. The original manuscript of the speech is stored with the National Archives and Records Administration. Background Germany's capital, Berlin, was deep within the area controlled after World War II by the Soviet army. Initially governed in four sectors controlled by the United States, United Kingdom, France, and the USSR, tensions of the Cold War escalated until the Soviet forces implemented the Berlin Blockade, which the Western allies relieved with the dramatic airlift. Afterward, the sectors controlled by the NATO Allies became an effective exclave of West Germany, completely surrounded by East Germany. From 1952, the border between East and West was closed everywhere but Berlin. Hundreds of thousands of East Germans defected to the West via West Berlin, a labour drain that threatened East Germany with economic collapse. In 1961 the East German government under Walter Ulbricht erected a barbed-wire barrier around West Berlin. It was officially called the antifaschistischer Schutzwall (anti-fascist protective barrier). The East German authorities argued that it was meant to prevent spies and agents of West Germany (which they considered a fascist state) from crossing into the East. However, it was universally known as the Berlin Wall and the majority opinion was that its primary purpose was to keep East German citizens from escaping to the West. Over a period of months the wall was rebuilt using concrete, and buildings were demolished to create a "death zone" in view of East German guards armed with machine guns. In 1962 the first attempted escape leading to a fatal shooting took the life of Peter Fechter. The West, including the U.S., was accused of failing to respond forcefully to the erection of the Wall. On July 25, 1961, with the April Bay of Pigs fiasco still fresh, President Kennedy broadcast a Presidential address. Kennedy insisted that America would defend West Berlin, asserting its Four-Power rights, while making it clear that challenging the Soviet presence in Germany was not possible. Jelly doughnut urban legend A Berliner According to an urban legend, Kennedy allegedly made an embarrassing grammatical error by saying "Ich bin ein Berliner," referring to himself not as a citizen of Berlin, but as a common pastry: Ich bin ein Pfannkuchen. Oder ein Berliner? | Stadtkind: Berlin The legend stems from a play on words with Berliner, the name of a doughnut variant filled with or plum sauce that is thought to have originated in Berlin. It is not widely known among Germans, who consider Kennedy's speech a landmark in the country's postwar history. J.F. Kennedy: 'Ish bin ein Bearleener' - Politik - stern.de In fact, Kennedy's statement is both grammatically correct Word.com. "Looking Back: 1963." June 2006. and perfectly idiomatic, and would not be misunderstood in context. The indefinite article ein can be and often is omitted when speaking of an individual's profession or residence but is necessary when speaking in a figurative sense as Kennedy did. Since the president was not literally from Berlin but only declaring his solidarity with its citizens, "Ich bin Berliner" would not have been correct. , cited in The origins of the legend are obscure. The Len Deighton spy novel Berlin Game, published in 1983, contains the following passage, spoken by narrator Bernard Samson: The New York Times review of Deighton's novel added the detail that Kennedy's audience found his remark funny: In 1988 William J. Miller wrote in an April 30 New York Times article: It's worth recalling, again, President John F. Kennedy's use of a German phrase while standing before the Berlin Wall. It would be great, his wordsmiths thought, for him to declare himself a symbolic citizen of Berlin. Hence, Ich bin ein Berliner. What they did not know, but could easily have found out, was that such citizens never refer to themselves as "Berliners." They reserve that term for a favorite confection often munched at breakfast. So, while they understood and appreciated the sentiments behind the President's impassioned declaration, the residents tittered among themselves when he exclaimed, literally, "I am a jelly-filled doughnut." In fact, the opposite is true: The citizens of Berlin do refer to themselves as Berliner; what they do not refer to as Berliner are jelly doughnuts. While these are known as "Berliner" in other areas of Germany, they are simply called Pfannkuchen (pancakes) in and around Berlin. Wie heißt der Berliner in Berlin? Thus the merely theoretical ambiguity went unnoticed by Kennedy's audience, as it did in Germany at large. In sum, "Ich bin ein Berliner" was the appropriate way to express in German what Kennedy meant to say. John F. Kennedy Although it is false, the legend has since been repeated by reputable media, such as the BBC (by Alistair Cooke in his Letter from America program), BBC NEWS | Programmes | Letter From America | "I am a jelly doughnut" The Guardian, Richard Hollis: "How we got the measure of a Berliner", The Guardian, September 10 2005 MSNBC, onegoodmove: Bloopers CNN, CNN - Cold War Time magazine, Wall-To-Wall Kennedy - TIME The New York Times, Profile in Courage in several books about Germany written by English-speaking authors, including Norman Davies Norman Davies, Europe: A History, New York 1998, p. 1113 and Kenneth C. Davis, and is even mentioned in a stand-up show by Eddie Izzard. As for the creation of the speech, it had been reviewed by journalist Robert Lochner, who was educated in Germany, and had been practiced several times in front of numerous Germans, including Berlin Mayor Willy Brandt. The many video and audio recordings of the event show only enthusiastic applause following the statement; the only laughter occurred later, when Kennedy jokingly thanked his translator for his translation of Kennedy's German sentence into German. During the speech Kennedy used the phrase twice, ending his speech on it. However, Kennedy did pronounce the sentence with his Boston accent, reading from his note "ish bin ein Bearleener," which he had written out in English phonetics. References in popular culture The phrase and the legend are quoted very often in fiction and popular culture in the United States. Besides a direct quote there exist many variations starting "Ich bin (+ noun, eg Frankfurter)" that is supposed to be understood by the primarily English-speaking audience based on the widespread knowledge of this German phrase and its myth. This verbal template, or snowclone, has arisen in a variety of rhetorical contexts in popular culture. References External links Text, Audio, Video of Address About.com article A Berliner expresses amusement at her recollection of the speech, remarking that "in West Germany, 'Berliner' means a pancake..." | Ich_bin_ein_Berliner |@lemmatized kennedy:34 deliver:1 speech:15 berlin:28 plaque:2 commemorate:1 next:1 front:3 entrance:2 rathaus:4 schöneberg:3 ich:7 bin:9 ein:9 berliner:20 quotation:1 june:2 u:5 president:5 john:6 f:7 west:14 underline:1 support:2 united:4 state:5 germany:15 shortly:1 soviet:6 communist:1 east:15 erect:2 wall:8 barrier:3 prevent:2 movement:1 consider:3 one:1 best:1 notable:1 moment:2 cold:3 war:4 great:2 morale:1 boost:1 live:1 enclave:1 deep:2 inside:1 fear:1 possible:2 german:15 occupation:2 speak:4 balcony:1 say:4 come:1 phrase:6 last:1 well:1 idea:1 ask:1 interpreter:1 robert:2 h:1 lochner:4 translate:1 walk:1 stair:1 city:1 hall:1 help:1 practise:1 office:1 mayor:2 willy:2 brandt:2 hand:1 make:5 cue:2 card:2 phonetic:1 spelling:1 accord:2 national:2 security:1 advisor:1 mcgeorge:1 bundy:1 felt:1 go:2 little:1 far:2 two:1 revise:1 text:2 soft:1 stance:1 repeat:2 free:2 university:2 later:2 day:1 message:1 defiance:1 aim:1 much:1 clear:2 statement:3 policy:1 wake:1 construction:1 however:3 criticize:1 acknowledge:2 status:3 quo:1 reality:1 official:1 time:7 joint:1 four:3 allied:1 power:2 primary:2 responsibility:1 certain:1 zone:2 point:1 assert:2 even:2 though:1 actual:1 situation:1 different:1 mark:1 first:2 instance:1 part:1 bloc:1 along:1 rest:1 commemorative:1 site:1 american:2 school:1 institute:1 north:1 study:1 also:1 public:1 square:1 famous:1 name:2 platz:1 large:2 dedicate:1 mount:1 column:1 building:2 original:1 manuscript:1 store:1 archive:1 record:1 administration:1 background:1 capital:1 within:1 area:2 control:3 world:1 ii:1 army:1 initially:1 govern:1 sector:2 kingdom:1 france:1 ussr:1 tension:1 escalate:1 force:1 implement:1 blockade:1 western:1 ally:2 relieve:1 dramatic:1 airlift:1 afterward:1 nato:1 become:1 effective:1 exclave:1 completely:1 surround:1 border:1 close:1 everywhere:1 hundred:1 thousand:1 defect:1 via:1 labour:1 drain:1 threaten:1 economic:1 collapse:1 government:1 walter:1 ulbricht:1 barbed:1 wire:1 around:2 officially:1 call:2 antifaschistischer:1 schutzwall:1 anti:1 fascist:2 protective:1 authority:1 argue:1 mean:2 spy:2 agent:1 cross:1 universally:1 know:4 majority:1 opinion:1 purpose:1 keep:1 citizen:6 escape:2 period:1 month:1 rebuild:1 use:3 concrete:1 demolish:1 create:1 death:1 view:1 guard:1 arm:1 machine:1 gun:1 attempted:1 lead:1 fatal:1 shooting:1 take:1 life:1 peter:1 fechter:1 include:3 accuse:1 fail:1 respond:1 forcefully:1 erection:1 july:1 april:2 bay:1 pig:1 fiasco:1 still:1 fresh:1 broadcast:1 presidential:1 address:2 insist:1 america:3 would:4 defend:1 right:1 challenge:1 presence:1 jelly:4 doughnut:5 urban:2 legend:6 allegedly:1 embarrassing:1 grammatical:1 error:1 refer:4 common:1 pastry:1 pfannkuchen:2 oder:1 stadtkind:1 stem:1 play:1 word:2 variant:1 fill:2 plum:1 sauce:1 think:2 originate:1 widely:1 among:2 landmark:1 country:1 postwar:1 history:2 j:2 ish:2 bearleener:2 politik:1 stern:1 de:1 fact:2 grammatically:1 correct:2 com:2 look:1 back:1 perfectly:1 idiomatic:1 misunderstand:1 context:2 indefinite:1 article:3 often:3 omit:1 speaking:2 individual:1 profession:1 residence:1 necessary:1 figurative:1 sense:1 since:2 literally:2 declare:2 solidarity:1 cite:1 origin:1 obscure:1 len:1 deighton:2 novel:2 game:1 publish:1 contain:1 following:1 passage:1 narrator:1 bernard:1 samson:1 new:4 york:4 review:2 add:1 detail:1 audience:3 find:2 remark:2 funny:1 william:1 miller:1 write:3 worth:1 recall:1 stand:2 wordsmith:1 symbolic:1 hence:1 could:1 easily:1 never:1 reserve:1 term:1 favorite:1 confection:1 munch:1 breakfast:1 understand:2 appreciate:1 sentiment:1 behind:1 impassioned:1 declaration:1 resident:1 titter:1 exclaim:1 opposite:1 true:1 simply:1 pancake:2 wie:1 heißt:1 der:1 thus:1 merely:1 theoretical:1 ambiguity:1 unnoticed:1 sum:1 appropriate:1 way:1 express:2 meant:1 although:1 false:1 reputable:1 medium:1 bbc:2 alistair:1 cooke:1 letter:2 program:2 news:1 guardian:2 richard:1 hollis:1 get:1 measure:1 september:1 msnbc:1 onegoodmove:1 blooper:1 cnn:2 magazine:1 profile:1 courage:1 several:2 book:1 english:3 author:1 norman:2 davy:2 europe:1 p:1 kenneth:1 c:1 davis:1 mention:1 show:2 eddie:1 izzard:1 creation:1 journalist:1 educate:1 practice:1 numerous:1 many:2 video:2 audio:2 recording:1 event:1 enthusiastic:1 applause:1 follow:1 laughter:1 occur:1 jokingly:1 thank:1 translator:1 translation:1 sentence:2 twice:1 end:1 pronounce:1 boston:1 accent:1 read:1 note:1 phonetics:1 reference:2 popular:3 culture:3 quote:2 fiction:1 besides:1 direct:1 exist:1 variation:1 start:1 noun:1 eg:1 frankfurter:1 suppose:1 primarily:1 base:1 widespread:1 knowledge:1 myth:1 verbal:1 template:1 snowclone:1 arise:1 variety:1 rhetorical:1 external:1 link:1 amusement:1 recollection:1 |@bigram plaque_commemorate:1 ich_bin:7 bin_ein:7 ein_berliner:5 morale_boost:1 willy_brandt:2 status_quo:1 hundred_thousand:1 walter_ulbricht:1 barbed_wire:1 fatal_shooting:1 grammatically_correct:1 go_unnoticed:1 bbc_news:1 external_link:1 |
4,688 | Demographics_of_Oman | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Oman, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. In Oman, about 50% of the population lives in Muscat and the Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital; about 200,000 live in the Dhofar (southern) region; and about 30,000 live in the remote Musandam Peninsula on the Strait of Hormuz. Some 600,000 expatriates live in Oman, most of whom are guest workers from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Morocco, Jordan, and the Philippines. Since 1970, the government has given high priority to education in order to develop a domestic work force, which the government considers a vital factor in the country's economic and social progress. In 1986, Oman's first university, Sultan Qaboos University, opened. Other post secondary institutions include a law school, technical college, banking institute, teachers' training college, and health sciences institute. Some 200 scholarships are awarded each year for study abroad. Nine private colleges exist, providing 2-year post secondary diplomas. Since 1999, the government has embarked on reforms in higher education designed to meet the needs of a growing population, only a small percentage of which are currently admitted to higher education institutions. Under the reformed system, four public regional universities will be created, and incentives are provided by the government to promote the upgrading of the existing nine private colleges and the creation of other degree-granting private colleges. Overseas Omani people Today several thousand Omani born people have emigrated abroad, the figures are shown below (only countries with more than 100 Omani born residents are listed). Country Omani population United Kingdom 2,024 United States 940 Canada 315 Australia 209 CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of Oman, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 3,001,583 note: includes 577,293 non-nationals (July 2005 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 0.1% (male 652,028; female 626,698) 15-64 years: 10000>55% (male 978,183; female 668,814) 65 years and over: 2.5% (male 41,366; female 34,494) (2005 est.) Population growth rate 3.28% (2006 est.) Birth rate 36.73 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) Death rate 3.86 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) Net migration rate 0.31 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.46 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.2 male(s)/female total population: 1.26 male(s)/female (2005 est.) Infant mortality rate 19.51 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 73.13 years male: 70.92 years female: 75.46 years (2005 est.) Total fertility rate 5.84 children born/woman (2005 est.) Urbanisation About 78% of the population is urban. Nationality noun: Omani(s) adjective: Omani Ethnic groups Arab, Baluchi, Filipino, Somali, South Asian (Indian, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Bangladeshi) Religions Ibadhi Muslim 75%, Sunni Muslim, Shi'a Muslim, Hindu Languages Arabic (official), English, swahili, Indian dialects Literacy definition: NA total population: 75.8% male: 83.1% female: 67.2% (2003 est.) References External links Government Omani Ministry of Foreign Affairs | Demographics_of_Oman |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:15 oman:5 include:3 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:4 level:1 health:2 populace:1 economic:2 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 live:5 muscat:1 batinah:1 coastal:1 plain:1 northwest:1 capital:1 dhofar:1 southern:1 region:1 remote:1 musandam:1 peninsula:1 strait:1 hormuz:1 expatriate:1 guest:1 worker:1 india:1 pakistan:1 bangladesh:1 morocco:1 jordan:1 philippine:1 since:2 government:5 give:1 high:3 priority:1 order:1 develop:1 domestic:1 work:1 force:1 consider:1 vital:1 factor:1 country:3 social:1 progress:1 first:1 university:3 sultan:1 qaboos:1 open:1 post:2 secondary:2 institution:2 law:1 school:1 technical:1 college:5 bank:1 institute:2 teacher:1 training:1 science:1 scholarship:1 award:1 year:12 study:1 abroad:2 nine:2 private:3 exist:2 provide:2 diploma:1 embark:1 reform:1 design:1 meet:1 need:1 grow:1 small:1 percentage:1 currently:1 admit:1 reformed:1 system:1 four:1 public:1 regional:1 create:1 incentive:1 promote:1 upgrading:1 creation:1 degree:1 grant:1 overseas:1 omani:7 people:2 today:1 several:1 thousand:2 bear:3 emigrate:1 figure:1 show:1 resident:1 list:1 unite:1 kingdom:1 united:1 state:1 canada:1 australia:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 data:1 fao:1 number:1 inhabitant:1 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 note:1 non:1 national:1 july:1 est:11 age:1 structure:1 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 woman:1 urbanisation:1 urban:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 arab:1 baluchi:1 filipino:1 somali:1 south:1 asian:1 indian:2 pakistani:1 sri:1 lankan:1 bangladeshi:1 religion:1 ibadhi:1 muslim:3 sunni:1 shi:1 hindu:1 language:1 arabic:1 official:1 english:1 swahili:1 dialect:1 literacy:1 definition:1 na:1 reference:1 external:1 links:1 ministry:1 foreign:1 affair:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 coastal_plain:1 musandam_peninsula:1 strait_hormuz:1 sultan_qaboos:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 nationality_noun:1 sri_lankan:1 sunni_muslim:1 shi_muslim:1 literacy_definition:1 external_links:1 omani_ministry:1 foreign_affair:1 |
4,689 | Grover_Cleveland | Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 June 24, 1908) was both the 22nd and 24th President of the United States. Cleveland is the only President to serve two non-consecutive terms (1885–1889 and 1893–1897) and therefore is the only individual to be counted twice in the numbering of the presidents. He was the winner of the popular vote for President three times—in 1884, 1888, and 1892—and was the only Democrat elected to the Presidency in the era of Republican political domination that lasted from 1860 to 1912. Cleveland's admirers praise him for his honesty, independence, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism. Jeffers, 8–12; Nevins, 4–5 As a leader of the Bourbon Democrats, he opposed imperialism, taxes, subsidies and inflationary policies, but as a reformer he also worked against corruption, patronage, and bossism. Some of Cleveland's actions caused controversy even within his own party. His intervention in the Pullman Strike of 1894 in order to keep the railroads moving angered labor unions, and his support of the gold standard and opposition to free silver alienated the agrarian wing of the Democrats. Tugwell, 220–249 Furthermore, critics complained that he had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic disasters—depressions and strikes—in his second term. Even so, his reputation for honesty and good character survived the troubles of his second term. Biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "in Grover Cleveland the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities. He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have. He possessed honesty, courage, firmness, independence, and common sense. But he possessed them to a degree other men do not." Nevins, 4 Family and early life Childhood and family history Stephen Grover Cleveland was born on March 18, 1837 in Caldwell, New Jersey to Richard Falley Cleveland and Ann Neal Cleveland. Nevins, 8–10 Cleveland's father was a Presbyterian minister, originally from Connecticut. Graff, 3–4; Nevins, 8–10 His mother (Judith Anderson) was from Baltimore, the daughter of a bookseller. Graff, 3–4 On his father's side, Cleveland was descended from English ancestors, the first Cleveland having emigrated to Massachusetts from northeastern England in 1635. Nevins, 6 On his mother's side, Cleveland was descended from Anglo-Irish Protestants and German Quakers from Philadelphia. Nevins, 9 He was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland after whom the city of Cleveland, Ohio, was named. Graff, 7 Cleveland's birthplace, in Caldwell, New Jersey Cleveland was the fifth of nine children, five sons and four daughters. He was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell, where his father was pastor at the time, but he did not use the name Stephen in his adult life. Nevins, 10; Graff, 3 In 1841, the Cleveland family moved to Fayetteville, New York, where Grover Cleveland spent much of his childhood. Nevins, 11; Graff, 8–9 Neighbors would later describe him as "full of fun and inclined to play pranks", Nevins, 11 and fond of outdoor sports. Jeffers, 17 In 1850, Cleveland's father took a job in Clinton, Oneida County, New York, and the family relocated there. Nevins, 17–19 They moved again in 1853 to Holland Patent, New York, near Utica. Nevins, 21 Not long after the family arrived in Holland Patent, Cleveland's father died. Education and moving west Cleveland's education began in grammar school at the Fayetteville Academy. Jeffers, 16–17 When the family moved to Clinton, Cleveland was enrolled at the Clinton Liberal Academy. Nevins, 18–19; Jeffers, 19 After his father died in 1853, Cleveland left school and helped to support his family. Nevins, 23–24 Later that year, Cleveland's brother William was hired as a teacher at the New York Institute for the Blind in New York City, and William obtained a place for Cleveland as an assistant teacher. After teaching for a year, Cleveland returned home to Holland Patent at the end of 1854. Nevins, 27 Back in Holland Patent, the seventeen-year-old Cleveland looked for work unsuccessfully. An elder in his church offered to pay for his college education if he would promise to become a minister, but Cleveland declined. Instead, the following spring Cleveland decided to make his way west to the city of Cleveland, Ohio. He stopped first in Buffalo, New York, where his uncle, Lewis W. Allen, lived. Allen dissuaded Cleveland from continuing west, and offered him a job arranging his Livestock herdbooks. Nevins, 28–33 Allen was an important man in Buffalo, and he introduced his nephew to influential men there, including the partners in the law firm of Rogers, Bowen, and Rogers. Nevins, 31–36; Graff, 10–11 Cleveland later took a clerkship with the firm, and was admitted to the bar in 1859. Graff, 14 Early career and the Civil War An early, undated photograph of Grover Cleveland From the Cleveland Family Papers at the New Jersey Archives. After becoming a lawyer, Cleveland worked for the Rogers firm for three years, leaving in 1862 to start his own practice. Graff, 14–15 In January 1863, he was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie County. Graff, 15; Nevins, 46 With the American Civil War raging, Congress passed the Conscription Act of 1863, requiring able-bodied men to serve in the army if called upon, or else to hire a substitute. Cleveland chose the latter course, paying George Benninsky, a thirty-two year-old Polish immigrant, $150 to serve in his place. Graff, 14; Nevins, 51–52. Benninsky survived the war. As a lawyer, Cleveland became known for his single-minded concentration and dedication to hard work. Nevins, 52–53 In 1866, he defended some participants in the Fenian raid of that year, doing so successfully and free of charge. Nevins, 54 In 1868, Cleveland attracted some attention within his profession for his successful defense of a libel suit against the editor of the Commercial Advertiser, a Buffalo newspaper. Nevins, 54–55 During this time, Cleveland lived simply in a boarding house; although his income grew sufficient to support a more lavish lifestyle, Cleveland continued to support his mother and younger sisters. Nevins, 55–56 While his personal quarters were austere, Cleveland did enjoy an active social life and enjoyed "the easy-going sociability of hotel-lobbies and saloons." Nevins, 56 Political career in New York Sheriff of Erie County From his earliest involvement in politics, Cleveland had aligned himself with the Democratic Party. Nevins, 44–45 In 1865, he ran for District Attorney, losing narrowly to his friend and roommate, Lyman K. Bass, the Republican nominee. Cleveland then stayed out of politics until 1870 when, with the help of his friend, Oscar Folsom, he secured the Democratic nomination for sheriff of Erie County. Nevins, 58 At the age of thirty-three, Cleveland found himself elected sheriff by a 303-vote margin, taking office on January 1, 1871. Jeffers, 33 While this new career took him away from the practice of law, it was rewarding in other ways: the fees were said to yield up to $40,000 over the two-year term. The most well-known incident of his term involved the execution of a murderer, Patrick Morrisey, on September 6, 1872. Jeffers, 34; Nevins, 61–62 Cleveland, as sheriff, was responsible for either personally carrying out the execution, or paying a deputy $10 to perform the task. When subordinates refused, Cleveland once hanged a criminal in the Lafayette Square when it was still named Court House Square. Cleveland had qualms about the hanging, but opted to carry out the duty himself. He hanged another murderer, John Gaffney, on February 14, 1873. After his term as sheriff ended, Cleveland returned to private practice, opening a law firm with his friends Lyman K. Bass and Wilson S. Bissell. Jeffers, 36; Nevins, 64 Bass did not spend much time at the firm, being elected to Congress in 1873, but Cleveland and Bissell soon found themselves at the top of Buffalo's legal community. Nevins, 66–71 Up to that point, Cleveland's political career had been honorable but unremarkable. As biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "probably no man in the country, on March 4, 1881, had less thought than this limited, simple, sturdy attorney of Buffalo that four years later he would be standing in Washington and taking the oath as President of the United States." Nevins, 78 Mayor of Buffalo In the 1870s, the government of Buffalo had grown increasingly corrupt, with Democratic and Republican political machines cooperating to share the spoils. Nevins, 79; Graff, 18–19; Jeffers, 42–45; Welch, 24 When, in 1881, the Republicans nominated a slate of particularly disreputable machine politicians, the Democrats saw the opportunity to gain the votes of disaffected Republicans by nominating a more honest candidate. Nevins, 79–80; Graff, 18–19; Welch, 24 The party leaders approached Cleveland and he agreed to run for mayor, provided that the rest of the ticket was to his liking. Nevins, 80–81 When the more notorious politicians were left off the Democratic ticket, Cleveland accepted the nomination. Cleveland was elected mayor with 15,120 votes, as against 11,528 for Milton C. Beebe, his opponent. Nevins, 83 He took office January 2, 1882. Cleveland's term as mayor was spent fighting the entrenched interests of the party machines. Graff, 19; Jeffers, 46–50 Among the acts that established his reputation was a veto of the street-cleaning bill passed by the Common Council. Nevins, 84–86 The street-cleaning contract was open for bids, and the Council selected the highest bidder, rather than the lowest, because of the political connections of the bidder. While this sort of bipartisan graft had previously been tolerated in Buffalo, Mayor Cleveland would have none of it, and replied with a stinging veto message: "I regard it as the culmination of a most bare-faced, impudent, and shameless scheme to betray the interests of the people, and to worse than squander the public money". Nevins, 85 The Council reversed themselves and awarded the contract to the lowest bidder. Nevins, 86 For this, and several other acts to safeguard the public funds, Cleveland's reputation as an honest politician began to spread beyond Erie County. Nevins, 94–95; Jeffers, 50–51 Governor of New York Statue of Grover Cleveland outside City Hall in Buffalo, New York As his reputation grew, state Democratic party officials began to consider Cleveland a possible nominee for governor. Nevins, 94–99; Graff, 26–27 Daniel Manning, a party insider who admired Cleveland's record, promoted his candidacy. Nevins, 95–101 With a split in the state Republican party, 1882 looked to be a Democratic year and there were several contenders for that party's nomination. The two leading Democratic candidates were Roswell P. Flower and Henry W. Slocum, but their factions deadlocked and the convention could not agree on a nominee. Graff, 26; Nevins, 101–103 Cleveland, in third place on the first ballot, picked up support in subsequent votes and emerged as the compromise choice. Nevins, 103–104 The Republican party remained divided against itself, and in the general election Cleveland emerged the victor, with 535,318 votes to Republican nominee Charles J. Folger's 342,464. Nevins, 105 Cleveland's margin of victory was, at the time, the largest in a contested New York election, and the Democrats also picked up seats in both houses of the legislature. Graff, 28 Continuing his opposition to unnecessary spending, Cleveland sent the legislature eight vetos in his first two months in office. Graff, 35 The first to attract attention was his veto of a bill to reduce the fares on New York City elevated trains to five cents. Graff, 35–36 The bill had broad support because the el trains' owner, Jay Gould, was unpopular and his fare increases were widely denounced. Nevins, 114–116 Cleveland saw the bill as unjust—Gould had taken over the railroads when they were failing and had made the system solvent again. Nevins, 116–117 Moreover, Cleveland believed that altering Gould's franchise would violate the Contract Clause of the federal Constitution. Despite the initial popularity of the measure, the newspapers praised Cleveland's veto. Theodore Roosevelt, then a member of the Assembly, said that he had initially voted for the bill believing it was wrong, but wishing to punish the unscrupulous railroad barons. Nevins, 117–118 After the veto, Roosevelt reversed himself, as did many legislators, and the veto was sustained. Cleveland's blunt, honest ways won him popular acclaim, but they also gained him the enmity of certain factions of his own party, especially the Tammany Hall organization in New York City. Nevins, 125–126; Graff, 49–51 Tammany, under its boss, John Kelly, had not supported Cleveland's nomination as governor, and disliked him all the more when Cleveland openly opposed the re-election of one of their State Senators. Nevins, 133–138 Losing Tammany's support was balanced, however, by gaining the support of Theodore Roosevelt and other reform-minded Republicans who helped Cleveland to pass several laws reforming municipal governments. Nevins, 138–140 Election of 1884 Nomination for President James G. Blaine, Cleveland's opponent in 1884 The Republicans convened in Chicago and nominated former Speaker of the House James G. Blaine of Maine for President on the fourth ballot. Blaine's nomination alienated many Republicans who viewed Blaine as ambitious and immoral. Nevins, 185–186; Jeffers, 96–97 Democratic party leaders saw the Republicans' choice as an opportunity to take back the White House for the first time since 1856 if the right candidate could be found. Among the Democrats, Samuel J. Tilden was the initial front-runner, having been the party's nominee in the contested election of 1876. Nevins, 146–147 Tilden, however, was in poor health, and after he declined to be nominated, his supporters shifted to several other contenders. Cleveland was among the leaders in early support, but Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware, Allen G. Thurman of Ohio, and Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts also had considerable followings, along with various favorite sons. Each of the other candidates had hindrances to his nomination: Bayard had spoken in favor of secession in 1861, making him unacceptable to Northerners; Butler, conversely, was reviled throughout the South for his actions during the Civil War; Thurman was generally well-liked, but was growing old and infirm and his views on the silver question were uncertain. Nevins, 147 Cleveland, too, had detractors—Tammany remained opposed to him—but the nature of his enemies made him still more friends. Nevins, 152–153; Graff, 51–53 Cleveland led on the first ballot, with 392 votes out of 820. Nevins, 153 On the second ballot, Tammany threw its support behind Butler, but the rest of the delegates shifted to Cleveland, and he was nominated. Nevins, 154; Graff, 53–54 Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana was selected as his running mate. Campaign against Blaine An anti-Blaine cartoon presents him as the "tattooed man," with many indelible scandals. An anti-Cleveland cartoon highlights the Halpin scandal. After Cleveland's nomination, reform-minded Republicans called "Mugwumps" denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland. Nevins, 156–159; Graff, 55 The Mugwumps, including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher, were more concerned with ideals than with party, and hoped that Cleveland would endorse their crusade for civil service reform and efficiency in government. At the same time that the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps, they lost some to the Greenback-Labor party, led by ex-Democrat Benjamin Butler. Nevins, 187–188 Each candidate's supporters cast aspersions on their opponents. Cleveland's supporters rehashed the old allegations that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in favor of the Little Rock & Fort Smith Railroad and the Northern Pacific Railway, later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in both companies. Nevins, 159–162; Graff, 59–60 Although the stories of Blaine's favors to the railroads had made the rounds eight years earlier, this time Blaine's correspondence was discovered, making his earlier denials less plausible. On some of the most damaging correspondence, Blaine had written "Burn this letter," giving Democrats the last line to their rallying cry: "Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine, 'Burn this letter!" Graff, 59; Jeffers, 111; Nevins, 177, Welch, 34 To counter Cleveland's image of purity, his opponents reported that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child while he was a lawyer in Buffalo. Nevins, 162–169; Jeffers, 106–111; Graff, 60–65; Welch, 36–39 The derisive phrase "Ma, Ma, where's my Pa?" rose as an unofficial campaign slogan for those who opposed him. When confronted with the emerging scandal, Cleveland's instructions to his campaign staff were: "Tell the truth." Nevins, 163, Graff, 62 Cleveland admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin, the woman who claimed he fathered her child named Oscar Folsom Cleveland. Halpin was involved with several men at the time, including Cleveland's friend and law partner, Oscar Folsom, for whom the child was also named. Cleveland did not know which man was the father, and is believed to have assumed responsibility because he was the only bachelor among them. Both candidates believed that the states of New York, New Jersey, Indiana, and Connecticut would determine the election. Welch, 33 In New York, the Tammany Hall, after vacillating, decided that they would gain more from supporting a Democrat they disliked than a Republican who would do nothing for them. Nevins, 170–171 Blaine hoped that he would have more support from Irish Americans than Republicans typically did; while the Irish were mainly a Democratic constituency in the 19th century, Blaine's mother was Irish Catholic, and he had been supportive of the Irish National Land League while he was Secretary of State. Nevins, 170 The Irish, a significant group in three of the swing states, did appear inclined to support Blaine until one of his supporters, Samuel D. Burchard, gave a speech denouncing the Democrats as the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion". Nevins, 181–184 The Democrats spread the word of this insult in the days before the election, and Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states, including New York by just over one thousand votes. , While the popular vote total was close, with Cleveland winning by just one-quarter of a percent, the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of 219–182. Following the electoral victory, the "Ma, Ma..." attack phrase gained a classic rejoinder: "Gone to the White House. Ha! Ha! Ha!" First term as President (1885–1889) Reform Cleveland, portrayed as a tariff reformer Soon after taking office, Cleveland was faced with the task of filling all of the government jobs for which the President had the power of appointment. These jobs were typically filled under the spoils system, but Cleveland announced that he would not fire any Republican who was doing his job well, and would not appoint anyone based solely on party service. Nevins, 208–211 He also used his appointment powers to reduce the number of federal employees, as many departments had become bloated with political time-servers. Nevins, 214–217 Later in his term, as his fellow Democrats chafed at being excluded from the spoils, Cleveland began to replace more of the partisan Republican officeholders with Democrats. Graff, 83 While some of his decisions were influenced by party concerns, more of Cleveland's appointments were decided by merit alone than was the case in his predecessors' administrations. Nevins, 238–241; Welch, 59–60 Cleveland also reformed other parts of the government. In 1887 he signed an act creating the Interstate Commerce Commission. Nevins, 354–357; Graff, 85 He and Secretary of the Navy William C. Whitney undertook to modernize the navy and canceled construction contracts that had resulted in inferior ships. Nevins, 217–223; Graff, 77 Cleveland angered railroad investors by ordering an investigation of western lands they held by government grant. Nevins, 223–228 Secretary of the Interior Lucius Q.C. Lamar charged that the rights of way for this land must be returned to the public because the railroads failed to extend their lines according to agreements. The lands were forfeited, resulting in the return of approximately . Vetoes Cleveland faced a Republican Senate and often resorted to using his veto powers. Graff, 85 He vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for American Civil War veterans, believing that if their pensions requests had already been rejected by the Pensions Bureau, Congress should not attempt to override that decision. Nevins, 326–328; Graff, 83–84 When Congress, pressured by the Grand Army of the Republic, passed a bill granting pensions for disabilities not caused by military service, Cleveland also vetoed that. Nevins, 300–331; Graff, 83 Cleveland used the veto far more often than any President up to that time. See List of United States presidential vetoes In 1887, Cleveland issued his most well-known veto, that of the Texas Seed Bill. Nevins, 331–332; Graff, 85 After a drought had ruined crops in several Texas counties, Congress appropriated $10,000 to purchase seed grain for farmers there. Cleveland vetoed the expenditure. In his veto message, he espoused a theory of limited government: "I can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the Constitution, and I do not believe that the power and duty of the general government ought to be extended to the relief of individual suffering which is in no manner properly related to the public service or benefit. A prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should, I think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that, though the people support the government, the government should not support the people. The friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied upon to relieve their fellow-citizens in misfortune. This has been repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated. Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character, while it prevents the indulgence among our people of that kindly sentiment and conduct which strengthens the bonds of a common brotherhood." Silver Cleveland disagreed with silverite Democrats, such as Richard P. Bland. Protectionist Democrats, led by Samuel J. Randall, joined with Republicans to keep tariffs high. One of the most volatile issues of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver, or by gold alone. Jeffers, 157–158 The issue cut across party lines, with western Republicans and southern Democrats joining together in the call for the free coinage of silver, and both parties' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard. Nevins, 201–205; Graff, 102–103 Because silver was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold, taxpayers paid their government bills in silver, while international creditors demanded payment in gold, resulting in a depletion of the nation's gold supply. Cleveland and Treasury Secretary Daniel Manning stood firmly on the side of the gold standard, and tried to reduce the amount of silver that the government was required to coin under the Bland-Allison Act of 1878. Nevins, 269 This angered Westerners and Southerners, who advocated for cheap money to help their poorer constituents. Nevins, 268 In reply, one of the foremost silverites, Richard P. Bland, introduced a bill in 1886 that would require the government to coin unlimited amounts of silver, inflating the then-deflating currency. Nevins, 273 While Bland's bill was defeated, so was a bill the administration favored that would repeal any silver coinage requirement. The result was a retention of the status quo, and a postponement of the resolution of the free silver issue. Nevins, 277–279 Tariffs "When we consider that the theory of our institutions guarantees to every citizen the full enjoyment of all the fruits of his industry and enterprise, with only such deduction as may be his share toward the careful and economical maintenance of the Government which protects him, it is plain that the exaction of more than this is indefensible extortion and a culpable betrayal of American fairness and justice... The public Treasury, which should only exist as a conduit conveying the people's tribute to its legitimate objects of expenditure, becomes a hoarding place for money needlessly withdrawn from trade and the people's use, thus crippling our national energies, suspending our country's development, preventing investment in productive enterprise, threatening financial disturbance, and inviting schemes of public plunder." Cleveland's third annual message to Congress,December 6, 1887. Another contentious financial issue at the time was the protective tariff. While it had not been a central point in his campaign, Cleveland's opinion on the tariff was that of most Democrats: that the tariff ought to be reduced. Nevins, 280–282, Reitano, 46–62 Republicans generally favored a high tariff to protect American industries. American tariffs had been high since the Civil War, and by the 1880s the tariff brought in so much revenue that the government was running a surplus. Nevins, 286–287 In 1886, a bill to reduce the tariff was narrowly defeated in the House. Nevins, 287–288 The tariff issue was emphasized in the Congressional elections that year, and the forces of protectionism increased their numbers in the Congress. Nevins, 290–296; Graff, 87–88 Nevertheless, Cleveland continued to advocate tariff reform. As the surplus grew, Cleveland and the reformers called for a tariff for revenue only. Nevins, 370–371 His message to Congress in 1887 (quoted at left) pointed out the injustice of taking more money from the people than the government needed to pay for its operating expenses. Nevins, 379–381 Republicans, as well as protectionist northern Democrats like Samuel J. Randall, believed that without high tariffs American industries would fail, and continued to fight reformers' efforts. Nevins, 383–385 Roger Q. Mills, the chairman of the House Committee on Ways and Means, proposed a bill that would reduce the tariff burden from about 47% to about 40%. Graff, 88–89 After significant exertions by Cleveland and his allies, the bill passed the House. The Republican Senate, however, failed to come to agreement with the Democratic House, and the bill died in the conference committee. Dispute over the tariff would carry over into the 1888 Presidential election. Foreign policy Cleveland was a committed non-interventionist who had campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism. He refused to promote the previous administration's Nicaragua canal treaty, and generally was less of an expansionist in foreign relations. Nevins, 205; 404–405 Cleveland's Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard, negotiated with Joseph Chamberlain of the United Kingdom over fishing rights in the waters off Canada, and struck a conciliatory note, despite the opposition of New England's Republican Senators. Nevins, 404–413 Cleveland also withdrew from Senate consideration the Berlin Conference treaty which guaranteed an open door for U.S. interests in the Congo. Zakaria, 80 Grover Cleveland and Frances Folsom were married in the Blue Room of the White House. Marriage Cleveland entered the White house as a bachelor, but did not remain one for long. In 1885, the daughter of Cleveland's friend Oscar Folsom visited him in Washington. Graff, 78 Frances Folsom was a student at Wells College, and when she returned to school Cleveland received her mother's permission to correspond with her. They were soon engaged to be married. On June 2, 1886, Cleveland married Frances in the Blue Room in the White House. Graff, 79 He was the second President to marry while in office, and the only President to have a wedding in the White House. The previous President to marry during his term was John Tyler. Graff, 80 This marriage was unusual because Cleveland was the executor of Oscar Folsom's estate and had supervised Frances' upbringing, but the public did not, in general, take exception to the match. Jeffers, 170–176; Graff, 78–81; Nevins, 302–308; Welch, 51 At twenty-one years old, Frances was the youngest First Lady in American history, but the public soon warmed to her beauty and warm personality. Graff, 80–81 The Clevelands had five children: Ruth (1891–1904); Esther (1893–1980); Marion (1895–1977); Richard Folsom (1897–1974); and Francis Grover (1903–1995). The British philosopher Philippa Foot was their granddaughter. Administration and Cabinet Cleveland's first cabinet. Front row, left to right: Thomas F. Bayard, Cleveland, Daniel Manning, Lucius Q. C. Lamar Back row, left to right: William F. Vilas, William C. Whitney, William C. Endicott, Augustus H. Garland Supreme Court appointments Chief Justice Melville Fuller Cleveland successfully appointed two Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States. The first, Lucius Q.C. Lamar, was a former Mississippi Senator then serving in Cleveland's Cabinet as Interior Secretary. When William Burnham Woods died, Cleveland nominated Lamar to his seat in late 1887. Nevins, 339 While Lamar had been well-liked as a Senator, his service under the Confederacy two decades earlier caused many Republicans to vote against him. Lamar's nomination was confirmed by the narrow margin of 32 to 28. Chief Justice Morrison Waite died a few months later, and Cleveland nominated Melville Fuller to his seat on April 30, 1888. Nevins, 445–447 Cleveland had previously offered to nominate Fuller to the Civil Service Commission, but Fuller declined to leave his Chicago law practice. Nevins, 250 Fuller accepted the Supreme Court nomination, and the Senate Judiciary Committee spent several months examining the little-known nominee. Finding him acceptable, the Senate confirmed the nomination 41 to 20. Election of 1888 and return to private life Defeated by Harrison Cleveland-Thurman campaign poster Harrison-Morton campaign poster The debate over tariff reduction continued into the 1888 presidential campaign. Nevins, 418–420 President Cleveland, the First Lady and their entourage visited Florida in February 1888. They were well received in the South and helped him win the popular vote in the South later that year. The Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison of Indiana for President and Levi P. Morton of New York for Vice President. Cleveland was easily renominated at the Democratic convention in St. Louis. Graff, 90–91 Vice President Hendricks having died in 1885, the Democrats chose Allen G. Thurman of Ohio to be Cleveland's running mate. The Republicans campaigned heavily on the tariff issue, turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North. Further, the Democrats in New York were divided over the gubernatorial candidacy of David B. Hill, weakening Cleveland's support in that swing state. Nevins, 423–427 As in 1884, the election focused on the swing states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Indiana. Unlike that year, when Cleveland triumphed in all four, in 1888 he won only two, losing his home state of New York by 14,373 votes. , More notoriously, the Republicans were victorious in Indiana, largely as the result of fraud. Nevins, 435–439; Jeffers, 220–222; Goldman, 143–144; see also Blocks of Five. Republican victory in that state, where Cleveland lost by just 2,348 votes, was sufficient to propel Harrison to victory, despite his loss of the nationwide popular vote. Cleveland continued his duties diligently until the end of the term and began to look forward to return to private life. Nevins, 443–449 Private citizen for four years As Frances Cleveland left the White House, she told a staff member, "Now, Jerry, I want you to take good care of all the furniture and ornaments in the house, for I want to find everything just as it is now, when we come back again." When asked when she would return, she responded, "We are coming back four years from today." Nevins, 448 In the meantime, the Clevelands moved to New York City where Cleveland took a position with the law firm of Bangs, Stetson, Tracy, and MacVeigh, a predecessor to the current firm Davis Polk & Wardwell. Nevins, 450. Cleveland's income with the firm was not high, but neither were his duties especially onerous. Nevins, 450–452 While they lived in New York, the Clevelands' first child, Ruth, was born in 1891. Nevins, 450; Graff, 99–100 The Harrison administration worked with Congress to pass the McKinley Tariff and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, two policies Cleveland deplored as dangerous to the nation's financial health. Graff, 102–105; Nevins, 465–467 At first he refrained from criticizing his successor, but by 1891 Cleveland felt compelled to speak out, addressing his concerns in an open letter to a meeting of reformers in New York. Graff, 104–105; Nevins, 467–468 The "silver letter" thrust Cleveland's name back into the spotlight just as the 1892 election was approaching. Nevins, 470–471 Election of 1892 Democratic nomination Cleveland's stature as an ex-President and recent pronouncements on the monetary issues made him a leading contender for the Democratic nomination. Nevins, 468–469 His leading opponent was David B. Hill, who was by that time a Senator for New York. Nevins, 470–473 Hill united the anti-Cleveland elements of the Democratic party—silverites, protectionists, and Tammany Hall—but was unable to create a coalition large enough to deny Cleveland the nomination. Despite some desperate maneuvering by Hill, Cleveland was nominated on the first ballot at the convention in Chicago. Nevins, 480–491 For Vice President, the Democrats chose to balance the ticket with Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois, a silverite. Graff, 105; Nevins, 492–493 Campaign against Harrison The Republicans renominated President Harrison, making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier. Unlike the elections of 1884 and 1888, the 1892 election was "the cleanest, quietest, and most creditable in the memory of the post-war generation." Nevins, 498 The issue of the tariff had worked to the Republicans' advantage in 1888, but the revisions of the past four years had made imported goods so expensive that now many voters shifted to the reform position. Nevins, 499 Many westerners, traditionally Republican voters, defected to the new Populist Party candidate, James Weaver, who promised free silver, generous veterans' pensions, and an eight-hour work day. Graff, 106–107; Nevins, 505–506 Finally, the Tammany Hall Democrats adhered to the national ticket, allowing a united Democratic party to carry New York. Graff, 108 The result was a victory for Cleveland by wide margins in both the popular and electoral votes. , Second term as President (1893–1897) Economic panic and the silver issue Cleveland's humiliation by Gorman and the sugar trust Shortly after Cleveland's second term began, the Panic of 1893 struck the stock market, and he soon faced an acute economic depression. Graff, 114 The panic was worsened by the acute shortage of gold that resulted from the free coinage of silver, and Cleveland called Congress into session early to deal with the problem. Nevins, 526–528 The debate over the coinage was as heated as ever, but the effects of the panic had driven more moderates to support repealing the free coinage provisions of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. Even so, the silverites rallied their following at a convention in Chicago, and the House of Representatives took fifteen weeks of debate before passing the repeal by a considerable margin. Nevins, 524–528, 537–540. The vote was 239 to 108. In the Senate, the repeal of free coinage was equally contentious, but Cleveland convinced enough Democrats to stand by him that they, along with eastern Republicans, formed a 48–37 majority. Nevins, 541–548 With the passage of the repeal, the Treasury's gold reserves were restored to safe levels. Graff, 115 At the time the repeal seemed a minor setback to silverites, but it marked the beginning of the end of silver as a basis for American currency. Tariff reform Having succeeded in reversing the Harrison administration's silver policy, Cleveland sought next to reverse the effects of the McKinley tariff. What would become the Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act was introduced by West Virginian Representative William L. Wilson in December 1893. Nevins, 565 After lengthy debate, the bill passed the House by a considerable margin. Nevins, 567. The vote was 204 to 140 The bill proposed moderate downward revisions in the tariff, especially on raw materials. Nevins, 564–566; Jeffers, 285–287 The shortfall in revenue was to be made up by an income tax of two percent on incomes in excess of $4,000. The bill was next considered in the Senate, where opposition was stronger. Nevins, 567–569 Many Senators, led by Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland, wanted more protection for their states' industries than the Wilson bill allowed. Others, such as Morgan and Hill, opposed partly out of a personal enmity to Cleveland. By the time the bill left the Senate, it had more than 600 amendments attached that nullified most of the reforms. Nevins, 572–576. The income tax component of the Wilson-Gorman Act was partially ruled unconstitutional in 1895. See Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. The Sugar Trust in particular lobbied for changes that favored it at the expense of the consumer. Nevins, 577–578 Cleveland was unhappy with the result, and denounced the revised measure as a disgraceful product of the control of the Senate by trusts and business interests. Nevins, 585–587; Jeffers, 288–289 Even so, he believed it was an improvement over the McKinley tariff and allowed it to become law without his signature. Nevins, 587–588; Graff, 117 John T. Morgan, Senator from Alabama, opposed Cleveland on free silver, the tariff, and the Hawaii treaty, saying of Cleveland that "I hate the ground that man walks on." Nevins, 568 Labor unrest The Panic of 1893 had damaged labor conditions across the United States, and the victory of anti-silver legislation worsened the mood of western laborers. Graff, 117–118; Nevins, 603–605 A group of workingmen led by Jacob S. Coxey began to march east toward Washington, D.C. to protest Cleveland's policies. This group, known as Coxey's Army, agitated in favor of a national roads program to give jobs to workingmen, and a weakened currency to help farmers pay their debts. By the time they reached Washington, only a few hundred remained and when they were arrested the next day for walking on the grass of the United States Capitol, the group scattered. Coxey's Army was never a threat to the government, but it showed a growing dissatisfaction in the West with Eastern monetary policies. Graff, 118; Jeffers, 280–281 The Pullman Strike had a significantly greater impact than Coxey's Army. A strike began against the Pullman Company, and sympathy strikes, encouraged by American Railway Union leader Eugene V. Debs, soon followed. Nevins, 611–613 By June 1894, 125,000 railroad workers were on strike, paralyzing the nation's commerce. Nevins, 614 Because the railroads carried the mail, and because several of the affected lines were in federal receivership, Cleveland believed a federal solution was appropriate. Nevins, 614–618; Graff, 118–119; Jeffers, 296–297 Cleveland obtained an injunction in federal court and when the strikers refused to obey it, he sent in federal troops to Chicago and other rail centers. Nevins, 619–623; Jeffers, 298–302. See also In re Debs. Leading newspapers of both parties applauded Cleveland's actions, but the use of troops hardened the attitude of organized labor toward his administration. Nevins, 624–628; Jeffers, 304–305; Graff, 120 Foreign policy "I suppose that right and justice should determine the path to be followed in treating this subject. If national honesty is to be disregarded and a desire for territorial expansion or dissatisfaction with a form of government not our own ought to regulate our conduct, I have entirely misapprehended the mission and character of our government and the behavior which the conscience of the people demands of their public servants." Cleveland's message to Congress on the Hawaiian question, December 18, 1893. Nevins, 560 In January 1893, a group of Americans living in Hawai'i overthrew Queen Liliuokalani and established a provisional government under Sanford Dole. Nevins, 549–552; Graff 121–122 By February, the Harrison administration had agreed with representatives of the new government on a treaty of annexation and submitted it to the Senate for approval. Five days after taking office, Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate and sent former Congressman James Henderson Blount to Hawai'i to investigate the conditions there. Nevins, 552–554; Graff, 122 In his first term, Cleveland had supported free trade with Hawai'i and accepted an amendment that gave the United States a coaling and naval station in Pearl Harbor. Now, however, Cleveland agreed with Blount's report, which found the populace to be opposed to annexation. Liliuokalani refused to grant amnesty as a condition of her reinstatement and said she would execute the current government in Honolulu, and Dole's government refused to yield their position. Nevins, 558–559 By December 1893, the matter was still unresolved, and Cleveland referred the issue to Congress. In his message to Congress, Cleveland rejected the idea of annexation and encouraged the Congress to continue the American tradition of non-intervention (see excerpt at right). Many in Congress, led by Senator John Tyler Morgan favored annexation, and the report Congress eventually issued favored neither annexation of Hawaii nor the use of American force to restore the Hawaiian monarch. Graff, 123 Oil painting of Grover Cleveland, painted in 1899 by Anders Zorn. Closer to home, Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine that did not just simply forbid new European colonies but declared an American interest in any matter within the hemisphere. Zakaria, 145–146 When Britain and Venezuela disagreed over the boundary between the latter nation and British Guiana, Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney pressured Britain into agreeing to arbitration. Graff, 123–125; Nevins, 633–642 A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the matter, and issued its award in 1899. Graff, 125 The tribunal awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana. Nevins, 647 By standing with a Latin American nation against the encroachment of a colonial power, Cleveland improved relations with the United States' southern neighbors, but the cordial manner in which the negotiations were conducted also made for good relations with Britain. Nevins, 550, 647–648 Cancer In the midst of the fight for repeal of free silver coinage in 1893, Cleveland sought the advice of the Whitehouse doctor, Dr O'Reilly about soreness on the roof of his mouth and a crater-like edge ulcer with a granulated surface on the left side of Cleveland's hard palate. Samples of the tumor were sent anonymously to the army medical museum. The prognosis was not a malignant cancer but epithelioma. Several doctors, including Dr William W Keen, Professor of Surgery at Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia, stated after Cleveland's death that the tumor was actually a carcinoma. The lump was preserved and is on display at the Mütter Museum in Philadelphia However, due to Cleveland enjoying many more years of life after the tumor removal, there was some controversy. Other suggestions included ameloblastoma and benign salivary mixed tumor. In the 1980s, analysis of the specimen finally ruled the tumor to be Verrucous carcinoma, which has low potential for malignancy. Because of the financial depression of the country, Cleveland decided to have surgery performed in secrecy to avoid further market panic. Nevins, 528–529; Graff, 115–116 The surgery occurred on July 1, to give Cleveland time to make a full recovery in time for the upcoming Congressional session. Nevins, 531–533 Under the guise of a vacation cruise, Cleveland and his surgeon, Dr. Joseph Bryant, left for New York. The surgeons operated aboard the yacht Oneida as it sailed off Long Island. Nevins, 529 The surgery was conducted through the President's mouth, to avoid any scars or other signs of surgery. Nevins, 530–531 The team, sedating Cleveland with nitrous oxide and ether, successfully removed parts of his upper left jaw and hard palate. The size of the tumor and the extent of the operation left Cleveland's mouth disfigured. Nevins, 532–533 During another surgery, an orthodontist fitted Cleveland with a hard rubber prosthesis that corrected his speech and restored his appearance. A cover story about the removal of two bad teeth kept the suspicious press placated. Nevins, 533; Graff, 116 Even when a newspaper story appeared giving details of the actual operation, the participating surgeons discounted the severity of what transpired during Cleveland's vacation. In 1917, one of the surgeons present on the Oneida, Dr. William W. Keen, wrote an article detailing the operation. Administration and Cabinet Cleveland's last cabinet. Front row, left to right: Daniel S. Lamont, Richard Olney, Cleveland, John G. Carlisle, Judson Harmon Back row, left to right: David R. Francis, William L. Wilson, Hilary A. Herbert, Julius S. Morton Supreme Court appointments The objections of Senator David B. Hill defeated two of Cleveland's Supreme Court nominees. Cleveland's trouble with the Senate hindered the success of his nominations to the Supreme Court in his second term. In 1893, after the death of Samuel Blatchford, Cleveland nominated William B. Hornblower to the Court. Nevins, 569–570 Hornblower, the head of a New York City law firm, was thought to be a qualified appointee, but his campaign against a New York machine politician had made Senator David B. Hill his enemy. Further, Cleveland had not consulted the Senators before naming his appointee, leaving many who were already opposed to Cleveland on other grounds even more aggrieved. The Senate rejected Hornblower's nomination on January 15, 1894, by a vote of 24 to 30. Cleveland continued to defy the Senate by next appointing Wheeler Hazard Peckham another New York attorney who had opposed Hill's machine in that state. Nevins, 570–571 Hill used all of his influence to block Peckham's confirmation, and on February 16, 1894, the Senate rejected the nomination by a vote of 32 to 41. Reformers urged Cleveland to continue the fight against Hill and to nominate Frederic R. Coudert, but Cleveland acquiesced in an inoffensive choice, that of Senator Edward Douglass White of Louisiana, whose nomination was accepted unanimously. Later, in 1896, another vacancy on the Court led Cleveland to consider Hornblower again, but he declined to be nominated. Nevins, 572 Instead, Cleveland nominated Rufus Wheeler Peckham, the brother of Wheeler Hazard Peckham, and the Senate confirmed the second Peckham easily. States admitted to the Union Utah January 4, 1896 Later life and death Official White House portrait of Grover Cleveland, painted in 1891 by Jonathan Eastman Johnson As the 1896 election approached, eastern pro-gold-standard Democrats wished Cleveland to run for a third term, but he declined. Graff, 128–129 Instead, the Democratic party turned to a silverite, William Jennings Bryan, for its nominee. Nevins, 684–693 Disappointed with the direction of their party, pro-gold Democrats even invited Cleveland to run as a third-party candidate, but he declined this offer, as well. William McKinley, the Republican nominee, triumphed easily over Bryan. After leaving the White House, Cleveland lived in retirement at his estate, Westland Mansion, in Princeton, New Jersey. Graff, 131–133; Nevins, 730–735 For a time he was a trustee of Princeton University, and was one of the majority of trustees who preferred Andrew Fleming West's plans for the Graduate School and undergraduate living over those of Woodrow Wilson, then president of the University. Graff, p. 131; Alexander Leitch, A Princeton Companion, Princeton Univ Press, 1978, " Grover Cleveland" Conservative Democrats hoped to nominate him for another presidential term in 1904, but his age and health forced them to turn to other candidates. Graff, 134 Cleveland still made his views known in political matters. In a 1905 article in The Ladies Home Journal, Cleveland weighed in on the women's suffrage movement, writing that "sensible and responsible women do not want to vote. The relative positions to be assumed by men and women in the working out of our civilization were assigned long ago by a higher intelligence." Ladies Home Journal 22, (October 1905), 7–8 Cleveland's health had been declining for several years, and in the autumn of 1907 he fell seriously ill. Graff, 135–136; Nevins, 762–764 In 1908, he suffered a heart attack and died. His last words were "I have tried so hard to do right." Jeffers, 340; Graff, 135. Nevins makes no mention of these last words. He is buried in the Princeton Cemetery of the Nassau Presbyterian Church. Honors and memorials Cleveland on the $1000 bill In his first term in office, Cleveland sought a summer house to escape the heat and smells of Washington, D.C., but needed to remain near the capital. Acting in secret, he located a house, Oak View (or Oak Hill), in a rural upland part of the District of Columbia, and bought it in 1886. Although he sold Oak View upon leaving the White House (the first time), the area became known as Cleveland Park, which name it still bears. The Clevelands are depicted in local murals and the like. See, e.g., Cleveland Park Historical Society, "A Brief History of Cleveland Park"; accessed 2009.04.08. Cleveland's portrait was on the U.S. $1000 bill from 1928 to 1946. He also appeared on a $1000 bill of 1907 and the first few issues of the $20 Federal Reserve Notes from 1914. Since he was both the 22nd and 24th President, he will be featured on two separate dollar coins to be released in 2012 as part of the Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005. In 2006, Free New York, a nonprofit and nonpartisan research group, began raising funds to purchase the former Fairfield Library in Buffalo, New York and transform it into the Grover Cleveland Presidential Library & Museum. Notes References Sources Graff, Henry F. Grover Cleveland (2002). ISBN 0805069232. Jeffers, H. Paul, An Honest President: The Life and Presidencies of Grover Cleveland, HarperCollins 2002, New York. ISBN 038097746X. Nevins, Allan. Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage (1932) Pulitzer Prize-winning biography. ASIN B000PUX6KQ. Reitano, Joanne R. The Tariff Question in the Gilded Age: The Great Debate of 1888 (1994). ISBN 0271010355. Tugwell, Rexford Guy, Grover Cleveland: A Biography of the President Whose Uncompromising Honesty and Integrity Failed America in a Time of Crisis. Macmillan Co., 1968. ISBN 0026203308. Welch, Richard E. Jr. The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland (1988) ISBN 0700603557 Zakaria, Fareed From Wealth to Power (1999) Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691010358. Further reading Bard, Mitchell. "Ideology and Depression Politics I: Grover Cleveland (1893–1897)" Presidential Studies Quarterly 1985 15(1): 77–88. ISSN 0360-4918 Beito, David T. and Beito, Linda Royster,"Gold Democrats and the Decline of Classical Liberalism, 1896–1900,"Independent Review 4 (Spring 2000), 555–75. Blodgett, Geoffrey. "Ethno-cultural Realities in Presidential Patronage: Grover Cleveland's Choices" New York History 2000 81(2): 189–210. ISSN 0146–437X Blodgett, Geoffrey. "The Emergence of Grover Cleveland: a Fresh Appraisal" New York History 1992 73(2): 132–168. ISSN 0146–437X Cleveland, Grover. The Writings and Speeches of Grover Cleveland (1892) online edition Cleveland, Grover. Presidential Problems. (1904) online edition Dewey, Davis R. National Problems: 1880–1897 (1907), online edition Doenecke, Justus. "Grover Cleveland and the Enforcement of the Civil Service Act" Hayes Historical Journal 1984 4(3): 44–58. ISSN 0364–5924 Faulkner, Harold U. Politics, Reform, and Expansion, 1890–1900 (1959), online edition Ford, Henry Jones. The Cleveland Era: A Chronicle of the New Order in Politics (1921), short overview online Goldman, Ralph Morris The National Party Chairmen and Committees: Factionalism at the Top (1990). ISBN 0873326369. Hoffman, Karen S. "'Going Public' in the Nineteenth Century: Grover Cleveland's Repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act" Rhetoric & Public Affairs 2002 5(1): 57–77. ISSN 1094–8392 McElroy, Robert. Grover Cleveland, the Man and the Statesman: An Authorized Biography (1923) online edition Morgan, H. Wayne. From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896 (1969). Nevins, Allan ed. Letters of Grover Cleveland, 1850–1908 (1934) Osborne, Ray. "President Cleveland's Florida visit of 1888. Google Books Preview. Sturgis, Amy H. ed. Presidents from Hayes through McKinley, 1877–1901: Debating the Issues in Pro and Con Primary Documents (2003) online edition Summers, Mark Wahlgren. Rum, Romanism & Rebellion: The Making of a President, 1884 (2000) campaign techniques and issues online edition William L. Wilson; The Cabinet Diary of William L. Wilson, 1896–1897 1957 Wilson, Woodrow, Mr. Cleveland as President Atlantic Monthly (March 1897): pp. 289–301 online. External links Grover Cleveland: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress Extensive essay on Grover Cleveland and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs White House website biography of Grover Cleveland Audio clips of Cleveland's speeches A picture of Cleveland's Grave Marker in Princeton Cemetery Ebook at Google on President Cleveland's Florida visit in 1888. | Grover_Cleveland |@lemmatized stephen:4 grover:31 cleveland:232 march:5 june:3 president:31 united:10 state:27 serve:4 two:13 non:3 consecutive:1 term:18 therefore:1 individual:2 count:1 twice:1 numbering:1 winner:1 popular:6 vote:22 three:4 time:21 democrat:27 elect:4 presidency:3 era:2 republican:34 political:7 domination:1 last:5 admirer:1 praise:2 honesty:5 independence:2 integrity:2 commitment:1 principle:1 classical:2 liberalism:2 jeffers:24 nevins:150 leader:5 bourbon:1 oppose:9 imperialism:2 tax:3 subsidy:1 inflationary:1 policy:7 reformer:6 also:13 work:8 corruption:1 patronage:2 bossism:1 action:3 cause:3 controversy:2 even:7 within:3 party:28 intervention:2 pullman:3 strike:8 order:3 keep:3 railroad:9 move:6 angered:2 labor:5 union:3 support:21 gold:13 standard:4 opposition:5 free:12 silver:23 alienate:2 agrarian:1 wing:1 tugwell:2 furthermore:1 critic:1 complain:1 little:3 imagination:1 seem:2 overwhelm:1 nation:6 economic:3 disaster:1 depression:4 second:8 reputation:4 good:4 character:3 survive:2 trouble:2 biographer:2 allan:4 write:5 greatness:1 lie:1 typical:1 rather:2 unusual:2 quality:1 endowment:1 thousand:2 men:7 possess:2 courage:2 firmness:1 common:3 sense:1 degree:1 family:8 early:7 life:8 childhood:2 history:5 bear:3 caldwell:3 new:45 jersey:6 richard:7 falley:1 ann:1 neal:1 father:9 presbyterian:3 minister:2 originally:1 connecticut:3 graff:69 mother:5 judith:1 anderson:1 baltimore:1 daughter:3 bookseller:1 side:4 descend:2 english:1 ancestor:1 first:22 emigrate:1 massachusetts:2 northeastern:1 england:2 anglo:1 irish:6 protestant:1 german:1 quaker:1 philadelphia:3 distantly:1 relate:2 general:4 moses:1 cleaveland:1 city:8 ohio:4 name:9 birthplace:1 fifth:1 nine:1 child:7 five:5 son:2 four:8 honor:2 pastor:2 church:3 use:8 adult:1 fayetteville:2 york:33 spent:1 much:3 neighbor:2 would:20 later:9 describe:1 full:3 fun:1 incline:2 play:1 prank:1 fond:1 outdoor:1 sport:1 take:15 job:6 clinton:3 oneida:3 county:6 relocate:1 holland:4 patent:4 near:2 utica:1 long:4 arrive:1 die:7 education:3 west:6 begin:9 grammar:1 school:4 academy:2 enrol:1 liberal:1 leave:15 help:6 year:20 brother:2 william:16 hire:2 teacher:2 institute:1 blind:1 obtain:2 place:4 assistant:2 teach:1 return:8 home:5 end:5 back:8 seventeen:1 old:5 look:3 unsuccessfully:1 elder:1 offer:4 pay:7 college:3 promise:2 become:8 decline:8 instead:3 follow:4 spring:2 decide:5 make:15 way:5 stop:1 buffalo:11 uncle:1 lewis:1 w:4 allen:5 live:5 dissuade:1 continue:10 arrange:1 livestock:1 herdbooks:1 important:2 man:7 introduce:3 nephew:1 influential:1 include:6 partner:2 law:9 firm:10 rogers:3 bowen:1 clerkship:1 admit:3 bar:1 career:4 civil:8 war:7 undated:1 photograph:1 paper:1 archive:1 lawyer:3 start:1 practice:4 january:6 appoint:4 district:3 attorney:4 erie:4 american:15 raging:1 congress:17 pass:8 conscription:1 act:13 require:3 able:1 body:1 army:6 call:5 upon:3 else:1 substitute:1 choose:3 latter:2 course:1 george:1 benninsky:2 thirty:2 polish:1 immigrant:1 know:8 single:1 mind:3 concentration:1 dedication:1 hard:5 defend:1 participant:1 fenian:1 raid:1 successfully:3 charge:2 attract:2 attention:2 profession:1 successful:1 defense:1 libel:1 suit:1 editor:1 commercial:1 advertiser:1 newspaper:4 simply:2 boarding:1 house:24 although:3 income:5 grow:6 sufficient:2 lavish:1 lifestyle:1 young:2 sister:1 personal:2 quarter:2 austere:1 enjoy:3 active:1 social:1 easy:1 go:3 sociability:1 hotel:1 lobby:2 saloon:1 sheriff:5 involvement:1 politics:6 align:1 democratic:16 run:7 lose:5 narrowly:3 friend:6 roommate:1 lyman:2 k:2 bass:3 nominee:9 stay:1 oscar:5 folsom:8 secure:1 nomination:18 age:3 find:7 margin:6 office:7 away:1 reward:1 fee:1 say:4 yield:2 well:9 incident:1 involve:2 execution:2 murderer:2 patrick:1 morrisey:1 september:1 responsible:2 either:1 personally:1 carry:5 deputy:1 perform:2 task:2 subordinate:1 refuse:5 hang:2 criminal:1 lafayette:1 square:2 still:5 court:10 qualm:1 hanging:1 opt:1 duty:5 another:6 john:6 gaffney:1 february:4 private:5 open:4 wilson:10 bissell:2 spend:3 soon:6 top:2 legal:2 community:1 point:3 honorable:1 unremarkable:1 probably:1 country:3 less:4 think:3 limited:3 simple:1 sturdy:1 stand:4 washington:5 oath:1 mayor:5 government:24 increasingly:1 corrupt:2 machine:5 cooperate:1 share:2 spoil:2 welch:8 nominate:14 slate:1 particularly:1 disreputable:1 politician:4 saw:3 opportunity:2 gain:6 disaffect:1 honest:4 candidate:9 approach:3 agree:5 provide:1 rest:2 ticket:4 liking:1 notorious:1 accept:4 milton:1 c:9 beebe:1 opponent:5 fight:4 entrenched:1 interest:5 among:5 establish:2 veto:16 street:2 cleaning:2 bill:24 council:3 contract:4 bid:1 select:2 high:7 bidder:3 low:3 connection:1 sort:1 bipartisan:1 graft:1 previously:2 tolerate:1 none:1 reply:2 stinging:1 message:6 regard:1 culmination:1 bare:1 face:4 impudent:1 shameless:1 scheme:2 betray:1 people:8 bad:2 squander:1 public:12 money:4 reverse:4 award:3 several:10 safeguard:1 fund:2 spread:2 beyond:1 governor:3 statue:1 outside:1 hall:5 official:2 consider:4 possible:1 daniel:4 manning:2 insider:1 admire:1 record:1 promote:2 candidacy:2 split:1 contender:3 lead:10 roswell:1 p:5 flower:1 henry:4 slocum:1 faction:2 deadlocked:1 convention:4 could:2 third:4 ballot:5 pick:2 subsequent:1 emerge:3 compromise:1 choice:4 remain:5 divide:2 election:17 victor:1 charles:1 j:4 folger:1 victory:6 large:2 contested:2 seat:3 legislature:2 unnecessary:1 spending:1 send:4 eight:3 month:3 reduce:6 fare:3 elevate:1 train:2 cent:1 broad:2 el:1 owner:1 jay:1 gould:3 unpopular:1 increase:2 widely:1 denounce:4 unjust:1 fail:5 system:2 solvent:1 moreover:1 believe:9 alter:1 franchise:1 violate:1 clause:1 federal:8 constitution:2 despite:4 initial:2 popularity:1 measure:2 theodore:2 roosevelt:3 member:3 assembly:1 initially:1 wrong:1 wish:2 punish:1 unscrupulous:1 baron:1 many:11 legislator:1 sustain:1 blunt:1 win:6 acclaim:1 enmity:2 certain:1 especially:3 tammany:8 organization:1 bos:1 kelly:1 dislike:2 openly:1 one:11 senator:12 balance:2 however:5 reform:11 municipal:1 james:3 g:7 blaine:17 convene:2 chicago:5 former:4 speaker:1 jam:2 maine:2 fourth:1 view:5 ambitious:1 immoral:1 white:12 since:3 right:10 samuel:5 tilden:2 front:3 runner:1 poor:1 health:4 supporter:4 shift:3 thomas:4 f:5 bayard:4 delaware:1 thurman:4 benjamin:3 butler:4 considerable:3 following:2 along:2 various:1 favorite:1 hindrance:1 speak:2 favor:9 secession:1 unacceptable:1 northerner:1 conversely:1 revile:1 throughout:1 south:3 generally:3 like:5 infirm:1 question:3 uncertain:1 detractor:1 nature:1 enemy:2 throw:1 behind:1 delegate:1 hendricks:2 indiana:5 mate:2 campaign:12 anti:4 cartoon:2 present:2 tattooed:1 indelible:1 scandal:3 highlight:1 halpin:3 mugwump:3 flock:1 carl:1 schurz:1 ward:1 beecher:1 concerned:1 ideal:1 hop:3 endorse:1 crusade:1 service:7 efficiency:1 greenback:1 ex:2 cast:1 aspersion:1 rehash:1 allegation:1 corruptly:1 influence:3 legislation:2 rock:1 fort:1 smith:1 northern:2 pacific:1 railway:2 profit:1 sale:1 bond:2 company:2 story:3 round:1 earlier:3 correspondence:2 discover:1 denial:1 plausible:1 damaging:1 burn:2 letter:5 give:7 democrats:1 line:4 rallying:1 cry:1 continental:1 liar:1 counter:1 image:1 purity:1 report:3 illegitimate:1 derisive:1 phrase:2 pa:1 rise:1 unofficial:1 slogan:1 confront:1 instruction:1 staff:2 tell:2 truth:1 maria:1 croft:1 woman:4 claim:1 assume:2 responsibility:1 bachelor:2 determine:2 vacillate:1 nothing:1 typically:2 mainly:1 constituency:1 century:2 catholic:1 supportive:1 national:9 land:4 league:1 secretary:7 significant:2 group:6 swing:4 appear:3 burchard:1 speech:3 rum:2 romanism:2 rebellion:2 word:3 insult:1 day:4 total:1 close:1 percent:2 electoral:3 majority:3 attack:2 classic:1 rejoinder:1 ha:3 portray:1 tariff:27 fill:2 power:7 appointment:4 spoils:1 announce:1 fire:1 anyone:1 base:1 solely:1 number:2 employee:1 department:1 bloated:1 server:1 fellow:2 chafe:1 exclude:1 replace:1 partisan:1 officeholder:1 decision:2 concern:2 merit:1 alone:2 case:2 predecessor:2 administration:9 part:5 sign:2 create:2 interstate:1 commerce:2 commission:2 navy:2 whitney:2 undertook:1 modernize:1 canceled:1 construction:1 result:8 inferior:1 ship:1 anger:1 investor:1 investigation:1 western:3 hold:2 grant:3 interior:2 lucius:3 q:4 lamar:6 must:1 extend:2 accord:1 agreement:2 forfeit:1 approximately:1 senate:16 often:2 resort:1 hundred:2 pension:5 veteran:2 request:1 already:2 reject:4 bureau:1 attempt:1 override:1 pressure:2 grand:1 republic:1 disability:1 military:1 far:3 see:6 list:1 presidential:9 issue:16 texas:2 seed:2 drought:1 ruin:1 crop:1 appropriate:2 purchase:5 grain:1 farmer:3 expenditure:2 espouse:1 theory:2 warrant:1 appropriation:1 ought:3 relief:1 suffering:1 manner:2 properly:1 benefit:1 prevalent:1 tendency:1 disregard:2 mission:2 steadfastly:1 resist:1 lesson:1 constantly:1 enforce:1 though:1 friendliness:1 charity:1 countryman:1 always:1 rely:1 relieve:1 citizen:3 misfortune:1 repeatedly:1 quite:1 lately:1 demonstrate:1 aid:1 encourage:3 expectation:1 paternal:1 care:2 weaken:2 sturdiness:1 prevent:2 indulgence:1 kindly:1 sentiment:1 conduct:4 strengthen:1 brotherhood:1 disagreed:2 silverite:3 bland:4 protectionist:4 randall:2 join:2 volatile:1 whether:1 currency:4 cut:1 across:2 southern:2 together:1 coinage:7 representative:4 northeast:1 worth:1 equivalent:1 taxpayer:1 international:1 creditor:1 demand:2 payment:1 depletion:1 supply:1 treasury:3 firmly:1 try:2 amount:2 coin:4 allison:1 westerner:2 southerner:1 advocate:2 cheap:1 poorer:1 constituent:1 foremost:1 silverites:4 unlimited:1 inflate:1 deflate:1 defeat:4 repeal:8 requirement:1 retention:1 status:1 quo:1 postponement:1 resolution:1 institution:1 guarantee:2 every:1 enjoyment:1 fruit:1 industry:4 enterprise:2 deduction:1 may:1 toward:3 careful:1 economical:1 maintenance:1 protect:2 plain:1 exaction:1 indefensible:1 extortion:1 culpable:1 betrayal:1 fairness:1 justice:5 exist:1 conduit:1 convey:1 tribute:1 legitimate:1 object:1 hoarding:1 needlessly:1 withdraw:3 trade:2 thus:1 cripple:1 energy:1 suspend:1 development:1 investment:1 productive:1 threaten:1 financial:4 disturbance:1 invite:2 plunder:1 annual:1 december:4 contentious:2 protective:1 central:1 opinion:1 reitano:2 bring:1 revenue:3 surplus:2 emphasize:1 congressional:2 force:3 protectionism:1 nevertheless:1 quote:1 left:3 injustice:1 need:2 operating:1 expense:2 without:2 effort:1 roger:1 mill:1 chairman:2 committee:4 mean:1 propose:2 burden:1 exertion:1 ally:1 come:3 conference:2 dispute:1 foreign:3 committed:1 interventionist:1 expansion:3 previous:2 nicaragua:1 canal:1 treaty:5 expansionist:1 relation:3 negotiate:1 joseph:2 chamberlain:1 kingdom:1 fish:1 water:1 canada:1 conciliatory:1 note:3 consideration:1 berlin:1 door:1 u:3 congo:1 zakaria:3 france:6 marry:4 blue:2 room:2 marriage:2 enter:1 visit:4 student:1 receive:2 permission:1 correspond:1 engage:1 married:1 wedding:1 tyler:2 executor:1 estate:2 supervise:1 upbringing:1 exception:1 match:1 twenty:1 lady:4 warm:2 beauty:1 personality:1 ruth:2 esther:1 marion:1 francis:2 british:3 philosopher:1 philippa:1 foot:1 granddaughter:1 cabinet:7 row:4 vila:1 endicott:1 augustus:1 h:4 garland:1 supreme:6 chief:2 melville:2 fuller:5 mississippi:1 burnham:1 wood:1 late:2 confederacy:1 decade:1 confirm:3 narrow:1 morrison:1 waite:1 april:1 judiciary:1 examine:1 acceptable:1 harrison:9 poster:2 morton:3 debate:6 reduction:1 entourage:1 florida:3 nominated:1 levi:1 vice:3 easily:3 renominated:2 st:1 louis:1 heavily:1 turn:3 voter:3 industrial:1 north:1 gubernatorial:1 david:6 b:5 hill:11 focus:1 unlike:2 triumph:2 notoriously:1 victorious:1 largely:1 fraud:1 goldman:2 block:2 propel:1 loss:1 nationwide:1 diligently:1 forward:1 jerry:1 want:4 furniture:1 ornament:1 everything:1 ask:1 respond:1 today:1 meantime:1 position:4 bang:1 stetson:1 tracy:1 macveigh:1 current:2 davis:2 polk:1 wardwell:1 neither:2 onerous:1 mckinley:6 sherman:3 deplore:1 dangerous:1 refrain:1 criticize:1 successor:1 felt:1 compel:1 address:1 meeting:1 thrust:1 spotlight:1 stature:1 recent:1 pronouncement:1 monetary:2 leading:1 unite:1 element:1 unable:1 coalition:1 enough:2 deny:1 desperate:1 maneuvering:1 adlai:1 e:3 stevenson:1 illinois:1 rematch:1 cleanest:1 quietest:1 creditable:1 memory:1 post:1 generation:1 advantage:1 revision:2 past:1 import:1 expensive:1 traditionally:1 defect:1 populist:1 weaver:1 generous:1 hour:1 finally:2 adhere:1 allow:3 wide:1 panic:6 humiliation:1 gorman:4 sugar:2 trust:4 shortly:1 stock:1 market:2 acute:2 worsen:2 shortage:1 session:2 deal:1 problem:3 heat:2 ever:1 effect:2 drive:1 moderate:2 provision:1 rally:1 fifteen:1 week:1 equally:1 convince:1 eastern:3 form:2 passage:1 reserve:2 restore:3 safe:1 level:1 minor:1 setback:1 mark:2 beginning:1 basis:1 succeed:1 seek:3 next:4 virginian:1 l:4 lengthy:1 downward:1 raw:1 material:1 shortfall:1 excess:1 strong:1 arthur:1 pue:1 maryland:1 protection:1 others:1 morgan:4 partly:1 amendment:2 attach:1 nullify:1 component:1 partially:1 ruled:1 unconstitutional:1 pollock:1 v:2 loan:1 co:2 particular:1 change:1 consumer:1 unhappy:1 revised:1 disgraceful:1 product:1 control:1 business:1 improvement:1 signature:1 alabama:1 hawaii:2 hate:1 ground:2 walk:2 unrest:1 damage:1 condition:3 mood:1 laborer:1 workingman:2 jacob:1 coxey:4 east:1 protest:1 agitate:1 road:1 program:1 weakened:1 debt:1 reach:1 arrest:1 grass:1 capitol:1 scatter:1 never:1 threat:1 show:1 dissatisfaction:2 significantly:1 great:2 impact:1 sympathy:1 eugene:1 deb:2 worker:1 paralyze:1 mail:1 affected:1 receivership:1 solution:1 injunction:1 striker:1 obey:1 troop:2 rail:1 center:2 applaud:1 harden:1 attitude:1 organize:1 suppose:1 path:1 treat:1 subject:1 desire:1 territorial:1 regulate:1 entirely:1 misapprehend:1 behavior:1 conscience:1 servant:1 hawaiian:2 hawai:3 overthrow:1 queen:1 liliuokalani:2 provisional:1 sanford:1 dole:2 annexation:5 submit:1 approval:1 congressman:1 henderson:1 blount:2 investigate:1 coaling:1 naval:1 station:1 pearl:1 harbor:1 populace:1 amnesty:1 reinstatement:1 execute:1 honolulu:1 matter:4 unresolved:1 refer:1 idea:1 tradition:1 excerpt:1 eventually:1 monarch:1 oil:1 painting:1 paint:2 anders:1 zorn:1 closer:1 adopt:1 interpretation:1 monroe:1 doctrine:1 forbid:1 european:1 colony:1 declare:1 hemisphere:1 britain:3 venezuela:1 boundary:1 guiana:2 olney:2 arbitration:1 tribunal:2 paris:1 bulk:1 disputed:1 territory:1 latin:1 encroachment:1 colonial:1 improve:1 cordial:1 negotiation:1 cancer:2 midst:1 advice:1 whitehouse:1 doctor:2 dr:4 reilly:1 soreness:1 roof:1 mouth:3 crater:1 edge:1 ulcer:1 granulated:1 surface:1 palate:2 sample:1 tumor:6 anonymously:1 medical:2 museum:3 prognosis:1 malignant:1 epithelioma:1 keen:2 professor:1 surgery:6 jefferson:1 death:3 actually:1 carcinoma:2 lump:1 preserve:1 display:1 mütter:1 due:1 removal:2 suggestion:1 ameloblastoma:1 benign:1 salivary:1 mixed:1 analysis:1 specimen:1 rule:1 verrucous:1 potential:1 malignancy:1 secrecy:1 avoid:2 occur:1 july:1 recovery:1 upcoming:1 guise:1 vacation:2 cruise:1 surgeon:4 bryant:1 operate:1 aboard:1 yacht:1 sail:1 island:1 scar:1 team:1 sedate:1 nitrous:1 oxide:1 ether:1 remove:1 upper:1 jaw:1 size:1 extent:1 operation:3 disfigure:1 orthodontist:1 fit:1 rubber:1 prosthesis:1 correct:1 appearance:1 cover:1 teeth:1 suspicious:1 press:3 placate:1 detail:2 actual:1 participate:1 discount:1 severity:1 transpire:1 article:2 lamont:1 carlisle:1 judson:1 harmon:1 r:4 hilary:1 herbert:1 julius:1 appointments:1 objection:1 hinder:1 success:1 blatchford:1 hornblower:4 head:1 qualified:1 appointee:2 consult:1 aggrieved:1 defy:1 wheeler:3 hazard:2 peckham:5 confirmation:1 urge:1 frederic:1 coudert:1 acquiesce:1 inoffensive:1 edward:1 douglas:1 louisiana:1 whose:2 unanimously:1 vacancy:1 rufus:1 utah:1 portrait:2 jonathan:1 eastman:1 johnson:1 pro:3 jennings:1 bryan:2 disappoint:1 direction:1 retirement:1 westland:1 mansion:1 princeton:7 trustee:2 university:3 prefer:1 andrew:1 fleming:1 plan:1 graduate:1 undergraduate:1 living:1 woodrow:2 alexander:1 leitch:1 companion:1 univ:1 conservative:1 journal:3 weigh:1 suffrage:1 movement:1 sensible:1 relative:1 civilization:1 assign:1 ago:1 intelligence:1 ladies:1 october:1 autumn:1 fell:1 seriously:1 ill:1 suffer:1 heart:1 mention:1 bury:1 cemetery:2 nassau:1 memorial:1 summer:2 escape:1 smell:1 capital:1 secret:1 locate:1 oak:3 rural:1 upland:1 columbia:1 buy:1 sell:1 area:1 park:3 depict:1 local:1 mural:1 historical:2 society:1 brief:1 access:1 feature:1 separate:1 dollar:1 release:1 nonprofit:1 nonpartisan:1 research:1 raise:1 fairfield:1 library:3 transform:1 reference:1 source:1 isbn:7 paul:1 harpercollins:1 study:2 pulitzer:1 prize:1 biography:4 asin:1 joanne:1 gilded:1 rexford:1 guy:1 uncompromising:1 america:1 crisis:1 macmillan:1 jr:1 wealth:1 read:1 bard:1 mitchell:1 ideology:1 quarterly:1 issn:5 beito:2 linda:1 royster:1 independent:1 review:1 blodgett:2 geoffrey:2 ethno:1 cultural:1 reality:1 emergence:1 fresh:1 appraisal:1 writing:1 online:9 edition:7 dewey:1 doenecke:1 justus:1 enforcement:1 hay:1 faulkner:1 harold:1 ford:1 jones:1 chronicle:1 short:2 overview:1 ralph:1 morris:1 factionalism:1 hoffman:1 karen:1 nineteenth:1 rhetoric:1 affair:2 mcelroy:1 robert:1 statesman:1 authorized:1 wayne:1 hayes:2 ed:2 osborne:1 ray:1 google:2 book:1 preview:1 sturgis:1 amy:1 con:1 primary:1 document:1 wahlgren:1 making:1 technique:1 diary:1 mr:1 atlantic:1 monthly:1 pp:1 external:1 link:1 resource:1 guide:1 extensive:1 essay:2 miller:1 website:1 audio:1 clip:1 speeches:1 picture:1 grave:1 marker:1 ebook:1 |@bigram grover_cleveland:27 classical_liberalism:2 allan_nevins:2 nevins_cleveland:12 graff_nevins:14 distantly_relate:1 graff_cleveland:9 nevins_graff:26 nevins_jeffers:9 fenian_raid:1 libel_suit:1 oscar_folsom:5 graff_jeffers:5 jay_gould:1 theodore_roosevelt:2 tammany_hall:4 rallying_cry:1 ha_ha:2 interstate_commerce:1 gold_silver:1 status_quo:1 protective_tariff:1 presidential_election:1 ruth_esther:1 supreme_court:6 narrow_margin:1 vice_president:3 raw_material:1 income_tax:2 pearl_harbor:1 nitrous_oxide:1 jennings_bryan:1 william_mckinley:1 woodrow_wilson:1 princeton_univ:1 univ_press:1 seriously_ill:1 nevins_allan:2 pulitzer_prize:1 quarterly_issn:1 nineteenth_century:1 pro_con:1 external_link:1 grave_marker:1 |
4,690 | Anders_Celsius | Anders Celsius (27 November 1701 – 25 April 1744) was a Swedish astronomer. He was professor of astronomy at Uppsala University from 1730 to 1744, but traveled from 1732 to 1735 visiting notable observatories in Germany, Italy and France. He founded the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in 1741, and in 1742 he proposed the Celsius temperature scale which takes his name. The scale was later reversed in 1745 by Carl Linnaeus, one year after Celsius' death. Biography Early life Anders Celsius was born in Uppsala, Sweden, on 27 November 1701. Born the son of an astronomy professor Nils Celsius and the grandson of a mathematician Magnus Celsius and an astronomer, Anders Spole, Celsius chose a career in science. Uppsala Astronomical Observatory, Retrieved on 24 June 2008 His family originated from Ovanåker in the province of Hälsingland. The family name is a Latinised version of the name of the vicarage (Högen). His father, Nils Celsius, was also a talented mathematician from an early age, and he had been appointed scientist of astronomy in 1730. In 1725 he became a secretary of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in Uppsala, which he served until his death. Anders Celsius studied at the University of Uppsala, where his father was a teacher, and in 1730 he, too, became a professor there. His earliest research involved the study of the aurora borealis, Notable Biographies, Retrieved on 24 June 2008 and he was the first to suggest a connection between these lights and changes in the magnetic field of the Earth. Together with his student Olof Hjorter he studied auroral phenomena. He observed the variations of a compass needle and found that larger deflections correlated with stronger auroral activity. In 1730 he published the Nova Methodus distantiam solis a terra determinandi. Career At Nuremberg in 1733 he published a collection of 316 observations of the aurora borealis made by himself and others over the period 1716–1732. Encyclopedia Britannica, Retrieved on 24 June 2008 Celsius traveled for several years in the early 1730s, particularly during 1732 and he traveled to Germany, Italy and France in which he visited most of the major European observatories. In Paris he advocated the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Lapland, In 1736, he participated in the expedition organized for that purpose by the French Academy of Sciences, led by the French mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis (1698–1759) to measure a degree of latitude. The aim of the expedition was to measure the length of a degree along a meridian, close to the pole, and compare the result with a similar expedition to Peru, today in Ecuador near the equator. The expeditions confirmed Isaac Newton's belief that the shape of the earth is an ellipsoid flattened at the poles. 'Celsius In 1738, he published the De observationibus pro figura telluris determinanda. Celsius' participation in the Lapland expedition won him much respect in Sweden with the government and his peers, and played a key role in generating interest from the Swedish authorities in donating the resources required to construct a new modern observatory in Uppsala. He was successful in the request, and Celsius founded the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in 1741. The observatory was equipped with instruments purchased during his long voyage abroad, comprising the most modern instrumental technology of the period" In astronomy, Celsius began a series of observations using colored glass plates to record the magnitude (a measure of brightness) of certain stars. This was the first attempt to measure the intensity of starlight with a tool other than the human eye. He made observations of eclipses and various astronomical objects and published catalogues of carefully determined magnitudes for some 300 stars using his own photometric system (mean error=0.4 mag). Anders Celsius was the first to perform and publish careful experiments aiming at the definition of an international temperature scale on scientific grounds. In his Swedish paper "Observations of two persistent degrees on a thermometer" he reports on experiments to check that the freezing point is independent of latitude (and of atmospheric pressure). He determined the dependence of the boiling of water with atmospheric pressure which was accurate even by modern day standards. He further gave a rule for the determination of the boiling point if the barometric pressure deviates from a certain standard pressure. History of the Celsius temperature scale He proposed the Celsius temperature scale in a paper to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the oldest Swedish scientific society, founded in 1710. His thermometer had 100 for the freezing point of water and 0 for the boiling point. A year after his death, the scale was reversed by Carolus Linnaeus in 1745. Linnaeus' thermometer Celsius originally called his scale centigrade derived from the Latin for "hundred steps". For years it was simply referred to as the Swedish thermometer. The observatory of Anders Celsius, from a contemporary engraving. Celsius conducted many geographical measurements for the Swedish General map, and was one of earliest to note that much of Scandinavia is slowly rising above sea level, a continuous process which has been occurring since the melting of the ice from the latest ice age. However he wrongly posed the notion that the water was evaporating. Legacy and death Celsius wrote about 20 dissertations on astronomy, as well as a well-received book entitled, "Arithmetics for the Swedish Youth," published in 1741. But for all of his accomplishments in his life's work of astronomy, the name Celsius is forever tied to an instrument used every day throughout most of the world. Celsius was a very active supporter of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar to Sweden. Krafft, Fritz, Meyer-Abich, Adolf (Eds.), (1970): Große Naturwissenschaftler, Fischer, Retrieved on 24 June 2008 Gregorian calendar reform had earlier been attempted in 1700, but it had been planned to introduce the modifications of the date stepwise by dropping the leap days from 1700 to 1740. When 1704 and 1708 had been revealed to be leap years by error, in 1712 Sweden returned to using the Julian calendar. The Gregorian calendar wasn't successful until 1753, almost ten years after his death, when the Julian calendar was abandoned by dropping supernumerary 11 days. Celsius was also known to be a writer of poetry and popular science, The Man with the Thermometer, The Galactic Guide, Retrieved on 24 June 2008 and his popular book Arithmetics for the Swedish Youth'' published in 1741 was typical of the Enlightenment vibe of the period. On 25 April 1744 he died of tuberculosis in Uppsala, and was buried in the Old Uppsala Church next to his grandfather. The crater Celsius on the Moon is named after him. References Celsius is buried at Uppsala Church in Gamla Uppsala next to his grandfather | Anders_Celsius |@lemmatized anders:6 celsius:26 november:2 april:2 swedish:10 astronomer:2 professor:3 astronomy:6 uppsala:12 university:2 travel:3 visit:2 notable:2 observatory:8 germany:2 italy:2 france:2 found:3 astronomical:4 propose:2 temperature:4 scale:7 take:1 name:5 later:1 reverse:2 carl:1 linnaeus:3 one:2 year:6 death:5 biography:2 early:5 life:2 bear:2 sweden:4 son:1 nil:1 grandson:1 mathematician:3 magnus:1 spole:1 choose:1 career:2 science:5 retrieve:5 june:5 family:2 originate:1 ovanåker:1 province:1 hälsingland:1 latinised:1 version:1 vicarage:1 högen:1 father:2 nils:1 also:2 talented:1 age:2 appoint:1 scientist:1 become:2 secretary:1 royal:2 academy:3 serve:1 study:3 teacher:1 research:1 involve:1 aurora:2 borealis:2 first:3 suggest:1 connection:1 light:1 change:1 magnetic:1 field:1 earth:2 together:1 student:1 olof:1 hjorter:1 auroral:2 phenomenon:1 observe:1 variation:1 compass:1 needle:1 find:1 large:1 deflection:1 correlate:1 strong:1 activity:1 publish:7 nova:1 methodus:1 distantiam:1 solis:1 terra:1 determinandi:1 nuremberg:1 collection:1 observation:4 make:2 others:1 period:3 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 several:1 particularly:1 major:1 european:1 paris:1 advocate:1 measurement:2 arc:1 meridian:2 lapland:2 participate:1 expedition:5 organize:1 purpose:1 french:2 lead:1 pierre:1 louis:1 maupertuis:1 measure:4 degree:3 latitude:2 aim:2 length:1 along:1 close:1 pole:2 compare:1 result:1 similar:1 peru:1 today:1 ecuador:1 near:1 equator:1 confirm:1 isaac:1 newton:1 belief:1 shape:1 ellipsoid:1 flatten:1 de:1 observationibus:1 pro:1 figura:1 telluris:1 determinanda:1 participation:1 win:1 much:2 respect:1 government:1 peer:1 play:1 key:1 role:1 generate:1 interest:1 authority:1 donate:1 resource:1 require:1 construct:1 new:1 modern:3 successful:2 request:1 equip:1 instrument:2 purchase:1 long:1 voyage:1 abroad:1 comprise:1 instrumental:1 technology:1 begin:1 series:1 use:4 colored:1 glass:1 plat:1 record:1 magnitude:2 brightness:1 certain:2 star:2 attempt:2 intensity:1 starlight:1 tool:1 human:1 eye:1 eclipse:1 various:1 object:1 catalogue:1 carefully:1 determine:2 photometric:1 system:1 mean:1 error:2 mag:1 perform:1 careful:1 experiment:2 definition:1 international:1 scientific:2 ground:1 paper:2 two:1 persistent:1 thermometer:5 report:1 check:1 freezing:2 point:4 independent:1 atmospheric:2 pressure:4 dependence:1 boiling:3 water:3 accurate:1 even:1 day:4 standard:2 far:1 give:1 rule:1 determination:1 barometric:1 deviate:1 history:1 old:2 society:1 carolus:1 originally:1 call:1 centigrade:1 derive:1 latin:1 hundred:1 step:1 simply:1 refer:1 contemporary:1 engraving:1 conduct:1 many:1 geographical:1 general:1 map:1 note:1 scandinavia:1 slowly:1 rise:1 sea:1 level:1 continuous:1 process:1 occur:1 since:1 melting:1 ice:2 late:1 however:1 wrongly:1 pose:1 notion:1 evaporate:1 legacy:1 write:1 dissertation:1 well:2 receive:1 book:2 entitle:1 arithmetic:2 youth:2 accomplishment:1 work:1 forever:1 tie:1 every:1 throughout:1 world:1 active:1 supporter:1 introduction:1 gregorian:3 calendar:5 krafft:1 fritz:1 meyer:1 abich:1 adolf:1 eds:1 große:1 naturwissenschaftler:1 fischer:1 reform:1 earlier:1 plan:1 introduce:1 modification:1 date:1 stepwise:1 drop:2 leap:2 reveal:1 return:1 julian:2 almost:1 ten:1 abandon:1 supernumerary:1 know:1 writer:1 poetry:1 popular:2 man:1 galactic:1 guide:1 typical:1 enlightenment:1 vibe:1 die:1 tuberculosis:1 bury:2 church:2 next:2 grandfather:2 crater:1 moon:1 reference:1 gamla:1 |@bigram anders_celsius:5 astronomical_observatory:3 aurora_borealis:2 magnetic_field:1 compass_needle:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 isaac_newton:1 atmospheric_pressure:2 boiling_point:2 barometric_pressure:1 carolus_linnaeus:1 gregorian_calendar:3 julian_calendar:2 |
4,691 | Army_of_Darkness | Army of Darkness (also known as Evil Dead III, The Medieval Dead and Captain Supermarket) is a comedy horror/adventure film and the third installment in the Evil Dead series. Once again, Bruce Campbell stars as protagonist Ash Williams who in this film is lost in the medieval times where he must battle the undead in his quest to return home. The film was directed by Sam Raimi, and written by Raimi and his brother Ivan, and produced by Rob Tapert. Unlike the prior Evil Dead films, Army of Darkness is not as violent or gory, relying more on slapstick. The film had a considerably higher budget than it's predecessors, estimated to be around $11 million. At the box office, Army of Darkness was not a big success, barely making back its budget with a gross of $11.5 million domestically. After its video release, however, it has obtained an ever-growing cult following, along with the other two films in the trilogy. Plot After a brief flashback to Evil Dead II, which explains the Necronomicon and how Ash got to where he is, Ash lands in Medieval England, where he is almost immediately captured by Lord Arthur's men, who suspect him to be an agent for Duke Henry, with whom Arthur is at war. He is enslaved along with the captured Henry, his gun and chainsaw confiscated, and is taken to a castle. Ash is thrown in a pit where he fights off a Deadite and regains his weapons from Arthur's wise man. After demanding Henry and his men be set free, Ash is celebrated as a hero, and also grows attracted to the sister of one of Arthur's fallen knights, Sheila. According to the wise man, the only way Ash can return to his time is to retrieve the Necronomicon. After bidding goodbye to Sheila, Ash starts his search for the Necronomicon. Entering a haunted forest, an unseen force (the camera presenting its point of view) pursues Ash through the woods. Fleeing, Ash ducks into a windmill where he crashes into a mirror. The small reflections of Ash climb out from the shattered mirror and torture him. One of the reflections dives down Ash's throat and uses his body to become a life-sized copy of Ash, after which Ash kills him and buries him. When he arrives at the Necronomicon's location, he finds three books instead of one. Ash eventually finds the real one and attempts to say the magic phrase that will send him home. However, forgetting the last word he tries to trick the book by mumbling the missing word, but that re-releases the Evil Dead. Ash simply grabs the book and rushes back to the castle, while the dead rise from graves all around. During Ash's panicked ride back, Ash's copy rises from his grave and unites the Deadites into the Army of Darkness. Despite causing the predicament faced by the Medieval humans, Ash initially demands to be returned to his own time. However, Sheila is captured by a flying Deadite, and then turned into a Deadite. Ash becomes determined to lead the humans against the skeletal Deadite army. Reluctantly, the people agree to join Ash. Using scientific knowledge from textbooks in the trunk of his 1973 Oldsmobile Delta 88, plus enlisting the help of Duke Henry, Ash successfully leads the humans to defeat the Deadites and save Sheila. After this, he is brought back to his own time using a potion made from the book. The final scene begins with Ash back at the S-Mart store, telling a co-worker all about his adventure back in time, and how he could have been king. After this, a deadite starts wreaking havoc on the store (it is implied that he again raised the dead by saying the wrong words needed to travel through time), and Ash defeats it. The film ends with Ash in voice over saying, "Sure I could have been King, but in my own way, I am a king." He then says out loud, "Hail to the king, baby", while kissing a female employee. In an alternate ending, Ash takes one too many drops of the potion that is supposed to bring him back to his time and oversleeps, ending up 100 years into a post-apocalyptic future. Production Plans to make a third Evil Dead film had been circulating for a number of years, even prior to the production of Darkman. Evil Dead II made enough money internationally that Dino De Laurentiis was willing to finance a sequel. Director and script writer Sam Raimi drew from a variety of sources, including literature with A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court and Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels and films like The Seventh Voyage of Sinbad, Jason and the Argonauts, and The Three Stooges. Evil Dead II, according to Bruce Campbell, "was originally designed to go back into the past to 1300, but we couldn't muster it at the time, so we decided to make an interim version, not knowing if the 1300 story would ever get made". Promotional drawings were created and published in Variety during the casting process before the budget was deemed too little for the plot. The working title for the project was Evil Dead III: Army of Darkness. Warren 2000, p. 107. The title "Army of Darkness" came from an idea by Irvin Shapiro, during the production of Evil Dead II. Sam Raimi. DVD audio commentary, 3:12. This was used after Sam Raimi was unable to use his original title "The Medieval Dead." ("The Medieval Dead" would later be used as the films subtitle for it's UK release as Army of Darkness: The Medieval Dead. Bruce Campbell was also Bruce Leroy). Screenplay & pre-production Initially, Raimi invited Scott Spiegel to co-write Army of Darkness because he had done a good job on Evil Dead II, but he was busy on rewrites for the Clint Eastwood film, The Rookie. Warren 2000, p. 140. After the good experience of writing the screenplay for a film called Easy Wheels, Sam and his brother Ivan Raimi decided to co-write the film together. Warren 2000, p. 142. They worked on the script throughout the pre-production and production of Darkman. After filming Darkman, they took the script out and worked on it in more detail. Raimi says that Ivan "has a good sense of character" and that he brought more comedy into the script. Campbell remembers, "We all decided, 'Get him out of the cabin.' There were earlier drafts where part three still took place there, but we thought, 'Well, we all know that cabin, it's time to move on.' The three of us decided to keep it in 1300, because it's more interesting". Campbell and Tapert would read the script drafts, give Raimi their notes and he would decide which suggestions to keep and which ones to discard. Warren 2000, p. 145. The initial budget was $8 million but during pre-production, it became obvious that this was not going to be enough. Darkman was also a financial success and De Laurentiis had multi-picture deal with Universal and so Army of Darkness became one of the films. The studio decided to contribute half of the film's $12 million budget. Warren 2000, p. 144. However, the film's ambitious scope and its extensive effects work forced Campbell, Raimi and producer Rob Tapert to put up $1 million of their collective salaries to shoot a new ending and not film a scene where a possessed woman pushes down some giant pillars. Visual effects supervisor William Mesa showed Raimi storyboards he had from Victor Fleming's film Joan of Arc that depicted huge battle scenes and he picked out 25 shots to use in Army of Darkness. A storyboard artist worked closely with the director in order to blend the shots from the Joan of Arc storyboards with the battle scenes in his film. Principal photography Principal photography took place between soundstage and on-location work. Army of Darkness was filmed in Bronson Canyon and Vasquez Rocks Natural Area Park. The interior shots were filmed on an Introvision stage in Hollywood. Raimi's use of the Introvision process was a tribute to the stop-motion animation work of Ray Harryhausen. Muir 2004, p. 153. Introvision uses front-projected images with live actors instead of the traditional rear projection that Harryhausen and others used. Introvision blended components with more realistic-looking results. To achieve this effect, Raimi used 60-foot-tall Scotchlite front-projection screens, miniatures and background plates. According to the director, the advantage of using this technique was "the incredible amount of interaction between the background, which doesn't exist, and the foreground, which is usually your character". The shooting for Army of Darkness began in mid-1991, and it lasted for about 100 days. Warren 2000, p. 147. It was a mid-summer shoot and while on location on a huge castle set that was built near Acton, California on the edge of the Mojave Desert, the cast and crew endured very hot conditions during the day and very cold temperatures at night. Muir 2004, p. 155. Most of the film took place at night and the filmmakers shot most of the film during the summer when the days were longest and the nights were the shortest. It would take an hour and a half to light an area leaving the filmmakers only six hours left to shoot a scene. Warren 2000, p. 151. Money problems forced cinematographer Bill Pope to shoot only for certain hours Monday through Friday because he could not be paid his standard fee. Mesa shot many of the action sequences on the weekend. Muir 2004, p. 156. It was a difficult shoot for Campbell who had to learn elaborate choreography for the battle scenes, which involved him remembering a number system because the actor was often fighting opponents that were not really there. Muir 2004, p. 157. Mesa remembers, "Bruce was cussing and swearing some of the time because you had to work on the number system. Sam would tell us to make it as complicated and hard for Bruce as possible. 'Make him go through torture!' So we'd come up with these shots that were really, really difficult, and sometimes they would take thirty-seven takes". Some scenes, like Evil Ash walking along the graveyard while his skeleton minions come to life, blended stop-motion animation with live skeletons that were mechanically rigged, with prosthetics and visual effects. Soundtrack Danny Elfman, who composed the score for Darkman, wrote the "March of the Dead" theme for Army of Darkness, Warren 2000, p. 153. but after the re-shoots were completed, Evil Dead II composer Joseph LoDuca returned to score the new film. Muir 2004, p. 160. LoDuca sat down with Raimi and they went over the entire film, scene by scene. The composer used his knowledge of synthesizers and was able to present many cues in a mock-up form before he took them in front of an orchestra. Post-production While Dino De Laurentiis gave Raimi and his crew freedom to shoot the movie the way they wanted, Universal Pictures took over during post-production. Muir 2004, p. 159. Universal was not happy with Raimi's cut because they did not like his original ending for the movie and felt that it was "negative". A more upbeat ending was shot a month after Army of Darkness was made. It was shot in a lumber store in Malibu, California over three or four nights. Then, two months after Army of Darkness was finished, a round of re-shoots began in Santa Monica and involved Ash in the windmill and the scenes with Bridget Fonda done for very little money. Raimi recalls, "Actually, I kind of like the fact that there are two endings, that in one alternate universe Bruce is screwed, and in another universe he's some cheesy hero". Warren 2000, p. 156. In addition, Raimi needed $3 million to finish his movie, but Universal was not willing to give him the money and delayed its release because they were upset that De Laurentiis would not give them the rights to the Hannibal Lecter character so that they could film a sequel to Jonathan Demme's The Silence of the Lambs. Muir 2004, p. 162. The matter was finally resolved, but Army of Darkness''' release date had been pushed back from its original summer of 1992 release to February 1993. For the movie's poster, Universal brought Campbell in to take several reference head shots and asked him to strike a "sly look" on his face. They showed him a "rough of this Frank Frazetta-like painting. The actor had a day to approve it or, as he was told, there would be no ad campaign for the film. Warren 2000, p. 158. Raimi ran into further troubles with the Motion Picture Association of America over the film's rating. The MPAA gave it an NC-17 rating for a shot of a female Deadite being decapitated early on in the film. Universal, however, wanted a PG-13 rating, so Raimi made a few cuts and was still stuck with the MPAA's R rating. In response, Universal turned the film over to outside film editors who cut Army of Darkness to 81 minutes in length and another version running 87 minutes that was eventually released in theaters. Eventually, Army of Darkness ended up with an R rating. Reception Box office performanceArmy of Darkness was released by Universal Pictures on February 19, 1993 in 1,387 theaters in the United States, grossing $4.4 million (38.5% of total gross) on its first weekend. In total, the film earned $11.5 million in the US and $21.5 million worldwide. Critical receptionArmy of Darkness was well received by critics with a 79% fresh on Rotten Tomatoes, which made its critical reception above average but is lower than The Evil Dead and Evil Dead II, which received 100% and 98% critical approval, respectively. Roger Ebert gave the film two out of four stars and wrote, "The movie isn't as funny or entertaining as Evil Dead II, however, maybe because the comic approach seems recycled". In her review for the New York Times, Janet Maslin praised, "Mr. Campbell's manly, mock-heroic posturing is perfectly in keeping with the director's droll outlook". Desson Howe, in this review for the Washington Post praised the film's style: "Bill Pope's cinematography is gymnastic and appropriately frenetic. The visual and make-up effects (from artist-technicians William Mesa, Tony Gardner and others) are incredibly imaginative". However, Entertainment Weekly gave the film a "C+" rating and wrote, "This spoofy cast of thousands looks a little too much like a crew of bland Hollywood extras. By the time Army of Darkness turns into a retread of Jason and the Argonauts, featuring an army of fighting skeletons, the film has fallen into a ditch between parody and spectacle". AwardsArmy of Darkness won the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films Award (USA) for Best Horror Film (1994). It was also nominated for Best Make-Up. Army of Darkness was nominated for the Grand Prize at Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival, and won the Golden Raven at the Brussels International Festival of Fantasy Film in 1993. The film also won the Critics' Award at Fantasporto, and was nominated for the International Fantasy Film Award in the category of Best Film in 1993. Different versions There are four different versions of Army of Darkness - the 96-minute director's cut, the 81-minute U.S. theatrical version, the 88-minute international edit, and the 88-minute U.S. television version. The director's cut runs at 96 minutes compared to the theatrical 81 minutes, and includes numerous new scenes and extensions. Among the changes are more violence in the pit, a love scene between Ash and Sheila, an extended windmill scene, different dialogue between Good and Bad Ash, an extended speech on the castle roof and a vastly different ending. The international cut is basically a shorter version of the director's cut, albeit with the "happier" ending and repositioned arrival of Henry the Red as in the theatrical version, and was the version released in cinemas outside the United States. The television edit, premiered in 1997 and most commonly shown on the Sci Fi Channel in America, is most notable for featuring two extended scenes not included in the other three versions, though they are included in a different, rougher format in the deleted scenes section of the DVD (in the television version, the scenes are finished and include music). The theatrical release picks up after Ash has returned to the present, in which he stages one final confrontation with the "she-bitch" in the S-Mart Housewares Department. The alternate ending, which was favored by Raimi and Bruce Campbell, depicts Ash as he sits in his Oldsmobile, (the same 1973 Oldsmobile featured in many Sam Raimi films), in a cave, the entrance caved in by some of the black powder he made earlier. As he drinks the magic potion (given to him by a person that may or may not be Merlin - the king's name being "Arthur"), he is distracted by a falling rock and takes one drop too many. Ash sleeps well beyond his time, not aging but growing a very large beard, and shouts "I've slept too long!!" after awakening in a post-apocalyptic England. When test audiences didn't approve of Raimi's original ending, he cut the film down to the international cut that now exists on DVD. When it was again rejected by Universal, Raimi was forced to edit it again to the U.S. theatrical version. The original cut had an opening that was more in tune with the Evil Dead series (included as a deleted scene on Anchor Bay's director's cut DVD). Sam Raimi. DVD audio commentary. The MGM Hong Kong Region 3 DVD edits together the U.S. theatrical, European and director's cuts into a final, 96-minute cut of the film. The film is digitally re-mastered, compiled from original source prints (not from VHS sources as the Anchor Bay Entertainment releases are). Rewind @ www.dvdcompare.net Army Of Darkness AKA Evil Dead 3 AKA Army of Darkness: Evil Dead 3 (1993) DVDBEAVER @ http://www.dvdbeaver.com 'Army of Darkness' R2 Anchor Bay vs. R1 Anchor Bay vs R3 MGM. Various Army Of Darkness side-by-side comparison with box covers, screenshots and bit rates page 1 DVDBEAVER @ http://www.dvdbeaver.com Army of Darkness — Theatrical Version Anchor Bay Region 2 - PAL vs. Anchor Bay R1 NTSC vs Universal R1 NTSC. Various Army Of Darkness side-by-side comparison with screenshots, box covers and bit rates page 2 A new Blu-ray release of Army of Darkness from Optimum Releasing in the UK is rumored to be of the director's cut; it is to be released on September 19 2008. ComicsArmy of Darkness had a comic book adaptation and several comic book sequels.Army of Darkness (movie adaptation)Army of Darkness: Ashes 2 AshesArmy of Darkness: Shop Till You Drop DeadDarkman vs. Army of DarknessArmy of Darkness vs. Re-AnimatorArmy of Darkness: Old SchoolArmy of Darkness: Ash vs. The Classic MonstersMarvel Zombies vs. The Army of DarknessArmy of Darkness: From the AshesArmy of Darkness: Long Road HomeFreddy vs. Jason vs. AshArmy of Darkness/Xena: Warrior Princess: Why Not?Xena vs. Army of Darkness: What Again?References BibliographyThe Evil Dead Companion, Bill Warren. ISBN 0-312-27501-3If Chins Could Kill, Bruce Campbell. ISBN 0-312-29145-0The Unseen Force: The Films of Sam Raimi'', John Kenneth Muir. External links Army of Darkness from Deadites Online. Army of Darkness RPG from Eden Studios. Army of Darkness at Hollywood Teen Movies | Army_of_Darkness |@lemmatized army:38 darkness:45 also:6 know:3 evil:20 dead:26 iii:2 medieval:7 captain:1 supermarket:1 comedy:2 horror:3 adventure:2 film:49 third:2 installment:1 series:2 bruce:9 campbell:11 star:2 protagonist:1 ash:34 williams:1 lose:1 time:13 must:1 battle:4 undead:1 quest:1 return:5 home:2 direct:1 sam:9 raimi:26 write:7 brother:2 ivan:3 produce:1 rob:2 tapert:3 unlike:1 prior:2 violent:1 gory:1 rely:1 slapstick:1 considerably:1 high:1 budget:5 predecessor:1 estimate:1 around:2 million:9 box:4 office:2 big:1 success:2 barely:1 make:14 back:9 gross:3 domestically:1 video:1 release:13 however:7 obtain:1 ever:2 grow:3 cult:1 follow:1 along:3 two:5 trilogy:1 plot:2 brief:1 flashback:1 ii:8 explain:1 necronomicon:4 get:3 land:1 england:2 almost:1 immediately:1 capture:2 lord:1 arthur:6 men:2 suspect:1 agent:1 duke:2 henry:5 war:1 enslave:1 captured:1 gun:1 chainsaw:1 confiscate:1 take:13 castle:4 throw:1 pit:2 fight:3 deadite:6 regain:1 weapon:1 wise:2 man:2 demand:2 set:2 free:1 celebrate:1 hero:2 attract:1 sister:1 one:10 fall:3 knight:1 sheila:5 accord:3 way:3 retrieve:1 bid:1 goodbye:1 start:2 search:1 enter:1 haunt:1 forest:1 unseen:2 force:5 camera:1 present:3 point:1 view:1 pursue:1 wood:1 fleeing:1 duck:1 windmill:3 crash:1 mirror:2 small:1 reflection:2 climb:1 shattered:1 torture:2 dive:1 throat:1 use:13 body:1 become:3 life:2 size:1 copy:2 kill:2 buries:1 arrive:1 location:3 find:2 three:6 book:6 instead:2 eventually:3 real:1 attempt:1 say:5 magic:2 phrase:1 send:1 forget:1 last:2 word:3 try:1 trick:1 mumble:1 miss:1 simply:1 grab:1 rush:1 rise:2 graf:1 panic:1 ride:1 grave:1 unite:1 deadites:3 despite:1 cause:1 predicament:1 face:2 human:3 initially:2 fly:1 turn:3 becomes:1 determine:1 lead:2 skeletal:1 reluctantly:1 people:1 agree:1 join:1 scientific:1 knowledge:2 textbook:1 trunk:1 oldsmobile:3 delta:1 plus:1 enlist:1 help:1 successfully:1 defeat:2 save:1 bring:4 potion:3 final:3 scene:17 begin:3 mart:2 store:3 tell:3 co:3 worker:1 could:5 king:6 wreak:1 havoc:1 imply:1 raise:1 wrong:1 need:2 travel:2 end:11 voice:1 sure:1 loud:1 hail:1 baby:1 kiss:1 female:2 employee:1 alternate:3 many:5 drop:3 suppose:1 oversleeps:1 year:2 post:5 apocalyptic:2 future:1 production:9 plan:1 circulate:1 number:3 even:1 darkman:5 enough:2 money:4 internationally:1 dino:2 de:4 laurentiis:4 willing:2 finance:1 sequel:3 director:10 script:5 writer:1 draw:1 variety:2 source:3 include:6 literature:1 connecticut:1 yankee:1 court:1 jonathan:2 swift:1 gulliver:1 like:6 seventh:1 voyage:1 sinbad:1 jason:3 argonaut:2 stooge:1 originally:1 design:1 go:4 past:1 muster:1 decide:6 interim:1 version:13 story:1 would:9 promotional:1 drawing:1 create:1 publish:1 cast:3 process:2 deem:1 little:3 working:1 title:3 project:2 warren:11 p:17 come:3 idea:1 irvin:1 shapiro:1 dvd:6 audio:2 commentary:2 unable:1 original:6 later:1 subtitle:1 uk:2 leroy:1 screenplay:2 pre:3 invite:1 scott:1 spiegel:1 good:4 job:1 busy:1 rewrite:1 clint:1 eastwood:1 rookie:1 experience:1 call:1 easy:1 wheel:1 together:2 work:7 throughout:1 detail:1 sense:1 character:3 remembers:2 cabin:2 early:2 draft:2 part:1 still:2 place:3 think:1 well:3 move:1 u:7 keep:3 interesting:1 read:1 give:8 note:1 suggestion:1 discard:1 initial:1 obvious:1 financial:1 multi:1 picture:4 deal:1 universal:10 studio:2 contribute:1 half:2 ambitious:1 scope:1 extensive:1 effect:5 producer:1 put:1 collective:1 salary:1 shoot:11 new:5 possessed:1 woman:1 push:2 giant:1 pillar:1 visual:3 supervisor:1 william:2 mesa:4 show:3 storyboards:2 victor:1 fleming:1 joan:2 arc:2 depict:2 huge:2 pick:2 shot:7 storyboard:1 artist:2 closely:1 order:1 blend:3 principal:2 photography:2 soundstage:1 bronson:1 canyon:1 vasquez:1 rock:2 natural:1 area:2 park:1 interior:1 introvision:4 stage:1 hollywood:3 tribute:1 stop:2 motion:3 animation:2 ray:2 harryhausen:2 muir:8 front:3 image:1 live:2 actor:3 traditional:1 rear:1 projection:2 others:2 component:1 realistic:1 look:3 result:1 achieve:1 foot:1 tall:1 scotchlite:1 screen:1 miniature:1 background:2 plate:1 advantage:1 technique:1 incredible:1 amount:1 interaction:1 exist:2 foreground:1 usually:1 shooting:1 mid:2 day:4 summer:3 build:1 near:1 acton:1 california:2 edge:1 mojave:1 desert:1 crew:3 endure:1 hot:1 condition:1 cold:1 temperature:1 night:4 filmmaker:2 long:3 short:2 hour:3 light:1 leave:2 six:1 problem:1 cinematographer:1 bill:3 pope:2 certain:1 monday:1 friday:1 pay:1 standard:1 fee:1 action:1 sequence:1 weekend:2 difficult:2 learn:1 elaborate:1 choreography:1 involve:1 remember:1 system:2 often:1 opponent:1 really:3 cuss:1 swear:1 complicate:1 hard:1 possible:1 sometimes:1 thirty:1 seven:1 walk:1 graveyard:1 skeleton:3 minion:1 mechanically:1 rig:1 prosthetics:1 soundtrack:1 danny:1 elfman:1 compose:1 score:2 march:1 theme:1 complete:1 composer:2 joseph:1 loduca:2 sit:2 entire:1 synthesizer:1 able:1 cue:1 mock:2 form:1 orchestra:1 freedom:1 movie:7 want:2 happy:1 cut:14 felt:1 negative:1 upbeat:1 month:2 lumber:1 malibu:1 four:3 finish:3 round:1 santa:1 monica:1 involved:1 bridget:1 fonda:1 recall:1 actually:1 kind:1 fact:1 ending:1 universe:2 screw:1 another:2 cheesy:1 addition:1 delay:1 upset:1 right:1 hannibal:1 lecter:1 demme:1 silence:1 lamb:1 matter:1 finally:1 resolve:1 date:1 february:2 poster:1 several:2 reference:2 head:1 ask:1 strike:1 sly:1 rough:2 frank:1 frazetta:1 paint:1 approve:2 ad:1 campaign:1 run:3 trouble:1 association:1 america:2 rating:6 mpaa:2 nc:1 decapitate:1 pg:1 stick:1 r:2 response:1 outside:2 editor:1 minute:9 length:1 theater:2 reception:2 performancearmy:1 united:2 state:2 total:2 first:1 earn:1 worldwide:1 critical:3 receptionarmy:1 receive:2 critic:2 fresh:1 rotten:1 tomato:1 average:1 low:1 approval:1 respectively:1 roger:1 ebert:1 funny:1 entertaining:1 maybe:1 comic:3 approach:1 seem:1 recycled:1 review:2 york:1 janet:1 maslin:1 praise:2 mr:1 manly:1 heroic:1 posturing:1 perfectly:1 droll:1 outlook:1 desson:1 howe:1 washington:1 style:1 cinematography:1 gymnastic:1 appropriately:1 frenetic:1 technician:1 tony:1 gardner:1 incredibly:1 imaginative:1 entertainment:2 weekly:1 c:1 spoofy:1 thousand:1 much:1 bland:1 extra:1 retread:1 feature:3 ditch:1 parody:1 spectacle:1 awardsarmy:1 win:3 academy:1 science:1 fiction:1 fantasy:3 award:3 usa:1 best:3 nominate:3 grand:1 prize:1 avoriaz:1 fantastic:1 festival:2 golden:1 raven:1 brussels:1 international:5 fantasporto:1 category:1 different:5 theatrical:7 edit:4 television:3 compare:1 numerous:1 extension:1 among:1 change:1 violence:1 love:1 extended:3 dialogue:1 bad:1 speech:1 roof:1 vastly:1 basically:1 albeit:1 happier:1 reposition:1 arrival:1 red:1 cinema:1 premier:1 commonly:1 sci:1 fi:1 channel:1 notable:1 though:1 format:1 deleted:2 section:1 music:1 stag:1 confrontation:1 bitch:1 housewares:1 department:1 favor:1 cave:2 entrance:1 black:1 powder:1 earlier:1 drink:1 person:1 may:2 merlin:1 name:1 distract:1 sleep:2 beyond:1 age:1 large:1 beard:1 shout:1 awaken:1 test:1 audience:1 reject:1 opening:1 tune:1 anchor:6 bay:6 mgm:2 hong:1 kong:1 region:2 european:1 digitally:1 master:1 compile:1 print:1 vhs:1 rewind:1 www:3 dvdcompare:1 net:1 aka:2 dvdbeaver:4 http:2 com:2 v:10 various:2 side:4 comparison:2 cover:2 screenshots:2 bit:2 rate:2 page:2 pal:1 ntsc:2 blu:1 optimum:1 releasing:1 rumor:1 september:1 comicsarmy:1 adaptation:2 ashesarmy:2 shop:1 till:1 deaddarkman:1 darknessarmy:2 animatorarmy:1 old:1 schoolarmy:1 classic:1 monstersmarvel:1 zombie:1 vs:1 road:1 homefreddy:1 asharmy:1 xena:2 warrior:1 princess:1 bibliographythe:1 companion:1 isbn:2 chin:1 john:1 kenneth:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 rpg:1 eden:1 teen:1 |@bigram sam_raimi:7 wreak_havoc:1 post_apocalyptic:2 de_laurentiis:4 jonathan_swift:1 swift_gulliver:1 gulliver_travel:1 jason_argonaut:2 clint_eastwood:1 joan_arc:2 mojave_desert:1 monday_friday:1 danny_elfman:1 malibu_california:1 santa_monica:1 hannibal_lecter:1 silence_lamb:1 frank_frazetta:1 motion_picture:1 rating_mpaa:1 nc_rating:1 rotten_tomato:1 roger_ebert:1 entertainment_weekly:1 science_fiction:1 sci_fi:1 deleted_scene:2 magic_potion:1 hong_kong:1 http_www:2 blu_ray:1 xena_warrior:1 external_link:1 |
4,692 | Osteoporosis | Osteoporosis is a disease of bone that leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass (20-year-old healthy female average) as measured by DXA; the term "established osteoporosis" includes the presence of a fragility fracture. Osteoporosis is most common in women after menopause, when it is called postmenopausal osteoporosis, but may also develop in men, and may occur in anyone in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of medications, specifically glucocorticoids, when the disease is called steroid- or glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP or GIOP). Given its influence is the risk of fragility fracture, osteoporosis may significantly affect life expectancy and quality of life. Osteoporosis can be prevented with lifestyle changes and sometimes medication; in people with osteoporosis, treatment may involve both. Lifestyle change includes preventing falls and exercise; medication includes calcium, vitamin D, bisphosphonates and several others. Fall-prevention advice includes exercise to tone deambulatory muscles, proprioception-improvement exercises; equilibrium therapies may be included. Exercise with its anabolic effect, may at the same time stop or reverse osteoporosis. Pathogenesis The underlying mechanism in all cases of osteoporosis is an imbalance between bone resorption and bone formation. In normal bone, there is constant matrix remodeling of bone; up to 10% of all bone mass may be undergoing remodeling at any point in time. The process takes place in bone multicellular units (BMUs) as first described by Frost in 1963. Frost HM, Thomas CC. Bone Remodeling Dynamics. Springfield, IL: 1963. Bone is resorbed by osteoclast cells (which derive from the bone marrow), after which new bone is deposited by osteoblast cells. The three main mechanisms by which osteoporosis develops are an inadequate peak bone mass (the skeleton develops insufficient mass and strength during growth), excessive bone resorption and inadequate formation of new bone during remodeling. An interplay of these three mechanisms underlies the development of fragile bone tissue. Hormonal factors strongly determine the rate of bone resorption; lack of estrogen (e.g. as a result of menopause) increases bone resorption as well as decreasing the deposition of new bone that normally takes place in weight-bearing bones. The amount of estrogen needed to suppress this process is lower than that normally needed to stimulate the uterus and breast gland. The α-form of the estrogen receptor appears to be the most important in regulating bone turnover. In addition to estrogen, calcium metabolism plays a significant role in bone turnover, and deficiency of calcium and vitamin D leads to impaired bone deposition; in addition, the parathyroid glands react to low calcium levels by secreting parathyroid hormone (parathormone, PTH), which increases bone resorption to ensure sufficient calcium in the blood. The role of calcitonin, a hormone generated by the thyroid that increases bone deposition, is less clear and probably not as significant as that of PTH. The activation of osteoclasts is regulated by various molecular signals, of which RANKL (receptor activator for nuclear factor κB ligand) is one of best studied. This molecule is produced by osteoblasts and other cells (e.g. lymphocytes), and stimulates RANK (receptor activator of nuclear factor κB). Osteoprotegerin (OPG) binds RANKL before it has an opportunity to bind to RANK, and hence suppresses its ability to increase bone resorption. RANKL, RANK and OPG are closely related to tumor necrosis factor and its receptors. The role of the wnt signalling pathway is recognized but less well understood. Local production of eicosanoids and interleukins is thought to participate in the regulation of bone turnover, and excess or reduced production of these mediators may underlie the development of osteoporosis. Trabecular bone is the sponge-like bone in the ends of long bones and vertebrae. Cortical bone is the hard outer shell of bones and the middle of long bones. Because osteoblasts and osteoclasts inhabit the surface of bones, trabecular bone is more active, more subject to bone turnover, to remodeling. Not only is bone density decreased, but the microarchitecture of bone is disrupted. The weaker spicules of trabecular bone break ("microcracks"), and are replaced by weaker bone. Common osteoporotic fracture sites, the wrist, the hip and the spine, have a relatively high trabecular bone to cortical bone ratio. These areas rely on trabecular bone for strength, and therefore the intense remodeling causes these areas to degenerate most when the remodeling is imbalanced. Signs and symptoms Osteoporosis itself has no specific symptoms; its main consequence is the increased risk of bone fractures. Osteoporotic fractures are those that occur in situations where healthy people would not normally break a bone; they are therefore regarded as fragility fractures. Typical fragility fractures occur in the vertebral column, rib, hip and wrist. Fractures The symptoms of a vertebral collapse ("compression fracture") are sudden back pain, often with radiculopathic pain (shooting pain due to nerve compression) and rarely with spinal cord compression or cauda equina syndrome. Multiple vertebral fractures lead to a stooped posture, loss of height, and chronic pain with resultant reduction in mobility. Fractures of the long bones acutely impair mobility and may require surgery. Hip fracture, in particular, usually requires prompt surgery, as there are serious risks associated with a hip fracture, such as deep vein thrombosis and a pulmonary embolism, and increased mortality. Falls risk The increased risk of falling associated with aging leads to fractures of the wrist, spine and hip. The risk of falling, in turn, is increased by impaired eyesight due to any cause (e.g. glaucoma, macular degeneration), balance disorder, movement disorders (e.g. Parkinson's disease), dementia, and sarcopenia (age-related loss of skeletal muscle). Collapse (transient loss of postural tone with or without loss of consciousness) leads to a significant risk of falls; causes of syncope are manifold but may include cardiac arrhythmias (irregular heart beat), vasovagal syncope, orthostatic hypotension (abnormal drop in blood pressure on standing up) and seizures. Removal of obstacles and loose carpets in the living environment may substantially reduce falls. Those with previous falls, as well as those with a gait or balance disorder, are most at risk. Risk factors Risk factors for osteoporotic fracture can be split between non-modifiable and (potentially) modifiable. In addition, there are specific diseases and disorders in which osteoporosis is a recognized complication. Medication use is theoretically modifiable, although in many cases the use of medication that increases osteoporosis risk is unavoidable. Nonmodifiable The most important risk factors for osteoporosis are advanced age (in both men and women) and female sex; estrogen deficiency following menopause is correlated with a rapid reduction in bone mineral density, while in men a decrease in testosterone levels has a comparable (but less pronounced) effect. While osteoporosis occurs in people from all ethnic groups, European or Asian ancestry predisposes for osteoporosis. Those with a family history of fracture or osteoporosis are at an increased risk; the heritability of the fracture as well as low bone mineral density are relatively high, ranging from 25 to 80 percent. There are at least 30 genes associated with the development of osteoporosis. Those who have already had a fracture are at least twice as likely to have another fracture compared to someone of the same age and sex. Potentially modifiable Excess alcohol - small amounts of alcohol do not increase osteoporosis risk and may even be beneficial, but chronic heavy drinking (alcohol intake greater than 2 units/day), especially at a younger age, increases risk significantly. Vitamin D deficiency - low circulating Vitamin D is common among the elderly worldwide. Mild vitamin D insufficiency is associated with increased Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) production. PTH increases bone resorption, leading to bone loss. A positive association exists between serum 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol levels and bone mineral density, while PTH is negatively associated with bone mineral density. Tobacco smoking - tobacco smoking inhibits the activity of osteoblasts, and is an independent risk factor for osteoporosis. Smoking also results in increased breakdown of exogenous estrogen, lower body weight and earlier menopause, all of which contribute to lower bone mineral density. Low body mass index - being overweight protects against osteoporosis, either by increasing load or through the hormone leptin. Malnutrition - low dietary calcium intake, low dietary intake of vitamins K and C Also low protein intake is associated with lower peak bone mass during adolescence and lower bone mineral density in elderly populations. Physical inactivity - bone remodeling occurs in response to physical stress. Weight bearing exercise can increase peak bone mass achieved in adolescence. In adults, physical activity helps maintain bone mass, and can increase it by 1 or 2%. Conversely, physical inactivity can lead to significant bone loss. Excess physical activity - excessive exercise can lead to constant damages to the bones which can cause exhaustion of the structures as described above. There are numerous examples of marathon runners who developed severe osteoporosis later in life. In women, heavy exercise can lead to decreased estrogen levels, which predisposes to osteoporosis. In addition, intensive training without proper compensatory increased nutrition increases the risk. Heavy metals - a strong association between cadmium, lead and bone disease has been established. Low level exposure to cadmium is associated with an increased loss of bone mineral density readily in both genders, leading to pain and increased risk of fractures, especially in the elderly and in females. Higher cadmium exposure results in osteomalacia (softening of the bone). Soft drinks - some studies indicate that soft drinks (many of which contain phosphoric acid) may increase risk of osteoporosis; Others suggest soft drinks may displace calcium-containing drinks from the diet rather than directly causing osteoporosis. Caffeine – contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence linking caffeine to osteoporosis. Diseases and disorders Many diseases and disorders have been associated with osteoporosis. For some, the underlying mechanism influencing the bone metabolism is straight-forward, whereas for others the causes are multiple or unknown. In general, immobilization causes bone loss (following the 'use it or lose it' rule). For example, localized osteoporosis can occur after prolonged immobilization of a fractured limb in a cast. This is also more common in active patients with a high bone turn-over (for example, athletes). Other examples include bone loss during space flight or in people who are bedridden or wheelchair-bound for various reasons. Hypogonadal states can cause secondary osteoporosis. These include Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Kallmann syndrome, anorexia nervosa, andropause, hypothalamic amenorrhea or hyperprolactinemia. In females, the effect of hypogonadism is mediated by estrogen deficiency. It can appear as early menopause (<45 years) or from prolonged premenopausal amenorrhea (>1 year). A bilateral oophorectomy (surgical removal of the ovaries) or a premature ovarian failure cause deficient estrogen production. In males, testosterone deficiency is the cause (for example, andropause or after surgical removal of the testes). Endocrine disorders that can induce bone loss include Cushing's syndrome, hyperparathyroidism, thyrotoxicosis, hypothyroidism, diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2, acromegaly and adrenal insufficiency. In pregnancy and lactation, there can be a reversible bone loss. Malnutrition, parenteral nutrition and malabsorption can lead to osteoporosis. Nutritional and gastrointestinal disorders that can predispose to osteoporosis include coeliac disease, Crohn's disease, lactose intolerance, surgery (after gastrectomy, intestinal bypass surgery or bowel resection) and severe liver disease (especially primary biliary cirrhosis). Patients with bulimia can also develop osteoporosis. Those with an otherwise adequate calcium intake can develop osteoporosis due to the inability to absorb calcium and/or vitamin D. Other micro-nutrients such as vitamin K or vitamin B12 deficiency may also contribute. Patients with rheumatologic disorders like rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis , systemic lupus erythematosus and polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis are at increased risk of osteoporosis, either as part of their disease or because of other risk factors (notably corticosteroid therapy). Systemic diseases such as amyloidosis and sarcoidosis can also lead to osteoporosis. Renal insufficiency can lead to osteodystrophy. Hematologic disorders linked to osteoporosis are multiple myeloma and other monoclonal gammopathies, lymphoma and leukemia, mastocytosis, hemophilia, sickle-cell disease and thalassemia. Several inherited disorders have been linked to osteoporosis. These include osteogenesis imperfecta, Marfan syndrome, hemochromatosis, hypophosphatasia, glycogen storage diseases, homocystinuria, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, porphyria, Menkes' syndrome, epidermolysis bullosa and Gaucher's disease. People with scoliosis of unknown cause also have a higher risk of osteoporosis. Bone loss can be a feature of complex regional pain syndrome. It is also more frequent in people with Parkinson's disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Medication Certain medications have been associated with an increase in osteoporosis risk; only steroids and anticonvulsants are classically associated, but evidence is emerging with regard to other drugs. Steroid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP) arises due to use of glucocorticoids - analogous to Cushing's syndrome and involving mainly the axial skeleton. The synthetic glucocorticoid prescription drug prednisone is a main candidate after prolonged intake. Some professional guidelines recommend prophylaxis in patients who take the equivalent of more than 30 mg hydrocortisone (7.5 mg of prednisolone), especially when this is in excess of three months. Alternate day use may not prevent this complication. Barbiturates, phenytoin and some other enzyme-inducing antiepileptics - these probably accelerate the metabolism of vitamin D. L-Thyroxine over-replacement may contribute to osteoporosis, in a similar fashion as thyrotoxicosis does. This can be relevant in subclinical hypothyroidism. Several drugs induce hypogonadism, for example aromatase inhibitors used in breast cancer, methotrexate and other anti-metabolite drugs, depot progesterone and gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists. Anticoagulants - long-term use of heparin is associated with a decrease in bone density, and warfarin (and related coumarins) have been linked with an increased risk in osteoporotic fracture in long-term use. Proton pump inhibitors - these drugs inhibit the production of stomach acid; it is thought that this interferes with calcium absorption. Chronic phosphate binding may also occur with aluminium-containing antacids. Thiazolidinediones (used for diabetes) - rosiglitazone and possibly pioglitazone, inhibitors of PPARγ, have been linked with an increased risk of osteoporosis and fracture. Chronic lithium therapy has been associated with osteoporosis. Diagnosis A scanner used to measure bone density with dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. The diagnosis of osteoporosis is made on measuring the bone mineral density (BMD). The most popular method is dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA or DEXA). In addition to the detection of abnormal BMD, the diagnosis of osteoporosis requires investigations into potentially modifiable underlying causes; this may be done with blood tests and X-rays. Depending on the likelihood of an underlying problem, investigations for cancer with metastasis to the bone, multiple myeloma, Cushing's disease and other above mentioned causes may be performed. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA, formerly DEXA) is considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is diagnosed when the bone mineral density is less than or equal to 2.5 standard deviations below that of a young adult reference population. This is translated as a T-score. The World Health Organization has established the following diagnostic guidelines: T-score -1.0 or greater is "normal" T-score between -1.0 and -2.5 is "low bone mass" (or "osteopenia") T-score -2.5 or below is osteoporosis When there has also been an osteoporotic fracture (also termed "low trauma-fracture" or "fragility fracture"), defined as one that occurs as a result of a fall from a standing height, the term "severe or established" osteoporosis is used. The International Society for Clinical Densitometry takes the position that a diagnosis of osteoporosis in men under 50 years of age should not be made on the basis of densitometric criteria alone. It also states that for pre-menopausal women, Z-scores (comparison with age group rather than peak bone mass) rather than T-scores should be used, and that the diagnosis of osteoporosis in such women also should not be made on the basis of densitometric criteria alone. quoted in: "Diagnosis of osteoporosis in men, premenopausal women, and children" Screening The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommended in 2002 that all women 65 years of age or older should be screened with bone densitometry. The Task Force recommends screening only those women ages 60 to 64 years of age who are at increased risk. The best risk factor for indicating increased risk is lower body weight (weight < 70 kg), with less evidence for smoking or family history. There was insufficient evidence to make recommendations about the optimal intervals for repeated screening and the appropriate age to stop screening. Clinical prediction rules are available to guide selection of women ages 60–64 for screening. The Osteoporosis Risk Assessment Instrument (ORAI) may be the most sensitive strategy Regarding the screening of men, a cost-analysis study suggests that screening may be "cost-effective for men with a self-reported prior fracture beginning at age 65 years and for men 80 years and older with no prior fracture". Also cost-effective is the screening of adult men from middle age on to detect any significant decrease in testosterone levels, say, below 300. Treatment There are several medications used to treat osteoporosis, depending on gender. Lifestyle changes are also an aspect of treatment. Medication Bisphosphonates are the main pharmacological measures for treatment. However, newer drugs have appeared in the 1990s, such as teriparatide and strontium ranelate. Bisphosphonates In confirmed osteoporosis, bisphosphonate drugs are the first-line treatment in women. The most often prescribed bisphosphonates are sodium alendronate (Fosamax) 10 mg a day or 70 mg once a week, risedronate (Actonel) 5 mg a day or 35 mg once a week and or ibandronate (Boniva) once a month. A 2007 manufacturer-supported study suggested that in patients who had suffered a low-impact hip fracture, annual infusion of 5 mg zoledronic acid reduced risk of any fracture by 35% (from 13.9 to 8.6%), vertebral fracture risk from 3.8% to 1.7% and non-vertebral fracture risk from 10.7% to 7.6%. This study also found a mortality benefit: after 1.9 years, 9.6% of the study group (as opposed to 13.3% of the control group) had died of any cause, indicating a mortality benefit of 28%. Oral bisphosphonates are relatively poorly absorbed, and must therefore be taken on an empty stomach, with no food or drink to follow for the next 30 minutes. They are associated with esophagitis and are therefore sometimes poorly tolerated; weekly or monthly administration (depending on the preparation) decreases likelihood of esophagitis, and is now standard. Although intermittent dosing with the intravenous formulations such as zolendronate avoids oral tolerance problems, these agents are implicated at higher rates in a rare but unpleasant mouth disease called osteonecrosis of the jaw. For this reason, oral bisphosphonate therapy is probably to be preferred, and prescribing advice now recommends any remedial dental work to be carried out prior to commencing treatment. Teriparatide Recently, teriparatide (Forteo, recombinant parathyroid hormone residues 1–34) has been shown to be effective in osteoporosis. It acts like parathyroid hormone and stimulates osteoblasts, thus increasing their activity. It is used mostly for patients with established osteoporosis (who have already fractured), have particularly low BMD or several risk factors for fracture or cannot tolerate the oral bisphosphonates. It is given as a daily injection with the use of a pen-type injection device. Teriparatide is only licensed for treatment if bisphosphonates have failed or are contraindicated (however, this differs by country and is not required by the FDA in the USA. However, patients with previous radiation therapy, or Paget's disease, or young patients should avoid this medication). Strontium ranelate Oral strontium ranelate is an alternative oral treatment, belonging to a class of drugs called "dual action bone agents" (DABAs) by its manufacturer. It has proven efficacy, especially in the prevention of vertebral fracture. In laboratory experiments, strontium ranelate was noted to stimulate the proliferation of osteoblasts, as well as inhibiting the proliferation of osteoclasts. Strontium ranelate is taken as a 2 g oral suspension daily, and is licenced for the treatment of osteoporosis to prevent vertebral and hip fracture. Strontium ranelate has side effect benefits over the bisphosphonates, as it does not cause any form of upper GI side effect, which is the most common cause for medication withdrawal in osteoporosis. In studies a small increase in the risk of venous thromboembolism was noted, the cause for which has not been determined. This suggests it may be less suitable in patients at risk for thrombosis for different reasons. The uptake of (heavier) strontium in place of calcium into bone matrix results in a substantial and disproportionate increase in bone mineral density as measured on DXA scanning , making further followup of bone density by this method harder to interpret for strontium treated patients. A correction algorithm has been devised. Although strontium ranelate is effective, it's not approved for use in the United States yet. However, strontium citrate is available in the U.S. from several well-known vitamin manufacturers. Most researchers believe that strontium is safe and effective no matter what form it's used. The ranelate form is simply a device invented by the Servier company of France so that they could patent their version of strontium. Strontium, no matter what the form, must be water-soluble and ionized in the stomach acid. Strontium is then protein-bound for transport from the intestinal tract into the blood stream. Unlike drugs like sodium alendronate (Fosamax), strontium doesn't inhibit bone recycling and, in fact, may produce stronger bones. Studies have shown that after five years alendronate may even cause bone loss, while strontium continues to build bone during lifetime use. Strontium must not be taken with food or calcium-containing preparations as calcium competes with strontium during uptake. However, it's essential that calcium, magnesium, and vitamin D in therapeutic amounts must be taken daily, but not at the same time as strontium. Strontium should be taken on an empty stomach at night. Hormone replacement Estrogen replacement therapy remains a good treatment for prevention of osteoporosis but, at this time, is not recommended unless there are other indications for its use as well. There is uncertainty and controversy about whether estrogen should be recommended in women in the first decade after the menopause. In hypogonadal men testosterone has been shown to give improvement in bone quantity and quality, but, as of 2008, there are no studies of the effects on fractures or in men with a normal testosterone level. Selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) SERMs are a class of medications that act on the estrogen receptors throughout the body in a selective manner. Normally, bone mineral density (BMD) is tightly regulated by a balance between osteoblast and osteoclast activity in the trabecular bone. Estrogen has a major role in regulation of the bone formation-resorption equilibrium, as it stimulates osteoblast activity. Some SERMs such as raloxifene, act on the bone by slowing bone resorption by the osteoclasts. SERMs have been proved as effective in clinical trials. Nutrition Calcium Calcium is required to support bone growth, bone healing and maintain bone strength and is one aspect of treatment for osteoporosis. Recommendations for calcium intake vary depending country and age; for individuals at higher risk of osteoporosis (after fifty years of age) the amount recommended by US health agencies is 1,200 mg per day. Calcium supplements can be used to increase dietary intake, and absorption is optimized through taking in several small (500 mg or less) doses throughout the day. The role of calcium in preventing and treating osteoporosis is unclear — some populations with extremely low calcium intake also have extremely low rates of bone fracture, and others with high rates of calcium intake through milk and milk products have higher rates of bone fracture. Other factors, such as protein, salt and vitamin D intake, exercise and exposure to sunlight, can all influence bone mineralization, making calcium intake one factor among many in the development of osteoporosis. In the report of WHO (World Health Organization) in 2007, because calcium is consumed by an acid load with food, it influences osteoporosis. Report of a Joint WHO/FAO/UNU Expert Consultation(2007) Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition, pp224-226. ISBN 978-92-4-120935-9 Report of a Joint WHO/FAO/UNU Expert Consultation(2002), Human Vitamin and Mineral Requirements, pp166-167. . A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials involving calcium and calcium plus vitamin D supported the use of high levels of calcium (1,200 mg or more) and vitamin D (800 IU or more), though outcomes varied depending on which measure was used to assess bone health (rates of fracture versus rates of bone loss). The meta-analysis, along with another study, also supported much better outcomes for patients with high compliance to the treatment protocol. In contrast, despite earlier reports in improved high density lipoprotein (HDL, "good cholesterol") in calcium supplementation, a possible increase in the rate of myocardial infarction (heart attack) was found in a study in New Zealand in which 1471 women participated. If confirmed, this would indicate that calcium supplementation in women otherwise at low risk of fracture may cause more harm than good. Vitamin D Some studies have shown that a high intake of vitamin D reduces fractures in the elderly, though the Women's Health Initiative found that though calcium plus vitamin D did increase bone density, it did not affect hip fracture but did increase formation of kidney stones. Exercise Multiple studies have shown that aerobics, weight bearing, and resistance exercises can all maintain or increase BMD in postmenopausal women. Many researchers have attempted to pinpoint which types of exercise are most effective at improving BMD and other metrics of bone quality, however results have varied. One year of regular jumping exercises appears to increase the BMD and moment of inertia of the proximal tibia in normal postmenopausal women. Treadmill walking, gymnastic training, stepping, jumping, endurance, and strength exercises all resulted in significant increases of L2-L4 BMD in osteopenic postmenopausal women. Strength training elicited improvements specifically in distal radius and hip BMD. Exercise combined with other pharmacological treatments such as hormone replacement therapy (HRT) has been shown to increases BMD more than HRT alone. Additional benefits for osteoporotic patients other than BMD increase include improvements in balance, gait, and a reduction in risk of falls. Prognosis + Hip fractures per 1000 patient-years WHO category Age 50-64 Age > 64 Overall Normal 5.3 9.4 6.6 Osteopenia 11.4 19.6 15.7 Osteoporosis 22.4 46.6 40.6 Although osteoporosis patients have an increased mortality rate due to the complications of fracture, most patients die with the disease rather than of it. Hip fractures can lead to decreased mobility and an additional risk of numerous complications (such as deep venous thrombosis and/or pulmonary embolism, pneumonia). The 6-month mortality rate following hip fracture is approximately 13.5%, and a substantial proportion (almost 13%) of people who have suffered a hip fracture need total assistance to mobilize after a hip fracture. Vertebral fractures, while having a smaller impact on mortality, can lead to severe chronic pain of neurogenic origin, which can be hard to control, as well as deformity. Though rare, multiple vertebral fractures can lead to such severe hunch back (kyphosis) that the resulting pressure on internal organs can impair one's ability to breathe. Apart from risk of death and other complications, osteoporotic fractures are associated with a reduced health-related quality of life. Epidemiology Lateral thoraco-lumbar spine X-ray demonstrating multiple wedge fractures It is estimated that 1 in 3 women and 1 in 12 men over the age of 50 worldwide have osteoporosis. It is responsible for millions of fractures annually, mostly involving the lumbar vertebrae, hip, and wrist. Fragility fractures of ribs are also common in men. Hip fractures Hip fractures are responsible for the most serious consequences of osteoporosis. In the United States, more than 250,000 hip fractures annually are attributible to osteoporosis. It is estimated that a 50-year-old white woman has a 17.5% lifetime risk of fracture of the proximal femur. The incidence of hip fractures increases each decade from the sixth through the ninth for both women and men for all populations. The highest incidence is found among those men and women ages 80 or older. Vertebral fractures Between 35-50% of all women over 50 had at least one vertebral fracture. In the United States, 700,000 vertebral fractures occur annually, but only about a third are recognized. In a series of 9704 of women aged 68.8 on average studied for 15 years, 324 had already suffered a vertebral fracture at entry into the study; 18.2% developed a vertebral fracture, but that risk rose to 41.4% in women who had a previous vertebral fracture. Wrist In the United States, 250,000 wrist fractures annually are attributable to osteoporosis. Wrist fractures are the third most common type of osteoporotic fractures. The lifetime risk of sustaining a Colles' fracture is about 16% for white women. By the time women reach age 70, about 20% have had at least one wrist fracture. Rib Fractures Fragility fractures of the ribs are common in men as young as age thirty-five on. These are often overlooked as signs of osteoporosis as these men are often physically active and suffer the fracture in the course of physical activity. An example would be as a result of falling while water skiing or jet skiing. However, a quick test of the individual's testosterone level following the diagnosis of the fracture will readily reveal whether that individual might be at risk. Prevention Methods to prevent osteoporosis include changes of lifestyle. However, there are medications that can be used for prevention as well. As a different concept there are osteoporosis ortheses which help to prevent spine fractures and support the building up of muscles. Fall prevention can help prevent osteoporosis complications. Lifestyle Lifestyle prevention of osteoporosis is in many aspects inversions from potentially modifiable risk factors. As tobacco smoking and unsafe alcohol intake have been linked with osteoporosis, smoking cessation and moderation of alcohol intake are commonly recommended in the prevention of osteoporosis. Exercise Achieving a higher peak bone mass through exercise and proper nutrition during adolescence is important for the prevention of osteoporosis. Exercise and nutrition throughout the rest of the life delays bone degeneration. Jogging, walking, or stair climbing at 70-90% of maximum effort three times per week, along with 1,500 mg of calcium per day, increased bone density of the lumbar (lower) spine by 5% over 9 months. Individuals already diagnosed with osteopenia or osteoporosis should discuss their exercise program with their physician to avoid fractures. Nutrition Proper nutrition includes a diet sufficient in calcium and vitamin D. Patients at risk for osteoporosis (e.g. steroid use) are generally treated with vitamin D and calcium supplements and often with bisphosphonates. In renal disease, more active forms of Vitamin D such as paracalcitol or (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol or calcitriol which is the main biologically active form of vitamin D) is used, as the kidney cannot adequately generate calcitriol from calcidiol (25-hydroxycholecalciferol) which is the storage form of vitamin D. High dietary protein intake increases calcium excretion in urine and has been linked to increased risk of fractures in research studies. Other investigations have shown that protein is required for calcium absorption, but that excessive protein consumption inhibits this process. No interventional trials have been performed on dietary protein in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Medication Just as for treatment, bisphosphonate can be used in cases of very high risk. Other medicines prescribed for prevention of osteoporosis include raloxifene, a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM). Estrogen replacement therapy remains a good treatment for prevention of osteoporosis but, at this time, is not recommended unless there are other indications for its use as well. There is uncertainty and controversy about whether estrogen should be recommended in women in the first decade after the menopause. In hypogonadal men testosterone has been shown to give improvement in bone quantity and quality, but, as of 2008, there are no studies of the effects on fractures or in men with a normal testosterone level. History The link between age-related reductions in bone density and fracture risk goes back at least to Astley Cooper, and the term "osteoporosis" and recognition of its pathological appearance is generally attributed to the French pathologist Jean Lobstein. Lobstein JGCFM. Lehrbuch der pathologischen Anatomie. Stuttgart: Bd II, 1835. The American endocrinologist Fuller Albright linked osteoporosis with the postmenopausal state. Bisphosponates, which revolutionized the treatment of osteoporosis, were discovered in the 1960s. Organisations The National Osteoporosis Society, established in 1986, is the only United Kingdom charity dedicated to improving the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. "About Us", National Osteoporosis Society. "£3million Award Towards The Improvement Of Osteoporosis Services, UK", Medical News Today, 17 March 2008. See also Back pain Hip protector Dental X-ray Osteopetrosis Osteoimmunology Ovariectomized rat model for osteoporosis research Spaceflight osteopenia References External links Osteoporosis risk assessment tools Diet, Nutrition and the prevention of osteoporosis the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization (2003) Bone Health and Osteoporosis: A Report of the Surgeon General distributed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services International Osteoporosis Foundation NOF.org The National Osteoporosis Foundation NOS.org.uk National Osteoporosis Society (UK) | Osteoporosis |@lemmatized osteoporosis:102 disease:23 bone:112 lead:17 increase:42 risk:51 fracture:80 mineral:14 density:21 bmd:12 reduce:3 microarchitecture:2 disrupt:2 amount:5 variety:1 non:3 collagenous:1 protein:9 alter:1 define:2 world:4 health:10 organization:5 woman:28 standard:4 deviation:2 peak:6 mass:11 year:15 old:5 healthy:2 female:4 average:2 measure:6 dxa:4 term:6 establish:6 include:15 presence:2 fragility:7 common:8 menopause:7 call:4 postmenopausal:5 may:26 also:21 develop:6 men:19 occur:8 anyone:1 particular:2 hormonal:2 disorder:12 chronic:7 result:9 medication:14 specifically:2 glucocorticoid:4 steroid:4 induced:2 siop:2 giop:1 give:4 influence:4 significantly:2 affect:2 life:5 expectancy:1 quality:5 prevent:8 lifestyle:6 change:4 sometimes:2 people:7 treatment:18 involve:4 fall:12 exercise:18 calcium:34 vitamin:24 bisphosphonates:9 several:7 others:4 prevention:14 advice:2 tone:2 deambulatory:1 muscle:3 proprioception:1 improvement:6 equilibrium:2 therapy:8 anabolic:1 effect:7 time:7 stop:2 reverse:1 pathogenesis:1 underlie:4 mechanism:4 case:3 imbalance:1 resorption:9 formation:4 normal:6 constant:2 matrix:2 remodeling:3 undergo:1 remodel:5 point:1 process:3 take:10 place:3 multicellular:1 unit:2 bmus:1 first:4 describe:2 frost:2 hm:1 thomas:1 cc:1 dynamic:1 springfield:1 il:1 resorb:1 osteoclast:6 cell:4 derive:1 marrow:1 new:5 deposit:1 osteoblast:8 three:4 main:5 develops:1 inadequate:2 skeleton:2 insufficient:2 strength:5 growth:2 excessive:3 interplay:1 development:4 fragile:1 tissue:1 factor:14 strongly:1 determine:2 rate:10 lack:1 estrogen:17 e:5 g:6 well:10 decrease:6 deposition:3 normally:4 weight:6 bearing:2 need:3 suppress:2 low:21 stimulate:4 uterus:1 breast:2 gland:2 α:1 form:8 receptor:7 appear:4 important:3 regulate:3 turnover:4 addition:5 metabolism:3 play:1 significant:6 role:5 deficiency:6 impair:3 parathyroid:5 react:1 level:10 secrete:1 hormone:9 parathormone:1 pth:5 ensure:1 sufficient:2 blood:4 calcitonin:1 generate:2 thyroid:1 less:7 clear:1 probably:3 activation:1 various:2 molecular:1 signal:2 rankl:3 activator:2 nuclear:2 κb:2 ligand:1 one:8 best:2 study:17 molecule:1 produce:2 lymphocytes:1 stimulates:1 rank:3 osteoprotegerin:1 opg:2 bind:2 opportunity:1 hence:1 ability:2 closely:1 relate:2 tumor:1 necrosis:1 wnt:1 pathway:1 recognize:3 understood:1 local:1 production:5 eicosanoids:1 interleukin:1 think:2 participate:2 regulation:2 excess:4 reduced:2 mediator:1 trabecular:6 sponge:1 like:4 end:1 long:5 vertebra:2 cortical:2 hard:2 outer:1 shell:1 middle:2 inhabit:1 surface:1 active:5 subject:1 weak:2 spicule:1 break:2 microcracks:1 replace:1 osteoporotic:8 site:1 wrist:8 hip:20 spine:5 relatively:3 high:17 ratio:1 area:2 rely:1 therefore:4 intense:1 cause:19 degenerate:1 imbalanced:1 sign:2 symptom:2 specific:2 symptoms:1 consequence:2 increased:5 situation:1 would:3 regarded:1 typical:1 vertebral:15 column:1 rib:4 collapse:2 compression:3 sudden:1 back:4 pain:8 often:5 radiculopathic:1 shoot:1 due:5 nerve:1 rarely:1 spinal:1 cord:1 cauda:1 equina:1 syndrome:10 multiple:7 stooped:1 posture:1 loss:14 height:2 resultant:1 reduction:4 mobility:3 acutely:1 require:6 surgery:4 usually:1 prompt:1 serious:2 associate:14 deep:2 vein:1 thrombosis:3 pulmonary:3 embolism:2 mortality:6 age:24 turn:2 impaired:1 eyesight:1 glaucoma:1 macular:1 degeneration:2 balance:4 movement:1 parkinson:2 dementia:1 sarcopenia:1 related:3 skeletal:1 transient:1 postural:1 without:2 consciousness:1 syncope:2 manifold:1 cardiac:1 arrhythmia:1 irregular:1 heart:2 beat:1 vasovagal:1 orthostatic:1 hypotension:1 abnormal:2 drop:1 pressure:2 stand:2 seizure:1 removal:3 obstacle:1 loose:1 carpet:1 living:1 environment:1 substantially:1 previous:3 gait:2 split:1 modifiable:6 potentially:4 complication:6 use:27 theoretically:1 although:4 many:6 unavoidable:1 nonmodifiable:1 advance:1 sex:2 follow:5 correlate:1 rapid:1 testosterone:8 comparable:1 pronounced:1 ethnic:1 group:4 european:1 asian:1 ancestry:1 predisposes:1 family:2 history:3 heritability:1 range:1 percent:1 least:5 gene:1 already:4 twice:1 likely:1 another:2 compare:1 someone:1 alcohol:5 small:4 even:2 beneficial:1 heavy:4 drinking:1 intake:16 great:2 day:7 especially:5 young:4 circulate:1 among:3 elderly:4 worldwide:2 mild:1 insufficiency:3 positive:1 association:2 exist:1 serum:1 dihydroxycholecalciferol:2 negatively:1 tobacco:3 smoke:2 smoking:4 inhibit:5 activity:7 independent:1 breakdown:1 exogenous:1 body:4 early:3 contribute:3 lower:1 index:1 overweight:1 protects:1 either:2 load:2 leptin:1 malnutrition:2 dietary:5 k:2 c:1 adolescence:3 population:4 physical:6 inactivity:2 occurs:1 response:1 stress:1 bear:1 achieve:2 adult:3 help:3 maintain:3 conversely:1 damage:1 exhaustion:1 structure:1 numerous:2 example:7 marathon:1 runner:1 severe:5 later:1 decreased:2 predispose:2 intensive:1 training:3 proper:3 compensatory:1 nutrition:9 metal:1 strong:2 cadmium:3 exposure:3 readily:2 gender:2 osteomalacia:1 soften:1 soft:3 drink:5 indicate:4 contain:3 phosphoric:1 acid:6 suggest:4 displace:1 diet:3 rather:4 directly:1 caffeine:2 contrary:1 popular:2 belief:1 evidence:4 link:10 straight:1 forward:1 whereas:1 unknown:2 general:2 immobilization:2 lose:1 rule:2 localize:1 prolonged:2 fractured:1 limb:1 cast:1 patient:16 athletes:1 space:1 flight:1 bedridden:1 wheelchair:1 bound:2 reason:3 hypogonadal:3 state:7 secondary:1 turner:1 klinefelter:1 kallmann:1 anorexia:1 nervosa:1 andropause:2 hypothalamic:1 amenorrhea:2 hyperprolactinemia:1 hypogonadism:2 mediate:1 prolong:1 premenopausal:2 bilateral:1 oophorectomy:1 surgical:2 ovary:1 premature:1 ovarian:1 failure:1 deficient:1 male:1 testis:1 endocrine:1 induce:3 cushing:3 hyperparathyroidism:1 thyrotoxicosis:2 hypothyroidism:2 diabetes:2 mellitus:1 type:4 acromegaly:1 adrenal:1 pregnancy:1 lactation:1 reversible:1 parenteral:1 malabsorption:1 nutritional:1 gastrointestinal:1 coeliac:1 crohn:1 lactose:1 intolerance:1 gastrectomy:1 intestinal:2 bypass:1 bowel:1 resection:1 liver:1 primary:1 biliary:1 cirrhosis:1 bulimia:1 otherwise:2 adequate:1 inability:1 absorb:2 micro:1 nutrient:1 rheumatologic:1 rheumatoid:1 arthritis:2 ankylose:1 spondylitis:1 systemic:2 lupus:1 erythematosus:1 polyarticular:1 juvenile:1 idiopathic:1 part:1 notably:1 corticosteroid:1 amyloidosis:1 sarcoidosis:1 renal:2 osteodystrophy:1 hematologic:1 myeloma:2 monoclonal:1 gammopathy:1 lymphoma:1 leukemia:1 mastocytosis:1 hemophilia:1 sickle:1 thalassemia:1 inherited:1 osteogenesis:1 imperfecta:1 marfan:1 hemochromatosis:1 hypophosphatasia:1 glycogen:1 storage:2 homocystinuria:1 ehlers:1 danlos:1 porphyria:1 menkes:1 epidermolysis:1 bullosa:1 gaucher:1 scoliosis:1 feature:1 complex:1 regional:1 frequent:1 obstructive:1 certain:1 anticonvulsant:1 classically:1 emerge:1 regard:2 drug:9 arise:1 analogous:1 mainly:1 axial:1 synthetic:1 prescription:1 prednisone:1 candidate:1 professional:1 guideline:2 recommend:8 prophylaxis:1 equivalent:1 mg:11 hydrocortisone:1 prednisolone:1 month:4 alternate:1 barbiturate:1 phenytoin:1 enzyme:1 antiepileptic:1 accelerate:1 l:1 thyroxine:1 replacement:5 similar:1 fashion:1 relevant:1 subclinical:1 aromatase:1 inhibitor:3 cancer:2 methotrexate:1 anti:1 metabolite:1 depot:1 progesterone:1 gonadotropin:1 release:1 agonist:1 anticoagulant:1 heparin:1 warfarin:1 coumarins:1 proton:1 pump:1 stomach:4 interfere:1 absorption:3 phosphate:1 binding:1 aluminium:1 containing:1 antacid:1 thiazolidinediones:1 rosiglitazone:1 possibly:1 pioglitazone:1 pparγ:1 lithium:1 diagnosis:9 scanner:1 dual:5 energy:4 x:7 ray:7 absorptiometry:4 make:6 method:3 dexa:2 detection:1 investigation:3 underlying:2 test:2 depend:5 likelihood:2 problem:2 metastasis:1 mention:1 perform:2 formerly:1 consider:1 gold:1 diagnose:2 equal:1 reference:2 translate:1 score:6 following:1 diagnostic:1 osteopenia:4 trauma:1 international:2 society:4 clinical:3 densitometry:2 position:1 basis:2 densitometric:2 criterion:2 alone:3 pre:1 menopausal:1 z:1 comparison:1 quote:1 child:1 screen:5 u:5 preventive:1 service:3 task:2 force:2 uspstf:1 kg:1 recommendation:2 optimal:1 interval:1 repeat:1 screening:4 appropriate:1 prediction:1 available:2 guide:1 selection:1 assessment:2 instrument:1 orai:1 sensitive:1 strategy:1 cost:3 analysis:3 effective:7 self:1 report:6 prior:3 begin:1 detect:1 say:1 treat:4 aspect:3 pharmacological:2 however:8 teriparatide:4 strontium:20 ranelate:8 confirmed:1 bisphosphonate:3 line:1 prescribed:1 sodium:2 alendronate:3 fosamax:2 week:3 risedronate:1 actonel:1 ibandronate:1 boniva:1 manufacturer:3 support:5 suffer:4 impact:2 annual:1 infusion:1 zoledronic:1 find:4 benefit:4 oppose:1 control:3 die:2 oral:7 poorly:2 must:4 empty:2 food:4 next:1 minute:1 esophagitis:2 tolerate:2 weekly:1 monthly:1 administration:1 preparation:2 intermittent:1 dose:2 intravenous:1 formulation:1 zolendronate:1 avoids:1 tolerance:1 agent:2 implicate:1 rare:2 unpleasant:1 mouth:1 osteonecrosis:1 jaw:1 prefer:1 prescribe:2 remedial:1 dental:2 work:1 carry:1 commence:1 recently:1 forteo:1 recombinant:1 residues:1 show:8 act:3 thus:1 mostly:2 particularly:1 cannot:2 daily:3 injection:2 pen:1 device:2 licensed:1 fail:1 contraindicate:1 differs:1 country:2 fda:1 usa:1 radiation:1 paget:1 avoid:2 alternative:1 belong:1 class:2 action:1 daba:1 prove:2 efficacy:1 laboratory:1 experiment:1 note:2 proliferation:2 suspension:1 licence:1 side:2 upper:1 gi:1 withdrawal:1 venous:2 thromboembolism:1 suitable:1 different:2 uptake:2 substantial:2 disproportionate:1 scanning:1 followup:1 harder:1 interpret:1 correction:1 algorithm:1 devise:1 approve:1 united:5 yet:1 citrate:1 know:1 researcher:2 believe:1 safe:1 matter:2 simply:1 invent:1 servier:1 company:1 france:1 could:1 patent:1 version:1 water:2 soluble:1 ionize:1 transport:1 tract:1 stream:1 unlike:1 recycling:1 fact:1 five:2 continue:1 build:1 lifetime:3 compete:1 essential:1 magnesium:1 therapeutic:1 night:1 remain:2 good:5 recommended:2 unless:2 indication:2 uncertainty:2 controversy:2 whether:3 decade:3 quantity:2 selective:3 modulator:2 serm:2 serms:3 throughout:3 manner:1 tightly:1 major:1 raloxifene:2 slow:1 trial:3 healing:1 vary:2 individual:4 fifty:1 agency:1 per:4 supplement:2 optimize:1 unclear:1 extremely:2 milk:2 product:1 salt:1 sunlight:1 mineralization:1 consume:1 joint:2 fao:2 unu:2 expert:2 consultation:2 amino:1 requirement:2 human:3 isbn:1 meta:2 randomize:1 plus:2 iu:1 though:4 outcome:2 varied:1 assess:1 versus:1 along:2 much:1 compliance:1 protocol:1 contrast:1 despite:1 improved:1 lipoprotein:1 hdl:1 cholesterol:1 supplementation:2 possible:1 myocardial:1 infarction:1 attack:1 zealand:1 confirm:1 harm:1 reduces:1 initiative:1 kidney:2 stone:1 aerobics:1 resistance:1 attempt:1 pinpoint:1 improve:2 metric:1 regular:1 jumping:2 moment:1 inertia:1 proximal:2 tibia:1 treadmill:1 walk:1 gymnastic:1 step:1 endurance:1 osteopenic:1 elicit:1 distal:1 radius:1 combine:1 hrt:2 additional:2 prognosis:1 category:1 overall:1 pneumonia:1 approximately:1 proportion:1 almost:1 total:1 assistance:1 mobilize:1 neurogenic:1 origin:1 deformity:1 hunch:1 kyphosis:1 resulting:1 internal:1 organ:1 breathe:1 apart:1 death:1 epidemiology:1 lateral:1 thoraco:1 lumbar:3 demonstrate:1 wedge:1 estimate:2 responsible:2 million:1 annually:4 attributible:1 white:2 femur:1 incidence:2 sixth:1 ninth:1 third:2 series:1 entry:1 rise:1 attributable:1 sustain:1 colles:1 reach:1 thirty:1 overlook:1 physically:1 course:1 skiing:2 jet:1 quick:1 reveal:1 might:1 concept:1 ortheses:1 building:1 inversion:1 unsafe:1 cessation:1 moderation:1 commonly:1 rest:1 delay:1 jogging:1 walking:1 stair:1 climb:1 maximum:1 effort:1 discuss:1 program:1 physician:1 generally:2 paracalcitol:1 calcitriol:2 biologically:1 adequately:1 calcidiol:1 hydroxycholecalciferol:1 excretion:1 urine:1 research:2 consumption:1 interventional:1 medicine:1 go:1 astley:1 cooper:1 recognition:1 pathological:1 appearance:1 attribute:1 french:1 pathologist:1 jean:1 lobstein:2 jgcfm:1 lehrbuch:1 der:1 pathologischen:1 anatomie:1 stuttgart:1 bd:1 ii:1 american:1 endocrinologist:1 fuller:1 albright:1 bisphosponates:1 revolutionize:1 discover:1 organisation:1 national:4 kingdom:1 charity:1 dedicate:1 award:1 towards:1 uk:3 medical:1 news:1 today:1 march:1 see:1 protector:1 osteopetrosis:1 osteoimmunology:1 ovariectomized:1 rat:1 model:1 spaceflight:1 external:1 tool:1 agriculture:1 surgeon:1 distribute:1 department:1 foundation:2 nof:1 org:2 |@bigram fracture_osteoporosis:4 fragility_fracture:7 life_expectancy:1 bone_resorption:8 bone_remodel:3 bone_marrow:1 estrogen_receptor:4 parathyroid_hormone:4 closely_relate:1 tumor_necrosis:1 necrosis_factor:1 trabecular_bone:6 osteoporotic_fracture:7 vertebral_column:1 spinal_cord:1 vertebral_fracture:12 chronic_pain:2 hip_fracture:14 pulmonary_embolism:2 macular_degeneration:1 parkinson_disease:2 skeletal_muscle:1 cardiac_arrhythmia:1 gait_balance:1 vitamin_deficiency:2 tobacco_smoke:1 tobacco_smoking:2 calcium_intake:6 dietary_intake:2 marathon_runner:1 soft_drink:3 phosphoric_acid:1 wheelchair_bound:1 klinefelter_syndrome:1 anorexia_nervosa:1 surgical_removal:2 diabetes_mellitus:1 coeliac_disease:1 crohn_disease:1 lactose_intolerance:1 bypass_surgery:1 rheumatoid_arthritis:1 systemic_lupus:1 lupus_erythematosus:1 multiple_myeloma:2 sickle_cell:1 marfan_syndrome:1 glycogen_storage:1 ehlers_danlos:1 danlos_syndrome:1 breast_cancer:1 ray_absorptiometry:4 diagnosis_osteoporosis:6 strontium_ranelate:7 calcium_magnesium:1 prevention_osteoporosis:7 tightly_regulate:1 clinical_trial:1 exposure_sunlight:1 amino_acid:1 vitamin_mineral:1 meta_analysis:2 density_lipoprotein:1 myocardial_infarction:1 postmenopausal_woman:3 moment_inertia:1 mortality_rate:2 smoke_cessation:1 biologically_active:1 lehrbuch_der:1 external_link:1 |
4,693 | Gaudy_Night | Gaudy Night is a 1935 Lord Peter Wimsey detective story by Dorothy L. Sayers. It is the third of the Wimsey novels to feature Harriet Vane. Plot outline Having been acquitted of one murder in Strong Poison, and been instrumental in the solving of another in Have His Carcase, mystery writer Harriet Vane arrives for the reunion (or gaudy) at her alma mater, the fictitious all-female Shrewsbury College, Oxford; a thinly disguised version of Somerville College http://www.some.ox.ac.uk/175/all/1/The_College.aspx , Sayers' own alma mater. Here she encounters a tangle of poison pen notes, obscene graffiti, and dangerous pranks that she unravels with the help of Lord Peter Wimsey. The intellectual and emotional difficulties that have blighted their relationship are finally unravelled, and Harriet accepts Wimsey's proposal of marriage. Explanation of the novel's title "Gaudy" derives from the Latin gaudium and Old French gaudie, meaning "merry-making" or "enjoyment". A college gaudy is a dinner; in this case an annual reunion one. The phrase "gaudy night" is taken from Shakespeare's Antony & Cleopatra: Plot summary Harriet Vane returns reluctantly to Oxford for one night to attend the Gaudy dinner. Expecting hostility because of her notoriety, she is surprised to be welcomed warmly by the dons, and rediscovers her old love of the academic life. Some time later the college Warden writes to ask for help. There has been an outbreak of anonymous letters, vandalism and threats, apparently from someone within the college, and a scandal is feared. Harriet, herself a victim of poison-pen letters ever since her trial, agrees reluctantly to help, and spends much of the next few months resident at the college, ostensibly to do research on Sheridan Le Fanu and assist a senior scholar with her book. As she wrestles with the case, trying to narrow down the list of suspects and avert a major scandal, Harriet is forced to examine her ambivalent feelings about love and marriage, along with her attraction to academia as an intellectual (and emotional) refuge. Her personal dilemma becomes entangled with darkly hinted suspicions and prejudices raised by the crimes at the college, which appear to have been committed by a frustrated woman academic. She is forced to reexamine her relationship with Wimsey, who eventually arrives in Oxford to help her, in the light of what she has discovered about herself; and also gains a new perspective on him from those who know him, including his nephew, a current Oxford undergraduate. The attacks build to a crisis, and the college community of students, dons and servants is almost torn apart by suspicion and fear. There is an attempt to drive a vulnerable individual to suicide, and a physical attack that almost kills Harriet. The perpetrator is finally unmasked by Wimsey as one of the servants, revealed to be the widow of a former academic. One of the dons previously exposed her husband's academic fraud, breaking his career and driving him to suicide, and the campaign has been her revenge against intellectual women who move outside their "proper" domestic sphere. In an extraordinarily touching scene at the end of the book, Harriet Vane finally accepts Wimsey's proposal of marriage. (Their engagement, marriage and honeymoon (interrupted by yet another murder mystery) are depicted in Busman's Honeymoon.) Characters in "Gaudy Night" Lord Peter Wimsey – protagonist, an aristocratic amateur detective Harriet Vane – protagonist, a mystery writer Literary significance and criticism Although no murder occurs in Gaudy Night, it is not without suspense and psychological thrills. The narrative is interwoven with a love story and an examination of women's struggles to enlarge their roles and achieve some independence within the social climate of 1930s England, and the novel has been described as "the first feminist mystery novel." "Gaudy Night is a remarkable achievement. Harriet Vane and the grown-up nephew of Lord Peter help give variety, and the college scene justifies good intellectual talk. The motive is magnificently orated on by the culprit, a scene that in itself is a unique bit of work. And though the don-esses are sometimes hard to keep apart, the architecture is very good. Note a reference to C. P. Snow's The Search, and sound views on counterpoint versus harmony." Barzun, Jacques and Taylor, Wendell Hertig. A Catalogue of Crime. New York: Harper & Row. 1971, revised and enlarged edition 1989. ISBN 0-06-015796-8 Film, TV or theatrical adaptations It was adapted for television in 1987 as part of a series starring Edward Petherbridge as Lord Peter and Harriet Walter as Harriet Vane. In 2005 an adaptation of the novel was released on CD by the BBC Radio Collection to finally complete the run of Wimsey adaptations begun with Whose Body? in 1973; the role of Harriet was played by Joanna David, and Wimsey, as ever, by Ian Carmichael. In 2006 a theatrical adaptation was created by Frances Limoncelli and directed by Dorothy Milne at Lifeline Theatre in Chicago. http://www.chicagocritic.com/html/gaudy_night.html The plot of Gaudy Night was adapted to become the two-part Out of the Past episode (#155 & #156) of the American television mystery series Diagnosis Murder starring Dick van Dyke as Dr. Mark Sloan. The episode first aired on 11 May 2000, with John Schneider as the villain. Famous quotes "How fleeting are all human passions compared to the massive continuity of ducks." "She went to bed thinking more about another person than about herself. This goes to prove that even minor poetry may have its practical uses." "It may, perhaps, be embarrassing for a solitary man to walk across a wide quadrangle under a fire of glances from a collection of collegiate females; but it is child's play compared, for example, with the long trek from the pavilion at Lord's to the far end of the pitch, with five wickets down and ninety needed to save the follow-on. Thousands of people then alive might have recognized that easy and unhurried stride and confident carriage of the head." "However loudly we may assert our own unworthiness, few of us are really offended by hearing the assertion contradicted by a disinterested party." External links Annotations and explanations by Bill Peschel References | Gaudy_Night |@lemmatized gaudy:10 night:7 lord:6 peter:5 wimsey:10 detective:2 story:2 dorothy:2 l:1 sayers:2 third:1 novel:5 feature:1 harriet:13 vane:7 plot:3 outline:1 acquit:1 one:5 murder:4 strong:1 poison:3 instrumental:1 solving:1 another:3 carcase:1 mystery:5 writer:2 arrives:1 reunion:2 alma:2 mater:2 fictitious:1 female:2 shrewsbury:1 college:9 oxford:4 thinly:1 disguised:1 version:1 somerville:1 http:2 www:2 ox:1 ac:1 uk:1 aspx:1 encounter:1 tangle:1 pen:2 note:2 obscene:1 graffiti:1 dangerous:1 prank:1 unravel:1 help:5 intellectual:4 emotional:2 difficulty:1 blight:1 relationship:2 finally:4 unravelled:1 accepts:1 proposal:2 marriage:4 explanation:2 title:1 derive:1 latin:1 gaudium:1 old:2 french:1 gaudie:1 mean:1 merry:1 make:1 enjoyment:1 dinner:2 case:2 annual:1 phrase:1 take:1 shakespeare:1 antony:1 cleopatra:1 summary:1 return:1 reluctantly:2 attend:1 expect:1 hostility:1 notoriety:1 surprise:1 welcome:1 warmly:1 rediscover:1 love:3 academic:4 life:1 time:1 later:1 warden:1 write:1 ask:1 outbreak:1 anonymous:1 letter:2 vandalism:1 threat:1 apparently:1 someone:1 within:2 scandal:2 fear:2 victim:1 ever:2 since:1 trial:1 agree:1 spend:1 much:1 next:1 month:1 resident:1 ostensibly:1 research:1 sheridan:1 le:1 fanu:1 assist:1 senior:1 scholar:1 book:2 wrestle:1 try:1 narrow:1 list:1 suspect:1 avert:1 major:1 force:2 examine:1 ambivalent:1 feeling:1 along:1 attraction:1 academia:1 refuge:1 personal:1 dilemma:1 become:2 entangle:1 darkly:1 hint:1 suspicion:2 prejudice:1 raise:1 crime:2 appear:1 commit:1 frustrated:1 woman:3 reexamine:1 eventually:1 arrive:1 light:1 discover:1 also:1 gain:1 new:2 perspective:1 know:1 include:1 nephew:2 current:1 undergraduate:1 attack:2 build:1 crisis:1 community:1 student:1 servant:2 almost:2 torn:1 apart:2 attempt:1 drive:2 vulnerable:1 individual:1 suicide:2 physical:1 kill:1 perpetrator:1 unmask:1 reveal:1 widow:1 former:1 previously:1 expose:1 husband:1 fraud:1 break:1 career:1 campaign:1 revenge:1 move:1 outside:1 proper:1 domestic:1 sphere:1 extraordinarily:1 touching:1 scene:3 end:2 accept:1 engagement:1 honeymoon:2 interrupt:1 yet:1 depict:1 busman:1 character:1 protagonist:2 aristocratic:1 amateur:1 literary:1 significance:1 criticism:1 although:1 occur:1 without:1 suspense:1 psychological:1 thrill:1 narrative:1 interweave:1 examination:1 struggle:1 enlarge:2 role:2 achieve:1 independence:1 social:1 climate:1 england:1 describe:1 first:2 feminist:1 remarkable:1 achievement:1 grown:1 give:1 variety:1 justifies:1 good:2 talk:1 motive:1 magnificently:1 orate:1 culprit:1 unique:1 bit:1 work:1 though:1 es:1 sometimes:1 hard:1 keep:1 architecture:1 reference:2 c:1 p:1 snow:1 search:1 sound:1 view:1 counterpoint:1 versus:1 harmony:1 barzun:1 jacques:1 taylor:1 wendell:1 hertig:1 catalogue:1 york:1 harper:1 row:1 revise:1 edition:1 isbn:1 film:1 tv:1 theatrical:2 adaptation:4 adapt:2 television:2 part:2 series:2 star:2 edward:1 petherbridge:1 walter:1 release:1 cd:1 bbc:1 radio:1 collection:2 complete:1 run:1 begin:1 whose:1 body:1 play:2 joanna:1 david:1 ian:1 carmichael:1 create:1 france:1 limoncelli:1 direct:1 milne:1 lifeline:1 theatre:1 chicago:1 chicagocritic:1 com:1 html:2 two:1 past:1 episode:2 american:1 diagnosis:1 dick:1 van:1 dyke:1 dr:1 mark:1 sloan:1 air:1 may:4 john:1 schneider:1 villain:1 famous:1 quote:1 fleeting:1 human:1 passion:1 compare:2 massive:1 continuity:1 duck:1 go:2 bed:1 think:1 person:1 prove:1 even:1 minor:1 poetry:1 practical:1 us:1 perhaps:1 embarrass:1 solitary:1 man:1 walk:1 across:1 wide:1 quadrangle:1 fire:1 glance:1 collegiate:1 child:1 example:1 long:1 trek:1 pavilion:1 far:1 pitch:1 five:1 wicket:1 ninety:1 need:1 save:1 follow:1 thousand:1 people:1 alive:1 might:1 recognize:1 easy:1 unhurried:1 stride:1 confident:1 carriage:1 head:1 however:1 loudly:1 assert:1 unworthiness:1 u:1 really:1 offend:1 hear:1 assertion:1 contradict:1 disinterested:1 party:1 external:1 link:1 annotation:1 bill:1 peschel:1 |@bigram gaudy_night:6 peter_wimsey:3 l_sayers:1 harriet_vane:7 alma_mater:2 thinly_disguised:1 http_www:2 ox_ac:1 antony_cleopatra:1 sheridan_le:1 le_fanu:1 torn_apart:1 busman_honeymoon:1 harper_row:1 revise_enlarge:1 ian_carmichael:1 van_dyke:1 external_link:1 |
4,694 | Measuring_instrument | Captain Nemo and Professor Aronnax contemplating measuring instruments in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea A Love Meter at a Framingham, Massachusetts Rest Stop. In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used as units, and the measurement results in a given number for the relationship between the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement. Measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define their use, are the means by which this translation is made. All measuring instruments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error and measurement uncertainty. Physicists use a vast range of instruments to perform their measurements. These range from simple objects such as rulers and stopwatches to electron microscopes and particle accelerators. Virtual instrumentation is widely used in the development of modern measuring instruments. Time, energy, power and action Time Time measurement device. Time-points in the past can be measured with respect to the present of an observer. Time-points in the future can be fixed. But there seems to exist no device that can set time to a predetermined value (time machine), unlike it is possible with other physical quantities (for example: distance or volume). The time-point called present seems to move in one direction only. Entropy production and cause-and-effect observations of events correlate to this observation. For more information on time, especially standards, also consult the time portal. Atomic clock Calendar (by counting days) Chronometer, Chronograph Clock Egg timer Hourglass Pendulum clock Radio clock Radiometric dating Sundial Transit telescope Water clock Timeline of time measurement technology For the ranges of time-values see: Orders of magnitude (time) Energy Changing energy carriers, linear momentum to angular momentum. No measurement primarily intended. Example: In a plant that furnishes pumped-storage hydroelectricity, mechanical work and electrical work is done by machines like electric pumps and generators. The pumped water stores mechanical work. The amount of energy put into the system equals the amount of energy which comes out of the system, less that used to overcome friction. Such examples suggested the derivation of some unifying concepts: Instead of discerning (transferred) forms of work or stored work, there has been introduced one single quantity called energy. Energy is assumed to have substance-like qualities; energy can be apportioned and transferred. Energy cannot be created from nothing, or to be annihilated to nothing, thus energy becomes a conserved quantity, when properly balanced. For the transfer of energy two directions are used: (energy carriers exchanging energy) Physical interactions occur by carriers (linear momentum, electric charge, entropy) exchanging energy. For example, a generator transfers energy from angular momentum to electric charge. (energy forms transforming energy) Energy forms are transformed; for example mechanical energy into electrical energy by a generator. Often the energy value results from multiplying two related quantities: (a generalized) potential (relative velocity, voltage, temperature difference) times some substance-like quantity (linear momentum, electrical charge, entropy). — Thus energy has to be measured by first choosing a carrier/form. The measurement usually happens indirectly, by obtaining two values (potential and substance-like quantity) and by multiplying their values. (see any measurement device for energy below) For the ranges of energy-values see: Orders of magnitude (energy) Power (current of energy) Power describes energy exchanged by a system at a point in time (current of energy). (see any measurement device for power below) For the ranges of power-values see: Orders of magnitude (power). Action Action describes energy summed up over the time a process lasts (time integral over energy). Its dimension is the same as that of an angular momentum. phototube A voltage measurement permits to calculate the quantized action (Planck constant) of light. Also see photoelectric effect. Mechanics This includes basic quantities found in Classical- and continuum mechanics; but strives to exclude temperature-related questions or quantities. Length (distance) A steel rule – an instrument for measuring length. Altimeter, height Architect's scale Caliper Electronic distance meter Engineer's scale Gauge blocks GPS, indirect by runtime measurement of electromagnetic waves in the GHz-range Interferometer Laser rangefinder, indirect by runtime measurement of coherent electromagnetic waves around the visible light region (lidar) Micrometer Odometer Opisometer Radar antenna, indirect by runtime measurement of electromagnetic waves around the microwave region (radar) Rule Surveyor's wheel Tachymeter Tape measure Taximeter, measure usually includes a time component as well Ultrasound distance measure, indirect by runtime measurement of sound waves (sonar, Echo sounding) see also Distance measuring equipment For the ranges of length-values see: Orders of magnitude (length) Area Planimeter For the ranges of area-values see: Orders of magnitude (area) Volume A measuring cup, a common instrument used to measure volume. buoyant weight (solids) Flow measurement devices (liquids) Graduated cylinder (liquids) Measuring cup (liquids, grained solids) overflow trough (solids) Pipette (liquids) pneumatic trough (gases) (if the mass density of a solid is known, weighing allows to calculate the volume) For the ranges of volume-values see: Orders of magnitude (volume) Mass- or volume flow measurement Gas Meter Mass flow meter Metering pump Water Meter Speed (current of length) Airspeed indicator Radar gun, a Doppler radar device, using the Doppler effect for indirect measurement of velocity. Speedometer Tachometer (speed of rotation) Tachymeter Variometer For the ranges of speed-values see: Orders of magnitude (speed) Acceleration Accelerometer Mass A pair of scales: An instrument for measuring mass in a force field — actually balancing forces! Balance Automatic checkweighing machines Katharometer Mass spectrometer Weighing scales For the ranges of mass-values see: Orders of magnitude (mass) Linear momentum Ballistic pendulum Force (current of linear momentum) Force gauge Spring scale Strain gauge Torsion balance Tribometer Measuring absolute pressure in an accelerated reference frame: The principle of a mercury (Hg) barometer in the gravitational field of the earth. Pressure (current density of linear momentum) Current density is also called flux. Anemometer (used to determine wind speed) Barometer used to measure the atmospheric pressure. Manometer see pressure measurement Pitot tube (used to determine speed) Tire-pressure gauge in industry and mobility For the ranges of pressure-values see: Orders of magnitude (pressure) Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology Angle Circumferentor Cross staff Goniometer Graphometer Protractor Quadrant Reflecting instruments Octant Reflecting circles Sextant Theodolite angular velocity or rotations per time unit Stroboscope Tachometer For the value-ranges of angular velocity see: Orders of magnitude (angular velocity) For the ranges of frequency see: Orders of magnitude (frequency) Angular momentum Torque Dynamometer De Prony brake Torque wrench Orientation in three-dimensional space See also the section about navigation below. Level Dumpy level Laser line level Spirit level Tiltmeter Direction Gyroscope Energy carried by mechanical quantities, mechanical work Ballistic pendulum, indirectly by calculation and or gauging Electricity, electronics and electrical engineering Considerations related to electric charge dominate Electricity and Electronics. Electrical charges interact via a field. That field is called electric if the charge doesn't move. If the charge moves, thus realizing an electric current, that field is called magnetic. Electricity can be given a quality — a potential. And electricity has a substance-like property, the electric charge. Energy (or power) in electrodynamics is calculated by multiplying the potential by the amount of charge (or current) found at that potential: potential times charge (or current). (See Classical electromagnetism and its Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism) An instrument for detecting net charges, the electroscope. Electric charge Electrometer is often used to reconfirm the phenomenon of contact electricity leading to triboelectric sequences. For the ranges of charge values see: Orders of magnitude (charge) Electric current (current of charge) Ammeter (part of a multimeter) Clamp meter Galvanometer Voltage (electric potential difference) Oscilloscope allows to quantify time depended voltages Voltmeter (part of a multimeter) Electric resistance, electrical conductance (and electrical conductivity) Ohmmeter (part of a multimeter, LCR meter) Time-domain reflectometer characterizes and locates faults in metallic cables by runtime measurements of electric signals. Wheatstone bridge Electric capacitance Capacitance meter (part of a LCR meter) Electric inductance Inductance meter (part of a LCR meter) Energy carried by electricity or electric energy Electric energy meter Electricity meter Power carried by electricity (current of energy) Wattmeter These are instruments used for measuring electrical properties. Also see meter (electronics). Electric field (negative gradient of electric potential, voltage per length) Field mill Magnetic field See also the relevant section in the article about the magnetic field. Compass Hall effect sensor Magnetometer Proton magnetometer SQUID For the ranges of magnetic field see: Orders of magnitude (magnetic field) Thermodynamics Temperature-related considerations dominate thermodynamics. There are two distinct thermal properties: A thermal potential — the temperature. For example: A glowing coal has a different thermal quality than a non-glowing one. And a substance-like property, — the entropy; for example: One glowing coal won't heat a pot of water, but a hundred will. Energy in thermodynamics is calculated by multipying the thermal potential by the amount of entropy found at that potential: temperature times entropy. Entropy can be created by friction but not annihilated. Amount of substance (or Mole number) Usually determined indirectly. If mass and substance type of the sample are known, then atomic- or molecular masses (taken from a periodic table, masses measured by mass spectrometry) give direct access to the value of the amount of substance. See also the article about molar masses. If specific molar values are given, then the amount of substance of a given sample may be determined by measuring volume, mass or concentration. Thermometer Temperature Electromagnetic spectroscopy Galileo thermometer Gas thermometer principle: relation between temperature and volume or pressure of a gas (Gas laws). constant pressure gas thermometer constant volume gas thermometer Liquid crystal thermometer liquid thermometer principle: relation between temperature and volume of a liquid (Coefficient of thermal expansion). Alcohol thermometer Mercury-in-glass thermometer Pyranometer principle: solar radiation flux density relates to surface temperature (Stefan–Boltzmann law) Pyrometers principle: temperature dependence of spectral intensity of light (Planck's law), i.e. the color of the light relates to the temperature of its source, range: from about -50°C to +4000°C, note: measurement of thermal radiation (instead of thermal conduction, or thermal convection) means no physical contact necessary in temperature measurement (pyrometry). note: thermal space resolution found in Thermography Resistance thermometer principle: relation between temperature and electrical resistance of metals (platinum) (Electrical resistance), range: 10 kelvins to 1000 kelvins, application in physics and industry solid thermometer principle: relation between temperature and length of a solid (Coefficient of thermal expansion). Bi-metallic strip Thermistors principle: relation between temperature and electrical resistance of ceramics or polymers, range: from about 0.01 kelvin to 2,000 kelvins (−273.14°C to 1,700°C) unit overall range kelvin 0.01–2,000 celsius −273.14–1,700 Thermocouples principle: relation between temperature and voltage of metal junctions (Seebeck effect), range: from about −200 °C to +1350 °C Thermometer Thermopile is a set of connected thermocouples Triple Point cell used for calibrating thermometers. Imaging technology Thermographic camera uses a microbolometer for detection of heat-radiation. See also Temperature measurement and :Category:Thermometers. More technically related may be seen thermal analysis methods in materials science. For the ranges of temperature-values see: Orders of magnitude (temperature) Energy carried by entropy or thermal energy An active calorimeter lacking a temperature measurement device. This includes thermal capacitance or temperature coefficient of energy, reaction energy, heat flow ... Calorimeters are called passive if gauged to measure emerging energy carried by entropy, for example from chemical reactions. Calorimeters are called active or heated if they heat the sample, or reformulated: if they are gauged to fill the sample with a defined amount of entropy. Actinometer measures the heating power of radiation. constant-temperature calorimeter, phase change calorimeter for example an ice calorimeter or any other calorimeter observing a phase change or using a gauged phase change for heat measurement. constant-volume calorimeter, also called bomb calorimeter constant-pressure calorimeter, enthalpy-meter or coffee cup calorimeter Differential Scanning Calorimeter Reaction calorimeter see also Calorimeter or Calorimetry Entropy Accessible indirectly by measurement of energy and temperature. Entropy transfer Phase change calorimeter's energy value divided by absolute temperature give the entropy exchanged. Phase changes produce no entropy and therefore offer themselves as an entropy measurement concept. Thus entropy values occur indirectly by processing energy measurements at defined temperatures, without producing entropy. constant-temperature calorimeter, phase change calorimeter Heat flux sensor uses thermopiles which are connected thermocouples to determine current density or flux of entropy. Entropy content The given sample is cooled down to (almost) absolute zero (for example by submerging the sample in liquid helium). At absolute zero temperature any sample is assumed to contain no entropy (see Third law of thermodynamics for further information). Then the following two active calorimeter types can be used to fill the sample with entropy until the desired temperature has been reached: (see also Thermodynamic databases for pure substances) constant-pressure calorimeter, enthalpy-meter, active constant-temperature calorimeter, phase change calorimeter, active Entropy production Processes transferring energy from a non-thermal carrier to heat as a carrier do produce entropy (Example: mechanical/electrical friction, established by Count Rumford). Either the produced entropy or heat are measured (calorimetry) or the transferred energy of the non-thermal carrier may be measured. calorimeter (any device for measuring the work which will or would eventually be converted to heat and the ambient temperature) Entropy lowering its temperature - without losing energy - produces entropy (Example: Heat conduction in an isolated rod; "thermal friction"). calorimeter temperature coefficient of energy or "heat capacity" Concerning a given sample, a proportionality factor relating temperature change and energy carried by heat. If the sample is a gas, then this coefficient depends significantly on being measured at constant volume or at constant pressure. (The terminiology preference in the heading indicates that the classical use of heat bars it from having substance-like properties.) constant-volume calorimeter, bomb calorimeter constant-pressure calorimeter, enthalpy-meter specific temperature coefficient of energy or "specific heat" The temperature coefficient of energy divided by a substance-like quantity (amount of substance, mass, volume) describing the sample. Usually calculated from measurements by a division or could be measured directly using a unit amount of that sample. For the ranges of specific heat capacities see: Orders of magnitude (specific heat capacity) Coefficient of thermal expansion Dilatometer Strain gauge Melting temperature (of a solid) Thiele tube Kofler bench Differential Scanning Calorimeter gives melting point and enthalpy of fusion. See also thermal analysis, Heat. More on continuum mechanics This includes mostly instruments which measure macroscopic properties of matter: In the fields of solid state physics; in condensed matter physics which considers solids, liquids and in-betweens exhibiting for example viscoelastic behavior. Furthermore fluid mechanics, where liquids, gases, plasmas and in-betweens like supercritical fluids are studied. Density This refers to particle density of fluids and compact(ed) solids like crystals, in contrast to bulk density of grainy or porous solids. Aerometer liquids Dasymeter gases Hydrometer liquids Pycnometer liquids resonant frequency and Damping Analyser (RFDA) solids For the ranges of density-values see: Orders of magnitude (density) Hardness of a solid Durometer Shape and surface of a solid Holographic interferometer Laser produced speckle pattern analysed. resonant frequency and Damping Analyser (RFDA) Deformation of condensed matter Strain gauge all below Elasticity of a solid (Elastic moduli) resonant frequency and Damping Analyser (RFDA), using the impulse excitation technique: A small mechanical impulse causes the sample to vibrate. The vibration depends on elastic properties, density, geometry and inner structures (lattice or fissures). Plasticity of a solid Cam plastometer Plastometer Measurement results (a) brittle (b) ductile with breaking point (c) ductile without breaking point. Tensile strength, ductility or malleability of a solid Universal Testing Machine Granularity of a solid or a suspension Grindometer Viscosity of a fluid Rheometer Viscometer Deformation of gas, compressibility factor Optical activity Polarimeter Surface tension of liquids Tensiometer Imaging technology Tomograph, device and method for non-destructive analysis of multiple measurements done on a geometric object, for producing 2- or 3-dimensional images, representing the inner structure of that geometric object. Wind tunnel This section and the following sections include instruments from the wide field of :Category:Materials science, materials science. More on electric properties of condensed matter, gas The electrochemical cell: A device for measuring substance potentials. Permittivity, relative static permittivity, (dielectric constant) or electric susceptibility Capacitor Such measurements also allow to access values of molecular dipoles. Magnetic susceptibility or magnetization Gouy balance For other methods see the section in the article about magnetic susceptibility. See also the :Category:Electric and magnetic fields in matter Substance potential or chemical potential or molar Gibbs energy A reaction transmuting substances, from reactants to products, has an overall energy balance which consists of two parts: A balance that accounts for the changed entropy content of the substances. And another one that accounts for the energy freed or taken by that reaction itself, the Gibbs energy change. The sum of reaction energy and energy associated to the change of entropy content is also called enthalpy. Often the whole enthalpy is carried by entropy and thus measurable calorimetrically. For standard conditions in chemical reactions either molar entropy content and molar Gibbs energy with respect to some chosen zero point are tabulated. Or molar entropy content and molar enthalpy with respect to some chosen zero are tabulated. (See Standard enthalpy change of formation and Standard molar entropy) The substance potential of a redox reaction is usually determined electrochemically using reversible cells. Redox electrode See also the article on electrochemistry. Sub-microstructural properties of condensed matter, gas Infrared spectroscopy Neutron detector Radio frequency spectrometers for Nuclear magnetic resonance and for Electron paramagnetic resonance Raman spectroscopy Crystal structure An X-ray tube, a sample scattering the X-rays and a photographic plate to detect them. This constellation forms the scattering instrument used by X-ray crystallography for investigating crystal structures of samples. Amorphous solids lack a distinct pattern and are identifyable thereby. Imaging technology, Microscope electron microscope Transmission electron microscope Optical microscope uses reflectiveness or refractiveness of light to produce an image. Scanning acoustic microscope Scanning probe microscope Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) Scanning electron microscope Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy (STM) X-ray microscope Rays ("waves" and "particles") Sound, compression waves in matter Laser microphone Seismometer Sound pressure microphone or hydrophone properly gauged Shock tube Sound level meter A device for unmixing sun-light: the prism. The electromagnetic spectrum Light and radiation without a rest mass, non-ionizing Antenna (radio) bolometer measuring the energy of incident electromagnetic radiation. camera EMF meter Interferometer used in the wide field of Interferometry Microwave power meter Photographic plate Photomultiplier Phototube Radio telescope Spectrometer T-ray detectors (for lux meter see the section about human senses and human body) See also :Category:Optical devices Photon polarization Polarizer Pressure (current density of linear momentum) Nichols radiometer radiant flux The measure of the total power of light emitted. Integrating sphere for measuring the total radiant flux of a light source A Cathode ray tube. Radiation with a rest mass, particle radiation Cathode ray Crookes tube, *Cathode ray tube, a phosphor coated anode Atom polarization and electron polarization Stern-Gerlach experiment Another visualization of the electromagnetic spectrum. Ionizing radiation Ionizing radiation includes rays of "particles" as well as rays of "waves". Especially X-rays and Gamma rays transfer enough energy in non-thermal, (single) collision processes to separate electron(s) from an atom. A cloud chamber detecting alpha-rays. particle current Bubble chamber Cloud chamber Dosimeter, a technical device realizes different working principles. Geiger counter Microchannel plate detector Photographic plate Photostimulable phosphors Scintillation counter,Lucas cell Semiconductor detector Identification and content This could include chemical substances, rays of any kind, elementary particles, quasiparticles. Many measurement devices outside this section may be used or at least become part of an identification process. For identification and content concerning chemical substances see also analytical chemistry especially its List of chemical analysis methods and the List of materials analysis methods. Substance content in mixtures, substance identification Carbon dioxide sensor chromatographic device, gas chromatograph separates mixtures of substances. Different velocites of the substance types accomplish the separation. Colorimeter (measures absorbance, and thus concentration) gas detector Gas detector in combination with mass spectrometer, mass spectrometer identifies the chemical composition of a sample on the basis of the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles. Nephelometer or turbidimeter oxygen sensor (= lambda sond) Refractometer, indirectly by determining the refractive index of a substance. Smoke detector Ultracentrifuge, separates mixtures of substances. In a force field of a centrifuge, substances of different densities separate. pH: Concentration of protons in a solution pH meter Saturated calomel electrode Humidity Hygrometer measures the density of water in air Lysimeter measures the balance of water in soil Human senses and human body Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci, Galleria dell' Accademia, Venice (1485-90) Sight Luminuos flux, photometry A measure of the perceived power of light, luminous flux is adjusted to reflect the varying sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light. Integrating sphere for measuring the total luminuos flux of a light source illuminance, photometry Densitometer Light meter Lux meter Photometer Hearing Loudness in phon Headphone, loudspeaker, sound pressure gauged, for measuring an equal-loudness contour of a human ear. Sound level meter calibrated to a equal-loudness contour of the human auditory system behind the human ear. Taste Smell Olfactometer, see also the article about olfaction. Touch Balance and acceleration Temperature (sense and body) Body temperature or Core temperature Medical thermometer, see also infrared thermometer Kinesthetic Pain Other internal senses circulatory system (mainly heart and blood vessels for distributing substances fast) Blood-related parameters are listed in a blood test. Electrocardiograph records the electrical activity of the heart Glucose meter for obtaining the status of blood sugar. Sphygmomanometer, a blood pressure meter used to determine blood pressure in medicine. See also :Category:Blood tests Respiratory system (lung and airways controlling the breathing process) A spirometer, inhaling into pipe a fills volume b, the rest balances forces. Spirometer concentration or partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the respiratory gases Capnograph nervous system (nerves transmitting and processing information electrically) Electroencephalograph records the electrical activity of the brain endocrine system (hormones transmitting and processing information chemically) musculoskeletal system (muscles and bones for movement) power, work of muscles Ergometer immune system (body's self-protection against microbiological damage) metabolic system Body fat meter Medical imaging An echocardiogram processed into a three dimensional representation. Computed tomography Magnetic resonance imaging Medical ultrasonography Radiology Tomograph, device and method for non-destructive analysis of multiple measurements done on a geometric object, for producing 2- or 3-dimensional images, representing the inner structure of that geometric object. See also: :Category:Physiological instruments and :Category:Medical testing equipment. Meteorology See also :Category:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment. Navigation See also :Category:Navigational equipment and :Category:Navigation. Astronomy Radio antenna Telescope See also :Category:Astronomical instruments and :Category:Astronomical observatories. Military Some instruments, such as telescopes and sea navigation instruments, have had military applications for many centuries. However, the role of instruments in military affairs rose exponentially with the development of technology via applied science, which began in the mid-19th century and has continued through the present day. Military instruments as a class draw on most of the categories of instrument described throughout this article, such as navigation, astronomy, optics and imaging, and the kinetics of moving objects. Common abstract themes that unite military instruments are seeing into the distance, seeing in the dark, knowing an object's geographic location, and knowing and controlling a moving object's path and destination. Uncategorized, specialized, or generalized application Checkweigher measures precise weight of items in a conveyor line, rejecting under or overweight objects. Densitometer measures light transmission through processed photographic film or transparent material or light reflection from a reflective material. Force platform measures ground reaction force. Gauge (engineering) A highly precise measurement instrument, also usable to calibrate other instruments of the same kind. Often found in conjunction with defining or applying technical standards. Parking meter measures time a vehicle is parked at a particular spot, usually with a fee. Postage meter measures postage used from a prepaid account. S meter measures the signal strength processed by a communications receiver. Spectroscope is an important tool used by physicists. SWR meter check the quality of the match between the antenna and the transmission line. Time-domain reflectometer locates faults in metallic cables. Tricorder, a multipurpose scanning device, originating from the science-fictional Star Trek series. See also :Category:Instrument-making corporations Detectors History of weights and measures Instrumentation List of measuring devices for a more comprehensive, alphabetical list of devices and the corresponding list of physical quantities. Metrology Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology Wikipedia:WikiProject Physics/Worklist of central experiments Notes Note that the alternate spelling "-metre" is never used when referring to a measuring device. References | Measuring_instrument |@lemmatized captain:1 nemo:1 professor:1 aronnax:1 contemplate:1 measure:44 instrument:26 twenty:1 thousand:1 league:1 sea:2 love:1 meter:33 framingham:1 massachusetts:1 rest:4 stop:1 physical:6 science:6 quality:5 assurance:1 engineering:3 measurement:38 activity:4 obtain:3 compare:1 quantity:12 real:1 world:1 object:11 event:3 establish:2 standard:6 use:30 unit:5 result:3 give:9 number:2 relationship:1 item:2 study:2 referenced:1 formal:1 test:5 method:7 define:2 mean:2 translation:1 make:2 measuring:3 subject:1 vary:1 degree:1 error:1 uncertainty:1 physicist:2 vast:1 range:24 perform:1 simple:1 ruler:1 stopwatch:1 electron:7 microscope:10 particle:8 accelerator:1 virtual:1 instrumentation:3 widely:1 development:2 modern:1 time:25 energy:61 power:13 action:4 device:20 point:9 past:1 respect:3 present:3 observer:1 future:1 fix:1 seem:2 exist:1 set:2 predetermine:1 value:22 machine:4 unlike:1 possible:1 example:13 distance:6 volume:16 call:9 move:5 one:5 direction:3 entropy:32 production:2 cause:2 effect:5 observation:2 correlate:1 information:4 especially:3 also:28 consult:1 portal:1 atomic:3 clock:5 calendar:1 count:2 day:2 chronometer:1 chronograph:1 egg:1 timer:1 hourglass:1 pendulum:3 radio:5 radiometric:1 date:1 sundial:1 transit:1 telescope:4 water:6 timeline:3 technology:7 see:49 order:16 magnitude:16 change:13 carrier:7 linear:7 momentum:11 angular:7 primarily:1 intend:1 plant:1 furnish:1 pump:3 storage:1 hydroelectricity:1 mechanical:7 work:9 electrical:14 like:10 electric:21 generator:3 pumped:1 store:2 amount:10 put:1 system:11 equal:3 come:1 le:1 overcome:1 friction:4 suggest:1 derivation:1 unifying:1 concept:2 instead:2 discern:1 transfer:7 form:5 introduce:1 single:2 assume:2 substance:28 apportion:1 cannot:1 create:2 nothing:2 annihilate:2 thus:6 become:2 conserved:1 properly:2 balance:10 two:6 exchange:4 interaction:1 occur:2 charge:17 transform:2 often:4 multiply:3 related:4 generalize:2 potential:15 relative:2 velocity:5 voltage:6 temperature:41 difference:2 first:1 choose:2 usually:6 happen:1 indirectly:6 current:15 describe:4 sum:2 process:11 last:1 integral:1 dimension:1 phototube:2 permit:1 calculate:5 quantized:1 planck:2 constant:14 light:15 photoelectric:1 mechanic:4 include:7 basic:1 find:5 classical:4 continuum:2 strive:1 exclude:1 question:1 length:7 steel:1 rule:2 altimeter:1 height:1 architect:1 scale:5 caliper:1 electronic:1 engineer:1 gauge:12 block:1 gps:1 indirect:5 runtime:5 electromagnetic:7 wave:7 ghz:1 interferometer:3 laser:4 rangefinder:1 coherent:1 around:2 visible:1 region:2 lidar:1 micrometer:1 odometer:1 opisometer:1 radar:4 antenna:4 microwave:2 surveyor:1 wheel:1 tachymeter:2 tape:1 taximeter:1 component:1 well:2 ultrasound:1 sound:7 sonar:1 echo:1 equipment:4 area:3 planimeter:1 cup:3 common:2 buoyant:1 weight:3 solid:19 flow:4 liquid:14 graduate:1 cylinder:1 grain:1 overflow:1 trough:2 pipette:1 pneumatic:1 gas:17 mass:20 density:14 know:4 weigh:2 allows:1 speed:6 airspeed:1 indicator:1 gun:1 doppler:2 speedometer:1 tachometer:2 rotation:2 variometer:1 acceleration:2 accelerometer:1 pair:1 force:9 field:16 actually:1 automatic:1 checkweighing:1 katharometer:1 spectrometer:5 ballistic:2 spring:1 strain:3 torsion:1 tribometer:1 absolute:4 pressure:21 accelerated:1 reference:2 frame:1 principle:10 mercury:2 hg:1 barometer:2 gravitational:1 earth:1 flux:9 anemometer:1 determine:8 wind:2 atmospheric:1 manometer:1 pitot:1 tube:7 tire:1 industry:2 mobility:1 angle:1 circumferentor:1 cross:1 staff:1 goniometer:1 graphometer:1 protractor:1 quadrant:1 reflect:3 octant:1 circle:1 sextant:1 theodolite:1 per:2 stroboscope:1 frequency:6 torque:2 dynamometer:1 de:1 prony:1 brake:1 wrench:1 orientation:1 three:2 dimensional:4 space:2 section:7 navigation:5 level:6 dumpy:1 line:3 spirit:1 tiltmeter:1 gyroscope:1 carry:7 calculation:1 electricity:8 electronics:3 consideration:2 relate:4 dominate:2 interact:1 via:2 realize:2 magnetic:10 property:9 electrodynamics:1 electromagnetism:2 covariant:1 formulation:1 detect:3 net:1 electroscope:1 electrometer:1 reconfirm:1 phenomenon:1 contact:2 lead:1 triboelectric:1 sequence:1 ammeter:1 part:7 multimeter:3 clamp:1 galvanometer:1 oscilloscope:1 allow:2 quantify:1 depended:1 voltmeter:1 resistance:5 conductance:1 conductivity:1 ohmmeter:1 lcr:3 domain:2 reflectometer:2 characterizes:1 locate:2 fault:2 metallic:3 cable:2 signal:2 wheatstone:1 bridge:1 capacitance:3 inductance:2 wattmeter:1 negative:1 gradient:1 mill:1 relevant:1 article:6 compass:1 hall:1 sensor:4 magnetometer:2 proton:2 squid:1 thermodynamics:4 distinct:2 thermal:19 glowing:1 coal:2 different:5 non:7 glow:2 win:1 heat:19 pot:1 hundred:1 multipying:1 mole:1 type:3 sample:16 molecular:2 take:2 periodic:1 table:1 spectrometry:1 direct:1 access:2 molar:8 specific:5 may:4 concentration:4 thermometer:16 spectroscopy:3 galileo:1 relation:6 law:4 crystal:4 coefficient:8 expansion:3 alcohol:1 glass:1 pyranometer:1 solar:1 radiation:10 surface:3 stefan:1 boltzmann:1 pyrometers:1 dependence:1 spectral:1 intensity:1 e:1 color:1 relates:1 source:3 c:7 note:4 conduction:2 convection:1 necessary:1 pyrometry:1 resolution:1 thermography:1 metal:2 platinum:1 kelvin:5 application:3 physic:4 bi:1 strip:1 thermistor:1 ceramic:1 polymer:1 overall:2 celsius:1 thermocouple:3 junction:1 seebeck:1 thermopile:2 connected:1 triple:1 cell:4 calibrate:3 image:8 thermographic:1 camera:2 microbolometer:1 detection:1 category:14 technically:1 analysis:6 material:6 active:5 calorimeter:27 lack:2 reaction:9 passive:1 emerge:1 chemical:7 reformulate:1 fill:2 defined:2 actinometer:1 phase:7 ice:1 observe:1 gauged:1 bomb:2 enthalpy:8 coffee:1 differential:2 scanning:3 calorimetry:2 accessible:1 divide:2 produce:8 therefore:1 offer:1 without:4 connect:1 content:8 cool:1 almost:1 zero:4 submerge:1 helium:1 contain:1 third:1 follow:1 desired:1 reach:1 thermodynamic:1 database:1 pure:1 rumford:1 either:2 produced:1 transferred:1 would:1 eventually:1 convert:1 ambient:1 lower:1 lose:1 isolated:1 rod:1 capacity:3 concern:2 proportionality:1 factor:2 depend:2 significantly:1 terminiology:1 preference:1 heading:1 indicate:1 bar:1 division:1 could:2 directly:1 dilatometer:1 melting:1 thiele:1 kofler:1 bench:1 melt:1 fusion:1 mostly:1 macroscopic:1 matter:7 state:1 condensed:4 considers:1 betweens:2 exhibit:1 viscoelastic:1 behavior:1 furthermore:1 fluid:4 plasma:1 supercritical:1 refers:1 compact:1 ed:1 contrast:1 bulk:1 grainy:1 porous:1 aerometer:1 dasymeter:1 hydrometer:1 pycnometer:1 resonant:3 damp:3 analyser:3 rfda:3 hardness:1 durometer:1 shape:1 holographic:1 speckle:1 pattern:2 analyse:1 deformation:2 elasticity:1 elastic:2 modulus:1 impulse:2 excitation:1 technique:1 small:1 vibrate:1 vibration:1 geometry:1 inner:3 structure:5 lattice:1 fissure:1 plasticity:1 cam:1 plastometer:2 brittle:1 b:2 ductile:2 break:2 tensile:1 strength:2 ductility:1 malleability:1 universal:1 granularity:1 suspension:1 grindometer:1 viscosity:1 rheometer:1 viscometer:1 compressibility:1 optical:3 polarimeter:1 tension:1 tensiometer:1 tomograph:2 destructive:2 multiple:2 geometric:4 represent:2 tunnel:2 following:1 wide:2 electrochemical:1 permittivity:2 static:1 dielectric:1 susceptibility:3 capacitor:1 dipole:1 magnetization:1 gouy:1 gibbs:3 transmute:1 reactant:1 product:1 consist:1 account:3 another:2 free:1 associate:1 whole:1 measurable:1 calorimetrically:1 condition:1 chosen:1 tabulate:2 formation:1 redox:2 electrochemically:1 reversible:1 electrode:2 electrochemistry:1 sub:1 microstructural:1 infrared:2 neutron:1 detector:8 nuclear:1 resonance:3 paramagnetic:1 raman:1 x:5 ray:15 scatter:1 photographic:4 plate:4 constellation:1 scattering:1 crystallography:1 investigate:1 amorphous:1 identifyable:1 thereby:1 transmission:3 reflectiveness:1 refractiveness:1 scan:4 acoustic:1 probe:1 afm:1 microscopy:1 stm:1 compression:1 microphone:2 seismometer:1 hydrophone:1 shock:1 unmixing:1 sun:1 prism:1 spectrum:2 ionize:3 bolometer:1 incident:1 emf:1 interferometry:1 photomultiplier:1 lux:2 human:8 sens:3 body:6 photon:1 polarization:3 polarizer:1 nichols:1 radiometer:1 radiant:2 total:3 emit:1 integrate:2 sphere:2 cathode:3 crookes:1 phosphor:2 coat:1 anode:1 atom:2 stern:1 gerlach:1 experiment:2 visualization:1 gamma:1 enough:1 collision:1 separate:4 cloud:2 chamber:3 alpha:1 bubble:1 dosimeter:1 technical:2 geiger:1 counter:2 microchannel:1 photostimulable:1 scintillation:1 lucas:1 semiconductor:1 identification:4 kind:2 elementary:1 quasiparticle:1 many:2 outside:1 least:1 analytical:1 chemistry:1 list:6 mixture:3 carbon:2 dioxide:2 chromatographic:1 chromatograph:1 velocites:1 accomplish:1 separation:1 colorimeter:1 absorbance:1 combination:1 identify:1 composition:1 basis:1 ratio:1 nephelometer:1 turbidimeter:1 oxygen:1 lambda:1 sond:1 refractometer:1 refractive:1 index:1 smoke:1 ultracentrifuge:1 centrifuge:1 ph:2 solution:1 saturate:1 calomel:1 humidity:1 hygrometer:1 air:1 lysimeter:1 soil:1 vitruvian:1 man:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 galleria:1 dell:1 accademia:1 venice:1 sight:1 luminuos:2 photometry:2 perceived:1 luminous:1 adjust:1 varying:1 sensitivity:1 eye:1 wavelength:1 illuminance:1 densitometer:2 photometer:1 hear:1 loudness:3 phon:1 headphone:1 loudspeaker:1 contour:2 ear:2 auditory:1 behind:1 taste:1 smell:1 olfactometer:1 olfaction:1 touch:1 sense:1 core:1 medical:4 kinesthetic:1 pain:1 internal:1 circulatory:1 mainly:1 heart:2 blood:7 vessel:1 distribute:1 fast:1 parameter:1 electrocardiograph:1 record:2 glucose:1 status:1 sugar:1 sphygmomanometer:1 medicine:1 respiratory:2 lung:1 airway:1 control:2 breathing:1 spirometer:2 inhale:1 pipe:1 fills:1 partial:1 capnograph:1 nervous:1 nerve:1 transmit:2 electrically:1 electroencephalograph:1 brain:1 endocrine:1 hormone:1 chemically:1 musculoskeletal:1 muscle:2 bone:1 movement:1 ergometer:1 immune:1 self:1 protection:1 microbiological:1 damage:1 metabolic:1 fat:1 echocardiogram:1 representation:1 compute:1 tomography:1 ultrasonography:1 radiology:1 physiological:1 meteorology:1 meteorological:1 navigational:1 astronomy:2 astronomical:2 observatory:1 military:5 century:2 however:1 role:1 affair:1 rise:1 exponentially:1 applied:1 begin:1 mid:1 continue:1 class:1 draw:1 throughout:1 optic:1 imaging:1 kinetics:1 abstract:1 theme:1 unite:1 dark:1 geographic:1 location:1 path:1 destination:1 uncategorized:1 specialized:1 checkweigher:1 precise:2 conveyor:1 reject:1 overweight:1 film:1 transparent:1 reflection:1 reflective:1 platform:1 ground:1 highly:1 usable:1 conjunction:1 apply:1 park:2 vehicle:1 particular:1 spot:1 fee:1 postage:2 prepaid:1 communication:1 receiver:1 spectroscope:1 important:1 tool:1 swr:1 check:1 match:1 tricorder:1 multipurpose:1 originate:1 fictional:1 star:1 trek:1 series:1 corporation:1 history:1 comprehensive:1 alphabetical:1 corresponding:1 metrology:1 wikipedia:1 wikiproject:1 worklist:1 central:1 alternate:1 spell:1 metre:1 never:1 refer:1 |@bigram electron_microscope:4 particle_accelerator:1 atomic_clock:1 pendulum_clock:1 radiometric_date:1 angular_momentum:4 conserved_quantity:1 planck_constant:1 photoelectric_effect:1 continuum_mechanic:2 electromagnetic_wave:3 laser_rangefinder:1 radar_antenna:1 doppler_radar:1 mass_spectrometer:3 atmospheric_pressure:1 angular_velocity:3 electrical_conductivity:1 magnetic_field:5 periodic_table:1 mass_spectrometry:1 liquid_helium:1 count_rumford:1 ambient_temperature:1 condensed_matter:4 supercritical_fluid:1 resonant_frequency:3 speckle_pattern:1 tensile_strength:1 electrochemical_cell:1 magnetic_susceptibility:2 molar_entropy:3 redox_reaction:1 infrared_spectroscopy:1 magnetic_resonance:2 raman_spectroscopy:1 photographic_plate:3 ray_crystallography:1 amorphous_solid:1 optical_microscope:1 microscope_scan:2 scan_probe:1 electromagnetic_spectrum:2 electromagnetic_radiation:1 photon_polarization:1 cathode_ray:3 crookes_tube:1 stern_gerlach:1 gerlach_experiment:1 ionize_radiation:2 gamma_ray:1 geiger_counter:1 elementary_particle:1 analytical_chemistry:1 carbon_dioxide:2 refractive_index:1 smoke_detector:1 vitruvian_man:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 taste_smell:1 compute_tomography:1 medical_ultrasonography:1 astronomical_observatory:1 star_trek:1 wikipedia_wikiproject:1 |
4,695 | Corcovado | The statue of Cristo Redentor atop Corcovado Corcovado, meaning "hunchback" in Portuguese, is a mountain in central Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The granite peak is located in the Tijuca Forest, a national park. Corcovado hill lies just west of the city center but is wholly within the city limits and visible from great distances. It is known worldwide for the 38-meter (125 ft) statue of Jesus atop its peak, entitled Cristo Redentor or "Christ the Redeemer". Access The peak and statue can be accessed via a narrow road or by the 3.8 kilometer (2.4 mi) Corcovado Rack Railway which was opened in 1884 and refurbished in 1980. The railway uses two-car electrically powered trains, with a passenger capacity of 360 passengers per hour. The rail trip takes approximately 20 minutes and departs every half hour. Due to its limited passenger capacity, the wait to board at the entry station can take several hours. The year-round schedule is 8:30 to 18:30. From the train terminus and road, the observation deck at the foot of the statue is reached by 223 steps, or by elevators and escalators. Among the most popular year-round tourist attractions in Rio, the Corcovado railway, access roads, and statue platform are commonly crowded. Attractions The most popular attraction of Corcovado mountain is the statue and viewing platform at its peak, drawing over 300,000 visitors per year. From the peak's platform the panoramic view includes downtown Rio, Sugarloaf Mountain, the Lagoa Rodrigo de Freitas (lake), Copacabana and Ipanema beaches, Estádio do Maracanã (Maracanã Stadium), and several of Rio's favelas. Cloud cover is common in Rio and the view from the platform is often obscured. Sunny days are recommended for optimal viewing. Notable past visitors to the mountain peak include Pope Pius XII, Pope John Paul II, Alberto Santos-Dumont, Albert Einstein and Diana, Princess of Wales. An additional attraction of the mountain is rock climbing. The south face had 54 climbing routes as of 1992. The easiest way starts from Park Lage. Geology The peak of Corcovado is a big granite dome, which describes a generally vertical rocky formation. External links Corcovado video tour * virtual Pictour up the Corcovado Mountain | Corcovado |@lemmatized statue:6 cristo:2 redentor:2 atop:2 corcovado:9 mean:1 hunchback:1 portuguese:1 mountain:6 central:1 rio:5 de:2 janeiro:1 brazil:1 granite:2 peak:7 locate:1 tijuca:1 forest:1 national:1 park:2 hill:1 lie:1 west:1 city:2 center:1 wholly:1 within:1 limit:1 visible:1 great:1 distance:1 know:1 worldwide:1 meter:1 ft:1 jesus:1 entitle:1 christ:1 redeemer:1 access:3 via:1 narrow:1 road:3 kilometer:1 mi:1 rack:1 railway:3 open:1 refurbish:1 use:1 two:1 car:1 electrically:1 power:1 train:2 passenger:3 capacity:2 per:2 hour:3 rail:1 trip:1 take:2 approximately:1 minute:1 departs:1 every:1 half:1 due:1 limited:1 wait:1 board:1 entry:1 station:1 several:2 year:3 round:2 schedule:1 terminus:1 observation:1 deck:1 foot:1 reach:1 step:1 elevator:1 escalator:1 among:1 popular:2 tourist:1 attraction:4 platform:4 commonly:1 crowd:1 view:3 draw:1 visitor:2 panoramic:1 include:2 downtown:1 sugarloaf:1 lagoa:1 rodrigo:1 freitas:1 lake:1 copacabana:1 ipanema:1 beach:1 estádio:1 maracanã:2 stadium:1 favelas:1 cloud:1 cover:1 common:1 often:1 obscure:1 sunny:1 day:1 recommend:1 optimal:1 viewing:1 notable:1 past:1 pope:2 pius:1 xii:1 john:1 paul:1 ii:1 alberto:1 santos:1 dumont:1 albert:1 einstein:1 diana:1 princess:1 wale:1 additional:1 rock:1 climb:2 south:1 face:1 route:1 easy:1 way:1 start:1 lage:1 geology:1 big:1 dome:1 describe:1 generally:1 vertical:1 rocky:1 formation:1 external:1 link:1 video:1 tour:1 virtual:1 pictour:1 |@bigram de_janeiro:1 janeiro_brazil:1 meter_ft:1 tourist_attraction:1 panoramic_view:1 pope_pius:1 pius_xii:1 albert_einstein:1 diana_princess:1 external_link:1 |
4,696 | Brain | A chimpanzee brain The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate, and most invertebrate, animals. Some primitive animals such as jellyfish and starfish have a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all. In vertebrates, the brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory apparatus of vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. Brains can be extremely complex. The human brain contains roughly 100 billion neurons, linked with up to 10,000 synaptic connections each. Each cubic millimeter of cerebral cortex contains roughly one billion synapses. Alonso-Nanclares L, Gonzalez-Soriano J, Rodriguez JR, DeFelipe J. (2008). Gender differences in human cortical synaptic density. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 105(38):14615-9. These neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body and target them to specific recipient cells. From a philosophical point of view, it might be said that the most important function of the brain is to serve as the physical structure underlying the mind. From a biological point of view, though, the most important function is to generate behaviors that promote the welfare of an animal. Brains control behavior either by activating muscles, or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones. Even single-celled organisms may be capable of extracting information from the environment and acting in response to it. Gehring, 2005 Sponges, which lack a central nervous system, are capable of coordinated body contractions and even locomotion. Nickel, 2002 In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself contains neural circuitry capable of generating reflex responses as well as simple motor patterns such as swimming or walking. Grillner & Wallén, 2002 However, sophisticated control of behavior on the basis of complex sensory input requires the information-integrating capabilities of a centralized brain. Despite rapid scientific progress, much about how brains work remains a mystery. The operations of individual neurons and synapses are now understood in considerable detail, but the way they cooperate in ensembles of thousands or millions has been very difficult to decipher. Methods of observation such as EEG recording and functional brain imaging tell us that brain operations are highly organized, but these methods do not have the resolution to reveal the activity of individual neurons. Sejnowski, 23 Problems in Systems Neuroscience Macroscopic structure Brains of 8 species of mammals The brain is the most complex biological structure known, Shepherd, Neurobiology, p 3 and comparing the brains of different species on the basis of appearance is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are common principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species. These are revealed mainly by three approaches. The evolutionary approach means comparing brain structures of different species, and using the principle that features found in all branches that descend from a given ancient form were probably present in the ancestor as well. The developmental approach means examining how the form of the brain changes during the progression from embyronic to adult stages. The genetic approach means analyzing gene expression in various parts of the brain across a range of species. Each approach complements and informs the other two. The cerebral cortex is a part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals from other vertebrates, primates from other mammals, and humans from other primates. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the surface of the cerebrum is lined with a comparatively simple layered structure called the pallium. Aboitiz et al., 2003 In mammals, the pallium evolves into a complex 6-layered structure called neocortex. In primates, the neocortex is greatly enlarged in comparison to its size in non-primates, especially the part called the frontal lobes. In humans, this enlargement of the frontal lobes is taken to an extreme, and other parts of the cortex also become quite large and complex. The relationship between brain size, body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of species. Brain size increases with body size but not proportionally. Averaging across all orders of mammals, it follows a power law, with an exponent of about 0.75 Armstrong, 1983 This formula applies to the average brain of mammals but each family departs from it, reflecting their sophistication of behavior. Jerison, Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence For example, primates have brains 5 to 10 times as large as the formula predicts. Predators tend to have larger brains. When the mammalian brain increases in size, not all parts increase at the same rate. The larger the brain of a species, the greater the fraction taken up by the cortex. Finlay et al., 2001 Bilaterians Body plan of a generic bilaterian animal. The nervous system has the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front. With the exception of a few primitive forms such as sponges and jellyfish, all living animals are bilaterians, meaning animals with a bilaterally symmetric body shape (that is, left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other). All bilaterians are thought to have descended from a common ancestor that appeared early in the Cambrian period, 550-600 million years ago. Balavoine & Adoutte, 2003 This ancestor had the shape of a simple tube worm with a segmented body, and at an abstract level, that worm-shape continues to be reflected in the body and nervous system plans of all modern bilaterians, including humans. Schmidt-Rhaesa, Evolution of Organ Systems, p 110 The fundamental bilaterian body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from mouth to anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a "ganglion") for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the "brain". Invertebrates Drosophila For invertebrates—insects, molluscs, worms, etc.—the components of the brain differ so greatly from the vertebrate pattern that it is hard to make meaningful comparisons except on the basis of genetics. Two groups of invertebrates have notably complex brains: arthropods (insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and others), and cephalopods (octopuses, squids, and similar molluscs). Butler, 2000 The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing. Cephalopods have the largest brains of any invertebrates. The brain of the octopus in particular is highly developed, comparable in complexity to the brains of some vertebrates. There are a few invertebrates whose brains have been studied intensively. The large sea slug Aplysia was chosen by Nobel Prize-winning neurophysiologist Eric Kandel, because of the simplicity and accessibility of its nervous system, as a model for studying the cellular basis of learning and memory, and subjected to hundreds of experiments. Kandel, In Search of Memory The most thoroughly studied invertebrate brains, however, belong to the fruit fly Drosophila and the tiny roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans. Because of the large array of techniques available for studying their genetics, fruit flies have been a natural subject for studying the role of genes in brain development. Flybrain web site Remarkably, many aspects of Drosophila neurogenetics have turned out to be relevant to humans. The first biological clock genes, for example, were identified by examining Drosophila mutants that showed disrupted daily activity cycles. Konopka & Benzer, 1971 A search in the genomes of vertebrates turned up a set of analogous genes, which were found to play similar roles in the mouse biological clock—and therefore almost certainly in the human biological clock as well. Shin et al., 1985 Like Drosophila, C. elegans has been studied largely because of its importance in genetics. WormBook web site In the early 1970s, Sydney Brenner chose it as a model system for studying the way that genes control development. One of the advantages of working with this worm is that the body plan is very stereotyped: the nervous system of the hermaphrodite morph contains exactly 302 neurons, always in the same places, making identical synaptic connections in every worm. Hobert, WormBook In a heroic project, Brenner's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed every section under an electron microscope, then visually matched fibers from section to section, in order to map out every neuron and synapse in the entire body. White et al., 1986 Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism, and the information has been used to enable a multitude of studies that would not have been possible without it. Vertebrates The brain of a shark. The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue, with a texture that has been compared to Jello. Principles of neural science, Ch. 17 Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside, with subtle variations in color. Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of connective tissue membranes called meninges that separate the skull from the brain. Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy, Ch. 1 This three-layered covering is composed of (from the outside in) the dura mater ("hard mother"), arachnoid mater ("spidery mother"), and pia mater ("soft mother"). The arachnoid and pia are physically connected and thus often considered as a single layer, the pia-arachnoid. Below the arachnoid is the subarachnoid space which contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which circulates in the narrow spaces between cells and through cavities called ventricles, and serves to nourish, support, and protect the brain tissue. Blood vessels enter the central nervous system through the perivascular space above the pia mater. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly, forming the blood-brain barrier which protects the brain from toxins that might enter through the blood. The first vertebrates appeared over 500 million years ago (Mya), during the Cambrian period, and may have somewhat resembled the modern hagfish in form. Sharks appeared about 450 Mya, amphibians about 400 Mya, reptiles about 350 Mya, and mammals about 200 Mya. No modern species should be described as more "primitive" than others, since all have an equally long evolutionary history, but the brains of modern hagfishes, lampreys, sharks, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals show a gradient of size and complexity that roughly follows the evolutionary sequence. Striedter, Principles of Brain Evolution All of these brains contain the same set of basic anatomical components, but many are rudimentary in hagfishes, whereas in mammals the foremost parts are greatly elaborated and expanded. All vertebrate brains share a common underlying form, which can most easily be appreciated by examining how they develop. Principles of Neural Science, p 1019 The first appearance of the nervous system is as a thin strip of tissue running along the back of the embryo. This strip thickens and then folds up to form a hollow tube. The front end of the tube develops into the brain. In its earliest form, the brain appears as three swellings, which eventually become the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. In many classes of vertebrates these three parts remain similar in size in the adult, but in mammals the forebrain becomes much larger than the other parts, and the midbrain quite small. Neuroanatomists usually consider the brain to consist of six main regions: the telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres), diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus), mesencephalon (midbrain), cerebellum, pons, and medulla. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 17 Each of these areas in turn has a complex internal structure. Some areas, such as the cortex and cerebellum, consist of layers, folded or convoluted to fit within the available space. Other areas consist of clusters of many small nuclei. If fine distinctions are made on the basis of neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity, thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain. Some branches of vertebrate evolution have led to substantial changes in brain shape, especially in the forebrain. The brain of a shark shows the basic components in a straighforward way, but in teleost fishes (the great majority of modern species), the forebrain has become "everted", like a sock turned inside out. In birds, also, there are major changes in shape. Northcutt, 2008 One of the main structures in the avian forebrain, the dorsal ventricular ridge, was long thought to correspond to the basal ganglia of mammals, but is now thought to be more closely related to the neocortex. Reiner et al., 2005 Main anatomical regions of the vertebrate brain. Several brain areas have maintained their identities across the whole range of vertebrates, from hagfishes to humans. Here is a list of some of the most important areas, along with a very brief description of their functions as currently understood (but note that the functions of most of them are still disputed to some degree): The medulla, along with the spinal cord, contains many small nuclei involved in a wide variety of sensory and motor functions. The hypothalamus is a small region at the base of the forebrain, whose complexity and importance belies its size. It is composed of numerous small nuclei, each with distinct connections and distinct neurochemistry. The hypothalamus is the central control station for sleep/wake cycles, control of eating and drinking, control of hormone release, and many other critical biological functions. Swaab et al., The Human Hypothalamus Like the hypothalamus, the thalamus is a collection of nuclei with diverse functions. Some of them are involved in relaying information to and from the cerebral hemispheres. Others are involved in motivation. The subthalamic area (zona incerta) seems to contain action-generating systems for several types of "consummatory" behaviors, including eating, drinking, defecation, and copulation. Jones, The Thalamus The cerebellum modulates the outputs of other brain systems to make them more precise. Removal of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular, but it makes actions hesitant and clumsy. This precision is not built-in, but learned by trial and error. Learning how to ride a bicycle is an example of a type of neural plasticity that may take place largely within the cerebellum. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 42 The tectum, often called "optic tectum", allows actions to be directed toward points in space. In mammals it is called the "superior colliculus", and its best studied function is to direct eye movements. It also directs reaching movements, though. It gets strong visual inputs, but also inputs from other senses that are useful in directing actions, such as auditory input in owls, input from the thermosensitive pit organs in snakes, etc. In some fishes, it is the largest part of the brain. Saitoh et al., 2007 The pallium is a layer of gray matter that lies on the surface of the forebrain. In reptiles and mammals it is called cortex instead. The pallium is involved in multiple functions, including olfaction and spatial memory. In mammals, where it comes to dominate the brain, it subsumes functions from many subcortical areas. Puelles, 2001 The hippocampus, strictly speaking, is found only in mammals. However, the area it derives from, the medial pallium, has counterparts in all vertebrates. There is evidence that this part of the brain is involved in spatial memory and navigation in fishes, birds, reptiles, and mammals. Salas et al., 2003 The basal ganglia are a group of interconnected structures in the forebrain, of which our understanding has increased enormously over the last few years. The primary function of the basal ganglia seems to be action selection. They send inhibitory signals to all parts of the brain that can generate actions, and in the right circumstances can release the inhbition, so that the action-generating systems are able to execute their actions. Rewards and punishments exert their most important neural effects within the basal ganglia. Grillner et al., 2005 The olfactory bulb is a special structure that processes olfactory sensory signals, and sends its output to the olfactory part of the pallium. It is a major brain component in many vertebrates, but much reduced in primates. Northcutt, 1981 Mammals The hindbrain and midbrain of mammals are generally similar to those of other vertebrates, but dramatic differences appear in the forebrain, which is not only greatly enlarged, but also altered in structure. Barton & Harvey, 2000 In mammals, the surface of the cerebral hemispheres is mostly covered with 6-layered isocortex, more complex than the 3-layered pallium seen in most vertebrates. Also the hippocampus of mammals has a distinctive structure. Unfortunately, the evolutionary history of these mammalian features, especially the 6-layered cortex, is difficult to work out. Aboitiz, 2004 This is largely because of a "missing link" problem. The ancestors of mammals, called synapsids, split off from the ancestors of modern reptiles and birds about 350 million years ago. However, the most recent branching that has left living results within the mammals was the split between monotremes (the platypus and echidna), marsupials (opossum, kangaroo, etc.) and placentals (most living mammals), which took place about 120 million years ago. The brains of monotremes and marsupials are distinctive from those of placentals in some ways, but they have fully mammalian cortical and hippocampal structures. Thus, these structures must have evolved between 350 and 120 million years ago, a period that has left no evidence except fossils, which do not preserve tissue as soft as brain. Primates, including humans The primate brain contains the same structures as the brains of other mammals, but is considerably larger in proportion to body size. Most of the enlargement comes from a massive expansion of the cortex, focusing especially on the parts subserving vision and forethought. Calvin, How Brains Think The visual processing network of primates is very complex, including at least 30 distinguishable areas, with a bewildering web of interconnections. Taking all of these together, visual processing makes use of about half of the brain. The other part of the brain that is greatly enlarged is the prefrontal cortex, whose functions are difficult to summarize succinctly, but relate to planning, working memory, motivation, attention, and executive control. Microscopic structure The brain is composed of two broad classes of cells, neurons and glia. Principles of Neural Science p 20 Neurons receive more attention, though glial cells overall have equal numbers to neurons in the whole brain they outnumber them by roughly 4 to 1 in the cerebral cortex. Azevedo FA, Carvalho LR, Grinberg LT, Farfel JM, Ferretti RE, Leite RE, Jacob Filho W, Lent R, Herculano-Houzel S. (2009). Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain. J Comp Neurol. 513(5):532-41. Glia come in several types, which perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of development. The property that makes neurons so important is that, unlike glia, they are capable of sending signals to each other over long distances. Principles of Neural Science, p 21 They send these signals by means of an axon, a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The extent of an axon can be extraordinary: to take an example, if a pyramidal cell of the neocortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human, its axon, equally magnified, would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter, extending farther than a kilometer. These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, lasting less than a thousandth of a second and traveling along the axon at speeds of 1–100 meters per second. Some neurons emit action potentials constantly, at rates of 10–100 per second, usually in irregular temporal patterns; other neurons are quiet most of the time, but occasionally emit a burst of action potentials. Axons transmit signals to other neurons, or to non-neuronal cells, by means of specialized junctions called synapses. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 10 A single axon may make as many as several thousand synaptic connections. When an action potential, traveling along an axon, arrives at a synapse, it causes a chemical called a neurotransmitter to be released. The neurotransmitter binds to receptor molecules in the membrane of the target cell. Some types of neuronal receptors are excitatory, meaning that they increase the rate of action potentials in the target cell; other receptors are inhibitory, meaning that they decrease the rate of action potentials; others have complex modulatory effects on the target cell. Axons actually fill most of the space in the brain. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 2 Often large groups of them are bundles together in what are called nerve fiber tracts. In many cases, each axon is wrapped in a thick sheath of a fatty substance called myelin, which serves to greatly increase the speed of action potential propagation. Myelin is white in color, so parts of the brain filled exclusively with nerve fibers appear as white matter, in contrast to the gray matter that marks areas where high densities of neuron cell bodies are located. The total length of these myelinated axons in the human brain is considerable: 176,000 km in a 20 year old male and 149,000 km in a female. Marner L, Nyengaard JR, Tang Y, Pakkenberg B. (2003). Marked loss of myelinated nerve fibers in the human brain with age. J Comp Neurol. 462(2):144-52. The illustration on the right shows a thin section of one hemisphere of the brain of a Chlorocebus monkey, stained using a Nissl stain, which colors the cell bodies of neurons. Principles of Neural Science, p 326 This makes the gray matter show up as a dark blue, and the white matter show up as a paler blue. Several important forebrain structures, including the cortex, can easily be identified in brain sections that are stained in this way. Neuroanatomists have invented hundreds of stains that color different types of neurons, or different types of brain tissue, in distinct ways; the Nissl stain shown here is probably the most widely used. Development Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain. These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures. The brain does not simply grow; it develops in an intricately orchestrated sequence of steps. Principles of Neural Development, Ch. 1 Many neurons are created in special zones that contain stem cells, and then migrate through the tissue to reach their ultimate locations. Principles of Neural Development, Ch. 4 In the cortex, for example, the first stage of development is the formation of a "scaffold" by a special group of glial cells, called radial glia, which send fibers vertically across the cortex. New cortical neurons are created at the bottom of the cortex, and then "climb" along the radial fibers until they reach the layers they are destined to occupy in the adult. Once a neuron is in place, it begins to extend dendrites and an axon into the area around it. Principles of Neural Development, Chs. 5, 7 Axons, because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to make contact with specific targets, grow in a particularly complex way. The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a "growth cone", studded with chemical receptors. These receptors sense the local environment, causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements, and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path. The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area, where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses. Taking the entire brain into account, many thousands of genes give rise to proteins that influence axonal pathfinding. The synaptic network that finally emerges is only partly determined by genes, though. In many parts of the brain, axons initially "overgrow", and then are "pruned" by mechanisms that depend on neural activity. Principles of Neural Development, Ch. 12 In the projection from the eye to the midbrain, for example, the structure in the adult contains a very precise mapping, connecting each point on the surface of the retina to a corresponding point in a midbrain layer. In the first stages of development, each axon from the retina is guided to the right general vicinity in the midbrain by chemical cues, but then branches very profusely and makes initial contact with a wide swath of midbrain neurons. The retina, before birth, contains special mechanisms that cause it to generate waves of activity that originate spontaneously at some point and then propagate slowly across the retinal layer. Wong, 1999 These waves are useful because they cause neighboring neurons to be active at the same time: that is, they produce a neural activity pattern that contains information about the spatial arrangement of the neurons. This information is exploited in the midbrain by a mechanism that causes synapses to weaken, and eventually vanish, if activity in an axon is not followed by activity of the target cell. The result of this sophisticated process is a gradual tuning and tightening of the map, leaving it finally in its precise adult form. Similar things happen in other brain areas: an initial synaptic matrix is generated as a result of genetically determined chemical guidance, but then gradually refined by activity-dependent mechanisms, partly driven by internal dynamics, partly by external sensory inputs. In some cases, as with the retina-midbrain system, activity patterns depend on mechanisms that operate only in the developing brain, and apparently exist solely for the purpose of guiding development. In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain actually contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. Principles of Neural Development, Ch. 6 There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which this is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that are present in early childhood is the set that are present for life. (Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, these are generated throughout the lifespan.) Although the pool of neurons is largely in place by birth, their axonal connections continue to develop for a long time afterward. In humans, full myelination is not completed until adolescence. Paus et al., 2001 There has long been debate about whether the qualities of mind, personality, and intelligence can mainly be attributed to heredity or to upbringing; the nature versus nurture debate. Ridley, Nature vs Nurture This is not just a philosophical question: it has great practical relevance to parents and educators. Although many details remain to be settled, neuroscience clearly shows that both factors are essential. Genes determine the general form of the brain, and genes determine how the brain reacts to experience. Experience, however, is required to refine the matrix of synaptic connections. In some respects it is mainly a matter of presence or absence of experience during critical periods of development. Wiesel, 1982 In other respects, the quantity and quality of experience may be more relevant: for example, there is substantial evidence that animals raised in enriched environments have thicker cortices (indicating a higher density of synaptic connections) than animals whose levels of stimulation are restricted. van Praag et al., 2000 Functions From a biological perspective, the function of a brain is to generate behaviors that promote the genetic fitness of an animal. Carew, Behavioral Neurobiology, Ch. 1 To do this, it extracts enough relevant information from sense organs to refine actions. Sensory signals may stimulate an immediate response as when the olfactory system of a deer detects the odor of a wolf; they may modulate an ongoing pattern of activity as in the effect of light-dark cycles on an organism's sleep-wake behavior; or their information may be stored in case of future relevance. The brain manages its complex task by orchestrating functional subsystems, which can be categorized in a number of ways: anatomically, chemically, and functionally. Neurotransmitter systems With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or set of neurotransmitters, at all of the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 15 Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters it releases. The two neurotransmitters that appear most frequently are glutamate, which is almost always excitatory, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain, making up, numerically, more than 99% of the brain's entire pool of synapses. Nevertheless, the great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering neurotransmitter systems not directly involving glutamatergic or GABAergic transmission. Cooper et al., Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology Drugs such as caffeine, nicotine, heroin, cocaine, Prozac, Thorazine, etc., act on other neurotransmitters. Many of these other transmitters come from neurons that are localized in particular parts of the brain. Serotonin, for example—the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the Raphe nuclei. Norepinephrine, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus ceruleus. Histamine, as a neurotransmitter, comes from a tiny part of the hypothalamus called the tuberomammilary nucleus (histamine also has non-CNS functions, but the neurotransmitter function is what causes antihistamines to have sedative effects). Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain, but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA. Sensory systems One of the primary functions of a brain is to extract biologically relevant information from sensory inputs. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 21 Even in the human brain, sensory processes go well beyond the classical five senses of sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell: our brains are provided with information about temperature, balance, limb position, and the chemical composition of the bloodstream, among other things. All of these modalities are detected by specialized sensors that project signals into the brain. In other animals, additional senses may be present, such as the infrared heat-sensors in the pit organs of snakes; or the "standard" senses may be used in nonstandard ways, as in the auditory "sonar" of bats. Every sensory system has idiosyncrasies, but here are a few principles that apply to most of them, using the sense of hearing for specific examples: Principles of Neural Science, Chs. 21, 30 Each system begins with specialized "sensory receptor" cells. These are neurons, but unlike most neurons, they are not controlled by synaptic input from other neurons: instead they are activated by membrane-bound receptors that are sensitive to some physical modality, such as light, temperature, or physical stretching. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain. For the sense of hearing, the receptors are located in the inner ear, on the cochlea, and are activated by vibration. For most senses, there is a "primary nucleus" or set of nuclei, located in the brainstem, that gathers signals from the sensory receptor cells. For the sense of hearing, these are the cochlear nuclei. In many cases, there are secondary subcortical areas that extract special information of some sort. For the sense of hearing, the superior olivary area and inferior colliculus are involved in comparing the signals from the two ears to extract information about the direction of the sound source, among other functions. Each sensory system also has a special part of the thalamus dedicated to it, which serves as a relay to the cortex. For the sense of hearing, this is the medial geniculate nucleus. For each sensory system, there is a "primary" cortical area that receives direct input from the thalamic relay area. For the auditory system this is the primary auditory cortex, located in the upper part of the temporal lobe. There are also usually a set of "higher level" cortical sensory areas, which analyze the sensory input in specific ways. For the auditory system, there are areas that analyze sound quality, rhythm, and temporal patterns of change, among other features. Finally, there are multimodal areas that combine inputs from different sensory modalities, for example auditory and visual. At this point, the signals have reached parts of the brain that are best described as integrative rather than specifically sensory. All of these rules have exceptions, for example: (1) For the sense of touch (which is actually a set of at least half-a-dozen distinct mechanical senses), the sensory inputs terminate mainly in the spinal cord, on neurons that then project to the brainstem. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 23 (2) For the sense of smell, there is no relay in the thalamus; instead the signals go directly from the primary brain area—the olfactory bulb—to the cortex. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 32 Motor system Motor systems are areas of the brain that are more or less directly involved in producing body movements, that is, in activating muscles. With the exception of the muscles that control the eye, all of the voluntary muscles See muscle in the body are directly innervated by motor neurons in the spinal cord, which therefore are the final common path for the movement-generating system. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 34 Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many reflex responses, and also contain pattern generators for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. Principles of Neural Science, Chs. 36, 37 The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control. The brain contains a number of areas that project directly to the spinal cord. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 33 At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, via the so-called pyramidal tract. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other "secondary" motor-related brain areas do not project directly to the spinal cord, but instead act on the cortical or subcortical primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum: The premotor cortex (which is actually a large complex of areas) adjoins the primary motor cortex, and projects to it. Whereas elements of the primary motor cortex map to specific body areas, elements of the premotor cortex are often involved in coordinated movements of multiple body parts. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 38 The basal ganglia are a set of structures in the base of the forebrain that project to many other motor-related areas. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 43 Their function has been difficult to understand, but one of the most popular theories currently is that they play a key role in action selection. Gurney et al., 2004 Most of the time they restrain actions by sending constant inhibitory signals to action-generating systems, but in the right circumstances, they release this inhibition and therefore allow their targets to take control of behavior. The cerebellum is a very distinctive structure attached to the back of the brain. It does not control or originate behaviors, but instead generates corrective signals to make movements more precise. People with cerebellar damage are not paralyzed in any way, but their body movements become erratic and uncoordinated. In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 49 The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal—but most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control. Arousal system Perhaps the most obvious aspect of the behavior of any animal is the daily cycle between sleeping and waking. Arousal and alertness are also modulated on a finer time scale, though, by an extensive network of brain areas. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 45 A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross. Antle & Silver, 2005 The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, circadian rhythms: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), that allow daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock. The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the so-called reticular formation, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma. Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Principles of Neural Science, Ch. 47 Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true: activity continues, but the pattern becomes very different. In fact, there are two types of sleep, slow wave sleep (usually non-dreaming) and REM sleep (dreaming), each with its own distinct brain activity pattern. During slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, where in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern. Brain energy consumption PET Image of the human brain showing energy consumption Although the brain represents only 2% of the body weight, it receives 15% of the cardiac output, 20% of total body oxygen consumption, and 25% of total body glucose utilization. Clark & Sokoloff, 1999 The demands of the brain limit its size in some species, such as bats. Safi et al., 2005 The brain mostly utilizes glucose for energy, and deprivation of glucose, as can happen in hypoglycemia, can result in loss of consciousness. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions: this fact forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET and fMRI. Raichle & Gusnard, 2002 Effects of damage and disease Even though it is protected by the skull and meninges, surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood-brain barrier, the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage. Because these problems generally manifest themselves differently in humans than in other species, an overview of brain pathology and how it can be treated is deferred to the Human brain, Brain damage, and Neurology articles. Brain and mind Understanding the relationship between the physical brain and the functional mind is a challenging problem both philosophically and scientifically. Churchland, Neurophilosophy The most straightforward scientific evidence that there is a strong relationship between the physical brain matter and the mind is the impact physical alterations to the brain, such as injury and drug use, have on the mind. The mind-body problem is one of the central issues in the history of philosophy, Neurophilosophy, Ch. 7 which asks us to consider if the correlation between the physical brain and the mind are identical, partially distinct, or related in some unknown way. There are three major schools of thought concerning the answer: dualism, materialism, and idealism. Dualism holds that the mind exists independently of the brain; Hart, 1996 materialism holds that mental phenomena are identical to neuronal phenomena; Lacey, 1996 and idealism holds that only mental substances and phenomena exist. In addition to the philosophical questions, the relationship between mind and brain involves a number of scientific questions, including understanding the relationship between thought and brain activity, the mechanisms by which drugs influence thought, and the neural correlates of consciousness. Through most of history many philosophers found it inconceivable that cognition could be implemented by a physical substance such as brain tissue. Neurophilosophy, Ch. 6 Philosophers such as Patricia Churchland posit that the drug-mind interaction is indicative of an intimate connection between the brain and the mind, not that the two are the same entity Neurophilosophy, Ch. 8 . Even Descartes, notable for his mechanistic philosophy which found it possible to explain reflexes and other simple behaviors in mechanistic terms, could not believe that complex thought, language in particular, could be explained by the physical brain alone . How it is studied Neuroscience seeks to understand the nervous system, including the brain, from a biological and computational perspective. Princples of Neural Science, Ch. 1 Psychology seeks to understand behavior and the brain. Neurology refers to the medical applications of neuroscience. The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders. Storrow, Outline of Clinical Psychiatry Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy. Some methods of examining the brain are mainly useful in humans, and are described in the human brain article. This section focuses on methods that are usable across a wide range of animal species. (However, the great majority of neuroscience experiments are done using rats or mice as subjects.) Neuroanatomy The oldest method of studying the brain is anatomical, and until the middle of the 20th century, much of the progress in Neuroscience came from the development of better stains and better microscopes. Much critical information about synaptic function has come from study of electron microscope images of synapses. On a larger scale, neuroanatomists have invented a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. In recent years, the development of immunostaining techniques has allowed staining of neurons that express specific sets of genes. Electrophysiology Electrophysiology allows scientists to record the electrical activity of individual neurons or groups of neurons. Dowling, Neurons and Networks, pages 15–24 There are two general approaches: intracellular and extracellular recordings. Intracellular recording uses glass electrodes with very fine tips in order to pick up electrical signals from the interior of a neuron. This method is very sensitive, but also very delicate, and usually is carried out in vitro—i.e., in a dish of warm nutrient solution; using tissue that has been extracted from the brain of an animal. Extracellular recording uses larger electrodes that can be used in the brains of living animals. This method cannot usually resolve the tiny electrical signals generated by individual synaptic connections, but it can pick up action potentials generated by individual neurons, as well as field potentials generated by synchronous synaptic activity in large groups of neurons. Because the brain does not contain pain receptors, it is possible using these techniques to record from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress. The same techniques have occasionally been used to study brain activity in human patients suffering from intractable epilepsy, in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes in order to localize the brain area responsible for seizures. Wyllie et al., Treatment of Epilepsy, Ch. 77 Lesion studies In humans, the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function. Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage, however, this information is often difficult to interpret. In animal studies, most commonly involving rats, it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior. Computation A computer, in the broadest sense, is a device for storing and processing information. In an ordinary digital computer, information is represented by electronic circuits that have two stable states, often denoted 0 and 1. In a brain, information is represented both dynamically, by trains of action potentials in neurons, and statically, by the strengths of synaptic connections between neurons. In a digital computer, information is processed by a small set of "registers" that operate at speeds of billions of cycles per second. In a brain, information is processed by billions of neurons all operating simultaneously, but only at speeds around 100 cycles per second. Thus, brains and digital computers are similar in that both are devices for processing information, but the ways that they do it are very different. Computational neuroscience encompasses two approaches: first, the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation. Abbott & Dayan, Theoretical Neuroscience On one hand, it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their electrochemical activity; such simulations are known as biologically realistic neural networks. On the other hand, it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating, or mathematically analyzing, the operations of simplified "units" that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity. Most programs for digital computers rely on long sequences of operations executed in a specific order, and therefore could not be "ported" into a brain without becoming extremely slow. Computer scientists, however, have found that some types of problems lend themselves naturally to algorithms that can efficiently be executed by brainlike networks of processing elements. One important problem that falls into this group is object recognition: on a digital computer, the seemingly simple task of recognizing a face in a photo turns out to be tremendously difficult, and even the best current programs don't do it well; the human brain, however, reliably solves this problem in a fraction of a second. The process feels almost effortless, but this is only because our brains are heavily optimized for it. Other tasks that are computationally a great deal simpler, such as adding pairs of hundred-digit numbers, feel more difficult because the human brain is not adapted to execute them efficiently. The computational functions of brain are studied both by neuroscientists and computer scientists. There have been several attempts to build electronic computers that operate on brainlike principles, including a supercomputer called the Connection Machine, but to date none of them has achieved notable success. Brains have several advantages that are difficult to duplicate in an electronic device, including (1) the microscopic size of the processing elements, (2) the three-dimensional arrangement of connections, and (3) the fact that each neuron generates its own power (metabolically). Genetics Recent years have seen the first applications of genetic engineering techniques to the study of the brain. Tonegawa et al., 2003 The most common subjects are mice, because the technical tools are more advanced for this species than for any other. It is now possible with relative ease to "knock out" or mutate a wide variety of genes, and then examine the effects on brain function. More sophisticated approaches are also beginning to be used: for example, using the Cre-Lox recombination method it is possible to activate or inactivate genes in specific parts of the brain, at specific times. History of its study Early views were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart. On one hand, it was impossible to miss the fact that awareness feels like it is localized in the head, and that blows to the head can cause unconsciousness much more easily than blows to the chest, and that shaking the head causes dizziness. On the other hand, the brain to a superficial examination seems inert, whereas the heart is constantly beating. Cessation of the heartbeat means death; strong emotions produce changes in the heartbeat; and emotional distress often produces a sensation of pain in the region of the heart ("heartache"). Aristotle favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain is merely to cool the blood. Democritus, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, favored a three-part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust in the vicinity of the liver. Finger, Origins of Neuroscience, p 14 Hippocrates, the "father of medicine", was entirely in favor of the brain. In On the Sacred Disease, his account of epilepsy, he wrote: Men ought to know that from nothing else but the brain come joys, delights, laughter and sports, and sorrows, griefs, despondency, and lamentations. ... And by the same organ we become mad and delirious, and fears and terrors assail us, some by night, and some by day, and dreams and untimely wanderings, and cares that are not suitable, and ignorance of present circumstances, desuetude, and unskilfulness. All these things we endure from the brain, when it is not healthy… —Hippocrates, On the Sacred Disease Hippocrates, On the Sacred Disease The famous Roman physician Galen also advocated the importance of the brain, and theorized in some depth about how it might work. Even after physicians and philosophers had accepted the primacy of the brain, though, the idea of the heart as seat of intelligence continued to survive in popular idioms, such as "learning something by heart". Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins Galen did a masterful job of tracing out the anatomical relationships between brain, nerves, and muscles, demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain via a branching network of nerves. He postulated that nerves activate muscles mechanically, by carrying a mysterious substance he called pneumata psychikon, usually translated as "animal spirits". His ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of Descartes and his followers. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions—language in particular—are carried out by a non-physical res cogitans, but that the majority of behaviors of humans and animals could be explained mechanically. The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function, though, came from the investigations of Luigi Galvani, who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract. Drawing by Santiago Ramon y Cajal of two types of Golgi-stained neurons from the cerebellum of a pigeon The ensuing history of brain research can perhaps be epitomized by a quip from Floyd Bloom: "The gains in brain are mainly in the stain". Bloom, 1972, p 211 The purport of this line is that progress in brain research has come for the most part not from theoretical work, but from advances in technology. Each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new method of investigation. Until the early years of the 20th century, the most important advances were literally derived from new stains. Particularly critical was the invention of the Golgi stain, which (when correctly used) stains only a small, and apparently random, fraction of neurons, but stains them in their entirety, including cell body, dendrites, and axon. Without such a stain, brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers, in which it is impossible to determine any structure. In the hands of Camillo Golgi, and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramon y Cajal, the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons, each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity. In the 20th century, progress in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in the work by Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of Bernard Katz and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse. Piccolino, 2002 The earliest studies used special preparations, such as the "fast escape response" system of the squid, which involves a giant axon as thick as a pencil lead, and giant synapses connecting to this axon. Steady improvements in electrodes and electronics allowed ever finer levels of resolution. These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942 Charles Sherrington visualized the workings of the brain in action in somewhat breathless terms: The great topmost sheet of the mass, that where hardly a light had twinkled or moved, becomes now a sparkling field of rhythmic flashing points with trains of traveling sparks hurrying hither and thither. … It is as if the Milky Way entered upon some cosmic dance. Swiftly the head mass becomes an enchanted loom where millions of flashing shuttles weave a dissolving pattern, always a meaningful pattern though never an abiding one; a shifting harmony of subpatterns. —Sherrington, 1942, Man on his Nature Sherrington, Man on his Nature See also Brain-computer interface Notes References Further reading Written for children 8 and older: External links The Society for Neuroscience International Brain Research Organization The HOPES Brain Tutorial at hopes.stanford.edu Comparative Mammalian Brain Collection Brain Research News from ScienceDaily BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy Neuroscience for kids BrainMaps.org, interactive high-resolution digital brain atlas based on scanned images of serial sections of both primate and non-primate brains The Brain from Top to Bottom The Department of Neuroscience at Wikiversity | Brain |@lemmatized chimpanzee:1 brain:199 center:1 nervous:15 system:41 vertebrate:22 invertebrate:6 animal:20 primitive:3 jellyfish:2 starfish:1 decentralize:1 without:5 sponge:3 lack:2 locate:7 head:6 protect:4 skull:3 close:1 primary:13 sensory:20 apparatus:1 vision:2 hearing:5 balance:2 taste:2 smell:4 extremely:2 complex:14 human:28 contain:19 roughly:4 billion:4 neuron:58 link:3 synaptic:14 connection:14 cubic:1 millimeter:1 cerebral:6 cortex:28 one:12 synapsis:8 alonso:1 nanclares:1 l:2 gonzalez:1 soriano:1 j:4 rodriguez:1 jr:2 defelipe:1 gender:1 difference:2 cortical:6 density:3 proc:1 natl:1 acad:1 sci:1 u:4 communicate:1 another:1 mean:10 long:7 protoplasmic:3 fiber:9 call:26 axon:22 carry:4 train:3 signal:19 pulse:2 action:24 potential:12 distant:2 part:30 body:33 target:8 specific:9 recipient:1 cell:26 philosophical:3 point:10 view:3 might:3 say:1 important:11 function:28 serve:4 physical:10 structure:25 underlie:1 mind:12 biological:10 though:9 generate:15 behavior:14 promote:2 welfare:1 control:18 either:1 activate:6 muscle:9 cause:12 secretion:1 chemical:9 hormone:3 even:8 single:3 celled:1 organism:3 may:10 capable:4 extract:6 information:21 environment:3 act:3 response:5 gehring:1 central:6 coordinated:2 contraction:1 locomotion:1 nickel:1 spinal:12 cord:13 neural:39 circuitry:2 reflex:3 well:7 simple:5 motor:15 pattern:15 swimming:2 walking:2 grillner:2 wallén:1 however:11 sophisticated:4 basis:7 input:14 require:2 integrating:1 capability:1 centralized:1 despite:1 rapid:1 scientific:3 progress:6 much:8 work:10 remain:3 mystery:1 operation:5 individual:5 understood:2 considerable:2 detail:4 way:14 cooperate:1 ensemble:1 thousand:5 million:7 difficult:9 decipher:1 method:10 observation:1 eeg:1 recording:2 functional:4 image:6 tell:1 highly:2 organize:1 resolution:3 reveal:4 activity:22 sejnowski:1 problem:8 neuroscience:13 macroscopic:1 specie:13 mammal:25 know:5 shepherd:1 neurobiology:2 p:8 compare:4 different:8 appearance:2 often:8 nevertheless:2 common:5 principle:32 architecture:1 apply:4 across:8 wide:6 range:5 mainly:7 three:8 approach:9 evolutionary:4 use:21 feature:3 find:7 branch:5 descend:3 give:2 ancient:1 form:15 probably:2 present:5 ancestor:5 developmental:1 examine:6 change:7 progression:1 embyronic:1 adult:6 stage:3 genetic:3 analyze:4 gene:13 expression:2 various:2 complement:2 informs:1 two:13 strongly:1 distinguishes:1 primate:12 non:7 mammalian:5 surface:4 cerebrum:1 line:2 comparatively:1 layered:2 pallium:7 aboitiz:2 et:16 al:16 evolve:2 neocortex:4 greatly:7 enlarge:3 comparison:2 size:13 especially:6 frontal:3 lobe:5 enlargement:4 take:9 extreme:1 also:17 become:10 quite:2 large:18 relationship:6 variable:1 study:26 increase:6 proportionally:1 average:2 order:5 follow:4 power:2 law:1 exponent:1 armstrong:1 formula:2 family:1 depart:1 reflect:3 sophistication:1 jerison:1 evolution:4 intelligence:4 example:12 time:9 predict:1 predator:1 tend:1 rate:6 great:9 fraction:3 finlay:1 bilaterians:4 plan:3 generic:1 bilaterian:2 nerve:13 segmental:1 front:3 exception:5 living:4 bilaterally:1 symmetric:1 shape:5 leave:4 right:5 side:1 approximate:1 mirror:1 think:5 appear:8 early:7 cambrian:2 period:5 year:10 ago:5 balavoine:1 adoutte:1 tube:4 worm:6 segmented:1 abstract:2 level:12 continue:6 modern:7 include:12 schmidt:1 rhaesa:1 organ:6 fundamental:1 hollow:2 gut:2 cavity:2 run:2 mouth:1 anus:1 ganglion:8 segment:1 invertebrates:1 drosophila:5 insect:2 mollusc:2 etc:4 component:6 differ:1 hard:2 make:18 meaningful:2 except:2 genetics:4 group:9 notably:1 arthropod:3 crustacean:1 arachnid:1 others:6 cephalopod:3 octopus:2 squid:2 similar:7 butler:1 arise:1 twin:1 parallel:1 extend:5 division:1 optical:1 behind:1 eye:5 visual:5 processing:4 particular:6 developed:1 comparable:1 complexity:4 whose:4 intensively:1 sea:1 slug:1 aplysia:1 choose:2 nobel:1 prize:1 win:1 neurophysiologist:1 eric:1 kandel:2 simplicity:1 accessibility:1 model:2 cellular:2 learn:4 memory:6 subject:4 hundred:4 experiment:2 search:2 thoroughly:1 studied:1 belong:1 fruit:2 fly:2 tiny:4 roundworm:1 caenorhabditis:1 elegans:2 array:1 technique:5 available:3 natural:1 role:4 development:16 flybrain:1 web:3 site:2 remarkably:1 many:21 aspect:2 neurogenetics:1 turn:6 relevant:4 first:8 clock:6 identify:3 mutant:1 show:11 disrupt:1 daily:3 cycle:8 konopka:1 benzer:1 genome:1 set:13 analogous:1 play:3 mouse:2 therefore:4 almost:5 certainly:1 shin:1 like:5 c:1 largely:4 importance:3 wormbook:2 sydney:1 brenner:2 advantage:2 stereotyped:1 hermaphrodite:1 morph:1 exactly:1 always:4 place:6 identical:3 every:6 hobert:1 heroic:1 project:9 team:1 slice:1 ultrathin:1 section:8 photograph:1 electron:2 microscope:4 visually:1 match:1 map:3 synapse:3 entire:3 white:5 nothing:2 enable:1 multitude:1 would:2 possible:8 vertebrates:1 shark:4 soft:3 tissue:12 texture:1 jello:1 science:25 ch:27 live:1 pinkish:1 outside:2 mostly:3 inside:2 subtle:1 variation:1 color:4 surround:2 connective:1 membrane:3 meninges:2 separate:1 carpenter:1 neuroanatomy:3 layer:10 covering:1 compose:3 dura:1 mater:4 mother:3 arachnoid:4 spidery:1 pia:4 physically:1 connect:4 thus:5 consider:3 subarachnoid:1 space:6 cerebrospinal:2 fluid:2 csf:1 circulate:1 narrow:1 ventricle:1 nourish:1 support:3 blood:6 vessel:2 enter:3 perivascular:1 wall:1 join:1 tightly:1 barrier:2 toxin:1 mya:5 somewhat:3 resemble:1 hagfish:4 amphibian:2 reptile:5 describe:4 since:1 equally:2 history:6 lamprey:1 gradient:1 sequence:3 striedter:1 basic:2 anatomical:6 rudimentary:1 whereas:3 foremost:1 elaborate:1 expand:1 share:1 underlying:1 easily:3 appreciate:1 develop:4 thin:3 strip:3 along:7 back:2 embryo:1 thicken:1 fold:2 end:1 swelling:1 eventually:2 forebrain:12 midbrain:13 hindbrain:3 class:2 becomes:2 small:9 neuroanatomists:3 usually:8 consist:3 six:1 main:4 region:7 telencephalon:1 hemisphere:4 diencephalon:1 thalamus:6 hypothalamus:8 mesencephalon:1 cerebellum:8 pons:2 medulla:3 area:41 internal:2 convolute:1 fit:1 within:5 cluster:2 nucleus:12 fine:4 distinction:1 chemistry:2 connectivity:3 distinguishable:2 lead:2 substantial:2 straighforward:1 teleost:1 fish:3 majority:4 evert:1 sock:1 bird:3 major:4 northcutt:2 avian:1 dorsal:1 ventricular:1 ridge:1 correspond:1 basal:6 closely:1 relate:3 reiner:1 several:8 maintain:1 identity:1 whole:2 list:1 brief:1 description:1 currently:2 note:2 still:1 dispute:1 degree:1 involve:16 variety:2 base:3 belies:1 numerous:3 distinct:7 neurochemistry:1 station:1 sleep:12 wake:4 eating:2 drinking:2 release:6 critical:5 swaab:1 collection:2 diverse:1 relay:4 motivation:2 subthalamic:1 zona:1 incerta:1 seem:3 type:13 consummatory:1 defecation:1 copulation:1 jones:1 modulate:4 output:3 precise:6 removal:1 prevent:2 anything:1 hesitant:1 clumsy:1 precision:1 build:2 trial:1 error:1 ride:1 bicycle:1 plasticity:1 tectum:2 optic:3 allow:8 direct:7 toward:2 superior:2 colliculus:2 best:3 movement:9 reach:5 get:1 strong:3 sens:5 useful:3 auditory:6 owl:1 thermosensitive:1 pit:2 snake:2 saitoh:1 gray:3 matter:8 lie:2 instead:5 multiple:3 olfaction:1 spatial:3 come:13 dominate:1 subsume:1 subcortical:4 puelles:1 hippocampus:3 strictly:1 speak:1 derive:2 medial:2 counterpart:1 evidence:5 navigation:1 salas:1 interconnected:1 understanding:4 enormously:1 last:2 selection:2 send:9 inhibitory:4 circumstance:3 inhbition:1 generating:2 able:1 execute:4 reward:1 punishment:1 exert:2 effect:8 olfactory:6 bulb:3 special:7 process:10 reduce:1 generally:3 dramatic:1 alter:2 barton:1 harvey:1 cover:1 isocortex:1 see:4 distinctive:3 unfortunately:1 miss:2 synapsid:1 split:2 recent:3 branching:2 result:5 monotreme:2 platypus:1 echidna:1 marsupial:2 opossum:1 kangaroo:1 placental:2 fully:1 hippocampal:1 must:1 fossil:1 preserve:1 considerably:1 proportion:1 massive:2 expansion:1 focus:2 subserve:1 forethought:1 calvin:1 network:7 least:2 bewilder:1 interconnection:1 together:2 half:2 prefrontal:1 summarize:1 succinctly:1 planning:1 attention:2 executive:1 microscopic:2 broad:2 glia:4 receive:4 glial:3 overall:1 equal:2 number:7 outnumber:1 azevedo:1 fa:1 carvalho:1 lr:1 grinberg:1 lt:1 farfel:1 jm:1 ferretti:1 leite:1 jacob:1 filho:1 w:1 lent:1 r:1 herculano:1 houzel:1 neuronal:4 nonneuronal:1 isometrically:1 scale:3 comp:2 neurol:2 perform:2 structural:1 metabolic:1 insulation:1 guidance:2 property:3 unlike:2 distance:2 sometimes:2 nearby:2 extent:1 extraordinary:1 pyramidal:2 magnify:2 cable:1 centimeter:1 diameter:1 farther:1 kilometer:1 transmit:2 electrochemical:2 less:3 thousandth:1 second:7 travel:4 speed:4 meter:1 per:4 emit:2 constantly:2 irregular:1 temporal:3 quiet:1 occasionally:2 burst:1 specialized:3 junction:1 arrive:1 neurotransmitter:13 bind:1 receptor:11 molecule:1 excitatory:2 decrease:1 modulatory:1 actually:4 fill:2 bundle:1 tract:3 case:5 wrap:1 thick:2 sheath:1 fatty:1 substance:4 myelin:2 propagation:1 exclusively:3 contrast:1 mark:2 high:7 total:3 length:1 myelinated:2 km:2 old:3 male:1 female:1 marner:1 nyengaard:1 tang:1 pakkenberg:1 b:1 loss:2 age:2 illustration:1 chlorocebus:1 monkey:1 stain:15 nissl:2 dark:3 blue:2 paler:1 invent:2 widely:2 diagram:1 depict:1 subdivision:1 embryonic:1 later:1 differentiate:1 simply:1 grow:3 intricately:1 orchestrated:1 step:1 create:3 zone:1 stem:1 migrate:1 ultimate:1 location:1 formation:3 scaffold:1 radial:2 vertically:1 new:8 bottom:2 climb:1 destine:1 occupy:1 begin:4 dendrite:1 around:2 chs:3 commonly:2 need:1 contact:2 particularly:2 tip:2 consists:1 blob:1 protoplasm:1 growth:3 cone:3 stud:1 sense:12 local:1 attract:1 repel:1 element:5 pull:1 direction:2 path:2 pathfinding:2 navigate:1 destination:1 cue:2 account:2 rise:2 protein:1 influence:2 axonal:2 finally:3 emerge:1 partly:3 determine:5 initially:1 overgrow:1 prune:1 mechanism:6 depend:2 projection:4 mapping:1 retina:4 corresponding:1 guide:2 general:3 vicinity:2 profusely:1 initial:2 swath:1 birth:3 wave:6 originate:2 spontaneously:1 propagate:1 slowly:1 retinal:1 wong:1 neighbor:1 active:2 produce:6 arrangement:2 exploit:1 weaken:1 vanish:1 gradual:1 tuning:1 tightening:1 thing:3 happen:2 matrix:2 genetically:1 gradually:1 refine:3 dependent:1 drive:2 dynamic:2 external:2 operate:3 developing:1 apparently:2 exist:3 solely:1 purpose:1 infant:1 substantially:1 throughout:2 life:2 establish:1 dentate:1 gyrus:1 store:3 newly:1 acquire:1 childhood:1 lifespan:1 although:3 pool:2 afterward:1 full:1 myelination:1 complete:1 adolescence:1 paus:1 debate:2 whether:2 quality:3 personality:1 attribute:1 heredity:1 upbringing:1 nature:6 versus:1 nurture:2 ridley:1 v:1 question:3 practical:1 relevance:2 parent:1 educator:1 settle:1 clearly:1 factor:1 essential:1 react:1 experience:4 respect:2 presence:1 absence:1 wiesel:1 quantity:1 raise:1 enriched:1 thicker:1 indicate:1 stimulation:1 restrict:1 van:1 praag:1 perspective:2 fitness:1 carew:1 behavioral:1 enough:1 stimulate:1 immediate:1 deer:1 detect:2 odor:1 wolf:1 ongoing:1 light:4 future:1 manage:1 task:3 orchestrate:1 subsystem:1 categorize:1 anatomically:1 chemically:1 functionally:1 characterize:1 frequently:1 glutamate:2 gamma:1 aminobutyric:1 acid:1 gaba:2 transmitter:2 nearly:1 numerically:1 psychoactive:1 drug:6 directly:9 glutamatergic:1 gabaergic:1 transmission:1 cooper:1 biochemical:1 neuropharmacology:1 caffeine:1 nicotine:1 heroin:1 cocaine:1 prozac:1 thorazine:1 localize:3 serotonin:2 antidepressant:1 dietary:1 aid:1 brainstem:4 raphe:1 norepinephrine:2 arousal:5 locus:1 ceruleus:1 histamine:2 tuberomammilary:1 cns:1 antihistamine:1 sedative:1 acetylcholine:2 dopamine:1 source:3 ubiquitously:1 distribute:1 biologically:2 go:2 beyond:1 classical:1 five:1 sight:1 sound:3 touch:2 provide:1 temperature:2 limb:1 position:1 composition:1 bloodstream:2 among:4 modality:3 sensor:2 additional:1 infrared:1 heat:1 standard:1 nonstandard:1 sonar:1 bat:2 idiosyncrasy:1 hear:1 bound:1 sensitive:2 stretching:1 inner:1 ear:2 cochlea:1 vibration:1 gather:1 cochlear:1 secondary:3 sort:1 olivary:1 inferior:1 dedicate:1 geniculate:1 thalamic:1 upper:1 rhythm:2 multimodal:1 combine:2 integrative:1 rather:1 specifically:1 rule:1 dozen:1 mechanical:1 terminate:1 voluntary:3 innervate:1 final:1 circuit:3 intrinsic:2 implement:3 generator:1 rhythmic:3 descending:1 low:2 red:1 responsible:2 coordinate:1 arm:1 leg:2 yet:1 posterior:1 edge:1 via:2 corticospinal:1 related:2 premotor:3 adjoin:1 understand:5 popular:2 theory:2 key:3 gurney:1 restrain:1 constant:1 inhibition:1 attach:1 generates:1 corrective:1 people:1 cerebellar:1 damage:8 paralyze:1 movements:1 erratic:1 uncoordinated:1 addition:2 extensive:2 autonomic:2 secrete:1 smooth:1 affect:1 heart:8 digestion:1 respiration:1 salivation:1 perspiration:1 urination:1 sexual:1 perhaps:2 obvious:1 alertness:1 finer:1 suprachiasmatic:1 scn:4 cross:1 antle:1 silver:1 fall:3 hour:1 circadian:1 fluctuation:1 keep:1 excise:1 dish:2 warm:2 nutrient:2 solution:2 ordinarily:1 retinohypothalamic:1 rht:1 calibrate:1 reticular:3 scatter:1 diffusely:1 core:1 sends:1 permanent:1 state:3 coma:1 believe:3 essentially:1 shut:1 far:2 true:1 fact:4 slow:4 dreaming:1 rem:2 dream:2 synchronized:1 waking:1 noisy:1 desynchronize:1 drop:1 zero:1 reverse:1 energy:5 consumption:4 pet:2 represent:3 weight:1 cardiac:1 oxygen:1 glucose:3 utilization:1 clark:1 sokoloff:1 demand:1 limit:1 safi:1 utilize:1 deprivation:1 hypoglycemia:1 consciousness:2 vary:1 consume:1 inactive:1 fmri:1 raichle:1 gusnard:1 disease:5 isolate:1 delicate:2 vulnerable:1 manifest:1 differently:1 overview:1 pathology:1 treat:2 defer:1 neurology:2 article:2 challenging:1 philosophically:1 scientifically:1 churchland:2 neurophilosophy:4 straightforward:1 impact:1 alteration:1 injury:1 issue:1 philosophy:3 ask:1 correlation:1 partially:1 unknown:1 school:1 thought:5 concern:2 answer:1 dualism:2 materialism:2 idealism:2 hold:3 independently:1 hart:1 mental:3 phenomenon:3 lacey:1 correlate:1 philosopher:3 inconceivable:1 cognition:1 could:6 patricia:1 posit:1 interaction:1 indicative:1 intimate:1 entity:2 descartes:3 notable:2 mechanistic:2 explain:3 term:3 language:2 alone:1 seek:3 computational:3 princples:1 psychology:2 refers:1 medical:2 application:2 psychiatry:2 medicine:2 disorder:1 storrow:1 outline:1 clinical:1 cognitive:2 unify:1 field:4 computer:13 artificial:1 usable:1 rat:2 middle:2 century:3 good:2 plethora:1 immunostaining:1 staining:1 express:1 electrophysiology:2 scientist:3 record:4 electrical:4 dowling:1 page:1 intracellular:2 extracellular:2 us:2 glass:1 electrode:5 pick:2 interior:1 vitro:1 e:1 cannot:1 resolve:1 synchronous:1 pain:2 awake:1 behave:1 distress:2 patient:1 suffer:1 intractable:1 epilepsy:3 necessity:1 implant:1 seizure:1 wyllie:1 treatment:1 lesion:1 stroke:1 ability:1 experimentally:1 interpret:1 locally:1 injected:1 consequence:1 computation:3 device:3 ordinary:1 digital:6 electronic:3 stable:1 denote:1 dynamically:1 statically:1 strength:1 register:1 operating:1 simultaneously:1 encompass:1 abbott:1 dayan:1 theoretical:3 hand:5 write:3 program:3 simulate:2 equation:1 simulation:1 realistic:1 algorithm:1 mathematically:1 simplify:1 unit:1 rely:1 port:1 lend:1 naturally:1 algorithms:1 efficiently:2 brainlike:2 object:1 recognition:1 seemingly:1 recognize:1 face:1 photo:1 tremendously:1 current:1 reliably:1 solve:1 feel:3 effortless:1 heavily:1 optimize:1 computationally:1 deal:1 simpler:1 add:1 pair:1 digit:1 adapt:1 neuroscientist:1 attempt:1 supercomputer:1 machine:1 date:1 none:1 achieve:1 success:1 duplicate:1 dimensional:1 metabolically:1 engineering:1 tonegawa:1 mice:1 technical:1 tool:1 advanced:1 relative:1 ease:1 knock:1 mutate:1 cre:1 lox:1 recombination:1 inactivate:1 divide:1 seat:2 soul:2 impossible:2 awareness:1 blow:2 unconsciousness:1 chest:1 shake:1 dizziness:1 superficial:1 examination:1 inert:1 beat:1 cessation:1 heartbeat:2 death:1 emotion:2 emotional:1 sensation:1 heartache:1 aristotle:1 favor:3 merely:1 cool:1 democritus:1 inventor:1 atomic:1 intellect:1 lust:1 liver:1 finger:1 origin:2 hippocrates:3 father:1 entirely:1 sacred:3 men:1 ought:1 else:1 joy:1 delight:1 laughter:1 sport:1 sorrow:1 grief:1 despondency:1 lamentation:1 mad:1 delirious:1 fear:1 terror:1 assail:1 night:1 day:1 untimely:1 wandering:1 care:1 suitable:1 ignorance:1 desuetude:1 unskilfulness:1 endure:1 healthy:1 famous:1 roman:1 physician:2 galen:3 advocate:1 theorize:1 depth:1 accept:1 primacy:1 idea:2 survive:1 idiom:1 something:1 encyclopedia:1 word:1 phrase:1 masterful:1 job:1 trace:1 demonstrate:1 postulate:1 mechanically:2 mysterious:1 pneumata:1 psychikon:1 translate:1 spirit:1 renaissance:1 detailed:1 resume:1 speculation:1 follower:1 hydraulic:1 cogitans:1 real:1 investigation:3 luigi:1 galvani:1 discover:1 shock:1 static:1 electricity:1 expose:1 dead:1 frog:1 contract:1 drawing:1 santiago:2 ramon:2 cajal:2 golgi:3 pigeon:1 ensue:1 research:4 epitomize:1 quip:1 floyd:1 bloom:2 gain:1 purport:1 advance:3 technology:1 literally:1 invention:1 correctly:1 random:1 entirety:1 dendrites:1 impenetrable:1 tangle:1 camillo:1 spanish:1 neuroanatomist:1 unique:1 dendritic:1 electronics:2 enabled:1 culminate:1 alan:1 hodgkin:1 andrew:1 huxley:1 biophysics:1 bernard:1 katz:1 electrochemistry:1 piccolino:1 preparation:1 fast:1 escape:1 giant:2 pencil:1 steady:1 improvement:1 ever:1 picture:1 conception:1 charles:1 sherrington:3 visualized:1 working:1 breathless:1 topmost:1 sheet:1 mass:2 hardly:1 twinkle:1 move:1 sparkling:1 flashing:1 spark:1 hurry:1 hither:1 thither:1 milky:1 upon:1 cosmic:1 dance:1 swiftly:1 enchanted:1 loom:1 flash:1 shuttle:1 weave:1 dissolving:1 never:1 abide:1 shift:1 harmony:1 subpatterns:1 man:2 interface:1 reference:1 read:1 child:1 society:1 international:1 organization:1 hope:2 tutorial:1 stanford:1 edu:1 comparative:1 news:1 sciencedaily:1 braininfo:1 kid:1 brainmaps:1 org:1 interactive:1 atlas:1 scanned:1 serial:1 top:1 department:1 wikiversity:1 |@bigram vertebrate_invertebrate:2 taste_smell:1 synaptic_connection:8 cerebral_cortex:3 proc_natl:1 natl_acad:1 acad_sci:1 single_celled:1 celled_organism:1 spinal_cord:10 neuron_synapsis:1 et_al:16 frontal_lobe:3 nerve_cord:3 nobel_prize:1 caenorhabditis_elegans:1 sydney_brenner:1 electron_microscope:2 soft_tissue:1 connective_tissue:1 subarachnoid_space:1 cerebrospinal_fluid:2 fluid_csf:1 amphibian_reptile:1 reptile_mammal:3 cerebral_hemisphere:3 basal_ganglion:6 closely_relate:1 eating_drinking:2 reward_punishment:1 prefrontal_cortex:1 glial_cell:3 centimeter_diameter:1 nerve_fiber:3 dendrite_axon:1 sense_smell:2 versus_nurture:1 nurture_debate:1 gamma_aminobutyric:1 aminobutyric_acid:1 psychoactive_drug:1 heroin_cocaine:1 neurotransmitter_acetylcholine:1 geniculate_nucleus:1 temporal_lobe:1 motor_neuron:2 brain_spinal:1 autonomic_nervous:2 secrete_hormone:1 smooth_muscle:1 sexual_arousal:1 optic_nerve:2 circadian_rhythm:1 reticular_formation:2 rem_sleep:2 neural_correlate:1 mental_disorder:1 clinical_psychiatry:1 artificial_intelligence:1 computational_neuroscience:1 neural_network:1 emotional_distress:1 luigi_galvani:1 static_electricity:1 camillo_golgi:1 milky_way:1 external_link:1 stanford_edu:1 |
4,697 | Electromagnetism | Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field, a field which exerts a force on particles with the property of electric charge and which is reciprocally affected by the presence and motion of such particles. A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. The magnetic field is produced by the motion of electric charges, i.e., electric current. The magnetic field causes the magnetic force associated with magnets. The theoretical implications of electromagnetism led to the development of special relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905; and from this it was shown that magnetic fields and electric fields are convertible with relative motion as a four vector and this led to their unification as electromagnetism. History While preparing for an evening lecture on 21 April 1820, Hans Christian Oersted developed an experiment which provided evidence that surprised him. As he was setting up his materials, he noticed a compass needle deflected from magnetic north when the electric current from the battery he was using was switched on and off. This deflection convinced him that magnetic fields radiate from all sides off of a wire carrying an electric current, just as light and heat do, and that it confirmed a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. At the time of discovery, Ørsted did not suggest any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in a mathematical framework. However, three months later he began more intensive investigations. Soon thereafter he published his findings, proving that an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire. The CGS unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of electromagnetism. His findings resulted in intensive research throughout the scientific community in electrodynamics. They influenced French physicist André-Marie Ampère's developments of a single mathematical form to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors. Ørsted's discovery also represented a major step toward a unified concept of energy. This unification, which was observed by Michael Faraday, extended by James Clerk Maxwell, and partially reformulated by Oliver Heaviside and Heinrich Hertz, is one of the accomplishments of 19th century Mathematical Physics. It had far-reaching consequences, one of which was the understanding of the nature of light. Light and other electromagnetic waves take the form of quantized, self-propagating oscillatory electromagnetic field disturbances called photons. Different frequencies of oscillation give rise to the different forms of electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to gamma rays at the highest frequencies. Ørsted was not the only person to examine the relation between electricity and magnetism. In 1802 Gian Domenico Romagnosi, an Italian legal scholar, deflected a magnetic needle by electrostatic charges. Actually, no galvanic current existed in the setup and hence no electromagnetism was present. An account of the discovery was published in 1802 in an Italian newspaper, but it was largely overlooked by the contemporary scientific community. The electromagnetic force The force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles, called the electromagnetic force, is one of the fundamental forces. The other fundamental forces are strong nuclear force (which holds atomic nuclei together), the weak nuclear force and the gravitational force. All other forces are ultimately derived from these fundamental forces. The electromagnetic force is the one responsible for practically all the phenomena encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity. All the forces involved in interactions between atoms can be traced to the electromagnetic force acting on the electrically charged protons and electrons inside the atoms. This includes the forces we experience in "pushing" or "pulling" ordinary material objects, which come from the intermolecular forces between the individual molecules in our bodies and those in the objects. It also includes all forms of chemical phenomena, which arise from interactions between electron orbitals. Classical electrodynamics The scientist William Gilbert proposed, in his De Magnete (1600), that electricity and magnetism, while both capable of causing attraction and repulsion of objects, were distinct effects. Mariners had noticed that lightning strikes had the ability to disturb a compass needle, but the link between lightning and electricity was not confirmed until Benjamin Franklin's proposed experiments in 1752. One of the first to discover and publish a link between man-made electric current and magnetism was Romagnosi, who in 1802 noticed that connecting a wire across a voltaic pile deflected a nearby compass needle. However, the effect did not become widely known until 1820, when Ørsted performed a similar experiment. Ørsted's work influenced Ampère to produce a theory of electromagnetism that set the subject on a mathematical foundation. An accurate theory of electromagnetism, known as classical electromagnetism, was developed by various physicists over the course of the 19th century, culminating in the work of James Clerk Maxwell, who unified the preceding developments into a single theory and discovered the electromagnetic nature of light. In classical electromagnetism, the electromagnetic field obeys a set of equations known as Maxwell's equations, and the electromagnetic force is given by the Lorentz force law. One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to reconcile with classical mechanics, but it is compatible with special relativity. According to Maxwell's equations, the speed of light in a vacuum is a universal constant, dependent only on the electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability of free space. This violates Galilean invariance, a long-standing cornerstone of classical mechanics. One way to reconcile the two theories is to assume the existence of a luminiferous aether through which the light propagates. However, subsequent experimental efforts failed to detect the presence of the aether. After important contributions of Hendrik Lorentz and Henri Poincaré, in 1905, Albert Einstein solved the problem with the introduction of special relativity, which replaces classical kinematics with a new theory of kinematics that is compatible with classical electromagnetism. (For more information, see History of special relativity.) In addition, relativity theory shows that in moving frames of reference a magnetic field transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and vice versa; thus firmly showing that they are two sides of the same coin, and thus the term "electromagnetism". (For more information, see Classical electromagnetism and special relativity.) The photoelectric effect In another paper published in that same year, Albert Einstein undermined the very foundations of classical electromagnetism. His theory of the photoelectric effect (for which he won the Nobel prize for physics) posited that light could exist in discrete particle-like quantities, which later came to be known as photons. Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect extended the insights that appeared in the solution of the ultraviolet catastrophe presented by Max Planck in 1900. In his work, Planck showed that hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete packets, which leads to a finite total energy emitted as black body radiation. Both of these results were in direct contradiction with the classical view of light as a continuous wave. Planck's and Einstein's theories were progenitors of quantum mechanics, which, when formulated in 1925, necessitated the invention of a quantum theory of electromagnetism. This theory, completed in the 1940s, is known as quantum electrodynamics (or "QED"), and is one of the most accurate theories known to physics. Units Electromagnetic units are part of a system of electrical units based primarily upon the magnetic properties of electric currents, the fundamental cgs unit being the ampere. The units are: ampere (current) coulomb (charge) farad (capacitance) henry (inductance) ohm (resistance) volt (electric potential) watt (power) tesla (magnetic field) In the electromagnetic cgs system, electrical current is a fundamental quantity defined via Ampère's law and takes the permeability as a dimensionless quantity (relative permeability) whose value in a vacuum is unity. As a consequence, the square of the speed of light appears explicitly in some of the equations interrelating quantities in this system. Symbol Name of QuantityDerived UnitsUnitBase Units I Electric current ampere (SI base unit) A A (= W/V = C/s) Q Electric charge coulomb C A·s U, ΔV, Δφ; E Potential difference; Electromotive force volt V J/C = kg·m2·s−3·A−1 R; Z; X Electric resistance; Impedance; Reactance ohm Ω V/A = kg·m2·s−3·A−2 ρ Resistivity ohm metre Ω·m kg·m3·s−3·A−2 P Electric power watt W V·A = kg·m2·s−3 C Capacitance farad F C/V = kg−1·m−2·A2·s4 E Electric field strength volt per metre V/m N/C = kg·m·A−1·s−3 D Electric displacement field Coulomb per square metre C/m2 A·s·m−2 ε Permittivity farad per metre F/m kg−1·m−3·A2·s4 χe Electric susceptibility (dimensionless) - - G; Y; B Conductance; Admittance; Susceptance siemens S Ω−1 = kg−1·m−2·s3·A2 κ, γ, σ Conductivity siemens per metre S/m kg−1·m−3·s3·A2 B Magnetic flux density, Magnetic induction tesla T Wb/m2 = kg·s−2·A−1 = N·A−1·m−1 Φ Magnetic flux weber Wb V·s = kg·m2·s−2·A−1 H Magnetic field strength ampere per metre A/m A·m−1 L, M Inductance henry H Wb/A = V·s/A = kg·m2·s−2·A−2 μ Permeability henry per metre H/m kg·m·s−2·A−2 χ Magnetic susceptibility (dimensionless) - - Electromagnetic phenomena With the exception of gravitation, electromagnetic phenomena as described by quantum electrodynamics account for almost all physical phenomena observable to the unaided human senses, including light and other electromagnetic radiation, all of chemistry, most of mechanics (excepting gravitation), and of course magnetism and electricity. See also Abraham-Lorentz force Classical electromagnetism Computational electromagnetics Double-slit experiment Electricity Electromagnet Electromagnetic modeling Electromagnetic wave equation Electromechanics Electrostatics Electroweak interaction Formulation Magnetism Optics Waveguide Relativistic electromagnetism X-ray References Web Books </div> be-x-old:Клясычная электрадынаміка | Electromagnetism |@lemmatized electromagnetism:17 physic:4 electromagnetic:21 field:22 exert:1 force:22 particle:4 property:2 electric:20 charge:7 reciprocally:1 affect:1 presence:2 motion:3 change:2 magnetic:21 produce:4 phenomenon:8 induction:4 basis:1 operation:1 electrical:4 generator:1 motor:1 transformer:1 similarly:1 generate:1 e:3 current:11 cause:2 associate:1 magnet:1 theoretical:1 implication:1 lead:3 development:3 special:5 relativity:6 albert:3 einstein:5 show:4 convertible:1 relative:2 four:1 vector:1 unification:2 history:2 prepare:1 evening:1 lecture:1 april:1 hans:1 christian:1 oersted:2 develop:2 experiment:4 provide:1 evidence:1 surprise:1 set:3 material:2 notice:3 compass:3 needle:4 deflect:3 north:1 battery:1 use:1 switch:1 deflection:1 convince:1 radiate:1 side:2 wire:3 carry:1 light:11 heat:1 confirm:2 direct:2 relationship:1 electricity:6 magnetism:6 time:1 discovery:3 ørsted:5 suggest:1 satisfactory:1 explanation:1 try:1 represent:3 mathematical:4 framework:1 however:3 three:1 month:1 later:2 begin:1 intensive:2 investigation:1 soon:1 thereafter:1 publish:4 finding:2 prove:1 flow:1 cgs:3 unit:8 name:2 honor:1 contribution:2 result:2 research:1 throughout:1 scientific:2 community:2 electrodynamics:4 influence:2 french:1 physicist:2 andré:1 marie:1 ampère:3 single:2 form:4 carrying:1 conductor:1 also:3 major:1 step:1 toward:1 unified:1 concept:1 energy:2 observe:1 michael:1 faraday:1 extend:2 james:2 clerk:2 maxwell:4 partially:1 reformulate:1 oliver:1 heaviside:1 heinrich:1 hertz:1 one:8 accomplishment:1 century:2 far:1 reach:1 consequence:2 understanding:1 nature:2 wave:4 take:2 quantized:1 self:1 propagate:1 oscillatory:1 disturbance:1 call:2 photon:2 different:2 frequency:4 oscillation:1 give:2 rise:1 radiation:4 radio:1 low:1 visible:1 intermediate:1 gamma:1 ray:2 high:1 person:1 examine:1 relation:1 gian:1 domenico:1 romagnosi:2 italian:2 legal:1 scholar:1 electrostatic:1 actually:1 galvanic:1 exist:2 setup:1 hence:1 present:2 account:2 newspaper:1 largely:1 overlook:1 contemporary:1 exerts:1 electrically:2 fundamental:5 strong:1 nuclear:2 hold:1 atomic:1 nucleus:1 together:1 weak:1 gravitational:1 ultimately:1 derive:1 responsible:1 practically:1 encounter:1 daily:1 life:1 exception:2 gravity:1 involve:1 interaction:3 atom:2 trace:1 act:1 proton:1 electron:2 inside:1 include:3 experience:1 push:1 pull:1 ordinary:1 object:4 come:2 intermolecular:1 individual:1 molecule:1 body:2 chemical:1 arise:1 orbitals:1 classical:12 scientist:1 william:1 gilbert:1 propose:2 de:1 magnete:1 capable:1 attraction:1 repulsion:1 distinct:1 effect:5 mariner:1 lightning:2 strike:1 ability:1 disturb:1 link:2 benjamin:1 franklin:1 first:1 discover:2 man:1 make:1 connect:1 across:1 voltaic:1 pile:1 nearby:1 become:1 widely:1 know:6 perform:1 similar:1 work:3 theory:12 subject:1 foundation:2 accurate:2 various:1 course:2 culminate:1 unify:1 precede:1 obey:1 equation:5 lorentz:3 law:2 peculiarity:1 difficult:1 reconcile:2 mechanic:4 compatible:2 accord:1 speed:2 vacuum:2 universal:1 constant:1 dependent:1 permittivity:2 permeability:4 free:1 space:1 violate:1 galilean:1 invariance:1 long:1 stand:1 cornerstone:1 way:1 two:2 assume:1 existence:1 luminiferous:1 aether:2 propagates:1 subsequent:1 experimental:1 effort:1 fail:1 detect:1 important:1 hendrik:1 henri:1 poincaré:1 solve:1 problem:1 introduction:1 replace:1 kinematics:2 new:1 information:2 see:3 addition:1 move:1 frame:1 reference:2 transforms:1 nonzero:1 component:1 vice:1 versa:1 thus:2 firmly:1 coin:1 term:1 photoelectric:3 another:1 paper:1 year:1 undermine:1 win:1 nobel:1 prize:1 posit:1 could:1 discrete:2 like:1 quantity:4 insight:1 appear:2 solution:1 ultraviolet:1 catastrophe:1 max:1 planck:3 hot:1 emit:2 packet:1 finite:1 total:1 black:1 contradiction:1 view:1 continuous:1 progenitor:1 quantum:4 formulate:1 necessitate:1 invention:1 complete:1 qed:1 part:1 system:3 base:2 primarily:1 upon:1 ampere:4 coulomb:3 farad:3 capacitance:2 henry:3 inductance:2 ohm:3 resistance:2 volt:3 potential:2 watt:2 power:2 tesla:2 define:1 via:1 dimensionless:3 whose:1 value:1 unity:1 square:2 explicitly:1 interrelate:1 symbol:1 quantityderived:1 unitsunitbase:1 si:1 w:2 v:8 c:7 q:1 u:1 δv:1 δφ:1 difference:1 electromotive:1 j:1 kg:13 r:1 z:1 x:3 impedance:1 reactance:1 ω:3 ρ:1 resistivity:1 metre:7 p:1 f:2 strength:2 per:6 n:2 displacement:1 ε:1 χe:1 susceptibility:2 g:1 b:2 conductance:1 admittance:1 susceptance:1 siemens:2 κ:1 γ:1 σ:1 conductivity:1 flux:2 density:1 wb:3 φ:1 weber:1 h:3 l:1 μ:1 χ:1 gravitation:2 describe:1 almost:1 physical:1 observable:1 unaided:1 human:1 sens:1 chemistry:1 except:1 abraham:1 computational:1 electromagnetics:1 double:1 slit:1 electromagnet:1 modeling:1 electromechanics:1 electrostatics:1 electroweak:1 formulation:1 optic:1 waveguide:1 relativistic:1 web:1 book:1 div:1 old:1 клясычная:1 электрадынаміка:1 |@bigram magnetic_field:10 electromagnetic_induction:1 special_relativity:5 albert_einstein:3 compass_needle:3 electricity_magnetism:3 cgs_unit:2 andré_marie:1 marie_ampère:1 michael_faraday:1 clerk_maxwell:2 oliver_heaviside:1 heinrich_hertz:1 electromagnetic_wave:2 electromagnetic_radiation:3 gamma_ray:1 electrically_charge:2 atomic_nucleus:1 de_magnete:1 attraction_repulsion:1 benjamin_franklin:1 voltaic_pile:1 maxwell_equation:2 magnetic_permeability:1 luminiferous_aether:1 hendrik_lorentz:1 henri_poincaré:1 vice_versa:1 photoelectric_effect:3 nobel_prize:1 ultraviolet_catastrophe:1 max_planck:1 quantum_mechanic:1 quantum_electrodynamics:2 dimensionless_quantity:1 electromotive_force:1 capacitance_farad:1 susceptibility_dimensionless:2 magnetic_flux:2 magnetic_susceptibility:1 magnetism_electricity:1 slit_experiment:1 electroweak_interaction:1 |
4,698 | Bombay_Sapphire | Bombay Sapphire is a brand of gin distributed by Bacardi, launched in 1987, having been named via a competitive process whereby a number of leading Madison Avenue agencies were played off against each other. The name hints at the origins of the gin's popularity in the India of the days of the British Raj. Bombay Sapphire is marketed in a flat-sided, sapphire-coloured bottle that bears a likeness of Queen Victoria on the label. The flavouring of the drink comes from a recipe of ten ingredients: almond, lemon peel, liquorice, juniper berries, orris root, angelica, coriander, cassia, cubeb, and grains of paradise. The spirit is triple distilled using a carterhead still, and the alcohol vapours are passed through a mesh/basket containing the ten botanicals, in order to gain flavour and aroma. This gives a lighter, more floral gin rather than the more-common 'punchy' gins that are distilled using a copper pot still. Water from Lake Vyrnwy is added to bring the strength of Bombay Sapphire down to 40.0% (UK). Design connection The brand started a series of design collaborations. Their first step into the design world was a series of advertisements featuring work from currently popular designers. Their works, varying from martini glasses to tiles and cloth patterns, are labelled as “Inspired by Bombay Sapphire”. The campaign featured trendy designers like Marcel Wanders, Yves Behar, Karim Rashid, and Dror Benshetrit and performance art rapist Jurgen Hahn. From the success of this campaign, the company started a series of events and sponsored locations. The best known is the Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition, held each year, where design students from all over the world can participate by designing their own “inspired” martini cocktail glass. The finalists (one from each participating country) are then invited to the yearly Salone del Mobile, an international design fair in Milano, where the winner is chosen. Bombay Sapphire also endorses glass artists and designers with the Bombay Sapphire Prize, which is awarded every year to an outstanding design which features glass. Bombay Sapphire also showcases the designers' work in the Bombay Sapphire endorsed blue room, which is actually a design exhibition touring the world each year. From 2008 the Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition final will be held at 100% Design in London, UK and the Bombay Sapphire Prize will take place in Milan at the Salone Del Mobile. Popular Culture Bombay Sapphire is the preferred alcoholic beverage of the Rogue Warrior, Richard Marcinko, as expressed in his line of best-selling Rogue Warrior books. References External links Bombay Sapphire Homepage BoozeBasher review of Bombay Sapphire Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition Bombay Sapphire Prize Bombay Sapphire sparkles in latest collaboration | Bombay_Sapphire |@lemmatized bombay:17 sapphire:18 brand:2 gin:4 distribute:1 bacardi:1 launch:1 name:2 via:1 competitive:1 process:1 whereby:1 number:1 lead:1 madison:1 avenue:1 agency:1 play:1 hint:1 origin:1 popularity:1 india:1 day:1 british:1 raj:1 market:1 flat:1 side:1 colour:1 bottle:1 bear:1 likeness:1 queen:1 victoria:1 label:2 flavouring:1 drink:1 come:1 recipe:1 ten:2 ingredient:1 almond:1 lemon:1 peel:1 liquorice:1 juniper:1 berry:1 orris:1 root:1 angelica:1 coriander:1 cassia:1 cubeb:1 grain:1 paradise:1 spirit:1 triple:1 distilled:1 use:2 carterhead:1 still:2 alcohol:1 vapour:1 pass:1 mesh:1 basket:1 contain:1 botanical:1 order:1 gain:1 flavour:1 aroma:1 give:1 lighter:1 floral:1 rather:1 common:1 punchy:1 distil:1 copper:1 pot:1 water:1 lake:1 vyrnwy:1 add:1 bring:1 strength:1 uk:2 design:9 connection:1 start:2 series:3 collaboration:2 first:1 step:1 world:3 advertisement:1 feature:3 work:3 currently:1 popular:2 designer:7 vary:1 martini:2 glass:7 tile:1 cloth:1 pattern:1 inspire:2 campaign:2 trendy:1 like:1 marcel:1 wanders:1 yves:1 behar:1 karim:1 rashid:1 dror:1 benshetrit:1 performance:1 art:1 rapist:1 jurgen:1 hahn:1 success:1 company:1 event:1 sponsored:1 location:1 best:2 known:1 competition:3 hold:2 year:3 student:1 participate:2 cocktail:1 finalist:1 one:1 country:1 invite:1 yearly:1 salone:2 del:2 mobile:2 international:1 fair:1 milano:1 winner:1 choose:1 also:2 endorse:2 artist:1 prize:3 award:1 every:1 outstanding:1 showcases:1 blue:1 room:1 actually:1 exhibition:1 tour:1 final:1 london:1 take:1 place:1 milan:1 culture:1 preferred:1 alcoholic:1 beverage:1 rogue:2 warrior:2 richard:1 marcinko:1 express:1 line:1 sell:1 book:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 boozebasher:1 review:1 sparkle:1 late:1 |@bigram bombay_sapphire:17 queen_victoria:1 juniper_berry:1 flavour_aroma:1 alcoholic_beverage:1 external_link:1 |
4,699 | Demographics_of_Greenland | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Greenland, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 56,344 (July 2007 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 24% (male 6,926; female 6,597) 15-64 years: 69.1% (male 20,901; female 18,012) 65 years and over: 6.9% (male 1,873; female 2,035) (2007 est.) Population growth rate - Birth rate 16.01 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) Death rate 7.93 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) Net migration rate -8.38 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.16 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.92 male(s)/female total population: 1.115 male(s)/female (2007 est.) Infant mortality rate 14.98 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 70.23 years male: 66.65 years female: 73.9 years (2007 est.) Total fertility rate 2.4 children born/woman (2007 est.) Nationality noun: Greenlander(s) adjective: Greenlandic Ethnic groups Greenlander 87% (Inuit, Greenland-born Europeans, and persons of mixed Inuit and Danish blood), Danish and others 13% Religions Evangelical Lutheran Languages Greenlandic (East Inuit language), Danish, English Literacy definition: NA total population: 100% male: 100% female: 100% note: similar to Denmark proper See also : Greenland | Demographics_of_Greenland |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:11 greenland:3 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:9 age:1 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 greenlander:2 adjective:1 greenlandic:2 ethnic:1 group:1 inuit:3 born:1 european:1 person:1 mixed:1 danish:3 blood:1 others:1 religion:1 evangelical:1 lutheran:1 language:2 east:1 english:1 literacy:1 definition:1 na:1 note:1 similar:1 denmark:1 proper:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 evangelical_lutheran:1 literacy_definition:1 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.