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5,000 | Euphemism | A euphemism is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener, Euphemism Webster's Online Dictionary. or in the case of doublespeak, to make it less troublesome for the speaker. It also may be a substitution of a description of something or someone rather than the name, to avoid revealing secret, holy, or sacred names to the uninitiated, or to obscure the identity of the subject of a conversation from potential eavesdroppers. Some euphemisms are intended to be funny. Usage When a phrase is used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is dropped. Euphemisms may be used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even when the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of euphemism is used in public relations and politics, where it is sometimes called doublespeak. Sometimes, using euphemisms is equated to politeness. There are also superstitious euphemisms, based (consciously or subconsciously) on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune (for example, not speaking the word "cancer"; see etymology and common examples below), and there are religious euphemisms, based on the idea that some words are holy, or that some words are spiritually imperiling (taboo; see etymology). Etymology The word euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemo, meaning "auspicious/good/fortunate speech/kind" which in turn is derived from the Greek root-words eu (ευ), "good/well" + pheme (φήμη) "speech/speaking". The eupheme was originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spoken aloud; etymologically, the eupheme is the opposite of the blaspheme (evil-speaking). The primary example of taboo words requiring the use of a euphemism are the unspeakable names for a deity, such as Persephone, Hecate, or Nemesis. Euphemism was itself used as a euphemism by the ancient Greeks, meaning 'to keep a holy silence' (speaking well by not speaking at all). Historical linguistics has revealed traces of taboo deformations in many languages. Several are known to have occurred in Indo-European languages, including the original Proto-Indo-European words for bear (*rtkos), wolf (*wlkwos), and deer (originally, hart; the deformation likely occurred to avoid confusion with heart). In different Indo-European languages, each of these words has a difficult etymology because of taboo deformations — a euphemism was substituted for the original, which no longer occurs in the language. An example is the Slavic root for bear — *medu-ed-, which means "honey eater". One example in English is "donkey" replacing the old Indo-European-derived word "ass". The word "dandelion" (lit., tooth of lion, referring to the shape of the leaves) is another example, being a substitute for pissenlit, meaning "wet the bed", a possible reference to the fact that dandelion was used as a diuretic. In some languages of the Pacific, using the name of a deceased chief is taboo. Amongst indigenous Australians, it is forbidden to use the name, image, or audio-visual recording of the deceased, so that the Australian Broadcasting Corporation now publishes a warning to indigenous Australians when using names, images or audio-visual recordings of people who have died. Cultural Protocol — Death in a community Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Since people are often named after everyday things, this leads to the swift development of euphemisms. These languages have a very high rate of vocabulary change. Dyen, Isidore, A. T. James & J. W. L. Cole. 1967. Language divergence and estimated word retention rate. Language 43/1: 150-171. In a similar manner, classical Chinese texts were expected to avoid using characters contained within the name of the currently ruling emperor as a sign of respect. In these instances, the relevant ideographs were replaced by homophones. While this practice creates an additional wrinkle for anyone attempting to read or translate texts from the classical period, it does provide a fairly accurate means of dating the documents under consideration. The common names of illicit drugs, and the plants used to obtain them, often undergo a process similar to taboo deformation, because new terms are devised in order to discuss them secretly in the presence of others. This process often occurs in English (e.g. speed or crank for meth). It occurs even more in Spanish, e.g. the deformation of names for cannabis: mota (lit., "something which moves" on the black market), replacing grifa (lit., "something coarse to the touch"), replacing marihuana (a female personal name, María Juana), replacing cañamo (the original Spanish name for the plant, derived from the Latin genus name Cannabis). All four of these names are still used in various parts of the Hispanophone world, although cañamo ironically has the least underworld connotation, and is often used to describe industrial hemp, or legitimate medically-prescribed cannabis. The "euphemism treadmill" Euphemisms often evolve over time into taboo words themselves, through a process described by W.V.O. Quine, and more recently dubbed the "euphemism treadmill" by Steven Pinker. (cf. Gresham's Law in economics). This is the well-known linguistic process known as pejoration. Words originally intended as euphemisms may lose their euphemistic value, acquiring the negative connotations of their referents. In some cases, they may be used mockingly and become dysphemisms. For example, the term "concentration camp", to describe camps used to confine civilian members of the Boer community in close (concentrated) quarters, was used by the British during the Second Boer War, primarily because it sounded bland and inoffensive. Despite the high death rates in the British concentration camps, the term remained acceptable as a euphemism. However, after the Third Reich used the expression to describe its death camps, the term gained enormous negative connotation. Also, in some versions of English, "toilet room", itself a euphemism, was replaced with "bathroom" and "water closet", which were replaced with "restroom" and "W.C." These are also examples of euphemisms which are geographically concentrated: the term "restroom" is rarely used outside of the United States and "W.C.", where before it was quite popular in Britain, is passing out of favour and becoming more popular in France and is the polite term of choice in Germany. Connotations easily change over time. "Idiot", "imbecile", and "moron" were once neutral terms for a developmentally delayed adult of toddler, preschool, and primary school mental ages, respectively. Gould, S.J., The Mismeasure of Man, W.W. Norton & Co, New York, 1996, pp. 188-189. As with Gresham's law, negative connotations tend to crowd out neutral ones, so the phrase mentally retarded was pressed into service to replace them. American Heritage Dictionary definition of "retarded" via answers.com. Now that, too, is considered rude, used commonly as an insult of a person, thing, or idea. As a result, new terms like "mentally challenged", "with an intellectual disability", "learning difficulties" and "special needs" have replaced "retarded". A similar progression occurred with: lame → crippled → handicapped → disabled → physically challenged → differently abled although in the case of "crippled" the meaning has also broadened (and hence has been narrowed with adjectives, which themselves have been euphemised); a dyslexic or colorblind person, for example, would not be termed "crippled". Even more recent is the use of person-centric phrases, such as "person(s) with disability, dyslexia, colorblindness, etc.", which ascribe a particular condition to those previously qualified with the aforementioned adjectives. Euphemisms can also serve to recirculate words that have passed out of use because of negative connotation. The word "lame" from above, having faded from the vernacular, was revitalized as a slang word generally meaning "not living up to expectations". Connotation of a euphemism can also be subject-specific. The term "handicap" was in common use to describe a physical disability; it gained common use in sports and games to describe a scoring advantage given to a player who has a disadvantageous standing in ability, and this definition has remained common, even though the term as describing physical disability has mostly faded from common use. One exception to this is in the United States when designating "handicapped" parking spaces for such individuals. In the early 1960s, Major League Baseball franchise owner and promoter Bill Veeck, who was missing part of a leg, argued against the then-favored euphemism "handicapped", saying he preferred "crippled" because it was merely descriptive and did not carry connotations of limiting one's capability the way "handicapped" (and all of its subsequent euphemisms) seemed to do (Veeck as in Wreck, chapter "I'm Not Handicapped, I'm Crippled"). Later, comedian George Carlin gave a famous monologue of how he thought euphemisms can undermine appropriate attitudes towards serious issues such as the evolving terms describing the medical problem of the cumulative mental trauma of soldiers in high stress situations: George Carlin, They're Only Words, Track 14 on Parental Advisory: Explicit Lyrics, Atlantic/Wea audio CD, 1990. shell shock (World War I) → battle fatigue (World War II) → operational exhaustion (Korean War) → posttraumatic stress disorder (Vietnam War) He contended that, as the name of the condition became more complicated and seemingly arcane, sufferers of this condition have been taken less seriously as people with a serious illness, and were given poorer treatment as a result. He also contended that Vietnam veterans would have received the proper care and attention they needed were the condition still called "shell shock". In the same routine, he echoed Bill Veeck's opinion that "crippled" was a perfectly valid term (and noted that early English translations of the Bible seemed to have no qualms about saying that Jesus "healed the cripples"). A complementary "dysphemism treadmill" exists, but is more rarely observed. One modern example is the word scumbag, which was originally a reference to a used condom, now is a fairly mild epithet. Random House.com. This is in stark contrast to the related term douchebag, which is still semi-common but has a much more negative connotation. Similarly, spastic was once a neutral descriptor of a sufferer of muscular hypertonicity. But after Joey Deacon appeared on UK children's TV programme Blue Peter, children began to use "spastic" (and variants such as "spaz" and "spacker") as an insult and the term is now seen as very offensive. The Spastics Society changed their name to Scope in 1994; children then began to use "Scoper" as a similar insult. In his remarks on the ever-changing London slang, made in Down and Out in Paris and London, George Orwell mentioned both the "euphemism treadmill" and the "dysphemism treadmill". He did not use the now-established terms, but observed and commented on the respective processes as early as in 1933. Classification of euphemisms Many euphemisms fall into one or more of these categories: Terms of foreign and/or technical origin (derrière, copulation, perspire, urinate, security breach, mierda de toro, prophylactic, feces occur, sheisst) Abbreviations (GD for goddamn, SOB for son of a bitch, BS for bullshit, TS for tough shit, SOL for shit out of luck or PDQ for pretty damn(ed) quick, The Age.com. BFD for big fucking deal, STFU or STHU for shut the fuck/hell up, RTFM for read the fucking manual) Abbreviations using a spelling alphabet, especially in military contexts (Charlie Foxtrot for "Cluster fuck", Whiskey Tango Foxtrot Oscar for "What the fuck, over?", Bravo Sierra for "bullshit" — See Military slang) Plays on abbreviations (H-e-double hockey sticks for "hell", "a-double snakes" or "a-double-dollar-signs" for "ass", Sugar Honey Iced Tea for "shit", bee with an itch or witch with a capital B for "bitch", catch (or see) you next Tuesday (or Thursday) for "cunt") Use in mostly clinical settings (PITA for "pain in the ass" patient) Abbreviations for phrases that are not otherwise common (PEBKAC for "Problem Exists Between Keyboard And Chair", ID Ten T Error or ID-10T Error for "Idiot", TOBAS for "Take Out Back And Shoot") Abstractions and ambiguities (it for excrement, the situation for pregnancy, going to the other side for death, do it or come together in reference a sexual act, tired and emotional for drunkenness.) Indirections (behind, unmentionables, privates, live together, go to the bathroom, sleep together, sub-navel activities) Mispronunciation (goldarnit, dadgummit, efing c (fucking cunt), freakin, be-atch,shoot — See minced oath) Litotes or reserved understatement (not exactly thin for "fat", not completely truthful for "lied", not unlike cheating for "an instance of cheating") Changing nouns to modifiers (makes her look slutty for "is a slut", right-wing element for "Right Wing") slang, eg. pot for marijuana, laid for sex and so on There is some disagreement over whether certain terms are or are not euphemisms. For example, sometimes the phrase visually impaired is labeled as a politically correct euphemism for blind. However, visual impairment can be a broader term, including, for example, people who have partial sight in one eye, or even those with uncorrected poor vision, a group that would be excluded by the word blind. There are three antonyms of euphemism: dysphemism, cacophemism, and power word. The first can be either offensive or merely humorously deprecating with the second one generally used more often in the sense of something deliberately offensive. The last is used mainly in arguments to make a point seem more correct. The evolution of euphemisms Euphemisms may be formed in a number of ways. Periphrasis or circumlocution is one of the most common — to "speak around" a given word, implying it without saying it. Over time, circumlocutions become recognized as established euphemisms for particular words or ideas. To alter the pronunciation or spelling of a taboo word (such as a swear word) to form a euphemism is known as taboo deformation. There is an astonishing number of taboo deformations in English, of which many refer to the infamous four-letter words. In American English, words which are unacceptable on television, such as fuck, may be represented by deformations such as freak — even in children's cartoons. Some examples of rhyming slang may serve the same purpose — to call a person a berk sounds less offensive than to call him a cunt, though berk is short for Berkeley Hunt which rhymes with cunt. Bureaucracies such as the military and large corporations frequently spawn euphemisms of a more deliberate nature. Organizations coin doublespeak expressions to describe objectionable actions in terms that seem neutral or inoffensive. For example, a term used in the past for contamination by radioactive isotopes is Sunshine units. . Military organizations kill people, sometimes deliberately and sometimes by mistake; in doublespeak, the first may be called neutralizing the target and the second collateral damage. Violent destruction of non-state enemies may be referred to as pacification. Two common terms when a soldier is accidentally killed (buys the farm) by their own side are friendly fire or blue on blue (BOBbing) — "buy the farm" has its own interesting history. Snopes.com, "Buy the Farm". Execution is an established euphemism referring to the act of putting a person to death, with or without judicial process. It originally referred to the execution, i.e., the carrying out, of a death warrant, which is an authorization to a sheriff, prison warden, or other official to put a named person to death. In legal usage, execution can still refer to the carrying out of other types of orders; for example, in U.S. legal usage, a writ of execution is a direction to enforce a civil money judgment by seizing property. Likewise, lethal injection itself may be considered a euphemism for putting the convict to death by poisoning. Abortion originally meant premature birth, and came to mean birth before viability. The term "abort" was extended to mean any kind of premature ending, such as aborting the launch of a rocket. Euphemisms have developed around the original meaning. Abortion, by itself, came to mean induced abortion or elective abortion exclusively. Hence the parallel term spontaneous abortion, an "act of nature", was dropped in favor of the more neutral-sounding miscarriage. Industrial unpleasantness such as pollution may be toned down to outgassing or runoff — descriptions of physical processes rather than their damaging consequences. Some of this may simply be the application of precise technical terminology in the place of popular usage, but beyond precision, the advantage of technical terminology may be its lack of emotional undertones and the likelihood the general public (at least initially) will not recognize it for what it really is; the disadvantage being the lack of real-life context. Terms like "waste" and "wastewater" are also avoided in favor of terms such as byproduct, recycling, reclaimed water and effluent. In the oil industry, oil-based drilling muds were simply renamed organic phase drilling muds, where organic phase is a euphemism for "oil". Euphemisms for the profane Profane words and expressions in the English language are commonly taken from three areas: religion, excretion, and sex. While profanities themselves have been around for centuries, their limited use in public and by the media has only slowly become socially acceptable, and there are still many expressions which cannot be used in polite conversation. One vantage point into the current societal tolerance of profane language is found in the frequency of such language on prime-time television. The word damn (and most other religious profanity in the English language) has lost its shock value, and as a consequence, euphemisms for it (e.g., dang, darn-it) have taken on a very stodgy feeling. Excretory profanity such as piss and shit in some cases may be acceptable among informal (and usually younger) friends (while they almost are never acceptable in formal relationships or public use); euphemisms such as Number One and Number Two may be preferred for use with children. Most sexual terms and expressions, even technical ones, either remain unacceptable for general use or have undergone radical rehabilitation. Religious euphemisms Euphemisms for deities as well as for religious practices and artifacts date to the earliest of written records. Protection of sacred names, rituals, and concepts from the uninitiated has always given rise to euphemisms, whether it be for exclusion of outsiders or the retention of power among select practitioners. Examples from the Egyptians and every other western religion abound. Euphemisms for God and Jesus, such as gosh and gee, are used by Christians to avoid taking the name of God in a vain oath, which would violate one of the Ten Commandments. (Exodus 20) When praying, Jews will typically use the word "Adonai" ('my Lord'). However, when in a colloquial setting, this is deemed inappropriate among Jews, and so typically Jews replace the word "Adonai" with the word "HaShem", which literally means, "The Name". It is notable that "Adonai" is itself a word that refers to the Jewish God's name, יהוה or YHWH, the original pronunciation of which is unknown due to a lack of vowels. It was translated as Jehovah for some centuries, but scholars now agree that it was more likely Yahweh. Traditionally, Jews have seen the name of God as ineffable and thus one that must not be spoken. According to the Torah, when Moses saw the burning bush, he asked God, "who are you?" The answer he heard was, "I am that I am". Thus, Jews have for centuries thought that the name of the Almighty is ineffable, because according to their logic pronouncing it would be equivalent to calling oneself God. Euphemisms for hell, damnation, and the devil, on the other hand, are often used to avoid invoking the power of the adversary. The most famous in the latter category is the expression what the dickens and its variants, which does not refer to the famed British writer but instead was a popular euphemism for Satan in its time. In the Harry Potter books, the evil wizard Lord Voldemort is usually referred to as "He Who Must Not Be Named" or "You-Know-Who". However, the character Professor Dumbledore is quoted as saying in the first book of the series that "Fear of a name only increases fear of the thing itself". Excretory euphemisms While urinate and defecate are not euphemisms, they are used almost exclusively in a clinical sense. The basic Anglo-Saxon words for these functions, piss and shit, are considered vulgarities and unacceptable in general use, despite the use of piss in the King James Bible (in Isaiah 36:12 and elsewhere). The word manure, referring to animal feces used as fertilizer for plants, literally means "worked with the hands" (from the Latin: manus, manūs — "hand"), alluding to the mixing of manure with earth. Several zoos market the byproduct of elephants and other large herbivores as Zoo Doo or Zoopoop, and there is a brand of chicken manure available in garden stores under the name Cock-a-Doodle Doo. Also, a brand of sheep manure is called "Baa Baa Doo." Similarly, the abbreviation BS, or the word bull, often replaces the word bullshit in polite society. (The term bullshit itself generally means lies or nonsense, and not the literal "shit of a bull", making it a dysphemism.) There are any number of lengthier periphrases for excretion used to excuse oneself from company, such as to powder one's nose, to see a man about a dog (or horse), to drop the kids off at the pool or to release the chocolate hostages (these expressions could actually be regarded as dysphemisms). Slang expressions which are neither particularly euphemistic nor dysphemistic, such as take a leak, form a separate category. In some languages, various other sensitive subjects give rise to euphemisms and dysphemisms. In Spanish, one such subject is class and status. The word señorito is an example, although the euphemism treadmill has turned it to a disparagement, at least in Mexico. Sexual euphemisms The Latin term pudendum and the Greek term αιδοίον (aidoion) for the genitals literally mean "shameful thing". Groin, crotch, and loins refer to a larger region of the body, but are euphemistic when used to refer to the genitals. The word masturbate is derived from Latin, the word manus meaning hand and the word sturbare meaning to defile. In pornographic stories, the words rosebud and starfish are often used as euphemisms for anus, generally in the context of anal sex. Sexual intercourse was once a euphemism derived from the more general term intercourse by itself, which simply meant "meeting" but now is normally used as a synonym for the longer phrase, thus making the town of Intercourse, Pennsylvania, a subject of jokes in modern usage. The "baseball metaphors for sex" are perhaps the most famous and widely-used set of polite euphemisms for sex and relationship behavior in the U.S. The metaphors encompass terms like "hitting it off" for a good start to relationship, "Striking out" for being unlucky with a love interest, and "running the bases" for progressing sexually in a relationship. The "bases" themselves, from first to third, stand for various levels of sexual activity from French kissing to "petting", itself a euphemism for manual genital stimulation, all of which is short of "scoring" or "coming home", sexual intercourse. "Hitting a home run" describes sex during the first date, "batting both ways" or "batting for the other team" describes bisexuality or homosexuality respectively, and "stealing bases" refers to initiating new levels of sexual contact without invitation. Baseball-related euphemisms also abound for the "equipment"; "Bat and balls" are a common reference to the male genitalia, while "glove" or "mitt" can refer to the female anatomy. There are many euphemisms for birth control devices, sometimes even propagated by the manufacturers: Condoms are known as "rubbers", "sheaths", "love gloves", "diving suits", "raincoats", "Johnnies" (in Ireland and to a lesser degree Britain) etc. The birth control pill is known simply as "The Pill", and other methods of birth control are also given generalized euphemisms like "The Patch", "The Sponge", "Shots", etc. There are also many euphemisms for menstruation, such as "having the painters in", being "on the rag", "flying the flag" (originally a euphemism for hanging out the bedsheet after a wedding night as a testament to the woman's virginity), or it simply being "that time of the month", Munster playing at home (Irish). Euphemisms are also common in reference to sexual orientations and lifestyles. For example in the movie "Closer" the character played by Jude Law uses the euphemism "He valued his privacy" for homosexual and "He enjoyed his privacy" for a flamboyant homosexual. Among common euphemisms for homosexuals, "gay" (the arcane meaning of the word 'gay' meant dissolute, hedonistic and a lover of pleasure but is now taken to mean the stereotypical flamboyant personality of homosexual men) and "lesbian" (in reference to the poet Sappho of Lesbos) are the only two that are generally acceptable in society. Other euphemisms for a homosexual, such as homo, queer, fag (originally a verb meaning "work", later applied to a first-year university student who performed chores for an older student — by extension, someone who is subservient, weak, or unmanly), bulldyke or simply dyke, butch (referring to a lesbian assuming the "male" role of a relationship) etc. have relatively quickly acquired a vulgar connotation, and even "gay" and "lesbian" can have negative connotations in mainstream society depending on the tone of the conversation. The expression "that's so gay" has come into frequent pejorative usage in the U.S. As an aside, the use of euphemisms for sexual activity has grown under the pressure of recent rulings by the Federal Communications Commission regarding what constitutes "decent" on-air broadcast speech. The FCC included many well known euphemisms in its lists of banned terms but indicated that even new and unknown coinages might be considered indecent once it became clear what they referenced. George Carlin's "Seven Words You Can't Say On TV" evolved into the "Incomplete List of Impolite Words", available in text and audio form, and contains hundreds of euphemisms and dysphemisms to genitalia, the act of having sex, various forms of sex, sexual orientations, etc. that have all become too pejorative for polite conversation, including such notables as "getting your pole varnished" and "eating the tuna taco". Carlin also did a bit on the uses of the word "fuck", originally only a dysphemism for the sex act but becoming an adverb, adjective, noun, etc. This "diversity" is also mentioned on in the movie The Boondock Saints after the main characters commit a mass murder of Russian mob bosses followed by a violent joke on a friend who is in the Mafia. Euphemisms referring to profanity itself In the Spanish language, words that mean "swear word" are used as exclamations in lieu of an actual swear word. The Spanish word maldición, literally meaning "curse" or "bad word", is occasionally used as an interjection of lament or anger, to replace any of several Spanish profanities that would otherwise be used in that same context. The same is true in Italian with the word maledizione. In Greek, the word κατάρα "curse" is found, although βρισιά, from ύβρις(hubris) is more commonly used, and in English (especially British usage), an exclamation that is used in a similar style is curses. The stereotyped "Perils of Pauline" silent film might have the villain tying his victim to a railroad track. When the hero rescues the heroine, the card might say, "Curses! Foiled again!" in place of whatever cursing the character presumably uttered. Euphemisms for death The English language contains numerous euphemisms related to dying, death, burial, and the people and places which deal with death. The practice of using euphemisms for death is likely to have originated with the magical belief that to speak the word "death" was to invite death; where to "draw Death's attention" is the ultimate bad fortune — a common theory holds that death is a taboo subject in most English-speaking cultures for precisely this reason. It may be said that one is not dying, but fading quickly because the end is near. People who have died are referred to as having passed away or passed or departed. Deceased is a euphemism for "dead", and sometimes the deceased is said to have gone to a better place, but this is used primarily among the religious with a concept of Heaven. Some Christians often use phrases such as gone to be with the Lord or called to higher service (this latter expression being particularly prevalent in the Salvation Army) or "graduated" to express their belief that physical death is not the end, but the beginning of the fuller realization of redemption. There are many euphemisms for the dead body, some polite and some profane, as well as dysphemisms such as worm food, or dead meat. Modern rhyming slang contains the expression brown bread. The corpse was once referred to as the shroud (or house or tenement) of clay, and modern funerary workers use terms such as the loved one (title of a novel about Hollywood undertakers by Evelyn Waugh) or the dear departed. (They themselves have given up the euphemism funeral director for grief therapist, and hold arrangement conferences with relatives.) Among themselves, mortuary technicians often refer to the corpse as the client. A recently dead person may be referred to as "the late John Doe". The term cemetery for "graveyard" is a borrowing from Greek, where it was a euphemism, literally meaning 'sleeping place'. The term undertaking for "burial" is so well-established that most people do not even recognize it as a euphemism. In fact, undertaking has taken on a negative connotation, as undertakers have a devious reputation. Contemporary euphemisms and dysphemisms for death tend to be quite colorful, and someone who has died is said to have passed away, passed on, checked out, bit the big one, kicked the bucket, bitten the dust, popped their clogs, pegged it, carked it, turned their toes up, bought the farm, cashed in their chips, fallen off their perch, croaked, given up the ghost (originally a more respectful term, cf. the death of Jesus as translated in the King James Version of the Bible Mark 15:37), gone south, gone west, gone to California, shuffled off this mortal coil (from William Shakespeare's Hamlet), Run down the curtain and joined the Choir Invisible, or assumed room temperature (actually a dysphemism in use among mortuary technicians). When buried, they may be said to be pushing up daisies, sleeping the big sleep, taking a dirt nap, checking out the grass from underneath or six feet under. There are hundreds of such expressions in use. (Old Burma-Shave jingle: "If daisies are your favorite flower, keep pushin’ up those miles per hour!") In Edwin Muir's 'The Horses' a euphemism is used to show the elimination of the human race 'The seven days war that put the world to sleep.' Euthanasia also attracts euphemisms. One may put one out of one's misery, put one to sleep, or have one put down, the latter two phrases being used primarily with dogs and cats who are being or have been euthanized by a veterinarian. (These terms are not usually applied to humans, because both medical ethics and law deprecate euthanasia.) In fact, Dr. Bernard Nathanson has pointed out that the word "euthanasia" itself is a euphemism, being Greek for "good death". There are a few euphemisms for killing which are neither respectful nor playful, but rather clinical and detached. Some examples of this type are terminate, wet work, to take care of one or to take them for a ride, to do them in, to off, or to take them out. To cut loose or open up on someone or something means "to shoot at with every available weapon". There are also many dysphemisms, especially for death, which are euphemisms or dysphemisms for other unpleasant events and thus are unpleasant in their literal meaning, used to generalize a bad event. "Having your ass handed to you", "left for the rats", "toasted", "roasted", "burned", "pounded", "bent over the barrel", "screwed over" or other terms commonly describe death or the state of imminent death, but also are common in describing defeat of any kind such as a humiliating loss in a sport or video game, being unfairly treated or cast aside in business affairs, being badly beaten in a fight, and similar. To terminate with prejudice generally means to end one's employment without possibility of rehire (as opposed to lay off, where the person can expect rehire if business picks up), but the related term to terminate with extreme prejudice now usually means to kill. The adjective extreme may occasionally be omitted. In a famous line from the movie Apocalypse Now, Captain Willard is told to terminate Colonel Kurtz's commission "with extreme prejudice". An acronym, TWEP has been coined from this phrase, which can be used as a verb: "He was TWEPed/TWEPped." The Dead Parrot Sketch from Monty Python's Flying Circus contains an extensive list of euphemisms for death, referring to the deceased parrot that the character played by John Cleese had purchased. The popularity of the sketch has itself increased the popularity of some of these euphemisms — indeed, it has introduced another euphemism for death, "pining for the fjords" — although in the sketch that phrase was used by the shop owner to assert that the parrot was not dead, but was merely quiet and contemplative. A similar passage occurs near the beginning of The Twelve Chairs, where Bezenchuk, the undertaker, astonishes Vorobyaninov with his classification of people by the euphemisms used to speak of their deaths. The game Dungeon Siege contains many euphemisms for death as well. Also, a scene in the film Patch Adams features Patch (Robin Williams) dressed in an angel costume, reading out various synonyms and euphemisms for the phrase "to die" to a man dying of cancer. This evolves into a contest between the two men to see who can come up with more, and better, euphemisms, ending when Patch comes up with "and if we bury you ass up, we'll have a place to park my bike." (This is actually an old Danish joke used about the people from Århus ― who, still according to popular humor, can also choose to be buried with their noses above the surface, in order for them to be used as electrical plugs.) The name of the village of Ban Grong Greng in Thailand is a euphemism for Death Village. It literally means the Village of the Dreaded Gong. It is so named because it is the home to Wat Grong Greng (temple of the dreaded gong) at which the burning of bodies at funerals is preceded by the beating of a gong. Euphemisms in job titles Euphemisms are common in job titles; some jobs have complicated titles that make them sound more impressive than the common names would imply, such as CPA in place of car parking attendant. Many of these euphemisms may include words such as engineer, though in fact the people who do the job are not accredited in engineering. Extreme cases, such as sanitation engineer for janitor, or 'transparent-wall maintenance officer' for window cleaner, are cited humorously more often than they are used seriously. Another example is Henny Youngman's joke that his brother-in-law claimed to be a "diamond cutter" — his job was to mow the lawn at Yankee Stadium. Less extreme cases, such as custodian for janitor or administrative assistant for secretary, are considered more terms of respect than euphemisms. Where the work itself is seen as distasteful, a euphemism may be used, for example "rodent officer" for a rat-catcher, or "cemetery operative" for a gravedigger. In the British comedy series Yes, Minister episode The Skeleton in the Cupboard, the civil service in general and Bernard in particular refers to civil service rat-catchers as "environmental health officers" Doublespeak Doublespeak, originating from George Orwell's novel 1984, is language deliberately constructed to disguise or distort its actual meaning, often resulting in a communication bypass. What distinguishes doublespeak from other euphemisms is its deliberate usage. Doublespeak may be in the form of bald euphemisms such as "downsizing" or "rightsizing" for "firing of many employees"; or deliberately ambiguous phrases such as "wet work" for "assassination" and "take out" for "destroy". Mass murder can be euphemized: the extermination of persons seen as class enemies of the Soviet Union was termed liquidation; in Nazi Germany the elimination of Jews received the ambiguous-sounding "Final Solution of the Jewish Question". Common examples Other common euphemisms include: curvy, fluffy, full-figured or heavy-set instead of 'fat' lost their lives for 'were killed' wellness for benefits and treatments that tend to only be used in times of sickness restroom for toilet room in American English (the word toilet was itself originally a euphemism) a love of musical theatre or confirmed bachelor for male homosexuality women in sensible shoes for lesbianism acting like rabbits, making love to, getting it on, cheeky time, doing it, making the beast with two backs, or sleeping with for having sex with sanitary landfill for garbage dump (and a temporary garbage dump is a transfer station), also often called a Civic Amenity in the UK ill-advised for very poor or bad pre-owned vehicles for used cars a student being held back a grade level for having failed or flunked the grade level correctional facility for prison the north of Ireland for Northern Ireland, which is seen by many Irish people as a term imposed by the British and therefore a profanity; however, saying the north of Ireland may be primarily a way of identifying oneself with the Irish Nationalist cause, rather than a euphemism the big C for cancer (in addition, some people whisper the word when they say it in public, and doctors euphemistically use technical terminology when discussing cancer in front of patients, e.g., "c.a." or "neoplasia"/"neoplastic process", "carcinoma" for "tumor"); euphemisms for cancer are used even more so in the Netherlands, because the Dutch word for cancer can be used as a curse word bathroom tissue, t.p., or bath tissue for toilet paper (usually used by toilet paper manufacturers) custodian or caretaker for janitor (Also originally a euphemism — in Latin, it means doorman. In the British Secret Service, it may still carry the ancient meaning. It does in the novels of John le Carré.) sanitation worker (or, sarcastically, sanitation officer or sanitation engineer), or garbologist, for "bin man" or garbage man economically depressed neighborhood or culturally-deprived environment for ghetto force, police action, or conflict for war alcohol-related, single-car crash for drunk driver mature or been around the block for old or elderly haem or heme (Americanism) for blood, often used in medical settings ("Severe heme loss"). enhanced interrogation technique for torture persuasion for torture fee for fine gaming for gambling specific about what one eats for being a picky eater intellectually challenged for being mentally retarded adult entertainment for pornography to have been paid for 'being fired from or by one's employer' to cut excesses (in a budget) for to fire employees legal capital for stated capital gender reassignment for sex change differently abled for disabled gentlemen's club for go-go bar or strip club These lists might suggest that most euphemisms are well-known expressions. Often euphemisms can be somewhat situational; what might be used as a euphemism in a conversation between two friends might make no sense to a third person. In this case, the euphemism is being used as a type of innuendo. At other times, the euphemism is common in some circles (such as the medical field) but not others, becoming a type of jargon or, in underworld situations especially, argot. One such example is the line "put him in bed with the captain's daughter" from the popular sea shanty Drunken Sailor. Although this line may sound more like a reward for getting drunk to non-seamen, the phrase "captain's daughter" was actually a euphemism used among sailors for the cat o' nine tails (itself a euphemism for a kind of whip). Hungarian Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány, in his controversial speech that triggered the 2006 anti-government protests, used a number of vulgar phrases that were translated euphemistically by the media as "screwed up" and "did not bother". The word euphemism itself can be used as a euphemism. In the animated short It's Grinch Night (See Dr. Seuss), a child asks to go to the euphemism, where euphemism is being used as a euphemism for outhouse. This euphemistic use of "euphemism" also occurred in the play Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? where a character requests, "Martha, will you show her where we keep the, uh, euphemism?" It is analogous to the 19th-century use of unmentionables for underpants. Also, lots of euphemisms are used in the improvised television show, Whose Line Is It Anyway?. They are used often in the game 'If You Know What I Mean', where players are given a scene and have to use as many obscure clichés and euphemisms as possible. See also Distancing language Dysphemism Code word (figure of speech) Double entendre Framing (social sciences) Litotes Minced oath Newspeak Polite fiction Pun Sexual slang Slander and libel Spin (public relations) Thomas Bowdler Word play References Benveniste, Émile, "Euphémismes anciens and modernes", in: Problèmes de linguistique générale, vol. 1, pp. 308–314. [originally published in: Die Sprache, I (1949), pp. 116–122]. Rawson, Hugh, A Dictionary of Euphemism & Other Doublespeak, second edition, 1995. ISBN 0517702010. R.W.Holder: How Not to Say What You Mean: A Dictionary of Euphemisms, Oxford University Press, 501 pages, 2003. ISBN 0198607628. Maledicta: The International Journal of Verbal Aggression (ISSN US). McGlone, M.S., Beck, G., & Pfiester, R.A. (2006). Contamination and camouflage in euphemisms. 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5,001 | Nuclear_reactor | Core of CROCUS, a small nuclear reactor used for research at the EPFL in Switzerland. This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear chain reactions are initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, as opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which the chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled causing an explosion. The most significant use of nuclear reactors is as an energy source for the generation of electrical power (see Nuclear power) and for the power in some ships (see Nuclear marine propulsion). This is usually accomplished by methods that involve using heat from the nuclear reaction to power steam turbines. There are also other less common uses as discussed below. How it works An induced nuclear fission event. A neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which in turn splits into fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and free neutrons. The physics of operating a nuclear reactor are explained in Nuclear reactor physics. Just as many conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear power plants convert the thermal energy released from nuclear fission. Reactor The reactor is used to convert nuclear (inaccurately also known as 'atomic') energy into heat. While a reactor could be one in which heat is produced by fusion or radioactive decay, this description focuses on the basic principles of the fission reactor. Fission When a relatively large fissile atomic nucleus (usually uranium-235, plutonium-239 or plutonium-241) absorbs a neutron it is likely to undergo nuclear fission. The original heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei, releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation and free neutrons; collectively known as fission products. A portion of these neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so on. The nuclear chain reaction can be controlled by using neutron poisons and neutron moderators to change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fissions. In nuclear engineering, a neutron moderator is a medium which reduces the velocity of fast neutrons, thereby turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction involving uranium-235. Commonly used moderators include regular (light) water (75% of the world's reactors), solid graphite (20% of reactors) and heavy water (5% of reactors). Beryllium has also been used in some experimental types, and hydrocarbons have been suggested as another possibility. Increasing or decreasing the rate of fission will also increase or decrease the energy output of the reactor. Heat Generation The reactor core generates heat in a number of ways: The kinetic energy of fission products is converted to thermal energy when these nuclei collide with nearby atoms. Some of the gamma rays produced during fission are absorbed by the reactor in the form of heat. Heat produced by the radioactive decay of fission products and materials that have been activated by neutron absorption. This decay heat source will remain for some time even after the reactor is shutdown. The heat power generated by the nuclear reaction is 1,000,000 times that of the equal mass of coal. Cooling A cooling source - often water but sometimes a liquid metal - is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates. The heat is carried away from the reactor and is then used to generate steam. Most reactor systems employ a cooling system that is physically separate from the water that will be boiled to produce pressurized steam for the turbines, like the pressurized water reactor. But in some reactors the water for the steam turbines is boiled directly by the reactor core, for example the boiling water reactor. Reactivity control The power output of the reactor is controlled by controlling how many neutrons are able to create more fissions. Control rods that are made of a nuclear poison are used to absorb neutrons. Absorbing more neutrons in a control rod means that there are fewer neutrons available to cause fission, so pushing the control rod deeper into the reactor will reduce its power output, and extracting the control rod will increase it. In some reactors, the coolant also acts as a neutron moderator. A moderator increases the power of the reactor by causing the fast neutrons that are released from fission to lose energy and become thermal neutrons. Thermal neutrons are more likely than fast neutrons to cause fission, so more neutron moderation means more power output from the reactors. If the coolant is a moderator, then temperature changes can affect the density of the coolant/moderator and therefore change power output. A higher temperature coolant would be less dense, and therefore a less effective moderator. In other reactors the coolant acts as a poison by absorbing neutrons in the same way that the control rods do. In these reactors power output can be increased by heating the coolant, which makes it a less dense poison. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to insert large amounts of poison (boron) into the reactor to shut the fission reaction down if unsafe conditions are detected. Electrical power generation The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be converted into usable energy. A common method of harnessing this thermal energy is to use it to boil water to produce pressurized steam which will then drive a steam turbine that generates electricity. Components The control room of NC State's Pulstar Nuclear Reactor. The key components common to most types of nuclear power plants are: Nuclear fuel Nuclear reactor core Neutron moderator Neutron poison Coolant (often the Neutron Moderator and the Coolant are the same, usually both purified water) Control rods Reactor vessel Boiler feedwater pump Steam generators (not in BWRs) Steam turbine Electrical generator Condenser Cooling tower (not always required) Radwaste System (a section of the plant handling radioactive waste) Refueling Floor Spent fuel pool Reactor Protective System (RPS) Emergency Core Cooling Systems (ECCS) Standby Liquid Control System (emergency boron injection, in BWRs only) Containment building Control room Emergency Operations Facility The people in a nuclear power plant Nuclear power plants typically employ just under a thousand people per reactor (including security guards and engineers associated with the plant but possibly working elsewhere). Nuclear engineers Reactor operators Health physicists Nuclear Regulatory Commission Resident Inspectors In the United States and Canada, workers except for management, professional (such as engineers) and security personnel may be members of either the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW) or the Utility Workers Union of America (AFL-CIO) (IUWUA). (In the unions seniority may be used to bid to higher paying work. The IBEW and IUWUA do not have a mandatory retirement age.) Reactor types NC State's PULSTAR Reactor is a 1 MW pool-type research reactor with 4% enriched, pin-type fuel consisting of UO2 pellets in zircaloy cladding. Classifications Nuclear Reactors are classified by several methods; a brief outline of these classification schemes is provided. Classification by type of nuclear reaction Nuclear fission. Most reactors, and all commercial ones, are based on nuclear fission. They generally use uranium and its product plutonium as nuclear fuel, though a thorium fuel cycle is also possible. This article takes "nuclear reactor" to mean fission reactor unless otherwise stated. Fission reactors can be divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that sustain the fission chain reaction: Thermal reactors use slowed or thermal neutrons. Almost all current reactors are of this type. These contain neutron moderator materials that slow neutrons until their neutron temperature is thermalized, that is, until their kinetic energy approaches the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles. Thermal neutrons have a far higher cross section (probability) of fissioning the fissile nuclei uranium-235, plutonium-239, and plutonium-241, and a relatively lower probability of neutron capture by uranium-238 compared to the faster neutrons that originally result from fission, allowing use of low-enriched uranium or even natural uranium fuel. The moderator is often also the coolant, usually water under high pressure to increase the boiling point. These are surrounded by reactor vessel, instrumentation to monitor and control the reactor, radiation shielding, and containment building. Fast neutron reactors directly use fast neutrons to fission their fuel. They do not have a neutron moderator, and use less-moderating coolants. Maintaining a chain reaction requires the fuel to be more highly enriched in fissile material (about 20% or more) due to the relatively lower probability of fission versus capture by U-238. Fast reactors have the potential to produce less transuranic waste because all actinides are fissionable with fast neutrons, but they are more difficult to build and more expensive to operate. Overall, fast reactors are less common than thermal reactors in most applications. Some early power stations were fast reactors, as are some Russian naval propulsion units. Construction of prototypes is continuing (see fast breeder or generation IV reactors). Nuclear fusion. Fusion power is an experimental technology, generally with hydrogen as fuel. While not currently suitable for power production, Farnsworth-Hirsch fusors are used to produce neutron radiation. Radioactive decay. Examples include radioisotope thermoelectric generators and atomic batteries, which generate heat and power by exploiting passive radioactive decay. Classification by moderator material Used by thermal reactors: Graphite moderated reactors Water moderated reactors Heavy water reactors Light water moderated reactors (LWRs). Light water reactors use ordinary water to moderate and cool the reactors. When at operating temperature, if the temperature of the water increases, its density drops, and fewer neutrons passing through it are slowed enough to trigger further reactions. That negative feedback stabilizes the reaction rate. Graphite and heavy water reactors tend to be more thoroughly thermalised than light water reactors. Due to the extra thermalization, these types can use natural uranium/unenriched fuel. Light element moderated reactors. These reactors are moderated by lithium or beryllium. Molten salt reactors (MSRs) are moderated by a light elements such as lithium or beryllium, which are constituents of the coolant/fuel matrix salts LiF and BeF2. Liquid metal cooled reactors, such as one whose coolant is a mixture of Lead and Bismuth, may use BeO as a moderator. Organically moderated reactors (OMR) use biphenyl and terphenyl as moderator and coolant. Classification by coolant In thermal nuclear reactors (LWRs in specific), the coolant acts as a moderator that must slow down the neutrons before they can be efficiently absorbed by the fuel. Water cooled reactor Pressurized water reactor (PWR) A primary characteristic of PWRs is a pressurizer, a specialized pressure vessel. Most commercial PWRs and naval reactors use pressurizers. During normal operation, a pressurizer is partially filled with water, and a steam bubble is maintained above it by heating the water with submerged heaters. During normal operation, the pressurizer is connected to the primary reactor pressure vessel (RPV) and the pressurizer "bubble" provides an expansion space for changes in water volume in the reactor. This arrangement also provides a means of pressure control for the reactor by increasing or decreasing the steam pressure in the pressurizer using the pressurizer heaters. Pressurised channels. Channel-type reactors can be refueled under load. Boiling water reactor (BWR) BWRs are characterized by boiling water around the fuel rods in the lower portion of primary reactor pressure vessel. During normal operation, pressure control is accomplished by controlling the amount of steam flowing from the reactor pressure vessel to the turbine. Pool-type reactor Liquid metal cooled reactor. Since water is a moderator, it cannot be used as a coolant in a fast reactor. Liquid metal coolants have included sodium, NaK, lead, lead-bismuth eutectic, and in early reactors, mercury. Sodium-cooled fast reactor Lead-cooled fast reactor Gas cooled reactors are cooled by a circulating inert gas, usually helium. Nitrogen and carbon dioxide have also been used. Utilization of the heat varies, depending on the reactor. Some reactors run hot enough that the gas can directly power a gas turbine. Older designs usually run the gas through a heat exchanger to make steam for a steam turbine. Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs) are cooled by circulating a molten salt, typically a eutectic mixture of fluoride salts, such as LiF and BeF2. In a typical MSR, the coolant is also used a matrix in which the fissile material is dissolved. Classification by generation Generation I reactor Generation II reactor (most current nuclear power plants) Generation III reactor (evolutionary improvements of existing designs) Generation IV reactor (technologies still under development) The "Gen IV"-term was dubbed by the DOE for developing new plant types in 2000. http://www.euronuclear.org/info/generation-IV.htm In 2003 the French CEA was the first to refer to Gen II types in Nucleonics Week; "Etienne Pochon, CEA director of nuclear industry support, outlined EPR's improved performance and enhanced safety features compared to the advanced Generation II designs on which it was based.". Nucleonics Week, Vol. 44, No. 39; Pg. 7, September 25, 2003 First mentioning of Gen III was also in 2000 in conjunction with the launch of the GIF plans. Classification by phase of fuel Solid fueled Fluid fueled Aqueous homogeneous reactor Molten salt reactor Gas fueled Classification by use Electricity Nuclear power plants Propulsion, see nuclear propulsion Nuclear marine propulsion Various proposed forms of rocket propulsion Other uses of heat Desalination Heat for domestic and industrial heating Hydrogen production for use in a hydrogen economy Production reactors for transmutation of elements Breeder reactors. Fast breeder reactors are capable of enriching Uranium during the fission chain reaction (by converting fertile U-238 to Pu-239) which allows an operational fast reactor to generate more fissile material than it consumes. Thus, a breeder reactor, once running, can be re-fueled with natural or even depleted uranium. ; see "Fuel Cycles and Sustainability" Creating various radioactive isotopes, such as americium for use in smoke detectors, and cobalt-60, molybdenum-99 and others, used for imaging and medical treatment. Production of materials for nuclear weapons such as weapons-grade plutonium Providing a source of neutron radiation (for example with the pulsed Godiva device) and positron radiation) (e.g. neutron activation analysis and potassium-argon dating) Research reactor: Typically reactors used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. These are much smaller than power reactors or those propelling ships, and many are on university campuses. There are about 280 such reactors operating, in 56 countries. Some operate with high-enriched uranium fuel, and international efforts are underway to substitute low-enriched fuel. World Nuclear Association Information Brief -Research Reactors Current technologies There are two types of nuclear power in current use: The Radioisotope thermoelectric generator produces heat through passive radioactive decay. Some radioisotope thermoelectric generators have been created to power space probes (for example, the Cassini probe), some lighthouses in the former Soviet Union, and some pacemakers. The heat output of these generators diminishes with time; the heat is converted to electricity utilising the thermoelectric effect. Nuclear fission reactors produce heat through a controlled nuclear chain reaction in a critical mass of fissile material. All current nuclear power plants are critical fission reactors, which are the focus of this article. The output of fission reactors is controllable. There are several subtypes of critical fission reactors, which can be classified as Generation I, Generation II and Generation III. All reactors will be compared to the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), as that is the standard modern reactor design. Diablo Canyon - a PWR Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR) These reactors use a pressure vessel to contain the nuclear fuel, control rods, moderator, and coolant. They are cooled and moderated by high pressure liquid water. The hot radioactive water that leaves the pressure vessel is looped through a steam generator, which in turn heats a secondary (non-radioactive) loop of water to steam that can run turbines. They are the majority of current reactors, and are generally considered the safest and most reliable technology currently in large scale deployment. This is a thermal neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor and the European Pressurized Reactor. United States Naval reactors are of this type. Laguna Verde nuclear power plant - a BWR Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) A BWR is like a PWR without the steam generator. A boiling water reactor is cooled and moderated by water like a PWR, but at a lower pressure, which allows the water to boil inside the pressure vessel producing the steam that runs the turbines. Unlike a PWR, there is no primary and secondary loop. The thermal efficiency of these reactors can be higher, and they can be simpler, and even potentially more stable and safe. This is a thermal neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor and the Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor. The CANDU Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) A Canadian design, (known as CANDU) these reactors are heavy-water-cooled and -moderated Pressurized-Water reactors. Instead of using a single large pressure vessel as in a PWR, the fuel is contained in hundreds of pressure tubes. These reactors are fueled with natural uranium and are thermal neutron reactor designs. PHWRs can be refueled while at full power, which makes them very efficient in their use of uranium (it allows for precise flux control in the core). CANDU PHWR's have been built in Canada, Argentina, China, India (pre-NPT), Pakistan (pre-NPT), Romania, and South Korea. India also operates a number of PHWR's, often termed 'CANDU-derivatives', built after the Government of Canada halted nuclear dealings with India following the 1974 Smiling Buddha nuclear weapon test. The Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant - a still operating RBMK Reaktor Bolshoy Moshchnosti Kanalniy (High Power Channel Reactor) (RBMK) A Soviet Union design, built to produce plutonium as well as power. RBMKs are water cooled with a graphite moderator. RBMKs are in some respects similar to CANDU in that they are refuelable during power operation and employ a pressure tube design instead of a PWR-style pressure vessel. However, unlike CANDU they are very unstable and too large to have containment buildings, making them dangerous in the case of an accident. A series of critical safety flaws have also been identified with the RBMK design, though some of these were corrected following the Chernobyl accident. RBMK reactors are generally considered one of the most dangerous reactor designs in use. The Chernobyl plant had four RBMK reactors. The Torness nuclear power station - an AGR Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR) and Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGR) These are generally graphite moderated and CO2 cooled. They can have a high thermal efficiency compared with PWRs due to higher operating temperatures. There are a number of operating reactors of this design, mostly in the United Kingdom, where the concept was developed. Older designs (i.e. Magnox stations) are either shut down or will be in the near future. However, the AGCRs have an anticipated life of a further 10 to 20 years. This is a thermal neutron reactor design. Decommissioning costs can be high due to large volume of reactor core. Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR) This is a reactor design that is cooled by liquid metal, totally unmoderated, and produces more fuel than it consumes. They are said to "breed" fuel, because they produce fissionable fuel during operation because of neutron capture. These reactors can function much like a PWR in terms of efficiency, and do not require much high pressure containment, as the liquid metal does not need to be kept at high pressure, even at very high temperatures. Superphénix in France was a reactor of this type, as was Fermi-I in the United States. The Monju reactor in Japan suffered a sodium leak in 1995 and was approved for restart in 2008. All three use/used liquid sodium. These reactors are fast neutron, not thermal neutron designs. These reactors come in two types: The Superphenix, one of the few FBRs Lead cooled Using lead as the liquid metal provides excellent radiation shielding, and allows for operation at very high temperatures. Also, lead is (mostly) transparent to neutrons, so fewer neutrons are lost in the coolant, and the coolant does not become radioactive. Unlike sodium, lead is mostly inert, so there is less risk of explosion or accident, but such large quantities of lead may be problematic from toxicology and disposal points of view. Often a reactor of this type would use a lead-bismuth eutectic mixture. In this case, the bismuth would present some minor radiation problems, as it is not quite as transparent to neutrons, and can be transmuted to a radioactive isotope more readily than lead. Sodium cooled Most LMFBRs are of this type. The sodium is relatively easy to obtain and work with, and it also manages to actually prevent corrosion on the various reactor parts immersed in it. However, sodium explodes violently when exposed to water, so care must be taken, but such explosions wouldn't be vastly more violent than (for example) a leak of superheated fluid from a SCWR or PWR. EBR-I, the first reactor to have a core meltdown, was of this type. Aqueous Homogeneous Reactor (AHR) These reactors use soluble nuclear salts dissolved in water and mixed with a coolant and a neutron moderator. Future and developing technologies Advanced reactors More than a dozen advanced reactor designs are in various stages of development. Some are evolutionary from the PWR, BWR and PHWR designs above, some are more radical departures. The former include the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR), two of which are now operating with others under construction, and the planned passively safe ESBWR and AP1000 units (see Nuclear Power 2010 Program). The Integral Fast Reactor was built, tested and evaluated during the 1980s and then retired under the Clinton administration in the 1990s due to nuclear non-proliferation policies of the administration. Recycling spent fuel is the core of its design and it therefore produces only a fraction of the waste of current reactors. The Pebble Bed Reactor, a High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGCR), is designed so high temperatures reduce power output by doppler broadening of the fuel's neutron cross-section. It uses ceramic fuels so its safe operating temperatures exceed the power-reduction temperature range. Most designs are cooled by inert helium. Helium is not subject to steam explosions, resists neutron absorption leading to radioactivity, and does not dissolve contaminants that can become radioactive. Typical designs have more layers (up to 7) of passive containment than light water reactors (usually 3). A unique feature that may aid safety is that the fuel-balls actually form the core's mechanism, and are replaced one-by-one as they age. The design of the fuel makes fuel reprocessing expensive. SSTAR, Small, Sealed, Transportable, Autonomous Reactor is being primarily researched and developed in the US, intended as a fast breeder reactor that is passively safe and could be remotely shut down in case the suspicion arises that it is being tampered with. The Clean And Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor (CAESAR) is a nuclear reactor concept that uses steam as a moderator - this design is still in development. Subcritical reactors are designed to be safer and more stable, but pose a number of engineering and economic difficulties. One example is the Energy amplifier. Thorium based reactors. It is possible to convert Thorium-232 into U-233 in reactors specially designed for the purpose. In this way, Thorium, which is more plentiful than uranium, can be used to breed U-233 nuclear fuel. U-233 is also believed to have favourable nuclear properties as compared to traditionally used U-235, including better neutron economy and lower production of long lived transuranic waste. Advanced Heavy Water Reactor — A proposed heavy water moderated nuclear power reactor that will be the next generation design of the PHWR type. Under development in the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). KAMINI — A unique reactor using Uranium-233 isotope for fuel. Built by BARC and IGCAR Uses thorium. India is also building a bigger scale FBTR or fast breeder thorium reactor to harness the power with the use of thorium. Generation IV reactors Generation IV reactors are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched. These designs are generally not expected to be available for commercial construction before 2030. Current reactors in operation around the world are generally considered second- or third-generation systems, with the first-generation systems having been retired some time ago. Research into these reactor types was officially started by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals. The primary goals being to improve nuclear safety, improve proliferation resistance, minimize waste and natural resource utilization, and to decrease the cost to build and run such plants. Gas cooled fast reactor Lead cooled fast reactor Molten salt reactor Sodium-cooled fast reactor Supercritical water reactor Very high temperature reactor Generation V+ reactors Designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered or researched at present. Though such reactors could be built with current or near term technology, they trigger little interest for reasons of economics, practicality, or safety. Liquid Core reactor. A closed loop liquid core nuclear reactor, where the fissile material is molten uranium cooled by a working gas pumped in through holes in the base of the containment vessel. Gas core reactor. A closed loop version of the nuclear lightbulb rocket, where the fissile material is gaseous uranium-hexafluoride contained in a fused silica vessel. A working gas (such as hydrogen) would flow around this vessel and absorb the UV light produced by the reaction. In theory, using UF6 as a working fuel directly (rather than as a stage to one, as is done now) would mean lower processing costs, and very small reactors. In practice, running a reactor at such high power densities would probably produce unmanageable neutron flux. Gas core EM reactor. As in the Gas Core reactor, but with photovoltaic arrays converting the UV light directly to electricity. Fission fragment reactor Fusion reactors Controlled nuclear fusion could in principle be used in fusion power plants to produce power without the complexities of handling actinides, but significant scientific and technical obstacles remain. Several fusion reactors have been built, but as yet none has 'produced' more thermal energy than electrical energy consumed. Despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The ITER project is currently leading the effort to commercialize fusion power. Nuclear fuel cycle Thermal reactors generally depend on refined and enriched uranium. Some nuclear reactors can operate with a mixture of plutonium and uranium (see MOX). The process by which uranium ore is mined, processed, enriched, used, possibly reprocessed and disposed of is known as the nuclear fuel cycle. Under 1% of the uranium found in nature is the easily fissionable U-235 isotope and as a result most reactor designs require enriched fuel. Enrichment involves increasing the percentage of U-235 and is usually done by means of gaseous diffusion or gas centrifuge. The enriched result is then converted into uranium dioxide powder, which is pressed and fired into pellet form. These pellets are stacked into tubes which are then sealed and called fuel rods. Many of these fuel rods are used in each nuclear reactor. Most BWR and PWR commercial reactors use uranium enriched to about 4% U-235, and some commercial reactors with a high neutron economy do not require the fuel to be enriched at all (that is, they can use natural uranium). According to the International Atomic Energy Agency there are at least 100 research reactors in the world fueled by highly enriched (weapons-grade/90% enrichment uranium). Theft risk of this fuel (potentially used in the production of a nuclear weapon) has led to campaigns advocating conversion of this type of reactor to low-enrichment uranium (which poses less threat of proliferation). IAEA, Improving Security at World's Nuclear Research Reactors: Technical and Other Issues Focus of June Symposium in Norway (7 June 2006). It should be noted that fissile U-235 and non-fissile but fissionable and fertile U-238 are both used in the fission process. U-235 is fissionable by thermal (i.e. slow-moving) neutrons. A thermal neutron is one which is moving about the same speed as the atoms around it. Since all atoms vibrate proportionally to their absolute temperature, a thermal neutron has the best opportunity to fission U-235 when it is moving at this same vibrational speed. On the other hand, U-238 is more likely to capture a neutron when the neutron is moving very fast. This U-239 atom will soon decay into plutonium-239, which is another fuel. Pu-239 is a viable fuel and must be accounted for even when a highly enriched uranium fuel is used. Plutonium fissions will dominate the U-235 fissions in some reactors, especially after the initial loading of U-235 is spent. Plutonium is fissionable with both fast and thermal neutrons, which make it ideal for either nuclear reactors or nuclear bombs. Most reactor designs in existence are thermal reactors and typically use water as a neutron moderator (moderator means that it slows down the neutron to a thermal speed) and as a coolant. But in a fast breeder reactor, some other kind of coolant is used which will not moderate or slow the neutrons down much. This enables fast neutrons to dominate, which can effectively be used to constantly replenish the fuel supply. By merely placing cheap unenriched uranium into such a core, the non-fissionable U-238 will be turned into Pu-239, "breeding" fuel. Fueling of nuclear reactors The amount of energy in the reservoir of nuclear fuel is frequently expressed in terms of "full-power days," which is the number of 24-hour periods (days) a reactor is scheduled for operation at full power output for the generation of heat energy. The number of full-power days in a reactor's operating cycle (between refueling outage times) is related to the amount of fissile uranium-235 (U-235) contained in the fuel assemblies at the beginning of the cycle. A higher percentage of U-235 in the core at the beginning of a cycle will permit the reactor to be run for a greater number of full-power days. At the end of the operating cycle, the fuel in some of the assemblies is "spent" and is discharged and replaced with new (fresh) fuel assemblies, although in practice it is the buildup of reaction poisons in nuclear fuel that determines the lifetime of nuclear fuel in a reactor. Long before all possible fission has taken place, the buildup of long-lived neutron absorbing fission byproducts impedes the chain reaction. The fraction of the reactor's fuel core replaced during refueling is typically one-fourth for a boiling-water reactor and one-third for a pressurized-water reactor. Not all reactors need to be shut down for refueling; for example, pebble bed reactors, RBMK reactors, molten salt reactors, Magnox, AGR and CANDU reactors allow fuel to be shifted through the reactor while it is running. In a CANDU reactor, this also allows individual fuel elements to be situated within the reactor core that are best suited to the amount of U-235 in the fuel element. The amount of energy extracted from nuclear fuel is called its burnup, which is expressed in terms of the heat energy produced per initial unit of fuel weight. Burn up is commonly expressed as megawatt days thermal per metric ton of initial heavy metal. Safety See also: Nuclear safety in the U.S. History - Early reactors The concept of a nuclear chain reaction was first realized by Hungarian scientist Leó Szilárd in 1933. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple nuclear reactor the following year. L. Szilárd, "Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements," British patent number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934; published: 30 March 1936). esp@cenet document view The first artificial nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, was constructed at the University of Chicago by a team led by Enrico Fermi in 1942. It achieved criticality on December 2, 1942 The First Reactor, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Technical Information at 3:25 PM. The reactor support structure was made of wood, which supported a pile of graphite blocks, embedded in which was natural Uranium-oxide 'pseudospheres' or 'briquettes'. Inspiration for such a reactor was provided by the discovery by Lise Meitner, Fritz Strassman and Otto Hahn in 1938 that bombardment of Uranium with neutrons (provided by an Alpha-on-Beryllium fusion reaction, a "neutron howitzer") produced a Barium residue, which they reasoned was created by the fissioning of the Uranium nuclei. Subsequent studies revealed that several neutrons were also released during the fissioning, making available the opportunity for a chain reaction. Shortly after the discovery of fission, Hitler's Germany invaded Poland in 1939, starting World War II in Europe, and all such research became militarily classified. On August 2, 1939 Albert Einstein wrote a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt suggesting that the discovery of Uranium's fission could lead to the development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type", giving impetus to the study of reactors and fission. Soon after the Chicago Pile, the U.S. military developed nuclear reactors for the Manhattan Project starting in 1943. The primary purpose for these reactors was the mass production of plutonium (primarily at the Hanford Site) for nuclear weapons. Fermi and Leo Szilard applied for a patent on reactors on 19 December, 1944. Its issuance was delayed for 10 years because of wartime secrecy. issued 17 May,1955-"Neutronic Reactor " "World's first nuclear power plant" is the claim made by signs at the site of the EBR-I, which is now a museum near Arco, Idaho. This experimental LMFBR operated by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission produced 0.8 kW in a test on December 20, 1951 Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 factsheet, Idaho National Laboratory and 100 kW (electrical) the following day, Fifty years ago in December: Atomic reactor EBR-I produced first electricity American Nuclear Society Nuclear news, November 2001 having a design output of 200 kW (electrical). Besides the military uses of nuclear reactors, there were political reasons to pursue civilian use of atomic energy. U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower made his famous Atoms for Peace speech to the UN General Assembly on December 8, 1953. This diplomacy led to the dissemination of reactor technology to U.S. institutions and worldwide. The first nuclear power plant built for civil purposes was the AM-1 Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant, launched on June 27, 1954 in the Soviet Union. It produced around 5 MW (electrical). After World War II, the U.S. military sought other uses for nuclear reactor technology. Research by the Army and the Air Force never came to fruition; however, the U.S. Navy succeeded when they steamed the USS Nautilus (SSN-571) on nuclear power January 17, 1955. The first commercial nuclear power station, Calder Hall in Sellafield, England was opened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW) . The first portable nuclear reactor "Alco PM-2A" used to generate electrical power (2 MW) for Camp Century from 1960. http://gombessa.tripod.com/scienceleadstheway/id9.html Frank J. Leskovitz (inc images) Natural nuclear reactors Although nuclear fission reactors are often thought of as being solely a product of modern technology, the first nuclear fission reactors were in fact naturally occurring. A natural nuclear fission reactor can occur under certain circumstances that mimic the conditions in a constructed reactor. Video of physics lecture - at Google Video; a natural nuclear reactor is mentioned at 42:40 mins into the video Fifteen natural fission reactors have so far been found in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo mine in Gabon, West Africa. First discovered in 1972 by French physicist Francis Perrin, they are collectively known as the Oklo Fossil Reactors. Self-sustaining nuclear fission reactions took place in these reactors approximately 1.5 billion years ago, and ran for a few hundred thousand years, averaging 100 kW of power output during that time. Meshik, Alex P. "The Workings of an Ancient Nuclear Reactor." Scientific American. November, 2005. Pg. 82. The concept of a natural nuclear reactor was theorized as early as 1956 by Paul Kuroda at the University of Arkansas Such reactors can no longer form on Earth: radioactive decay over this immense time span has reduced the proportion of U-235 in naturally occurring uranium to below the amount required to sustain a chain reaction. The natural nuclear reactors formed when a uranium-rich mineral deposit became inundated with groundwater that acted as a neutron moderator, and a strong chain reaction took place. The water moderator would boil away as the reaction increased, slowing it back down again and preventing a meltdown. The fission reaction was sustained for hundreds of thousands of years. These natural reactors are extensively studied by scientists interested in geologic radioactive waste disposal. They offer a case study of how radioactive isotopes migrate through the earth's crust. This is a significant area of controversy as opponents of geologic waste disposal fear that isotopes from stored waste could end up in water supplies or be carried into the environment. See also Auxiliary feedwater Containment building Energy development List of nuclear reactors List of United States Naval reactors Nuclear marine propulsion Nuclear physics Nuclear power by country Nuclear Reactor Operator Badge Nuclear reactor physics SCRAM Safety engineering Technology assessment Enrico Fermi References External links Boiling Water Reactor Plant Technology Education - Includes the PC-based BWR reactor simulation. World Nuclear Fuel Facilities How Nuclear Power Works - Howstuffworks.com The Pebble Bed Modular Reactor - Whyfiles.org - On a bed of pebbles World Nuclear Association - How it Works A Debate: Is Nuclear Power The Solution to Global Warming? Union of Concerned Scientists, Concerns re: US nuclear reactor program The Canadian Nuclear FAQ - a very information-rich resource about Canadian CANDU reactors. Annotated bibliography on Nuclear Reactors from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Fixed Bed Nuclear Reactor Freeview Video 'Nuclear Power Plants - What's the Problem' A Royal Institution Lecture by John Collier by the Vega Science Trust. U.S. plants and operators SCK.CEN Belgian Nuclear Research Centre in Mol. Glossary of Nuclear Terms American Nuclear Society - Glossary of Terms An Interactive VR Panorama of the cooling towers at Temelin Nuclear Power Plant, Czech Republic Nuclear Energy Institute – How it Works: Electric Power Generation North Korea's nuclear facilities by Google Earth Annotated bibliography of nuclear reactor technology from the Alsos Digital Library CAREM nuclear reactor The Georeactor Hypothesis | Nuclear_reactor |@lemmatized core:20 crocus:1 small:4 nuclear:130 reactor:270 use:61 research:16 epfl:1 switzerland:1 article:3 subarticle:1 power:63 device:2 chain:13 reaction:25 initiate:1 control:21 sustain:6 steady:1 rate:3 oppose:1 bomb:3 occur:4 fraction:3 second:2 uncontrolled:1 cause:5 explosion:4 significant:3 energy:28 source:4 generation:23 electrical:9 see:9 ship:2 marine:3 propulsion:7 usually:8 accomplish:2 method:3 involve:3 heat:26 steam:20 turbine:10 also:21 less:9 common:4 us:5 discuss:1 work:10 induced:1 fission:48 event:2 neutron:75 absorb:11 nucleus:7 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5,002 | History_of_Nicaragua | Nicaragua is the largest nation in Central America, but also the least densely populated with a demographic similar in size to its smaller neighbors. It is located about midway between Mexico and Colombia, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. Nicaragua ranges from the Atlantic Ocean on the nation's east coast, and the Pacific Ocean bordering the west. Nicaragua also possesses a series of islands and cays located in the Atlantic Ocean. The country's name is derived from Nicarao, the name of the Nahuatl-speaking tribe which inhabited the shores of Lake Nicaragua before the Spanish conquest of the Americas, and the Spanish word Agua, meaning water, due to the presence of the large Lake Cocibolca (or Lake Nicaragua) and Lake Managua (or Lake Xolotlán), as well as lagoons and rivers in the region. It is known that Nicaragua was inhabited by Paleo-Indians as far back as 6000 years. The ancient footprints of Acahualinca confirms it along with other archaeological evidences, mainly ceramics and statues made of volcanic stone like the ones found on the island of Zapatera and petroglyphs found in Ometepe island. At the end of the 15th century, western Nicaragua was inhabited by several indigenous peoples related by culture and language to the Mayans. They were primarily farmers who lived in towns, organized into small kingdoms, however, within three decades an estimated Indian population of one million plummeted to a few tens of thousands, as approximately half of the indigenous people in western Nicaragua died of diseases brought by the Spaniards. In eastern Nicaragua, a much smaller group of Native Americans that had migrated from Colombia and Panama lived a less sedentary life based on hunting and gathering. Pre-Columbian Nicaragua Most of Nicaragua's Caribbean lowlands area was inhabited by tribes that migrated north from what is now Colombia. The various dialects and languages in this area are related to Chibcha, spoken by groups in northern Colombia. Eastern Nicaragua's population consisted of extended families or tribes. Food was obtained by hunting, fishing, and slash-and-burn agriculture. Root crops like cassava, plantains, and pineapples were the staple foods. The people of eastern Nicaragua appear to have traded with and been influenced by the native peoples of the Caribbean, as round thatched huts and canoes, both typical of the Caribbean, were common in eastern Nicaragua. When the Spanish arrived in western Nicaragua in the early 1500s, they found three principal tribes, each with a different culture and language: the Niquirano, the Chorotegano, and the Chontal. Each one of these diverse groups occupied much of Nicaragua territory, with independent chieftains who ruled according to each group's laws and customs. Their weapons consisted of swords, lances, and arrows made out of wood. Monarchy was the form of government of most tribes; the supreme ruler was the chief, or cacique, who, surrounded by his princes, formed the nobility. Laws and regulations were disseminated by royal messengers who visited each township and assembled the inhabitants to give their chief's orders. Occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Coast, the Niquirano were governed by chief Nicarao, or Nicaragua, a rich ruler who lived in Nicaraocali, now the city of Rivas. The Chorotegano lived in the central region. These two groups had intimate contact with the Spanish conquerors, paving the way for the racial mix of native and European stock now known as mestizos. The Chontal (which means foreigner in Nahua ) occupied the central mountain region. This group was smaller than the other two, and it is not known when they first settled in Nicaragua. In the west and highland areas where the Spanish settled, the indigenous population was almost completely wiped out by the rapid spread of new diseases brought by the Spaniards, for which the native population had no immunity, and the virtual enslavement of the remainder of the indigenous people. In the east, where the Europeans did not settle, most indigenous groups survived. The English, however, did introduce guns and ammunition to one of the local peoples, the Bawihka, who lived in northeast Nicaragua. The Bawihka later intermarried with runaway slaves from Britain's Caribbean possessions, and the resulting population, with its access to superior weapons, began to expand its territory and push other indigenous groups into the interior. This Afro-indigenous group became known to the Europeans as Miskito, and the displaced survivors of their expansionist activities were called the Sumu. The Spanish conquest In 1522, the first Spaniards entered the region of what would become known as Nicaragua. Gil González Dávila with a small force reached its western portion after a trek through Costa Rica. He proceeded to explore the fertile western valleys and was impressed with the Indian civilization he found there. He and his small army gathered gold and baptized Indians along the way. Eventually, they so imposed upon the Indians that they were attacked and nearly annihilated. González Dávila returned to his expedition's starting point in Panama and reported on his find, naming the area Nicaragua. However, governor Pedrarias Dávila attempted to arrest him and confiscate his treasure. He was forced to flee to Santo Domingo to outfit another expedition. Within a few months, Nicaragua was invaded by several Spanish forces, each led by a conquistador. González Dávila was authorized by royal decree, and came in from the Caribbean coast of Honduras. Francisco Hernández de Córdoba at the command of the governor of Panama approached from Costa Rica. Pedro de Alvarado and Cristóbal de Olid at the command of Hernán Cortés, came from Guatemala through San Salvador and Honduras. Córdoba apparently came with the intention of colonization. In 1524, he established permanent settlements in the region, including two of Nicaragua's principal towns: Granada on Lake Nicaragua and León east of Lake Managua. But he soon found it necessary to prepare defenses for the cities and go on the offensive against incursions by the other conquistadores. The inevitable clash between the Spanish forces devastated the indigenous population. The Indian civilization was destroyed. The series of battles came to be known as The War of the Captains. Duncan, David Ewing, Hernando de Soto - A Savage Quest in the Americas - Book II: Consolidation, Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, 1995 By 1529, the conquest of Nicaragua was complete. Several conquistadores came out winners, and some were executed or murdered. Pedrarias Dávila was one such winner. Although he lost control of Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and established his base in León. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony. The land was parceled out to the conquistadores. The area of most interest was the western portion. It included a wide, fertile valley with huge, freshwater lakes, a series of volcanoes, and volcanic lagoons. Many Indians were soon enslaved to develop and maintain "estates" there. Others were put to work in mines in northern Nicaragua, but the great majority were sent as slaves to Panama and Peru, for significant profit to the new landed aristocracy. Many Indians died through disease and neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled everything necessary for their subsistence. From colony to nation In 1538, the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established, encompassing all of Mexico and Central America, except Panama. By 1570, the southern part of New Spain was designated the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The area of Nicaragua was divided into administrative "parties" with León as the capital. In 1610, the volcano known as Momotombo erupted, destroying the capital. It was rebuilt northwest of its original site. The history of Nicaragua remained relatively static for three hundred years following the conquest. There were minor civil wars and rebellions, but they were quickly suppressed. The region was subject to frequent raids by Dutch, French and British pirates, with the city of Granada being invaded twice, in 1658 and 1660. Nicaragua became a part of the Mexican Empire and then gained its independence as a part of the United Provinces of Central America in 1821, then as an independent republic in its own right in 1838. The Mosquito Coast based on Bluefields on the Atlantic was claimed by the United Kingdom as a protectorate from 1655 to 1850. This area was designated to Honduras in 1859 and transferred to Nicaragua in 1860, though it remained autonomous until 1894. Much of Nicaragua's politics since independence has been characterized by the rivalry between the liberal elite of León and the conservative elite of Granada. The rivalry often degenerated into civil war, particularly during the 1840s and 1850s. Initially invited by the Liberals in 1855 to join their struggle against the Conservatives, a United States adventurer named William Walker was elected to the presidency in 1856. Honduras and other Central American countries united to drive him out of Nicaragua in 1857, after which a period of three decades of Conservative rule ensued. Herring, Hubert, A History of Latin America - from the Beginnings to the Present - Chapter 28, Central America and Panama - Nicaragua, 1838-1909, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1968 Taking advantage of divisions within the conservative ranks, José Santos Zelaya led a liberal revolt that brought him to power in 1893. Zelaya ended the longstanding dispute with the United Kingdom over the Atlantic coast in 1894, and reincorporated the Mosquito Coast into Nicaragua. United States occupation (1909 - 1933) In 1909, the United States provided political support to conservative-led forces rebelling against President Zelaya. U.S. motives included differences over the proposed Nicaragua Canal, Nicaragua's potential as a destabilizing influence in the region, and Zelaya's attempts to regulate foreign access to Nicaraguan natural resources. On November 17, 1909, two Americans were executed by order of Zelaya after the two men confessed to having laid a mine in the San Juan River with the intention of blowing up the Diamante. The U.S. justified the intervention by claiming to protect U.S. lives and property. Zelaya resigned later that year. In August 1912, the President of Nicaragua, Adolfo Díaz, requested the resignation of the Secretary of War, General Luis Mena, concerned he was leading an insurrection. Mena fled Managua with his brother, the Chief of Police of Managua, and the insurrection escalated. When the U.S. Legation asked President Díaz to ensure the safety of American citizens and property during the insurrection, Díaz replied that he could not and that... In consequence my Government desires that the Government of the United States guarantee with its forces security for the property of American Citizens in Nicaragua and that it extend its protection to all the inhabitants of the Republic. United States Marines occupied Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933, except for a nine-month period beginning in 1925. From 1910 to 1926, the conservative party ruled Nicaragua. The Chamorro family, which had long dominated the party, effectively controlled the government during that period. In 1914, the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed, giving the U.S. control over the proposed canal, as well as leases for potential canal defenses. Following the evacuation of U.S. Marines, another violent conflict between liberals and conservatives took place in 1926, known as the Constitutionalist War, which resulted in a coalition government and the return of U.S. Marines. From 1927 until 1933, General Augusto César Sandino led a sustained guerrilla war, first against the Conservative regime and subsequently against the U.S. Marines, who withdrew upon the establishment of a new Liberal government. Sandino rejected a 1927 negotiated agreement brokered by the United States to end the latest round of fighting between liberals and conservatives. The revolt finally forced the United States to compromise and leave the country. When the Americans left in 1933, they set up the Guardia Nacional (National Guard), a combined military and police force trained and equipped by the Americans, designed to be loyal to U.S. interests. Anastasio Somoza García, a close friend of the American government, was put in charge. He was one of the three rulers of the country, the others being Sandino and the mostly figurehead President Juan Bautista Sacasa. The Nicaraguan Campaign Medal, a decoration of the United States Navy, was later issued for those American service members who had performed military duty in Nicaragua during the early years of the 20th century. The Somoza Dynasty (1936 - 1979) Anastasio Somoza García's rule With U.S. support Anastasio Somoza García outmaneuvered his political opponents, including Sandino who was executed by National Guard officers in February 1934, and took over the presidency in 1936. The Somoza family would rule until 1979. The earliest opposition to Somoza came from the educated middle class and the normally conservative wealthy, such as Pedro Joaquín Chamorro. Gradually, however, the liberal opposition began to be eclipsed by the far more radical and violent Marxists. On September 21, 1956, one young Marxist-Leninist, Rigoberto López Pérez, sneaked into a party attended by the President and shot him in the chest. In his memoirs Nicaragua Betrayed, Somoza's son Anastasio Debayle claims that Chamorro had knowledge of the assassination plot. While the assassin quickly died in a hail of gunfire Somoza himself died a few days later, in an American hospital in the Panama Canal Zone. Somoza's rise to power and the formation of a dictatorship Divisions within the Conservative Party in the 1932 elections paved the way for the Liberal Juan Bautista Sacasa to assume power. This initiated an inherently weak presidency—hardly a formidable obstacle to Somoza as he set about building his personal influence over Congress and the ruling Liberal Party. President Sacasa's popularity decreased as a result of his poor leadership and accusations of fraud in the 1934 congressional elections. Somoza García benefited from Sacasa's diminishing power, and at the same time brought together the National Guard and the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal-PL) in order to win the presidential elections in 1936. Somoza Garcia also cultivated support from former presidents Moncada and Chamorro while consolidating control within the Liberal Party. Early in 1936, Somoza openly confronted President Sacasa by using military force to displace local government officials loyal to the president and replacing them with close associates. Somoza García's increasing military confrontation led to Sacasa's resignation on June 6, 1936. The Congress appointed Carlos Brenes Jarquín, a Somoza García associate, as interim president and postponed presidential elections until December. In November, Somoza resigned as chief director of the National Guard, thus complying with constitutional requirements for eligibility to run for the presidency. The Liberal Nationalist Party (Partido Liberal Nacionalista--PLN) was established with support from a faction of the Conservative Party to support Somoza Garcia’s candidacy. Somoza was elected president in the December election by the remarkable margin of 107,201 votes to 108. On January 1, 1937, he resumed control of the National Guard, combining the roles of president and chief director of the military. After Somoza’s win in the December 1936 presidential elections, he proceeded to consolidate his power within the National Guard, while at the same time dividing his political opponents. Family members and close associates were given key positions within the government and the military. The Somoza family also controlled the PLN, which in turn controlled the legislature and judicial system, thus giving Somoza absolute power over every sphere of Nicaraguan politics. Nominal political opposition was allowed as long as it did not threaten the ruling elite. Somoza Garcia’s National Guard repressed serious political opposition and antigovernment demonstrations. The institutional power of the National Guard grew in most government owned enterprises, until eventually it controlled the national radio and telegraph networks, the postal and immigration services, health services, the internal revenue service, and the national railroads. In less than two years after his election, Somoza Garcia, defying the Conservative Party, declared his intention to stay in power beyond his presidential term. Thus, in 1938, Somoza Garcia named a Constituent Assembly that gave the president extensive power and elected him for another eight-year term. A Constituent Assembly, extension of the presidential term from four years to six years, and clauses empowering the president to decree laws relating to the National Guard without consulting Congress, ensured Somoza’s absolute control over the state and military. Control over electoral and legislative machinery provided the basis for a permanent dictatorship. The younger Somozas Somoza García was succeeded by his two sons. Luis Somoza Debayle became President, but his brother Anastasio Somoza Debayle held great power as head of the National Guard. A graduate of West Point, Anastasio was even closer to the Americans than his father and was said to speak better English than Spanish. The revolutionaries opposing the Somozas were greatly strengthened by the Cuban Revolution. The revolution provided both hope and inspiration to the insurgents, as well as weapons and funding. Operating from Costa Rica they formed the Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional (FSLN) and came to be known as Sandinistas. They took their name from the still legendary Augusto César Sandino. With aid from the United States, the Somoza brothers succeeded in defeating the guerrillas. President Luis Somoza Debayle, under pressure from the rebels, announced that national elections would be held in February 1963. Election reforms had been made that established secret ballots and a supervising electoral commission, although the Conservative Party never elected any members of the commission. Somoza had also introduced a constitutional amendment that would prevent family members from succeeding him. The opposition was extremely skeptical of Somoza's promises, and ultimately control of the country passed to Anastasio Somoza Debayle after Luis died of a heart attack in 1967. Landless peasants worked on large plantations during short harvest seasons and received wages as low as USD$1 per day. In desperation, many of these poor laborers migrated east, seeking their own land near the rain forest. In 1968, the World Health Organization found that polluted water led to 17% of all Nicaraguan deaths. American economic involvement From 1945 to 1960, the U.S.-owned Nicaraguan Long Leaf Pine Company (NIPCO) directly paid the Somoza family millions of dollars in exchange for favorable benefits to the company, such as not having to re-forest clear cut areas. By 1961, NIPCO had cut all of the commercially viable coastal pines in northeast Nicaragua. Expansion of cotton plantations in the 1950s and cattle ranches in the 1960s forced peasant families from the areas they had farmed for decades. Some were forced by the National Guard to relocate into colonization projects in the rainforest. Some moved eastward into the hills, where they cleared forests in order to plant crops. Soil erosion forced them, however, to abandon their land and move deeper into the rainforest. Cattle ranchers then claimed the abandoned land. Peasants and ranchers continued this movement deep into the rain forest. By the early 1970s, Nicaragua had become the United States' top beef supplier. The beef supported fast-food chains and pet food production. President Anastasio Somoza Debayle owned the largest slaughterhouse in Nicaragua, as well as six meat-packing plants in Miami, Florida. Also in the 1950s and 1960s, 40% of all U.S. pesticide exports went to Central America. Nicaragua and its neighbors widely used compounds banned in the U.S., such as DDT, endrin, dieldrin and lindane. In 1977 a study revealed that mothers living in León had 45 times more DDT in their breast milk than the World Health Organization safe level. Sandinista insurrection (1972 - 1979) A major turning point was the December 1972 Managua earthquake that killed over 10,000 people and left 500,000 homeless. A great deal of international relief was sent to the nation. However, newspaperman Pedro Joaquin Chamorro began to write sensational stories alleging that Somoza and the National Guard were embezzling relief money. This not only enraged the Nicaraguan people but also began to alienate the United States. Violent opposition to the government, especially to its widespread corruption, was then renewed with the Sandinistas being revived, this time backed by Cuba and the Soviet Union. At a New Year's Day Party, a close friend of Somoza was taken hostage along with several others, including several Somoza family members, and executed. Somoza, in his memoirs, refers to this action as the beginning of a sharp escalation in terms of Sandinista attacks and government reprisals. Martial law was declared soon thereafter, and the National Guard began to raze villages in the jungle suspected of supporting the rebels. Human rights groups condemned the actions, but U.S. President Gerald Ford refused to break the U.S. alliance with Somoza. The rebels, encouraged by the success of their actions, stepped up their assault against the government. The country tipped into full scale civil war with the 1978 murder of Pedro Chamorro, who had opposed violence against the regime. 50,000 turned out for his funeral. It was assumed by many that Somoza had ordered his assassination. The Sandinista forces, gathering in neighboring Honduras and Costa Rica, infiltrated the country and began to seize isolated communities. Other towns, assisted by Sandinista guerrillas, attacked and expelled the National Guard units. Somoza responded with increasing violence and repression. When León became the first city in Nicaragua to fall to the Sandinistas, he responded with aerial bombardment, famously ordering the air force to "bomb everything that moves until it stops moving." The U.S. media grew increasingly unfavorable in its reporting on the situation in Nicaragua. Realizing that the Somoza dictatorship was unsustainable, the Carter administration attempted to force him to leave Nicaragua. Somoza refused and sought to maintain his power through the National Guard. At that point, the U.S. ambassador sent a cable to the White House saying it would be "ill-advised" to call off the bombing, because such an action would help the Sandinistas gain power. When ABC reporter Bill Stewart was executed by the National Guard, and graphic film of the killing was broadcast on American TV, the American public became more hostile to Somoza. In the end, President Carter refused Somoza further U.S. military aid, believing that the repressive nature of the government had led to popular support for the Sandinista uprising. Sandinista period (1979 - 1990) As Nicaragua's government collapsed and the National Guard commanders escaped with Somoza, the U.S. first promised and then denied them exile in Miami. The rebels advanced on the capital victoriously. On July 19, 1979 a new government was proclaimed under a provisional junta headed by 35 year old Daniel Ortega and including Violeta Chamorro, Pedro's widow. The United Nations estimated material damage from the revolutionary war to be USD$480 million. The FSLN took over a nation plagued by malnutrition, disease, and pesticide contaminations. Lake Managua was considered dead because of decades of pesticide runoff, toxic chemical pollution from lakeside factories, and untreated sewage. Soil erosion and dust storms were also a problem in Nicaragua at the time due to deforestation. To tackle these crises, the FSLN created the Nicaraguan Institute of Natural Resources and the Environment. The Sandinistas were victorious in the national election of November 4, 1984, gathering 67% of the vote. The election was certified as "free and fair" by the majority of international observers. The Nicaraguan political opposition and the Reagan administration claimed political restrictions were placed on the opposition by the government. The primary opposition candidate was the U.S.-backed Arturo Cruz, who succumbed to pressure from the United States government Smith, Wayne S., Lies About Nicaragua, Foreign Policy (Summer 1987) not to take part in the 1984 elections; later US officials were quoted as saying, "the (Reagan) Administration never contemplated letting Cruz stay in the race, because then the Sandinistas could justifiably claim that the elections were legitimate." New York Times October 21, 1984 Other opposition parties such as the Conservative Democratic Party and the Independent Liberal party, were both free to denounce the Sandinista government and participate in the elections The Electoral Process in Nicaragua: Domestic and International Influences, Latin American Studies Organization . Cambridge Historian Christopher Andrews claimed that it was later discovered that the FSLN had, in fact, been actively suppressing right-wing opposition parties while leaving moderate parties alone, with Ortega claiming that the moderates "presented no danger and served as a convenient facade to the outside world" Andrew, Christopher et al. The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World, Basic Books, September 20, 2005. . In 1993, the Library of Congress wrote "Foreign observers generally reported that the election was fair. Opposition groups, however, said that the FSLN domination of government organs, mass organizations groups, and much of the media created a climate of intimidation that precluded a truly open election." http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ni0027) . Ortega was overwhelmingly elected President in 1984, but the long years of war had decimated Nicaragua's economy and widespread poverty ensued. Communist leanings and U.S. Contras American support for the long rule of the Somoza family had soured relations, and the FSLN government was committed to a Marxist ideology, with many of the leading Sandinista continuing long-standing relationships with the Soviet Union and Cuba. U.S. President Carter initially hoped that continued American aid to the new government would keep the Sandinistas from forming a doctrinaire Marxist-Leninist government aligned with the Soviet bloc, but the Carter administration allotted the Sandinistas minimal funding to start them off, and the Sandinistas resolutely turned away from the U.S., investing Cuban and East European assistance into a new army of 75,000. The buildup included T-55 heavy tanks, heavy artillery and HIND attack helicopters, an unprecedented military buildup that made the Sandinista Army more powerful than all of its neighbors combined. The Soviets also pledged to provide MiG 21 fighters, but, to the annoyance of the Sandinistas, the aircraft were never delivered. Managua became the second capital in the hemisphere after Cuba to host an embassy from North Korea. Ironically, in light of the tensions between their Soviet sponsors and China, the Sandinistas allowed Taiwan to retain its mission and refused to allow a Chinese mission to enter the country. The first challenge to the powerful new army came from the Contras, groups of Somoza's National Guard who had fled to Honduras. The Contras were soon under the control of Nicaraguan business elites who opposed Sandinista policies to seize their assets. The Contra chain of command included some ex-National Guardsmen, including Contra founder and commander Enrique Bermúdez and others. One prominent Contra commander, however, was ex-Sandinista hero Edén Pastora, aka "Commadante Zero," who rejected the Leninist orientation of his fellow comandantes. After his election in 1980, President Ronald Reagan regarded relations between the United States and the Sandinista government as an active front in the Cold War. The Reagan administration focussed on the "Communist threat" posed by the Sandinistas, reacting particularly to the support provided to the Sandinistas by Cuban president Fidel Castro, and by the Sandinistas' close military relations with the Soviets and Cubans. They also sought to protect U.S. business interests, which it claimed were threatened by the policies of the Sandinista government. The United States attempted to overthrow the democratically-elected government of Nicaragua by expanding the supply of arms and training to the Contras in neighboring Honduras, as well as allied groups based to the south in Costa Rica. President Reagan called the Contras "the moral equivalent of our founding fathers" despite the fact that they had a reputation for brutal violence including hacking off limbs of anyone who opposed them. American pressure against the government escalated throughout 1983 and 1984, including attacks on Nicaraguan ports and oil installations and the laying of magnetic mines outside Nicaraguan harbours, actions condemned as illegal in 1986 by the International Court of Justice. The U.S. refused to pay restitution and claimed that the ICJ was not competent to judge the case. The United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution in order to pressure the U.S. to pay the fine. Although only Israel and El Salvador, which was receiving massive amounts of military aid to fight its own guerrilla insurgency, voted with the U.S., the money still has not been paid. Jeane Kirkpatrick, the American ambassador to the UN under Reagan, criticized the Court as a "semi-judicial" body. The U.S. was legally bound by the court's decision, had signed the treaty and made use of the court in other cases. On May 1, 1985 Reagan issued an executive order that imposed a full economic embargo on Nicaragua, which remained in force until March 1990. In 1982, legislation was enacted in the U.S. to prohibit further direct aid to the Contras. Reagan's officials attempted to illegally supply them out of the proceeds of arms sales to Iran and third party donations, triggering the Iran-Contra Affair of 1986-87. Mutual exhaustion, Sandinista fears of Contra unity and military success, and mediation by other regional governments led to the Sapoa ceasefire between the Sandinistas and the Contras on March 23, 1988. Subsequent agreements were designed to reintegrate the Contras and their supporters into Nicaraguan society preparatory in preparation for general elections. Post-Sandinista period In a stunning landslide defeat, where ABC news had been predicting a 16 point Sandinista victory, the FSLN lost to the National Opposition Union by 14 points in elections on February 25, 1990. At the beginning of former Sandinista Violeta Chamorro's nearly 7 years in office the Sandinistas still largely controlled the army, labor unions, and courts. Her government achieved major progress toward consolidating democratic institutions, advancing national reconciliation, stabilizing the economy, privatizing state-owned enterprises, and reducing human rights violations. In February 1995, Sandinista Popular Army Cmdr. Gen. Humberto Ortega was replaced, in accordance with a new military code enacted in 1994 by Gen. Joaquín Cuadra, who espoused a policy of greater professionalism in the renamed Army of Nicaragua. A new police organization law, passed by the National Assembly and signed into law in August 1996, further codified both civilian control of the police and the professionalization of that law enforcement agency. The October 20, 1996 presidential, legislative, and mayoral elections also were judged free and fair by international observers and by the groundbreaking national electoral observer group Ética y Transparencia (Ethics and Transparency) despite a number of irregularities, due largely to logistical difficulties and a baroquely complicated electoral law. This time Nicaraguans elected former-Managua Mayor Arnoldo Alemán, leader of the center-right Liberal Alliance, which later consolidated into the Constitutional Liberal Party (PLC). Alemán continued in liberalizing the economy and fulfilling his campaign promise of "works not words" by completing infrastructure projects such as highways, bridges, and wells - assisted in large part to foreign assistance received after Hurricane Mitch hit Nicaragua in October 1998. His administration was, however, tainted by charges of corruption that resulted in the resignation of several key officials in mid-2000. Alemán was subsequently arrested and sentenced to twenty years in jail for corruption. In November 2000, Nicaragua held municipal elections. Alemán's PLC won a majority of the overall mayoral races, but the FSLN fared considerably better in larger urban areas, winning a significant number of departmental capitals, including Managua. Presidential and legislative elections were held on November 4, 2001, the country's fourth free and fair election since 1990. Enrique Bolaños of the PLC was elected to the Nicaraguan presidency, defeating the FSLN candidate Daniel Ortega, by 14 percentage points. The elections were characterized by international observers as free, fair and peaceful. President Bolaños was inaugurated on January 10, 2002. During the campaign Bolaños promised to reinvigorate the economy, create jobs, fight corruption and support the war against terrorism. In November 2006 the presidential election was won by Daniel Ortega, bringing him back into power after 16 years of opposition. International observers, including the Carter Center, judged the election to be free and fair. The country has partly rebuilt its economy during the 1990s, but was hit hard by Hurricane Mitch at the end of October 1998, almost exactly a decade after the similarly destructive Hurricane Joan and again in 2007 it was hit by Hurricane Felix a category 5 hurricane when it made landfall. See also List of Presidents of Nicaragua Nicaragua v. United States (1986 International Court of Justice judgement) Allegations of state terrorism by United States of America References Adu, Yvonne (ed) Nicaragua: Nation History. , April 22, 2006. Black, George. Triumph of the People: The Sandinista Revolution in Nicaragua. London: Zed Press, 1981. Diederich, Bernard. Somoza. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1981. Further reading Gioconda Belli. (2001). El País Bajo mi Piel Belli, Humberto. (1985). Breaking Faith: The Sandinista Revolution and Its Impact on Freedom and Christian Faith in Nicaragua. Crossway Books/The Puebla Institute. Bermudez, Enrique, The Contras' Valley Forge: How I View the Nicaraguan Crisis, Policy Review magazine, The Heritage Foundation, Summer 1988. Christian, Shirley. Nicaragua, Revolution In the Family. New York: Vintage Books, 1986. Cox, Jack. Requiem in the Tropics: Inside Central America. UCA Books, 1987. Kirkpatrick, Jean. Dictatorships and Double Standards. Touchstone, 1982. Moore, John Norton, The Secret War in Central America: Sandinista Assault on World Order.'' university Publications of America, 1987. Article discussing American media inaccurate polling in 1990 election International Court of Justice United Nations General Assembly resolution Article discussing history behind American funding of the Contra-rebels. This article was written in 1987. 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5,003 | Henry_Rollins | Henry Rollins (born February 13, 1961 as Henry Lawrence Garfield) is an American singer-songwriter, spoken word artist, actor, activist and publisher. After joining the short-lived Washington, D.C. band State of Alert in 1980, Rollins fronted the California hardcore punk band Black Flag from 1981 until 1986. Following the band's breakup, Rollins soon established the record label and publishing company 2.13.61 to release his spoken word albums, as well as forming the Rollins Band, which toured with a number of lineups until 2003 and during 2006. Since Black Flag, Rollins has embarked on projects covering a variety of media. He has hosted numerous radio shows, such as Harmony In My Head, television shows, such as MTV's 120 Minutes and Jackass, along with roles in several films. Rollins has also campaigned for human rights in the United States, promoting gay rights in particular, and tours overseas with the United Service Organizations to entertain American troops. Early life Henry Garfield was born in Washington, D.C. on February 13, 1961, and grew up in the Glover Park neighborhood of the city. An only child, his parents divorced when he was a toddler; he suffered from low self-esteem and a poor attention span as a child. Azerrad, Michael. Our Band Could Be Your Life: Scenes from the American Indie Underground, 1981-1991. Little Brown and Company, 2001. ISBN 0-316-78753-1. p. 25 He was raised primarily by his mother, Iris, who taught him to read before he entered public school; however, because of "bad grades, bad attitude, poor conduct," he was soon sent to The Bullis School, a preparatory school in Potomac, Maryland. According to Rollins, military school helped him to develop a sense of discipline and a strong work ethic. It was at Bullis that he began writing; his early literary efforts were mainly short stories about "blowing up my school and murdering all the teachers." Despite the relative affluence of Glover Park, for Rollins "it was a very rough up-bringing in a lot of other ways. I accumulated a lot of rage by the time I was seventeen or eighteen." Music career State of Alert After high school, Rollins attempted college, but after being discouraged by the behavior of his fellow students, who were into "beer and bongs," he left and began working in minimum-wage jobs, including a job as a courier for liver samples at the National Institutes of Health. Rollins became involved in the punk rock scene after he and Ian MacKaye bought a Sex Pistols record; he later described it as a "revelation." By 1979, Rollins was working as a roadie for local bands, including MacKaye's Teen Idles. When the band's singer Nathan Strejcek failed to appear for practice sessions, Rollins convinced the Teen Idles to let him sing. Word of Rollins' ability spread around Washington's underground music scene; Bad Brains singer H.R. would sometimes coax Rollins on stage to sing with him. Azerrad, 2001. p. 26 In late 1980, the Washington punk band The Extorts lost their frontman Lyle Preslar to Minor Threat. Rollins joined the rest of the band to form State of Alert, and became its frontman and vocalist. He put words to the band's five songs and wrote several more. S.O.A. recorded their sole EP, No Policy, and released it in 1981 on MacKaye's Dischord Records. S.O.A. disbanded after a total of nine concerts and one EP. Rollins had enjoyed being the band's frontman, and had earned a reputation for fighting in shows. He later said: "I was like nineteen and a young man all full of steam [...] Loved to get in the dust-ups." By this time, Rollins had become the manager of the Georgetown Häagen-Dazs ice cream store; his steady employment had helped to finance the S.O.A. EP. Azerrad, 2001. p. 27 Black Flag In 1980, a friend gave Rollins and MacKaye a copy of Black Flag's Nervous Breakdown EP. Rollins soon became a fan of the band, exchanging letters with bassist Chuck Dukowski and later inviting the band to stay in his parents' home when Black Flag toured the East Coast in December 1980. Azzerad, 2001. p. 27-28 When Black Flag returned to the East Coast in early 1981, Rollins attended as many of their concerts as he could. At an impromptu show in a New York bar, Black Flag's vocalist Dez Cadena allowed Rollins to sing "Clocked In," as Rollins had a five hour drive back to Washington DC to return to work after the performance. Azerrad, 2001. p. 28 Unbeknownst to Rollins, Cadena wanted to switch to guitar, and the band was looking for a new vocalist. The band was impressed with Rollins' singing and stage demeanor, and the next day, after a semi-formal audition, they asked him to become their permanent vocalist. Despite some doubts, he accepted, in part because of MacKaye's encouragement. His high level of energy and intense personality suited the band's style, but Rollins' diverse tastes in music were a key factor in his being selected as singer; Black Flag's founder Greg Ginn was growing restless creatively and wanted a singer who was willing to move beyond simple, three-chord punk. Azerrad, 2001. p. 29 After joining Black Flag in 1981, Rollins quit his job at Häagen-Dazs, sold his car, and moved to . Upon arriving in Los Angeles, Rollins got the Black Flag logo tattooed on his left bicep and changed his surname to Rollins, a surname he and MacKaye had used as teenagers. Rollins was in a different environment in Los Angeles; the police soon realized he was a member of Black Flag and he was hassled as a result. Rollins later said "That really scared me. It freaked me out that an adult would do that. [...] My little eyes were opened big time." Azerrad, 2001. p. 31 Before concerts, as the rest of band tuned up, Rollins would stride about the stage dressed only in a pair of black shorts, grinding his teeth; to focus before the show he would squeeze a pool ball. Azerrad, 2001. p. 34 His stage persona impressed several critics; after a 1982 show in , Sub Pop critic Calvin Johnson wrote: "Henry was incredible. Pacing back and forth, lunging, lurching, growling; it was all real, the most intense emotional experiences I have ever seen." Azerrad, 2001. p. 38 By 1983, Rollins' stage persona was increasingly alienating him from the rest of Black Flag. During a show in England, Rollins assaulted a member of the audience; Ginn later scolded Rollins, calling him a "macho asshole." Azerrad, 2001. p. 39 A legal dispute with Unicorn Records held up further Black Flag releases until 1984, and Ginn was slowing the band's tempo down so that they would remain innovative. In August 1983 guitarist Dez Cadena had left the group; a stalemate lingered between Dukowski and Ginn, who wanted Dukowski to leave, before Rollins fired Dukowski outright. Azerrad, 2001. p. 41 1984's heavy metal music-influenced My War featured Rollins screaming and wailing throughout many of the songs; the band's members also grew their hair to confuse the band's hardcore punk audience. Azerrad, 2001. p. 47 Black Flag's change in musical style and appearance alienated many of their original fans, who focused their displeasure on Rollins by punching him in the mouth, stabbing him with pens or scratching him with their nails, among other methods. He often fought back, dragging audience members on stage and assaulting them. Rollins became increasingly alienated from the audience; in his tour diary, Rollins wrote "When they spit at me, when they grab at me, they aren't hurting me. When I push out and mangle the flesh of another, it's falling so short of what I really want to do to them." Azerrad, 2001. p. 46 During the Unicorn legal dispute, Rollins had started a weight-lifting program, and by their 1984 tours, he had become visibly well-built; journalist Michael Azerrad later commented that "his powerful physique was a metaphor for the impregnable emotional shield he was developing around himself." Rollins has since replied that "no, the training was just basically a way to push myself." Rollins Band and solo releases Rollins performing with the Rollins Band Before Black Flag broke up in August 1986, Rollins had already toured as a solo spoken word artist. He released two solo records in 1987, Hot Animal Machine, a collaboration with guitarist Chris Haskett, and Drive by Shooting, recorded as "Henrietta Collins and the Wifebeating Childhaters"; Rollins also released his second spoken word album, Big Ugly Mouth in the same year. Along with Haskett, Rollins soon added Andrew Weiss and Sim Cain, both former members of Ginn's side-project Gone, and called the new group Rollins Band. The band toured relentlessly, and their 1987 debut album, Life Time, was quickly followed by the outtakes and live collection Do It. The band continued to tour throughout 1988; 1989 marked the release of another Rollins Band album, Hard Volume. Another live album, Turned On, and another spoken word release, Live at McCabe's, followed in 1990. Rollins and Weiss released Fast Food For Thought, an EP by their one-off side project Wartime in 1990. It was sonically in many ways more reminiscent of Weiss' work with Ween than the Rollins Band. The music, while heavy and driving, had a distinctly psychedelic bent, culimnating in the final track, a cover of "Franklin's Tower" by The Grateful Dead. Early pressings were simply credited to "Wartime" while later releases added the phrase "featuring Henry Rollins" to the cover. 1991 saw the Rollins Band sign a distribution deal with Imago Records and appear at the Lollapalooza festival; both improved the band's presence. However, in December 1991, Rollins and his best friend Joe Cole were accosted by gunmen outside Rollins' home. Cole was murdered by a gunshot to the head, but Rollins escaped without injury. Although traumatized by Cole's death, as chronicled in his book "Now Watch Him Die," Rollins continued to release new material; the spoken-word album Human Butt appeared in 1992 on his own record label, 2.13.61. The Rollins Band released The End of Silence, Rollins' first charting album. The following year, Rollins released a spoken-word double album, The Boxed Life. The Rollins Band embarked upon the End of Silence tour; bassist Weiss was fired towards its end and replaced by funk and jazz bassist Melvin Gibbs. According to critic Steve Huey, 1994 was Rollins' "breakout year". The Rollins Band appeared at Woodstock 94 and released Weight, which ranked on the Billboard Top 40. Rollins released Get in the Van: On the Road with Black Flag, a double-disc set of him reading from his Black Flag tour diary of the same name; he won the Grammy for Best Spoken Word Recording as a result. Rollins was named 1994's "Man of the Year" by the American men's magazine Details and became a contributing columnist to the magazine. With the increased exposure, Rollins made several appearances on American music channels MTV and VH1 around this time, and made his Hollywood film debut in 1994 in The Chase playing a police officer. In 1995, the Rollins Band's record label, Imago Records, declared itself bankrupt. Rollins began focusing on his spoken word career. He released Everything, a recording of a chapter of his book Eye Scream with free jazz backing, in 1996. He continued to appear in various films, including Heat, Johnny Mnemonic and Lost Highway. The Rollins Band signed to Dreamworks Records in 1997 and soon released Come in and Burn, but it did not receive as much critical acclaim as their previous material. Rollins continued to release spoken-word book readings, releasing Black Coffee Blues in the same year. 1998 saw Rollins released Think Tank, his first set of non-book-related spoken material in five years. By 1998, Rollins felt that the relationship with his backing band had run its course, and the line-up disbanded. He had produced a Los Angeles hard rock band called Mother Superior, and invited them to form a new incarnation of the Rollins Band. Their first album Get Some Go Again, was released two years later. The Rollins Band released several more albums, including 2001's Nice and 2003's Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three. After 2003, the band became inactive as Rollins focused on radio and television work. Musical style Vocals As a vocalist, Rollins has adopted a number of styles through the years. Rollins was initially noted in the Washington, D.C. hardcore scene for what journalist Michael Azerrad described as a "compelling, raspy howl". With State of Alert, Rollins "spat out the lyrics like a bellicose auctioneer". He adopted a similar style after joining Black Flag in 1981. By their album Damaged however, Black Flag began to incorporate a swing beat into their style; Rollins then abandoned his S.O.A. "bark" and adopted the band's swing. Azerrad, 2001. p. 32 Rollins later explained: "What I was doing kind of matched the vibe of the music. The music was intense and, well, I was as intense as you needed." Azerrad, 2001. p. 33 In both incarnations of the Rollins Band, Rollins combined spoken word with his traditional vocal style in songs such as "Liar" (the song begins with a one minute spoken diatribe by Rollins), as well as barking his way through songs (such as "Tearing" and "Starve") and employing the loud-quiet dynamic. Rolling Stone's Anthony DeCurtis names Rollins a "screeching hate machine" and his "hallmark" as "the sheets-of-sound assault". Rollins appeared on the 1996 studio album Les Claypool and the Holy Mackerel Present Highball with the Devil, narrating "Delicate Tendrils". Rollins also appeared in the 1993 Tool album, Undertow. He and Tool front man, Maynard James Keenan, performed the vocals in the song "Bottom". He also appears on Black Sabbath guitarist Tony Iommi solo record Iommi. Songwriting Rollins wrote several songs with Black Flag, but was not the group's main songwriter. With the Rollins Band, his lyrics focused "almost exclusively on issues relating to personal integrity," according to critic Geoffrey Welchman. Music Producer Rollins is credited as mixer and producer on the 1995 album by Australian band "The Mark of Cain" titled "Ill at Ease". Fans of early Rollins Band albums such as Hard Volume will notice his influence in this work. Appearances in other media Television As Rollins rose to prominence with the Rollins Band, he began to present and appear on cable television programs. These included Alternative Nation and MTV Sports in 1993 and 1994 respectively. 1995 saw Rollins appear on an episode of Unsolved Mysteries that explored the death of his friend Joe Cole and present State of the Union Undressed on Comedy Central. Rollins began to present and narrate VH1 Legends in 1996. Rollins, busy with the Rollins Band, did not present more programs until 2001, but made appearances on a number of other television shows, including voicing Mad Stan in Batman Beyond in 1999 and 2000. He also did the voice in Apple's 1999 G4 Cube Ad with Jimi Hendrix's "Purple Haze" playing as the theme song. In 2001, Rollins appeared as the uncredited host of "Night Visions", a short-lived horror anthology series. Rollins was a host of film review programme Henry's Film Corner on the Independent Film Channel, before presenting the weekly The Henry Rollins Show on the channel. He co-hosted the British television show Full Metal Challenge in 2002-2003 on TLC. It was about teams that would build machines that they would drive and fight with them, trying to disable the other teams machine. He has made a number of cameo appearances in television series such as MTV's Jackass and an episode of Californication, where he played himself hosting a radio show. In 2006, Rollins appeared in a documentary series by VH1 and The Sundance Channel called The Drug Years. http://www.vh1.com/shows/dyn/the_drug_years/series_artists.jhtml VH1.com : Shows : Rock Docs : The Drug Years : Featured Artists Also featured in Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker. Rollins will appear in six upcoming episodes of FX's Sons of Anarchy in the fall of 2009. Rollins will play a new antagonist in the show’s fictional town of Charming, California who poses a deadly threat to the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club. http://soa.blogs.fxnetworks.com/ Radio On May 19, 2004, Rollins began hosting a weekly radio show, Harmony in My Head on Los Angeles' Indie 103.1 radio. The show aired every Monday evening, with Rollins playing a variety of music ranging from early rock and jump blues to hard rock, blues rock, folk rock, punk rock, metal and rockabilly, but also touching on rap, jazz, world music, reggae, classical music and more. Harmony In My Head often emphasizes B-sides, live bootlegs and other rarities, and nearly every episode has featured a song by British group The Fall. Rollins put the show on a short hiatus to undertake a spoken-word tour in early 2005. Rollins posted playlists and commentary on-line; these lists were expanded with more information and published in book form as Fanatic! through 2.13.61 in November 2005. In late 2005, Rollins announced the show's return and began the first episode by playing the show's namesake Buzzcocks song. As of 2008, the show continues each week despite Rollins' constant touring with new pre-recorded shows between live broadcasts. In 2009 Indie 103.1 went off the air, although it continues to broadcast over the internet. On February 18, 2009, KCRW announced that Rollins would be hosting a live show on Saturday nights starting March 7, 2009. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/music_blog/2009/02/henry-rollins-r.html In 2007 Rollins published "Fanatic! Vol. 2" through 2.13.61. "Fanatic! Vol. 3" was released in the fall of 2008. Film Rollins began his film career appearing in several independent films featuring Black Flag. His film debut was in 1982's The Slog Movie, about the West Coast punk scene. An appearance in 1985's Black Flag Live followed. Rollins first film appearance without Black Flag was the short film The Right Side of My Brain with Lydia Lunch in 1985. Following the band's breakup, Rollins did not appear in any films until 1994's The Chase. Rollins appeared in the 2007 direct-to-DVD sequel to Wrong Turn (2003), Wrong Turn 2: Dead End as a retired Marine Corps officer who hosts his own show which tests the contestants' will to survive. Rollins has also appeared in Punk: Attitude, a documentary on the punk scene, and in American Hardcore (2006). Some feature length movies Henry Rollins has appeared in include: The Chase (1994), with Charlie Sheen. Johnny Mnemonic (1995), with Keanu Reeves, Ice T and Dolph Lundgren. Heat (1995), with Al Pacino, Robert De Niro and Val Kilmer. Lost Highway (1997), with Bill Pullman and Patricia Arquette. Directed by David Lynch. Jack Frost (1998), with Michael Keaton. Morgan's Ferry (1999), with Billy Zane and Kelly McGillis. Dogtown and Z-Boys (2001 documentary) The New Guy (2002), with Tommy Lee and DJ Qualls. Jackass The Movie (2002) with Johnny Knoxville and Bam Margera Jackass Number Two (2006) with Preston Lacy, Steve-O, and Bam Margera. Bad Boys 2 (2003), with Will Smith and Martin Lawrence. Feast (2005), with Balthazar Getty and Navi Rawat. The Alibi (2006) Wrong Turn 2: Dead End (2007) The Devil's Tomb (2009) H for Hunger (2009 documentary) Video games Rollins has made several voice acting performances in video games including the main character Mace Griffin in Mace Griffin: Bounty Hunter and as himself in Def Jam: Fight for NY. Books Rollins has written a series of books based on his travel journals referred to as the Black Coffee Blues trilogy. They include the namesake book, Black Coffee Blues, Do I Come Here Often?, The First Five and Smile, You're Traveling. Others include See a Grown Man Cry, Now Watch Him Die, Get in the Van, Eye Scream, Broken Summers, Roomanitarian, and Solipsist. Audiobooks Rollins contributed a segment to the audiobook version of the 2006 novel World War Z, where he portrayed T. Sean Collins, a bounty hunter who was hired to protect various celebrities before their home is over run first by desperate people looking for safety and then by the undead. Rollins won a Grammy for his reading of his autobiographical book Get In The Van: On The Road With Black Flag. Campaigning and activism Rollins signing an autograph while on a United Service Organizations tour in Iraq in 2006. Rollins has become an outspoken human rights activist, most vocally for gay rights, while deriding any suggestion that he himself is gay. On his 1998 spoken word album Think Tank the straight ally declared: "If I was gay, there would be no closet. You would never see the closet I came out of. Why? Because I'd have burned it for kindling by the time I was twelve ... If I was gay, at this stage of the game — age 37, aging alternative icon — I'd be taking out ads." Rollins frequently speaks out on social justice on his spoken word tours and promotes equality, regardless of sexuality. He was the host of the WedRock benefit concert, which raised money for a pro-gay-marriage organization. During the 2003 Iraq War, he started touring with the United Service Organizations to entertain troops overseas while remaining against the war. Rollins caused a stir at a base in Kyrgyzstan when he told the crowd: "Your commander would never lie to you. That's the vice president's job." He has also been active in the campaign to free the "West Memphis Three" — three young men that many believe were wrongly convicted of murder. Rollins appears with Public Enemy frontman Chuck D on the Black Flag song "Rise Above" on the benefit album Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three; the first time Rollins had performed Black Flag's material since 1986. Continuing his activism on behalf of troops and veterans, Rollins joined Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America (IAVA) in 2008 to launch a groundbreaking national public service advertisement campaign, CommunityofVeterans.org, which helps veterans coming home from war reintegrate into their communities. In April 2009, Rollins helped IAVA launch the second phase of the campaign which engages the friends and family of Iraq and Afghanistan veterans at SupportYourVet.org. Works Studio albumsHot Animal Machine (1987)Drive by Shooting (1987) Singles "Liar" Featured On Song Artist Album Year"Kick Out The Jams"Bad BrainsPump Up The Volume Soundtrack1990"Let There Be Rock"Hard-Ons1991"Bottom"Tool Undertow1993"Wild America"Iggy Pop American Caesar1993"Sexual Military Dynamics" Mike WattBall-Hog or Tugboat?1995"T-4 Strain" GoldieSpawn: The Album1997"War"Bone Thugs-n-Harmony & Edwin Starr Small Soldiers Original Motion Picture Soundtrack1998 "Laughing Man (In The Devil Mask)" Tony Iommi Iommi 2000 "I Can't Get Behind That" William Shatner Has Been 2004 Spoken wordShort Walk on a Long Pier (1985)Big Ugly Mouth (1987)Sweatbox (1989)Live at McCabe's (1990)Human Butt (1992)Deep Throat (1992)The Boxed Life (1993)Get in the Van: On the Road with Black Flag (Audio Book) (1994)Volume Eleven (Compilation of Britain's Volume Magazine)(August 1994)Everything (Audio Book) (1996)Black Coffee Blues (Audio Book) (1997)Think Tank (1998)Eric the Pilot (1999)A Rollins in the Wry (2001)Live at the Westbeth Theater (2001)Talk Is Cheap Vol I (2003)Talk Is Cheap Vol II (2003)Nights Behind the Tree Line (Audio Book) (2004)Talk Is Cheap Vol III (2004)Talk Is Cheap Vol IV (2004)Provoked (album) (CD/DVD) (2008) Spoken word DVDsYou Saw Me Up There (1998)Talking from the Box/Henry Goes to London (2001)Up for It (2001)Live @ Luna Park (2003)Shock & Awe (2006)Live in the Conversation Pit (2006)Henry Rollins: Uncut from NYC (2007)Henry Rollins San Francisco 1990 (2007) Provoked (album) (CD/DVD) (2008) Uncut From Israel (2008) Essays Iron and the Soul First published in Details magazine, 1994. Notes References Azerrad, Michael. Our Band Could Be Your Life: Scenes from the American Indie Underground, 1981–1991. Little Brown and Company, 2001. ISBN 0-316-78753-1 External links Official site Patriot Missile By Guernica Magazine's Joseph DiPalo IFC Site for The Henry Rollins Show The site for Henry Rollins's radio show Archive of all of Henry's radio shows Hello Henry Unofficial Polish Henry Rollins Website Henry Rollins Videos Henry Rollins interview, November 2008 Henry Rollins Interviewed by Brian Carlton on the Spoonman Show on Triple M. | Henry_Rollins |@lemmatized henry:20 rollins:138 born:1 february:3 lawrence:2 garfield:2 american:8 singer:5 songwriter:2 speak:6 word:17 artist:4 actor:1 activist:2 publisher:1 join:5 short:7 live:13 washington:6 c:3 band:48 state:6 alert:4 front:2 california:2 hardcore:4 punk:9 black:35 flag:29 follow:5 breakup:2 soon:6 establish:1 record:15 label:3 publish:4 company:3 release:23 spoken:13 album:20 well:4 form:4 tour:15 number:5 lineup:1 since:3 embark:2 project:3 cover:3 variety:2 medium:2 host:9 numerous:1 radio:8 show:27 harmony:4 head:4 television:7 mtv:4 minute:2 jackass:4 along:2 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5,004 | History_of_Scotland | Stirling Castle has stood for centuries atop a volcanic crag defending the lowest ford of the River Forth. The fortification underwent numerous sieges. The history of Scotland begins around 14,000 years ago, when humans first began to inhabit what is now Scotland after the end of the Devensian glaciation, the last ice age. Of the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age civilization that existed in the territory, many artifacts remain, but few written records were left behind. The recorded history of Scotland begins with the arrival of the Roman Empire in Britain, when the Romans occupied what is now broadly England and Wales and the Scottish Lowlands, administering it as a Roman province called Britannia. To the north was territory not governed by the Romans — Caledonia, by name. Its people were the Picts. From a classical historical viewpoint Scotland seemed a peripheral country, slow to gain advances filtering out from the Mediterranean fount of civilisation, but as knowledge of the past increases it has become apparent that some developments were earlier and more advanced than previously thought, and that the seaways were very important to Scottish history. Because of the geographical orientation of Scotland and its strong reliance on trade routes by sea, the kingdom held close links in the south and east with the Baltic countries, and through Ireland with France and the continent of Europe. Following the Acts of Union which united Scotland with England into the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the subsequent Scottish Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution, Scotland became one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Its industrial decline following the Second World War was particularly acute, but in recent decades the country has enjoyed something of a cultural and economic renaissance, fuelled in part by a resurgent financial services sector, the proceeds of North Sea oil and gas, and latterly a devolved parliament. Prehistoric people The oldest standing house in Northern Europe is at Knap of Howar, dating from 3500 BC (see also image) People lived in Scotland for at least 8,500 years before recorded history dealt with Britain. At times during the last interglacial period (130,000 70,000 BC) Europe had a climate warmer than today's, and early humans may have made their way to Scotland, though archaeologists have found no traces of this. Glaciers then scoured their way across most of Britain, and only after the ice retreated did Scotland again become habitable, around 9600 BC. Pryor, Francis. Britain B.C.: life in Britain and Ireland before the Romans. 99: Harper Collins, 2003. Mesolithic hunter-gatherer encampments formed the first known settlements, and archaeologists have dated an encampment near Biggar to around 8500 BC. "Signs of Earliest Scots Unearthed" Numerous other sites found around Scotland build up a picture of highly mobile boat-using people making tools from bone, stone and antlers. In 3000 BC, some Neolithic farmers lived in stone houses (such as those at Skara Brae) set into existing middens Neolithic farming brought permanent settlements, and the wonderfully well-preserved stone house at Knap of Howar on Papa Westray dating from 3500 BC predates by about 500 years the village of similar houses at Skara Brae on West Mainland, Orkney. The settlers introduced chambered cairn tombs from around 3500 BC (Maeshowe offers a prime example), and from about 3000 BC the many standing stones and circles such as the Ring of Brodgar on Orkney and Callanish on Lewis. These form part of the Europe-wide Megalithic culture which also produced Stonehenge in Wiltshire, and which pre-historians now interpret as showing sophisticated use of astronomical observations. The cairns and Megalithic monuments continued into the Bronze age, and hill forts started to appear, such as Eildon Hill near Melrose in the Scottish Borders, which goes back to around 1000 BC and which accommodated several hundred houses on a fortified hilltop. Brythonic Celtic culture and language spread into Scotland at some time after the 8th century BC, possibly through cultural contact rather than through mass invasion, and systems of kingdoms developed. From around 700 BC the Iron age brought numerous hill forts, brochs and fortified settlements which support the image of quarrelsome tribes and petty kingdoms later recorded by the Romans, though evidence that at times occupants neglected the defences might suggest that symbolic power had as much significance as warfare. Roman invasion 120 km Hadrian's Wall marked the border between Scotland to the north and the Roman Empire to the south with small forts and gates every Roman mile. Roman sway reached further north at times The only surviving pre-Roman account of Scotland originated with the Greek Pytheas of Massalia who circumnavigated the British islands (which he called Pretaniké) in 325 BC, but the record of his visit dates from much later. The Roman invasion of Britain began in earnest in AD 43. Following a series of military successes in the south, forces led by Gnaeus Julius Agricola entered Scotland in 79. The Romans met with fierce resistance from the local population of Caledonians. In 82 or 83 Agricola sent a fleet of galleys up round the coast of Scotland, as far as the Orkney Islands. In 84 Agricola defeated the Caledonian tribes at the Battle of Mons Graupius due to superior tactics and the use of professional troops. The only historical source for this comes from the writings of Agricola's son-in-law, Tacitus. Archaeology backed up with accurate dating from dendrochronology suggests that the occupation of southern Scotland started before the arrival of Agricola. Whatever the exact dating, for the next 300 years Rome had some presence along the southern border. Although the Romans had failed to conquer Caledonia they attempted to maintain control through military outposts and built a few roads. They were eventually forced or chose to withdraw, concluding that the wealth of the land did not justify the extensive garrisoning requirements. Scotland's population comprised two main groups: the Picts, the original peoples (possibly a Brythonic Celtic group) who occupied most of Scotland north of the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth: the area known as "Pictavia" the Britons formed a Roman-influenced Brythonic Celtic culture in the south, with the kingdom of Y Strad Glud (Strathclyde) from the Firth of Clyde southwards, Rheged in Cumbria, Selgovae in the central Borders area and the Votadini or Gododdin from the Firth of Forth down to the Tweed Invasions brought three more groups, though the extent to which they replaced native populations is unknown the Old Irish-speaking Scotti (Scots) or more specifically, the Dál Riatans, arrived from Ireland from the late 5th century onwards, taking possession of Argyll and the west coast in the Kingdom of Dál Riata. the Anglo-Saxons expanding from Bernicia and the continent. Notably seizing Gododdin in the 7th Century. It was their language which eventually became the predominant tongue of lowland Scotland, a variant of English which was initially termed Inglis, whereas the name "Scottis" (pronounced the same way as Scots) referred to the Gaelic language spoken largely in the Highlands. However, during the late Middle Ages the name "Scots" was transferred to the Scottish form of English, while the Celtic language of the Highlands came to be known only as Gaelic. In the aftermath of the 795 Viking raid on Iona, the Norse Jarls of Orkney took hold of the Western Isles, Caithness and Sutherland, while Norse settlers mixed with the inhabitants of Galloway to become the Gallgaels. The British Saint Ninian conducted the first Christian mission in Scotland. From his base, the Candida Casa (present-day Whithorn) on the Solway Firth, he spread the faith in the south and east of Scotland and in the north of England. However, according to the writings of Saint Patrick and Saint Columba, the Picts appear to have renounced Christianity in the century between Ninian's death (432) and the arrival of Saint Columba in 563. The reason is not known. The Gaels re-introduced Christianity into Pictish Scotland, gradually pushing out worship of the older Celtic gods. The most famous evangelist of that period, Saint Columba, came to Scotland in 563 and settled on the island of Iona having obtained permission from the Pictish king at his court in Inverness to settle on Iona and to spread Christianity. Some consider his (possibly apocryphal) conversion of the Pictish king Bridei a key event in the Christianisation of Scotland. Rise of the kingdom of Alba The myth of MacAlpin's Treason tells how Alba was born when the Gael Cináed mac Ailpín conquered the Picts, however Alba is a creation of Constantine II. Cináed's son Constantine had the Series Longoir written to show his family's claim to the throne of a united Pictland. The triumph of Gaelic over Pictish and the change from Pictland to Alba is placed in the half-century reign of Constantine II. Why and how this happened is unknown. At first this new kingdom corresponded to Scotland north of the Rivers Forth and Clyde. South west Scotland remained under the control of the Strathclyde Britons. South-east Scotland was under the control from around 638 of the proto-English kingdom of Bernicia, then of the Kingdom of Northumbria. This portion of Scotland was contested from the time of Constantine II and finally fell into Scottish hands in 1018, when Máel Coluim II pushed the border as far south as the River Tweed. This remains the south-eastern border to this day. Scotland, in the geographical sense it has retained for nearly a millennium, completed its expansion by the gradual incorporation of the Britons' kingdom of Strathclyde into Alba. In 1034, Donnchad I inherited Alba from his maternal grandfather, Máel Coluim II. With the exception of Orkney, the Western Isles, Caithness and Sutherland, which remained under Norse rule, Scotland had assumed the shape it was to retain thereafter. Macbeth, the Cenél Loairn candidate for the throne whose family had been suppressed by Máel Coluim II, defeated Donnchad in battle in 1040. Macbeth then ruled well for seventeen years before Donnchad's son Máel Coluim III overthrew him. (William Shakespeare, in his play Macbeth, later immortalised these events, in a heavily fictionalised way based on inaccurate contemporary history that flattered the antecedents of James VI of Scotland/I of England at Macbeth's expense). After the Norman Conquest in 1066, Edgar, one of the claimants of the English throne opposing William the Conqueror, fled to Scotland. Máel Coluim married Edgar's sister Margaret, and thus came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in 1072, riding through Lothian and past Stirling on to the Firth of Tay where he met his fleet of ships. Máel Coluim submitted, paid homage to William, and surrendered his son Donnchad as a hostage. Margaret herself had a great influence on Scotland. She is said to have brought European cultivation to the warlike Scottish court. She had an English father and a Hungarian mother and had grown up in Hungary, recently pagan and largely untouched by the European culture of the period. However at this point the Church explicitly recognised the Bishop of Rome (the Pope) as its head and at her instigation, the Benedictine order founded a monastery at Dunfermline, and St Andrews began to replace Iona as the centre of ecclesiastical leadership. The rites of the Scottish church became gradually re-integrated with mainstream Western Catholicism from that base. When Malcolm died in 1093, his brother Domnall III succeeded him. However, William II of England backed Malcolm's son by his first marriage, Duncan, as a pretender to the throne. With the English behind him Duncan briefly seized power. His murder within a few months saw Domnall restored with Edmund as his heir. The two ruled Scotland until two of Edmund's younger brothers returned from exile in England with English military backing. Victorious, the younger brothers imprisoned Domnall and Edmund for life, and Edgar, the oldest of the three, became king in 1097. Shortly afterwards Edgar and the King of Norway, Magnus Bare Legs concluded a treaty recognizing Norwegian authority over the Western Isles. In practice Norse control of the Isles was of the loosest nature, with local chiefs enjoying a high degree of independence. The following century, Somerled, the greatest of these, became King of the Hebrides in his own right. His descendants, the Lords of the Isles, continued to enjoy a semi-independent status until the end of the fifteenth century. Cambuskenneth Abbey, built around 1140, derived much of its importance from its proximity to sometime-capital Stirling When Edgar died in 1107, Margaret's third son Alexander became king, and when he in turn died in 1124, the crown passed to her fourth son David I. During David's reign Lowland Scots (known as Inglis then) began to grow in south east Scotland, although Gaelic would continue to be spoken in many parts of what would become the Lowlands for centuries more. The governmental and cultural innovations introduced by the Norman conquerors of England impressed David greatly, and he arranged for several notables to come north and take up places within the Scottish aristocracy. The Normans came into frequent conflict with the native nobility, especially in the north east and south west of the country. In a mirror of the invitation of the Normans northwards, David received lands south of the border in fee from the English kings. This meant that the Kings of Scotland also functioned as Earls of Huntingdon, and that the Earls paid ceremonial homage to the English kings for the lands received. This homage proved problematic, however, as Malcolm Canmore as the King of Scotland had paid homage to the new Norman Kings of England twice after defeats during his various campaigns against the Normans in support of his Anglo-Saxon brother-in-law Edgar Atheling's claim to the English throne. In 1263 Scotland and Norway fought the Battle of Largs for control over the Western Isles. Although the battle was little more than a series of indecisive skirmishes, it did at least prove that the distant kings of Norway could not continue to control the Isles. This was recognized soon after when the Norwegian king Magnus VI of Norway signed the Treaty of Perth in 1266, acknowledging Scottish suzerainty over the islands. Bit by bit, the Island chiefs were politically integrated into the Scottish state. In 1284 all of the descendants of Somerled attended a parliament called by Alexander III to acknowledge his granddaughter, Margaret, as heir to the throne. The subsequent dynastic crisis caused by the death of Margaret and the onset of the Wars of Independence reversed this process. By the middle of the fourteenth century the MacDonald Lords of the Isles were once again loosening their ties to the crown. A series of deaths in the line of succession in the 1280s, followed by King Alexander III's death in 1286 left the Scottish crown in disarray. His granddaughter Margaret, the "Maid of Norway", a four-year old girl, was the heir. Edward I of England, as Margaret's great-uncle, suggested that his son (also a child) and Margaret should marry, stabilising the Scottish line of succession. In 1290 Margaret's guardians agreed to this, but Margaret herself died in Orkney on her voyage from Norway to Scotland before either her coronation or her marriage could take place. The Wars of Independence John Balliol, the man with the strongest claim to the throne, became king (30 November 1292). Robert Bruce of Annandale, the next strongest claimant, accepted this outcome with reluctance (his grandson and namesake later ascended the throne as Robert I). Over the next few years Edward I used the concessions he had gained during the Great Cause systematically to undermine both the authority of King John and the liberty of Scotland. In 1295 John, on the urgings of his chief councillors, entered into an alliance with France. This was the beginning of the Auld Alliance. In 1296 Edward invaded Scotland, deposing King John. The following year William Wallace and Andrew de Moray raised southern and northern parts of the country to resist the occupation. Under their joint leadership an English army was defeated at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. For a short time Wallace ruled Scotland in the name of John Balliol as Guardian of the realm. Edward came north in person and defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk (1298). Wallace escaped but resigned as Guardian of Scotland. John Comyn and Robert the Bruce were appointed in his place. In 1305 Wallace fell into the hands of the English, who executed him for treason despite the fact that he owed no allegiance to England. On 10th February 1306 Robert Bruce, the grandson of the Claimant, participated in the murder of John Comyn, a leading rival at Greyfriars Kirk in Dumfries. Less than seven weeks after the killing in Dumfries, Bruce was crowned as King on March 25th. However Edward's forces overran the country after defeating Bruce's small army at the Battle of Methven. Despite the excommunication of Bruce and his followers by Pope Clement V his support slowly strengthened; and by 1314 with the help of leading nobles such as Sir James Douglas and the Earl of Moray only the castles at Bothwell and Stirling remained under English control. Edward I had died in 1307. His heir Edward II moved an army north to break the siege of Stirling Castle and reassert control. Robert defeated that army at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, securing de facto independence. In 1320 a remonstrance to the Pope from the nobles of Scotland (the Declaration of Arbroath) went part of the way towards convincing Pope John XXII to overturn the earlier excommunication and nullify the various acts of submission by Scottish kings to English ones so that Scotland's sovereignty could be recognised by the major European dynasties. In 1326, the first full Parliament of Scotland met. The parliament had evolved from an earlier council of nobility and clergy, the colloquium, constituted around 1235, but in 1326 representatives of the burghs — the burgh commissioners — joined them to form the Three Estates. In 1328, Edward III signed the Treaty of Northampton acknowledging Scottish independence under the rule of Robert the Bruce. Four years after Robert's death in 1329, however, England once more invaded on the pretext of restoring the "Rightful King" — Edward Balliol, son of John Balliol — to the Scottish throne, thus starting the Second War of Independence. In the face of tough Scottish resistance, led by Sir Andrew Murray, the son of Wallace's comrade in arms, successive attempts to secure Balliol on the throne failed. Edward III lost interest in the fate of his protege after the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with France. In 1341 David II, King Robert's son and heir, was able to return from temporary exile in France. Balliol finally resigned his vacant claim to the throne to Edward in 1356, before retiring to Yorkshire, where he died in 1364. Late medieval events After David's death, Robert II, the first of the Stewart (later Stuart) kings, came to the throne in 1371. He was followed in 1390 by his ailing son John, who took the regnal name Robert III, to avoid awkward questions over the exact status of the first King John. During Robert III's reign (1390–1406), actual power rested largely in the hands of his brother, also named Robert, the Duke of Albany. In 1396 during this king's reign, the last trial by combat in Europe, the Battle of the Clans took place before the King in Perth. However, problems with England continued. After the suspicious death (possibly on the orders of the Duke of Albany) of his elder son, David, Duke of Rothesay in 1402, Robert, fearful for the safety of his younger son, James (the future James I), sent him to France in 1406. Unfortunately, the English captured him en route and he spent the next 18 years as a prisoner held for ransom. As a result, after the death of Robert III, regents ruled Scotland: first, the Duke of Albany; and later his son, during whose office the country fell into near anarchy. When Scotland finally paid the ransom in 1424, James returned at the age of 32, with his English bride. He determined to restore justice and the rule of law and to deal with his enemies. He set about this immediately and ruthlessly, using military measures, reforming the parliamentary and court systems, and killing anyone who threatened his authority, including his cousin Albany. This resulted in a much greater amount of power in the hands of the Scottish government than at any time preceding, but the process led to great unpopularity for James and finally to his assassination in 1437. His son James II (reigned 1437–1460), when he came of age in 1449, continued his father's policy of weakening the great noble families, most notably taking on the great House of Douglas that had come to prominence at the time of the Bruce. Scotland advanced markedly in educational terms during the fifteenth century with the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413, the University of Glasgow in 1450 and the University of Aberdeen in 1495, and with the passing of the Education Act 1496. In 1468 the last great acquisition of Scottish territory occurred when James III married Margaret of Denmark, receiving the Orkney Islands and the Shetland Islands in payment of her dowry. After the death of James III in 1488, during or after the Battle of Sauchieburn, his successor James IV successfully ended the quasi-independent rule of the Lord of the Isles, bringing the Western Isles under effective Royal control for the first time. In 1503, he married Henry VII's daughter, Margaret Tudor, thus laying the foundation for the 17th century Union of the Crowns. James IV's reign is often considered to be a period of cultural flourishing, and it was around this period that the European Renaissance began to infiltrate Scotland. James IV was the last Scottish king known to speak Gaelic, although some suggest his son could also. In 1512, under a treaty extending the Auld Alliance, all nationals of Scotland and France also became nationals of each other's countries, a status not repealed in France until 1903 and which may never have been repealed in Scotland. However a year later, the Auld Alliance had more disastrous effects when James IV was required to launch an invasion of England to support the French when they were attacked by the English under Henry VIII. The invasion was stopped decisively at the battle of Flodden Field during which the King, many of his nobles, and over 10,000 troops — The Flowers of the Forest — were killed. The extent of the disaster impacted throughout Scotland because of the large numbers killed, and once again Scotland's government lay in the hands of regents. The song The Flooers o' the Forest commemorated this, an echo of the poem Y Gododdin on a similar tragedy in about 600. When James V finally managed to escape from the custody of the regents with the aid of his redoubtable mother in 1528, he once again set about subduing the rebellious Highlands, Western and Northern isles, as his father had had to do. He married the French noblewoman Marie de Guise. His reign was fairly successful, until another disastrous campaign against England led to defeat at the battle of Solway Moss (1542). James died a short time later. The day before his death, he was brought news of the birth of an heir: a daughter, who became Mary I of Scotland (or 'Mary, Queen of Scots'). James is supposed to have remarked in Scots that "it cam wi a lass, it will gang wi a lass" - referring to the House of Stewart which began with Walter Stewart's marriage to the daughter of Robert the Bruce. Once again, Scotland was in the hands of a regent, James Hamilton, Earl of Arran. Mary, Queen of Scots Within two years, the Rough Wooing, Henry VIII's military attempt to force a marriage between Mary and his son, Edward, had begun. This took the form of border skirmishing and several English campaigns into Scotland. To avoid the Rough wooing, Mary was sent to France at the age of five, as the intended bride of the heir to the French throne. Her mother, Marie de Guise, stayed in Scotland to look after the interests of Mary — and of France — although the Earl of Arran acted officially as regent. In 1547, after the death of Henry VIII, forces under the English regent Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset were victorious at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh, the climax of the Rough Wooing, and followed up by occupying Edinburgh. However it was to no avail since the young Queen Mary was in France. Marie de Guise responded by calling on French troops, who helped stiffen resistance to the English occupation. By 1550, after a change of regent in England, the English withdrew from Scotland completely. From 1554, Marie de Guise, took over the regency, and continued to advance French interests in Scotland. French cultural influence resulted in a large influx of French vocabulary into Scots, for example. But anti-French sentiment also grew, particularly among Protestants, who saw the English as their natural allies. In 1560 Marie de Guise died, and soon after the Auld Alliance also died, with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh, which provided for the removal of French and English troops from Scotland. The Scottish Reformation took place later the same year, when the Scottish Parliament abolished the Roman Catholic religion and outlawed the Mass. Meanwhile, Queen Mary had been raised a Catholic in France. She had married the Dauphin Francis in 1558, and become Queen of France on the death of his father the following year. When Francis himself died, Mary, now nineteen, elected to return to Scotland to take up the government in a hostile environment. Despite her private religion, she did not attempt to reimpose Catholicism on her largely Protestant subjects, thus angering the chief Catholic nobles. Her six-year personal reign was marred by a series of crises, largely caused by the intrigues and rivalries of the leading nobles. The murder of her secretary, David Riccio, was followed by the murder of her unpopular husband Lord Darnley, and her abduction by and marriage to the Earl of Bothwell. Captured by Bothwell's rivals, Mary was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle, and in July 1567, was forced to abdicate in favour of her infant son Prince James. Mary eventually escaped from Loch Leven, and attempted to regain the throne by force. After her defeat at the Battle of Langside in 1568 she took refuge in England, leaving her young son, James VI, in the hands of regents. In England she became a focal point for Catholic conspirators and was eventually tried for treason and executed on the orders of her kinswoman Elizabeth I. Protestant Reformation In 1559 John Knox returned from ministering in Geneva to lead the Calvinist reformation in Scotland During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation. In the earlier part of the century, the teachings of first Martin Luther and then John Calvin began to influence Scotland. The execution of a number of Protestant preachers, most notably the Lutheran influenced Patrick Hamilton in 1528 and later the proto-Calvinist George Wishart in 1546 who was burnt at the stake in St. Andrews by Cardinal Beaton for heresy, did nothing to stem the growth of these ideas. Beaton was assassinated shortly after the execution of George Wishart. The eventual Reformation of the Scottish Church followed a brief civil war in 1559-60, in which English intervention on the Protestant side was decisive. A Reformed confession of faith was adopted by Parliament in 1560, while the young Mary Queen of Scots was still in France. The most influential figure was John Knox, who had been a disciple of both John Calvin and George Wishart. Roman Catholicism was not totally eliminated, and remained strong particularly in parts of the highlands. The Reformation remained somewhat precarious through the reign of Queen Mary, who remained Roman Catholic but tolerated Protestantism. Following her deposition in 1567, her infant son James VI was raised as a Protestant. In 1603, following the death of the childless Queen Elizabeth I, the crown of England passed to James. He took the title James I of England and James VI of Scotland, thus unifying these two countries under his personal rule. For a time, this remained the only political connection between two independent nations, but it foreshadowed the eventual 1707 union of Scotland and England under the banner of the Great Britain. Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth The Parliamentarian armies of Oliver Cromwell briefly integrated Scotland into the Commonwealth Bishops' Wars Although Scotland and England had both rejected papal authority, the Reformation in each country proceeded in slightly different directions. England retained much of the old Catholic practice, including a formal liturgy and order of service, whereas the Scots embraced more of a free-form Calvinism. Although James had tried to get the Scottish Church to accept some of the High Church Anglicanism of his southern kingdom, he met with limited success. His son and successor, Charles I, took matters further, introducing an English-style Prayer Book into the Scottish church in 1637. This resulted in anger and widespread rioting. (The story goes that it was initiated by a certain Jenny Geddes who threw a stool in St Giles Cathedral). Representatives of various sections of Scottish society drew up the National Covenant in 1638, objecting to the King's liturgical innovations. In November of the same year matters were taken even further, when at a meeting of the General Assembly in Glasgow the Scottish bishops were formally expelled from the Church, which was then established on a full Presbyterian basis. Charles gathered a military force; but as neither side wished to push the matter to a full military conflict, a temporary settlement was concluded at Berwick. Matters remained unresolved until 1640 when, in a renewal of hostilities, Charles's northern forces were defeated by the Scots at Newburn to the west of Newcastle. During the course of these "Bishops' Wars" Charles tried to raise an army of Irish Catholics, but was forced to back down after a storm of protest in Scotland and England. The backlash from this venture provoked a rebellion in Ireland and Charles was forced to appeal to the English Parliament for funds. Parliament's demands for reform in England eventually resulted in the English Civil War. This series of civil wars that engulfed England in the 1640s and 50s is known to modern historians as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Covenanters meanwhile, were left governing Scotland, where they raised a large army of their own and tried to impose their religious settlement on Episcopalians and Roman Catholics in the north of the country. Civil war As the civil wars developed, the English Parliamentarians appealed to the Scots Covenanters for military aid against the King. A Solemn League and Covenant was entered into, guaranteeing the Scottish Church settlement and promising further reform in England. Scottish troops played a major part in the defeat of Charles I, notably at the battle of Marston Moor. An army under the Earl of Leven occupied the North of England for some time. However, not all Scots supported the Covenanter's taking arms against their King. In 1645, James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose attempted to raise the Highlands for the King. Few Scots would follow him, but, aided by 1,000 Irish, Highland and Islesmen troops sent by the Irish Confederates under Alasdair MacColla, and an instinctive genius for mobile warfare, he was stunningly successful. A Scottish Civil War began in September 1644 with his victory at battle of Tippermuir. After a series of victories over poorly trained Covenanter militias, the lowlands were at his mercy. However, at this high point, his army was reduced in size, as MacColla and the Highlanders preferred to continue the war in the north against the Campbells. Shortly after, what was left of his force was defeated at the Battle of Philiphaugh. Escaping to the north, Montrose attempted to continue the struggle with fresh troops; but in July 1646 his army was disbanded after the King surrendered to the Scots army at Newark, and the civil war came to an end. The following year Charles, while he was being held captive in Carisbrooke Castle, entered into an agreement with moderate Scots Presbyterians. In this secret 'Engagement', the Scots promised military aid in return for the King's agreement to implement Presbyterianism in England on a three-year trial basis. The Duke of Hamilton led an invasion of England to free the King, but he was defeated by Oliver Cromwell in August 1648 at the Battle of Preston. Cromwellian occupation and restoration "Cromwell at Dunbar", Andrew Carrick Gow. The battle of Dunbar was a crushing defeat for the Scottish Covenanters The Covenanter government was outraged by Parliament's execution of Charles I in 1649, carried out in the face of their strongest objections. No sooner did news of his death reach the north than his son was proclaimed King Charles II in Edinburgh. Oliver Cromwell invaded Scotland in 1650, and defeated the Scottish army in battles at Dunbar and Worcester. Scotland was then occupied by an English force under George Monck throughout the Interregnum and incorporated into the Puritan-governed Commonwealth. See article: Royalist rising of 1651 to 1654. From 1652 to 1660, Scotland was part of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, under English control but gaining equal trading rights. Upon its collapse, and with the restoration of Charles II, Scottish independence returned. Scotland regained its parliament, but the English Navigation Acts prevented the Scots engaging in what would have been lucrative trading with England's growing colonies. The formal frontier between the two countries was re-established, with customs duties which, while they protected Scottish cloth industries from cheap English imports, also denied access to English markets for Scottish cattle or Scottish linens. (Braudel 1984 p 370). After the Restoration, Charles' Scottish affairs were managed by senior noblemen, the most prominent of whom was John Maitland, Duke of Lauderdale, his Secretary of State and High Commissioner to the Scottish Parliament. Near the outset of the reign Episcopacy was reintroduced. This was to be a source of particular trouble in the south-west of the country, an area particularly strong in its Presbyterian sympathies. Abandoning the official church, many of the people here began to attend illegal field assemblies, known as conventicles. Official attempts to suppress these led to a rising in 1679, defeated by James Duke of Monmouth, the King's illegitimate son, at the Battle of Bothwell Bridge. In the early 1680s a more intense phase of persecution began, in what was later to be called the "the Killing Time". When Charles died in 1685 and his brother, a Roman Catholic, succeeded him as James VII of Scotland (and II of England), matters came to a head. The Scottish Clearances Beginning around 1605, Scottish clans began to undergo a forced migration to Ireland in order to clear land for the king's recreation. Mostly Protestant Scots reivers from the lowlands were sent to predominantly-Catholic Ireland to ensure that there would be too much internal strife for Ireland to focus on its neighbours. The Deposition of James VII James's attempt to introduce religious toleration to England's Roman Catholics alienated his Protestant subjects. Neither this, nor his moves towards absolutism, provoked outright rebellion, as it was believed that he would be succeeded by his daughter Mary, a Protestant and the wife of William of Orange. When, in 1688, James produced a male heir, everything changed. At the invitation of seven Englishmen, William landed in England with 40,000 men, and James fled. Whilst this was primarily an English event, the so-called "Glorious Revolution" had a great impact on Scottish history. Whilst William accepted limits on royal power, under the Bill of Rights (a contract between himself and the English parliament), Scotland had an equivalent document in the Claim of Rights. This is an important document in the evolution of the rule of law and the rights of subjects. Most significant Scots supported William of Orange, but many (particularly in the Highlands) remained sympathetic to James VII. His cause, which became known as Jacobitism, spawned a series of uprisings. An initial Jacobite rising under John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee (Bonnie Dundee) defeated William's forces at the Battle of Killiecrankie in 1689, but Dundee was slain in the fighting, and the army was soon defeated at the Battle of Dunkeld. The complete defeat of James in Ireland by William at the Battle of Aughrim (1691), ended matters for a time. (Ironically, the Protestant William had also enjoyed the support of the Pope and the Catholic Habsburg monarchy against the aggressive foreign policy of Louis XIV of France). The late 17th century was economically difficult for Scotland. The bad harvests of the seven ill years in the 1690s led to severe famine and depopulation. English protectionism kept Scots traders out of the new colonies, and English foreign policy disrupted trade with France. Many Scots emigrated to Ulster (the Ulster-Scots). The Parliament of Scotland of 1695 enacted a number of remedies for the desperate economic situation, including setting up the Bank of Scotland. The Act for the Settling of Schools established a parish-based system of public education throughout Scotland. The Company of Scotland received a charter to raise capital through public subscription to trade with Africa and the Indies. Scottish overseas colonies In attempts to expand, the Scots established abortive colonies both in Nova Scotia and also at Stuart's Town in what is now South Carolina. Scottish settlers had also been sent to the English colony of New Jersey. The Company of Scotland soon became involved with the Darien scheme, an ambitious plan devised by William Paterson to establish a colony on the Isthmus of Panama in the hope of establishing trade with the Far East — the principle that led to the construction of the Panama Canal much later. The Company of Scotland easily raised subscriptions in London for the scheme. Dennis R. Hidalgo To Get Rich for Our Homeland: The Company of Scotland and the Colonization of the Darién, Colonial Latin American Historical Review, 10:3 (Summer/Verano 2001): 156 But the English government opposed the idea: involved in the War of the Grand Alliance from 1689 to 1697 against France, it did not want to offend Spain, which claimed the territory as part of New Granada. The English investors had perforce to withdraw. Returning to Edinburgh, the Company raised 400,000 pounds in a few weeks. Three small fleets with a total of 3000 men eventually set out for Panama in 1698. The exercise proved a disaster. Poorly equipped; beset by incessant rain; under attack by the Spanish from nearby Cartagena; and refused aid by the English in the West Indies, the colonists abandoned their project in 1700. Only 1000 survived and only one ship managed to return to Scotland. A desperate ship from the colony which called at Port Royal received no assistance—on the orders of the English government. Realising the dangers of the conflicting claims and aims of two independent kingdoms at odds with one another, William of Orange called for a union of the two countries. It did not happen. Union, when it did come in 1707, restored free trade between the countries and gave the Scots access to the burgeoning English Empire. Union, the Hanoverians and the Jacobites "The Young Pretender" Bonnie Prince Charlie began his campaign on Scotland's west coast. His hopes to gain the Scottish and English thrones died at the Battle of Culloden By 1700, the Protestant monarchy seemed in danger of coming to an end with the childless Stuart Princess Anne. Rather than return to her Roman Catholic brother James Francis Edward Stuart, the English Parliament enacted that Sophia of Hanover and her descendants should succeed (Act of Settlement 1701). However, the Scottish counterpart, the Act of Security, prohibited a Roman Catholic successor, leaving open the possibility that the crowns would diverge. Rather than risk the possible return of James Francis Edward Stuart, then living in France, the English parliament pressed for full union of the two countries. In 1707, despite much opposition in Scotland, the Treaty of Union was concluded. The treaty, which became the Act of Union 1707, confirmed the Hanoverian succession. It abolished both the Parliaments of England and Scotland, and established the Parliament of Great Britain. Scotland was to have 45 seats in the House of Commons, and a representation in the House of Lords. The act also created a common citizenship, giving Scots free access to English markets. The Church of Scotland and Scottish law and courts remained separate. This union was highly controversial among Scots, and increasingly so as the hoped-for economic revival was not immediately forthcoming. When it did come, in the second half of the century, it was Lowland Scotland that received the benefits. Jacobitism was revived by the unpopularity of the union. In 1708 James Francis Edward Stuart attempted an invasion with a French fleet, but the Royal Navy prevented any from landing. A more serious attempt occurred in 1715. This rising (known as The 'Fifteen) envisaged simultaneous uprisings in Wales, Devon and Scotland. However, government arrests forestalled the southern ventures. In Scotland, John Erskine, Earl of Mar, nicknamed Bobbin' John, raised the Jacobite clans but proved to be an indecisive leader and an incompetent soldier. Mar captured Perth, but let a smaller government force under the Duke of Argyll hold the Stirling plain. Part of Mar's army joined up with risings in northern England and southern Scotland, and the Jacobites fought their way into England before being defeated at the Battle of Preston, surrendering on 14 November 1715. The day before, Mar failed to defeat Argyll at the Battle of Sheriffmuir. At this point, James belatedly landed in Scotland, but was advised that the cause was hopeless. He fled back to France. An attempted Jacobite invasion with Spanish assistance in 1719 met with little support from the clans and ended at the Battle of Glen Shiel. In 1745 the Jacobite rising known as The 'Forty-Five began. Charles Edward Stuart, known to history as Bonnie Prince Charlie or the Young Pretender, son of the Old Pretender, landed on the island of Eriskay in the Outer Hebrides. Several clans unenthusiastically joined him. At the outset he was successful, taking Edinburgh and then defeating the only government army in Scotland at the Battle of Prestonpans. They marched into England and got as far as Derby. It became increasingly evident that England would not support a Roman Catholic Stuart monarch. The Jacobite leadership had a crisis of confidence and retreated to Scotland. The Duke of Cumberland crushed the "Forty-Five" and the hopes of the Jacobites at the Battle of Culloden on 16 April 1746. Charles hid in Scotland with the aid of Highlanders until September 1746, when he escaped back to France with the help of Flora MacDonald. He died a broken man, and his cause died with him. Industrial Revolution, Clearances, and the Enlightenment After 1745, British authorities acted to destroy the Scottish clan system in parliamentary acts of extreme vengeance. All aspects of Highland culture including the language were forbidden on pain of death. Highlanders were forced into the British Army to serve in the wider British Empire. Clan Chiefs were encouraged to consider themselves as owners of the land in their control, in the Lowland manner - it was previously considered common to the clan. As these new landowners converted land to more profitable sheep pasture, many of the peoples were dispossessed, facing forcible eviction. In what became known as the "Highland Clearances", the population fell significantly. Large numbers of Highlanders relocated to the lowland cities, becoming the labour force for the emerging industrial revolution, many were banished to other parts of the British Empire, particularly Nova Scotia, the Eastern Townships of Quebec, and Upper Canada (later known as Ontario). At the same time, the Scottish Agricultural Revolution changed the face of the Scottish Lowlands and transformed the traditional system of subsistence farming into a stable and productive agricultural system. This also had effects on population and precipitated a migration of Lowlanders. Scots contributed to culture and science with such visionaries as the father of modern Economics, Adam Smith Internationally, Scotland's fate was tied to that of the United Kingdom as a whole. Shortly after Culloden, Britain successfully fought the Seven Years' War (1756 1763), demonstrating its rising significance as a great power. As a partner in the new Britain, Scotland began to flourish in ways that she never had as an independent nation. As the memory of the Jacobite rebellion faded away, the 1770s and 80s saw the repeal of much of the draconian laws passed earlier. Most were repealed by 1792 as the Episcopalian and Roman Catholic clergy no longer refused to pray for the reigning monarch, although Unitarians were still affected. Economically, Glasgow and Edinburgh began to grow at a tremendous rate at the end of the 18th century. The Scottish Renaissance was one of philosophy and science. The Scottish Enlightenment involved names such as Adam Smith, David Hume and James Boswell. Scientific progress was led by James Hutton and William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin and James Watt (instrument maker to the University of Glasgow). Pre-eminent in contemporary literature were Robert Burns, an Ayrshire poet, and Sir Walter Scott, a prolific writer of ballads, poems and the historical novels. His romantic portrayals of Scottish life in centuries past still continue to have a disproportionate effect on the public perception of "authentic Scottish culture," and the pageantry he organised for the Visit of King George IV to Scotland made tartan and kilts into national symbols. George MacDonald also influenced views of Scotland in the latter parts of the 19th century. As the 19th century wore on, Lowland Scotland turned more and more towards heavy industry. Glasgow and the River Clyde became a major shipbuilding centre. Glasgow became one of the largest cities in the world, and known as "the Second City of the Empire" after London. 20th century Scotland Charles Rennie Mackintosh gained international architectural fame with his 1909 design of the Glasgow School of Art building Tied as it was to the health of the British Empire, Scotland suffered after the First World War as it had gained beforehand. In the Highlands, which had provided a disproportionate number of recruits for the army, a whole generation of young men were lost, and many villages and communities suffered greatly. In the Lowlands, particularly Glasgow, poor working and living conditions led to industrial and political unrest. John MacLean became a key political figure in what became known as Red Clydeside, and in January 1919, the British Government, fearful of a revolutionary uprising, deployed tanks and soldiers in central Glasgow. During the 1920s and 1930s, due to global depression and foreign competition, Glasgow and Clydebank experienced high unemployment. In the Second World War naval bases and infrastructure in Scotland were primary German targets. Attacks on Scapa Flow and Rosyth gave RAF fighters their first successes downing bombers in the Firth of Forth and East Lothian. The shipyards and heavy engineering factories in Glasgow and Clydeside played a key part in the war effort, and suffered attacks from the Luftwaffe. Clydebank endured great destruction and loss of life. The Highlands again provided a large number of troops for the war effort. Commandos and resistance fighters received training in the harsh conditions of the Lochaber mountains. As transatlantic voyages involved negotiating the north-west, Scotland played a key part in the battle of the North Atlantic. As in World War I, Scapa Flow in Orkney served as an important Royal Navy base. Shetland's relative proximity to occupied Norway, resulted in the Shetland Bus — fishing boats helping Norwegians flee the Nazis, and expeditions across the North Sea to assist resistance. Perhaps Scotland's most bizarre wartime episode occurred in 1941 when Rudolf Hess flew to Renfrewshire, possibly intending to broker a peace deal through the Duke of Hamilton. Clydeside built ships for World War II and later pleasure, launching the QE2 in 1967 After World War II, Scotland's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes. This only began to change in the 1970s, partly due to the discovery and development of North Sea oil and gas and partly as Scotland moved towards a more service-based economy. This period saw the emergence of the Scottish National Party and movements for both Scottish independence and more popularly devolution. However, a referendum on devolution in 1979 was unsuccessful as it did not achieve the support of 40% of the electorate (despite a small majority of those who voted supporting the proposal.) As the Cold War intensified, the United States deployed Polaris ballistic missiles, and submarines, in the Firth of Clyde's Holy Loch (1961). This was despite opposition from CND campaigners. A Royal Navy nuclear submarine base followed for Resolution class Polaris submarines at the expanded Faslane Naval Base on the Gare Loch. The first patrol of a Trident-armed submarine occurred in 1994, although the US base was closed at the end of the Cold War. On 11 September 1997, the 700th anniversay of Battle of Stirling Bridge, the Blair Labour government again held a referendum on the issue of devolution. A positive outcome led to the establishment of a devolved Scottish Parliament in 1999. The Scottish Parliament Building is adjacent to Holyrood House in Edinburgh. 21st century Scotland The feudal system lingered on in Scots law on land ownership, so that a landowner still had obligations to a feudal superior including payment of feu duty. In 1974 legislation began a process of redeeming feu duties so that most of these payments were ended, but it was only with the attention of the Scottish Parliament that a series of acts were passed, the first in 2000, for The Abolition of Feudal Tenure on November 28 2004. In 2007, the Scottish National Party (SNP) won the Scottish parliament elections and formed a minority government. New First Minister, Alex Salmond, hopes to hold a referendum on Scottish Independence before 2011, though the SNP may be unable to get a Bill to hold such a referendum approved by the Scottish parliament due to the minority position of the SNP government. If a referendum is held, an opinion poll in late 2007 suggested the result could be close as support for independence had reached 40% with just 44% supporting retention of the Union. Sunday Herald, December 2007, 40% of Scots now support Independence The response of the unionist parties has been to call for the establishment of a Commission to examine further devolution of powers, MSPs back devolution review body BBC News, 6th December 2007 a position that has the support of the Prime Minister. PM backs Scottish powers review BBC News, 17th February Further reading Braudel, Fernand, The Perspective of the World, vol III of Civilization and Capitalism (1979, in English 1984), pp 370-372 Buchan, James, Capital of the Mind: How Edinburgh changed the world, John Murray, 2003 ISBN 0-7195-5446-2 Edward J. Cowan, "For Freedom Alone": the Declaration of Arbroath, 1320, Tuckwell, East Linton, 2004 ISBN 1-86232-150-7 Devine, T.M. The Scottish Nation, 1700-2000 (Penguin books, 1999) ISBN 0-14-100234-4 Devine, T. M., Scotland's Empire 1600-1815, Allen Lane, Harmondsworth, 2003 ISBN 0-7139-9498-3 Duncan A. A. M., The Kingship of the Scots 842-1292: Succession and independence, Edinburgh UP, Edinburgh, 2004 ISBN 0-7486-1626-8 Finlay, Richard Modern Scotland 1914-2000, Profile 2004 ISBN 1-86197-299-7 Harvie, Christopher Scotland and Nationalism: Scottish Society and Politics 1707-1977 ISBN 0-04-941006-7 Mackie, J.D. A History of Scotland (Penguin books, 1991) ISBN 0-14-013649-5 Ryrie, Alec, The Origins of the Scottish Reformation (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006) ISBN 0-7190-7105-4 Sletcher, Michael, 'Scotch-Irish', in Stanley I. Kutler, ed., Dictionary of American History. 10 vols. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 2002. Pittock, Murray "A New History of Scotland" ISBN 0-7509-2786-0 Herman, Arthur "How the Scots Invented the Modern World: The True Story of How Western Europe's Poorest Nation Created Our World & Everything in It" ISBN 0-609-80999-7 References See also Historic Sites in Scotland History of the Outer Hebrides Kings of Scotland Kings of Scotland family tree History of England History of the United Kingdom Timeline of Scottish history Scottish clan External links Scotland Chronology World History Database Scottish Genealogy Scottish Timeline: Part of the Gazetteer for Scotland Scotland's History A Free Online History Book A Short History of Scotland Heehaw Publishing - Scottish History Resources Scottish History Online & Pictish Pages Scottish History in 33 Chapters by Andrew Lang Quest on to find the highlights of history, Sunday Herald, 30 July, 2006 | History_of_Scotland |@lemmatized stirling:8 castle:5 stand:1 century:22 atop:1 volcanic:1 crag:1 defend:1 low:1 ford:1 river:4 forth:5 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5,005 | Hugh_Hefner | Hefner posing with Karissa Shannon, Dasha Astafieva, and Kristina Shannon for Playboy's 55th Anniversary Party at One Sunset, West Hollywood, CA on December 12, 2008 Hugh Marston Hefner (born April 9, 1926), sometimes known simply as Hef, is an American magazine publisher, founder and Chief Creative Officer of Playboy Enterprises. Playboy Enterprises Inc. Corporate Officers Early life Hefner was born in Chicago, Illinois in 1926, the eldest of two sons born to Grace Caroline (née Swanson) (1895-1997) and Glenn Lucius Hefner (1896-1976). He went to Sayre Elementary School and Steinmetz High School, then served in the U.S. Army. He graduated from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. HUGH M. HEFNER, Playboy Enterprises. Accessed January 2, 2009. Working as a copywriter for Esquire, he left in January 1952 after being denied a $5 raise. In 1953, he lent his furniture for $600 and raised $8,000 from 45 investors - including $1,000 from his mother ("Not because she believed in the venture," he told E! in 2006. "But because she believed in her son") - to launch Playboy, which was initially going to be called Stag Party. The undated first issue, published in December 1953, featured Marilyn Monroe from her 1949 nude calendar shoot. Hefner, who never met Monroe, owns the crypt next to hers. Westwood Village Memorial Cemetery Private life Hefner married Northwestern University student Mildred Williams in 1949. They had two children, Christie (born November 8, 1952) and David (born August 30, 1955). Playboy Time Line. Before the wedding, Mildred confessed that she had had an affair while he was away in the Army; he called the admission "the most devastating moment of my life." A 2006 E! True Hollywood Story profile of Hefner revealed that Mildred allowed him to sleep with other women, out of guilt for her infidelity and in the hopes that it would preserve their marriage. They divorced in 1959. Hefner remade himself as a sophisticated bon vivant and man about town, a lifestyle he promoted in his magazine and two TV shows he hosted, Playboy's Penthouse (1959–1960) and Playboy After Dark (1969–1970). He admitted to being "'involved' with maybe eleven out of twelve months' worth of Playmates" during these years. Acocella, Joan. "The Girls Next Door." New Yorker, March 20, 2006 Donna Michelle, Marilyn Cole, Lillian Müller, Patti McGuire, Shannon Tweed, Brande Roderick, Barbi Benton, Karen Christy, Sondra Theodore, and Carrie Leigh - who filed a $35 million alimony suit against him - were a few of his many partners. In 1971, he acknowledged that he experimented in bisexuality. "Faces of the Week." BBC News. May 26, 2006 In 1989, he married Playmate of the Year Kimberley Conrad and had two sons, Marston (born April 9, 1990) and Cooper (born September 4, 1991). The E! True Hollywood Story profile noted that the notorious Playboy Mansion had been transformed into a family-friendly homestead. After he separated from Conrad in 1999, however, Hefner began to move an ever-changing coterie of very young women into the Mansion, dating up to seven girls at once; among them, Brande Roderick, Izabella St. James, Tina Marie Jordan, Holly Madison, Bridget Marquardt, and Kendra Wilkinson. The reality television series The Girls Next Door depicted the lives of Madison, Marquardt, and Wilkinson at the Playboy Mansion. http://www.buddytv.com/articles/the-girls-next-door/a-new-boy-for-former-girl-next-26275.aspx He is currently dating 19-year-old identical twin models Karissa and Kristina Shannon, Party's over for Playboy king Hugh Hefner The Age October 18, 2008. Accessed October 30, 2008 along with third girlfriend Crystal Harris. "Meet Playboy founder Hugh Hefner's other girlfriend, Crystal Harris." Hef is in talks about making a film about his life; production may start later this year. Politics and philanthropy Hefner has espoused a liberal/libertarian stance. On June 4, 1963, he was arrested for selling obscene literature after an issue of Playboy featuring nude shots of Jayne Mansfield was released. A jury was unable to reach a verdict. His former secretary, Bobbie Arnstein, was found dead in a Chicago hotel room after an overdose of drugs in January 1975. Hefner called a press conference to allege that she had been driven to suicide by narcotics agents and federal officers. Hefner further claimed the Government was out to get him because of Playboy's philosophy and its advocacy of more liberal drug laws. The Hugh Hefner First Amendment Award was created by Christie Hefner "to honor individuals who have made significant contributions in the vital effort to protect and enhance First Amendment rights for Americans." He has donated and raised money for the Democratic Party. Tapper, Jake. "Hef in a Huff." Salon.com, August 11, 2000 Hefner donated $100,000 to the University of Southern California's School of Cinematic Arts to create a course called "Censorship in Cinema", and $2 million to endow a Chair for the study of American film. Hefner Gives $2M to USC Film School, Associated Press, November 16, 2007. Hefner also contributes to charities outside the sphere of politics and publishing, throwing fundraiser events for Much Love Animal Rescue, as well as Generation Rescue, an autism research organization supported by Jenny McCarthy. Hefner is an atheist. In an interview published in the January 2000 issue of Playboy, he said, "It's perfectly clear to me that religion is a myth. It's something we have invented to explain the inexplicable." http://www.celebatheists.com/index.php?title=Hugh_Hefner References Further reading Watts, Steven (2008). Mr. Playboy: Hugh Hefner and the American Dream. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-69059-7. Miller, Russell (1985). Bunny: The Real Story of Playboy. London: Corgi. ISBN 0-03-063748-1. St. James, Izabella (2006). Bunny Tales: Behind Closed Doors at the Playboy Mansion. Philadelphia: Running Press. ISBN 0-762-42739-6 External links Profile of Hefner from Playboy Enterprises corporate site Hugh Hefner: The Ultimate Lifestyle Entrepreneur (About.com Entrepreneurs "Brilliant Careers: Hugh Hefner" (Salon.com, December 28, 1999) World Wrestling Entertainment interviews Hugh Hefner (March 14, 2007) | Hugh_Hefner |@lemmatized hefner:26 pose:1 karissa:2 shannon:4 dasha:1 astafieva:1 kristina:2 playboy:19 anniversary:1 party:4 one:1 sunset:1 west:1 hollywood:3 ca:1 december:3 hugh:9 marston:2 bear:5 april:2 sometimes:1 know:1 simply:1 hef:3 american:4 magazine:2 publisher:1 founder:2 chief:1 creative:1 officer:3 enterprise:3 enterprises:1 inc:1 corporate:2 early:1 life:5 chicago:2 illinois:2 eldest:1 two:4 son:4 grace:1 caroline:1 née:1 swanson:1 glenn:1 lucius:1 go:2 sayre:1 elementary:1 school:4 steinmetz:1 high:1 serve:1 u:1 army:2 graduate:1 university:3 urbana:1 champaign:1 access:2 january:4 work:1 copywriter:1 esquire:1 leave:1 deny:1 raise:3 lend:1 furniture:1 investor:1 include:1 mother:1 believe:2 venture:1 tell:1 e:3 launch:1 initially:1 call:4 stag:1 undated:1 first:3 issue:3 publish:2 feature:2 marilyn:2 monroe:2 nude:2 calendar:1 shoot:1 never:1 meet:2 crypt:1 next:5 westwood:1 village:1 memorial:1 cemetery:1 private:1 marry:2 northwestern:1 student:1 mildred:3 williams:1 child:1 christie:2 born:2 november:2 david:1 august:2 time:1 line:1 wedding:1 confess:1 affair:1 away:1 admission:1 devastating:1 moment:1 true:2 story:3 profile:3 reveal:1 allow:1 sleep:1 woman:2 guilt:1 infidelity:1 hope:1 would:1 preserve:1 marriage:1 divorce:1 remake:1 sophisticated:1 bon:1 vivant:1 man:1 town:1 lifestyle:2 promote:1 tv:1 show:1 host:1 penthouse:1 dark:1 admit:1 involve:1 maybe:1 eleven:1 twelve:1 month:1 worth:1 playmate:2 year:4 acocella:1 joan:1 girl:5 door:4 new:2 yorker:1 march:2 donna:1 michelle:1 cole:1 lillian:1 müller:1 patti:1 mcguire:1 tweed:1 brande:2 roderick:2 barbi:1 benton:1 karen:1 christy:1 sondra:1 theodore:1 carrie:1 leigh:1 file:1 million:2 alimony:1 suit:1 many:1 partner:1 acknowledge:1 experiment:1 bisexuality:1 face:1 week:1 bbc:1 news:1 may:2 kimberley:1 conrad:2 cooper:1 september:1 note:1 notorious:1 mansion:4 transform:1 family:1 friendly:1 homestead:1 separate:1 however:1 begin:1 move:1 ever:1 change:1 coterie:1 young:1 date:2 seven:1 among:1 izabella:2 st:2 james:2 tina:1 marie:1 jordan:1 holly:1 madison:2 bridget:1 marquardt:2 kendra:1 wilkinson:2 reality:1 television:1 series:1 depict:1 http:2 www:2 buddytv:1 com:5 article:1 boy:1 former:2 aspx:1 currently:1 old:1 identical:1 twin:1 model:1 king:1 age:1 october:2 along:1 third:1 girlfriend:2 crystal:2 harris:2 talk:1 make:2 film:3 production:1 start:1 later:1 politics:2 philanthropy:1 espouse:1 liberal:2 libertarian:1 stance:1 june:1 arrest:1 sell:1 obscene:1 literature:1 shot:1 jayne:1 mansfield:1 release:1 jury:1 unable:1 reach:1 verdict:1 secretary:1 bobbie:1 arnstein:1 find:1 dead:1 hotel:1 room:1 overdose:1 drug:2 press:3 conference:1 allege:1 drive:1 suicide:1 narcotic:1 agent:1 federal:1 far:2 claim:1 government:1 get:1 philosophy:1 advocacy:1 law:1 amendment:2 award:1 create:2 honor:1 individual:1 significant:1 contribution:1 vital:1 effort:1 protect:1 enhance:1 right:1 donate:2 money:1 democratic:1 tapper:1 jake:1 huff:1 salon:2 southern:1 california:1 cinematic:1 art:1 course:1 censorship:1 cinema:1 endow:1 chair:1 study:1 give:1 usc:1 associate:1 also:1 contribute:1 charity:1 outside:1 sphere:1 publishing:1 throw:1 fundraiser:1 event:1 much:1 love:1 animal:1 rescue:2 well:1 generation:1 autism:1 research:1 organization:1 support:1 jenny:1 mccarthy:1 atheist:1 interview:2 say:1 perfectly:1 clear:1 religion:1 myth:1 something:1 invent:1 explain:1 inexplicable:1 celebatheists:1 index:1 php:1 title:1 reference:1 read:1 watt:1 steven:1 mr:1 dream:1 hoboken:1 john:1 wiley:1 isbn:3 miller:1 russell:1 bunny:2 real:1 london:1 corgi:1 tale:1 behind:1 closed:1 philadelphia:1 running:1 external:1 link:1 site:1 ultimate:1 entrepreneur:1 entrepreneurs:1 brilliant:1 career:1 world:1 wrestle:1 entertainment:1 |@bigram chicago_illinois:1 illinois_urbana:1 urbana_champaign:1 hugh_hefner:8 marilyn_monroe:1 westwood_village:1 bon_vivant:1 bbc_news:1 playboy_mansion:3 http_www:2 index_php:1 wiley_son:1 external_link:1 wrestle_entertainment:1 |
5,006 | Coalition_government | A coalition government is a cabinet of a parliamentary government in which several parties cooperate. The usual reason given for this arrangement is that no party on its own can achieve a majority in the parliament. A coalition government might also be created in a time of national difficulty or crisis, for example during wartime, to give a government the high degree of perceived political legitimacy it desires whilst also playing a role in diminishing internal political strife. In such times, parties have formed all-party coalitions (national unity governments, grand coalitions). If a coalition collapses a confidence vote is held or a motion of no confidence is taken. In practice To deal with a situation in which no clear majorities appear through general elections, parties either form coalition cabinets, supported by a parliamentary majority, or minority cabinets which may consist of one or more parties. Cabinets based on a coalition with majority in a parliament, ideally, are more stable and long-lived than minority cabinets. While the former are prone to internal struggles, they have less reason to fear votes of non-confidence. Majority governments based on a single party are typically even more stable, as long as their majority can be maintained. Coalition cabinets are common in countries in which a parliament is proportionally representative, with several organized political parties represented. It usually does not appear in countries in which the cabinet is chosen by the executive rather than by a lower house, such as in the United States (however, coalition cabinets are common in Brazil). In semi-presidential systems such as France, where the president formally appoints a prime minister but the government itself must still maintain the confidence of parliament, coalition governments occur quite regularly. Coalition governments worldwide Countries which often operate with coalition cabinets include: the Nordic countries, the Benelux countries, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Turkey, Israel, New Zealand, Pakistan and India. Switzerland has been ruled by a coalition of the four strongest parties in parliament from 1959 to 2008, called the "Magic Formula." Coalitions composed of few parties In Germany, for instance, coalition government is the norm, as it is rare for either the Christian-Democratic Union of Germany and Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CDU/CSU) or the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) to win an unqualified majority in a national election. Thus, at the federal level, governments are formed with at least one of the smaller parties. For example, Helmut Kohl's CDU governed for years in coalition with the Free Democratic Party (FDP) and from 1998 to 2005 Gerhard Schröder's SPD was in power with the Greens. In both countries, grand coalitions of the two large parties also occur, but these are relatively rare and large parties usually prefer to associate with small ones (though currently the governments of both Israel and Germany include the two largest parties). However, if none of the larger parties can receive enough votes to form their preferred coalition, a grand coalition might be their only choice for forming a government. This is the current situation in Germany: in early elections, the CDU/CSU did not garner enough votes to form a majority coalition with the FDP; similarly the SPD and Greens did not have enough votes to continue on with their formerly ruling coalition. A grand coalition government was subsequently forged between the CDU/CSU and the SPD. Partnerships like these typically involve carefully structured cabinets. The CDU/CSU ended up holding the Chancellory while, the SPD took the majority of cabinet posts. In Ireland, coalition governments are quite common with a single party not having ruled since 1989. Coalitions are typically formed of two or more parties always consisting of one of the two biggest parties, Fianna Fail and Fine Gael and one or more smaller parties or independent members of parliament. The current government consists of Fianna Fáil, the Green Party, the Progressive Democrats and supported by independents. Coalitions composed of many parties A coalition government may consist of any number of parties. In Germany, the coalitions rarely consist of more than two parties (where CDU and CSU, two non-competing parties which always form a single caucus, are in this regard considered a single party), while in Belgium, where there are separate Dutch and French parties for each political grouping, coalition cabinets of up to six parties are quite common. India's present governing coalition, the United Progressive Alliance, consists of 13 separate parties. In Finland, no party has had an absolute majority in the parliament since independence, and multi-party coalitions have been the norm. Finland experienced its most stable government (Lipponen I and II) since independence with a five-party governing coalition, so called "rainbow government". The Lipponen cabinets set the stability record, and were unusual in the respect that both moderate (SDP) and extreme left wing (Left Alliance) sat in the government with the major right-wing party (National Coalition). The current government (Vanhanen II) is a four-party coalition. A similar situation exists in Israel, which has dozens of different parties with representation in the Knesset. The only faction to ever gain a majority of Knesset seats was Alignment, an alliance of the Labor Party and Mapam that held an absolute majority for a brief period from 1968-1969. Historically, control of the Israeli government has alternated between periods of rule by the center-right Likud in coalition with several right-wing and religious parties and periods of rule by the center-left Labor in coalition with several left-wing parties. Arial Sharon's formation of the centrist Kadima party in 2006 drew support from former Labor and Kadima members, and Kadima ruled in coalition with Labor and several other parties. Post-World War II Japan has historically been dominated by the Liberal Democratic Party but there was a brief coalition government formed after the 1993 election following LDP's first and only loss of its overall House of Representatives majority since 1955. In Australia, the conservative Liberal and National parties are united in an effectively permanent coalition. This coalition has become so stable, at least at the federal level, that the lower house of parliament has become a two-party house. In the United Kingdom, coalition governments (sometimes known as national governments) have been appointed only in times of national crisis. The most prominent was the National Government of 1931 to 1940. There were multi-party coalitions during both world wars. Apart from this, when no party has had a majority, minority governments have been formed with one or more opposition parties agreeing to vote for the legislation governments need to function. The only time Canada has had something like a coalition government was during World War I to broaden support for controversial conscription legislation. Known as the Unionist Party, it was really a new party created out of the governing Conservative Party with some Opposition members crossing the floor. It was disbanded after the end of the war. Great Coalition existed from 1864-1867, the year of Canada's Confederation. It consisted of the Clear Grits, Parti bleu, and Liberal-Conservative Party. During the 2008 Canadian parliamentary dispute, three of Canada's opposition parties announced they had signed an agreement to form what would become the country's second coalition government since confederation if they defeat the Conservative minority government in a vote of non-confidence ; unseating Stephen Harper as Prime Minister. The agreement outlined a formal coalition consisting of two opposition parties, the Liberal Party and the New Democratic Party. The Bloc Québécois agreed to support the proposed coalition on confidence matters for 18 months. Arguments for and against coalition government Advocates of proportional representation suggest that a coalition government leads to more consensus-based politics, in that a government comprising differing parties (often based on different ideologies) would need to concur in regard to governmental policy. Another stated advantage is that a coalition government better reflects the popular opinion of the electorate within a country. Those who disapprove of coalition governments believe that such governments have a tendency to be fractious and prone to disharmony. This is because coalitions would necessarily include different parties with differing beliefs and who, therefore, may not always agree on the correct path for governmental policy. Sometimes the results of an election are such that the coalitions which are mathematically most probable are ideologically infeasible, such as in Flanders or Northern Ireland. A second difficulty might be the ability of minor parties to play "kingmaker" and, particularly in close elections, gain far more for their support than their vote would otherwise indicate. Coalition governments have also been criticized of sustaining a consensus on issues when disagreement and the consequent discussion would be more fruitful. To forge a consensus, the leaders of ruling coalition parties can agree to silence their disagreements on an issue to unify the coalition against the opposition. The coalition partners, if they control the parliamentary majority, can collude to make the parliamentary discussion on the issue irrelevant by consistently disregarding the arguments of the opposition and voting against the opposition's proposals — even if there is disagreement within the ruling parties about the issue. Powerful parties can also act in an oligocratic way to form an alliance to stifle the growth of emerging parties. Of course, such an event is rare in coalition governments when compared to two-party systems, which typically exists because of stifling the growth of emerging parties, often through discriminatory ballot access regulations and plurality voting systems, etc. A single, more powerful party can shape the policies of the coalition disproportionately. Smaller or less powerful parties can be intimidated to not openly disagree. In order to maintain the coalition, they will have to vote against the party's platform in the parliament. If they do not, the party has to leave the government and loses executive power. References See also List of democracy and elections-related topics Cohabitation First Past the Post electoral system Electoral fusion Popular Front United front Category:Coalition of parties | Coalition_government |@lemmatized coalition:60 government:40 cabinet:13 parliamentary:5 several:5 party:69 cooperate:1 usual:1 reason:2 give:2 arrangement:1 achieve:1 majority:15 parliament:9 might:3 also:6 create:2 time:4 national:8 difficulty:2 crisis:2 example:2 wartime:1 high:1 degree:1 perceived:1 political:4 legitimacy:1 desire:1 whilst:1 play:2 role:1 diminish:1 internal:2 strife:1 form:12 unity:1 grand:4 collapse:1 confidence:6 vote:9 hold:3 motion:1 take:2 practice:1 deal:1 situation:3 clear:2 appear:2 general:1 election:7 either:2 support:6 minority:4 may:3 consist:8 one:6 base:4 ideally:1 stable:4 long:2 live:1 former:2 prone:2 struggle:1 less:2 fear:1 non:3 single:5 typically:4 even:2 maintain:3 common:4 country:8 proportionally:1 representative:2 organize:1 represent:1 usually:2 choose:1 executive:2 rather:1 low:2 house:4 united:3 state:1 however:2 brazil:1 semi:1 presidential:1 system:4 france:1 president:1 formally:1 appoint:2 prime:2 minister:2 must:1 still:1 occur:2 quite:3 regularly:1 worldwide:1 often:3 operate:1 include:3 nordic:1 benelux:1 germany:7 ireland:3 italy:1 japan:2 turkey:1 israel:3 new:3 zealand:1 pakistan:1 india:2 switzerland:1 rule:6 four:2 strong:1 call:2 magic:1 formula:1 compose:2 instance:1 norm:2 rare:3 christian:2 democratic:5 union:2 social:2 bavaria:1 cdu:6 csu:5 spd:5 win:1 unqualified:1 thus:1 federal:2 level:2 least:2 small:4 helmut:1 kohl:1 govern:4 year:2 free:1 fdp:2 gerhard:1 schröder:1 power:2 green:3 two:9 large:4 relatively:1 prefer:1 associate:1 though:1 currently:1 none:1 receive:1 enough:3 preferred:1 choice:1 current:3 early:1 garner:1 similarly:1 continue:1 formerly:1 ruling:2 subsequently:1 forge:2 partnership:1 like:2 involve:1 carefully:1 structure:1 end:2 chancellory:1 post:3 since:5 always:3 big:1 fianna:2 fail:1 fine:1 gael:1 independent:2 member:3 fáil:1 progressive:2 democrat:1 many:1 number:1 rarely:1 compete:1 caucus:1 regard:2 consider:1 belgium:1 separate:2 dutch:1 french:1 grouping:1 six:1 present:1 alliance:4 finland:2 absolute:2 independence:2 multi:2 experience:1 lipponen:2 ii:3 five:1 rainbow:1 set:1 stability:1 record:1 unusual:1 respect:1 moderate:1 sdp:1 extreme:1 leave:3 wing:4 left:2 sit:1 major:1 right:3 vanhanen:1 similar:1 exists:1 dozen:1 different:3 representation:2 knesset:2 faction:1 ever:1 gain:2 seat:1 alignment:1 labor:4 mapam:1 brief:2 period:3 historically:2 control:2 israeli:1 alternate:1 center:2 likud:1 religious:1 arial:1 sharon:1 formation:1 centrist:1 kadima:3 draw:1 world:3 war:4 dominate:1 liberal:4 follow:1 ldp:1 first:2 loss:1 overall:1 australia:1 conservative:4 unite:2 effectively:1 permanent:1 become:3 kingdom:1 sometimes:2 know:2 prominent:1 apart:1 opposition:7 agree:4 legislation:2 need:2 function:1 canada:3 something:1 broaden:1 controversial:1 conscription:1 unionist:1 really:1 cross:1 floor:1 disband:1 great:1 exist:2 confederation:2 grit:1 parti:1 bleu:1 canadian:1 dispute:1 three:1 announce:1 sign:1 agreement:2 would:5 second:2 defeat:1 unseat:1 stephen:1 harper:1 outline:1 formal:1 bloc:1 québécois:1 propose:1 matter:1 month:1 argument:2 advocate:1 proportional:1 suggest:1 lead:1 consensus:3 politics:1 comprise:1 differ:2 ideology:1 concur:1 governmental:2 policy:3 another:1 stated:1 advantage:1 well:1 reflect:1 popular:2 opinion:1 electorate:1 within:2 disapprove:1 believe:1 tendency:1 fractious:1 disharmony:1 necessarily:1 belief:1 therefore:1 correct:1 path:1 result:1 mathematically:1 probable:1 ideologically:1 infeasible:1 flanders:1 northern:1 ability:1 minor:1 kingmaker:1 particularly:1 close:1 far:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 criticize:1 sustain:1 issue:4 disagreement:3 consequent:1 discussion:2 fruitful:1 leader:1 silence:1 unify:1 partner:1 collude:1 make:1 irrelevant:1 consistently:1 disregard:1 voting:2 proposal:1 powerful:3 act:1 oligocratic:1 way:1 stifle:2 growth:2 emerge:2 course:1 event:1 compare:1 discriminatory:1 ballot:1 access:1 regulation:1 plurality:1 etc:1 shape:1 disproportionately:1 intimidate:1 openly:1 disagree:1 order:1 platform:1 lose:1 reference:1 see:1 list:1 democracy:1 relate:1 topic:1 cohabitation:1 past:1 electoral:2 fusion:1 front:2 category:1 |@bigram prime_minister:2 cdu_csu:5 helmut_kohl:1 gerhard_schröder:1 coalition_fdp:1 fine_gael:1 fianna_fáil:1 proportional_representation:1 plurality_voting:1 |
5,007 | Ellipsis | Ellipsis (plural ellipses; from the , élleipsis, "omission") is a term in printing and writing that refers to a mark or series of marks that usually indicate an intentional omission of a word or a phrase from the original text. An ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in speech, an unfinished thought or, at the end of a sentence, a trailing off into silence (aposiopesis). The most common form of an ellipsis is a row of three periods or full stops (...). Forms encountered less often are: three asterisks (***), one em dash (—), multiple en dashes (––), and the Unicode Ellipsis symbol […]. The triple-dot punctuation mark is also called a suspension point, points of ellipsis, periods of ellipsis, or colloquially, dot-dot-dot. In writing The use of ellipses can either mislead or clarify, and the reader must rely on the good intentions of the writer who uses them. An example of this ambiguity is "She went to … school." In this sentence, "…" might represent the word "elementary." Omission of part of a quoted sentence without indication by an ellipsis (or bracketed text) would mislead the readers. For example, "She went to school," as opposed to "She went to Broadmoor Elementary school." An ellipsis may also imply an unstated alternative indicated by context. For example, when Count Dracula says "I never drink … wine", the implication is that he does drink something else, which in the context would be blood. In such usage the ellipsis is stronger than a mere dash, where for example "I never drink—wine" might only indicate that the Count, not a native English speaker, was pausing to get the correct word. In writing the speech of a character in fiction or nonfiction, the ellipsis is sometimes used to represent an intentional silence of a character, usually invoked to emphasize a character's irritation, appall, shock or disgust. Typographical rules There are differences in typographical rules and conventions of using ellipses between languages. In English The style and use varies in the English language. The Chicago Manual of Style suggests the use of an ellipsis for any omitted word, phrase, line, or paragraph from within a quoted passage. There are two commonly used methods of using ellipses: one uses three dots for any omission, while the second makes a distinction between omissions within a sentence (using three dots: . . .) and omissions between sentences (using a period and a space followed by three dots: . ...). An ellipsis at the end of a sentence with no sentence following should be followed by a period (for a total of four dots). The Modern Language Association (MLA) however, used to indicate that an ellipsis must include spaces before and after each dot in all uses. If an ellipsis is meant to represent an omission, square brackets must surround the ellipsis to make it clear that there was no pause in the original quote: [ . . . ]. Currently, the MLA has removed the requirement of brackets in their style handbooks. However, the use of brackets is still correct as it clears confusion. Fowler, H. Ramsey, Jane E. Aaron, Murray McArthur. The Little, Brown Handbook. Fourth Canadian Edition. Toronto: Pearson Longman. 2005. p. 440. According to Robert Bringhurst's Elements of Typographic Style, the details of typesetting ellipses depend on the character and size of the font being set and the typographer's preference. Bringhurst writes that a full space between each dot is "another Victorian eccentricity. In most contexts, the Chicago ellipsis is much too wide" — he recommends using flush dots, or thin-spaced dots (up to one-fifth of an em), or the prefabricated ellipsis character (Unicode U+2026, Latin entity …). Bringhurst suggests that normally an ellipsis should be spaced fore-and-aft to separate it from the text, but when it combines with other punctuation, the leading space disappears and the other punctuation follows. He provides the following examples: i … j k…. l…, l l, … l m…? n…..! In legal writing in the United States, Rule 5.3 in the Bluebook citation guide governs the use of ellipses and requires a space before the first dot and between the two subsequent dots. If an ellipsis ends the sentence, then there are three dots, each separated by a space, followed by the final punctuation. In Polish In Polish, an ellipsis (called , which means "multidot") is always composed of three dots without any spaces between. There is no space between the ellipsis and the preceding word, but there is always a space after the ellipsis, unless the following character is a closing bracket or quote mark, in which case the space is inserted after that character instead. When the ellipsis is used for omitting a fragment of quotation, it is always surrounded with either square brackets or, more commonly, parentheses, with no space inside. An ellipsis without parentheses usually means a pause in speech. It can also mean a word said partially and interrupted and in that case can be directly followed by another punctuation mark without space: Ellipsis can be used at the end of a sentence, but it is always composed of three dots, never four, and the only difference is the capitalisation of the next word. In Japanese In writing, the ellipsis consists usually of three dots (one ellipsis character) or six dots (two ellipsis characters), or ; however, variations in the number of dots exist. In horizontally written text the dots are commonly vertically centered within the text height (between the baseline and the ascent line), as in the standard Japanese Windows fonts; in vertically written text the dots are always centered horizontally. As the Japanese word for dot is pronounced "", the dots are colloquially called "" () (akin to the English "dot dot dot"). More officially, they are called "n-dot leaders (n-ten rīda, n-ten rīdā)", where n corresponds to the number of dots. In Japanese manga, the ellipsis by itself represents speechlessness, or a "pregnant pause." Given the context, this could be anything from an admission of guilt or an expression of being dumbfounded as a result of something that another person has just said or done. As a device, the ten-ten-ten is intended to focus the reader on a character while allowing the character to not speak any dialogue. This conveys to the reader a focus of the narrative "camera" on the silent subject, implying an expectation of some motion or action. It is not unheard of to see inanimate objects "speaking" the ellipsis. Nausicaa of the Valley of Wind, Miyazaki Hayao In Chinese In Chinese, the ellipsis is six dots (in two groups of three dots, occupying the same horizontal space as two characters). The dots are always centred within the baseline and the ascender when horizontal, but on the baseline are also accepted today; and centred horizontally when vertical. In mathematical notation An ellipsis is also often used in mathematics to mean "and so forth." In a list, between commas, or following a comma, a normal ellipsis is used, as in: To indicate the omission of values in a repeated operation, an ellipsis raised to the center of the line is used between two operation symbols or following the last operation symbol, as in: The latter formula means the sum of all natural numbers from 1 to 100. However, it is not a formally defined mathematical symbol. Normally these dots should only be used where the pattern to be followed is clear, the exception being to show the continuation of an irrational number such as: , or a rational number such as Sometimes, it is useful to display a formula compactly, for example: Another example is the set of zeros of the cosine function. There are many related uses of the ellipsis in set notation. The diagonal and vertical forms of the ellipsis are particularly useful for showing missing terms in matrices, such as the size-n identity matrix The use of ellipsis in mathematical proofs is often deprecated because of the potential for ambiguity. In programming In some programming languages (including Perl, Ruby, Haskell, and Pascal), a shortened two-dot ellipsis is used to represent a range of values given two endpoints; for example, to iterate through a list of integers between 1 and 100 inclusive in Perl: foreach (1..100) Perl overloads the ".." operator in scalar context as a stateful bistable Boolean test, roughly equivalent to "true while x but not yet y". perlop - perldoc.perl.org In Perl6, the 3-character ellipsis is also known as the "yadda yadda yadda" operator and, similarly to its linguistic meaning, serves as a "stand-in" for code to be inserted later. In addition, an actual Unicode ellipsis character is used to serve as a type of marker in a perl6 format string. Exegesis 7: Formats - perl6 In the C programming language, an ellipsis is used to represent a variable number of parameters to a function. For example: void func(const char* str, ...) The above function in C could then be called with different types and numbers of parameters such as: func("input string", 5, 10, 15); and func("input string", "another string", 0.5); As of version 1.5, Java has adopted this "varargs" functionality. For example: public int func(int num, String... strings) Most programming languages other than Perl6 require the ellipsis to be written as a series of periods; a single (Unicode) ellipsis character cannot be used. In computer interfaces In many user interface guidelines, a "..." after the name of a command implies that the user will need to provide further information, for example in a subsequent dialog box, before the action can be completed. A typical example is the Save As... command. An ellipsis character after a status message signifies that an operation may take some time, for example as in "Downloading updates...". On the Internet and in text messaging The ellipsis is one of the favorite constructions of internet chat rooms, and has evolved over the past ten years into a staple of text-messaging. Though an ellipsis is technically complete with three periods (...), its rise in popularity as a "trailing-off" or "silence" indicator, particularly in mid-20th century comic strip and comic book prose writing, has led to expanded uses online. Today, extended ellipses of seven, ten, or even dozens of periods have become common constructions in internet chat rooms and text messages. Maness, Jack M., "The Power of Dots: Using Nonverbal Compensators in Chat Reference," University Libraries - University of Colorado at Boulder, 2007. "Elliptical commas", or, commas used in plurality for the effect of ellipsis or multiple ellipsis, have also grown in popularity online—though no style journal or manual has yet embraced them. Computer representations In computing, several ellipsis characters have been codified, depending on the system used. In the Unicode standard, there are the following characters: Character Unicode code point For general use Horizontal ellipsis … 2026 Laotian ellipsis ຯ 0EAF Mongolian ellipsis 1801 Thai ellipsis ฯ 0E2F For use in mathematics Vertical ellipsis 22EE Midline horizontal ellipsis 22EF Up right diagonal ellipsis 22F0 Down right diagonal ellipsis 22F1 These code points, given here in hexadecimal, typically manifest in encoded form, either via a Unicode Transformation Format like UTF-8, or via an older character map ("legacy encoding"). In Chinese and sometimes in Japanese, ellipsis characters are done by entering two consecutive horizontal ellipses (U+2026). In vertical texts, the application should rotate the symbol accordingly. Unicode recognizes a series of three period characters (U+002E) as equivalent to the horizontal ellipsis character. In HTML, the horizontal ellipsis character may be represented by the entity reference … (since HTML 4.0). Alternatively, in HTML, XML, and SGML, a numeric character reference such as … or … can be used. In the typesetting system, the following types of ellipsis are available: Character markupLower ellipsis\ldotsCentred ellipsis\cdotsDiagonal ellipsis\ddotsVertical ellipsis\vdots The horizontal ellipsis character also appears in the following older character maps: in IBM/MS-DOS Code page 874, as byte 85 (hexadecimal) in Mac-Roman and Mac-CentEuro as byte C9 (hexadecimal) in Ventura International encoding as byte C1 (hexadecimal) in Windows-1250 through Windows-1258, as byte 85 (hexadecimal) As with all characters, especially those outside of the ASCII range, the author, sender and receiver of an encoded ellipsis must be in agreement upon what bytes are being used to represent the character. Naive text processing software may improperly assume that a particular encoding is being used, resulting in mojibake. The following is an excerpt from the Chicago Style Q&A Chicago Style Q&A: Special Characters : Q. How do I insert an ellipsis in my manuscript? My computer keyboard can do that with a couple of keystrokes. Is this acceptable? Or should I type period + space for all three dots? Should these spaces be nonbreaking spaces? A. For manuscripts, inserting an ellipsis character is a workable method, but it is not the preferred method. It is easy enough for a publisher to search for this unique character and replace it with the recommended three periods plus two nonbreaking spaces (. . .). But in addition to this extra step, there is also the potential for character-mapping problems (the ellipsis could appear as some other character) across software platforms—an added inconvenience. Moreover, the numeric entity for an ellipsis is not formally defined for standard HTML (and may not work with older browsers). So type three spaced dots, like this . . . or, at the end of a grammatical sentence, like this. . . . If you can, add two nonbreaking spaces to keep the three dots—or the last three of four—from breaking across a line. References Further reading See also Wikipedia article The Elements of Typographic Style. | Ellipsis |@lemmatized ellipsis:79 plural:1 élleipsis:1 omission:8 term:2 printing:1 writing:4 refer:1 mark:5 series:3 usually:4 indicate:6 intentional:2 word:8 phrase:2 original:2 text:11 also:11 use:35 pause:5 speech:3 unfinished:1 thought:1 end:5 sentence:10 trail:2 silence:3 aposiopesis:1 common:2 form:4 row:1 three:17 period:10 full:2 stop:1 encounter:1 less:1 often:3 asterisk:1 one:5 em:2 dash:3 multiple:2 en:1 unicode:8 symbol:5 triple:1 dot:38 punctuation:5 call:5 suspension:1 point:4 colloquially:2 write:6 either:3 mislead:2 clarify:1 reader:4 must:4 rely:1 good:1 intention:1 writer:1 example:13 ambiguity:2 go:3 school:3 might:2 represent:8 elementary:2 part:1 quoted:2 without:4 indication:1 bracket:6 would:2 oppose:1 broadmoor:1 may:5 imply:3 unstated:1 alternative:1 context:5 count:2 dracula:1 say:3 never:3 drink:3 wine:2 implication:1 something:2 else:1 blood:1 usage:1 strong:1 mere:1 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5,008 | Bryozoa | Bryozoans are tiny colonial animals that generally build stony skeletons of calcium carbonate, superficially similar to coral (although some species lack any calcification in the colony and instead have a mucilaginous structure). Members of the Phylum Bryozoa are known as "moss animals" or "moss animacules" (which is the literal translation of the Greek term "bryozoa") or as "sea mats". They generally prefer warm, tropical waters, but are known to occur worldwide. There are about 8,000 living species, with several times that number of fossil forms known. Ecology Most species of Bryozoa live in marine environments, though there are about 50 species which inhabit freshwater. In their aquatic habitats, bryozoans may be found on all types of hard substrates: sand grains, rocks, shells, wood, blades of kelp, pipes and ships may be heavily encrusted with bryozoans. Some bryozoan colonies, however, do not grow on solid substrates, but form colonies on sediment. While some species have been found at depths of , most bryozoans inhabit much shallower water. Most bryozoans are sessile, but a few colonies are able to creep about, and some non-colonial bryozoans live and move about in the spaces between sand grains. One remarkable species makes its living while floating in the Southern Ocean. Fossil bryozoans are common throughout the world in sedimentary rocks representing shallow marine habitats, especially in rocks of post-Cambrian Paleozoic age. Almost all bryozoans are colony-forming animals. Many millions of individuals can form one colony. The colonies range from millimeters to meters in size, but the individuals that make up the colonies (the zooids) are tiny, usually less than a millimeter long. In each colony, different individuals assume different functions. Some individuals gather up the food for the colony (autozooids), others depend on them (heterozooids). Some individuals are devoted to strengthening the colony (kenozooids), and still others to cleaning the colony (vibracula). There is only a single known solitary species, Monobryozoon ambulans, which does not form colonies. Anatomy Costazia costazi, a coralline bryozoan Bryozoan skeletons grow in a variety of shapes and patterns: mound-shaped, lacy fans, branching twigs, and even corkscrew-shaped. Their skeletons have numerous tiny openings, each of which is the home of a minute animal called a zooid. They also have a coelomate body with a looped alimentary canal or gut, opening at the mouth and terminating at the anus. They feed with a specialized, ciliated structure called a lophophore, which is a crown of tentacles surrounding the mouth. Their diet consists of small microorganisms, including diatoms and other unicellular algae. In turn, bryozoans are preyed on by grazing organisms such as sea urchins and fish. Bryozoans do not have any defined respiratory, or circulatory systems due to their small size. However, they do have a simple nervous system and a hydrostatic skeletal system. Several studies have been undertaken on the crystallography of bryozoan skeletons, revealing a complex fabric suite of oriented calcite or aragonite crystallites within an organic matrix - see for example Hall et al. (2002). bryozoan lophophores The tentacles of the bryozoans are ciliated, and the beating of the cilia creates a powerful current of water which drives water together with entrained food particles (mainly phytoplankton) towards the mouth. The gut is U-shaped, and consists of a pharynx which passes into the esophagus, followed by the stomach, which has three parts: the cardia, the caecum, and the pylorus. The pylorus leads to an intestine and a short rectum terminating at the anus, which opens outside the lophophore. In some groups, notably some ctenostomes, a specialized gizzard may be formed from the proximal part of the cardia. Gut and lophophore are the principal components of the polypide. Cyclical degeneration and regeneration of the polypide is characteristic of marine bryozoans. After the final polypide degeneration, the skeletal aperture of the feeding zooid may become sealed by the secretion of a terminal diaphragm. In many bryozoans only the zooids within a few generations of the growing edge are in an actively feeding state; older, more proximal zooids (e.g. in the interiors of bushy colonies) are usually dormant. Freshwater bryozoan Because of their small size, bryozoans have no need of a blood system. Gaseous exchange occurs across the entire surface of the body, but particularly through the tentacles of the lophophore. Bryozoans can reproduce both sexually and asexually. All bryozoans, as far as is known, are hermaphroditic (meaning they are both male and female). Asexual reproduction occurs by budding off new zooids as the colony grows, and is the main way by which a colony expands in size. If a piece of a bryozoan colony breaks off, the piece can continue to grow and will form a new colony. A colony formed this way is composed entirely of clones (genetically identical individuals) of the first animal, which is called the ancestrula. One species of bryozoan, Bugula neritina, is of current interest as a source of cytotoxic chemicals, bryostatins, under clinical investigation as anti-cancer agents. Fossils Twig-like bryozoan fossils, Upper Ordovician, near Brookville, Indiana. Prasopora, a trepostome bryozoan from the Ordovician of Iowa. A section through Prasopora showing "brown bodies" in many of the zooecia; Ordovician of Iowa. Bryozoans in an Ordovician oil shale, northern Estonia. Detail of Hallopora fossil specimen on display at Smithsonian, Washington, DC Fossil bryozoans are found in rocks beginning in the Early Ordovician as part of the Ordovician radiation. They were often major components of Ordovician seabed communities and, like modern-day bryozoans, played an important role in sediment stabilization and binding, as well as providing sources of food for other benthic organisms. During the Mississippian (354 to 323 million years ago) bryozoans were so common that their broken skeletons form entire limestone beds. Bryozoan fossil record comprises more than 1,000 described species. It is plausible that the Bryozoa existed in the Cambrian but were soft-bodied or not preserved for some other reason; perhaps they evolved from a phoronid-like ancestor at about this time. Bryozoans are important members of sclerobiont (organisms which dwell on hard substrates such as shells and rocks) communities in the fossil record and in the Recent. For a review of sclerobiont evolution, history and ecology, see Taylor & Wilson (2003). Most fossil bryozoans have mineralized skeletons. The skeletons of individual zooids vary from tubular to box-shaped and contain a terminal aperture from which the lophophore is protruded to feed. No pores are present in the great majority of Ordovician bryozoans, but skeletal evidence shows that epithelia were continuous from one zooid to the next. With regard to the bryozoan groups lacking mineralized skeletons, the statoblasts of freshwater phylactolaemates have been recorded as far back as the Permian, and the ctenostome fossils date from the Triassic. One of the most important events during bryozoan evolution was the acquisition of a calcareous skeleton and the related change in the mechanism of tentacle protrusion. The rigidity of the outer body walls allowed a greater degree of zooid contiguity and the evolution of massive, multiserial colony forms. Classification The Bryozoans were formerly considered to contain two subgroups: the Ectoprocta and the Entoprocta, based on the similar bodyplans and mode of life of these two groups. (Some researchers also included the Cycliophora, which are thought to be closely related to the Entoprocta.) However, the Ectoprocta are coelomate (possessing a body cavity) and their embryos undergo radial cleavage, while the Entoprocta are acoelemate and undergo spiral cleavage. Molecular studies are ambiguous about the exact position of the Entoprocta, but do not support a close relationship with the Ectoprocta. For these reasons, the Entoprocta are now considered a phylum of their own. The removal of the 150 species of Entoprocta leaves Bryozoa synonymous with Ectoprocta; some authors have adopted the latter name for the group, but the majority continue to use the former. The closest relations of the Bryozoa appear to be the brachiopods. The sister group to this clade is still unclear but this seems most likely to be the phoronids. References An Upper Ordovician cobble with the edrioasteroid Cystaster stellatus and the thin branching cyclostome bryozoan Corynotrypa. Kope Formation, northern Kentucky. Hall, S.R., Taylor, P.D., Davis, S.A. and Mann, S., 2002. Electron diffraction studies of the calcareous skeletons of bryozoans. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry 88: 410-419. Hayward, P. G., J. S. Ryland and P. D. Taylor (eds.), 1992. Biology and Palaeobiology of Bryozoans, Olsen and Olsen, Fredensborg, Denmark. Robinson, R. A. (ed.), 1983. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part G, Bryozoa (revised). Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press. Sharp, J.H., Winson, M.K. and Porter, J.S. 2007. Bryozoan metabolites: an ecological perspective. Natureal Product Reports 24: 659-673. Taylor, P.D. and Wilson, M.A., 2003. Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities. Earth-Science Reviews 62: 1-103. Woollacott, R. M. and R. L. Zimmer (eds), 1977. The Biology of Bryozoans, Academic Press, New York. See also International Bryozoology Association External links Index to Bryozoa Bryozoa Home Page, was at RMIT; now bryozoa.net Other Bryozoan WWW Resources International Bryozoology Association official website Bryozoan Introduction The Phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa) Phylum Bryozoa at Wikispecies Bryozoans in the Connecticut River Bryozoa Fact Sheet | Bryozoa |@lemmatized bryozoan:45 tiny:3 colonial:2 animal:5 generally:2 build:1 stony:1 skeleton:10 calcium:1 carbonate:1 superficially:1 similar:2 coral:1 although:1 specie:10 lack:2 calcification:1 colony:20 instead:1 mucilaginous:1 structure:2 member:2 phylum:4 bryozoa:13 know:5 moss:2 animacules:1 literal:1 translation:1 greek:1 term:1 sea:2 mat:1 prefer:1 warm:1 tropical:1 water:4 occur:2 worldwide:1 living:2 several:2 time:2 number:1 fossil:10 form:9 ecology:2 live:2 marine:4 environment:1 though:1 inhabit:2 freshwater:3 aquatic:1 habitat:2 may:4 find:3 type:1 hard:3 substrate:4 sand:2 grain:2 rock:5 shell:2 wood:1 blade:1 kelp:1 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5,009 | Mancala | Mancala is a family of board games played around the world, sometimes called "sowing" games, or "count-and-capture" games, which describes the game-play. Mancala games play a role in many African and some Asian societies comparable to that of chess in the West. The list of mancala games best known in the Western world includes Kalah and Oware. Other games are Congkak, Omweso, Ünee tugaluulakh, Bao, Sungka and Igisoro. The word mancala comes from the Arabic word naqala meaning literally "to move." There is no one game with the name mancala; instead mancala is a type, or designation, of game. This word is used in Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt, but is not consistently applied to any one game. In the USA, however, "mancala" is often used as a synonym for the game Kalah. General gameplay Mancala games share a common general gameplay sequence. Players begin by placing an equal number of seeds, prescribed by the variation in use, in each of the pits on the game board. A turn consists of removing all seeds from a pit, sowing the seeds (placing one in each of the following pits in sequence), and capturing based on the state of board. This leads to the English phrase "Count and Capture" sometimes used to describe the gameplay. Although the details differ greatly, this general sequence applies to all games. Equipment Wooden Mancala Board from West Africa Equipment is typically a board, constructed of various materials, with a series of holes arranged in rows, usually two or four. Some games are more often played with holes dug in the earth, or carved in stone. The holes may be referred to as "depressions", "pits", or "houses". Sometimes, large holes on the ends of the board, called stores, are used for holding the pieces. Playing pieces are seeds, beans, stones, cowry shells, or other small undifferentiated counters that are placed in and transferred about the holes during play. Nickernuts are one common example of pieces used. Board configurations vary among different games but also within variations of a given game; for example Endodoi is played on boards from 2 × 6 to 2 × 10. With a two-rank board, players usually are considered to control their respective sides of the board, although moves often are made into the opponent's side. With a four-ran board, players control an inner row and an outer row, and a player's seeds will remain in these closest two rows unless the opponent captures them. Object The object of mancala games is usually to capture more stones than the opponent; sometimes, one seeks to leave the opponent with no legal move or to have your side empty first in order to win. At the beginning of a player's turn, they select a hole with seeds that will be sown around the board. This selection is often limited to holes on the current player's side of the board, as well as holes with a certain minimum number of seeds. In a process known as sowing, all the seeds from a hole are dropped one-by-one into subsequent holes in a motion wrapping around the board. Sowing is an apt name for this activity, since not only are many games traditionally played with seeds, but placing seeds one at a time in different holes reflects the physical act of sowing. If the sowing action stops after dropping the last seed, the game is considered a single lap game. Multiple laps or relay sowing is a frequent feature of mancala games, although not universal. When relay sowing, if the last seed during sowing lands in an occupied hole, all the contents of that hole, including the last sown seed, are immediately resown from the hole. The process usually will continue until sowing ends in an empty hole. Another common way to receive "multiple laps" is when the final seed sown lands in your designated hole. Many games from the Indian subcontinent use pussa-kanawa laps. These are like standard multilaps, but instead of continuing the movement with the contents of the last hole filled, a player continues with the next hole. A pussa-kanawa lap move will then end when a lap ends just prior to an empty hole. Capturing Depending on the last hole sown in a lap, a player may capture stones from the board. The exact requirements for capture, as well as what is done with captured stones, vary considerably among games. Typically, a capture requires sowing to end in a hole with a certain number of stones, ending across the board from stones in specific configurations, or landing in an empty hole adjacent to an opponents hole that contains one or more pieces. Another common way of capturing is to capture the contents of the holes that reach a certain number of seeds at any moment. Also, several games include the notion of capturing holes, and thus all seeds sown on a captured hole belong at the end of the game to the player who captured it. History Ancient Gebeta (i.e. mancala) holes in the base of an Aksumite stele, Axum, Ethiopia. The first evidence of the game are fragments of a pottery board and several rock cuts found in Aksumite Ethiopia in Matara (now in Eritrea) and Yeha (in Ethiopia), which are dated by archaeologists to between the 6th and 7th century AD; the game may have been mentioned by Giyorgis of Segla in his 14th century Ge'ez text "Mysteries of Heaven and Earth," where he refers to a game called qarqis, a term used in Ge'ez to refer to both Gebet'a (Mancala) and Sant'araz (modern sent'erazh, Ethiopian Chess). Richard Pankhurst, "Gäbäṭa," in Siegbert von Uhlig, ed., Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha (Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), pp.598. The similarity of some aspects of the game to agricultural activity and the absence of a need for specialized equipment present the intriguing possibility that it could date to the beginnings of civilization itself; however, there is little verifiable evidence that the game is older than about 1300 years. Some purported evidence comes from the Kurna temple graffiti in Egypt, as reported by Parker in 1909 and Murray in his "Board games other than chess". However, accurate dating of this graffiti seems to be unavailable, and what designs have been found by modern scholars generally resemble games common to the Roman world, rather than anything like Mancala. Although the games existed in pockets in Europe -- it is recorded as being played as early as the 17th century by merchants in England -- it has never gained much popularity in most regions, except in the Baltic area, where once it was a very popular game ("Bohnenspiel") and Bosnia, where it is called Ban-Ban and still played today. Mancala has also been found in Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece ("Mandoli", Cyclades) and in a remote castle in southern Germany (Schloss Weikersheim). The USA has a larger mancala playing population. A traditional mancala game called Warra was still played in Louisiana in the early 20th century. In Cape Verde, Mancala is known as "ouril". It is played in the Islands and was brought to America by Cape Verdean immigrants. It is played to this day in Cape Verdean communities in New England. See also List of mancala games Bibliography Jeff Erickson, Sowing Games, in Games of No Chance, Cambridge University Press, 1998 . Larry Russ, The Complete Mancala Games Book, Marlowe and company, NY, 2000. Philip Townshend, African Mankala in Anthropological Perspective, Current Anthropology, Vol. 20, No. 4. (December 1979), pp. 794-796. Deledicq, A. & A. Popova (1977). Wari et solo. Le jeu de calcul Africain. Paris: Cedic. Murray, H.J.R. (1952). A history of board games other than chess. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Townshend, P. (1982). Bao (mankala): the Swahili ethic in African idiom. Paideuma 28:175-191. Voogt, A.J. de (1997). Mancala Board Games. British Museum Press: London. References External links Mancala World - the largest wiki on mancala games A great introduction from MSO. General information on "Count and Capture Games" Mancala, Oware and Bao history and descriptions | Mancala |@lemmatized mancala:24 family:1 board:20 game:44 play:13 around:3 world:4 sometimes:4 call:5 sowing:5 count:3 capture:13 describe:2 role:1 many:3 african:3 asian:1 society:1 comparable:1 chess:4 west:2 list:2 best:1 know:3 western:1 include:3 kalah:2 oware:2 congkak:1 omweso:1 ünee:1 tugaluulakh:1 bao:3 sungka:1 igisoro:1 word:3 come:2 arabic:1 naqala:1 mean:1 literally:1 move:4 one:9 name:2 instead:2 type:1 designation:1 use:8 syria:1 lebanon:1 egypt:2 consistently:1 apply:1 usa:2 however:3 often:4 synonym:1 general:4 gameplay:3 share:1 common:5 sequence:3 player:9 begin:1 place:4 equal:1 number:4 seed:16 prescribe:1 variation:2 pit:4 turn:2 consist:1 remove:1 sow:9 follow:1 base:2 state:1 lead:1 english:1 phrase:1 although:4 detail:1 differ:1 greatly:1 applies:1 equipment:3 wooden:1 africa:1 typically:2 construct:1 various:1 material:1 series:1 hole:27 arrange:1 row:4 usually:4 two:3 four:2 dug:1 earth:2 carve:1 stone:7 may:3 refer:3 depression:1 house:1 large:3 end:7 store:1 hold:1 piece:4 playing:1 bean:1 cowry:1 shell:1 small:1 undifferentiated:1 counter:1 transfer:1 nickernuts:1 example:2 configuration:2 vary:2 among:2 different:2 also:4 within:1 give:1 endodoi:1 rank:1 consider:2 control:2 respective:1 side:4 make:1 opponent:5 ran:1 inner:1 outer:1 remain:1 close:1 unless:1 object:2 seek:1 leave:1 legal:1 empty:4 first:2 order:1 win:1 beginning:2 select:1 selection:1 limited:1 current:2 well:2 certain:3 minimum:1 process:2 drop:2 subsequent:1 motion:1 wrap:1 apt:1 activity:2 since:1 traditionally:1 time:1 reflect:1 physical:1 act:1 action:1 stop:1 last:5 single:1 lap:7 multiple:2 relay:2 frequent:1 feature:1 universal:1 land:3 occupied:1 content:3 sown:3 immediately:1 resown:1 continue:3 another:2 way:2 receive:1 final:1 designated:1 indian:1 subcontinent:1 pussa:2 kanawa:2 like:2 standard:1 multilaps:1 movement:1 fill:1 next:1 prior:1 depend:1 exact:1 requirement:1 captured:2 considerably:1 require:1 across:1 specific:1 adjacent:1 contain:1 capturing:1 reach:1 moment:1 several:2 notion:1 thus:1 belong:1 history:3 ancient:1 gebeta:1 e:1 aksumite:2 stele:1 axum:1 ethiopia:3 evidence:3 fragment:1 pottery:1 rock:1 cut:1 find:3 matara:1 eritrea:1 yeha:1 date:2 archaeologist:1 century:4 ad:1 mention:1 giyorgis:1 segla:1 ge:2 ez:2 text:1 mystery:1 heaven:1 qarqis:1 term:1 gebet:1 sant:1 araz:1 modern:2 sent:1 erazh:1 ethiopian:1 richard:1 pankhurst:1 gäbäṭa:1 siegbert:1 von:1 uhlig:1 ed:1 encyclopaedia:1 aethiopica:1 ha:1 wiesbaden:1 harrassowitz:1 verlag:1 pp:2 similarity:1 aspect:1 agricultural:1 absence:1 need:1 specialized:1 present:1 intriguing:1 possibility:1 could:1 civilization:1 little:1 verifiable:1 old:1 year:1 purport:1 kurna:1 temple:1 graffiti:2 report:1 parker:1 murray:2 accurate:1 dating:1 seem:1 unavailable:1 design:1 scholar:1 generally:1 resemble:1 roman:1 rather:1 anything:1 exist:1 pocket:1 europe:1 record:1 early:2 merchant:1 england:2 never:1 gain:1 much:1 popularity:1 region:1 except:1 baltic:1 area:1 popular:1 bohnenspiel:1 bosnia:1 ban:2 still:2 today:1 serbia:1 bulgaria:1 greece:1 mandoli:1 cyclades:1 remote:1 castle:1 southern:1 germany:1 schloss:1 weikersheim:1 population:1 traditional:1 warra:1 louisiana:1 cape:3 verde:1 ouril:1 island:1 bring:1 america:1 verdean:2 immigrant:1 day:1 community:1 new:1 see:1 bibliography:1 jeff:1 erickson:1 chance:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:3 larry:1 rus:1 complete:1 book:1 marlowe:1 company:1 ny:1 philip:1 townshend:2 mankala:2 anthropological:1 perspective:1 anthropology:1 vol:1 december:1 deledicq:1 popova:1 wari:1 et:1 solo:1 le:1 jeu:1 de:2 calcul:1 africain:1 paris:1 cedic:1 h:1 j:2 r:1 oxford:1 clarendon:1 p:1 swahili:1 ethic:1 idiom:1 paideuma:1 voogt:1 british:1 museum:1 london:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 wiki:1 great:1 introduction:1 mso:1 information:1 description:1 |@bigram sow_seed:1 seed_sow:3 indian_subcontinent:1 ge_ez:2 cape_verde:1 cape_verdean:2 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 external_link:1 |
5,010 | Onomatopoeia | Onomatopoeia or onomatopœia, from the Greek ὀνοματοποιία (ὄνομα for "name" and ποιέω for "I make"), is one or more words that imitate or suggest the source of the sound they are describing. Common occurrences include animal noises, such as "oink" or "meow" or "roar". Onomatopoeia are not universally the same across all languages; they conform to some extent to the broader linguistic system they are part of; hence the sound of a clock may be tick tock in English and tik tak in Dutch or tic-tac in French. Cross-linguistic examples Uses of onomatopoeia In the case of a frog croaking, the spelling may vary because different frog species around the world make different sounds: Ancient Greek brekekekex koax koax (only in Aristophanes' comic play The Frogs) for probably Rana ridibunda; English ribbit for species of frog found in North America; English verb "croak" for Rana temporaria. Some other very common English-language examples include hiccup, zoom, bang, beep, and splash. Machines and their sounds are also often described with onomatopoeia, as in honk or beep-beep for the horn of an automobile, and vroom or brum for the engine. When someone speaks of a mishap involving an audible arcing of electricity, the word "zap" is often used (and has been subsequently expanded and used to non-auditory effects generally connoting the same sort of localized but thorough interference or destruction similar to produced in short-circuit sparking). For animal sounds, words like quack (duck), bark (dog), roar (lion) and meow (cat) are typically used in English. Some of these words are used both as nouns and as verbs. Agglutinative languages or synthetic languages flexibly integrate onomatopoeic words into their structure. This may evolve into a new word, up to the point that it is no longer recognized as onomatopoeia. One example is English "bleat" for the sheep noise: in medieval times it was pronounced approximately as "blairt" (but without an R-component), or "blet" with the vowel drawled, which is much more accurate as onomatopoeia than the modern pronunciation. An example of the opposite case is "cuckoo", which, due to continuous familiarity with the bird noise down the centuries, has kept approximately the same pronunciation as in Anglo-Saxon times and its vowels have not changed to as in "furrow". Verba dicendi are a method of integrating onomatopoeia and ideophones into grammar. Sometimes things are named from the sounds they make. In English, for example, there is the universal fastener which is named for the onomatopoeic of the sound it makes: the zip (in the UK) or zipper (in the U.S.). Many birds are named after their calls, such as the Bobwhite quail, the Weero, the killdeer, chickadee, the cuckoo, the chiffchaff, the whooping crane and the whip-poor-will. In Tamil and Malayalam, the word for crow is kaakaa. This practice is especially common in certain languages such as Māori and, therefore, in names of animals borrowed from these languages. Advertising uses onomatopoeia as a mnemonic, so consumers will remember their products, as in Rice Krispies (US and UK) and Rice Bubbles (AU) which make a "snap, crackle, pop" when one pours on milk; or in road safety advertisements: "clunk click, every trip" (click the seatbelt on after clunking the car door closed; UK campaign) or "click, clack, front and back" (click, clack of connecting the seatbelts; AU campaign) or "click it or ticket" (click of the connecting seatbelt; US DOT campaign). Manner imitation In many of the world's languages, onomatopoeia-like words are used to describe phenomena apart from the purely auditive. Japanese often utilizes such words to describe feelings or figurative expressions about objects or concepts. For instance, Japanese barabara is used to reflect an object's state of disarray or separation, and shiiin is the onomatopoetic form of absolute silence (used at the time an English speaker might expect to hear the sound of crickets chirping or a pin dropping in a silent room, or someone coughing). It is used in English as well with terms like bling, which describes the shine on things like gold, chrome or precious stones. In Japanese, kirakira is used for glittery things. Examples in media Whaam! (1963) by Roy Lichtenstein. Whaam! (1963) by Roy Lichtenstein is an early example of pop art, featuring a reproduction of comic book art that depicts a fighter aircraft striking another with rockets with dazzling red and yellow explosions. Marvel Comics has trademarked two words of their own invention: thwip!, the sound of Spider-Man's web shooter, and snikt! the switchblade-sound of Wolverine's claws locking into place (which was replaced with the lesser-known schlikt during the period he was left without the adamantium covering on his bones). Marvel also uses the sound effect "bamf" to signify Nightcrawler's teleportation. In Doctor Who comic strips, the sound of the Tardis is represented as vworp! vworp! In the Garfield comic strip and television series, there is a running gag about a "splut," which is usually the sound of a pie hitting someone in the face. For example, Garfield once kicked Odie, but instead of 'kick' it said 'blagoonga', with Garfield remarking to Jon that Odie needs to be tuned The late MAD Magazine cartoonist Don Martin often used such words in his artwork, to comic effect. In the 1960s TV series Batman, comic book style onomatopoeias such as wham!, pow!, "biff!", crunch and "zounds" appear onscreen during fight scenes. This is often the subject of parody, for example in the Simpsons episode "Radioactive Man" where the onomatopoeic words are replaced with snuh!, newt! and mint! which are references to other Simpsons episodes. Ubisoft's XIII employed the use of comic book onomatopoeias such as bam!, boom and noooo! during gameplay for gunshots, explosions and kills, respectively. The comic-book style is apparent throughout the game and is a core theme, as the game is an adaptation of a comic book of the same name. In the movie Winnie the Pooh: Springtime with Roo, Tigger lists onomatopoeia as a possible word that Rabbit doesn't allow to be said in his house. Tigger also announces that onomatopoeia is in fact a real word. The irony in this being that "Pooh" got his name from the sound he made when trying to blow a bee off of his nose. The onomatopoeia that is said to be heard at a typical Disco Biscuits (a popular jamband) show is untz. This description seems to have originated from an interview with Bob Dylan, who said "I kept hearing this, untz..untz..untz..untz..(sound in the background of all the music)" In book 4 of Jonathan Swift's novel Gulliver's Travels, the name of the Houyhnhnms is an onomatopoeia for the whinny of a horse. Todd Rundgren wrote a humorous song "Onomatopoeia" which uses many examples in this "Love Song". Examples in the song start out reasonable and start to get more ludicrous as the song goes on. The comic strip For Better or For Worse is notorious for using non-onomatopoeic verbs as onomatopoeias, such as "Scrape," to indicate a person shaving, or "Tie," to illustrate someone tying a string around a package. A well-known rhetorical question is "Why doesn't onomatopoeia sound like what it is?". Ian M. Banks references this in his novel Against a Dark Background, when a character claims that the word onomatopoeia is spelled "just the way it sounds!". Brian Preston, a popular Quizzo night host in Philadelphia used words like crash, boom, and fart to describe onomatopoeia. Unfortunately, fart is a non-onomatopoeia (although its Proto-Indo-European language ancestor perd- (compare Greek περδομαι and Avestic prd) is more realistic). "Kerplunk" was used in the video game Final Fantasy VIII as the name of one of the Guardian Force Cactuar's attacks. For the Guardian Force Tonberry, the humorously out of place onomatopoeia of doink! is written on-screen during its powerful knife stab attack. In the video game Brave Story: New Traveler, an onomatopoeia appears wherever an attack hits its target. The January 8, 2008 comic of Ozy and Millie featured a panel in which Millie repeats the word "Splorsh" and Ozy quips "I've noticed you find Onomatopoeia extremely distracting." In one Captain America comic, the accidental use of the word "wank" as an onomatopoeia was found hilarious by many teenagers, due to its slang usage for masturbation. (The enemy was saying "Captain America, I command you to-" but was interrupted by Captain America striking a robot with his thrown shield and the "wank!" showed up right after the enemies' speech bubble; Thus looking as though it had said: "Captain America, I command you to- Wank!".) http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3283/2413384736_30c7d118f1.jpg The marble game KerPlunk is an onomatopoeia for the sound of the marbles dropping when one too many sticks has been removed. The Nickelodeon cartoon Kablam is implied to be onomotapoeic to a crash. In a 2002 episode of The West Wing, Rob Lowe (Sam Seaborn) and Ian McShane (portraying a Russian negotiator) have a conversation about how the word 'frumpy' "onomatopoetically sounds right" The West Wing, Enemies Foreign and Domestic, Memorable Quotes . See also Sound symbolism Japanese sound symbolism Animal sounds Vocal learning References Crystal, David (1997) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Second Edition ISBN 0-521-55967-7 External links Derek Abbott's Animal Noise Page BBC Radio 4 show discussing animal noises Tutorial on Drawing Onomatopoeia for Comics and Cartoons (using fonts) Article on using onomatopeia and sound to enchance writing and poetry. WrittenSound, onomatopoeic word list | Onomatopoeia |@lemmatized onomatopoeia:27 onomatopœia:1 greek:3 ὀνοματοποιία:1 ὄνομα:1 name:9 ποιέω:1 make:6 one:6 word:20 imitate:1 suggest:1 source:1 sound:23 describe:6 common:3 occurrence:1 include:2 animal:6 noise:5 oink:1 meow:2 roar:2 universally:1 across:1 language:9 conform:1 extent:1 broad:1 linguistic:2 system:1 part:1 hence:1 clock:1 may:3 tick:1 tock:1 english:9 tik:1 tak:1 dutch:1 tic:1 tac:1 french:1 cross:1 example:11 us:1 case:2 frog:4 croaking:1 spelling:1 vary:1 different:2 specie:2 around:2 world:2 ancient:1 brekekekex:1 koax:2 aristophanes:1 comic:14 play:1 probably:1 rana:2 ridibunda:1 ribbit:1 find:3 north:1 america:5 verb:3 croak:1 temporaria:1 hiccup:1 zoom:1 bang:1 beep:3 splash:1 machine:1 also:4 often:5 honk:1 horn:1 automobile:1 vroom:1 brum:1 engine:1 someone:4 speaks:1 mishap:1 involve:1 audible:1 arcing:1 electricity:1 zap:1 use:20 subsequently:1 expand:1 non:3 auditory:1 effect:3 generally:1 connote:1 sort:1 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5,011 | Telecommunications_in_Kiribati | Kiribati has two international airports (Tarawa and Kiritimati). The main port is Betio (Tarawa). Phones are available only on Tarawa and Kiritimati and radio phones are used elsewhere. Kiribati has 2 newspapers (one private). Telephones - main lines in use: 3,800 (1999) Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995) (But appears to be available ) Telephone system: domestic: NA international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean) note: Kiribati is being linked to the Pacific Ocean Cooperative Telecommunications Network, which should improve telephone service Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 1 (2002) note: the shortwave station may be inactive Radios: 17,000 (1997) Television broadcast stations: 1 (not reported to be active) (2002) Televisions: 1,000 (1997) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (2002) Internet users: 2,000 (2000) Country code (Top-level domain): KI See also Telecom Services Kiribati Limited | Telecommunications_in_Kiribati |@lemmatized kiribati:4 two:1 international:2 airport:1 tarawa:3 kiritimati:2 main:2 port:1 betio:1 phone:2 available:2 radio:3 use:2 elsewhere:1 newspaper:1 one:1 private:1 telephone:4 line:1 mobile:1 cellular:1 appear:1 system:1 domestic:1 na:1 satellite:1 earth:1 station:4 intelsat:1 pacific:2 ocean:2 note:2 link:1 cooperative:1 telecommunication:1 network:1 improve:1 service:3 broadcast:2 fm:1 shortwave:2 may:1 inactive:1 television:2 report:1 active:1 internet:2 provider:1 isps:1 user:1 country:1 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 ki:1 see:1 also:1 telecom:1 limit:1 |@bigram mobile_cellular:1 station_intelsat:1 pacific_ocean:2 fm_shortwave:1 provider_isps:1 isps_internet:1 |
5,012 | Manner_of_articulation | |Human vocal tract In linguistics (articulatory phonetics), manner of articulation describes how the tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech organs are involved in making a sound make contact. Often the concept is only used for the production of consonants. For any place of articulation, there may be several manners, and therefore several homorganic consonants. One parameter of manner is stricture, that is, how closely the speech organs approach one another. Parameters other than stricture are those involved in the ar sounds (taps and trills), and the sibilancy of fricatives. Often nasality and laterality are included in manner, but phoneticians such as Peter Ladefoged consider them to be independent. Stricture From greatest to least stricture, speech sounds may be classified along a cline as stop consonants (with occlusion, or blocked airflow), fricative consonants (with partially blocked and therefore strongly turbulent airflow), approximants (with only slight turbulence), and vowels (with full unimpeded airflow). Affricates often behave as if they were intermediate between stops and fricatives, but phonetically they are sequences of stop plus fricative. Historically, sounds may move along this cline toward less stricture in a process called lenition. The reverse process is fortition. Other parameters Sibilants are distinguished from other fricatives by the shape of the tongue and how the airflow is directed over the teeth. Fricatives at coronal places of articulation may be sibilant or non-sibilant, sibilants being the more common. Taps and flaps are similar to very brief stops. However, their articulation and behavior is distinct enough to be considered a separate manner, rather than just length. Trills involve the vibration of one of the speech organs. Since trilling is a separate parameter from stricture, the two may be combined. Increasing the stricture of a typical trill results in a trilled fricative. Trilled affricates are also known. Nasal airflow may be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound. It is most commonly found in nasal stops and nasal vowels, but nasal fricatives, taps, and approximants are also found. When a sound is not nasal, it is called oral. An oral stop is often called a plosive, while a nasal stop is generally just called a nasal. Laterality is the release of airflow at the side of the tongue. This can also be combined with other manners, resulting in lateral approximants (the most common), lateral flaps, and lateral fricatives and affricates. Individual manners Plosive, or oral stop, where there is complete occlusion (blockage) of both the oral and nasal cavities of the vocal tract, and therefore no air flow. Examples include English /p t k/ (voiceless) and /b d g/ (voiced). If the consonant is voiced, the voicing is the only sound made during occlusion; if it is voiceless, a plosive is completely silent. What we hear as a /p/ or /k/ is the effect that the onset of the occlusion has on the preceding vowel, and well as the release burst and its effect on the following vowel. The shape and position of the tongue (the place of articulation) determine the resonant cavity that gives different plosives their characteristic sounds. All languages have plosives. Nasal stop, usually shortened to nasal, where there is complete occlusion of the oral cavity, and the air passes instead through the nose. The shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different nasal stops their characteristic sounds. Examples include English /m, n/. Nearly all languages have nasals, the only exceptions being in the area of Puget Sound and a single language on Bougainville Island. Fricative, sometimes called spirant, where there is continuous frication (turbulent and noisy airflow) at the place of articulation. Examples include English /f, s/ (voiceless), /v, z/ (voiced), etc. Most languages have fricatives, though many have only an /s/. However, the Indigenous Australian languages are almost completely devoid of fricatives of any kind. Sibilants are a type of fricative where the airflow is guided by a groove in the tongue toward the teeth, creating a high-pitched and very distinctive sound. These are by far the most common fricatives. Fricatives at coronal (front of tongue) places of articulation are usually, though not always, sibilants. English sibilants include /s/ and /z/. Lateral fricatives are a rare type of fricative, where the frication occurs on one or both sides of the edge of the tongue. The "ll" of Welsh and the "hl" of Zulu are lateral fricatives. Affricate, which begins like a plosive, but this releases into a fricative rather than having a separate release of its own. The English letters "ch" and "j" represent affricates. Affricates are quite common around the world, though less common than fricatives. Flap, often called a tap, is a momentary closure of the oral cavity. The "tt" of "utter" and the "dd" of "udder" are pronounced as a flap in North American English. Many linguists distinguish taps from flaps, but there is no consensus on what the difference might be. No language relies on such a difference. There are also lateral flaps. Trill, in which the articulator (usually the tip of the tongue) is held in place, and the airstream causes it to vibrate. The double "r" of Spanish "perro" is a trill. Trills and flaps, where there are one or more brief occlusions, constitute a class of consonant called rhotics. Approximant, where there is very little obstruction. Examples include English /w/ and /r/. In some languages, such as Spanish, there are sounds which seem to fall between fricative and approximant. One use of the word semivowel is a type of approximant, pronounced like a vowel but with the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth, so that there is slight turbulence. In English, /w/ is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel /u/, and /j/ (spelled "y") is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel /i/ in this usage. Other descriptions use semivowel for vowel-like sounds that are not syllabic, but do not have the increased stricture of approximants. These are found as elements in diphthongs. The word may also be used to cover both concepts. Lateral approximants, usually shortened to lateral, are a type of approximant pronounced with the side of the tongue. English /l/ is a lateral. Together with the rhotics, which have similar behavior in many languages, these form a class of consonant called liquids. Broader classifications Manners of articulation with substantial obstruction of the airflow (plosives, fricatives, affricates) are called obstruents. These are prototypically voiceless, but voiced obstruents are extremely common as well. Manners without such obstruction (nasals, liquids, approximants, and also vowels) are called sonorants because they are nearly always voiced. Voiceless sonorants are uncommon, but are found in Welsh and Classical Greek (the spelling "rh"), in Tibetan (the "lh" of Lhasa), and the "wh" in those dialects of English which distinguish "which" from "witch". Sonorants may also be called resonants, and some linguists prefer that term, restricting the word 'sonorant' to non-vocoid resonants (that is, nasals and liquids, but not vowels or semi-vowels). Another common distinction is between stops (plosives and nasals) and continuants (all else); affricates are considered to be both, because they are sequences of stop plus fricative. Other airstream initiations All of these manners of articulation are pronounced with an airstream mechanism called pulmonic egressive, meaning that the air flows outward, and is powered by the lungs (actually the ribs and diaphragm). Other airstream mechanisms are possible. Sounds that rely on some of these include: Ejectives, which are glottalic egressive. That is, the airstream is powered by an upward movement of the glottis rather than by the lungs or diaphragm. Plosives, affricates, and occasionally fricatives may occur as ejectives. All ejectives are voiceless. Implosives, which are glottalic ingressive. Here the glottis moves downward, but the lungs may be used simultaneously (to provide voicing), and in some languages no air may actually flow into the mouth. Implosive oral stops are not uncommon, but implosive affricates and fricatives are rare. Voiceless implosives are also rare. Clicks, which are velaric ingressive. Here the back of the tongue is used to create a vacuum in the mouth, causing air to rush in when the forward occlusion (tongue or lips) is released. Clicks may be oral or nasal, stop or affricate, central or lateral, voiced or voiceless. They are extremely rare in normal words outside Southern Africa. However, English has a click in its "tsk tsk" (or "tut tut") sound, and another is used to say "giddy up" to a horse. See also Place of articulation Phonation Airstream mechanism Relative articulation List of phonetics topics Vocal tract Human Voice Source-filter model of speech production References External links Interactive place and manner of articulation Interactive Flash website for American English, Spanish and German sounds | Manner_of_articulation |@lemmatized human:2 vocal:3 tract:3 linguistics:1 articulatory:1 phonetics:2 manner:11 articulation:12 describe:1 tongue:13 lip:2 jaw:1 speech:6 organ:2 involve:3 make:3 sound:16 contact:1 often:5 concept:2 use:7 production:2 consonant:7 place:8 may:12 several:2 therefore:3 homorganic:1 one:6 parameter:5 stricture:8 closely:1 organs:1 approach:1 another:3 ar:1 tap:5 trill:7 sibilancy:1 fricative:25 nasality:1 laterality:2 include:7 phonetician:1 peter:1 ladefoged:1 consider:3 independent:2 great:1 least:1 classify:1 along:2 cline:2 stop:14 occlusion:7 block:2 airflow:9 partially:1 strongly:1 turbulent:2 approximants:6 slight:2 turbulence:2 vowel:11 full:1 unimpeded:1 affricate:11 behave:1 intermediate:1 phonetically:1 sequence:2 plus:2 historically:1 move:2 toward:2 less:2 process:2 call:12 lenition:1 reverse:1 fortition:1 sibilant:7 distinguish:3 shape:3 direct:1 teeth:2 coronal:2 non:2 common:7 flap:7 similar:2 brief:2 however:3 behavior:2 distinct:1 enough:1 separate:3 rather:3 length:1 vibration:1 since:1 trilling:1 two:1 combine:2 increase:2 typical:1 result:2 trilled:1 also:9 know:1 nasal:16 add:1 commonly:1 find:4 oral:8 plosive:9 generally:1 release:5 side:3 lateral:10 individual:1 complete:2 blockage:1 cavity:5 air:5 flow:3 example:4 english:12 p:2 k:2 voiceless:8 b:1 g:1 voice:8 voicing:1 completely:2 silent:1 hear:1 effect:2 onset:1 precede:1 well:2 burst:1 following:1 position:2 determine:2 resonant:2 give:2 different:2 characteristic:2 language:9 usually:4 shorten:2 pass:1 instead:1 nose:1 n:1 nearly:2 exception:1 area:1 puget:1 single:1 bougainville:1 island:1 sometimes:1 spirant:1 continuous:1 frication:2 noisy:1 f:1 v:1 z:2 etc:1 though:3 many:3 indigenous:1 australian:1 almost:1 devoid:1 kind:1 type:4 guide:1 groove:1 create:2 high:1 pitch:1 distinctive:1 far:1 front:1 always:2 rare:4 occur:2 edge:1 welsh:2 hl:1 zulu:1 begin:1 like:3 letter:1 ch:1 j:2 represent:1 quite:1 around:1 world:1 momentary:1 closure:1 tt:1 utter:1 dd:1 udder:1 pronounce:4 north:1 american:2 linguist:2 consensus:1 difference:2 might:1 rely:2 articulator:1 tip:1 hold:1 airstream:6 cause:2 vibrate:1 double:1 r:2 spanish:3 perro:1 constitute:1 class:2 rhotics:2 approximant:4 little:1 obstruction:3 w:2 seem:1 fall:1 word:4 semivowel:4 closer:1 roof:1 mouth:3 equivalent:2 u:1 spell:1 usage:1 description:1 syllabic:1 element:1 diphthong:1 cover:1 l:1 together:1 form:1 liquid:3 broad:1 classification:1 substantial:1 obstruent:2 prototypically:1 extremely:2 without:1 sonorants:3 uncommon:2 classical:1 greek:1 spelling:1 rh:1 tibetan:1 lh:1 lhasa:1 wh:1 dialect:1 witch:1 resonants:2 prefer:1 term:1 restrict:1 sonorant:1 vocoid:1 semi:1 distinction:1 continuant:1 else:1 initiation:1 mechanism:3 pulmonic:1 egressive:2 mean:1 outward:1 power:2 lung:3 actually:2 rib:1 diaphragm:2 possible:1 ejectives:3 glottalic:2 upward:1 movement:1 glottis:2 occasionally:1 implosives:2 ingressive:2 downward:1 simultaneously:1 provide:1 implosive:2 click:3 velaric:1 back:1 vacuum:1 rush:1 forward:1 central:1 normal:1 outside:1 southern:1 africa:1 tsk:2 tut:2 say:1 giddy:1 horse:1 see:1 phonation:1 relative:1 list:1 topic:1 source:1 filter:1 model:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 interactive:2 flash:1 website:1 german:1 |@bigram articulatory_phonetics:1 manner_articulation:4 homorganic_consonant:1 fricative_trill:1 nasal_fricative:1 plosive_nasal:3 lateral_approximants:2 lateral_flap:2 lateral_fricative:3 fricative_affricate:3 voiceless_plosive:1 resonant_cavity:2 oral_cavity:2 puget_sound:1 fricative_approximant:1 plosive_fricative:1 airstream_mechanism:3 plosive_affricate:1 affricate_fricative:1 phonetics_topic:1 external_link:1 |
5,013 | House_of_Pain | House of Pain was an Irish-American hip-hop group who released three albums in the early to mid 1990s before lead rapper Everlast decided to pursue his solo career again. The group is best known for its 1992 hit single "Jump Around", which reached #3 in the United States, #6 in Ireland and #8 in the United Kingdom. Band history Rise to fame After a brief unsuccessful solo career, Everlast teamed up with DJ Lethal and high school friend Danny Boy to form House of Pain. The group was signed to Tommy Boy Records, and their eponymous debut album (1992) went multi-platinum, spawning the successful DJ Muggs produced single "Jump Around". This song was also remixed twice by Pete Rock, one version featuring a verse from him and one without. The album also featured Cypress Hill member, B-Real, on the song "Put Your Head Out". Fashioning themselves as rowdy Irish-American hooligans (Lethal is actually of Latvian heritage), they toured with various rap and alternative-rock bands after their breakthrough. They participated together with Helmet, along with several other rap acts, on the influential 1993 rock-rap collaborative Judgment Night movie soundtrack. Second album and decline in popularity Their follow-up album, 1994's Same As It Ever Was, went gold despite minimal airplay and no major hits. The first single, "On Point," is noted for taking a swipe at another American rapper with a strong Irish heritage, "Marky Mark" (Mark Wahlberg) ("Calvin Klein's no friend of mine/So I don't like Marky"). Like Cypress Hill, who, with House of Pain, were a part of the loosely-affiliated Soul Assassins posse, they found urban radio airplay an increasingly closed path, which affected album sales. Third album House of Pain abruptly broke up in 1996 after the release of their third album, Truth Crushed To Earth Shall Rise Again, which featured guest appearances by rappers Sadat X of Brand Nubian, Guru of Gang Starr, producer/rapper Divine Styler and reggae singjay Cockni O'Dire (credited as the Scheme Team). On the release date of the album, Everlast announced his departure from the group. Split, solo and current affairs From this point on, the status of the group would seem to be in the past tense, though the members would continue their careers separately. Danny Boy would found an art company. DJ Lethal became a member of nu metal band Limp Bizkit, who would cover the famous "Jump Around" at live concerts, particularly in Limp Bizkit's early years during the Family Values Tour 1998. Everlast would finally get multi-platinum solo fame in 1998 with his acoustic rock/blues-inflected album Whitey Ford Sings the Blues The first single from that album was "What It's Like". In 2000, a feud between Everlast and rapper Eminem coincided with the gold-selling Eat at Whitey's, which included minor hits "Black Jesus" and "Black Coffee", and featured a collaboration with Carlos Santana. After the sale of the Tommy Boy Records' master tapes to Warner Bros. Music, Everlast signed with Island/Def Jam, and released the solo LP White Trash Beautiful in 2004. Later the same year Rhino Records, a subdivision of Warner Music, released a hit collection, Shamrocks & Shenanigans, with singles from Everlast's early solo days, the House of Pain and his post-group solo efforts. Before the release, Everlast announced on his official message board that he was not endorsing the compilation album. Founded by Danny Boy in early 2006, La Coka Nostra is a new project that has reunited him, Everlast and DJ Lethal for the first time since House of Pain's split. Other group members include Ill Bill of Non Phixion, and newcomers Slaine and Big Left. House of Pain have reunited for theRock the Bells hip-hop tour of 2009. In popular culture "Jump Around" is played at various sporting events in North America, from football to hockey (perhaps most notably after the third quarter at University of Wisconsin football home games). It is used in many television and cinema productions, such as in the 1993 film Mrs. Doubtfire or the tv series My Name Is Earl, and in commercials for Strongbow Cider in Australia, Mars Bar in the United Kingdom and for Pringles in the US. as well as the American film Black Hawk Down and in a Bridgestone tire commercial aired during 2009's NFL Super Bowl. The group was briefly featured on the 2002 VH1 program 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders in where "Jump Around" got ranked #63 on the list. "Top o' The Morning to Ya" is used in the 2003 film Daredevil when Bullseye made his first appearance. In 2007, comedian Des Bishop had the lyrics translated into Irish (with the title "Léim thart") when working on the RTÉ series In the Name of the Fada. UFC Fighter Marcus "The Irish Hand Grenade" Davis uses "Jump Around" as his entrance theme, preceded by a quote from the movie The Boondock Saints. "I'm A Swing It" is featured on the soundtrack of Tony Hawk's Pro Skater III video game. "Top O' The Mornin' to Ya" was used in Heat when Vincent Hanna enters the club to meet Richard. Discography For a complete House of Pain discography, see external links. Albums Year Album Chart Positions US US Hip-Hop 1992 House of Pain 14 16 1994 Same as It Ever Was 12 12 1996 Truth Crushed to Earth Shall Rise Again 47 31 EPs Year Album 1993 Who's the Man 1994 Legend Compilations Year Album 2004 Shamrocks & Shenanigans Singles Jump Around / HOP Anthem (1992) Shamrocks & Shenanigans (US) (1992) Shamrocks & Shenanigans / Who's The Man (UK) (1992) Top O' The Morning To Ya (Remix) (1992) Who's The Man? (1993) Legend EP (US) (1994) On Point (1994) #19 UK Over There (I Don't Care) (1994) #20 UK It Ain't Crime / Word Is Bond (UK, CD 1/2) (1994) #37 UK Legend / It Ain't A Crime (UK, CD 2/2) (1994) #175 UK Word Is Bond / Legend 12" (1995) Pass The Jinn (1996) Fed Up / Heart Full Of Sorrow feat. Sadat X (1996) #68 UK Fed Up (Remix feat. Guru) (1996) Soundtrack contributions Judgment Night (1993) -- song with Helmet "Just Another Victim" Who's the Man? (1993) -- song "Who's the Man" Kiss of Death (1995) -- song "Jump Around" Eddie (1996) -- song "Punch Drunk" Jerky Boys (1996) -- song "Beef Jerky" Happy Gilmore (1996) -- song "Jump Around" Daredevil (2003) -- song "Jump Around" Other Celtic or Irish-styled Hip Hop artists Ashley MacIsaac Black 47 Beltaine's Fire Emcee Lynx Manau Marxman Seanchai & the Unity Squad External links House of Pain biography by Allmusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine WHITEY FORD RECORDS House Of Pain/Everlast news and discography | House_of_Pain |@lemmatized house:11 pain:11 irish:6 american:4 hip:4 hop:5 group:8 release:6 three:1 album:16 early:4 mid:1 lead:1 rapper:5 everlast:10 decide:1 pursue:1 solo:7 career:3 best:1 know:1 hit:5 single:6 jump:10 around:10 reach:1 united:3 state:1 ireland:1 kingdom:2 band:3 history:1 rise:3 fame:2 brief:1 unsuccessful:1 team:2 dj:4 lethal:4 high:1 school:1 friend:2 danny:3 boy:6 form:1 sign:2 tommy:2 record:4 eponymous:1 debut:1 go:2 multi:2 platinum:2 spawn:1 successful:1 muggs:1 produce:1 song:9 also:2 remixed:1 twice:1 pete:1 rock:4 one:3 version:1 feature:6 verse:1 without:1 cypress:2 hill:2 member:4 b:1 real:1 put:1 head:1 fashion:1 rowdy:1 hooligan:1 actually:1 latvian:1 heritage:2 tour:3 various:2 rap:3 alternative:1 breakthrough:1 participate:1 together:1 helmet:2 along:1 several:1 act:1 influential:1 collaborative:1 judgment:2 night:2 movie:2 soundtrack:3 second:1 decline:1 popularity:1 follow:1 ever:2 gold:2 despite:1 minimal:1 airplay:2 major:1 first:4 point:3 note:1 take:1 swipe:1 another:2 strong:1 marky:2 mark:2 wahlberg:1 calvin:1 klein:1 mine:1 like:3 part:1 loosely:1 affiliated:1 soul:1 assassin:1 posse:1 find:2 urban:1 radio:1 increasingly:1 closed:1 path:1 affect:1 sale:2 third:3 abruptly:1 break:1 truth:2 crush:2 earth:2 shall:2 guest:1 appearance:2 sadat:2 x:2 brand:1 nubian:1 guru:2 gang:1 starr:1 producer:1 divine:1 styler:1 reggae:1 singjay:1 cockni:1 dire:1 credit:1 scheme:1 date:1 announce:2 departure:1 split:2 current:1 affair:1 status:1 would:5 seem:1 past:1 tense:1 though:1 continue:1 separately:1 art:1 company:1 become:1 nu:1 metal:1 limp:2 bizkit:2 cover:1 famous:1 live:1 concert:1 particularly:1 year:5 family:1 value:1 finally:1 get:2 acoustic:1 blue:2 inflect:1 whitey:3 ford:2 sing:1 feud:1 eminem:1 coincide:1 selling:1 eat:1 include:2 minor:1 black:4 jesus:1 coffee:1 collaboration:1 carlos:1 santana:1 master:1 tape:1 warner:2 bros:1 music:2 island:1 def:1 jam:1 lp:1 white:1 trash:1 beautiful:1 later:1 rhino:1 subdivision:1 collection:1 shamrocks:3 shenanigan:4 day:1 post:1 effort:1 official:1 message:1 board:1 endorse:1 compilation:2 found:1 la:1 coka:1 nostra:1 new:1 project:1 reunite:2 time:1 since:1 ill:1 bill:1 non:1 phixion:1 newcomer:1 slaine:1 big:1 left:1 therock:1 bell:1 popular:1 culture:1 play:1 sport:1 event:1 north:1 america:1 football:2 hockey:1 perhaps:1 notably:1 quarter:1 university:1 wisconsin:1 home:1 game:2 use:4 many:1 television:1 cinema:1 production:1 film:3 mr:1 doubtfire:1 tv:1 series:2 name:2 earl:1 commercial:2 strongbow:1 cider:1 australia:1 mar:1 bar:1 pringles:1 u:5 well:1 hawk:2 bridgestone:1 tire:1 air:1 nfl:1 super:1 bowl:1 briefly:1 program:1 great:1 wonder:1 ranked:1 list:1 top:3 morning:2 ya:3 daredevil:2 bullseye:1 make:1 comedian:1 de:1 bishop:1 lyric:1 translate:1 title:1 léim:1 thart:1 work:1 rté:1 fada:1 ufc:1 fighter:1 marcus:1 hand:1 grenade:1 davis:1 entrance:1 theme:1 precede:1 quote:1 boondock:1 saint:1 swing:1 tony:1 pro:1 skater:1 iii:1 video:1 mornin:1 heat:1 vincent:1 hanna:1 enter:1 club:1 meet:1 richard:1 discography:3 complete:1 see:1 external:2 link:2 chart:1 position:1 eps:1 man:5 legend:4 shamrock:1 anthem:1 uk:8 remix:2 ep:1 care:1 crime:2 word:2 bond:2 cd:2 pass:1 jinni:1 feed:2 heart:1 full:1 sorrow:1 feat:2 contribution:1 victim:1 kiss:1 death:1 eddie:1 punch:1 drunk:1 jerky:2 beef:1 happy:1 gilmore:1 celtic:1 style:1 artists:1 ashley:1 macisaac:1 beltaine:1 fire:1 emcee:1 lynx:1 manau:1 marxman:1 seanchai:1 unity:1 squad:1 biography:1 allmusic:1 stephen:1 thomas:1 erlewine:1 news:1 |@bigram hip_hop:4 dj_lethal:3 cypress_hill:2 mark_wahlberg:1 loosely_affiliated:1 radio_airplay:1 gang_starr:1 past_tense:1 nu_metal:1 limp_bizkit:2 carlos_santana:1 warner_bros:1 def_jam:1 super_bowl:1 external_link:2 hop_artists:1 thomas_erlewine:1 |
5,014 | A_Little_Night_Music | A Little Night Music is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by Hugh Wheeler. Inspired by the Ingmar Bergman film Smiles of a Summer Night, it involves the romantic lives of several couples, with the music set almost entirely in waltz time. The musical included the song "Send in the Clowns". The title is an English (mis)translation of the German name for Mozart's Serenade No. 13 for strings in G major, Eine kleine Nachtmusik. Productions Broadway A Little Night Music opened on Broadway at the Shubert Theatre on February 25, 1973, and closed on August 3, 1974 after 601 performances and 12 previews. It moved to the Majestic Theatre on Sept. 17, 1973 where it completed its run. It was directed by Harold Prince with choreography by Patricia Birch and design by Boris Aronson. The cast included Glynis Johns (Desiree Armfeldt), Len Cariou (Fredrik Egerman), Hermione Gingold (Madame Armfeldt), Victoria Mallory, Mark Lambert, Laurence Guittard, Patricia Elliott, George Lee Andrews, and D. Jamin Bartlett. It won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award and the Tony Award for Best Musical. According to an article in Playbill, Trevor Nunn will direct a revival on Broadway, possibly opening in December 2009. No casting has been announced and the date is "tentative". The same creative team from Nunn's London production is involved. Gans, Andrew."Little Night Music Revival Is Gearing Up for Broadway; Nunn to Direct",playbill.com, April 28, 2009 London Original production (1975) The London production opened at the Adelphi Theatre on April 15, 1975 and starred Jean Simmons, Joss Ackland, David Kernan, Liz Robertson, and Diane Langton, with Hermione Gingold reprising her role as Madame Armfeldt. It ran for 406 performances. During the run, Angela Baddeley replaced Gingold, and Virginia McKenna replaced Simmons. First revival (1989) A new London revival opened on October 6, 1989 at the Piccadilly Theatre, directed by Ian Judge, designed by Mark Thompson, and choreographed by Anthony Van Laast. It starred Lila Kedrova as Madame Armfeldt, Dorothy Tutin as Desiree Armfeldt, Peter McEnery and Susan Hampshire. The production ran for 144 performances, closing on February 17, 1990. Second revival (1995) In 1995, a revival by the Royal National Theatre opened at the Olivier Theatre on September 26, 1995 in a production directed by Sean Mathias, with set designed by Stephen Brimson Lewis, costumes by Nicky Gilabrand, lighting by Mark Henderson and choreography by Wayne McGregor. It starred Judi Dench (Desiree), Sian Phillips (Madame Armfeldt), Joanna Riding, Laurence Guittard and Patricia Hodge. The production closed on August 31, 1996. Dench received the Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Actress in a Musical. Third revival (2008) The third London revival ran at the Menier Chocolate Factory from November 22, 2008 until March 8, 2009. The production was directed by Trevor Nunn, with choreography by Lynne Page, sets and costumes by David Farley and new orchestrations by Jason Carr. The cast included Hannah Waddingham as Desiree, Alexander Hanson as Frederik, Jessie Buckley (Anne), Maureen Lipman (Mme. Armfeldt), Alistair Robins (the Count), Gabriel Vick (Henrik), Grace Link and Holly Hallam (shared role Fredrika) and Kasia Hammarlund (Petra). Benedict, David."Waddingham to star in 'Night Music'",Variety, October 10, 2008 This critically-acclaimed http://www.nightmusiclondon.com/news_and_reviews/ production transferred to the Garrick Theatre in the West End for a strictly limited season, opening on March 28, 2009 and running until July 25, 2009. Shenton, Mark."Isn't It Rich?: Menier A Little Night Music Arrives in the West End March 28",playbill.com, March 28, 2009 Europe Zarah Leander played Madame Armfeldt in the original Austrian staging (in 1975) as well as in the original Swedish staging in Stockholm in 1978 (here with Jan Malmsjö as Fredrik Egerman), performing Send In The Clowns and Liaisons in both stagings. The successful Stockholm-staging was directed by Stig Olin. Film version In 1978, a film version of A Little Night Music was made, starring Elizabeth Taylor, Lesley-Anne Down, and Diana Rigg, with Len Cariou, Hermione Gingold, and Laurence Guittard reprising their Broadway roles. The setting for the film was moved from Sweden to Austria, and was filmed on location. Stephen Sondheim wrote lyrics for the "Night Waltz" theme ("Love Takes Time") and wrote an entirely new version of "The Glamorous Life" which has been incorporated into several subsequent productions of the stage musical. The film marked legendary Broadway director Hal Prince's second time as a motion picture director. Critical reaction to the film was negative, Canby, Vincent."Review: A Little Night Music (1977)",The New York Times, March 8, 1978 with much being made of Miss Taylor's wildly fluctuating weight from scene to scene. There was praise for Diana Rigg's performance, and orchestrator Jonathan Tunick received an Oscar for Best Music, Original Song Score and Its Adaptation or Best Adaptation Score. A soundtrack recording was released on LP, and the film was, for a time, available on VHS and laserdisc. A DVD release was issued in June of 2007. (For more information see .) Opera companies This work has also become part of the repertoire of several opera companies. Michigan Opera Theatre was the first major American opera company to present the work in 1983, and again in November 2009. The New York City Opera staged it in 1990 (winning the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival), 1991, and 2003, the Houston Grand Opera in 1999, and the Los Angeles Opera in 2004. Opera Australia presented the first Australian production by an opera company in Melbourne in May 2009, starring Sigrid Thornton as Desiree Armfeldt. A Little Night Music, Opera Australia Cast recording of 1995 National Theatre revival starring Judi Dench Cast recordings In addition to the original Broadway and London cast recordings, and the motion picture soundtrack (no longer available), there are recordings of the 1990 studio cast, the 1995 Royal National Theatre revival (starring Judi Dench), and the 2001 Barcelona cast recording sung in Catalan. In 1997 an all-jazz version of the score was recorded by Terry Trotter. Plot Act 1Based on the Ingmar Bergman film Smiles of a Summer Night, the play is set in Sweden at the turn of the century. The show opens with a prologue, introducing the Liebeslieder Singers, who begin blending various songs that will be heard later in the play. The other characters of the play enter, engaged in a waltz, but all are uncomfortable with their partners. After the dance, the aging and severe Madame Armfeldt and her solemn granddaughter, Fredrika, enter. Mme Armfeldt tells the child that the summer night "smiles" three times: first on the young, second on fools, and third on the old. Fredrika vows to try and watch the smiles occur. Act One begins, and starts to tell the story of the middle aged Fredrik Egerman, a successful lawyer. He has recently married an 18-year-old trophy wife named Anne, a vain girl who is wholeheartedly in love with Fredrik, but too immature to grasp the concept of marriage. The two have been married for eleven months, but Anne still refuses to sacrifice her virginity. Fredrik sings of his inability to make love to his wife ("Now"). Meanwhile, his son Henrik, who is older than his stepmother by one year, is feeling extremely frustrated with himself. He is a seminary student and, as such, has acquired a rather negative world view ("Later"). Anne is intrigued by his actions, but fails to understand the subtext of what he is saying. The next morning, Anne promises her husband that she will consent to sex shortly ("Soon"). Anne's maidservant Petra, a blunt girl slightly older than the teen herself, offers her rather crass advice on the situation. Meanwhile, another important character is revealed — Desiree Armfeldt, a prominent actress. She and Fredrik were lovers many years ago. Desiree is a rather selfish woman who has shipped her daughter Fredrika to live with Madame Armfeldt. Fredrika misses her mother, but Desiree continually puts off going to see her ("The Glamorous Life"). She happens to be performing near Fredrik's estate, and the lawyer brings Anne to see the play. While there, Desiree instantly remembers Fredrik; the two were lovers years ago. Anne is instantly suspicious of Desiree's amorous glances. Claiming to have a headache, Anne demands that Fredrik bring her home immediately. At the house, Petra has been trying to seduce Henrik. That night, Fredrik's old memories of Desiree float back to the surface of his mind ("Remember"). He slips out to see her, and the two share a happy but obviously strained reunion. They reflect on their new lives, and Fredrik tries to explain how much he loves Anne ("You Must Meet My Wife"). Desiree responds with a sarcastic tone. She happily boasts of her own adultery — she has been seeing a married dragoon. Upon learning that Fredrik has had to go for eleven months without sex, though, Desiree agrees to accommodate him — as an old favor for a friend. The scene moves to the home of Mme. Armfeldt, who offers advice to young Fredrika. The elderly woman reflects poignantly on her own checkered past, and wonders what happened to the typical tryst ("Liaisons"). Back in Desiree's apartment, Count Carl-Magnus Malcom announces his arrival in his typical booming voice. Fredrik and Desiree fool the gullible count into believing that nothing went on between the pair, but the military man is still suspicious. He takes an instant disliking to Fredrik and goes back to his own wife, the Countess Charlotte. Charlotte is apparently aware of her husband's infidelity, but Carl is too absorbed in his own thoughts about Desiree to talk to her ("In Praise of Women"). When she persuades him to blurt out the whole story, a twist is revealed — Charlotte's little sister is a school friend of Anne's. Charlotte goes to Anne, who is talking with Petra. Charlotte explains what Fredrik did; Anne reacts with shock and horror. The older woman explains to Anne that such is the lot of a wife, and that no pain is greater ("Every Day A Little Death"). Meanwhile, Desiree goes to her mother and requests that Madame Armfeldt host a party for Fredrik, Anne, and Henrik. Though reluctant, the elderly woman agrees. She sends out a personal invitation; upon receiving it, the Egerman household is sent into a frenzy ("A Weekend in the Country"). Anne does not want to accept the invitation, but Charlotte convinces her to do so to make Desiree look old compared to the teen's youth. Meanwhile, the Count has plans of his own — as a birthday present to his wife, the pair will attend the party uninvited. Carl plans to defeat Fredrik in a duel during the event, while Charlotte hopes to seduce the lawyer into sex to make her husband insanely jealous and end his insalubrious activities. Act 2Act Two opens on Mme. Armfeldt's estate, which is bathed in the golden glow of perpetual sunset due to the summer season ("Night Waltz One and Two"). Everyone arrives, each holding their own purposes and desires — except, perhaps, Petra, who catches the eye of Mme. Armfeldt's fetching manservant, Frid. All of the women begin to act against each other. Henrik meets Fredrika, and confesses his deep love for Anne to her. Meanwhile, in the garden, Fredrik and Carl reflect on how difficult it is to be annoyed with Desiree ("It Would Have Been Wonderful"). Dinner is served, and all characters believe that the future hinges on that meal ("Perpetual Anticipation"). At dinner, Charlotte begins to flirt with Fredrik, while Anne and Desiree trade insults. Soon, everyone is shouting and scolding everyone else — except Henrik, who finally stands up for himself. He shrieks at them for being completely amoral, and flees the scene. Stunned, everyone reflects on the situation and wanders away. Fredrika tells Anne of Henrik's secret love, and the two dash off searching for him. Meanwhile, Desiree meets Fredrik and asks if he still wants to be "rescued" from his life. Fredrik answers honestly — he loves Desiree, but only as a dream. Hurt and bitter, Desiree can only reveal her opinions on the nature of life through the play's most famous song ("Send in the Clowns"). At the lake on the estate, Anne finds Henrik, who is ready to commit suicide. The clumsy boy cannot complete the task, and Anne tells him that she has feelings for him, too. The pair begins to kiss, which leads to Anne's first sexual encounter. Meanwhile, not far away from the young couple, Frid sleeps in Petra's lap. The maid thinks of the joy and freedom that she longs to have before she is trapped in marriage forever ("The Miller's Son"). Henrik and Anne, full of happiness, leave on a train to start a new life together. Fredrik finds out, but is surprisingly calm about the situation. Charlotte confesses her plan to the lawyer, and the two hold each other on a bench. Carl, preparing to romance Desiree, sees this out of her window and is flooded with jealousy. He challenges Fredrik to a game of Russian Roulette, and the lawyer injures his ear. Feeling victorious, Carl begins to romance Charlotte, granting her wish at last. After the Count and Countess leave, Fredrika and Madame Armfeldt discuss the chaos of the house. The elderly woman then asks Fredrika a surprising question: "What is it all for?" Fredrika thinks on this, and decides that it "must be worth it." Madame Armfeldt is surprised, commenting that she sought material wealth at Fredrika's age. She praises her granddaughter, and remembers the fleeting nature of true love. Desiree descends and asks about the situation. Now free of the bonds that once held him, Fredrik is able to confess his love for the actress. Desiree reveals that Fredrika is Fredrik's daughter, and the two promise to start a new life together ("Finale"). In the play's quiet and powerful final moments, Mme. Armfeldt sits alone with Fredrika. Fredrika tells her grandmother that she has watched carefully, but still has not seen the night smile. Mme. Armfeldt laughs and points out that the night has indeed smiled twice: Henrik and Anne, the young, and Desiree and Fredrik, the fools. As the two wait for the "third smile", Mme. Armfeldt closes her eyes, nods off to sleep, and dies peacefully. The waltz from the opening occurs once more-but now, each character is finally with the right partner. Characters Fredrik Egerman: A successful lawyer. He is married to the 18-year-old Anne and has one son from a previous marriage, Henrik. Fredrik currently feels that his life is empty, and hopes that his old flame Desiree will be able to give him fulfillment. He is reluctant to admit his true feelings. — Baritone Anne Egerman: Fredrik's new, naive wife. She is quite foolish, and is obsessed with material goods such as new dresses and hats. She honestly feels affection for Fredrik, but is too simple-minded to grasp the concept of love. She is, though, quite aware of jealousy. — Soprano Henrik Egerman: Fredrik's son and Anne's stepson. He is a pessimist who enjoys reading the works of negative philosophers as he studies to enter a seminary. He feels that the entire world is a sea of sin, and is terrified when he realizes that he loves his stepmother. — Tenor Petra: Anne's maid and best friend. She is a saucy young woman who is perhaps the freest of the characters to love and enjoy life. Anne tells her everything, often appreciating the maid's blunt advice and sexual prowess. — Mezzo-soprano Desiree Armfeldt: A self-absorbed actress. Desiree floats through life enjoying herself, ignoring her more mature duties as a mother. She had an affair with Fredrik years ago, which led to the birth of her daughter. — Mezzo-soprano Fredrika Armfeldt: Desiree's daughter, born of the actress's and Fredrik's affair (unbeknownst to Fredrik). She is thirteen years old, but often exhibits more maturity than the other characters in the play. She spends most of her time listening to the advice of her grandmother. — Soprano Madame Armfeldt: Desiree's mother. She is old, serious, and waiting to die. She had a highly successful career as a courtesan, and kept her head even during her numerous trysts with royalty. She is currently raising Fredrika, offering her odd but important advice. — Alto Count Carl-Magnus Malcom: A military buffoon who is Desiree's latest lover. He boasts of typically "manly" things, but is easily confused. He is suspicious of Desiree cheating on him with Fredrik, while ignoring his wife. — Baritone Charlotte Malcom: Count Carl's wife. She seems to be quite aware of his infidelity, and though she knows that her husband is an idiot, she cannot help but love him. She conspires with Anne to destroy Desiree. - Mezzo-soprano Frid: Madame Armfeldt's manservant. He enjoys an encounter with Petra when everyone comes to the Armfeldt estate. The Liebeslieder Singers: a group of five singers that act as a Greek chorus. They wander through the action and explain what is happening. Prince said that these characters represent "...people in the show who aren't wasting time...the play is about wasting time." Gussow, Mel, "Prince Revels in 'A Little Night Music'", The New York Times, p. 54, March 27, 1973 Music Virtually all of the music in the show is written in waltz (3/4) time or variants thereof (such as compound meter, a time signature like 12/8, for example); brief passages in "Overture", "Glamorous Life", "Liaisons", and "The Miller's Son" are in duple meter. The work is often performed as an operetta in many professional opera companies; the score makes heavy demands on performers, with extensive use of counterpoint. There is an oblique Mozart reference in the title — A Little Night Music is an occasionally used translation of Eine kleine Nachtmusik, the nickname of Mozart's Serenade No. 13 for strings in G major, K. 525. The elegant, harmonically-advanced music in this musical pays indirect homage to the compositions of Maurice Ravel, especially his Valses nobles et sentimentales (whose opening chord is "borrowed" for the opening chord of the song "Liaisons"); part of this effect stems from the style of orchestration that Jonathan Tunick used. Ironically, the show's best-known song was almost an afterthought. Sondheim initially conceived Desiree as a role for a more-or-less non-singing actress. When he discovered that the original Desiree, Glynis Johns, was able to sing but not to sustain a note, he devised Send in the Clowns for her in a way that would work around her vocal weakness, e.g., by ending lines with consonants that made for a short cut-off. Musical numbers Act 1 Overture — Mr. Lindquist, Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Anderssen, Mr. Erlanson and Mrs. Segstrom (Quintet) Night Waltz — Company Now — Fredrik Egerman Later — Henrik Egerman Soon — Anne Egerman, Henrik Egerman and Fredrik Egerman The Glamorous Life — Fredrika Armfeldt, Desiree Armfeldt, Malla, Madame Armfeldt and Quintet Remember? — Quintet You Must Meet My Wife — Desiree Armfeldt and Fredrik Egerman Liaisons — Madame Armfeldt In Praise of Women — Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm Every Day a Little Death — Countess Charlotte Malcolm and Anne Egerman Weekend in the Country — Company Act 2 Night Waltz I (The Sun Won't Set) — Quintet Night Waltz II (The Sun Sits Low) — Quintet It Would Have Been Wonderful — Fredrik Egerman and Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm Perpetual Anticipation — Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Segstrom and Mrs. Anderssen Send in the Clowns — Desiree Armfeldt Silly People — Frid (cut in rehearsals) The Miller's Son — Petra Send in the Clowns (reprise) — Desiree Armfeldt, Fredrik Egerman Last Waltz — Orchestra Awards and nominations 1973 Tony Awards Tony Award for Best Musical - Harold Prince, producer (WINNER) Tony Award for Best Book of a Musical - Hugh Wheeler (WINNER) Tony Award for Best Original Score - Stephen Sondheim (WINNER) Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical - Glynis Johns (WINNER) Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical - Patricia Elliott (WINNER) Tony Award for Best Costume Design - Florence Klotz (WINNER) Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical - Len Cariou Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical - Laurence Guittard Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical - Hermione Gingold Tony Award for Best Scenic Design - Boris Aronson Tony Award for Best Lighting Design - Tharon Musser Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical - Harold Prince 1973 Drama Desk Awards Drama Desk Awards for Outstanding Book - Hugh Wheeler (WINNER) Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics - Stephen Sondheim (WINNER) Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Music - Stephen Sondheim (WINNER) Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Performance - Starring: Patricia Elliott (WINNER) Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Performance - Starring: Glynis Johns (nominee) Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director - Harold Prince (WINNER) Drama Desk Award for Most Promising Performer - D'Jamin Bartlett (WINNER) 1973 Theatre World Awards D. Jamin-Bartlett Patricia Elliott Laurence Guittard 1973 Grammy Awards Best Score from the Original Cast Show Album - Stephen Sondheim, composer. Goddard Lieberson, producer. (WINNER) 1995 Olivier Awards Olivier Award for Best Costume Designer - Nicky Gillibrand Olivier Award for Best Theatre Choreographer - Wayne McGregor Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical - Judi Dench (WINNER) Olivier Award for Best Supporting Performance in a Musical - Sian Phillips References External links A Little Night Music on The Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide MTI Shows A Little Night Music info page on StageAgent.com - A Little Night Music plot summary & character descriptions | A_Little_Night_Music |@lemmatized little:15 night:24 music:20 musical:17 lyric:3 stephen:8 sondheim:8 book:3 hugh:3 wheeler:3 inspire:1 ingmar:2 bergman:2 film:9 smile:7 summer:4 involve:2 romantic:1 life:13 several:3 couple:2 set:5 almost:2 entirely:2 waltz:10 time:12 include:3 song:6 send:8 clown:6 title:2 english:1 mi:1 translation:2 german:1 name:2 mozart:3 serenade:2 string:2 g:3 major:3 eine:2 kleine:2 nachtmusik:2 production:11 broadway:7 open:8 shubert:1 theatre:12 february:2 close:4 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5,015 | List_of_mathematics_competitions | Mathematics competitions or mathematical olympiads are competitive events where participants write a mathematics test. These tests may require multiple choice or numeric answers, or a detailed written solution or proof. In the United States, usually only competitions where the participants write a full proof are called Mathematical Olympiads. International mathematics competitions Vojtěch Jarník International Mathematical Competition — international competition for undergraduate students. The Competition is held at the University of Ostrava every year in March or April. (http://vjimc.osu.cz/) China Girls Math Olympiad (CGMO) — Olympiad held annually in different cities in China for teams of girls representing regions within China and a number of other countries as well. World Mathematics Challenge (WMC); an international competition for high school students. International Mathematics Competition for University Students (IMC) — international competition for undergraduate students. (http://www.imc-math.org.uk/) International Scientific Olympiad on Mathematics for Undergraduate University Students (ISOM) — competition for undergraduates held annually in Iran. (http://olympiad.sanjesh.org/en/index.asp) Invitational World Youth Mathematics Inter-city Competition (IWYMIC) — held annually in different cities in China for students under 15.5 years old worldwide: (http://www.jdfz.com.cn/yqs/english/all.asp) South Eastern European Mathematical Olympiad for First and Second Year University Students with International Participation (SEEMOUS) — competition for the Balkan region; however, participation is international. The first Olympiad was held in Cyprus, 7–12 March 2007, the second in Greece, 5–10 March 2008, the third in Cyprus, 4–9 March 2009, the forth is to be held in Bulgaria in 2010, the fifth in Romania in 2011. (http://www.seemous.eu/ and http://www.hms.gr/seemous08/) International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) — The oldest international Olympiad, occurring annually since 1959. Mathematical Contest in Modeling (MCM) — team contest for undergraduates (http://www.comap.com/undergraduate/contests/mcm/) Interdisciplinary Contest in Modeling (ICM) — team contest for undergraduates (http://www.comap.com/undergraduate/contests/icm/) Purple Comet! Math Meet — annual on-line team contest for high school & middle school (http://purplecomet.org/) Primary Mathematics World Contest (PMWC) — worldwide competition. Tournament of the Towns — worldwide competition. Mathematical Kangaroo — worldwide competition. Championnat International de Jeux Mathématiques et Logiques — for all ages, mainly for French-speaking countries, but participation is not limited by language. (http://ffjm.cijm.org) Romanian Masters in Mathematics — This is an olympiad for the selections of the 20 top countries in the last IMO. The level of the competition is IMO-like. The format is 4 problems in 5 hours. Rocket City Math League (RCML). This is a mathematics competition run by students at Virgil I. Grissom High School with levels ranging from Explorer (Pre-Algebra) to Discovery (Comprehensive). (www.rocketcitymath.org) Regional mathematics competitions AITMO (Asian Inter-city Teenagers Mathematics Olympiad) — for junior secondary students around the Eastern Asian region (http://www.pemic2005.org/) APMO (Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad) — Pacific rim Balkan Mathematical Olympiad — for students from 15.5 years old from Balkan area Baltic Way — Baltic area. Junior Balkan Mathematical Olympiad — for students under 15.5 years old from Balkan area MEMO (Middle European Mathematical Olympiad) — Germany, Croatia, Austria, Poland, Switzerland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Hungary NMC (Nordic mathematical competition) — the five Nordic countries Nordic university-level mathematics team-competition — For Nordic undergraduates. OIM (Olimpíadas Iberoamericanas de Matemática) — Spain, Portugal and Latin America Olimpiada de mayo (Competitions for selecting the participants of Olimpiada Matematica Rioplatence) Olimpiada Iberoamericana de Matematicas para Estudiantes Universitarios (Similar Olimpiada Iberoamericana de Matematica but it is for collage students) Olimpiada Matematica Rioplatense (It is similar Olimpiada Iberoamericana de Matematica but it is every year in Argentina and participants are organized in levels depending on the age) Olimpiada Matematica de Centroamérica y del Caribe — Central America and the Caribbean Olimpiada Matematica de Paises del Cono Sur — 8 countries from South America Romanian Master in Mathematics — Europe SEAMO (SEAMEO Mathematics Olympiad) — South-East Asia SEAMC(South East Asian Mathematics Competition) — South-East Asia (http://hseagle.sas.edu.sg/seamc/) William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition — USA and Canada (http://www.maa.org/awards/putnam.html ) APMOPS (Singapore - Asia Pacific Mathematical Olympiad for Primary Schools) — open to Primary Students under 12 in Australia, Brunei, China (Shanghai, Hainan, Xiamen, Wenchou), Hong Kong, Indonesia (Jakarta), Malaysia: (Johor, Kuala Lumpur, Selangor- Petaling Jaya), Penang, Perak- Ipoh, Kedah), New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, The Philippines & India. (http://www.hci.sg/aphelion/apmops/index.htm) ZIMO (Zhautykov International Mathematical Olympiad) — for teams from specialized schools in post-soviet region (http://izho2008.fiz-mat.kz/) Hungary-Israel Mathematical Competition. It was established in 1990. Only this 2 countries participate and one is the host. It is hold in spring. It consist of individual and team contests. Tuymaada Yakut Olympiad. Multidisciplinary competition for students from Romania, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Tartastan, Saint Petersburg, Irkutsk, Vladivostok, Novokuznetsk, Perm and other Russian cities. It is held in July; few students obtain prizes. Donova Mathematical Olympiad. Olympiad for all countries through which the Danube passes. Held since 2005. Mediterranean Mathematics Olympiad. Olympiad for countries in the Mediterrean zone. PAMO (Pan African Mathematics Olympiad) Austrian-Polish Mathematics Competition (last held in 2006) Czesk-Polish-Slovak Match. Established in 1995 under the name of Czesk-Slovak Match Poland joined in 2001. It is held in June in the IMO format. National mathematics competitions Albania Olimpiada VIII Kombëtare e Matematikës dhe e Formimit të Përgjithshëm. Argentina OMA (Olimpíada Matemática Argentina, http://www.oma.org.ar ) Olimpiada Matematica Ñandu Certamen "El numero de oro" Torneo Computacion y Matematicas Olimpiadas provinciales y Metropolitanas Australia Australasian Problem Solving Mathematical Olympiads (APSMO) (http://www.apsmo.info) AMC (http://www.amt.edu.au Australian Mathematics Competition) AMO (http://www.amt.edu.au Australian Mathematical Olympiad) AIMO (Australian Intermediate Mathematical Olympiad) UNSW School Mathematics Competition (http://www.maths.unsw.edu.au/highschool/unsw/highcomps.html) ICAS-Mathematics (http://www.eaa.unsw.edu.au/about_icas/mathematics formerly Australasian Schools Mathematics Assessment) APMOPS (Singapore - Asia Pacific Mathematical Olympiad for Primary Schools:http://www.hwachong.edu.sg/aphelion/apmops) Have Sum Fun Online - an online team competition from the Mathematics Association of West Australia (http://www.havesumfunonline.com/ ) Austria ÖMO (Österreichische Mathematik Olympiade) (http://www.oemo.at ) Belgium French-speaking students can compete in the OMB (Olympiade Mathématique Belge) consisting of three categories: Mini (grades 7 and 8) Mide (grades 9 and 10) Maxi (grades 11 and 12) Dutch-speaking students can compete in the VWO (Vlaamse Wiskunde Olympiade), with two categories: Junior Wiskunde Olympiade (grades 9 and 10) Vlaamse Wiskunde Olympiade (grades 11 and 12) Brazil There are two national competitions in Brazil: the oldest one, OBM, dates back to 1979 and is open to all students, from fifth grade to university. The other one, OBMEP, was created in 2005 and is open to public school students from fifth grade to high school. In 2008 counted with the participation of 18,3 million students on the first round. OBM (Olimpíada Brasileira de Matemática, http://www.obm.org.br/) OBMEP (Olimpíada Brasileira de Matemática das Escolas Públicas, http://www.obmep.org.br/) There are also many regional competitions, usually open to all students of a given state. OPM (Olimpíada Paulista de Matemática, http://www.opm.mat.br/) OMERJ (Olimpíada de Matemática do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, http://www.omerj.com.br/) Bulgaria Bulgarian Competition in Mathematics and Informatics http://www.math.bas.bg/bcmi/ Canada National competitions hosted by Mathematica : The Mathematics Contest Centre: Multiple Choice: Newton Contest (9th grade students) Lagrange Contest (8th grade students) Euler Contest (7th grade students) Pythagoras Contest (6th grade students) Fibonacci Contest (5th grade students) Byron-Germain Contest (4th grade students) Thales Contest (3rd grade students) National competitions hosted by The Centre for Education in Mathematics and Computing: Full Solutions: Euclid (12th grade students) Hypatia (11th grade students) Galois (10th grade students) Fryer (9th grade students) Multiple Choice: Fermat (11th grade students) Cayley (10th grade students) Pascal (9th grade students) Gauss (7th and 8th grade students) Other competitions hosted by The Canadian Mathematical Society: Canadian Open Mathematics Challenge Canadian Mathematics Olympiad, the official mathematical Olympiad of Canada and its International Mathematical Olympiad TST, or team selection test. MATHChallengers (formerly MathCounts BC) is called MathChallengers since 2005. It is hosted by APEGBC. China CMO (China Mathematics Olympiad 中国数学奥林匹克) CWMO (Western China Mathematics Olympiad) CGMO (China Girl Mathematics Olympiad) — for female secondary students CSMO (South-eastern China Mathematics Olympiad) — for secondary 4 students CNMO (China Northern Mathematics Olympiad) National high school math League 全国高中数学联赛 QAIS (Qingdao American International School 青岛美国国际学校) stock market trading, bridge building and siege engines Grades 7 - 12 Cyprus Cyprus Mathematical Olympiad - Mathematics competitions for students in every grade. Junior high-school (Gymnasium) Competitions - For students under 15.5 years old (1st, 2nd, and 3rd grade of Gymnasium) High School (Lyceum) Competitions- For students above 15.5 years old (1st, 2nd, and 3rd grade of Lyceum) European Kangourou Mathematics Competition Czech Republic MO (Czech National Mathematics Olympiad, http://www.math.muni.cz/~rvmo) Vojtech Jarnik Competition (International Mathematics Competition for University Students held annually in Ostrava, http://vjimc.osu.cz) PraSe (Prague Mathematics Correspondence Seminar for Secondary School Students, http://mks.mff.cuni.cz) Brkos (Brno Mathematical Correspondence Seminar for Secondary School Students, http://www.math.muni.cz/~brkos) Denmark Georg Mohr (Contest for Danish high school students, see http://www.georgmohr.dk for more details [note: in Danish]) Germany DeMO (Deutsche Mathematik-Olympiade / German Math Olympiad, http://www.mathematik-olympiaden.de) BWM (Bundeswettbewerb Mathematik / Federal Math Competition , http://www.bundeswettbewerb-mathematik.de), AIMO (Auswahlwettbewerb zur Internationalen Mathematik-Olympiade / Team selection tests for the IMO, http://www.bundeswettbewerb-mathematik.de/imo/main.htm) LWMB (Landeswettbewerb Mathematik Bayern / Bavarian Math Competition, http://lwmb.de), LWM (Landeswettbewerb Mathematik Baden-Württemberg / Math Competition of Baden-Württemberg, http://landeswettbewerb-mathematik.de) Greece Θαλής (Thales) - first round Ευκλείδης (Euclides) - second round Αρχιμήδης (Archimedes) - third round Λευκοπούλειος Διαγωνισμός Πιθανοτήτων και Στατιστικής - "Leukopouleios" Contest on Probabilities And Statistics - a competition that is not related to IMO, organised by ESI (National Statistic Institut) Math Kangaroo Competition Seen also Hellenic Mathematical Society Hong Kong Hong Kong Mathematics Olympiad The Hong Kong Mathematical High Achievers Selection Contest. Only Form 1 to form 3 students may participate in this contest. International Mathematical Olympiad Preliminary Selection Contest - Hong Kong (IMO HK Prelim, Official Website) Pui Ching Invitational Mathematics Competition (Official Website) Inter-school Mathematics Contest, a yearly contest organized by the Hong Kong Joint School Mathematics Society. Hungary Miklos Schweitzer Competition Nemzetközi Kenguru Matematika Verseny (3rd to 12th grade students)Homepage: http://www.zalamat.hu/ Kalmár László Országos Matematika Verseny (3rd to 8th grade students) Zrínyi Ilona Országos Matematika Verseny (3rd to 8th grade students) Varga Tamás Matematika Verseny (7th and 8th grade students) Bátaszéki Matematika Verseny (3rd to 8th grade students) Középiskolai Matematikai Lapok (a year-long contest, each month you have to submit solutions to some problems, 9th-12th grade, Homepage in English: http://www.komal.hu/info/bemutatkozas.e.shtml ) ADMV (Arany Dániel Matematika Verseny, 9th and 10th grade students) Gordiusz Matematika Tesztverseny (9th to 12th grade students) OKTV (Országos Középiskolai Tanulmányi Verseny, 11th and 12th grade) Kürschák József (first year university students or below) India Proof-based Mathematics Olympiads Regional Mathematical Olympiads held in every region. Leads to participation in Indian National Mathematical Olympiad, held every year as a part of selection process for International Mathematical Olympiad. National Mathematics Talent Exams conducted by The Association of Mathematics Teachers of India, Chennai (For Vth to XIIth) Math Olympiad in Delhi-region by names BeginnersMO, PrimaryMO, ElementaryMO, JuniorMO, SeniorMO for classes VIth to Xth respectively. Results for 2007 Application-based Mathematics Contests International Assessments for Indian Schools ( http://www.iais.emacmillan.com/mathematics_assessment.htm) South Indian Mathematical Olympiad Foundation , Bangalore (For VIth to XIIth) IMO by Science Olympiad Foundation, Bangalore[www.sofworld.org]. (Imp.- This is International only in name, is different from International Mathematical Olympiad as it has 'Mathematics' not 'Mathematical in its name, this is conducted by an indian NGO)(For IIIrd to XIIth) Indonesia Olimpiade Sains Nasional. A science olympiad held at the national level for wide variety of subjects, including mathematics. http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olimpiade_Sains_Nasional Iran Preliminary Mathematics Olympiad, which successful applicants compete against one another on Iranian Olympiad Level 2 competitions, then they proceeded to compete for top six places in the country so they could participate in the International Mathematics Olympiad as representatives of Iran. Ireland Irish Mathematical Societies Association Intervarsites. An annual event in which teams representing the mathematical societies of their respective colleges compete in an Olympiad styled event. The Irish Mathematical Olympiad, an annual competition held in May each year. Students that perform well in the Junior Certificate are invited to take part in training programmes, leading up to the competition. Problem Solving for Irish Second Level Mathematicians (PRISM), a competition for secondary school students, organised by NUI Galway but held in the students' own schools. There are two competitions - one for junior students, and another for seniors (http://www.maths.nuigalway.ie/PRISM/). Team Math is held annually for secondary school students. Israel The Grossman Olympiad for high school students. The Tel-Aviv university also participates in the William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition. Italy Olimpiadi Italiane della Matematica (Italian Mathematical Olympiad). This is the national qualifying stage of the International Mathematical Olympiad. Campionati Internazionali di Giochi Matematici (International Mathematical Game Championship). This is the national qualifying stage of the Championnat International de Jeux Mathématiques et Logiques. Kangourou della Matematica (Mathematics Kangaroo). This is the national version of the Mathematical Kangaroo. South Korea KMO (Korean Mathematical Olympiad, http://www.kms.or.kr/home/kmo/) KMC (Korean Mathematics Competition, http://www.kmath.co.kr/) KME (Korean Mathematics Evaluation, http://www.kerei.net/) Macau, China Macao Mathematical Olympiad (Chinese homepage: http://www.sftw.umac.mo/~fstitl/olympiad/index.html ) Macedonia Regional Competition Republic Competition (different problems for each grade) JMMO (Junior Macedonian Maths Olympiad) (all students younger than 15.5 years have same questions) MMO (Macedonian Maths Olympiad) (all students older than 15.5 years have same questions) Official web-site (in Macedonian): http://smm.org.mk/ Malaysia OMK (Olimpiad Matematik Kebangsaan / National Mathematical Olympiad), an annual competition organized by the Malaysian Mathematical Sciences Society, http://www.persama.org.my ICAS-Mathematics (in English) (http://www.eats.com.my/about-icas/mathematics) Mexico MMO (Mexican Mathematical Olympiad ( http://www.omm.unam.mx/ ) in Spanish Mathcounts - held annually at the American school of Puebla and open to ASOMEX students. ONMAS (Olimpiada nacional de matematicas para alumnos de secundaria) Canguro Matematico (Math Kangaro) Pierre Fermat Contest organized by IPN Olimpiada de Mayo(The selective exam for Olimpiada Rioplatense de Matematias) Myanmar Netherlands NWO (Nederlandse Wiskunde Olympiade, http://wiskundeolympiade.nl/) New Zealand Australasian Problem Solving Mathematical Olympiads (APSMO) (http://www.apsmo.info) ICAS-Mathematics (http://www.eaa.unsw.edu.au/) Otago Problem Challenge (http://www.maths.otago.ac.nz/pc/) Singapore - Asia Pacific Mathematical Olympiad for Primary Schools (APMOPS:http://www.hwachong.edu.sg/aphelion/apmops) Auckland Mathematical Olympiad Eton Press Senior Mathematics Competition Australian Mathematics Competition (http://www.amt.canberra.edu.au/) National Bank Junior Mathematics Competition (NBJMC) (http://www.maths.otago.ac.nz/nbjmc/JMChome.php) September Problems (IMO Selection) Norway Niels Henrik Abels matematikk-konkurranse (Norwegian Mathematical Olympiad, website available both in Norwegian and English at http://abelkonkurransen.no/) Pakistan In 2006 almost 4,000,000 students from 41 countries played the game world-wide. The world "Kangaroo" center, which coordinates the competition in the various countries, was founded in 1994 in Paris. In Pakistan, the competition was first organized in 2005 by the Pakistan kangaroo Commission. For further information visit Peru National Mathematic Olympiad - ONEM (Olimpiada Nacional Escolar de Matematica) It's the official Olympiad, organized by the Ministry of Education and the Peruvian Mathematical Society in 4 phases. The final phase takes place near to Lima usually in November. Website available in Spanish: http://portal.huascaran.edu.pe/olimpiadas/index.htm CONAMAT - Concurso Nacional de Matematica (Organized by The Science and Humanity National Institute). It's a mathematics competition of multiple choice, it has a Selection process in almost Peruvian cities and the final phase is in LIMA usually in October. Website available in Spanish: http://www.ich.edu.pe/conamat_website/index.htm Philippines Philippine Mathematics Olympiad Metrobank-Mathematics Teachers Association of the Philippines (MTAP)-Department of Education (DepEd) Math Challenge for Grade School and High School Students Annual Search for the Math Wizard - University of the Philippines Mathematics Club Mathematics Trainer's Guild (MTG) mathematics festival MATHirang MATHibay - University of the Philippines Mathematics Majors' Circle Poland Polish Mathematical Olympiad (Website) Portugal Portuguese Mathematics Olympiad - Olimpíadas Portuguesas da Matemática (in Portuguese) Olimpíada Paulistas (with Brazil) Romania Romanian National Olympiad - Annual Contest of Gazeta Matematica "Nicolae Teodorescu" - The Mathemtical Contest Traian Lalescu - [http://www.colegiulnegruzzi.ro/index.php/negruzzi/activitati/premianti-subiecte-si-rezolvari/ Serbia Mathematical competition's in Serbia Singapore Singapore Mathematical Olympiad (SMO) (Website) Singapore - Asia Pacific Mathematical Olympiad for Primary Schools (APMOPS) (Website) National Mathematical Olympiad of Singapore (Website) ICAS-Mathematics (http://www.eaa.unsw.edu.au/products_services/icas/singapore) Slovakia MO Matematická olympiáda http://matematika.okamzite.eu List of Slovak competitions http://www.cs.pitt.edu/~michal/projects/seminar/ KMS Korešpondenčný matematický seminár http://kms.sk/ STROM Korešpondenčný matematický seminár http://www.strom.sk MATMIX Korešpondenčný matematický seminár http://www.matmix.sk SEZAM Korešpondenčný matematický seminár http://www.sezam.sk Sweden Skolornas matematiktävling (see http://www.math.uu.se/~dag/skolornas.html or http://www.math.chalmers.se/~sam/problemet/bok.html for older problems) Högstadiets matematiktävling (http://www.matematiktavling.org/hmt/, open for students in grades 7 through 9) Taiwan Regional competition (http://umath.nuk.edu.tw/~senpengeu/HighSchool for some problems) National competition (http://umath.nuk.edu.tw/~senpengeu/HighSchool for some problems) IMO selection and training camp Thailand 2008 International Mathematics Competition (IMC 2008) http://www.imcthai.net/ National Mathematics Contest http://www.ipst.ac.th/olympic POSN-MO http://www.posn.or.th The Mathematical Association of Thailand Contest http://www.math.or.th/ Diamond Crown http://www.obec.go.th/news48/05_may/27b/project_apply.pdf Sermpanya Mathematics Test http://www.sermpanya.com Mathcenter http://www.mathcenter.net/ Turkey Turkey National Mathematical Olympiad (Türkiye Ulusal Matematik Olimpiyatı (in Turkish), organized by TUBITAK) http://www.tubitak.gov.tr/bideb/ Ukraine Different Mathematics Competitions for school pupils http://matholymp.kiev.ua/ United Kingdom Most competitions are organised by the UK Mathematics Trust. The Primary Mathematics Challenge (for primary school pupils) is organised by the Mathematical Association. The Junior Mathematical Challenge is a multiple-choice competition for students up to year 8 in England and Wales, year S2 in Scotland, year 9 in Northern Ireland. High scorers in the JMC are invited to compete in the Junior Mathematical Olympiad. The Intermediate Mathematical Challenge is a multiple-choice competition for students up to year 11 in England and Wales, year S4 in Scotland, year 12 in Northern Ireland. High scorers in the IMC are invited to compete in the Intermediate Mathematical Olympiad and Kangaroo (for the highest scorers) and in the European Kangaroo (another multiple-choice competition, for other high scorers). The Senior Mathematical Challenge (formerly National Maths Contest) is a multiple-choice competition for students up to year 13 in England and Wales, year S6 in Scotland, year 14 in Northern Ireland. High scorers in the SMC are invited to compete in the British Mathematical Olympiad (http://www.bmoc.maths.org/). There is a Team Maths Challenge for students in England, Wales and Northern Ireland; Scotland has its own Enterprising Mathematics Competition organised by the Scottish Mathematical Council. The UCL Maths Challenge is a competition for Year 6 primary school pupils from London organised by UCL student volunteers (http://www.smnd.sk/kotanyi/maths_challenge/). United States Generally, registering for these contests is based on the grade level of math at which the student works rather than the age or the enrolled grade of the student. National elementary school competitions (grades K-6) ABACUS International Math Challenge (grades 3-8) Continental Mathematics League (grades 2 - 9, Calculus and Computer) Kumon Math Challenge (grades 1-10) Math Kangaroo Competition (grades 2-12) Math League (grades 4-12) Mathematical Olympiads for Elementary and Middle Schools (MOEMS) (grades 4-6 and 7-8) MathFax (grades 3-12) MathWizz (grades K-12) Monthly Math Challenge Problems (grades K-2) Noetic Learning Math Contest (grades 2-5) Online Math League (grades 2-9) SBU Math Contest (grades 3-8) The Math & Logic Contests (grades 2-6) National middle school competitions (grades 6-8) [[{Nonempty Set}]] (middle school) ABACUS International Math Challenge (grades 3-8) American Mathematics Contest 8 (AMC->8), formerly the American Junior High School Mathematics Examination (AJHSME) Continental Mathematics League (grades 2 - 9, Calculus and Computer) Kumon Math Challenge (grades 1-10) Math Kangaroo Competition (grades 2-12) Math League (grades 4-12) MathCounts MathFax (grades 3-12) Mathematical Olympiads for Elementary and Middle Schools (MOEMS) MathWizz (grades K-12) Online Math League (grades 2-9) Rocket City Math League (pre-algebra to calculus) SBU Math Contest (grades 3-8) SIGMA United States of America Mathematical Talent Search (USAMTS) National high school competitions (grades 9-12) American Invitational Mathematics Examination (AIME) American Mathematics Contest 10 (AMC->10) American Mathematics Contest 12 (AMC->12), formerly the American High School Mathematics Examination (AHSME) American Regions Mathematics League (ARML) iTest High School Mathematical Contest in Modeling (HiMCM) Kumon Math Challenge (grades 1-10) Mandelbrot Competition Math Kangaroo Competition (grades 2-12) Math League (grades 4-12) MathFax (grades 3-12) MathWizz (grades K-12) Moody's Mega Math Challenge Mu Alpha Theta National Assessment & Testing Online Math League (grades 2-12) Purple Comet Math Meet United States of America Mathematical Olympiad (USAMO) United States of America Mathematical Talent Search (USAMTS) Rocket City Math League (pre-algebra to calculus) SkillsUSA Related Technical Math National college competitions AMATYC Mathematics Contest Mathematical Contest in Modeling (HiMCM) William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition Regional competitions See List of United States regional mathematics competitions. United States external links K-12 US math contest lists and online resources Homeschool Math Contests: extensive, up to date lists of individual, local, and regional math contests for all students Art of Problem Solving Foundation math contest lists Tennessee University lists of mathematics competitions Uruguay http://www.reu.edu.uy/jpv/proyectos/cpm/ Information about "Com-partida de matemática del Uruguay" Vietnam Vietnam Mathematical Olympiad - Official National Contest for mathematics talents. 30/4 Olympiad for Mathematics - Regional Olympiad in the Southern Vietnam (for students in provinces from Quang Tri to Ca Mau). See also Soviet Student Olympiads Math Scholarship Competitions References | List_of_mathematics_competitions |@lemmatized mathematics:93 competition:91 mathematical:76 olympiad:89 competitive:1 event:3 participant:4 write:3 test:6 may:3 require:1 multiple:8 choice:8 numeric:1 answer:1 detailed:1 solution:3 proof:3 united:7 state:8 usually:4 full:2 call:2 international:28 vojtěch:1 jarník:1 undergraduate:9 student:76 hold:19 university:12 ostrava:2 every:5 year:24 march:4 april:1 http:87 vjimc:2 osu:2 cz:5 china:12 girl:3 math:61 cgmo:2 annually:7 different:5 city:9 team:13 represent:2 region:7 within:1 number:1 country:11 well:2 world:5 challenge:17 wmc:1 high:20 school:42 imc:4 www:69 org:16 uk:2 scientific:1 isom:1 iran:3 sanjesh:1 en:1 index:6 asp:2 invitational:3 youth:1 inter:3 iwymic:1 old:9 worldwide:4 jdfz:1 com:9 cn:1 yqs:1 english:4 south:9 eastern:3 european:4 first:6 second:4 participation:5 seemous:2 balkan:5 however:1 cyprus:4 greece:2 third:2 forth:1 bulgaria:2 fifth:3 romania:3 eu:2 hm:1 gr:1 imo:11 occur:1 since:3 contest:48 modeling:4 mcm:2 comap:2 interdisciplinary:1 icm:2 purple:2 comet:2 meet:2 annual:6 line:1 middle:6 purplecomet:1 primary:9 pmwc:1 tournament:1 town:1 kangaroo:11 championnat:2 de:27 jeux:2 mathématiques:2 et:2 logiques:2 age:3 mainly:1 french:2 speaking:3 limit:1 language:1 ffjm:1 cijm:1 romanian:3 master:2 selection:9 top:2 last:2 level:8 like:1 format:2 problem:13 hour:1 rocket:3 league:13 rcml:1 run:1 virgil:1 grissom:1 range:1 explorer:1 pre:3 algebra:3 discovery:1 comprehensive:1 rocketcitymath:1 regional:9 aitmo:1 asian:4 teenager:1 junior:11 secondary:7 around:1 apmo:1 pacific:6 rim:1 area:3 baltic:2 way:1 memo:1 germany:2 croatia:1 austria:2 poland:3 switzerland:1 slovakia:2 slovenia:1 czech:3 republic:3 hungary:3 nmc:1 nordic:4 five:1 oim:1 olimpíadas:2 iberoamericanas:1 matemática:8 spain:1 portugal:2 latin:1 america:6 olimpiada:14 mayo:2 select:1 matematica:12 rioplatence:1 iberoamericana:3 matematicas:3 para:2 estudiantes:1 universitarios:1 similar:2 collage:1 rioplatense:2 argentina:3 organize:8 depend:1 centroamérica:1 del:3 caribe:1 central:1 caribbean:1 paises:1 cono:1 sur:1 europe:1 seamo:1 seameo:1 east:3 asia:6 seamc:2 hseagle:1 sa:1 edu:16 sg:4 william:3 lowell:3 putnam:4 usa:1 canada:3 maa:1 award:1 html:5 apmops:7 singapore:9 open:7 australia:3 brunei:1 shanghai:1 hainan:1 xiamen:1 wenchou:1 hong:6 kong:6 indonesia:2 jakarta:1 malaysia:2 johor:1 kuala:1 lumpur:1 selangor:1 petaling:1 jaya:1 penang:1 perak:1 ipoh:1 kedah:1 new:2 zealand:2 korea:2 taiwan:2 philippine:6 india:3 hci:1 aphelion:3 htm:5 zimo:1 zhautykov:1 specialized:1 post:1 soviet:2 fiz:1 mat:2 kz:1 israel:2 establish:2 participate:4 one:5 host:5 spring:1 consist:1 individual:2 tuymaada:1 yakut:1 multidisciplinary:1 kazakhstan:1 moldova:1 tartastan:1 saint:1 petersburg:1 irkutsk:1 vladivostok:1 novokuznetsk:1 perm:1 russian:1 july:1 obtain:1 prize:1 donova:1 danube:1 pass:1 mediterranean:1 mediterrean:1 zone:1 pamo:1 pan:1 african:1 austrian:1 polish:3 czesk:2 slovak:3 match:2 name:4 join:1 june:1 national:29 albania:1 viii:1 kombëtare:1 e:3 matematikës:1 dhe:1 formimit:1 të:1 përgjithshëm:1 oma:2 olimpíada:6 ar:1 ñandu:1 certamen:1 el:1 numero:1 oro:1 torneo:1 computacion:1 olimpiadas:2 provinciales:1 metropolitanas:1 australasian:3 solve:4 apsmo:4 info:3 amc:4 amt:3 au:7 australian:4 amo:1 aimo:2 intermediate:3 unsw:6 highschool:3 highcomps:1 icas:6 eaa:3 formerly:5 assessment:3 hwachong:2 sum:1 fun:1 online:6 association:6 west:1 havesumfunonline:1 ömo:1 österreichische:1 mathematik:10 olympiade:8 oemo:1 belgium:1 compete:8 omb:1 mathématique:1 belge:1 consisting:1 three:1 category:2 mini:1 grades:5 mide:1 maxi:1 dutch:1 vwo:1 vlaamse:2 wiskunde:4 two:3 brazil:3 obm:3 date:2 back:1 grade:66 obmep:3 create:1 public:1 count:1 million:1 round:4 brasileira:2 br:4 da:2 escolas:1 públicas:1 also:4 many:1 give:1 opm:2 paulista:1 omerj:2 estado:1 rio:1 janeiro:1 bulgarian:1 informatics:1 ba:1 bg:1 bcmi:1 mathematica:1 centre:2 newton:1 lagrange:1 euler:1 pythagoras:1 fibonacci:1 byron:1 germain:1 thales:2 education:3 computing:1 euclid:1 hypatia:1 galois:1 fryer:1 fermat:2 cayley:1 pascal:1 gauss:1 canadian:3 society:7 official:6 tst:1 mathchallengers:2 mathcounts:3 bc:1 apegbc:1 cmo:1 中国数学奥林匹克:1 cwmo:1 western:1 female:1 csmo:1 cnmo:1 northern:5 全国高中数学联赛:1 qais:1 qingdao:1 american:9 青岛美国国际学校:1 stock:1 market:1 trading:1 bridge:1 building:1 siege:1 engine:1 gymnasium:2 lyceum:2 kangourou:2 mo:4 muni:2 rvmo:1 vojtech:1 jarnik:1 prase:1 prague:1 correspondence:2 seminar:3 mks:1 mff:1 cuni:1 brkos:2 brno:1 denmark:1 georg:1 mohr:1 danish:2 see:5 georgmohr:1 dk:1 detail:1 note:1 demo:1 deutsche:1 german:1 olympiaden:1 bwm:1 bundeswettbewerb:3 federal:1 auswahlwettbewerb:1 zur:1 internationalen:1 main:1 lwmb:2 landeswettbewerb:3 bayern:1 bavarian:1 lwm:1 baden:2 württemberg:2 θαλής:1 ευκλείδης:1 euclides:1 αρχιμήδης:1 archimedes:1 λευκοπούλειος:1 διαγωνισμός:1 πιθανοτήτων:1 και:1 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5,016 | Mickey_Hart | Mickey Hart (born Michael Steven Hartman on September 11, 1943) is a percussionist and musicologist. He is best known as one of the two drummers of the rock band the Grateful Dead. He was a member of the Grateful Dead from September 1967 to February 1971, and from October 1974 to August 1995. He and fellow Dead drummer Bill Kreutzmann earned the nickname "the rhythm devils". Career Before joining the Grateful Dead, Mickey Hart and his father, Leonard Hart, a champion rudimental drummer, owned and operated Hart Music, selling drums and musical instruments in San Carlos, California. Hart joined the Grateful Dead in September 1967, and left in February 1971. During his sabbatical, in 1972, he recorded the album Rolling Thunder. He returned to the Dead in 1974, and remained with the group until their official dissolution in 1995. Collaboration with the remaining members of the Grateful Dead continues, under the band name The Dead. Alongside his work with the Grateful Dead, Mickey Hart has flourished as a solo artist, percussionist, and the author of several books. In these endeavors he has pursued a lifelong interest in ethnomusicology and in world music. His travels and his interest in all things percussion-related led him to collect percussion instruments, and to collaborate with percussion masters the world over. Hart became interested in percussion as a grade-school student. Nigerian drummer Babatunde Olatunji performed at schools around the country in the late 1950s and had the students try out the drums. Hart had been one of those students and he never forgot the experience. Olatunji later taught Hart and collaborated with Hart and the Grateful Dead on a regular basis. African Music Encyclopedia Hart was influential in recording global musical traditions on the verge of possible extinction, working with archivists and ethnomusicologists at both the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress, and the Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage at the Smithsonian Institution. He is on the Board of Trustees of the American Folklife Center and has been a spokesperson for the Save Our Sounds audio preservation initiative. He also serves on the Library of Congress National Recorded Sound Preservation Board and is known for reissues and other recordings with historical and cultural value. In 1991, Hart produced the album Planet Drum, which remained at #1 on the Billboard World Music Chart for 26 weeks, Smith, E. "Doc". "Planet Drum Comes to the Masonic", BeyondChron, September 22, 2006 and received the first ever Grammy Award for Best World Music Album. "The Grammy Winners", New York Times, February 27, 1992 . Mickey Hart has written books on the history and traditions of drumming throughout history. His solo recordings (featuring a variety of guest musicians) are percussive of course, but also verge on New Age music categorically. His enthusiasm for world music traditions and preservation and collaborative efforts is comparable to that of guitarist Ry Cooder. In 2000, Mickey Hart became a member of the Board of Directors of the Institute for Music and Neurologic Function, a not-for-profit organization whose mission is to seek to establish new knowledge and develop more effective therapies which awaken, stimulate and heal through the extraordinary power of music Mission of the Institute for Music and Neurologic Function -- continuing his investigation into the connection between healing and rhythm, and the neural basis of rhythm. In 2003, he was honored with the organization’s Music Has Power Award, recognizing his advocacy and continuous commitment to raising public awareness of the positive effect of music Past Music Has Power Awards Honorees . After the death of Jerry Garcia and the consequent dissolution of the Grateful Dead in 1995, Hart continued to play music with various groups including members of the Grateful Dead. In the 1996 Furthur Festival, Mickey Hart's Mystery Box played, as did Bob Weir's band Ratdog. In 2005, Hart and the members of the band Particle joined to create the Hydra Project. During 2006, Hart teamed up with fellow Grateful Dead bandmate Bill Kreutzmann, Phish bassist Mike Gordon and former The Other Ones lead guitarist Steve Kimock, to form the Rhythm Devils, a nickname that refers to Hart and Kreutzmann's legendary drum solos and improvisation. The band features songs from their respective repertoires as well as new songs written by Jerry Garcia's songwriting companion Robert Hunter. The Rhythm Devils announced their first tour in 2006, which ended at the popular Vegoose festival in Las Vegas, Nevada over the Halloween weekend. In June and July 2008, Hart led the Mickey Hart Band on a U.S. concert tour. The band consists of Hart, Steve Kimock on guitar and pedal steel guitar, George Porter, Jr. on bass, Kyle Hollingsworth on keyboards, Sikiru Adepoju on talking drum, Walfredo Reyes, Jr. on drums, and Jen Durkin on vocals. Graff, Gary. "Hart: The Dead Happy To Rock Again For Obama", Billboard, July 1, 2008 Pizek, Jeff. "Mickey Hart: Unity, Healing through the Beat", Daily Herald, July 4, 2008 Kilgore, Kym. "Mickey Hart Band Drums Up US Tour", Live Daily, May 23, 2008 Bibliography Planet Drum: A Celebration of Percussion and Rhythm (1991) Drumming at the Edge of Magic: A Journey into the Spirit of Percussion (1998) Songcatchers: In Search of the World's Music (2003) Spirit into Sound: The Magic of Music (2006) Solo discography Rolling Thunder (1972) – Mickey Hart Diga (1976) – Diga Rhythm Band The Rhythm Devils Play River Music (1980) – The Rhythm Devils Däfos (1983) – Mickey Hart, Airto Moreira, Flora Purim Yamantaka (1983) – Mickey Hart, Henry Wolff, Nancy Hennings Music to be Born By (1989) – Mickey Hart At the Edge (1990) – Mickey Hart Planet Drum (1991) – Mickey Hart The Apocalypse Now Sessions (1991) – The Rhythm Devils Mickey Hart's Mystery Box (1996) – Mickey Hart Supralingua (1998) – Mickey Hart Spirit into Sound (2000) – Mickey Hart The Best of Mickey Hart: Over the Edge and Back (2002) – Mickey Hart Global Drum Project (2007) – Mickey Hart, Zakir Hussain, Sikiru Adepoju, Giovanni Hidalgo The Rhythm Devils Concert Experience (2008 – DVD) – The Rhythm Devils Notes References Mickey Hart on the Internet Movie Database Mickey Hart discography on DeadDisc.com Hydra Mickey Hart at The Music Box - A collection of concert reviews, album reviews, and interviews Parker, T. Virgil. "Mickey Hart: The Rhythm of the Infinite", College Crier interview, summer 2007 Sullivan, James. "Q & A With Mickey Hart", San Francisco Chronicle, September 27, 1998 Richardson, Derk. "Mickey Hart reunites landmark world musicians for 'Global Drum Project'", San Francisco Chronicle, September 27, 2007 Richter, Allan. "He Found His Muse at Lawrence High School", New York Times, August 3, 2003 Speed, Tom. "Making Magic with Mickey Hart", Honest Tune Online, August 14, 2008 Mickey Hart's Artwork of the Grateful Dead External links Mickey Hart official website | Mickey_Hart |@lemmatized mickey:31 hart:47 born:1 michael:1 steven:1 hartman:1 september:6 percussionist:2 musicologist:1 best:3 know:2 one:3 two:1 drummer:4 rock:2 band:9 grateful:11 dead:15 member:5 february:3 october:1 august:3 fellow:2 bill:2 kreutzmann:3 earn:1 nickname:2 rhythm:13 devil:8 career:1 join:3 father:1 leonard:1 champion:1 rudimental:1 operate:1 music:19 sell:1 drum:14 musical:2 instrument:2 san:3 carlos:1 california:1 leave:1 sabbatical:1 record:3 album:4 roll:2 thunder:2 return:1 remain:3 group:2 official:2 dissolution:2 collaboration:1 continue:3 name:1 alongside:1 work:2 flourish:1 solo:4 artist:1 author:1 several:1 book:2 endeavor:1 pursue:1 lifelong:1 interest:2 ethnomusicology:1 world:7 travel:1 thing:1 percussion:6 relate:1 lead:3 collect:1 collaborate:2 master:1 become:2 interested:1 grade:1 school:3 student:3 nigerian:1 babatunde:1 olatunji:2 perform:1 around:1 country:1 late:1 try:1 never:1 forget:1 experience:2 later:1 teach:1 regular:1 basis:2 african:1 encyclopedia:1 influential:1 global:3 tradition:3 verge:2 possible:1 extinction:1 archivist:1 ethnomusicologists:1 american:2 folklife:3 center:3 library:2 congress:2 cultural:2 heritage:1 smithsonian:1 institution:1 board:3 trustee:1 spokesperson:1 save:1 sound:4 audio:1 preservation:3 initiative:1 also:2 serve:1 national:1 reissue:1 recording:2 historical:1 value:1 produce:1 planet:4 billboard:2 chart:1 week:1 smith:1 e:1 doc:1 come:1 masonic:1 beyondchron:1 receive:1 first:2 ever:1 grammy:2 award:3 winner:1 new:5 york:2 time:2 write:2 history:2 throughout:1 feature:2 variety:1 guest:1 musician:2 percussive:1 course:1 age:1 categorically:1 enthusiasm:1 collaborative:1 effort:1 comparable:1 guitarist:2 ry:1 cooder:1 director:1 institute:2 neurologic:2 function:2 profit:1 organization:2 whose:1 mission:2 seek:1 establish:1 knowledge:1 develop:1 effective:1 therapy:1 awaken:1 stimulate:1 heal:3 extraordinary:1 power:3 investigation:1 connection:1 neural:1 honor:1 recognize:1 advocacy:1 continuous:1 commitment:1 raise:1 public:1 awareness:1 positive:1 effect:1 past:1 honoree:1 death:1 jerry:2 garcia:2 consequent:1 play:3 various:1 include:1 furthur:1 festival:2 mystery:2 box:3 bob:1 weir:1 ratdog:1 particle:1 create:1 hydra:2 project:3 team:1 bandmate:1 phish:1 bassist:1 mike:1 gordon:1 former:1 steve:2 kimock:2 form:1 refer:1 legendary:1 improvisation:1 song:2 respective:1 repertoire:1 well:1 songwriting:1 companion:1 robert:1 hunter:1 announce:1 tour:3 end:1 popular:1 vegoose:1 la:1 vega:1 nevada:1 halloween:1 weekend:1 june:1 july:3 u:2 concert:3 consist:1 guitar:2 pedal:1 steel:1 george:1 porter:1 jr:2 bass:1 kyle:1 hollingsworth:1 keyboard:1 sikiru:2 adepoju:2 talk:1 walfredo:1 reyes:1 jen:1 durkin:1 vocal:1 graff:1 gary:1 happy:1 obama:1 pizek:1 jeff:1 unity:1 beat:1 daily:2 herald:1 kilgore:1 kym:1 live:1 may:1 bibliography:1 celebration:1 edge:3 magic:3 journey:1 spirit:3 songcatchers:1 search:1 discography:2 diga:2 river:1 däfos:1 airto:1 moreira:1 flora:1 purim:1 yamantaka:1 henry:1 wolff:1 nancy:1 hennings:1 bear:1 apocalypse:1 session:1 supralingua:1 back:1 zakir:1 hussain:1 giovanni:1 hidalgo:1 dvd:1 note:1 reference:1 internet:1 movie:1 database:1 deaddisc:1 com:1 collection:1 review:2 interview:2 parker:1 virgil:1 infinite:1 college:1 crier:1 summer:1 sullivan:1 james:1 q:1 francisco:2 chronicle:2 richardson:1 derk:1 reunite:1 landmark:1 richter:1 allan:1 find:1 muse:1 lawrence:1 high:1 speed:1 tom:1 make:1 honest:1 tune:1 online:1 artwork:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 |@bigram mickey_hart:31 grateful_dead:11 bill_kreutzmann:2 percussion_instrument:1 smithsonian_institution:1 board_trustee:1 grammy_award:1 ry_cooder:1 jerry_garcia:2 bob_weir:1 la_vega:1 vega_nevada:1 san_francisco:2 external_link:1 |
5,017 | Jamiroquai | Jamiroquai are an English acid jazz/funk/soul/disco band. Jamiroquai were initially the most prominent component in the early-1990s London-based acid jazz movement, alongside groups such as Incognito, the Brand New Heavies, Galliano, and Corduroy. Subsequent albums have explored other musical directions such as pop, rock and electronica. Jamiroquai has sold over 21 million albums all over the world. History Formation The band name is a portmanteau of Jam session and "iroquai", based on the Iroquois, a Native American tribe. The original band was Jay Kay (vocals), Toby Smith (keys) Stuart Zender (bass), Nick Van Gelder (drums), Wallis Buchanan (didgeridoo). These are the founding members of the Jamiroquai and were involved in the writing and production of the first albums. The lineup of the band has changed several times, and the longest serving and now core members of the band are lead singer and songwriter Jason "Jay" Kay and drummer Derrick McKenzie (1994). Despite his self-professed attempts to treat Jamiroquai as a band, Kay has always been at the forefront of how the group is marketed, and has therefore always had the lion's share of media attention, to the point where he is viewed as almost a solo artist. He was the impetus behind the formation of Jamiroquai, deciding to form the band after an unsuccessful audition to become the singer of the Brand New Heavies. Sony Music Jamiroquai's first single, "When You Gonna Learn", was released in 1992 on the Acid Jazz label. Following its success, Kay signed an eight-album record deal with Sony BMG Music Entertainment. The first Sony album, Emergency on Planet Earth was released in 1993. It was followed in 1994 by The Return of the Space Cowboy. The single "Space Cowboy" gained notice on the charts and in club rotation. While Jamiroquai was growing in popularity in the UK and Western Europe, they remained relatively unknown to U.S and other international audiences. The band's international breakthrough came with the third album, Travelling Without Moving in 1996, which yielded two big hits, "Virtual Insanity" and "Cosmic Girl". The success of "Virtual Insanity" was due in part to its Jonathan Glazer-directed video, which featured Kay's dance moves and some physics-defying images. At the 1997 MTV Video Music Awards, the creative videoclip for "Virtual Insanity" won four awards, including Best Video, Best Special Effects, Best Cinematography, and Breakthrough Video. In 2003 Jamiroquai compiled and mixed a DJ mix album for the Late Night Tales series for Azuli Records. The track selection shows some of the band's funk, soul and disco influences, including tracks from The Pointer Sisters, The Commodores, Johnny "Hammond" Smith and Johnny "Guitar" Watson. The acid jazz flavours and ethnic influences of the first three albums continued with the release of Synkronized in 1999. Jay Kay's interest in funk and disco music were shifting the band's directions towards such. By their fifth album, A Funk Odyssey (2001), they had evolved so drastically, that some critics and listeners would remark they lost the 'Jamiroquai sound'. With the departure of more and more original band members, including Wallis Buchanan and his didgeridoo, Jamiroquai had become a very different band than that of 1992. In spite of the changes, the fifth album's first single, "Little L", reached #1 in many charts worldwide. Their sixth album, titled Dynamite was released on 20 June 2005. It reached #3 on the UK charts. The first single, "Feels Just Like It Should" was released early in June, the second, "Seven Days in Sunny June" released on 15 August 2005, followed by the third, "(Don't) Give Hate A Chance" on 7 November 2005. Jamiroquai released a greatest hits collection, High Times: Singles 1992-2006 in November 2006. The release of this album marked the end of Kay’s eight-album contract with Sony. The album reached the number 1 spot in the UK album chart after its first week of release. The album featured two new tracks, "Runaway" and "Radio". On 18 September 2006, "Runaway" was given its first play by UK radio stations. It was released as a single on 30 October 2006. Kay remarked that compilation was released purely out of contractual obligation: "2006, they're out of the fucking picture." Post-Sony In October 2006, Jamiroquai recorded a live session for Live from Abbey Road at Abbey Road Studios. Their performance was shown alongside those of Damien Rice and the Goo Goo Dolls on the UK's Channel 4 in January 2007. In May 2006 Jamiroquai performed during the Laureus Sports Awards in Barcelona; Jamiroquai | News | Laureus Sports Awards performance photos - 22 May 2006, 23:28 (BST) the event was later televised by NBC in June. In March 2006, Jamiroquai announced their switch to Columbia Records. Future releases will appear under the Columbia imprint. During February in 2007 Jamiroquai performed the record breaking Gig in the Sky in association with Sony Ericsson. After leaving Sony, the band began work on their seventh project, and several collaborations and side-projects. In a very short mid-2007 interview with Jamirotalk, drummer Derrick McKenzie expressed his satisfaction with leaving Sony as the beginning of a period in which the band will have more creative control over their own work, together with plenty of room for experimentation and lack of pressure from a record company. Jamirotalk : International Jamiroquai Fan Discussion Forum 7th Album and Beyond On 11 January 2008, Jay Kay himself posted a news item in which he thanked everyone who wished him the best for his birthday, and announced that the writing process for the new album has just begun. Jamiroquai - Official Website / Home Only a day earlier, drummer Derrick McKenzie posted an article on his MySpace weblog that the recording process for the same record has also begun. Jamiroquai | News | Derrick McKenzie blog update - 11 January 2008, 13:33 (GMT) On 15 January 2008, the band confirmed that the recording process begun. According to the news item, eleven tracks have already been written for the new album, with more to come. As of now, none of the tracks' names are known. Jamiroquai - Official Website / Home On 13 February 2008, the band announced from their website that it will perform at the World Stage of the Rock in Rio — Madrid festival, being held in Arganda del Rey, Madrid with others artists who have yet to be announced. Jamiroquai - Official Website / Home On 28 February 2008, Jamiroquai performed at the Khodynka Arena in Moscow, Russia at the launch of the new Audi A4 car. On 22 June 2008, Jamiroquai performed at the Wianki Festival in Kraków, Poland. On 4 July 2008, the band performed in front of a 75,000 people audience in the Rock in Rio Madrid festival. Tour dates were planned for July and August of 2008. Jay has personally stated that 2009 will bring a new Jamiroquai album. The album is uninfluenced by major record labels and will bring forth a new direction for the band. Unconfirmed reports indicate that the album will see a release in Mid/Late Summer of 2009. A single to be released in Late Spring/Early Summer is likely as well. On 5 April 2009, Jamiroquai performed at the closing concert of Malaysian F1 Grand Prix in Sepang International Circuit Malaysia and on the 9th of April Jamiroquai will play at the Sentul International Convention Centre in Jakarta, Indonesia. Jamiroquai - The Funkin Site Discography YearAlbumU.K.U.S.U.S. ElectronicAUSSWIAUTFRANETHSWEITAGER1993Emergency on Planet Earth1--21511101151319171994The Return of the Space Cowboy2--42922119371719371996Travelling Without Moving224-6392164991999Synkronized128-122269712001A Funk Odyssey14411141413122005Dynamite3145233102525362006High Times: Singles 1992-20061--11123-31-533 See also List of number-one dance hits (United States) List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart Buffalo Man, the name of the character featured on all but one of Jamiroquai's album covers. References External links Official website | Jamiroquai |@lemmatized jamiroquai:29 english:1 acid:4 jazz:4 funk:5 soul:2 disco:3 band:18 initially:1 prominent:1 component:1 early:3 london:1 base:2 movement:1 alongside:2 group:2 incognito:1 brand:2 new:8 heavy:2 galliano:1 corduroy:1 subsequent:1 album:23 explore:1 musical:1 direction:3 pop:1 rock:3 electronica:1 sell:1 million:1 world:2 history:1 formation:2 name:3 portmanteau:1 jam:1 session:2 iroquai:1 iroquois:1 native:1 american:1 tribe:1 original:2 jay:5 kay:9 vocal:1 toby:1 smith:2 key:1 stuart:1 zender:1 bass:1 nick:1 van:1 gelder:1 drums:1 wallis:2 buchanan:2 didgeridoo:2 found:1 member:3 involve:1 writing:2 production:1 first:8 lineup:1 change:2 several:2 time:3 long:1 serving:1 core:1 lead:1 singer:2 songwriter:1 jason:1 drummer:3 derrick:4 mckenzie:4 despite:1 self:1 profess:1 attempt:1 treat:1 always:2 forefront:1 market:1 therefore:1 lion:1 share:1 medium:1 attention:1 point:1 view:1 almost:1 solo:1 artist:3 impetus:1 behind:1 decide:1 form:1 unsuccessful:1 audition:1 become:2 sony:8 music:4 single:8 gonna:1 learn:1 release:14 label:2 follow:3 success:2 sign:1 eight:2 record:8 deal:1 bmg:1 entertainment:1 emergency:1 planet:2 earth:1 return:2 space:3 cowboy:2 gain:1 notice:1 chart:5 club:1 rotation:1 grow:1 popularity:1 uk:5 western:1 europe:1 remain:1 relatively:1 unknown:1 u:4 international:5 audience:2 breakthrough:2 come:2 third:2 travel:1 without:2 move:2 yield:1 two:2 big:1 hit:3 virtual:3 insanity:3 cosmic:1 girl:1 due:1 part:1 jonathan:1 glazer:1 direct:1 video:4 feature:3 dance:3 physic:1 defying:1 image:1 mtv:1 award:4 creative:2 videoclip:1 win:1 four:1 include:3 best:4 special:1 effect:1 cinematography:1 compile:1 mixed:1 dj:1 mix:1 late:3 night:1 tale:1 series:1 azuli:1 track:5 selection:1 show:2 influence:2 pointer:1 sister:1 commodore:1 johnny:2 hammond:1 guitar:1 watson:1 flavour:1 ethnic:1 three:1 continue:1 synkronized:1 interest:1 shift:1 towards:1 fifth:2 odyssey:1 evolve:1 drastically:1 critic:1 listener:1 would:1 remark:2 lose:1 sound:1 departure:1 different:1 spite:1 little:1 l:1 reach:4 many:1 worldwide:1 sixth:1 title:1 dynamite:1 june:5 feel:1 like:1 second:1 seven:1 day:2 sunny:1 august:2 give:2 hate:1 chance:1 november:2 great:1 collection:1 high:1 mark:1 end:1 contract:1 number:3 spot:1 week:1 runaway:2 radio:2 september:1 play:2 station:1 october:2 compilation:1 purely:1 contractual:1 obligation:1 fucking:1 picture:1 post:3 live:2 abbey:2 road:2 studio:1 performance:2 damien:1 rice:1 goo:2 doll:1 channel:1 january:4 may:2 perform:7 laureus:2 sport:2 barcelona:1 news:4 photo:1 bst:1 event:1 later:1 televise:1 nbc:1 march:1 announce:4 switch:1 columbia:2 future:1 appear:1 imprint:1 february:3 break:1 gig:1 sky:1 association:1 ericsson:1 leave:2 begin:4 work:2 seventh:1 project:2 collaboration:1 side:1 short:1 mid:2 interview:1 jamirotalk:2 express:1 satisfaction:1 beginning:1 period:1 control:1 together:1 plenty:1 room:1 experimentation:1 lack:1 pressure:1 company:1 fan:1 discussion:1 forum:1 beyond:1 item:2 thank:1 everyone:1 wish:1 birthday:1 process:3 official:4 website:5 home:3 earlier:1 article:1 myspace:1 weblog:1 recording:2 also:2 blog:1 update:1 gmt:1 confirm:1 accord:1 eleven:1 already:1 write:1 none:1 know:1 stage:1 rio:2 madrid:3 festival:3 hold:1 arganda:1 del:1 rey:1 others:1 yet:1 khodynka:1 arena:1 moscow:1 russia:1 launch:1 audi:1 car:1 wianki:1 kraków:1 poland:1 july:2 front:1 people:1 tour:1 date:1 plan:1 personally:1 state:2 bring:2 uninfluenced:1 major:1 forth:1 unconfirmed:1 report:1 indicate:1 see:2 summer:2 spring:1 likely:1 well:1 april:2 closing:1 concert:1 malaysian:1 grand:1 prix:1 sepang:1 circuit:1 malaysia:1 sentul:1 convention:1 centre:1 jakarta:1 indonesia:1 funkin:1 site:1 discography:1 yearalbumu:1 k:1 list:2 one:3 united:1 buffalo:1 man:1 character:1 cover:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram singer_songwriter:1 drummer_derrick:3 sony_bmg:1 contractual_obligation:1 sony_ericsson:1 del_rey:1 grand_prix:1 jakarta_indonesia:1 external_link:1 |
5,018 | Steal_(poker) | In poker, the term steal is often used as merely a synonym for bluff, but there is a more specific use of the term which is also called an "ante steal" or "blind steal" (depending on whether the game being played uses antes or blinds). To steal is to raise with a hand less valuable than what might normally be considered a raising hand, normally a below average one, with the hope that the few players remaining will not have a hand worth calling the raise, thereby winning the antes or blinds without further action. This play is used either in late position after several people have folded, or when the game is short-handed. Steals happen most often in tournaments due to the escalating ante/blind structure. While steals like this don't win much money per hand, they can accumulate to considerable profit if the players to the left of the stealer are tight enough to not contest many steals. Of course, skilled players will recognize repeated steal plays and frequently reraise for defense. Steals being made in late position or when the game is short-handed are the most common steals, but a raise under other conditions can act as a steal also. An aggressive player, especially one with a large stack of chips, might reraise someone he knows might be trying to steal. The objective here is twofold. The re-raiser hopes to pick up the blinds and antes and the raiser's chips when the raiser folds. And the reraiser hopes to keep this player from constantly raising before she or he can act because that cuts down on the reraiser's opportunities. See also Poker jargon Poker strategy Aggressive plays Bluffing plays Check-raise plays Defense plays Drawing plays Isolation plays Position plays Protection plays Slow plays External links Theorem of Blind Stealing in Tournaments Blind Stealing in Poker | Steal_(poker) |@lemmatized poker:4 term:2 steal:14 often:2 use:4 merely:1 synonym:1 bluff:2 specific:1 also:3 call:2 ante:5 blind:7 depend:1 whether:1 game:3 play:12 raise:6 hand:6 less:1 valuable:1 might:3 normally:2 consider:1 average:1 one:2 hope:1 player:5 remain:1 worth:1 thereby:1 win:2 without:1 action:1 either:1 late:2 position:3 several:1 people:1 fold:2 short:2 happen:1 tournament:2 due:1 escalate:1 structure:1 like:1 much:1 money:1 per:1 accumulate:1 considerable:1 profit:1 left:1 stealer:1 tight:1 enough:1 contest:1 many:1 course:1 skilled:1 recognize:1 repeated:1 frequently:1 reraise:2 defense:2 make:1 common:1 condition:1 act:2 aggressive:2 especially:1 large:1 stack:1 chip:2 someone:1 know:1 try:1 objective:1 twofold:1 raiser:3 hop:2 pick:1 reraiser:2 keep:1 constantly:1 cut:1 opportunity:1 see:1 jargon:1 strategy:1 check:1 draw:1 isolation:1 protection:1 slow:1 external:1 link:1 theorem:1 |@bigram ante_blind:3 poker_jargon:1 jargon_poker:1 external_link:1 |
5,019 | Caving | Caving frequently involves a lot of mud. Caving — also known as spelunking, when referring to amateurs without the proper knowledge, or training — is the recreational sport of exploring caves. In contrast, speleology is the scientific study of caves and the cave environment. Caving in New Zealand (from Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand) Overview The challenges of the sport depend on the cave being visited, but often include the negotiation of pitches, squeezes, and water (though actual cave diving is a separate sub-specialty undertaken only by very few cavers). Climbing or crawling is often necessary, and ropes are used extensively for safety of the negotiation of particularly steep or slippery passages. Caving is often undertaken for the enjoyment of the activity or for physical exercise, as well as original exploration, similar to mountaineering or diving. Physical or biological science is also an important goal for some cavers. Virgin cave systems comprise some of the last unexplored regions on Earth and much effort is put into trying to locate and enter them. In well-explored regions (such as most first-world countries), the most accessible caves have already been explored, and gaining access to new caves often requires digging or diving. Caves have been explored out of necessity (for shelter from the elements or from enemies), out of curiosity or for mystical reasons for thousands of years. However, only in the last century or two has the activity developed into a sophisticated, athletic pastime. In recent decades caving has changed considerably due to the availability of modern protective wear and equipment. It has recently come to be known as an "extreme sport" by some (though not commonly considered as such by its practitioners, who may dislike the term for its perceived connotation of disregard for safety). Many of the skills of caving can also be used in the nature activities of mine exploration and urban exploration. Naming issues Clay Perry — an American caver of the 1940s — wrote about a group of men and boys who explored and studied caves throughout New England. This group referred to themselves as spelunkers. This is regarded as the first use of the word in the Americas. Throughout the 1950s, spelunking was the general term used for exploring caves in US English. It was used freely, without any positive or negative connotations, although only rarely outside the US. In the 1960s, the terms "spelunking" and "spelunker" began to be considered déclassé among experienced enthusiasts. They began to convey the idea of inexperienced cavers, using unreliable light sources and cotton clothing. In 1985, Steve Knutson (editor of American Caving Accidents) made the following distinction: This sentiment is exemplified by bumper stickers and t-shirts displayed by many cavers: "Cavers rescue spelunkers". Potholing refers to the act of exploring potholes, a word originating in the north of England for predominantly vertical caves. The term is often used as a synonym for caving, and outside the caving world there is a general impression that potholing is a more "extreme" version of caving. History Caving was pioneered by Édouard-Alfred Martel who first achieved the descent and exploration of the Gouffre de Padirac, France as early as 1889 and the first complete descent of a 110 metre wet vertical shaft at Gaping Gill, in Yorkshire, England in 1895. He developed his own techniques based on ropes and metallic ladders. Édouard-Alfred Martel visited Kentucky and notably Mammoth Cave National Park in October 1912. Famous US caver Floyd Collins made in the 1920's important explorations in that area. In the 1930's, as caving became increasingly popular, small exploration teams both in the Alps and in the karstic high plateaus of southwest France (Causses and Pyrenees) transformed cave exploration in both a scientific and recreational activity. Robert de Joly, Guy de Lavaur and Norbert Casteret were prominent figures of that time. They surveyed mostly caves in Southwest France. During WWII, an alpine team composed of Pierre Chevalier, Fernand Petzl, Charles Petit-Didier and others explored the Dent de Crolles cave system near Grenoble, France which became the deepest explored cave in the world (-658m) at that time. The lack of available equipment during the war forced Pierre Chevalier and the rest of the team to develop their own equipment, leading to technical innovation. The scaling-pole (1940), nylon ropes (1942), use of explosives in caves (1947) and mechanical rope-ascenders (Henri Brenot's "monkeys", first used by Chevalier and Brenot in a cave in 1934) can be directly associated to the exploration of the Dent de Crolles cave system. In 1941, American cavers organized themselves into the National Speleological Society (NSS) to advance the exploration, conservation, study, and understanding of caves in the United States. American caver Bill Cuddington, known as "Vertical Bill", developed the single rope technique (SRT) in the late 1950s. In 1958, two Swiss alpinists, Juesi and Marti teamed together, creating the first rope ascender known as the Jumar. In 1968 Bruno Dressler asked Petzl, who worked as a metals machinist, to build a rope-ascending tool, today known as the Petzl Croll, that he had developed by adapting the Jumar to the specificity of Pit caving. Pursuiving these developments, Fernand Petzl started in the 1970s a small caving equipment manufacturing company Petzl, which is today a world leader in equipment for both caving, mountaineering and at-height safety in civil engineering. The development of the rappel rack and the evolution of mechanical ascension systems, notably helped extend the practice and safety of pit exploration to a larger venue of established cavers. Practice and equipment Caver in an Alabama cave showing common caving wear: overalls and helmet-mounted lights. Hard hats are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. The caver's primary light source is usually mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free. Electric lights are most common, with halogen lamps being standard and white LEDs as the new competing technology. Many cavers carry two or more sources of light - one as primary and the others as backup in case the first fails. More often than not, a second light will be mounted to the helmet for quick transition if the primary fails. Carbide lamps systems are an older form of illumination, inspired by miner's equipment, and are still used by some cavers. Caving equipment and culture (from Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand) The type of clothes worn underground varies according to the environment of the cave being explored, and the local culture. In cold caves, the caver may wear a warm base layer that retains its insulating properties when wet, such as a fleece ("furry") suit and/or polypropylene underwear, and an oversuit of hard-wearing (e.g., cordura) and/or waterproof (e.g., PVC) material. Lighter clothing may be worn in warm caves, particularly if the cave is dry, and in tropical caves thin polypropylene clothing is used, to provide some abrasion protection whilst remaining as cool as possible. Wetsuits may be worn if the cave is particularly wet or involves stream passages. On the feet boots are worn - hiking-style boots in drier caves, or rubber boots (such as wellies) often with neoprene socks ("wetsocks") in wetter caves. Knee-pads (and sometimes elbow-pads) are popular for protecting joints during crawls. Depending on the nature of the cave, gloves are sometimes worn to protect the hands against abrasion and/or cold. In pristine areas and for restoration, clean oversuits and powder-free, non-latex surgical gloves are used to protect the cave itself from contaminants. Ropes are used for descending or ascending pitches ("Single Rope Technique") or for protection. Knots commonly used in caving are the figure-of-eight- (or figure-of-nine-) loop, bowline, alpine butterfly, and Italian hitch. Ropes are usually rigged using bolts, slings, and carabiners. In some cases cavers may choose to bring and use a flexible metal ladder. In addition to the equipment already described, cavers frequently carry packs containing first-aid kits, emergency equipment, and food. Containers for securely transporting urine are also commonly carried. On longer trips, containers for securely transporting faeces out of the cave are carried. During very long trips, it may be necessary to camp in the cave. This necessitates the caver carrying sleeping and cooking equipment. Safety A caver begins rope descent of a vertical shaft using an abseil rack. Caves can be dangerous places; hypothermia, falling, flooding, and physical exhaustion are the main risks. Rescuing people from underground is difficult and time-consuming, and requires special skills, training, and equipment. Full-scale cave rescues often involve the efforts of dozens of rescue workers (often other long-time cavers who have participated in specialised courses, as normal rescue staff are not sufficiently experienced in cave environments), who may themselves be put in jeopardy in effecting the rescue. This said, caving is not necessarily a high-risk sport (especially if it does not involve difficult climbs or diving). As in all physical sports, knowing one's limitations is key. The risks are minimised by a number of techniques: Checking that there is no danger of flooding during the expedition. Rainwater funneled underground can flood a cave very quickly, trapping people in cut-off passages and drowning them. After falling, this is the most likely fatal accident in caving. Using teams of several, preferably at least of four cavers. If an injury occurs, one caver stays with the injured person while the other two go out for help, providing assistance to each other on their way out. Notifying people outside the cave as to the intended return time. After an appropriate delay without a return, these will then organise a search party (usually made up by other cavers trained in cave rescues, as even professional emergency personnel are unlikely to have the skills to effect a rescue in difficult conditions). Use of helmet-mounted lights (hands-free) with extra batteries. American cavers recommend a minimum of three independent sources of light per person, but two lights is common practice amongst European cavers. Sturdy clothing and footwear, as well as a helmet, are necessary to reduce the impact of abrasions, falls, and falling objects. Synthetic fibers and woolens, which dry quickly, shed water, and are warm when wet, are vastly preferred to cotton materials, which retain water and increase the risk of hypothermia. It is also helpful to have several layers of clothing, which can be shed (and stored in the pack) or added as needed. In watery cave passages, polypropylene thermal underwear or wetsuits may be required to avoid hypothermia. Cave passages look different from different directions. In long or complex caves, even experienced cavers can become lost. To reduce the risk of becoming lost, it is necessary to memorise the appearance of key navigational points in the cave as they are passed by the exploring party. Each member of a cave party shares responsibility for being able to remember the route out of the cave. In some caves it may be acceptable to mark a small number of key junctions with small stacks or "cairns" of rocks, or to leave a non-permanent mark such as high-visibility flagging tape tied to a projection. Vertical caving using ladders or SRT (Single Rope Technique) to avoid the need for climbing passages that are too difficult. SRT however is a complex skill and requires proper training before use underground and needs well-maintained equipment. Some drops that are abseiled down may be as deep as several hundred meters (for example Harwood Hole). Cave conservation A vertical cave in Alabama, US Many cave environments are very fragile. Many speleothems can be damaged by even the slightest touch and some by impacts as slight as a breath. Pollution is also of concern. Since water that flows through a cave eventually comes out in streams and rivers, any pollution may ultimately end up in someone's drinking water, and can even seriously affect the surface environment, as well. Even minor pollution such as dropping organic material can have a dramatic effect on the cave biota. Cave-dwelling species are also very fragile, and often, a particular species found in a cave may live within that cave alone, and be found nowhere else in the world, such as Alabama cave shrimp. Cave-dwelling species are accustomed to a near-constant climate of temperature and humidity, and any disturbance can be disruptive to the species' life cycles. Though cave wildlife may not always be immediately visible, it is typically nonetheless present in most caves. Bats are one such fragile species of cave-dwelling animal. Despite their often frightening reputation in fiction and in the movies, bats generally have more to fear from humans than vice-versa. Bats can be beneficial to humans in many ways, especially through their important ecological role in reducing insect pest populations, and pollination of plant species. Bats which hibernate are most vulnerable during the winter season, when no food supply exists on the surface to replenish the bat's store of energy should it be awakened from hibernation. Bats which migrate are most sensitive during the summer months when they are raising their young. For these reasons, visiting caves inhabited by hibernating bats is discouraged during cold months; and visiting caves inhabited by migratory bats is discouraged during the warmer months when they are most sensitive and vulnerable. Due to an affliction affecting bats in the northeastern US known as White nose syndrome http://www.fws.gov/northeast/white_nose.html , the US Fish & Wildlife Service has called for a moratorium (effective March 26, 2009) on caving activity in states known to have hibernacula (NY,VT,NH,MA,CT,NJ,PA,VA,and WV) affected by White Nose Syndrome, as well as adjoining states. Some cave passages may be marked with flagging tape or other indicators to show biologically, aesthetically, or archaeologically sensitive areas. Marked paths may show ways around notably fragile areas such as a pristine floor of sand or silt which may be thousands of years old, dating from the last time water flowed through the cave. Such deposits may easily be spoiled forever by a single misplaced step. Active formations such as flowstone can be similarly marred with a muddy footprint or handprint, and ancient human artifacts, such as fiber products, may even crumble to dust under the touch of any but the most careful archaeologist. Caving organizations Cavers in many countries have created organizations for the administration and oversight of caving activities within their nations. The oldest of these is the French National Speleological Society founded by Édouard-Alfred Martel in 1895 together with the first periodical journal, Spelunca. The National Speleological Society of the USA was later founded in 1941 (originally formed as the Speleological Society of the District of Columbia on May 6, 1939) and the Swiss Society of Speleology created in 1939 in Geneva, but the first speleological institute in the world was founded in 1920 in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, by Emil Racovita, a Romanian biologist, zoologist, speleologist and explorer of Antarctica. For a list of these organizations, see Caving organizations. In popular culture Documentaries Journey Into Amazing Caves (2001) Caverns of the Mojave: An Expedition with Real Cavers (2006) Planet Earth (2006), fourth episode "Caves" Feature (fictional) films The Cave (2005) The Descent (2005) The Cavern (2005) What Waits Below (1984) See also :Category:Caving by country Cave Cave rescue Speleology, the scientific study of caves Urban exploration, an activity similar to caving, but done in urban areas Caving organizations List of caves Pit cave Cave diving References Bibliography Notes External links Speleological Abstract (SA/BBS) Annual review of the world's speleological literature, edited by the Bibliography Commission of the UIS. 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5,020 | Intelligent_design | Intelligent design is the assertion that "certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection." It is a modern form of the traditional teleological argument for the existence of God, but one which avoids specifying the nature or identity of the designer. The idea was developed by a group of American creationists who reformulated their argument in the creation-evolution controversy to circumvent court rulings that prohibit the teaching of creationism as science. , Context pg. 32 ff, citing . "ID is not a new scientific argument, but is rather an old religious argument for the existence of God. He traced this argument back to at least Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, who framed the argument as a syllogism: Wherever complex design exists, there must have been a designer; nature is complex; therefore nature must have had an intelligent designer." "This argument for the existence of God was advanced early in the 19th century by Reverend Paley" (the teleological argument) "The only apparent difference between the argument made by Paley and the argument for ID, as expressed by defense expert witnesses Behe and Minnich, is that ID's 'official position' does not acknowledge that the designer is God." , Ruling, p. 24. . Intelligent design's leading proponents, all of whom are associated with the Discovery Institute, a politically conservative think tank, "Q. Has the Discovery Institute been a leader in the intelligent design movement? A. Yes, the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture. Q. And are almost all of the individuals who are involved with the intelligent design movement associated with the Discovery Institute? A. All of the leaders are, yes." Barbara Forrest, 2005, testifying in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial. "The Discovery Institute is the ideological and strategic backbone behind the eruption of skirmishes over science in school districts and state capitals across the country". In: "The engine behind the ID movement is the Discovery Institute". believe the designer to be the God of Christianity. "the writings of leading ID proponents reveal that the designer postulated by their argument is the God of Christianity". , Ruling p. 26. A selection of writings and quotes of intelligent design supporters demonstrating this identification of the Christian God with the intelligent designer are found in the pdf Horse's Mouth (PDF) by Brian Poindexter, dated 2003. William A. Dembski, when asked in an interview whether his research concluded that God is the Intelligent Designer, stated "I believe God created the world for a purpose. The Designer of intelligent design is, ultimately, the Christian God". Advocates of intelligent design argue that it is a scientific theory, and seek to fundamentally redefine science to accept supernatural explanations. , Whether ID Is Science , Lead defense expert Professor Behe admitted that his broadened definition of science, which encompasses ID, would also include astrology. See also The unequivocal consensus in the scientific community is that intelligent design is not science. See: 1) List of scientific societies rejecting intelligent design 2) Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83. 3) The Discovery Institute's A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism petition begun in 2001 has been signed by "over 700 scientists" as of August 20, 2006. A four day A Scientific Support for Darwinism petition gained 7733 signatories from scientists opposing ID. The AAAS, the largest association of scientists in the U.S., has 120,000 members, and firmly rejects ID. More than 70,000 Australian scientists and educators condemn teaching of intelligent design in school science classes List of statements from scientific professional organizations on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism. According to The New York Times "There is no credible scientific challenge to the theory of evolution as an explanation for the complexity and diversity of life on earth". The U.S. National Academy of Sciences has stated that "creationism, intelligent design, and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science because they are not testable by the methods of science." The U.S. National Science Teachers Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science have termed it pseudoscience. National Science Teachers Association, a professional association of 55,000 science teachers and administrators Others in the scientific community have concurred, and some have called it junk science. Robert T. Pennock Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism. The concept of intelligent design originated in response to the 1987 United States Supreme Court Edwards v. Aguillard ruling involving separation of church and state. Its first significant published use was in Of Pandas and People, a 1989 textbook intended for high-school biology classes. , pp. 31 – 33. Several additional books on the subject were published in the 1990s. By the mid-1990s, intelligent design proponents had begun clustering around the Discovery Institute and more publicly advocating the inclusion of intelligent design in public school curricula. With the Discovery Institute and its Center for Science and Culture serving a central role in planning and funding, the "intelligent design movement" grew increasingly visible in the late 1990s and early 2000s, culminating in the 2005 Dover trial which challenged the intended use of intelligent design in public school science classes. In Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, a group of parents of high-school students challenged a public school district requirement for teachers to present intelligent design in biology classes as an alternative "explanation of the origin of life". U.S. District Judge John E. Jones III ruled that intelligent design is not science, that it "cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents", and that the school district's promotion of it therefore violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. , Conclusion of Ruling. Overview The term "intelligent design" came into use after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the 1987 case of Edwards v. Aguillard that to require the teaching of "creation science" alongside evolution was a violation of the Establishment Clause, which prohibits state aid to religion. In the Edwards case, the Supreme Court had also held that "teaching a variety of scientific theories about the origins of humankind to school children might be validly done with the clear secular intent of enhancing the effectiveness of science instruction". In drafts of the creation science textbook Of Pandas and People, almost all derivatives of the word "creation", such as "creationism", were replaced with the words "intelligent design". The book was published in 1989, followed by a "grass-roots" campaign promoting the use of the book to teach intelligent design in high-school biology classes. The same Supreme Court ruling prompted the retired legal scholar Phillip E. Johnson, in his 1991 book Darwin on Trial, to advocate redefining science to allow claims of supernatural creation. A group including Michael Behe, Stephen C. Meyer and William Dembski joined Johnson in aiming to overturn the methodological naturalism of the scientific method (which he describes as "materialism") and replace it with "theistic realism" through what they later called the "wedge strategy". In the 1993 revised edition of Of Pandas and People, Behe described what he later named "irreducible complexity". In 1994 Meyer made contact with the Discovery Institute, and in the following year they obtained funding to set up the Center for Renewal of Science and Culture to promote the intelligent design movement seeking public and political support for teaching "intelligent design" as a creation-based alternative to evolution, particularly in the United States. Intelligent design is presented as an alternative to natural explanations for the origin and diversity of life. It stands in opposition to conventional biological science, which relies on the scientific method to explain life through observable processes such as mutation and natural selection. , Ruling, page 64 ff "Demonstrative charts introduced through Dr. Forrest show parallel arguments relating to the rejection of naturalism, evolution's threat to culture and society, 'abrupt appearance' implying divine creation, the exploitation of the same alleged gaps in the fossil record, the alleged inability of science to explain complex biological information like DNA, as well as the theme that proponents of each version of creationism merely aim to teach a scientific alternative to evolution to show its 'strengths and weaknesses,' and to alert students to a supposed 'controversy' in the scientific community". Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, Decision, p. 34 (emphasis added) "Additionally, [leading intelligent design advocate] Dembski agrees that science is ruled by methodological naturalism and argues that this rule must be overturned if ID is to prosper". Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, Decision, p. 30. "Intelligent Design [...] supposes that the origins of living things require supernatural interventions to create the intricate, design-like, living forms that we see all around us". The stated purpose of intelligent design is to investigate whether or not existing empirical evidence implies that life on Earth must have been designed by an intelligent agent or agents. William A. Dembski, one of intelligent design's leading proponents, has said that the fundamental claim of intelligent design is that "there are natural systems that cannot be adequately explained in terms of undirected natural forces and that exhibit features which in any other circumstance we would attribute to intelligence". In the leaked Discovery Institute manifesto known as the Wedge Document, however, the supporters of the movement were told: Proponents of intelligent design look for evidence of what they term "signs of intelligence": physical properties of an object that point to a designer (see: teleological argument). For example, intelligent design proponents argue that an archaeologist who finds a statue made of stone in a field may justifiably conclude that the statue was designed, and may reasonably seek to identify its designer. The archaeologist would not, however, be justified in making the same claim based on an irregularly shaped boulder of the same size. Design proponents argue that living systems show great complexity, from which they infer that some aspects of life have been designed. Intelligent design proponents say that although evidence pointing to the nature of an "intelligent cause or agent" may not be directly observable, its effects on nature can be detected. Dembski, in Signs of Intelligence, states: "Proponents of intelligent design regard it as a scientific research program that investigates the effects of intelligent causes ... not intelligent causes per se". In his view, one cannot test for the identity of influences exterior to a closed system from within, so questions concerning the identity of a designer fall outside the realm of the concept. In the 20 years since intelligent design was first formulated, no rigorous test that can identify these effects has yet been proposed. , p. 70. No articles supporting intelligent design have been published in peer-reviewed scientific journals, nor has intelligent design been the subject of scientific research or testing. 4: whether ID is science Origins of the concept Whether the complexity of nature indicates purposeful design is a subject of recorded philosophical discourse dating back to ancient Greek philosophy. In the 4th century BC, Plato posited a good and wise "demiurge" as the creator and first cause of the cosmos in his Timaeus. In his Metaphysics, Aristotle developed the idea of an "Unmoved Mover" . Aristotle, Metaphysics Bk. 12 In De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods, 45 BC) Cicero stated that "the divine power is to be found in a principle of reason which pervades the whole of nature." Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski (2006). The Philosophy of Religion: An Historical Introduction, 31. Cicero, De Natura Deorum, Book I, 36–37, Latin Library. This line of reasoning has come to be known as the teleological argument for the existence of God. The most notable forms of this argument were expressed in the 13th century by Thomas Aquinas and in the 19th century by William Paley. Aquinas, in his Summa Theologiae, used the concept of design in his "fifth proof" for God's existence. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae "Thomas Aquinas' 'Five Ways' (archive link)" in faithnet.org.uk. Paley, in Natural Theology (1802), used the watchmaker analogy. William Paley, Natural Theology: or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, 1809, London, Twelfth Edition. In the early 19th century, such arguments led to the development of what was called natural theology, the study of nature as a means to understand "the mind of God". This movement fueled the passion for collecting fossils and other biological specimens, which ultimately led to Darwin's theory of the origin of species. Similar reasoning postulating a divine designer is embraced today by many believers in theistic evolution, who consider modern science and the theory of evolution to be fully compatible with the concept of a supernatural designer. Intelligent design in the late 20th and early 21st century is seen as a development of natural theology that seeks to change the basis of science and undermine evolutionary theory.<ref>See, e.g., the publisher's editorial description of the 2006 paperback printing of William Paley (1803) Natural Theology" : "William Paley's classic brings depth to the history of intelligent design arguments. The contrivance of the eye, the ear, and numerous other anatomical features throughout the natural world are presented as arguments for God's presence and concern. While there are distinctive differences between Paley's argument and those used today by intelligent design theorists and creationists, it remains a fascinating glimpse of the nineteenth-century's debate over the roles of religion and science".</ref> David C. Steinmetz (2005) "The Debate on Intelligent Design" in The Christian Century, (December, 27, 2005, pp. 27–31.) Leading intelligent design proponent William Dembski (2001) argues the opposing view in Is Intelligent Design a form of natural theology? As evolutionary theory has expanded to explain more phenomena, the examples that are held up as evidence of design have changed, though the essential argument remains the same: complex systems imply a designer. Past examples have included the eye and the feathered wing; current examples are typically biochemical: protein functions, blood clotting, and bacterial flagella. (See irreducible complexity.) Barbara Forrest describes the intelligent design movement as beginning in 1984 when Jon A. Buell's religious organization the Foundation for Thought and Ethics (FTE) published The Mystery of Life's Origin by creationist and chemist Charles B. Thaxton, Dr Barbara Forrest, Know Your Creationists: Know Your Allies arguing for "Special Creation by a Creator beyond the Cosmos" which holds "that the source that produced life was intelligent". In March 1986 Stephen C. Meyer's review described it as using information theory to suggest that messages transmitted by DNA in the cell show "specified complexity" specified by intelligence, and must have originated with an intelligent agent. In November of that year Thaxton described his reasoning as a more sophisticated form of Paley's argument from design. At the Sources of Information Content in DNA conference in 1988 he said that his intelligent cause view was compatible with both metaphysical naturalism and supernaturalism, and the term intelligent design came up. Intelligent design deliberately avoids identifying or naming the agent of creation—it merely states that one (or more) must exist. Although intelligent design itself does not name the designer, the leaders of the intelligent design movement have said that the designer is the Christian God. Dembski: "Intelligent design is just the Logos theology of John's Gospel restated in the idiom of information theory," Touchstone Magazine. Volume 12, Issue4: July/August, 1999 Phillip Johnson: "Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit so that we can get the issue of Intelligent Design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools." Johnson 2004. Christianity.ca. Let's Be Intelligent About Darwin. "This isn't really, and never has been a debate about science. It's about religion and philosophy." Johnson 1996. World Magazine. Witnesses For The Prosecution. "So the question is: "How to win?" That's when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the "wedge" strategy: "Stick with the most important thing"—the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, "Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?" and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do." Johnson 2000. Touchstone magazine. Stephen C. Meyer: "I think the designer is God ..." (Darwin, the marketing of Intelligent Design . Nightline ABC News, with Ted Koppel, August 10, 2005); Nancy Pearcey: "By contrast, design theory demonstrates that Christians can sit in the supernaturalist’s “chair” even in their professional lives, seeing the cosmos through the lens of a comprehensive biblical worldview. Intelligent Design steps boldly into the scientific arena to build a case based on empirical data. It takes Christianity out of the ineffectual realm of value and stakes out a cognitive claim in the realm of objective truth. It restores Christianity to its status as genuine knowledge, equipping us to defend it in the public arena". (Total Truth, Crossway Books, June 29, 2004, ISBN 1581344589, pp. 204-205) Whether this lack of specificity about the designer's identity in public discussions is a genuine feature of the concept, or just a posture taken to avoid alienating those who would separate religion from the teaching of science, has been a matter of great debate between supporters and critics of intelligent design. The Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District court ruling held the latter to be the case. Origins of the term Of Pandas and People was the first intelligent design book. Among its numerous critics, Rethinking Schools magazine has criticized the book, characterizing it as a "creationist treatise dressed up to look like a legitimate discussion of science". Before the publication of the book Of Pandas and People in 1989, the words "intelligent design" had been used on several occasions as a descriptive phrase, distinct from the modern use as a label for "creationism". The phrase "intelligent design" can be found in an 1847 issue of Scientific American, in an 1850 book by Patrick Edward Dove, Dove, Patrick Edward, The theory of human progression, and natural probability of a reign of justice. London, Johnstone & Hunter, 1850. LC 08031381 "Intelligence-Intelligent Design". and even in an 1861 letter of Charles Darwin. The phrase was used in an address to the 1873 annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science by Paleyite botanist George James Allman: The phrase can be found again in Humanism, a 1903 book by one of the founders of classical pragmatism, F.C.S. Schiller: "It will not be possible to rule out the supposition that the process of evolution may be guided by an intelligent design". A derivative of the phrase appears in the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1967) in the article titled, "Teleological argument for the existence of God": "Stated most succinctly, the argument runs: The world exhibits teleological order (design, adaptation). Therefore, it was produced by an intelligent designer". Robert Nozick (1974) wrote: "Consider now complicated patterns which one would have thought would arise only through intelligent design". The phrases "intelligent design" and "intelligently designed" were used in a 1979 philosophy book Chance or Design? by James Horigan and the phrase "intelligent design" was used in a 1982 speech by Sir Fred Hoyle in his promotion of panspermia. The modern use of the words "intelligent design", as a term intended to describe a field of inquiry, began after the Supreme Court of the United States, in the case of Edwards v. Aguillard (1987), ruled that creationism is unconstitutional in public school science curricula. A Discovery Institute report says that Charles Thaxton, editor of Of Pandas and People, had picked the phrase up from a NASA scientist, and thought "That's just what I need, it's a good engineering term". In drafts of the book over one hundred uses of the root word "creation", such as "creationism" and "creation science", were changed, almost without exception, to "intelligent design", while "creationists" was changed to "design proponents" or, in one instance, "cdesign proponentsists". * In June 1988 Thaxton held a conference titled "Sources of Information Content in DNA" in Tacoma, Washington, and in December decided to use the label "intelligent design" for his new creationist movement. Stephen C. Meyer was at the conference, and later recalled that "the term came up". Of Pandas and People was published in 1989, and is considered to be the first intelligent design book, as well as the first place where the phrase "intelligent design" appeared in its present use. , links to Wayback Machine for pdf. Rethinking Schools magazine has criticized the book, saying it was a "creationist treatise" packaged to look like a high quality science textbook, with a "glossy cover, full-color illustrations, and chapter titles such as 'Homology' and 'Genetics and Macroevolution'", with numerous "professionally prepared charts and illustrations appear to show how concrete scientific evidence supports the existence of the unnamed 'designer'". Philosopher of science Michael Ruse believes the contents were "worthless and dishonest", and it was described by an ACLU lawyer as a political tool aimed at students who did not "know science or understand the controversy over evolution and creationism". Integral concepts Irreducible complexity The concept of irreducible complexity was popularised by Michael Behe, in his 1996 book, Darwin's Black Box. The term "irreducible complexity" was introduced by biochemist Michael Behe in his 1996 book Darwin's Black Box, though he had already described the concept in his contributions to the 1993 revised edition of Of Pandas and People. Behe defines it as "a single system which is composed of several well-matched interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning". Behe, Michael (1997): Molecular Machines: Experimental Support for the Design Inference Behe uses the analogy of a mousetrap to illustrate this concept. A mousetrap consists of several interacting pieces—the base, the catch, the spring and the hammer—all of which must be in place for the mousetrap to work. Removal of any one piece destroys the function of the mousetrap. Intelligent design advocates assert that natural selection could not create irreducibly complex systems, because the selectable function is present only when all parts are assembled. Behe argued that irreducibly complex biological mechanisms include the bacterial flagellum of E. coli, the blood clotting cascade, cilia, and the adaptive immune system. Irreducible complexity of these examples is disputed; see Kitzmiller, pp. 76–78, and Ken Miller Webcast The Collapse of "Irreducible Complexity" Kenneth R. Miller Brown University Critics point out that the irreducible complexity argument assumes that the necessary parts of a system have always been necessary and therefore could not have been added sequentially. John H. McDonald's "reducibly complex mousetrap" David Ussery, "A Biochemist's Response to 'The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution'" They argue that something which is at first merely advantageous can later become necessary as other components change. Furthermore, they argue, evolution often proceeds by altering preexisting parts or by removing them from a system, rather than by adding them. This is sometimes called the "scaffolding objection" by an analogy with scaffolding, which can support an "irreducibly complex" building until it is complete and able to stand on its own. For example, Bridgham et al.showed that gradual evolutionary mechanisms can produce complex protein-protein interaction systems from simpler precursors. Behe has acknowledged using "sloppy prose", and that his "argument against Darwinism does not add up to a logical proof". This article draws from the following exchange of letters in which Behe admits to sloppy prose and non-logical proof: Irreducible complexity has remained a popular argument among advocates of intelligent design; in the Dover trial, the court held that "Professor Behe's claim for irreducible complexity has been refuted in peer-reviewed research papers and has been rejected by the scientific community at large". , p. 64. Specified complexity In 1986 the creationist chemist Charles Thaxton used the term "specified complexity" from information theory when claiming that messages transmitted by DNA in the cell were specified by intelligence, and must have originated with an intelligent agent. The intelligent design concept of "specified complexity" was developed in the 1990s by mathematician, philosopher, and theologian William Dembski. Dembski states that when something exhibits specified complexity (i.e., is both complex and "specified", simultaneously), one can infer that it was produced by an intelligent cause (i.e., that it was designed) rather than being the result of natural processes. He provides the following examples: "A single letter of the alphabet is specified without being complex. A long sentence of random letters is complex without being specified. A Shakespearean sonnet is both complex and specified". Dembski. Intelligent Design, p. 47 He states that details of living things can be similarly characterized, especially the "patterns" of molecular sequences in functional biological molecules such as DNA. William Dembski proposed the concept of specified complexity. William Dembski, Photo by Wesley R. Elsberry, taken at lecture given at University of California at Berkeley, 2006/03/17. Dembski defines complex specified information (CSI) as anything with a less than 1 in 10150 chance of occurring by (natural) chance. Critics say that this renders the argument a tautology: complex specified information cannot occur naturally because Dembski has defined it thus, so the real question becomes whether or not CSI actually exists in nature. Some of Dembski's responses to assertions of specified complexity being a tautology can be found at The conceptual soundness of Dembski's specified complexity/CSI argument has been widely discredited by the scientific and mathematical communities. Specified complexity has yet to be shown to have wide applications in other fields as Dembski asserts. John Wilkins and Wesley Elsberry characterize Dembski's "explanatory filter" as eliminative, because it eliminates explanations sequentially: first regularity, then chance, finally defaulting to design. They argue that this procedure is flawed as a model for scientific inference because the asymmetric way it treats the different possible explanations renders it prone to making false conclusions. Richard Dawkins, another critic of intelligent design, argues in The God Delusion that allowing for an intelligent designer to account for unlikely complexity only postpones the problem, as such a designer would need to be at least as complex. Other scientists have argued that evolution through selection is better able to explain the observed complexity, as is evident from the use of selective evolution to design certain electronic, aeronautic and automotive systems which are considered problems too complex for human "intelligent designers". Fine-tuned Universe Intelligent design proponents also raise occasional arguments outside biology, most notably an argument based on the concept of the fine-tuning of universal constants that make matter and life possible and which are argued not to be solely attributable to chance. These include the values of fundamental physical constants, the relative strength of nuclear forces, electromagnetism, and gravity between fundamental particles, as well as the ratios of masses of such particles. Intelligent design proponent and Center for Science and Culture fellow Guillermo Gonzalez argues that if any of these values were even slightly different, the universe would be dramatically different, making it impossible for many chemical elements and features of the Universe, such as galaxies, to form. Thus, proponents argue, an intelligent designer of life was needed to ensure that the requisite features were present to achieve that particular outcome. Scientists almost unanimously have responded that this argument cannot be tested and is not scientifically productive. Some scientists argue that even when taken as mere speculation, these arguments are poorly supported by existing evidence. The Panda's Thumb. review of The Privileged Planet Victor J. Stenger and other critics say both intelligent design and the weak form of the anthropic principle are essentially a tautology; in his view, these arguments amount to the claim that life is able to exist because the Universe is able to support life. Is The Universe Fine-Tuned For Us? Victor J. Stenger. University of Colorado. (PDF file) The claim of the improbability of a life-supporting universe has also been criticized as an argument by lack of imagination for assuming no other forms of life are possible. Life as we know it might not exist if things were different, but a different sort of life might exist in its place. A number of critics also suggest that many of the stated variables appear to be interconnected and that calculations made by mathematicians and physicists suggest that the emergence of a universe similar to ours is quite probable. See, e.g., Proponent Granville Sewell has stated that the evolution of complex forms of life represents a decrease of entropy, thereby violating the second law of thermodynamics and supporting intelligent design. (Also available from the Discovery Institute) This, however, is a misapplication of thermodynamic principles. The second law applies to closed systems only. If this argument were true, living things could not be born and grow, as this also would be a decrease in entropy. However, like evolution, the growth of living things does not violate the second law of thermodynamics, because living things are not closed systems—they have external energy sources (e.g. food, oxygen, sunlight) whose production requires an offsetting net increase in entropy. Intelligent designer Intelligent design arguments are formulated in secular terms and intentionally avoid identifying the intelligent agent (or agents) they posit. Although they do not state that God is the designer, the designer is often implicitly hypothesized to have intervened in a way that only a god could intervene. Dembski, in The Design Inference, speculates that an alien culture could fulfill these requirements. The authoritative description of intelligent design, {{cite web |author=Dembski |quote=The theory of Intelligent Design holds that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection. |publisher=Discovery Institute |work=What is Intelligent Design? |url=http://www.discovery.org/csc/topQuestions.php#questionsAboutIntelligentDesign |title=Questions About Intelligent Design }}</ref> however, explicitly states that the Universe displays features of having been designed. Acknowledging the paradox, Dembski concludes that "no intelligent agent who is strictly physical could have presided over the origin of the universe or the origin of life". The leading proponents have made statements to their supporters that they believe the designer to be the Christian God, to the exclusion of all other religions. Beyond the debate over whether intelligent design is scientific, a number of critics argue that existing evidence makes the design hypothesis appear unlikely, irrespective of its status in the world of science. For example, Jerry Coyne asks why a designer would "give us a pathway for making vitamin C, but then destroy it by disabling one of its enzymes" (see pseudogene) and why he or she would not "stock oceanic islands with reptiles, mammals, amphibians, and freshwater fish, despite the suitability of such islands for these species". Coyne also points to the fact that "the flora and fauna on those islands resemble that of the nearest mainland, even when the environments are very different" as evidence that species were not placed there by a designer. . Previously, in Darwin's Black Box, Behe had argued that we are simply incapable of understanding the designer's motives, so such questions cannot be answered definitively. Odd designs could, for example, "have been placed there by the designer ... for artistic reasons, to show off, for some as-yet undetectable practical purpose, or for some unguessable reason". Coyne responds that in light of the evidence, "either life resulted not from intelligent design, but from evolution; or the intelligent designer is a cosmic prankster who designed everything to make it look as though it had evolved". Asserting the need for a designer of complexity also raises the question "What designed the designer?" Intelligent design proponents say that the question is irrelevant to or outside the scope of intelligent design. IDEA "One need not fully understand the origin or identity of the designer to determine that an object was designed. Thus, this question is essentially irrelevant to intelligent design theory, which merely seeks to detect if an object was designed ... Intelligent design theory cannot address the identity or origin of the designer—it is a philosophical / religious question that lies outside the domain of scientific inquiry. Christianity postulates the religious answer to this question that the designer is God who by definition is eternally existent and has no origin. There is no logical philosophical impossibility with this being the case (akin to Aristotle's 'unmoved mover') as a religious answer to the origin of the designer..." FAQ: Who designed the designer? FAQ: Who designed the designer? Richard Wein counters that the unanswered questions an explanation creates "must be balanced against the improvements in our understanding which the explanation provides. Invoking an unexplained being to explain the origin of other beings (ourselves) is little more than question-begging. The new question raised by the explanation is as problematic as the question which the explanation purports to answer". Richard Dawkins sees the assertion that the designer does not need to be explained, not as a contribution to knowledge, but as a thought-terminating cliché. In the absence of observable, measurable evidence, the very question "What designed the designer?" leads to an infinite regression from which intelligent design proponents can only escape by resorting to religious creationism or logical contradiction. See, e.g., ; Movement The Discovery Institute's Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture used banners based on "The Creation of Adam" from the Sistine Chapel. Later it used a less religious image, then was renamed the Center for Science and Culture. The intelligent design movement is a direct outgrowth of the creationism of the 1980s. The scientific and academic communities, along with a U.S. federal court, view intelligent design as either a form of creationism or as a direct descendant that is closely intertwined with traditional creationism; * * Conclusion of Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District Ruling Wise, D.U., 2001, Creationism's Propaganda Assault on Deep Time and Evolution, Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 49, n. 1, p. 30–35. and several authors explicitly refer to it as "intelligent design creationism". ; ; ; The movement is headquartered in the Center for Science and Culture (CSC), established in 1996 as the creationist wing of the Discovery Institute to promote a religious agenda "The social consequences of materialism have been devastating. As symptoms, those consequences are certainly worth treating. However, we are convinced that in order to defeat materialism, we must cut it off at its source. That source is scientific materialism. This is precisely our strategy. If we view the predominant materialistic science as a giant tree, our strategy is intended to function as a 'wedge' that, while relatively small, can split the trunk when applied at its weakest points. The very beginning of this strategy, the 'thin edge of the wedge,' was Phillip Johnson's critique of Darwinism begun in 1991 in Darwinism on Trial, and continued in Reason in the Balance and Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds. Michael Behe's highly successful Darwin's Black Box followed Johnson's work. We are building on this momentum, broadening the wedge with a positive scientific alternative to materialistic scientific theories, which has come to be called the theory of intelligent design (ID). Design theory promises to reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview, and to replace it with a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions". Wedge Document Discovery Institute, 1999. (PDF file) calling for broad social, academic and political changes. The Discovery Institute's intelligent design campaigns have been staged primarily in the United States, although efforts have been made in other countries to promote intelligent design. Leaders of the movement say intelligent design exposes the limitations of scientific orthodoxy and of the secular philosophy of naturalism. Intelligent design proponents allege that science should not be limited to naturalism and should not demand the adoption of a naturalistic philosophy that dismisses out-of-hand any explanation which contains a supernatural cause. The overall goal of the movement is to "defeat [the] materialist world view" represented by the theory of evolution in favor of "a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions". Wedge Document (PDF) Discovery Institute, 1999. Phillip E. Johnson stated that the goal of intelligent design is to cast creationism as a scientific concept. "I have built an intellectual movement in the universities and churches that we call The Wedge, which is devoted to scholarship and writing that furthers this program of questioning the materialistic basis of science. [...] Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth? [...] I start with John 1:1. In the beginning was the word. In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right. And the materialist scientists are deluding themselves." Johnson 1999. Reclaiming America for Christ Conference. How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won All leading intelligent design proponents are fellows or staff of the Discovery Institute and its Center for Science and Culture. Nearly all intelligent design concepts and the associated movement are the products of the Discovery Institute, which guides the movement and follows its wedge strategy while conducting its Teach the Controversy campaign and their other related programs. Leading intelligent design proponents have made conflicting statements regarding intelligent design. In statements directed at the general public, they say intelligent design is not religious; when addressing conservative Christian supporters, they state that intelligent design has its foundation in the Bible. Recognizing the need for support, the institute affirms its Christian, evangelistic orientation: "Alongside a focus on influential opinion-makers, we also seek to build up a popular base of support among our natural constituency, namely, Christians. We will do this primarily through apologetics seminars. We intend these to encourage and equip believers with new scientific evidences that support the faith, as well as to 'popularize' our ideas in the broader culture." Barbara Forrest, an expert who has written extensively on the movement, describes this as being due to the Discovery Institute's obfuscating its agenda as a matter of policy. She has written that the movement's "activities betray an aggressive, systematic agenda for promoting not only intelligent design creationism, but the religious world-view that undergirds it". Religion and leading proponents Although arguments for intelligent design are formulated in secular terms and intentionally avoid positing the identity of the designer, "...intelligent design does not address metaphysical and religious questions such as the nature or identity of the designer," and "...the nature, moral character and purposes of this intelligence lie beyond the competence of science and must be left to religion and philosophy". In: the majority of principal intelligent design advocates are publicly religious Christians who have stated that in their view the designer proposed in intelligent design is the Christian conception of God. Stuart Burgess, Phillip E. Johnson, William Dembski, and Stephen C. Meyer are evangelical Protestants, and Michael Behe is a Roman Catholic, while Jonathan Wells is a member of the Unification Church. Phillip E. Johnson has stated that cultivating ambiguity by employing secular language in arguments that are carefully crafted to avoid overtones of theistic creationism is a necessary first step for ultimately reintroducing the Christian concept of God as the designer. Johnson explicitly calls for intelligent design proponents to obfuscate their religious motivations so as to avoid having intelligent design identified "as just another way of packaging the Christian evangelical message". "Intelligent Design is an intellectual movement, and the Wedge strategy stops working when we are seen as just another way of packaging the Christian evangelical message. [...] The evangelists do what they do very well, and I hope our work opens up for them some doors that have been closed". Johnson emphasizes that "the first thing that has to be done is to get the Bible out of the discussion"; "after we have separated materialist prejudice from scientific fact [...] only then can 'biblical issues' be discussed". "...the first thing that has to be done is to get the Bible out of the discussion. ...This is not to say that the biblical issues are unimportant; the point is rather that the time to address them will be after we have separated materialist prejudice from scientific fact". The Wedge The strategy of deliberately disguising the religious intent of intelligent design has been described by William Dembski in The Design Inference. William Dembski, 1998. The Design Inference. In this work Dembski lists a god or an "alien life force" as two possible options for the identity of the designer; however, in his book Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science and Theology, Dembski states that "Christ is indispensable to any scientific theory, even if its practitioners don't have a clue about him. The pragmatics of a scientific theory can, to be sure, be pursued without recourse to Christ. But the conceptual soundness of the theory can in the end only be located in Christ." Dembski, 1999. Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science and Theology, p. 210. Dembski also stated, "ID is part of God's general revelation [...] Not only does intelligent design rid us of this ideology (materialism), which suffocates the human spirit, but, in my personal experience, I've found that it opens the path for people to come to Christ". Both Johnson and Dembski cite the Bible's Gospel of John as the foundation of intelligent design. Barbara Forrest contends such statements reveal that leading proponents see intelligent design as essentially religious in nature, not merely a scientific concept that has implications with which their personal religious beliefs happen to coincide. Barbara Forrest. Expert Testimony. Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial transcript, Day 6 (October 5) "What I am talking about is the essence of intelligent design, and the essence of it is theistic realism as defined by Professor Johnson. Now that stands on its own quite apart from what their motives are. I'm also talking about the definition of intelligent design by Dr. Dembski as the Logos theology of John's Gospel. That stands on its own. [...] Intelligent design, as it is understood by the proponents that we are discussing today, does involve a supernatural creator, and that is my objection. And I am objecting to it as they have defined it, as Professor Johnson has defined intelligent design, and as Dr. Dembski has defined intelligent design. And both of those are basically religious. They involve the supernatural". She writes that the leading proponents of intelligent design are closely allied with the ultra-conservative Christian Reconstructionism movement. She lists connections of (current and former) Discovery Institute Fellows Phillip Johnson, Charles Thaxton, Michael Behe, Richard Weikart, Jonathan Wells and Francis Beckwith to leading Christian Reconstructionist organizations, and the extent of the funding provided the Institute by Howard Ahmanson Jr., a leading figure in the Reconstructionist movement. Reaction from other creationist groups Not all creationist organizations have embraced the intelligent design movement. Hugh Ross of Reasons to Believe, a proponent of Old Earth creationism, believes that the efforts of intelligent design proponents to divorce the concept from Biblical Christianity make its hypothesis too vague. In 2002 he wrote: "Winning the argument for design without identifying the designer yields, at best, a sketchy origins model. Such a model makes little if any positive impact on the community of scientists and other scholars… The time is right for a direct approach, a single leap into the origins fray. Introducing a biblically based, scientifically verifiable creation model represents such a leap." Likewise, two of the most prominent Young Earth creationism organizations in the world have attempted to distinguish their views from intelligent design. Henry M. Morris of the Institute for Creation Research (ICR) wrote, in 1999, that ID, "even if well-meaning and effectively articulated, will not work! It has often been tried in the past and has failed, and it will fail today. The reason it won't work is because it is not the Biblical method.” According to Morris: “The evidence of intelligent design… must be either followed by or accompanied by a sound presentation of true Biblical creationism if it is to be meaningful and lasting." In 2002, Carl Wieland of Answers in Genesis (AiG) criticized design advocates who, though well-intentioned, "left the Bible out of it" and thereby unwittingly aided and abetted the modern rejection of the Bible. Wieland explained that "AiG's major 'strategy' is to boldly, but humbly, call the church back to its Biblical foundations… [so] we neither count ourselves a part of this movement nor campaign against it." Polls Several surveys were conducted prior to the December 2005 decision in Kitzmiller v. Dover, which sought to determine the level of support for intelligent design among certain groups. According to a 2005 Harris poll, 10% of adults in the United States viewed human beings as "so complex that they required a powerful force or intelligent being to help create them". Although Zogby polls commissioned by the Discovery Institute show more support, these polls suffer from considerable flaws, such as having a very low response rate (248 out of 16,000), being conducted on behalf of an organization with an expressed interest in the outcome of the poll, and containing leading questions. A May 2005 survey of nearly 1500 physicians in the United States conducted by the Louis Finkelstein Institute and HCD Research showed that 63% of the physicians agreed more with evolution than with intelligent design. According to the poll, 18% of the physicians believed that God created humans exactly as they appear today. Another 42% believed that God initiated and guided an evolutionary process that has led to current human beings. The poll also found that "an overwhelming majority of Jewish doctors (83%) and half of Catholic doctors (51%) believe that intelligent design is simply "a religiously inspired pseudo-science rather than a legitimate scientific speculation". The poll also found that "more than half of Protestant doctors (63%) believe that intelligent design is a "legitimate scientific speculation". Creating and teaching the controversy A key strategy of the intelligent design movement is convincing the general public that there is a debate among scientists about whether life evolved. The intelligent design movement creates this controversy in order to convince the public, politicians and cultural leaders that schools should "Teach the Controversy". But in fact, there is no such controversy in the scientific community; the scientific consensus is that life evolved. Joint statement issued by the national science academies of 67 countries, including the United Kingdom's Royal Society. From the world's largest general scientific society: Intelligent design is widely viewed as a stalking horse for its proponents' campaign against what they say is the materialist foundation of science, which they argue leaves no room for the possibility of God. Advocates of intelligent design seek to keep God and the Bible out of the discussion, and present intelligent design in the language of science as a scientific hypothesis. However, among a very significant proportion of the general public in the United States the major concern is whether conventional evolutionary biology is compatible with belief in God and in the Bible, and how this issue is taught in schools. The public controversy was given widespread media coverage in the United States, particularly during the Kitzmiller v. Dover trial in late 2005 and after President George W. Bush expressed support for the idea of teaching intelligent design alongside evolution in August 2005. In response to Bush’s statement and the pending federal trial, Time magazine ran an eight-page cover story on the Evolution Wars in which they examined the issue of teaching intelligent design in the classroom. • • • The cover of the magazine featured a parody of the The Creation of Adam from the Sistine Chapel. Rather than pointing at Adam, Michelangelo’s God points at the image of a chimpanzee contemplating the caption which read "The push to teach "intelligent design" raises a question: Does God have a place in science class?". In the Kitzmiller v. Dover case, the court ruled that intelligent design was a religious and creationist position, finding that God and intelligent design were both distinct from the material that should be covered in a science class. Empirical science uses the scientific method to create a posteriori knowledge based on observation and repeated testing of hypotheses and theories. Intelligent design proponents seek to change this fundamental basis of science by eliminating "methodological naturalism" from science [Johnson positions himself as a "theistic realist" against "methodological naturalism".] and replacing it with what the leader of the intelligent design movement, Phillip E. Johnson, calls "theistic realism". Some have called this approach "methodological supernaturalism", which means belief in a transcendent, nonnatural dimension of reality inhabited by a transcendent, nonnatural deity. See, for instance: Intelligent design proponents argue that naturalistic explanations fail to explain certain phenomena and that supernatural explanations provide a very simple and intuitive explanation for the origins of life and the universe. Proponents say that evidence exists in the forms of irreducible complexity and specified complexity that cannot be explained by natural processes. Supporters also hold that religious neutrality requires the teaching of both evolution and intelligent design in schools, saying that teaching only evolution unfairly discriminates against those holding creationist beliefs. Teaching both, they argue, allows for the possibility of religious belief, without causing the state to actually promote such beliefs. Many intelligent design followers believe that "Scientism" is itself a religion that promotes secularism and materialism in an attempt to erase theism from public life, and they view their work in the promotion of intelligent design as a way to return religion to a central role in education and other public spheres. Some allege that this larger debate is often the subtext for arguments made over intelligent design, though others note that intelligent design serves as an effective proxy for the religious beliefs of prominent intelligent design proponents in their efforts to advance their religious point of view within society. According to critics, intelligent design has not presented a credible scientific case and is an attempt to teach religion in public schools. They allege that intelligent design has substituted public support for scientific research. Some critics have said that if one were to take the proponents of "equal time for all theories" at their word, there would be no logical limit to the number of potential "theories" to be taught in the public school system, including intelligent design parodies such as the Flying Spaghetti Monster "theory". There are innumerable mutually incompatible supernatural explanations for complexity, and intelligent design does not provide a mechanism for discriminating among them. Philosopher of biology Elliott Sober, for example, states that intelligent design is not falsifiable because "[d]efenders of ID always have a way out". Indeed, intelligent design proponent Michael Behe concedes "You can't prove intelligent design by experiment". Critics have asserted that intelligent design proponents cannot legitimately infer that an intelligent designer is behind the part of the process that is not understood scientifically, since they have not shown that anything supernatural has occurred. The inference that an intelligent designer created life on Earth, which advocate William Dembski has said could alternately be an "alien" life force, has been compared to the a priori claim that aliens helped the ancient Egyptians build the pyramids. In both cases, the effect of this outside intelligence is not repeatable, observable or falsifiable, and it violates the principle of parsimony. From a strictly empirical standpoint, one may list what is known about Egyptian construction techniques, but one must admit ignorance about exactly how the Egyptians built the pyramids. Supporters of intelligent design have also reached out to other faith groups with similar accounts of creation with the hope that the broader coalition will have greater influence in supporting science education that does not contradict their religious views. Many religious bodies have responded by expressing support for evolution. The Roman Catholic church has stated that religious faith is fully compatible with science, which is limited to dealing only with the natural world —a position described by the term theistic evolution. As well as pointing out that intelligent design is not science, they also reject it for various philosophical and theological reasons. The arguments of intelligent design have been directly challenged by the over 10,000 clergy who signed the Clergy Letter Project. Prominent scientists who strongly express religious faith, such as the astronomer George Coyne and the biologist Ken Miller, have been at the forefront of opposition to intelligent design. While creationist organizations have welcomed intelligent design's support against naturalism, they have also been critical of its refusal to identify the designer, and have pointed to previous failures of the same argument. Some religiously oriented commentators, such as Natan Slifkin, have more directly criticized the advocates of intelligent design as presenting a perspective of God that is dangerous to religion. Natan Slifkin (2006). The Challenge of Creation (New York: Yashar Books) 288 ff. Those who promote it as parallel to religion, he asserts, do not truly understand it. Slifkin criticizes intelligent design's advocacy of teaching their perspective in biology classes, wondering why no one claims that God's hand should be taught in other secular classes, such as history, physics or geology. Slifkin also asserts that the intelligent design movement is inordinately concerned with portraying God as "in control" when it comes to things that cannot be easily explained by science, but not in control in respect to things which can be explained by scientific theory. Kenneth Miller expresses a view similar to Slifkin's: "[T]he struggles of the Intelligent Design movement are best understood as clamorous and disappointing double failures - rejected by science because they do not fit the facts, and having failed religion because they think too little of God. Defining science The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge of the natural world without assuming the existence or nonexistence of the supernatural, an approach sometimes called methodological naturalism. Intelligent design proponents believe that this can be equated to materialist metaphysical naturalism, and have often said that not only is their own position scientific, but it is even more scientific than evolution, and that they want a redefinition of science as a revived natural theology or natural philosophy to allow "non-naturalistic theories such as intelligent design". This presents a demarcation problem, which in the philosophy of science is about how and where to draw the lines around science. For a theory to qualify as scientific, Discusses principles of induction, deduction and probability related to the expectation of consistency, testability, and multiple observations. Chapter 8 discusses parsimony (Occam's razor) Discusses the scientific method, including the principles of falsifiability, testability, progressive development of theory, dynamic self-correcting of hypotheses, and parsimony, or "Occam's razor". , 4: whether ID is science. The ruling discusses central aspects of expectations in the scientific community that a scientific theory be testable, dynamic, correctible, progressive, based upon multiple observations, and provisional, it is expected to be: Consistent Parsimonious (sparing in its proposed entities or explanations, see Occam's Razor) Useful (describes and explains observed phenomena, and can be used predictively) Empirically testable and falsifiable (see Falsifiability) Based on multiple observations, often in the form of controlled, repeated experiments Correctable and dynamic (modified in the light of observations that do not support it) Progressive (refines previous theories) Provisional or tentative (is open to experimental checking, and does not assert certainty) For any theory, hypothesis or conjecture to be considered scientific, it must meet most, and ideally all, of these criteria. The fewer criteria are met, the less scientific it is; and if it meets only a few or none at all, then it cannot be treated as scientific in any meaningful sense of the word. Typical objections to defining intelligent design as science are that it lacks consistency, See, e.g., violates the principle of parsimony, Intelligent design fails to pass Occam's razor. Adding entities (an intelligent agent, a designer) to the equation is not strictly necessary to explain events. See, e.g., . is not scientifically useful, See, e.g., is not falsifiable, The designer is not falsifiable, since its existence is typically asserted without sufficient conditions to allow a falsifying observation. The designer being beyond the realm of the observable, claims about its existence can be neither supported nor undermined by observation, making intelligent design and the argument from design analytic a posteriori arguments. See, e.g., Ruling, p. 22 and p. 77. is not empirically testable, That intelligent design is not empirically testable stems from the fact that it violates a basic premise of science, naturalism. See, e.g., Ruling, p. 22 and p. 66. and is not correctable, dynamic, provisional or progressive. Intelligent design professes to offer an answer that does not need to be defined or explained, the intelligent agent, designer. By asserting a conclusion that cannot be accounted for scientifically, the designer, intelligent design cannot be sustained by any further explanation, and objections raised to those who accept intelligent design make little headway. Thus intelligent design is not a provisional assessment of data which can change when new information is discovered. Once it is claimed that a conclusion that need not be accounted for has been established, there is simply no possibility of future correction. The idea of the progressive growth of scientific ideas is required to explain previous data and any previously unexplainable data. See, e.g., the brief explanation in p. 66. The September 2005 statement by 38 Nobel laureates stated that: "Intelligent design is fundamentally unscientific; it cannot be tested as scientific theory because its central conclusion is based on belief in the intervention of a supernatural agent". The October 2005 statement, by a coalition representing more than 70,000 Australian scientists and science teachers said: "intelligent design is not science" and called on "all schools not to teach Intelligent Design (ID) as science, because it fails to qualify on every count as a scientific theory". Critics also say that the intelligent design doctrine does not meet the Daubert Standard, the criteria for scientific evidence mandated by the US Supreme Court. The Daubert Standard governs which evidence can be considered scientific in United States federal courts and most state courts. Its four criteria are: The theoretical underpinnings of the methods must yield testable predictions by means of which the theory could be falsified. The methods should preferably be published in a peer-reviewed journal. There should be a known rate of error that can be used in evaluating the results. The methods should be generally accepted within the relevant scientific community. In Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, using these criteria and others mentioned above, Judge Jones ruled that "... we have addressed the seminal question of whether ID is science. We have concluded that it is not, and moreover that ID cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents". Peer review The failure to follow the procedures of scientific discourse and the failure to submit work to the scientific community that withstands scrutiny have weighed against intelligent design being considered as valid science. , 4. Whether ID is Science, p. 87 To date, the intelligent design movement has not published an article in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. Intelligent design, by appealing to a supernatural agent, directly conflicts with the principles of science, which limit its inquiries to empirical, observable and ultimately testable data and which require explanations to be based on empirical evidence. Dembski, Behe and other intelligent design proponents say bias by the scientific community is to blame for the failure of their research to be published. Free Speech on Evolution Campaign Main Page Discovery Institute, Center for Science and Culture. Intelligent design proponents believe that their writings are rejected for not conforming to purely naturalistic, non-supernatural mechanisms rather than because their research is not up to "journal standards", and that the merit of their articles is overlooked. Some scientists describe this claim as a conspiracy theory. Michael Shermer has rebutted the claim, noting "Anyone who thinks that scientists do not question Darwinism has never been to an evolutionary conference." He noted that scientists such as Joan Roughgarden and Lynn Margulis have challenged certain Darwinist theories and offered explanations of their own and despite this they "have not been persecuted, shunned, fired or even expelled. Why? Because they are doing science, not religion." Skeptic: eSkeptic: Thursday, April 17th, 2008 The issue that supernatural explanations do not conform to the scientific method became a sticking point for intelligent design proponents in the 1990s, and is addressed in the wedge strategy as an aspect of science that must be challenged before intelligent design can be accepted by the broader scientific community. The debate over whether intelligent design produces new research, as any scientific field must, and has legitimately attempted to publish this research, is extremely heated. Both critics and advocates point to numerous examples to make their case. For instance, the Templeton Foundation, a former funder of the Discovery Institute and a major supporter of projects seeking to reconcile science and religion, says that it asked intelligent design proponents to submit proposals for actual research, but none were ever submitted. Charles L. Harper Jr., foundation vice-president, said: "From the point of view of rigor and intellectual seriousness, the intelligent design people don't come out very well in our world of scientific review". The only article published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal that made a case for intelligent design was quickly withdrawn by the publisher for having circumvented the journal's peer-review standards. Written by the Discovery Institute's Center for Science & Culture Director Stephen C. Meyer, it appeared in the peer-reviewed journal Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington in August 2004. The article was a literature review, which means that it did not present any new research, but rather culled quotations and claims from other papers to argue that the Cambrian explosion could not have happened by natural processes. The choice of venue for this article was also considered problematic, because it was so outside the normal subject matter (see Sternberg peer review controversy The Sternberg peer review controversy and several similar academic disputes are the subject of the 2008 documentary "Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed". ). Dembski has written that "perhaps the best reason [to be skeptical of his ideas] is that intelligent design has yet to establish itself as a thriving scientific research program." In a 2001 interview, Dembski said that he stopped submitting to peer-reviewed journals because of their slow time-to-print and that he makes more money from publishing books. In the Dover trial, the judge found that intelligent design features no scientific research or testing. Ruling, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science There, intelligent design proponents cited just one paper, on simulation modeling of evolution by Behe and Snoke, which mentioned neither irreducible complexity nor intelligent design and which Behe admitted did not rule out known evolutionary mechanisms. Michael Lynch called the conclusions of the article "an artifact of unwarranted biological assumptions, inappropriate mathematical modeling, and faulty logic". In sworn testimony, however, Behe said: "There are no peer reviewed articles by anyone advocating for intelligent design supported by pertinent experiments or calculations which provide detailed rigorous accounts of how intelligent design of any biological system occurred".<ref>Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, October 19, 2005, AM session Kitzmiller Testimony, Behe As summarized by the judge, Behe conceded that there are no peer-reviewed articles supporting his claims of intelligent design or irreducible complexity. In his ruling, the judge wrote: "A final indicator of how ID has failed to demonstrate scientific warrant is the complete absence of peer-reviewed publications supporting the theory". The Discovery Institute insists that a number of intelligent design articles have been published in peer-reviewed journals, including in its list the two articles mentioned above. Critics, largely members of the scientific community, reject this claim, pointing out that no established scientific journal has yet published an intelligent design article. Instead, intelligent design proponents have set up their own journals with "peer review" which lack impartiality and rigor, consisting entirely of intelligent design supporters. Intelligence as an observable quality The phrase intelligent design makes use of an assumption of the quality of an observable intelligence, a concept that has no scientific consensus definition. William Dembski, for example, has written that "Intelligence leaves behind a characteristic signature". The characteristics of intelligence are assumed by intelligent design proponents to be observable without specifying what the criteria for the measurement of intelligence should be. Dembski, instead, asserts that "in special sciences ranging from forensics to archaeology to SETI (the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence), appeal to a designing intelligence is indispensable". How this appeal is made and what this implies as to the definition of intelligence are topics left largely unaddressed. Seth Shostak, a researcher with the SETI Institute, refuted Dembski's comparison of SETI and intelligent design, saying that intelligent design advocates base their inference of design on complexity—the argument being that some biological systems are too complex to have been made by natural processes—while SETI researchers are looking primarily for artificiality. Critics say that the design detection methods proposed by intelligent design proponents are radically different from conventional design detection, undermining the key elements that make it possible as legitimate science. Intelligent design proponents, they say, are proposing both searching for a designer without knowing anything about that designer's abilities, parameters, or intentions (which scientists do know when searching for the results of human intelligence), as well as denying the very distinction between natural/artificial design that allows scientists to compare complex designed artifacts against the background of the sorts of complexity found in nature. "For human artifacts, we know the designer's identity, human, and the mechanism of design, as we have experience based upon empirical evidence that humans can make such things, as well as many other attributes including the designer's abilities, needs, and desires. With ID, proponents assert that they refuse to propose hypotheses on the designer's identity, do not propose a mechanism, and the designer, he/she/it/they, has never been seen. In that vein, defense expert Professor Minnich agreed that in the case of human artifacts and objects, we know the identity and capacities of the human designer, but we do not know any of those attributes for the designer of biological life. In addition, Professor Behe agreed that for the design of human artifacts, we know the designer and its attributes and we have a baseline for human design that does not exist for design of biological systems. Professor Behe's only response to these seemingly insurmountable points of disanalogy was that the inference still works in science fiction movies".—, p. 81 As a means of criticism, certain skeptics have pointed to a challenge of intelligent design derived from the study of artificial intelligence. The criticism is a counter to intelligent design claims about what makes a design intelligent, specifically that "no preprogrammed device can be truly intelligent, that intelligence is irreducible to natural processes". This claim is similar in type to an assumption of Cartesian dualism that posits a strict separation between "mind" and the material Universe. However, in studies of artificial intelligence, while there is an implicit assumption that supposed "intelligence" or creativity of a computer program is determined by the capabilities given to it by the computer programmer, artificial intelligence need not be bound to an inflexible system of rules. Rather, if a computer program can access randomness as a function, this effectively allows for a flexible, creative, and adaptive intelligence. Evolutionary algorithms, a subfield of machine learning (itself a subfield of artificial intelligence), have been used to mathematically demonstrate that randomness and selection can be used to "evolve" complex, highly adapted structures that are not explicitly designed by a programmer. Evolutionary algorithms use the Darwinian metaphor of random mutation, selection and the survival of the fittest to solve diverse mathematical and scientific problems that are usually not solvable using conventional methods. Intelligence derived from randomness is essentially indistinguishable from the "innate" intelligence associated with biological organisms, and poses a challenge to the intelligent design conception that intelligence itself necessarily requires a designer. Cognitive science continues to investigate the nature of intelligence along these lines of inquiry. The intelligent design community, for the most part, relies on the assumption that intelligence is readily apparent as a fundamental and basic property of complex systems. Arguments from ignorance Eugenie Scott, along with Glenn Branch and other critics, has argued that many points raised by intelligent design proponents are arguments from ignorance. In the argument from ignorance, a lack of evidence for one view is erroneously argued to constitute proof of the correctness of another view. Scott and Branch say that intelligent design is an argument from ignorance because it relies on a lack of knowledge for its conclusion: lacking a natural explanation for certain specific aspects of evolution, we assume intelligent cause. They contend most scientists would reply that the unexplained is not unexplainable, and that "we don't know yet" is a more appropriate response than invoking a cause outside science. Particularly, Michael Behe's demands for ever more detailed explanations of the historical evolution of molecular systems seem to assume a false dichotomy, where either evolution or design is the proper explanation, and any perceived failure of evolution becomes a victory for design. Scott and Branch also contend that the supposedly novel contributions proposed by intelligent design proponents have not served as the basis for any productive scientific research. Intelligent design has also been characterized as a "god of the gaps" argument, which has the following form: There is a gap in scientific knowledge. The gap is filled with acts of God (or Intelligent designer) and therefore proves the existence of God (or Intelligent designer). A god-of-the-gaps argument is the theological version of an argument from ignorance. A key feature of this type of argument is that it merely answers outstanding questions with explanations (often supernatural) that are unverifiable and ultimately themselves subject to unanswerable questions. See, for instance: Kitzmiller trialKitzmiller v. Dover Area School District was the first direct challenge brought in the United States federal courts against a public school district that required the presentation of intelligent design as an alternative to evolution. The plaintiffs successfully argued that intelligent design is a form of creationism, and that the school board policy thus violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Intelligent Design on Trial: Kitzmiller v. Dover. National Center for Science Education. October 17th, 2008 Eleven parents of students in Dover, Pennsylvania, sued the Dover Area School District over a statement that the school board required be read aloud in ninth-grade science classes when evolution was taught. The plaintiffs were represented by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Americans United for Separation of Church and State (AU) and Pepper Hamilton LLP. The National Center for Science Education (NCSE) acted as consultants for the plaintiffs. The defendants were represented by the Thomas More Law Center. The suit was tried in a bench trial from September 26, 2005 to November 4, 2005 before Judge John E. Jones III. Ken Miller, Kevin Padian, Brian Alters, Robert Pennock, Barbara Forrest and John Haught served as expert witnesses for the prosecution. Michael Behe, Steve Fuller and Scott Minnich served as expert witnesses for the defense. On December 20, 2005 Judge Jones issued his 139-page findings of fact and decision, ruling that the Dover mandate was unconstitutional, and barring intelligent design from being taught in Pennsylvania's Middle District public school science classrooms. The eight Dover school board members who voted for the intelligent design requirement were all defeated in a November 8, 2005 election by challengers who opposed the teaching of intelligent design in a science class, and the current school board president stated that the board does not intend to appeal the ruling. In his finding of facts, Judge Jones made the following condemnation of the Teach the Controversy strategy: Reaction Judge Jones himself anticipated that his ruling would be criticized, saying in his decision that: As Jones had predicted, John G. West, Associate Director of the Center for Science and Culture at Discovery Institute, said: "The Dover decision is an attempt by an activist federal judge to stop the spread of a scientific idea and even to prevent criticism of Darwinian evolution through government-imposed censorship rather than open debate, and it won't work. He has conflated Discovery Institute's position with that of the Dover school board, and he totally misrepresents intelligent design and the motivations of the scientists who research it". Newspapers have noted with interest that the judge is "a Republican and a churchgoer". Subsequently, the decision has been examined in a search for flaws and conclusions, partly by intelligent design supporters aiming to avoid future defeats in court. In the Spring of 2007 the University of Montana Law review published three articles. In the first, David K. DeWolf, John G. West and Casey Luskin, all of the Discovery Institute, argued that intelligent design is a valid scientific theory, the Jones court should not have addressed the question of whether it was a scientific theory, and that the Kitzmiller decision will have no effect at all on the development and adoption of intelligent design as an alternative to standard evolutionary theory. In the second Peter Irons responded, arguing that the decision was extremely well reasoned and spells the death knell for the intelligent design efforts to introduce creationism in public schools, while in the third, DeWolf et al. answer the points made by Irons. However, fear of a similar lawsuit has resulted in other school boards abandoning intelligent design "teach the controversy" proposals. Status outside the United States Europe In June 2007 the Council of Europe's "Committee on Culture, Science and Education" issued a report, The dangers of creationism in education, which states "Creationism in any of its forms, such as 'intelligent design', is not based on facts, does not use any scientific reasoning and its contents are pathetically inadequate for science classes." In describing the dangers posed to education by teaching creationism, it described intelligent design as "anti-science" and involving "blatant scientific fraud" and "intellectual deception" that "blurs the nature, objectives and limits of science" and links it and other forms of creationism to denialism. On October 4, 2007, the Council of Europe's Parliamentary Assembly approved a resolution stating that schools should "resist presentation of creationist ideas in any discipline other than religion", including "intelligent design" which it described as "the latest, more refined version of creationism", "presented in a more subtle way". The resolution emphasises that the aim of the report is not to question or to fight a belief, but to "warn against certain tendencies to pass off a belief as science". In the United Kingdom, public education includes Religious Education as a compulsory subject, and many "faith schools" that teach the ethos of particular denominations. When it was revealed that a group called Truth in Science had distributed DVDs produced by the Discovery Institute affiliate Illustra Media featuring Discovery Institute fellows making the case for design in nature, and claimed they were being used by 59 schools, the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) stated that "Neither creationism nor intelligent design are taught as a subject in schools, and are not specified in the science curriculum" (part of the National Curriculum which does not apply to independent schools or to Education in Scotland). The DfES subsequently stated that "Intelligent design is not a recognised scientific theory; therefore, it is not included in the science curriculum", but left the way open for it to be explored in religious education in relation to different beliefs, as part of a syllabus set by local standing advisory councils on religious education. In 2006 the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority produced a Religious Education model unit in which pupils can learn about religious and nonreligious views about creationism, intelligent design and evolution by natural selection. On June 25, 2007, the UK Government responded to an e-Petition by saying that creationism and intelligent design should not be taught as science, though teachers would be expected to answer pupils' questions within the standard framework of established scientific theories. Detailed government "Creationism teaching guidance" for schools in England was published on September 18, 2007. It states that "Intelligent design lies wholly outside of science", has no underpinning scientific principles, or explanations, and is not accepted by the science community as a whole. Though it should not be taught as science, "questions about creationism and intelligent design which arise in science lessons, for example as a result of media coverage, could provide the opportunity to explain or explore why they are not considered to be scientific theories and, in the right context, why evolution is considered to be a scientific theory". However, "Teachers of subjects such as RE, history or citizenship may deal with creationism and intelligent design in their lessons". The British Centre for Science Education lobbying group has the goal of "countering creationism within the UK" and has been involved in government lobbying in the UK in this regard. However, in Northern Ireland the Democratic Unionist Party claims that the revised curriculum provides an opportunity for alternative theories to be taught, and has sought assurances that pupils will not lose marks if they give creationist or intelligent design answers to science questions. * In Lisburn the DUP has arranged that the City Council will write to post primary schools asking what their plans are to develop teaching material in relation to "creation, intelligent design and other theories of origin". Plans by Dutch Education Minister Maria van der Hoeven to "stimulate an academic debate" on the subject in 2005 caused a severe public backlash. After the 2007 elections she was succeeded by Ronald Plasterk, described as a "molecular geneticist, staunch atheist and opponent of intelligent design". As a reaction on this situation in the Netherlands, in Belgium the President of the Flemish Catholic Educational Board (VSKO) Mieke Van Hecke declared that: "Catholic scientists already accepted the theory of evolution for a long time and that intelligent design and creationism doesn't belong in Flemish Catholic schools. It's not the tasks of the politics to introduce new ideas, that's task and goal of science." De Morgen, May 23, 2005 Elsewhere Creationism has strong political clout in many Islamic countries, and antievolutionary views are mainstream with considerable official support and elite support among academic theologians and scientists. In general, Muslim creationists have partnered with the Institute for Creation Research for ideas and materials which they adapted to their own theological positions. Similarly, some use was made of intelligent design antievolution resources. Muzaffar Iqbal, a notable Muslim in Canada, signed the Scientific Dissent list of the Discovery Institute. Ideas similar to intelligent design have been considered respected intellectual options among Muslims, and in Turkey many intelligent design books have been translated. In Istanbul in 2007, public meetings promoting intelligent design were sponsored by the local government, and David Berlinski of the Discovery Institute was the keynote speaker at a meeting in May 2007. The status of intelligent design in Australia is somewhat similar to that in the UK. When the former Australian Federal Education Minister, Brendan Nelson, raised the notion of intelligent design being taught in science classes, the public outcry caused the minister to quickly concede that the correct forum for intelligent design, if it were to be taught, is in religious or philosophy classes. See also List of works on intelligent design Santorum Amendment Pseudoscience/Junk science Abiogenesis Arguments in favor Watchmaker analogy Cosmological argument Natural theology Teleological argument Criticism Argument from poor design Flock of DodosParodies Flying Spaghetti Monster Intelligent falling Related topics in creationism Creation science Neo-Creationism Old Earth creationism References and notes Further reading Chronological order of publication (oldest first) Davis, Jimmy H. and Poe, Harry L (2008), Chance or Dance: An Evaluation of Design'', Templeton Foundation Press, ISBN 978-1599471334 External links ID perspectives Access Research Network Design Inference: The website of William A. Dembski Discovery Institute, Center for Science and Culture (Hub of the intelligent design movement) EvolutionNews.org Discovery Institute website tracking media coverage of intelligent design. ID The Future A multiple contributor weblog by Discovery Institute fellows. Intelligent Design Network A nonprofit organization in Kansas to promote intelligent design International Society for Complexity, Information, and Design (ISCID) Uncommon Descent William Dembski's blog Non-ID perspectives Scientific American - 15 Answers to Creationist Questions ACLU site on Intelligent Design Intelligent Design? special feature in the Natural History Magazine Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Design Arguments for the Existence of God National Center for Science Education articles and other resources about Intelligent Design Resolution from the American Association for the Advancement of Science Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences Second Edition (1999) Talk Origins Archive (Archive of the UseNet discussion group talk.origins) 139 page in-depth analysis of intelligent design, irreducible complexity, and the book Of Pandas and People by the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District judge Kitzmiller: An Intelligent Ruling on 'Intelligent Design', JURIST ID and Creationism The Design Argument Elliott Sober, 2004. Short discussion on Natural Knowledge and Natural Design as a contrast to Intelligent Design by Richard Dawkins Media articles Judgment Day: Intelligent Design on Trial A PBS-NOVA documentary on the Dover, PA Intelligent Design trial in 2005.(PBS) Discovery's Creation An overview of the origin of the intelligent design movement. (Seattle Weekly) Intelligent Design vs. Evolution debate between paleontologist Peter Ward and Stephen Meyer co-founder of the Discovery Institute Intelligent Design Deja Vu What would "intelligent design" science classes look like? All we have to do is look inside some 19th century textbooks. (The Washington Post) How the media have covered ID (Columbia Journalism Review) Banned in biology class: intelligent design (Christian Science Monitor) Devolution (The New Yorker) The Evolution Debate (The New York Times) Debating Evolution in the Classroom (NPR) Darwin Victorious (TIME) Intelligent Design: Scientific Inquiry or Religious Indoctrination? 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5,021 | Geography_of_Liechtenstein | Geography of Liechtenstein Map of the Principality of Liechtenstein Satellite image of Liechtenstein area, with the border shown in yellow Location: Central Europe, between Austria and Switzerland Geographic coordinates: Map references: Europe Area: 160 km² (land, 0 km² water) Land boundaries: total: 76 km border countries: Austria 35 km, Switzerland 41 km Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims: none (landlocked) Climate: continental; cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow or rain; cool to moderately warm, cloudy, humid summers Terrain: mostly mountainous (Alps) with Rhine Valley in western third Natural resources: hydroelectric potential, arable land Land use: arable land: 24% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 16% forests and woodland: 35% other: 25% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: NA km² Natural hazards: NA Environment - current issues: NA Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands, signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Law of the Sea Geography - note: along with Uzbekistan one of only two doubly landlocked countries in the world; variety of microclimatic variations based on elevation Extreme points North - River Rhine South - summit of Mazorakopf/Falknishorn (2452 m) East - border post 28, above Nenzinger Himmel West - River Rhine highest - Vorder Grauspitz (2599 m) lowest - Bangserfeld (429 m) | Geography_of_Liechtenstein |@lemmatized geography:2 liechtenstein:3 map:2 principality:1 satellite:1 image:1 area:2 border:3 show:1 yellow:1 location:1 central:1 europe:2 austria:2 switzerland:2 geographic:1 coordinate:1 reference:1 land:6 water:1 boundary:1 total:1 km:4 country:2 coastline:1 landlocked:3 maritime:1 claim:1 none:1 climate:3 continental:1 cold:1 cloudy:2 winter:1 frequent:1 snow:1 rain:1 cool:1 moderately:1 warm:1 humid:1 summer:1 terrain:1 mostly:1 mountainous:1 alp:1 rhine:3 valley:1 western:1 third:1 natural:2 resource:1 hydroelectric:1 potential:1 arable:2 use:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:1 irrigated:1 na:3 hazard:1 environment:2 current:1 issue:1 international:1 agreement:1 party:1 air:6 pollution:6 nitrogen:1 oxide:1 sulphur:2 volatile:1 organic:2 compound:1 biodiversity:1 change:2 desertification:1 endanger:1 specie:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 wetland:1 sign:1 ratify:1 persistent:1 pollutant:1 kyoto:1 protocol:1 law:1 sea:1 note:1 along:1 uzbekistan:1 one:1 two:1 doubly:1 world:1 variety:1 microclimatic:1 variation:1 base:1 elevation:1 extreme:1 point:1 north:1 river:2 south:1 summit:1 mazorakopf:1 falknishorn:1 east:1 post:1 nenzinger:1 himmel:1 west:1 high:1 vorder:1 grauspitz:1 low:1 bangserfeld:1 |@bigram principality_liechtenstein:1 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 landlocked_maritime:1 none_landlocked:1 arable_land:2 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 nitrogen_oxide:1 pollution_sulphur:2 pollution_volatile:1 volatile_organic:1 organic_compound:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 protection_wetland:1 pollution_persistent:1 persistent_organic:1 organic_pollutant:1 kyoto_protocol:1 |
5,022 | Goth_subculture | A German Goth, a so-called "Grufti". The goth subculture is a contemporary subculture found in many countries. It began in the United Kingdom during the early 1980s in the gothic rock scene, an offshoot of the post-punk genre. The goth subculture has survived much longer than others of the same era, and has continued to diversify. Its imagery and cultural proclivities indicate influences from nineteenth century Gothic literature along with horror movies and to a lesser extent the BDSM culture. César Fuentes Rodríguez "Mundo Gótico", pages 18 & ss./pages 206 & ss. Carol Siegel "Goth's Dark Empire", pages 8-13 and ss. Cintra Wilson, "You just can't kill it", New York Times, September 17, 2008. Access date: September 18, 2008. The goth subculture has associated tastes in music, aesthetics, and fashion, whether or not all individuals who share those tastes are in fact members of the goth subculture. Gothic music encompasses a number of different styles. Common to all is a tendency towards a lugubrious, mystical sound and outlook. Styles of dress within the subculture range from deathrock, punk, androgynous, Victorian, some Renaissance and Medieval style attire, or combinations of the above, most often with black attire, makeup and hair. Origins and development Siouxsie and the Banshees were a major contributor to the style of "goth" early on. By the late 1970s, there were a few post-punk bands labeled "gothic." However, it was not until the early 1980s that gothic rock became its own subgenre within post-punk, and that followers of these bands started to come together as a distinctly recognizable movement. The scene appears to have taken its name from an article published in UK rock weekly Sounds: "The face of Punk Gothique", written by Steve Keaton and published on February 21, 1981. The opening of the Batcave in London's Soho in July 1982 provided a prominent meeting point for the emerging scene, which had briefly been labeled positive punk by the New Musical Express. Batcave club history Scathe.demon.co.uk. Retrieved April 23, 2006. The term "Batcaver" was later used to describe old-school goths. Independent from the British scene, the late 1970s and early 1980s saw death rock branch off from American punk. Archived Interview with Ms. Dinah Cancer Alicebag.com. Retrieved April 23, 2006. In 1980s and early 1990s, members of an emerging subculture in Germany were called Grufti[e]s (English "vault creatures" or "tomb creatures"); they generally followed a fusion of the gothic and new wave with an influence of new romantic, and formed the early stages of the "dark culture" (formerly called "dark wave culture"). After post-punk After the waning in popularity of post-punk, the subculture diversified both musically and visually. This caused variations in the "types" of goth. Local scenes also contributed to this variation. By the 1990s, Victorian fashion saw a renewed popularity in the goth scene, drawing on the mid-19th century gothic revival and the more morbid aspects of Victorian culture. Current subcultural boundaries By the 1990s, the term "goth" and the boundaries of the associated subculture had become more contentious. New subcultures emerged, or became more popular, some of them being conflated with the goth subculture by the general public and the popular media. This conflation was primarily owing to similarities of appearance, social customs, and the fashions of the subcultures, rather than the musical genres of the bands associated with them. As time went on, the term was extended further in popular usage, sometimes to define groups that had neither musical nor fashion similarities to the original gothic subculture. This has led to the introduction of goth slang terms that some goths and others use to sort and label members of loosely related or at times unrelated subcultures. The response of these pseudo-groups to the older subculture varies. Some, being secure in a separate subcultural identity, express offence at being called "goth" in the first place, while others choose to join the existing subculture on its own terms. Still others have simply ignored its existence, and decided to appropriate the term "goth" themselves, and redefine the idea in their own image. Even within the original subculture, changing trends have added to the complexity of attempting to define precise boundaries. The goth scene The bands that began the gothic rock and deathrock scene were limited in number, and included Bauhaus, Specimen, Siouxsie & the Banshees, The Damned, Southern Death Cult, Ausgang, Sex Gang Children, 45 Grave, UK Decay, The Virgin Prunes, Kommunity FK, Alien Sex Fiend and Christian Death. Gloria Mundi, Joy Division, The Cure, This Mortal Coil, Dead Can Dance, mittageisen, early Adam and the Ants and Killing Joke have also been associated. By the mid-eighties, the number of bands began proliferating and became increasingly popular, including The Sisters of Mercy, The Mission (known as The Mission UK in the US), Xmal Deutschland, The Bolshoi and Fields of the Nephilim. The nineties saw the further growth of eighties bands and emergence of many new bands. Factory Records, 4AD Records, and Beggars Banquet Records released much of this music in Europe, while Cleopatra Records among others released much of this music in the United States, where the subculture grew especially in New York, Los Angeles, and Orange County, California, with many nightclubs featuring "gothic/industrial" nights. The popularity of 4AD bands resulted in the creation of a similar US label called Projekt Records. This produces what is colloquially termed ethereal wave, a subgenre of dark wave music. By the mid-1990s, styles of music that were heard in venues that goths attended ranged from gothic rock, death rock, industrial music, Gothabilly, EBM, ambient, experimental, synthpop, shoegazing, punk rock, 1970s glam rock, indie rock, to 1980s dance music. This variety was a result of the eclectic tastes of the members of the subculture. Bauhaus - Live in concert, February 3, 2006 Recent years have seen a resurgence in the early positive punk and death rock sound, in reaction to aggrotech, futurepop, industrial and synthpop, which had taken over many goth clubs. Bands with an earlier goth sound like Cinema Strange, Bloody Dead And Sexy, Black Ice, and Antiworld are becoming very popular. Nights like Ghoul School and Release The Bats promote death rock heavily, and the Drop Dead Festival brings in death rock fans from all over the world. Today, the goth music scene thrives in Western Europe - especially in Germany, with large festivals such as Wave-Gotik-Treffen, M'era Luna and others drawing tens of thousands of fans from all over the world. However, North America still sees large scale events, most recently, Chamber's Dark Art & Music Festival . Historical and cultural influences Origins of the term The original Goths were an Eastern Germanic tribe who played an important role in the fall of the western Roman Empire. In some circles, the name "goth" later became pejorative: synonymous with "barbarian" and the uncultured due to the then-contemporary view of the fall of Rome and depictions of the pagan Gothic tribes during and after the process of Christianization of Europe. During the Renaissance period in Europe, medieval architecture was retroactively labeled gothic architecture, and was considered unfashionable in contrast to the then-modern lines of classical architecture. In the United Kingdom, by the late 1700s, however, nostalgia for the medieval period led people to become fascinated with medieval gothic ruins. This fascination was often combined with an interest in medieval romances, Roman Catholic religion and the supernatural. The gothic novel of the late eighteenth century, a genre founded by Horace Walpole with the 1764 publication of The Castle of Otranto, was accountable for the more modern connotations of the term gothic. He originally claimed that the book was a real medieval romance he had discovered and republished. Thus was born the gothic novel's association with fake documentation to increase its effect. Henceforth, the term was associated with a mood of horror, morbidity, darkness and the supernatural as well as camp and self-parody. The gothic novel established much of the iconography of later horror literature and cinema, such as graveyards, ruined castles or churches, ghosts, vampires, nightmares, cursed families, being buried alive and melodramatic plots. An additional notable element was the brooding figure of the gothic villain, which developed into the Byronic hero. The most famous gothic villain is the vampire, a folklore legend of Eastern Europe and the Balkans, best known from Bram Stoker's novel Dracula and the horror movies it influenced. Certain elements in the dark, atmospheric music and dress of the post punk scene were clearly gothic in this sense. The use of gothic as an adjective in describing this music and its followers led to the term goth. 19th century The Revolutionary War-era "American Gothic" story of the Headless Horseman, immortalized in Washington Irving's story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (published in 1820), marked the arrival in the New World of dark, romantic story-telling. The tale was composed by Irving while he was living in England, and was based on popular tales told by colonial Dutch settlers of New York's Hudson River valley. The story was adapted to film in 1922, and in 1949, in the animated The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad. It was readapted in 1980 and again in Tim Burton's 1999 Sleepy Hollow. Burton, already famous through his films Edward Scissorhands, Beetlejuice and Batman, created a storybook atmosphere filled with darkness and shadow. Throughout the evolution of goth subculture, classic romantic, gothic and horror literature has played a significant role. Keats, Poe, Lovecraft, Baudelaire and other tragic and romantic writers have become as emblematic of the subculture as has using dark eyeliner or dressing in black. Baudelaire, in fact, in his preface to Les Fleurs du mal (Flowers of Evil) penned lines that as much as anything can serve as a sort of goth malediction: C'est l'Ennui! —l'œil chargé d'un pleur involontaire, Il rêve d'échafauds en fumant son houka. Tu le connais, lecteur, ce monstre délicat, —Hypocrite lecteur,—mon semblable,—mon frère! It is Boredom! — an eye brimming with an involuntary tear, he dreams of the gallows in the fumes of his water-pipe. You apprehend, reader, this fragile monster, —hypocrite reader,—my mirror,—my brother! 20th century influences The influence of the gothic novel on the goth subculture can be seen in numerous examples of the subculture's poetry and music, though this influence sometimes came second hand, through the popular imagery of horror films and television. The powerful imagery of horror movies began in German expressionist cinema after the first world war and then passed onto the Universal Studios films of the twenties and thirties, and then to the horror films of the English Hammer Studio. By the 1960s, TV series, such as The Addams Family and The Munsters, used these stereotypes for camp comedy. The Byronic hero, in particular, was a key precursor to the male goth image, while Dracula's iconic portrayal by Bela Lugosi appealed powerfully to early goths. They were attracted by Lugosi's aura of camp menace, elegance and mystique. Some people even credit the band Bauhaus' first single "Bela Lugosi's Dead", released August 1979, with the start of the goth subculture, though many prior art house movements also influenced gothic fashion and style, the illustrations and paintings of Swiss artist, H.R Giger being one of the earliest. Notable other early examples include Siouxsie Sioux of the musical group Siouxsie and the Banshees, and Dave Vanian of the band The Damned. Some members of Bauhaus were, themselves, fine art students or active artists. Film poster for The Hunger, a key influence in the early days of the goth subculture. Some of the early gothic rock and death rock artists adopted traditional horror movie images, and also drew on horror movie soundtracks for inspiration. Their audiences responded in kind by further adopting appropriate dress and props. Use of standard horror film props like swirling smoke, rubber bats, and cobwebs were used as gothic club décor from the beginning in The Batcave. Such references in their music and image were originally tongue-in-cheek, but as time went on, bands and members of the subculture took the connection more seriously. As a result, morbid, supernatural, and occult themes became a more noticeably serious element in the subculture. The interconnection between horror and goth was highlighted in its early days by The Hunger, a 1983 vampire film, which starred David Bowie, Catherine Deneuve, and Susan Sarandon. The movie featured gothic rock group Bauhaus performing "Bela Lugosi's Dead" in a nightclub. In 1993, Whitby became the location for what became the UK's biggest goth festival as a direct result of being featured in Bram Stoker's Dracula. A literary influence on the gothic scene was Anne Rice's re-imagining of the idea of the vampire. Rice's characters were depicted as struggling with eternity and loneliness, this with their ambivalent or tragic sexuality had deep attractions for many goth readers, making her works very popular in the eighties through the nineties. Later media influences As the subculture became well-established, the connection between goth and horror fiction became almost a cliché, with Goths quite likely to appear as characters in horror novels and film. For example, The Crow drew directly on goth music and style. Neil Gaiman's acclaimed graphic novel series The Sandman influenced Goths with characters like the dark, brooding Dream and his sister Death. Visual art influences The Belgian photographer Viona Ielegems at Wave-Gotik-Treffen in 2005 The Goth subculture has influenced different artists - not only musicians - but also painters and photographers. In particular their work is based on mystic, morbid and romantic motifs. In photography and painting the spectrum varies from erotic artwork to romantic images of vampires or ghosts. To be present is a marked preference for dark colours and sentiments, similar to Gothic fiction, Pre-Raphaelites or Art Nouveau. In the Fine Art field, Anne Sudworth is a well known goth artist with her dark, nocturnal works and strong Gothic imagery. Some of the graphic artists close to Goth are Gerald Brom, Nene Thomas, Luis Royo, Dave McKean, Jhonen Vasquez, Trevor Brown, Victoria Francés as well as the American comic artist James O'Barr. H R Giger of Switzerland is one of the first graphic artists to make serious contributions to the Gothic/Industrial look of much of modern cinema with his work on the film "Alien" by Ridley Scott. Ideology Defining an explicit ideology for the gothic subculture is difficult for several reasons. First is the overwhelming importance of mood and aesthetic for those involved. This is, in part, inspired by romanticism and neoromanticism. The allure for goths of dark, mysterious, and morbid imagery and mood lies in the same tradition of Romanticism's gothic novel. During the late 18th and 19th century, feelings of horror, and supernatural dread were widespread motifs in popular literature; The process continues in the modern horror film. Balancing this emphasis on mood and aesthetics, another central element of the gothic is a deliberate sense of camp theatricality and self-dramatization; present both in gothic literature as well as in the gothic subculture itself. Goths, in terms of their membership in the subculture, are usually not supportive of violence, but rather tolerant. Many in the media have incorrectly associated the Goth subculture with violence, hatred of minorities, white supremacy, and other acts of hate. However, violence and hate do not form elements of goth ideology; rather, the ideology is formed in part by recognition, identification, and grief over societal and personal evils that the mainstream culture wishes to ignore or forget. These are the prevalent themes in goth music. ReligiousTolerance.org's article on "Goth" The second impediment to explicitly defining a gothic ideology is goth's generally apolitical nature. While individual defiance of social norms was a very risky business in the nineteenth century, today it is far less socially radical. Thus, the significance of goth's subcultural rebellion is limited, and it draws on imagery at the heart of Western culture. Unlike the hippie or punk movements, the goth subculture has no pronounced political messages or cries for social activism. The subculture is marked by its emphasis on individualism, tolerance for diversity, a strong emphasis on creativity, tendency toward intellectualism, a dislike of social conservatism, and a mild tendency towards cynicism, but even these ideas are not universal to all goths. Goth ideology is based far more on aesthetics and simplified ethics than politics. Goths may, indeed, have political leanings ranging from left-wing to right-wing, but they do not express them specifically as part of a cultural identity. Instead, political affiliation, like religion, is seen as a matter of personal conscience. Unlike punk, there are few clashes between political affiliation and being "goth". Similarly, there is no common religious tie that binds together the goth movement, though spiritual, supernatural and religious imagery has played a part in gothic fashion, song lyrics and visual art. In particular, aesthetic elements from Catholicism often appear in goth culture. Reasons for donning such imagery range from expression of religious affiliation to satire or simply decorative effect. While involvement with the subculture can be fulfilling, it also can be risky, especially for the young, because of the negative attention it can attract due to public misconceptions of goth subculture. The value that young people find in the movement is evidenced by its continuing existence after other subcultures of the eighties (such as the New Romantics) have died out. Fashion Gothic Model Lady Amaranth Goth fashion is stereotyped as a dark, sometimes morbid, eroticized fashion and style of dress. Typical gothic fashion includes dyed black hair, dark eyeliner, black fingernails, black period-styled clothing; goths may or may not have piercings. Styles are often borrowed from the Elizabethan, Victorian or medieval period and often express Catholic or other religious imagery such as crucifixes or ankhs. Eric Lipton Disturbed Shooters Weren't True Goth from the Chicago Tribune, April 27, 1999 The extent to which goths hold to this style varies amongst individuals as well as geographical locality, though virtually all Goths wear some of these elements. Fashion designers, such as Alexander McQueen and John Galliano, have also been described as practicing "Haute Goth". Goth fashion is often confused with heavy metal fashion: A Brief Guide to Goth Scathe.demon.co.uk. Retrieved July 19, 2008. outsiders often mistake fans of heavy metal for goth, particularly those who wear black trench coats or wear "corpse paint" (a term associated with the black metal music scene). Controversy The gothic fascination with the macabre has raised public concerns regarding the well-being of goths. The mass media has made reports that have influenced the public view that goths or people associated with the subculture, are malicious; however this is disputed and the Goth subculture is often described as non-violent. Some individuals who have either identified themselves or been identified by others as goth, whether correctly or incorrectly, have committed high profile violent crimes, including several school shootings. These incidents and their attribution to the goth scene have helped to propagate a wary perception of Goth in the public eye. Marcia Montenegro The World According to Goth Christian Answers for the New Age A compilation of three photos of Scott Dyleski, run on the cover of the San Francisco Chronicle. The picture on the right, of Dyleski in the ninth grade, which shows him in makeup and long hair, was criticized by his defense attorney as unfair and misleading, because by fall 2006 Dyleski's appearance had become more conservative and mainstream. The Dyleski trial sparked controversy over the goth scene. Public concern with the goth subculture reached a high point in the fallout of the Columbine High School massacre that was carried out by two students, incorrectly associated with the goth subculture. This misreporting of the roots of the massacre caused a widespread public backlash against the North American goth scene. Investigators of the incident, five months later, stated that there was no involvement between the goth subculture and the killers, who held goth music in contempt. Columbine retrospective The Dawson College shooting, in Canada, also raised public concern with the goth scene. Kimveer Gill, who killed one and injured nineteen, maintained an online journal at a web site, VampireFreaks, in which he "portrayed himself as a gun-loving Goth." September 14, 2006. Shooting by Canadian trench coat killer affects industrial / goth scene Side-line.com. Retrieved on March 13, 2007. The day after the shooting it was reported that "it are rough times for industrial / goth music fans these days as a result of yet another trench coat killing", implying that Gill was involved in the goth subculture. During a search of Gill's home, police found a letter praising the actions of Columbine shooters Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold and a CD titled "Shooting sprees ain't no fun without Ozzy and friends LOL". Although the shooter claimed an obsession for "Goth", his favorite music list was described, by the media, as a "who's who of heavy metal. Kimveer Gill's VampireFreaks.com profile. Singh, Raman NRI Kimveer Gill, Montreal native gunman called himself 'angel of death', kills one and injuring 20. NRI Retrieved on March 22, 2007. Mick Mercer, author, noted music journalist, and world's leading historian of Goth music Blu Interview with Mick Mercer Starvox.net Kyshah Hell Interview with Mick Mercer Morbidoutlook.com Mick Mercer Broken Ankle Books stated, of Kimveer Gill, that he was "not a Goth. Never a Goth. The bands he listed as his chosen form of ear-bashing were relentlessly Metal and standard Grunge, Rock and Goth metal, with some Industrial presence.", "Kimveer Gill listened to metal", "He had nothing whatsoever to do with Goth" and further commented "I realise that like many Neos this idiot may even have believed he somehow was a Goth, because they're only really noted for spectacularly missing the point." Mercer emphasized that he was not blaming heavy metal music for Gill's actions and added "It doesn’t matter actually what music he liked." Mick Mercer Mick Mercer talks about Kimveer Gill mickmercer.livejournal.com Another school shooting that was wrongly attributed to the goth subculture is the Red Lake High School massacre. "Shooter is described as 'Goth kid'", Star-Telegram (subscription required) Jeff Weise killed 7 people, and was believed by a fellow student to be into the goth culture: wearing "a big old black trench coat," and listening to heavy metal music. Weise was also found to participate in neo-nazi online forums. NBC, MSNBC and news services Teen who killed 9 claimed Nazi leanings MSNBC Other murders which are attributed to people suspected of being part of the goth culture include the Scott Dyleski killing, CNN.com. October 22, 2005. Vitale slaying suspect charged with murder. Retrieved on March 13, 2007. and the Richardson family murders, Reynolds, Richard, "Accused killer, 12, linked to goth site", The Sydney Morning Herald, April 28, 2006. Johnsrude, Larry, "Goths say Medicine Hat killings give them bad name", Edmonton Journal, April 26, 2006. although neither of these cases raised the same amount of media attention as the school shootings. In part because of public misunderstanding and ignorance surrounding gothic aesthetics, goths sometimes suffer prejudice, discrimination, and intolerance. As is the case with members of various other controversial subcultures and alternative lifestyles, outsiders sometimes marginalize goths, either by intention or by accident. Carey Goldberg " TERROR IN LITTLETON: THE SHUNNED; For Those Who Dress Differently, an Increase in Being Viewed as Abnormal" New York Times - May 1, 1999 Goths, like any other alternative sub-culture sometimes suffer intimidation, humiliation, and, in extreme cases, physical violence for their involvement with the subculture. In 2006 four goths were attacked in San Diego California by a Navy man and his brother resulting in one goth, Jim Howard, having to be rushed to the hospital. The perpetrators of this attack were found guilty in August 2007 on four related accounts, two of which were felonies. It was made clear that the goths were assaulted due to their subculture affiliation. This can be otherwise known as a "hate crime" though the San Diego courts do not recognize this attack as such at this time. Goths and Violent Crime Gothic Angst Webzine Sept 8, 2007 Goth Help Us, San DiegoGothic Angst Webzine May 1, 2007 Vindication Jim Howard sept 1, 2007 On August 11, 2007, two goths, walking through Stubbylee Park in Bacup, Lancashire, England were attacked by a group of teenagers because they were goths. Sophie Lancaster subsequently died from her injuries. Goth couple badly hurt in attack BBC News-UK Bonnie Malkin and agencies Woman 'attacked for being a Goth' dies Telegraph.co.uk News On April 29, 2008, two teens Ryan Herbert and Brendan Harris were convicted for the murder of Lancaster and given life sentences, three others were given lesser sentences for the assault on her boyfriend Robert Maltby. In delivering the sentence Judge Anthony Russell stated “This was a hate crime against these completely harmless people targeted because their appearance was different to yours.” He went on to defend the goth community, calling goths “perfectly peaceful, law-abiding people who pose no threat to anybody.” Life jail trms for teenage thugs who killed goth girl Two teenagers sentenced to life over murder of Goth Teenage Murderers of ‘Peaceful’ Goth Sentenced to Life Judge Russell add that he “recognised it as a hate crime without Parliament having to tell him to do so, and had included that view in his sentencing.” Sophie's family and friends vow to carry on campaign Despite this ruling, a bill to add discrimination based on subculture affiliation to the definition of hate crime in British law did not pass. Call for hate crimes law change A study published on the British Medical Journal concluded that "identification as belonging to the Goth subculture [at some point on their lives] was the best predictor of self harm and attempted suicide [among young teens]", and that it was most possibly due to a selection mechanism (persons that wanted to harm themselves later identified as goths, thus raising the percentage of those persons who identify as goths). The study was based on a sample of 15 teenagers who identified as goths, of which 8 had self-harmed by any method, 7 had self-harmed by cutting, scratching or scoring, and 7 had attempted suicide. The authors said that most self-harm by teens was done before joining the subculture, and that joining the subculture would actually protect them and help them deal with distress in their lives. The authors insisted on the study being based on small numbers and on the need of replication to confirm the results. The study was criticized for using a small sample of goth teens and not taking into account other influences and differences between different types of goth. Sources: Letter to the editor Letter to the editor Author's reply References Books Baddeley, Gavin: Goth Chic: A Connoisseur's Guide to Dark Culture (Plexus, US, August 2002, ISBN 0-85965-308-0) Davenport-Hines, Richard: Gothic: Four Hundred Years of Excess, Horror, Evil and Ruin (1999: North Port Press. ISBN 0-86547-590-3 (trade paperback) - A voluminous, if somewhat patchy, chronological/aesthetic history of Gothic covering the spectrum from Gothic architecture to The Cure. Digitalis, Raven: Goth Craft: The Magickal Side of Dark Culture (2007: Llewellyn Worldwide) - includes a lengthy explanation of Gothic history, music, fashion, and proposes a link between mystic/magical spirituality and dark subcultures. Fuentes Rodríguez, César: Mundo Gótico. (Quarentena Ediciones, 2007, ISBN 8493389161)-In Spanish. Covering Literature, Music, Cinema, BDSM, Fashion and Subculture topics- Furek, Maxim W.: The Death Proclamation of Generation X: A Self-Fulfilling Prophesy of Goth, Grunge and Heroin." (i-Universe, US 2008; ISBN 978-0-595-46319-0) Hodkinson, Paul: Goth: Identity, Style and Subculture (Dress, Body, Culture Series) 2002: Berg. ISBN 1-85973-600-9 (hardcover); ISBN 1-85973-605-X (softcover) Kilpatrick, Nancy: The Goth Bible : A Compendium for the Darkly Inclined. 2004: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-30696-2 Steele, Valerie and Jennifer Park: Gothic: Dark Glamour. 2008: Yale University Press and the Fashion Institute of Technology New York. ISBN 978-0-300-13694-4 (hardcover) Voltaire: What is Goth? (WeiserBooks, US, 2004; ISBN 1-57863-322-2) — a view of the goth subculture Andrew C. Zinn: The Truth Behind The Eyes (IUniverse, US, 2005; ISBN 0-595-37103-5) — Dark Poetry Articles La Ferla, Ruth: "Embrace the Darkness". New York Times, October 30, 2005. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/30/fashion/sundaystyles/30GOTH.html Notes Further reading (goth communication on the internet) See also Gothic aesthetics Gothic fashion Gothic fiction Gothic rock History of subcultures in the 20th century List of Gothic rock bands New Gothic Art Toronto Goth Scene Vampirefreaks External links Article from the New Scientist on benefits of the Goth subculture. | Goth_subculture |@lemmatized german:2 goth:130 call:8 grufti:2 subculture:58 contemporary:2 find:5 many:8 country:1 begin:4 united:3 kingdom:2 early:15 gothic:56 rock:19 scene:18 offshoot:1 post:6 punk:14 genre:3 survive:1 much:6 longer:1 others:8 era:3 continue:3 diversify:2 imagery:9 cultural:3 proclivity:1 indicate:1 influence:16 nineteenth:2 century:8 literature:6 along:1 horror:17 movie:6 less:3 extent:2 bdsm:2 culture:13 césar:2 fuentes:2 rodríguez:2 mundo:2 gótico:2 page:3 ss:1 carol:1 siegel:1 dark:19 empire:2 cintra:1 wilson:1 kill:9 new:16 york:6 time:8 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5,023 | Commodore_(rank) | Commodore is a military rank used in many navies for officers whose position exceeds that of a navy captain, but is less than that of a rear admiral. It is often regarded as a 1 star rank with a NATO code of OF-6, but is not always regarded as a flag rank. Whether "commodore" is a flag rank (or not) varies by country. Often, "rear admiral" is the first of the "flag ranks". For example, it was not until 2001 that the UK made "commodore" a "flag rank", and changed the rank insignia of the higher ranking admirals accordingly. Australia made this change in the mid 1990s, and also changed the commodore rank insignia to include a star. It is sometimes abbreviated as Cdre, CDRE or COMO. The "Cdre" abbreviation for the OF-6 rank of commodore is sometimes confused with the "Cmdr" abbreviation for the OF-4 rank of "commander". History The rank of Commodore derives from the French commandeur, which was one of the highest ranks in orders of knighthood, and in military orders the title of the knight in charge of a commenda (a local part of the order's territorial possessions). The Royal Netherlands Navy also used the rank of commandeur from the end of the 16th century for a variety of temporary positions, until it became a conventional permanent rank in 1955. The Royal Netherlands Air Force has adopted the English spelling of Commodore for an equivalent rank. The rank of Commodore was at first a position created as a temporary title to be bestowed upon Captains who commanded squadrons of more than one vessel. In many navies, the rank of Commodore was merely viewed as a Senior Captain position, whereas other naval services bestowed upon the rank of Commodore the prestige of flag officer status - Commodore is the highest rank in the Irish Naval Service, for example, and is held by only one person. In the Royal Navy, the position was introduced to combat the cost of appointing more Admirals - a costly business with a fleet as large as the Royal Navy's at that time. In 1899 the substantive rank of Commodore was discontinued in the United States Navy, but revived during World War II. It was discontinued as a rank in these services during the postwar period, but as an appointment, the title "Commodore" was then used to identify senior U.S. Navy Captains who commanded squadrons of more than one vessel or functional air wings or air groups that were not part of a carrier air wing or air group. Concurrently, until the early 1980s, U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard Captains selected for promotion to the rank of Rear Admiral (Lower Half), would wear the same insignia as Rear Admiral (Upper Half), i.e., two silver stars for collar insignia or sleeve braid of one wide and one narrow gold stripe, even though they were actually only equivalent to one star officers. To correct this inequity, the rank of Commodore as a single star Flag Officer was reinstated by both services in the early 1980s. This immediately caused confusion with those senior U.S. Navy Captains commanding destroyer squadrons, submarine squadrons, functional air wings and air groups, etc., who held the temporary "title" of Commodore. As a result of this confusion, the services soon renamed the new one star rank as Commodore Admiral (CADM) within the first six months following the rank's reintroduction. This was considered an awkward title and the rank was renamed a few months later to its current title of Rear Admiral (Lower Half), or RDML. The "title" of Commodore continues to be used in the U.S. Navy for those senior Captains in command of organizations consisting of groups of ships or submarines organized into squadrons, air wings or air groups of aviation squadrons other than carrier air wings, special warfare (SEAL) groups, and construction battalion (SeaBee) regiments. Although not Flag Officers, modern day Commodores in the U.S. Navy rate a blue and white command pennant that is normally flown at their headquarters facilities ashore or from ships they are embarked aboard. Naval rank The following articles deal with the rank of Commodore (or its equivalent) as it is employed in various countries. Commodore (Australia) Commodore (Canada) Komodor (Croatia) Kommodore (Germany) Commodore (Netherlands) (historic name: Commandeur) Commodore (United Kingdom) Commodore (United States) (see also: Rear Admiral (Lower Half)) Air force ranks Commodore, in Spanish Comodoro, is a rank in the Argentine Air Force. This rank is the equivalent of a Colonel in the Argentine Army, and a Colonel or Group Captain in other air forces of the world. The Argentine rank below Commodore is the rank of Vice-Commodore, in Spanish Vicecomodoro, equivalent to a Lieutenant-Colonel in the Argentine Army, and a Lieutenant-Colonel or Wing Commander in other air forces. Commodore is a rank in the Royal Netherlands Air Force. It is a 1 star rank and has essentially the same rank insignia as the British Air Commodore. Many air forces, use the rank of Air Commodore. This rank was first used by the Royal Air Force and is now used in many countries such as India, Australia, New Zealand, Greece, Thailand, Zimbabwe, Pakistan and Nigeria. It is the equivalent rank to the navy rank of "commodore", and the army ranks of brigadier and brigadier general. The German air force used the concept of a unit Commodore, although this was a unit command appointment rather than a rank. Merchant and boating rank Commodore is also a title held by the senior captain within a shipping company and by the senior officer of many yacht clubs and boating associations. Convoy commodore During wartime, a shipping convoy will have a ranking officer -- sometimes an active-duty naval officer, at other times a civilian master or retired naval officer -- designated as the convoy commodore. This title is not related to the individuals military rank (if any), but instead is the title of the senior individual responsible for the overall operation of the merchant ships and naval auxiliary ships that make up the convoy. The convoy commodore does not command the convoy escort forces (if any), which are commanded by a naval officer who serves as escort commander. Other uses In the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary, the senior elected officer of the organization is the National Commodore, while there are Commodores elected for the Atlantic and Pacific regions. Vanderbilt University's intercollegiate athletics teams are nicknamed the Commodores, a reference to Cornelius Vanderbilt's self-appointed title (he was the master of a large shipping fleet). In the U.S. Sea Scouting program (which is part of the Boy Scouts of America), all National, Regional, Area, and Council committee chairs are titled as Commodore, while senior committee members are addressed as Vice Commodore. Ship Committee chairs do not hold this recognition. References and notes See also Air Commodore Commodore-in-Chief Commodore (Star Trek) | Commodore_(rank) |@lemmatized commodore:44 military:3 rank:44 use:8 many:5 navy:13 officer:11 whose:1 position:5 exceed:1 captain:9 less:1 rear:6 admiral:9 often:2 regard:2 star:8 nato:1 code:1 always:1 flag:7 whether:1 varies:1 country:3 first:4 example:2 uk:1 make:3 change:3 insignia:5 high:3 ranking:2 accordingly:1 australia:3 mid:1 also:5 include:1 sometimes:3 abbreviate:1 cdre:3 como:1 abbreviation:2 confuse:1 cmdr:1 commander:3 history:1 derives:1 french:1 commandeur:3 one:8 order:3 knighthood:1 title:12 knight:1 charge:1 commenda:1 local:1 part:3 territorial:1 possession:1 royal:6 netherlands:4 end:1 century:1 variety:1 temporary:3 become:1 conventional:1 permanent:1 air:21 force:10 adopt:1 english:1 spelling:1 equivalent:6 create:1 bestow:2 upon:2 command:8 squadron:6 vessel:2 merely:1 view:1 senior:9 whereas:1 naval:7 service:5 prestige:1 status:1 irish:1 hold:4 person:1 introduce:1 combat:1 cost:1 appoint:2 costly:1 business:1 fleet:2 large:2 time:2 substantive:1 discontinue:2 united:4 state:3 revive:1 world:2 war:1 ii:1 postwar:1 period:1 appointment:2 identify:1 u:7 functional:2 wing:6 group:7 carrier:2 concurrently:1 early:2 coast:2 guard:2 select:1 promotion:1 low:3 half:4 would:1 wear:1 upper:1 e:1 two:1 silver:1 collar:1 sleeve:1 braid:1 wide:1 narrow:1 gold:1 stripe:1 even:1 though:1 actually:1 correct:1 inequity:1 single:1 reinstate:1 immediately:1 cause:1 confusion:2 destroyer:1 submarine:2 etc:1 result:1 soon:1 rename:2 new:2 cadm:1 within:2 six:1 month:2 follow:1 reintroduction:1 consider:1 awkward:1 later:1 current:1 rdml:1 continue:1 organization:2 consist:1 ship:5 organize:1 aviation:1 special:1 warfare:1 seal:1 construction:1 battalion:1 seabee:1 regiment:1 although:2 modern:1 day:1 rate:1 blue:1 white:1 pennant:1 normally:1 fly:1 headquarters:1 facility:1 ashore:1 embark:1 aboard:1 following:1 article:1 deal:1 employ:1 various:1 canada:1 komodor:1 croatia:1 kommodore:1 germany:1 historic:1 name:1 kingdom:1 see:2 spanish:2 comodoro:1 argentine:4 colonel:4 army:3 vice:2 vicecomodoro:1 lieutenant:2 essentially:1 british:1 india:1 zealand:1 greece:1 thailand:1 zimbabwe:1 pakistan:1 nigeria:1 brigadier:2 general:1 german:1 concept:1 unit:2 rather:1 merchant:2 boat:2 shipping:3 company:1 yacht:1 club:1 association:1 convoy:6 wartime:1 active:1 duty:1 civilian:1 master:2 retired:1 designate:1 relate:1 individual:2 instead:1 responsible:1 overall:1 operation:1 auxiliary:2 escort:2 serve:1 us:1 elected:1 national:2 elect:1 atlantic:1 pacific:1 region:1 vanderbilt:2 university:1 intercollegiate:1 athletics:1 team:1 nickname:1 reference:2 cornelius:1 self:1 sea:1 scout:2 program:1 boy:1 america:1 regional:1 area:1 council:1 committee:3 chair:2 member:1 address:1 recognition:1 note:1 chief:1 trek:1 |@bigram rear_admiral:6 rank_insignia:3 lieutenant_colonel:2 brigadier_general:1 convoy_escort:1 intercollegiate_athletics:1 boy_scout:1 star_trek:1 |
5,024 | Economy_of_Burundi | Fisherman on Lake TanganyikaBurundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The mainstay of the Burundian economy is agriculture, accounting for 58% of GDP in 1997. Agriculture supports more than 90% of the labour force, the majority of whom are subsistence farmers. Although Burundi is potentially self-sufficient in food production, the ongoing civil war, overpopulation, and soil erosion have contributed to the contraction of the subsistence economy by 25% in recent years. Large numbers of internally displaced persons have been unable to produce their own food and are largely dependent on international humanitarian assistance. Burundi is a net food importer, with food accounting for 17% of imports in 1997. Agriculture The main cash crop of Burundi is coffee, which accounted for 78.5% of exports in 1997. This dependence on coffee has increased Burundi's vulnerability to seasonal yields and international coffee prices. Coffee is the largest state-owned enterprise. In recent years, the government has tried to attract private investment to this sector, with some success. Efforts to privatize other publicly held enterprises have stalled. Other principal exports include tea and raw cotton. Burundi is the largest banana market in Africa. Industry Little industry exists except the processing of agricultural exports. Although potential wealth in petroleum, nickel, copper, and other natural resources is being explored, the uncertain security situation has prevented meaningful investor interest. Industrial development also is hampered by Burundi's distance from the sea and high transport costs. Lake Tanganyika remains an important trading point. The trade embargo, lifted in 1999, negatively impacted trade and industry. Since October 1993 the nation has suffered from massive ethnic-based violence which has resulted in the death of perhaps 250,000 people and the displacement of about 800,000 others. Foods, medicines, and electricity remain in short supply. Burundi is heavily dependent on bilateral and multilateral aid, with external debt totalling $1.247 billion (1.247 G$) in 1997. A series of largely unsuccessful 5-year plans initiated in July 1986 in partnership with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund attempted to reform the foreign exchange system, liberalize imports, reduce restrictions on international transactions, diversify exports, and reform the coffee industry. Goat rearing has been promoted as a source of income for rural-dwelling Burundians.IMF structural adjustment programs in Burundi were suspended following the outbreak of the crisis in 1993. The World Bank has identified key areas for potential growth, including the productivity of traditional crops and the introduction of new exports, light manufactures, industrial mining, and services. Other serious problems include the state's role in the economy, the question of governmental transparency, and debt reduction. To protest the 1996 coup by President Pierre Buyoya, neighbouring countries imposed an economic embargo on Burundi. Although the embargo was never officially ratified by the United Nations Security Council, most countries refrained from official trade with Burundi. Following the coup, the United States also suspended all but humanitarian aid to Burundi. The regional embargo was lifted on January 23, 1999, based on progress by the government in advancing national reconciliation through the Burundi peace process. References External links | Economy_of_Burundi |@lemmatized fisherman:1 lake:2 tanganyikaburundi:1 landlocked:1 resource:2 poor:1 country:3 underdeveloped:1 manufacturing:1 sector:2 mainstay:1 burundian:2 economy:3 agriculture:3 account:2 gdp:1 support:1 labour:1 force:1 majority:1 subsistence:2 farmer:1 although:3 burundi:12 potentially:1 self:1 sufficient:1 food:5 production:1 ongoing:1 civil:1 war:1 overpopulation:1 soil:1 erosion:1 contribute:1 contraction:1 recent:2 year:3 large:3 number:1 internally:1 displace:1 person:1 unable:1 produce:1 largely:2 dependent:2 international:4 humanitarian:2 assistance:1 net:1 importer:1 accounting:1 import:2 main:1 cash:1 crop:2 coffee:5 export:5 dependence:1 increase:1 vulnerability:1 seasonal:1 yield:1 price:1 state:3 enterprise:2 government:2 try:1 attract:1 private:1 investment:1 success:1 effort:1 privatize:1 publicly:1 hold:1 stall:1 principal:1 include:3 tea:1 raw:1 cotton:1 banana:1 market:1 africa:1 industry:4 little:1 exist:1 except:1 processing:1 agricultural:1 potential:2 wealth:1 petroleum:1 nickel:1 copper:1 natural:1 explore:1 uncertain:1 security:2 situation:1 prevent:1 meaningful:1 investor:1 interest:1 industrial:2 development:1 also:2 hamper:1 distance:1 sea:1 high:1 transport:1 cost:1 tanganyika:1 remain:2 important:1 trading:1 point:1 trade:3 embargo:4 lift:2 negatively:1 impacted:1 since:1 october:1 nation:2 suffer:1 massive:1 ethnic:1 base:2 violence:1 result:1 death:1 perhaps:1 people:1 displacement:1 others:1 medicine:1 electricity:1 short:1 supply:1 heavily:1 bilateral:1 multilateral:1 aid:2 external:2 debt:2 total:1 billion:1 g:1 series:1 unsuccessful:1 plan:1 initiate:1 july:1 partnership:1 world:2 bank:2 monetary:1 fund:1 attempt:1 reform:2 foreign:1 exchange:1 system:1 liberalize:1 reduce:1 restriction:1 transaction:1 diversify:1 goat:1 rearing:1 promote:1 source:1 income:1 rural:1 dwelling:1 imf:1 structural:1 adjustment:1 program:1 suspend:2 follow:2 outbreak:1 crisis:1 identify:1 key:1 area:1 growth:1 productivity:1 traditional:1 introduction:1 new:1 light:1 manufacture:1 mining:1 service:1 serious:1 problem:1 role:1 question:1 governmental:1 transparency:1 reduction:1 protest:1 coup:2 president:1 pierre:1 buyoya:1 neighbour:1 impose:1 economic:1 never:1 officially:1 ratify:1 united:2 council:1 refrain:1 official:1 regional:1 january:1 progress:1 advance:1 national:1 reconciliation:1 peace:1 process:1 reference:1 link:1 |@bigram subsistence_farmer:1 soil_erosion:1 internally_displace:1 humanitarian_assistance:1 cash_crop:1 lake_tanganyika:1 bilateral_multilateral:1 monetary_fund:1 structural_adjustment:1 humanitarian_aid:1 external_link:1 |
5,025 | Demographics_of_Djibouti | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Djibouti, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Over half of the Republic of Djibouti's inhabitants (totalling well over 700,000) reside in the capital city. The population is divided between the Somalis (predominantly of the Issa clan, with minority Isaaq and Gadabursi representation) and the Afar or Danakil, divided into the `noble' Asaimara (Red) clans and commoner Asdoimara (White) clans. All are Cushitic-speaking peoples, and nearly all are Muslim. Among the 15,000 foreigners residing in Djibouti, the French are the most numerous. Among the French are 3,200 troops. There is also a sizable Arab population living in Djibouti, which constitutes about 5 percent of the population. The ethnic divide between the Issa and the Afar dominates the social and political landscapes. It is the cause of political hostilities and the root of what some at one time called Djibouti's 'boiling cauldron.' In the late 1980s and early 1990s there was a renewed effort to grow a "greater Afar" nation that led many to believe that the cauldron would boil over. Ultimately, the conflict abated without significant regime upheaval. In the political sphere there have been attempts at power sharing to try to quell the conflict, though the political dominance of the Issa continues to be a source of Afar resentment and periodic unrest. In the social sphere, the divide looms large. Djibouti has few natural resources to offer beyond low profit-yielding salt. The arid soils provide little agricultural opportunity, there is little or no mineral wealth, and there is no oil known off the coast. The people, while more educated than many of their regional counterparts, are not well trained enough to offer international business skills. Infrastructure does not provide the requirements for attracting significant international business. Djibouti's main advantages have been its strategic position. It has a vibrant port in a region of large land-locked country. Since the Ethiopian-Eritrean conflict Djibouti has profited by providing Ethiopia an alternative to the Eritrean port. As a neighbor to Somalia and bearing a large Somali population, Djibouti has seen its interest involved in the Somali conflict, most notably hosting peace talks in Spring 2000. In terms of health and welfare, the average life expectancy in Djibouti is 43.1 years of age. The infant mortality rate is 104.13 deaths per 1000 live births. The HIV/AIDs infection rate is lower than many other African countries at only 2.9 percent. About 67.9 percent of the population is literate. A notable measure of human development is the Human Development Index (HDI), which is formulated by the United Nations Development Program. The HDI is a composite of several indicators, which measure a country's achievements in three main arenas of human development: longevity, knowledge and education, as well as economic standard of living. The HDI places Djibouti in the low human development category, at 150th place. Note: Although the concept of human development is complicated and cannot be properly captured by values and indices, the HDI, which is calculated and updated annually, offers a wide-ranging assessment of human development in certain countries, not based solely upon traditional economic and financial indicators. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 795,440 (July 2006 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 43.3% (male 105,760; female 105,068) 15-64 years: 53.3% (male 135,119; female 124,367) 65 years and over: 3.3% (male 8,183; female 8,033) (2006 est.) Median age total: 20.1.2 years male: 18.7 years female: 21.7 years (2006 est.) Population growth rate 1.87% (2006 est.) Birth rate 28.51 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 12.41 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.09 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.02 male(s)/female total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 85.44 deaths/1,000 live births male: 88.07 deaths/1,000 live births female: 81.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 53.24 years male: 51.89 years female: 54.96 years (2007 est.) Total fertility rate 3.79 children born/woman (2006 est.) HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate: 2.9% (2003 est.) people living with HIV/AIDS: 9,100 (2003 est.) deaths: 690 (2003 est.) Major infectious diseases degree of risk: high food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever vectorborne disease: malaria (2005) Nationality noun: Djiboutian(s) adjective: Djiboutian Ethnic groups Somali 60%, Afar 35%, French, Arab, Ethiopian, and Italian 5% Religions Muslim 94%, Christian 6% Languages French (official), Arabic (official), Somali, Afar Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 67.9% male: 78% female: 58.4% (2003 est.) See also Djibouti | Demographics_of_Djibouti |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:16 djibouti:12 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:2 level:1 health:2 populace:1 economic:3 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 half:1 republic:1 inhabitant:1 total:7 well:3 reside:2 capital:1 city:1 divide:4 somali:5 predominantly:1 issa:3 clan:3 minority:1 isaaq:1 gadabursi:1 representation:1 afar:6 danakil:1 noble:1 asaimara:1 red:1 commoner:1 asdoimara:1 white:1 cushitic:1 speaking:1 people:3 nearly:1 muslim:2 among:2 foreigner:1 french:4 numerous:1 troop:1 also:2 sizable:1 arab:2 living:2 constitute:1 percent:3 ethnic:2 dominate:1 social:2 political:4 landscape:1 cause:1 hostility:1 root:1 one:1 time:1 call:1 boil:2 cauldron:2 late:1 early:1 renew:1 effort:1 grow:1 great:1 nation:2 lead:1 many:3 believe:1 would:1 ultimately:1 conflict:4 abate:1 without:1 significant:2 regime:1 upheaval:1 sphere:2 attempt:1 power:1 share:1 try:1 quell:1 though:1 dominance:1 continue:1 source:1 resentment:1 periodic:1 unrest:1 loom:1 large:3 natural:1 resource:1 offer:3 beyond:1 low:3 profit:2 yielding:1 salt:1 arid:1 soil:1 provide:3 little:2 agricultural:1 opportunity:1 mineral:1 wealth:1 oil:1 know:1 coast:1 educated:1 regional:1 counterpart:1 trained:1 enough:1 international:2 business:2 skill:1 infrastructure:1 requirement:1 attract:1 main:2 advantage:1 strategic:1 position:1 vibrant:1 port:2 region:1 land:1 locked:1 country:4 since:1 ethiopian:2 eritrean:2 ethiopia:1 alternative:1 neighbor:1 somalia:1 bear:2 see:2 interest:1 involve:1 notably:1 host:1 peace:1 talk:1 spring:1 term:1 welfare:1 average:1 life:2 expectancy:2 year:13 age:4 infant:2 mortality:2 rate:9 death:7 per:1 live:5 birth:8 hiv:3 aid:3 infection:1 african:1 literate:1 notable:1 measure:2 human:6 development:7 index:2 hdi:4 formulate:1 united:1 program:1 composite:1 several:1 indicator:2 achievement:1 three:1 arena:1 longevity:1 knowledge:1 standard:1 place:2 category:1 note:1 although:1 concept:1 complicate:1 cannot:1 properly:1 capture:1 value:1 calculate:1 update:1 annually:1 wide:1 range:1 assessment:1 certain:1 base:1 solely:1 upon:1 traditional:1 financial:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:15 structure:1 male:12 female:12 median:1 growth:1 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 fertility:1 child:1 woman:1 adult:1 prevalence:1 major:1 infectious:1 disease:3 degree:1 risk:1 high:1 food:1 waterborne:1 bacterial:1 protozoal:1 diarrhea:1 hepatitis:1 e:1 typhoid:1 fever:1 vectorborne:1 malaria:1 nationality:1 noun:1 djiboutian:2 adjective:1 group:1 italian:1 religion:1 christian:1 language:1 official:2 arabic:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 life_expectancy:2 infant_mortality:2 mortality_rate:2 hiv_aid:3 index_hdi:2 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 adult_prevalence:1 infectious_disease:1 food_waterborne:1 waterborne_disease:1 bacterial_protozoal:1 protozoal_diarrhea:1 diarrhea_hepatitis:1 typhoid_fever:1 fever_vectorborne:1 vectorborne_disease:1 nationality_noun:1 literacy_definition:1 |
5,026 | Atomic_physics | Atomic physics (or atom physics) is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. It is primarily concerned with the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus and the processes by which these arrangements change. This includes ions as well as neutral atoms and, unless otherwise stated, for the purposes of this discussion it should be assumed that the term atom includes ions. The term atomic physics is often associated with nuclear power and nuclear bombs, due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in standard English. However, physicists distinguish between atomic physics—which deals with the atom as a system comprising of a nucleus and electrons, and nuclear physics—which considers atomic nuclei alone. As with many scientific fields, strict delineation can be highly contrived and atomic physics is often considered in the wider context of atomic, molecular, and optical physics. Physics research groups are usually so classified. Isolated atoms Atomic physics always considers atoms in isolation. Atomic models will consist of a single nucleus which may be surrounded by one or more bound electrons. It is not concerned with the formation of molecules (although much of the physics is identical) nor does it examine atoms in a solid state as condensed matter. It is concerned with processes such as ionization and excitation by photons or collisions with atomic particles. While modelling atoms in isolation may not seem realistic, if one considers atoms in a gas or plasma then the time-scales for atom-atom interactions are huge in comparison to the atomic processes that we are concerned with. This means that the individual atoms can be treated as if each were in isolation because for the vast majority of the time they are. By this consideration atomic physics provides the underlying theory in plasma physics and atmospheric physics even though both deal with huge numbers of atoms. Electronic configuration Electrons form notional shells around the nucleus. These are naturally in a ground state but can be excited by the absorption of energy from light (photons), magnetic fields, or interaction with a colliding particle (typically other electrons). Electrons that populate a shell are said to be in a bound state. The energy necessary to remove an electron from its shell (taking it to infinity) is called the binding energy. Any quantity of energy absorbed by the electron in excess of this amount is converted to kinetic energy according to the conservation of energy. The atom is said to have undergone the process of ionization. In the event the electron absorbs a quantity of energy less than the binding energy, it will transition to an excited state. After a statistically sufficient quantity of time, an electron in an excited state will undergo a transition to a lower state. The change in energy between the two energy levels must be accounted for (conservation of energy). In a neutral atom, the system will emit a photon of the difference in energy. However, if the excited atom has been previously ionized, a phenomenon known as the Auger effect may take place where the quantity of energy is transferred to one of the bound electrons causing it to go into the continuum. This allows one to multiply ionize an atom with a single photon. There are strict selection rules as to the electronic configurations that can be reached by excitation by light—however there are no such rules for excitation by collision processes. History and developments The majority of fields in physics can be divided between theoretical work and experimental work and atomic physics is no exception. It is usually the case, but not always, that progress goes in alternate cycles from an experimental observation, through to a theoretical explanation followed by some predictions which may or may not be confirmed by experiment, and so on. Of course, the current state of technology at any given time can put limitations on what can be achieved experimentally and theoretically so it may take considerable time for theory to be refined. One of the earliest steps towards atomic physics was the recognition that matter was composed of atoms, in the modern sense of the basic unit of a chemical element. This theory was developed by the British chemist and physicist John Dalton in the 18th century. At this stage, it wasn't clear what atoms were although they could be described and classified by their properties (in bulk) in a periodic table. The true beginning of atomic physics is marked by the discovery of spectral lines and attempts to describe the phenomenon, most notably by Joseph von Fraunhofer. The study of these lines led to the Bohr atom model and to the birth of quantum mechanics. In seeking to explain atomic spectra an entirely new mathematical model of matter was revealed. As far as atoms and their electron shells were concerned, not only did this yield a better overall description, i.e. the atomic orbital model, but it also provided a new theoretical basis for chemistry (quantum chemistry) and spectroscopy. Since the Second World War, both theoretical and experimental fields have advanced at a rapid pace. This can be attributed to progress in computing technology which has allowed larger and more sophisticated models of atomic structure and associated collision processes. Similar technological advances in accelerators, detectors, magnetic field generation and lasers have greatly assisted experimental work. Significant atomic physicists Pre quantum mechanics John Dalton Joseph von Fraunhofer Johannes Rydberg J.J. Thomson Post quantum mechanics David Bates Niels Bohr Max Born Clinton Joseph Davisson Enrico Fermi Charlotte Froese Fischer Vladimir Fock Douglas Hartree Harrie S. Massey Nevill Mott Mike Seaton John C. Slater George Paget Thomson See also Exoelectron Particle physics Isomeric shift References External links Atomic Physics on the Internet JILA (Atomic Physics) ORNL Physics Division | Atomic_physics |@lemmatized atomic:22 physic:22 atom:19 field:6 study:2 atoms:3 isolated:1 system:3 electron:12 nucleus:5 primarily:1 concern:5 arrangement:2 around:2 process:6 change:2 include:2 ion:2 well:1 neutral:2 unless:1 otherwise:1 state:8 purpose:1 discussion:1 assume:1 term:2 often:2 associate:2 nuclear:4 power:1 bomb:1 due:1 synonymous:1 use:1 standard:1 english:1 however:3 physicists:1 distinguish:1 deal:2 comprising:1 considers:3 nuclei:1 alone:1 many:1 scientific:1 strict:2 delineation:1 highly:1 contrive:1 consider:1 wider:1 context:1 molecular:1 optical:1 research:1 group:1 usually:2 classified:1 isolate:1 always:2 isolation:3 model:6 consist:1 single:2 may:6 surround:1 one:5 bound:3 formation:1 molecule:1 although:2 much:1 identical:1 examine:1 solid:1 condensed:1 matter:3 ionization:2 excitation:3 photon:4 collision:3 particle:3 seem:1 realistic:1 gas:1 plasma:2 time:5 scale:1 interaction:2 huge:2 comparison:1 mean:1 individual:1 treat:1 vast:1 majority:2 consideration:1 provide:2 underlie:1 theory:3 atmospheric:1 even:1 though:1 number:1 electronic:2 configuration:2 form:1 notional:1 shell:4 naturally:1 ground:1 excite:1 absorption:1 energy:13 light:2 magnetic:2 collide:1 typically:1 populate:1 say:2 necessary:1 remove:1 take:3 infinity:1 call:1 binding:2 quantity:4 absorb:2 excess:1 amount:1 convert:1 kinetic:1 accord:1 conservation:2 undergone:1 event:1 less:1 transition:2 excited:3 statistically:1 sufficient:1 undergo:1 low:1 two:1 level:1 must:1 account:1 emit:1 difference:1 previously:1 ionize:2 phenomenon:2 know:1 auger:1 effect:1 place:1 transfer:1 electrons:1 cause:1 go:2 continuum:1 allow:2 multiply:1 selection:1 rule:2 reach:1 history:1 developments:1 divide:1 theoretical:4 work:3 experimental:4 exception:1 case:1 progress:2 alternate:1 cycle:1 observation:1 explanation:1 follow:1 prediction:1 confirm:1 experiment:1 course:1 current:1 technology:2 give:1 put:1 limitation:1 achieve:1 experimentally:1 theoretically:1 considerable:1 refine:1 early:1 step:1 towards:1 recognition:1 compose:1 modern:1 sense:1 basic:1 unit:1 chemical:1 element:1 develop:1 british:1 chemist:1 physicist:2 john:3 dalton:2 century:1 stage:1 clear:1 could:1 describe:2 classify:1 property:1 bulk:1 periodic:1 table:1 true:1 beginning:1 mark:1 discovery:1 spectral:1 line:2 attempt:1 notably:1 joseph:3 von:2 fraunhofer:2 lead:1 bohr:2 birth:1 quantum:4 mechanic:3 seek:1 explain:1 spectrum:1 entirely:1 new:2 mathematical:1 reveal:1 far:1 yield:1 good:1 overall:1 description:1 e:1 orbital:1 also:2 basis:1 chemistry:2 spectroscopy:1 since:1 second:1 world:1 war:1 advance:2 rapid:1 pace:1 attribute:1 compute:1 large:1 sophisticated:1 structure:1 similar:1 technological:1 accelerator:1 detector:1 generation:1 laser:1 greatly:1 assist:1 significant:1 pre:1 johannes:1 rydberg:1 j:2 thomson:2 post:1 david:1 bates:1 niels:1 max:1 bear:1 clinton:1 davisson:1 enrico:1 fermi:1 charlotte:1 froese:1 fischer:1 vladimir:1 fock:1 douglas:1 hartree:1 harrie:1 massey:1 nevill:1 mott:1 mike:1 seaton:1 c:1 slater:1 george:1 paget:1 see:1 exoelectron:1 isomeric:1 shift:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 internet:1 jila:1 ornl:1 division:1 |@bigram atomic_nucleus:1 unless_otherwise:1 condensed_matter:1 vast_majority:1 magnetic_field:2 kinetic_energy:1 emit_photon:1 chemist_physicist:1 periodic_table:1 von_fraunhofer:2 quantum_mechanic:3 niels_bohr:1 enrico_fermi:1 external_link:1 |
5,027 | Dagger | Modern Winchester Riot Dagger and sheath A dagger (probably from Vulgar Latin: 'daca' - a Dacian knife) is a typically double-edged blade used for stabbing or thrusting. They often fulfill the role of a secondary defense weapon in close combat. In most cases, a tang extends into the handle along the centreline of the blade. Daggers may be differentiated from knives on the basis that daggers are intended primarily for stabbing whereas knives are usually single-edged and intended mostly for cutting. However, many knives and daggers are capable of either stabbing or cutting. Early history Much like battle axes, daggers evolved out of prehistoric tools. In Neolithic times, daggers were made of materials such as flint, ivory or bone and were used as weapons since the earliest periods of human civilization. The earliest metal daggers appear in the Bronze Age, in the 3rd millennium BC, predating the sword, which essentially developed from oversized daggers. Although the standard dagger would at no time be very effective against axes, spears, or even maces due to its limited reach, it was an important step towards the development of a more useful close-combat weapon, the sword. Celtic dagger and sheath However, from pre-dynastic Egypt, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, Cyril John Gadd, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond, 1970 daggers were adorned as ceremonial objects with golden hilts and later even more ornate and varied construction. One early silver dagger was recovered with midrib design. Traditionally, some military and naval officers wore dress daggers as symbols of power, and modern soldiers are still equipped with combat knives and knife bayonets. In the second century BCE, socketed daggers were known to be used in Minoan Crete as evidenced by archaeological recovery at the Knossos site. C. Michael Hogan, Knossos fieldnotes, Modern Antiquarian (2007) Historically, knives and daggers were always considered secondary or even tertiary weapons. Most cultures mainly fought with pole weapons, swords, and axes at arm's length if not already utilizing bows, spears, slings, or other long-range weapons. Roman soldiers were issued a pugio. From the year 1250 onward, gravestones and other contemporary images show knights with a dagger or combat knife at their side. The hilt and blade shapes began to resemble smaller versions of swords and led to a fashion of ornamented sheaths and hilts in the late 15th century. Symbolism and use The dagger is symbolically ambiguous. It may be associated with cowardice and treachery due to the ease of concealment and surprise that someone could inflict with one on an unexpecting victim — many assassinations were reportedly carried out using one. Victims of such assassinations included Julius Caesar, who suffered from 23 stab wounds from irate members of the Roman Senate. On the other hand, the dagger may symbolically suggest a determination to become courageously close to the enemy. With the advent of very protective plate armour during the Middle Ages, the dagger became increasingly useful as a good close in weapon for stabbing through the gaps in armour. Books offering instruction on the use of weapons predominantly described that the dagger be held in the hand with the blade pointing from the heel of the hand both in armour and out of armour, and used by making downward jabs. Straight jabs from a normal hammer grip were also used, though icepick style jabs are more commonly depicted in manuals. The dagger was quite a common murder weapon, easily used by commoners or vengeful aristocrats who wished to remain anonymous. This is why a group of Nazi political murders is called the Night of the Long Knives, although daggers were not literally used. With the development of firearms, the dagger lost more and more of its usefulness in military combat; multipurpose knives/bayonets and handguns replaced them. However, beginning with the 17th century, another form of dagger — the plug bayonet and later the socket bayonet — was used to convert muskets and other longarms into spears by mounting them on the barrel. Daggers achieved public notoriety in the 20th century as ornamental uniform regalia during the Fascist dictatorships of Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany. The resurgence of these dress daggers and accoutrements in post-WW1 Germany gave a much needed boost to the flagging fortunes of the metalworking center Solingen. Dress daggers were used by several other countries as well, including Japan but never to the same extent as those worn by the Military and Political bodies of the Third Reich. As combat equipment they were carried by many infantry and commando forces during the Second World War. British commandos had an especially slender dagger, the Fairbairn-Sykes fighting knife, developed from that used in Shanghai. U.S. Marine Corps Raiders in the Pacific carried a similar fighting dagger, and others were fashioned for American forces and their allies from cut-down World War I Patton sabers. See also List of daggers Knife fight Dagger (typography) References Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, Cyril John Gadd, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond (1970) The Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge University Press, 780 pages ISBN 0521070511 Line notes | Dagger |@lemmatized modern:3 winchester:1 riot:1 dagger:32 sheath:3 probably:1 vulgar:1 latin:1 daca:1 dacian:1 knife:12 typically:1 double:1 edge:2 blade:4 use:13 stab:4 thrust:1 often:1 fulfill:1 role:1 secondary:2 defense:1 weapon:9 close:4 combat:6 case:1 tang:1 extend:1 handle:1 along:1 centreline:1 may:3 differentiate:1 basis:1 intend:2 primarily:1 whereas:1 usually:1 single:1 mostly:1 cut:2 however:3 many:3 capable:1 either:1 stabbing:1 cutting:1 early:4 history:2 much:2 like:1 battle:1 ax:3 evolve:1 prehistoric:1 tool:1 neolithic:1 time:2 make:2 material:1 flint:1 ivory:1 bone:1 since:1 period:1 human:1 civilization:1 metal:1 appear:1 bronze:1 age:2 millennium:1 bc:1 predate:1 sword:4 essentially:1 develop:2 oversized:1 although:2 standard:1 would:1 effective:1 spear:3 even:3 mace:1 due:2 limited:1 reach:1 important:1 step:1 towards:1 development:2 useful:2 celtic:1 pre:1 dynastic:1 egypt:1 iorwerth:2 eiddon:2 stephen:2 edward:2 cyril:2 john:2 gadd:2 nicholas:2 geoffrey:2 lemprière:2 hammond:2 adorn:1 ceremonial:1 object:1 golden:1 hilt:3 later:2 ornate:1 varied:1 construction:1 one:3 silver:1 recover:1 midrib:1 design:1 traditionally:1 military:3 naval:1 officer:1 wear:2 dress:3 symbol:1 power:1 soldier:2 still:1 equip:1 bayonet:4 second:2 century:4 bce:1 socketed:1 know:1 minoan:1 crete:1 evidence:1 archaeological:1 recovery:1 knossos:2 site:1 c:1 michael:1 hogan:1 fieldnotes:1 antiquarian:1 historically:1 always:1 consider:1 tertiary:1 culture:1 mainly:1 fight:3 pole:1 arm:1 length:1 already:1 utilizing:1 bow:1 sling:1 long:2 range:1 roman:2 issue:1 pugio:1 year:1 onward:1 gravestone:1 contemporary:1 image:1 show:1 knight:1 side:1 shape:1 begin:2 resemble:1 small:1 version:1 lead:1 fashion:2 ornamented:1 late:1 symbolism:1 symbolically:2 ambiguous:1 associate:1 cowardice:1 treachery:1 ease:1 concealment:1 surprise:1 someone:1 could:1 inflict:1 unexpecting:1 victim:2 assassination:2 reportedly:1 carry:3 include:2 julius:1 caesar:1 suffer:1 wound:1 irate:1 member:1 senate:1 hand:3 suggest:1 determination:1 become:2 courageously:1 enemy:1 advent:1 protective:1 plate:1 armour:4 middle:1 increasingly:1 good:1 gap:1 book:1 offer:1 instruction:1 predominantly:1 describe:1 hold:1 point:1 heel:1 downward:1 jab:3 straight:1 normal:1 hammer:1 grip:1 also:2 though:1 icepick:1 style:1 commonly:1 depict:1 manual:1 quite:1 common:1 murder:2 easily:1 commoner:1 vengeful:1 aristocrat:1 wish:1 remain:1 anonymous:1 group:1 nazi:1 political:2 call:1 night:1 literally:1 firearm:1 lose:1 usefulness:1 multipurpose:1 handgun:1 replace:1 another:1 form:1 plug:1 socket:1 convert:1 musket:1 longarms:1 mount:1 barrel:1 achieve:1 public:1 notoriety:1 ornamental:1 uniform:1 regalia:1 fascist:1 dictatorship:1 mussolini:1 italy:1 hitler:1 germany:2 resurgence:1 accoutrement:1 post:1 give:1 need:1 boost:1 flag:1 fortune:1 metalworking:1 center:1 solingen:1 several:1 country:1 well:1 japan:1 never:1 extent:1 body:1 third:1 reich:1 equipment:1 infantry:1 commando:2 force:2 world:2 war:2 british:1 especially:1 slender:1 fairbairn:1 sykes:1 shanghai:1 u:1 marine:1 corps:1 raider:1 pacific:1 similar:1 fighting:1 others:1 american:1 ally:1 patton:1 saber:1 see:1 list:1 typography:1 reference:1 cambridge:2 ancient:1 university:1 press:1 page:1 isbn:1 line:1 note:1 |@bigram vulgar_latin:1 millennium_bc:1 knife_knife:1 minoan_crete:1 michael_hogan:1 hogan_knossos:1 knossos_fieldnotes:1 fieldnotes_modern:1 julius_caesar:1 stab_wound:1 plate_armour:1 third_reich:1 marine_corps:1 |
5,028 | Electric_charge | Electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interaction. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. The interaction between a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces. Overview Electric charge is a characteristic of some subatomic particles. It is quantized: when expressed in units of the so-called elementary charge e, it takes integer or fractional values. Electrons by convention have a charge of −1, while protons have the opposite charge of +1. Quarks have a fractional charge of − or +. The antiparticle equivalents of these (positrons, antiprotons, and antiquarks, respectively) have the opposite charge. There are other charged particles. The discrete nature of electric charge was proposed by Michael Faraday in his electrolysis experiments, and then directly demonstrated by Robert Millikan in his oil-drop experiment. In general, same-sign charged particles repel one another, while different-sign charged particles attract. This is expressed quantitatively in Coulomb's law, which states that the magnitude of the electrostatic repelling force between two particles is proportional to the product of their charges and the inverse square of the distance between them. The electric charge of a macroscopic object is the sum of the electric charges of its constituent particles. Often, the net electric charge is zero, because it is favorable for the number of electrons in every atom to equal the number of protons (or, more generally, for the number of anions, or negatively charged atoms, in every molecule to equal the number of cations, or positively charged atoms). When the net electric charge is non-zero and motionless, one has the phenomenon known as static electricity. Even when the net charge is zero, it can be distributed non-uniformly (e.g., due to an external electric field, or due to molecular motion), in which case the material is said to be polarized. The charge due to the polarization is known as bound charge, while the excess charge brought from outside is called free charge. The motion of charged particles (e.g., of electrons in metals) in a particular direction is known as electric current. Units The unit of quantity of electric charge is the coulomb, which is equivalent to about (e is the charge on a single electron or proton). Hence, the charge of an electron is approximately . The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that has passed through the cross-section of an electrical conductor carrying one ampere within one second. The symbol Q is often used to denote a quantity of electricity or charge. The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an electrometer, or indirectly measured with a ballistic galvanometer. After finding the quantized character of charge, in 1891 Stoney proposed the unit 'electron' for this fundamental unit of electrical charge. This was before the discovery of the particle by J.J. Thomson in 1897. Today, the name "electron" for the unit of charge is no longer widely used except in the derived unit "electronvolt". This is quite surprising considering the wide use of this unit in the fields of physics and chemistry. The unit is today treated as nameless, referred to as "fundamental unit of charge" or simply as "e". Formally, a measure of charge should be a multiple of the elementary charge e (charge is quantized), but since it is an average, macroscopic quantity, many orders of magnitude larger than a single elementary charge, it can effectively take on any real value. Furthermore, in some contexts it is meaningful to speak of fractions of a charge; e.g. in the charging of a capacitor. History Coulomb's torsion balance As reported by the Ancient Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus around 600 BC, charge (or electricity) could be accumulated by rubbing on various substances, such as amber. The Greeks noted that the charged amber buttons could attract light objects such as hair. They also noted that if they rubbed the amber for long enough, they could even get a spark to jump. This property derives from the triboelectric effect. In 1600 the English scientist William Gilbert returned to the subject in De Magnete, and coined the New Latin word electricus from ηλεκτρον (elektron), the Greek word for "amber", which soon gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity." He was followed in 1660 by Otto von Guericke, who invented what was probably the first electrostatic generator. Other European pioneers were Robert Boyle, who in 1675 stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum; Stephen Gray, who in 1729 classified materials as conductors and insulators; and C. F. du Fay, who proposed in 1733 http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_DUFAY.HTM that electricity came in two varieties which cancelled each other, and expressed this in terms of a two-fluid theory. When glass was rubbed with silk, du Fay said that the glass was charged with vitreous electricity, and when amber was rubbed with fur, the amber was said to be charged with resinous electricity. In 1839 Michael Faraday showed that the apparent division between static electricity, current electricity and bioelectricity was incorrect, and all were a consequence of the behavior of a single kind of electricity appearing in opposite polarities. It is arbitrary which polarity you call positive and which you call negative. Positive charge can be defined as the charge left on a glass rod after being rubbed with silk. Electromagnetic Fields (2nd Edition), Roald K. Wangsness, Wiley, 1986. ISBN 0-471-81186-6 (intermediate level textbook) One of the foremost experts on electricity in the 18th century was Benjamin Franklin, who argued in favour of a one-fluid theory of electricity. Franklin imagined electricity as being a type of invisible fluid present in all matter; for example he believed that it was the glass in a Leyden jar that held the accumulated charge. He posited that rubbing insulating surfaces together caused this fluid to change location, and that a flow of this fluid constitutes an electric current. He also posited that when matter contained too little of the fluid it was "negatively" charged, and when it had an excess it was "positively" charged. Arbitrarily (or for a reason that was not recorded) he identified the term "positive" with vitreous electricity and "negative" with resinous electricity. William Watson arrived at the same explanation at about the same time. Static electricity and electric current Static electricity and electric current are two separate phenomena, both involving electric charge, and may occur simultaneously in the same object. Static electricity is a reference to the electric charge of an object and the related electrostatic discharge when two objects are brought together that are not at equilibrium. An electrostatic discharge creates a change in the charge of each of the two objects. In contrast, electric current is the flow of electric charge through an object, which produces no net loss or gain of electric charge. Although charge flows between two objects during an electrostatic discharge, time is too short for current to be maintained. Electrification by friction Experiment I Let a piece of glass and a piece of resin, neither of which exhibits any electrical properties, be rubbed together and left with the rubbed surfaces in contact. They will still exhibit no electrical properties. Let them be separated. They will now attract each other. If a second piece of glass be rubbed with a second piece of resin, and if the piece be then separated and suspended in the neighbourhood of the former pieces of glass and resin, it may be observed: that the two pieces of glass repel each other. that each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin. that the two pieces of resin repel each other. These phenomena of attraction and repulsion are called Electrical phenomena and the bodies which exhibit them are said to be 'electrified', or to be 'charged with electricity'. Bodies may be electrified in many other ways, as well as by friction. The electrical properties of the two pieces of glass are similar to each other but opposite to those of the two pieces of resin: the glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the resin attracts. If a body electrified in any manner whatever behaves as the glass does, that is, if it repels the glass and attracts the resin, the body is said to be 'vitreously' electrified, and if it attracts the glass and repels the resin it is said to be 'resinously' electrified. All electrified bodies are found to be either vitreously or resinously electrified. It is the established practice of men of science to call the vitreous electrification positive, and the resinous electrification negative. The exactly opposite properties of the two kinds of electrification justify us in indicating them by opposite signs, but the application of the positive sign to one rather than to the other kind must be considered as a matter of arbitrary convention, just as it is a matter of convention in mathematical diagram to reckon positive distances towards the right hand. No force, either of attraction or of repulsion, can be observed between an electrified body and a body not electrified. James Clerk Maxwell A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, pp. 32-33, Dover Publications Inc., 1954 ASIN: B000HFDK0K, 3rd ed. of 1891 We now know that the Franklin/Watson model was fundamentally correct. There is only one kind of electrical charge, and only one variable is required to keep track of the amount of charge. One Kind of Charge On the other hand, just knowing the charge is not a complete description of the situation. Matter is composed of several kinds of electrically charged particles, and these particles have many properties, not just charge. The most common charge carriers are the positively charged proton and the negatively charged electron. The movement of any of these charged particles constitutes an electric current. In many situations, it suffices to speak of the conventional current without regard to whether it is carried by positive charges moving in the direction of the conventional current and/or by negative charges moving in the opposite direction. This macroscopic viewpoint is an approximation that simplifies electromagnetic concepts and calculations. At the opposite extreme, if one looks at the microscopic situation, one sees there are many ways of carrying an electric current, including: a flow of electrons; a flow of electron "holes" which act like positive particles; and both negative and positive particles (ions or other charged particles) flowing in opposite directions in an electrolytic solution or a plasma). Beware that in the common and important case of metallic wires, the direction of the conventional current is opposite to the drift velocity of the actual charge carriers, i.e. the electrons. This is a source of confusion for beginners. Properties Aside from the properties described in articles about electromagnetism, charge is a relativistic invariant. This means that any particle that has charge Q, no matter how fast it goes, always has charge Q. This property has been experimentally verified by showing that the charge of one helium nucleus (two protons and two neutrons bound together in a nucleus and moving around at high speeds) is the same as two deuterium nuclei (one proton and one neutron bound together, but moving much more slowly than they would if they were in a helium nucleus). Conservation of charge The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from gauge invariance of the wave function. The conservation of charge results in the charge-current continuity equation. More generally, the net change in charge density within a volume of integration is equal to the area integral over the current density on the surface of the area , which is in turn equal to the net current : Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equation, gives the result: The charge transferred between times to and t is obtained by integrating both sides: where I is the net outward current through a closed surface and Q is the electric charge contained within the volume defined by the surface. See also Elementary charge Charge (physics) Static electricity Electricity Current density Electrostatic discharge SI electromagnetism units Quantity of electricity References External links How fast does a charge decay? Science Aid: Electrostatic charge Easy-to-understand page on electrostatic charge. | Electric_charge |@lemmatized electric:26 charge:86 fundamental:4 conserved:1 property:10 subatomic:2 particle:16 determine:1 electromagnetic:6 interaction:2 electrically:2 matter:7 influence:1 produce:2 field:5 move:5 source:2 force:4 one:16 four:1 overview:1 characteristic:1 quantize:2 express:4 unit:11 call:6 elementary:4 e:8 take:2 integer:1 fractional:2 value:2 electron:11 convention:3 proton:6 opposite:10 quark:1 antiparticle:1 equivalent:2 positron:1 antiproton:1 antiquark:1 respectively:1 charged:2 discrete:1 nature:1 propose:3 michael:2 faraday:2 electrolysis:1 experiment:3 directly:2 demonstrate:1 robert:2 millikan:1 oil:1 drop:1 general:1 sign:4 repel:7 another:1 different:1 attract:6 quantitatively:1 coulomb:4 law:2 state:2 magnitude:2 electrostatic:8 two:15 proportional:1 product:1 inverse:1 square:1 distance:2 macroscopic:3 object:8 sum:1 constituent:1 often:2 net:7 zero:3 favorable:1 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5,029 | Jack_Butler_Yeats | Jack Butler Yeats (29 August 1871 – 28 March 1957) was an Irish artist. He was born in London and died in Dublin. Yeats's early style was that of an illustrator and almost a cartoonist (he produced the first cartoon strip version of Sherlock Holmes in 1894); he only began to work regularly in oils in 1906. His early pictures are simple lyrical depictions of landscapes and figures, predominantly from the west of Ireland (especially his boyhood home of Sligo). There is a certain element of Romanticism in this work, but it is grounded in fine observation and brilliant draughtsmanship. Life Beginning around 1920, Yeats developed into an intensely Expressionist artist, moving from illustration to Symbolism. He was sympathetic to the Irish Republican cause, but not politically active. However, he believed that 'a painter must be part of the land and of the life he paints', and his own artistic development, as a Modernist and Expressionist, helped articulate a modern Dublin of the twentieth century, partly by depicting specifically Irish subjects, but also by doing so in the light of universal themes such as the loneliness of the individual, and the universality of the plight of man. When he died, Samuel Beckett wrote that 'Yeats is the great of our time...he brings light as only the great dare to bring light to the issueless predicament of existence'. Yeats won a medal at the 1924 Tailteann Games in painting. Yeats's favourite subjects include the Irish landscape, horses, circus and travelling players. His early paintings and drawings are distinguished by an energetic simplicity of line and colour, his later paintings by an extremely vigorous and experimental treatment of often thickly applied paint. He frequently abandoned the brush altogether, applying paint in a variety of different ways, and was deeply interested in the expressive power of colour. Despite his position as the most important Irish artist of the twentieth century (and the first to sell for over £1 m), he took no pupils and allowed no one watch him work, so he remains a unique figure. The artist closest to him in style is his friend, the Austrian painter, Oskar Kokoschka. Besides painting, Yeats had a significant interest in theatre and in literature. He designed sets for the Abbey Theatre, but three of his own plays were also produced there. He wrote novels in a stream of consciousness style that Joyce acknowledged, and also many essays. His literary works include The Careless Flower, The Amaranthers (much admired by Beckett), and The Charmed Life. Yeats's paintings usually bear poetic and evocative titles. He was the youngest son of Irish portraitist John Butler Yeats, and the brother of the Nobel Prize winning poet William Butler Yeats, both of whom fully acknowledged all his talents. Indeed, his father recognized that Jack was a far better painter than he, and also believed that 'some day I will be remembered as the father of a great poet, and the poet is Jack'. Yeats was married to the painter Mary Cottenham White ('Cottie') in 1894 and elected a member of the Royal Hibernian Academy in 1916. References Samuel Beckett. 1991. Jack B. Yeats: The Late Paintings (Whitechapel Art Gallery) John Booth. 1993. Jack B. Yeats: A Vision of Ireland (House of Lochar) John W. Purser. 1991. The Literary Universe of Jack B. Yeats (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers) Hilary Pyle. 1987. Jack B. Yeats in the National Gallery of Ireland (National Gallery of Ireland) Hilary Pyle. 1989. Jack B. Yeats: A Biography (Carlton Books) T.G. Rosenthal. 1993. The Art of Jack B. Yeats (Carlton Books) Jack B. Yeats. 1992. Selected Writings of Jack B. Yeats (Carlton Books) External links Cuala Press Broadside Collection, illustrated by Jack B. Yeats is located at the Special Collections/Digital Library in Falvey Memorial Library at Villanova University. | Jack_Butler_Yeats |@lemmatized jack:12 butler:3 yeats:20 august:1 march:1 irish:6 artist:4 bear:2 london:1 die:2 dublin:2 early:3 style:3 illustrator:1 almost:1 cartoonist:1 produce:2 first:2 cartoon:1 strip:1 version:1 sherlock:1 holmes:1 begin:2 work:4 regularly:1 oil:1 picture:1 simple:1 lyrical:1 depiction:1 landscape:2 figure:2 predominantly:1 west:1 ireland:4 especially:1 boyhood:1 home:1 sligo:1 certain:1 element:1 romanticism:1 ground:1 fine:1 observation:1 brilliant:1 draughtsmanship:1 life:3 around:1 develop:1 intensely:1 expressionist:2 move:1 illustration:1 symbolism:1 sympathetic:1 republican:1 cause:1 politically:1 active:1 however:1 believe:2 painter:4 must:1 part:1 land:1 paint:3 artistic:1 development:1 modernist:1 help:1 articulate:1 modern:1 twentieth:2 century:2 partly:1 depict:1 specifically:1 subject:2 also:4 light:3 universal:1 theme:1 loneliness:1 individual:1 universality:1 plight:1 man:1 samuel:2 beckett:3 write:2 great:3 time:1 bring:2 dare:1 issueless:1 predicament:1 existence:1 win:2 medal:1 tailteann:1 game:1 painting:6 favourite:1 include:2 horse:1 circus:1 travel:1 player:1 drawing:1 distinguish:1 energetic:1 simplicity:1 line:1 colour:2 late:2 extremely:1 vigorous:1 experimental:1 treatment:1 often:1 thickly:1 apply:2 frequently:1 abandon:1 brush:1 altogether:1 variety:1 different:1 way:1 deeply:1 interested:1 expressive:1 power:1 despite:1 position:1 important:1 sell:1 take:1 pupil:1 allow:1 one:1 watch:1 remain:1 unique:1 close:1 friend:1 austrian:1 oskar:1 kokoschka:1 besides:1 significant:1 interest:1 theatre:2 literature:1 design:1 set:1 abbey:1 three:1 play:1 novel:1 stream:1 consciousness:1 joyce:1 acknowledge:2 many:1 essay:1 literary:2 careless:1 flower:1 amaranthers:1 much:1 admire:1 charmed:1 usually:1 poetic:1 evocative:1 title:1 young:1 son:1 portraitist:1 john:3 brother:1 nobel:1 prize:1 poet:3 william:1 fully:1 talent:1 indeed:1 father:2 recognize:1 far:1 well:1 day:1 remember:1 marry:1 mary:1 cottenham:1 white:1 cottie:1 elect:1 member:1 royal:1 hibernian:1 academy:1 reference:1 b:9 whitechapel:1 art:2 gallery:3 booth:1 vision:1 house:1 lochar:1 w:1 purser:1 universe:1 rowman:1 littlefield:1 publisher:1 hilary:2 pyle:2 national:2 biography:1 carlton:3 book:3 g:1 rosenthal:1 select:1 writing:1 external:1 link:1 cuala:1 press:1 broadside:1 collection:2 illustrate:1 locate:1 special:1 digital:1 library:2 falvey:1 memorial:1 villanova:1 university:1 |@bigram butler_yeats:3 sherlock_holmes:1 twentieth_century:2 samuel_beckett:2 oskar_kokoschka:1 nobel_prize:1 rowman_littlefield:1 littlefield_publisher:1 external_link:1 |
5,030 | Azincourt | Azincourt (historically, Agincourt in English) is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France. Geography Situated 12 miles (20 km) north-west of Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise on the D71 road. History Azincourt is famous as the site of the battle fought on 25 October 1415 in which the army led by King Henry V of England defeated the forces led by Charles d'Albret on behalf of Charles VI of France, and recorded in English history as the Battle of Agincourt. Population Population Evolution 1962 1968 1975 1982 1990 1999 2005 213 220 210 228 250 276 286 <small>Census count starting from 1962 : Population without double counting Places of interest The original battlefield museum in the village featured model knights made out of Action Man figures. However, this has now been replaced by a more professional exhibition space incorporating laser, video, slide shows, audio commentaries, and some interactive elements. The museum building is shaped like one of the many longbows famously deployed at the battle by King Henry's archers. The village holds a festival in every other year, commemorating the battle and featuring various stalls and displays. The latest was held on July 21 through July 22, 2007 Azincourt Alliance . Commemorative monument near to the battlefield Twin towns Azincourt is twinned with the English village of Middleham in North Yorkshire. See also Communes of the Pas-de-Calais department References INSEE commune file External links Azincourt on the Insee website Azincourt on the Quid website | Azincourt |@lemmatized azincourt:6 historically:1 agincourt:2 english:3 commune:3 pas:2 de:2 calais:2 department:2 northern:1 france:2 geography:1 situate:1 mile:1 km:1 north:2 west:1 saint:1 pol:1 sur:1 ternoise:1 road:1 history:2 famous:1 site:1 battle:4 fight:1 october:1 army:1 lead:2 king:2 henry:2 v:1 england:1 defeat:1 force:1 charles:2 albret:1 behalf:1 vi:1 record:1 population:3 evolution:1 small:1 census:1 count:2 start:1 without:1 double:1 place:1 interest:1 original:1 battlefield:2 museum:2 village:3 feature:2 model:1 knight:1 make:1 action:1 man:1 figure:1 however:1 replace:1 professional:1 exhibition:1 space:1 incorporate:1 laser:1 video:1 slide:1 show:1 audio:1 commentary:1 interactive:1 element:1 building:1 shape:1 like:1 one:1 many:1 longbow:1 famously:1 deploy:1 archer:1 hold:2 festival:1 every:1 year:1 commemorate:1 various:1 stall:1 display:1 late:1 july:2 alliance:1 commemorative:1 monument:1 near:1 twin:2 town:1 middleham:1 yorkshire:1 see:1 also:1 reference:1 insee:2 file:1 external:1 link:1 website:2 quid:1 |@bigram mile_km:1 battle_agincourt:1 external_link:1 |
5,031 | Decimal | This article aims to be an accessible introduction. For the mathematical definition, see Decimal representation. The decimal (base ten or occasionally denary) numeral system has ten as its base. It is the most widely used numeral system. Decimal notation Decimal notation is the writing of numbers in a base-10 numeral system. Examples are Roman numerals, Brahmi numerals, and Chinese numerals, as well as the Hindu-Arabic numerals used by speakers of English. Roman numerals have symbols for the decimal powers (1, 10, 100, 1000) and secondary symbols for half these values (5, 50, 500). Brahmi numerals had symbols for the nine numbers 1–9, the nine decades 10–90, plus a symbol for 100 and another for 1000. Chinese has symbols for 1–9, and fourteen additional symbols for higher powers of 10, which in modern usage reach 1044. However, when people who use Hindu-Arabic numerals speak of decimal notation, they often mean not just decimal numeration, as above, but also decimal fractions, all conveyed as part of a positional system. Positional decimal systems include a zero and use symbols (called digits) for the ten values (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) to represent any number, no matter how large or how small. These digits are often used with a decimal separator which indicates the start of a fractional part, and with one of the sign symbols + (positive) or − (negative) in front of the numerals to indicate sign. Positional notation uses positions for each power of ten: units, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. The position of each digit within a number denotes the multiplier (power of ten) multiplied with that digit—each position has a value ten times that of the position to its right. There are only two truly positional decimal systems in ancient civilization: the Chinese counting rod system and the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, which descended from Brahmi numerals. Ten is the number which is the count of fingers and thumbs on both hands (or toes on the feet). In many languages the word digit or its translation is also the anatomical term referring to fingers and toes. In English, decimal (decimus < Lat.) means tenth, decimate means reduce by a tenth, and denary (denarius < Lat.) means the unit of ten. The symbols for the digits in common use around the globe today are called Arabic numerals by Europeans and Indian numerals by Arabs, the two groups' terms both referring to the culture from which they learned the system. However, the symbols used in different areas are not identical; for instance, Western Arabic numerals (from which the European numerals are derived) differ from the forms used by other Arab cultures. Alternative notations Some cultures do, or used to, use other numeral systems, including pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures such as the Maya, who use a vigesimal system (using all twenty fingers and toes), some Nigerians who use several duodecimal (base 12) systems, the Babylonians, who used sexagesimal (base 60), and the Yuki, who reportedly used quaternal (base 4). Computer hardware and software systems commonly use a binary representation, internally (although a few of the earliest computers, such as ENIAC, did use decimal representation internally). For external use by computer specialists, this binary representation is sometimes presented in the related octal or hexadecimal systems. For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to the equivalent decimal values for presentation to and manipulation by humans. Both computer hardware and software also use internal representations which are effectively decimal for storing decimal values and doing arithmetic. Often this arithmetic is done on data which are encoded using some variant of binary-coded decimal, especially in database implementations, but there are other decimal representations in use (such as in the new IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic). Decimal arithmetic is used in computers so that decimal fractional results can be computed exactly, which is not possible using a binary fractional representation. This is often important for financial and other calculations Decimal Arithmetic - FAQ . Decimal fractions A decimal fraction is a fraction where the denominator is a power of ten. Decimal fractions are commonly expressed without a denominator, the decimal separator being inserted into the numerator (with leading zeros added if needed), at the position from the right corresponding to the power of ten of the denominator. e.g., 8/10, 83/100, 83/1000, and 8/10000 are expressed as: 0.8, 0.83, 0.083, and 0.0008. In English-speaking and many Asian countries, a period (.) or raised period (•) is used as the decimal separator; in many other countries, a comma is used. The integer part or integral part of a decimal number is the part to the left of the decimal separator (see also floor function). The part from the decimal separator to the right is the fractional part; if considered as a separate number, a zero is often written in front. Especially for negative numbers, we have to distinguish between the fractional part of the notation and the fractional part of the number itself, because the latter gets its own minus sign. It is usual for a decimal number whose absolute value is less than one to have a leading zero. Trailing zeros after the decimal point are not necessary, although in science, engineering and statistics they can be retained to indicate a required precision or to show a level of confidence in the accuracy of the number: Whereas 0.080 and 0.08 are numerically equal, in engineering 0.080 suggests a measurement with an error of up to 1 part in two thousand (±0.0005), while 0.08 suggests a measurement with an error of up to 1 in two hundred (see Significant figures). History While the Islamic mathematician Jamshīd al-Kāshī claimed to have discovered decimal fractions himself in the 15th century, J. Lennart Berggrenn notes that he was mistaken, as decimal fractions were first used five centuries before him by Arab mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi as early as the 10th century. Other rational numbers Any rational number which cannot be expressed as a finite decimal fraction has a unique infinite decimal expansion ending with recurring decimals. The decimal fractions are those with denominator divisible by only 2 and or 5. 1/2 = 0.5 1/20 = 0.05 1/5 = 0.2 1/50 = 0.02 1/4 = 0.25 1/40 = 0.025 1/25 = 0.04 1/8 = 0.125 1/125= 0.008 1/10 = 0.1 1/3 = 0.333333… (with 3 repeating) 1/9 = 0.111111… (with 1 repeating) 100-1=99=9•11 1/11 = 0.090909… (with 09 or 90 repeating) 1000-1=9•111=27•37 1/27 = 0.037037037… 1/37 = 0.027027027… 1/111 = 0 .009009009… also: 1/81= 0.012345679012… (with 012345679 repeating) Other prime factors in the denominator will give longer recurring sequences, see for instance 7, 13. That a rational number must have a finite or recurring decimal expansion can be seen to be a consequence of the long division algorithm, in that there are only q-1 possible nonzero remainders on division by q, so that the recurring pattern will have a period less than q. For instance to find 3/7 by long division: 0.4 2 8 5 7 1 4 ... 7 ) 3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 8 30/7 = 4 r 2 2 0 1 4 20/7 = 2 r 6 6 0 5 6 60/7 = 8 r 4 4 0 3 5 40/7 = 5 r 5 5 0 4 9 50/7 = 7 r 1 1 0 7 10/7 = 1 r 3 3 0 2 8 30/7 = 4 r 2 (again) 2 0 etc The converse to this observation is that every recurring decimal represents a rational number p/q. This is a consequence of the fact the recurring part of a decimal representation is, in fact, an infinite geometric series which will sum to a rational number. For instance, Real numbers Every real number has a (possibly infinite) decimal representation, i.e., it can be written as where sign() is the sign function, ai ∈ { 0,1,…,9 } for all i ∈ Z, are its decimal digits, equal to zero for all i greater than some number (that number being the common logarithm of |x|). Such a sum converges as i decreases, even if there are infinitely many nonzero ai. Rational numbers (e.g. p/q) with prime factors in the denominator other than 2 and 5 (when reduced to simplest terms) have a unique recurring decimal representation. Non-uniqueness of decimal representation Consider those rational numbers which have only the factors 2 and 5 in the denominator, i.e. which can be written as p/(2a5b). In this case there is a terminating decimal representation. For instance 1/1=1, 1/2=0.5, 3/5=0.6, 3/25=0.12 and 1306/1250=1.0448. Such numbers are the only real numbers which do not have a unique decimal representation, as they can also be written as a representation that has a recurring 9, for instance 1=0.99999…, 1/2=0.499999…, etc. The number 0=0/1 is special in that it has no representation with recurring 9. This leaves the irrational numbers. They also have unique infinite decimal representation, and can be characterised as the numbers whose decimal representations neither terminate nor recur. So in general the decimal representation is unique, if one excludes representations that end in a recurring 9. The same trichotomy holds for other base-n positional numeral systems: Terminating representation: rational where the denominator divides some nk Recurring representation: other rational Non-terminating, non-recurring representation: irrational and a version of this even holds for irrational-base numeration systems, such as golden mean base representation. History The modern number system originated in India. Ifrah, page 346 Other cultures discovered a few features of this number system but the system, in its entirety, was compiled in India, where it attained coherence and completion. By the 9th century CE, this complete number system had existed in India but several of its ideas were transmitted to China and the Islamic world before that time. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007). algebra There follows a chronological list of recorded decimal writers. Decimal writers c. 3500 - 2500 BC Elamites of Iran possibly used early forms of decimal system. TEXT20010821_MPIFW HOME c. 2900 BC Egyptian hieroglyphs show counting in powers of 10 (1 million + 400,000 goats, etc.) – see Ifrah, below c. 2600 BC Indus Valley Civilization, earliest known physical use of decimal fractions in ancient weight system: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2. See Ancient Indus Valley weights and measures c. 1300 BC Chinese writers show familiarity with the concept: for example, 547 is written 'Five hundred plus four decades plus seven of days' on an inscription of an oracle bone Temple, Robert. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. With a forward by Joseph Needham. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. ISBN 0671620282. Page 139. c. 400 BC Pingala – develops the binary number system for Sanskrit prosody, with a clear mapping to the base-10 decimal system c. 250 BC Archimedes writes the Sand Reckoner, which takes decimal calculation up to 1080,000,000,000,000,000 c. 100–200 The Satkhandagama written in India – earliest use of decimal logarithms c. 476–550 Aryabhata – uses an alphabetic cipher system for numbers that used zero c. 598–670 Brahmagupta – explains the Hindu-Arabic numerals (modern number system) which uses decimal integers, negative integers, and zero c. 780–850 Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī – first to expound on algorism outside India c. 920–980 Abu'l Hasan Ahmad ibn Ibrahim Al-Uqlidisi – earliest known direct mathematical treatment of decimal fractions. c. 1300–1500 The Kerala School in South India – decimal floating point numbers 1548/49–1620 Simon Stevin – author of De Thiende ('the tenth') 1561–1613 Bartholemaeus Pitiscus – (possibly) decimal point notation. 1550–1617 John Napier – use of decimal logarithms as a computational tool 1765 Johann Heinrich Lambert – discusses (with few if any proofs) patterns in decimal expansions of rational numbers and notes a connection with Fermat's little theorem in the case of prime denominators 1800 Karl Friedrich Gauss – uses number theory to systematically explain patterns in recurring decimal expansions of rational numbers (e.g., the relation between period length of the recurring part and the denominator, which fractions with the same denominator have recurring decimal parts which are shifts of each other, like 1/7 and 2/7) and also poses questions which remain open to this day (e.g., a special case of Artin's conjecture on primitive roots: is 10 a generator modulo p for infinitely many primes p?). 1925 Louis Charles Karpinski – The History of Arithmetic The History of Arithmetic, Louis Charles Karpinski, 200pp, Rand McNally & Company, 1925. 1959 Werner Buchholz – Fingers or Fists? (The Choice of Decimal or Binary representation) Fingers or Fists? (The Choice of Decimal or Binary representation), Werner Buchholz, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 2 #12, pp3–11, ACM Press, December 1959. 1974 Hermann Schmid – Decimal Computation Decimal Computation, Hermann Schmid, John Wiley & Sons 1974 (ISBN 047176180X); reprinted in 1983 by Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company (ISBN 0898743184) 2000 Georges Ifrah – The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer Histoire universelle des chiffres, Georges Ifrah, Robert Laffont, 1994 (Also: The Universal History of Numbers: From prehistory to the invention of the computer, Georges Ifrah, ISBN 0471393401, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 2000. Translated from the French by David Bellos, E.F. Harding, Sophie Wood and Ian Monk) 2003 Mike Cowlishaw – Decimal Floating-Point: Algorism for Computers Decimal Floating-Point: Algorism for Computers, Cowlishaw, M. F., Proceedings 16th IEEE Symposium on Computer Arithmetic, ISBN 0-7695-1894-X, pp104-111, IEEE Comp. Soc., June 2003 . Natural languages A straightforward decimal system, in which 11 is expressed as ten-one and 23 as two-ten-three, is found in Chinese languages except Wu, and in Vietnamese with a few irregularities. Japanese, Korean, and Thai have imported the Chinese decimal system. Many other languages with a decimal system have special words for the numbers between 10 and 20, and decades. Incan languages such as Quechua and Aymara have an almost straightforward decimal system, in which 11 is expressed as ten with one and 23 as two-ten with three. Some psychologists suggest irregularities of numerals in a language may hinder children's counting ability . . See also 0.999... Algorism Binary-coded decimal Decimal representation Decimal separator Dewey Decimal System Hindu-Arabic numeral system Numeral system Scientific notation SI prefix 10 (number) References External links Fraction to Decimal Decimal arithmetic FAQ Tests: Decimal Place Value Sums Fractions Practice Decimal Arithmetic with Printable Worksheets Converting Decimals to Fractions Cultural Aspects of Young Children's Mathematics Knowledge Decimal Bibliography be-x-old:Дзесятковая сыстэма зьлічэньня | Decimal |@lemmatized article:1 aim:1 accessible:1 introduction:1 mathematical:2 definition:1 see:8 decimal:84 representation:26 base:10 ten:15 occasionally:1 denary:2 numeral:23 system:33 widely:1 use:35 notation:8 writing:1 number:41 example:2 roman:2 brahmi:3 chinese:6 well:1 hindu:5 arabic:7 speaker:1 english:3 symbols:3 power:7 secondary:1 symbol:7 half:1 value:8 nine:2 decade:3 plus:3 another:1 fourteen:1 additional:1 high:1 modern:3 usage:1 reach:1 however:3 people:1 speak:1 often:5 mean:5 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5,032 | False_dilemma | The informal fallacy of false dilemma (also called false dichotomy, the either-or fallacy) involves a situation in which only two alternatives are considered, when in fact there are other options. Closely related are failing to consider a range of options and the tendency to think in extremes, called black-and-white thinking. Strictly speaking, the prefix "di" in "dilemma" means "two". When a list of more than two choices are offered, but there are other choices not mentioned, then the fallacy is called the fallacy of false choice, or the fallacy of exhaustive hypotheses. When a person really does have only two choices, as in the classic short story The Lady, or the Tiger?, then they are often said to be "on the horns of a dilemma". False dilemma can arise intentionally, when fallacy is used in an attempt to force a choice ("If you are not with us, you are against us.") But the fallacy can arise simply by accidental omission—possibly through a form of wishful thinking or ignorance—rather than by deliberate deception ("I thought we were friends, but all my friends were at my apartment last night and you weren't there.") When two alternatives are presented, they are often, though not always, two extreme points on some spectrum of possibilities. This can lend credence to the larger argument by giving the impression that the options are mutually exclusive, even though they need not be. Furthermore, the options are typically presented as being collectively exhaustive, in which case the fallacy can be overcome, or at least weakened, by considering other possibilities, or perhaps by considering a whole spectrum of possibilities, as in fuzzy logic. Examples Morton's Fork Very often a Morton's Fork, a choice between two equally unpleasant options, is a false dilemma. The phrase originates from an argument for taxing English nobles: "Either the nobles of this country appear wealthy, in which case they can be taxed for good; or they appear poor, in which case they are living frugally and must have immense savings, which can be taxed for good." Ivor H. Evans, editor, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase & Fable, 14th edition, Harper & Row, 1989, ISBN 0-06-016200-7, This is a false dilemma, because some members of the nobility may in fact lack liquid assets. False choice The presentation of a false choice often reflects a deliberate attempt to eliminate the middle ground on an issue. Eldridge Cleaver used such a quotation during his 1968 presidential campaign: "You're either part of the solution or part of the problem." This quotation was in turn a variation from The Guthrian seven years earlier: "Every person is either part of the problem, or part of the solution." Yale Book of Quotations p158 A common argument against noise pollution laws involves a false choice. In New York City, some say that noise shouldn't be regulated, because if it were, the city would drastically change in a negative way. It involves assuming that for example: a bar must be shut down for it to not cause disturbing levels of noise after midnight. This ignores the fact that the bar could simply lower its noise levels, and/or install more soundproof structural elements to keep the noise from excessively transmitting onto others properties. Black and white thinking A common form of the false dilemma is black-and-white thinking. Many people routinely engage in black-and-white thinking, an example of which is feeling boundless optimism when things are going well and suddenly switching to total despair at the first setback. Another example is someone who labels other people as all good or all bad. AJ Giannini. Use of fiction in therapy. Psychiatric Times. 18(7):56-57,2001. Falsus in unus, falsus omnibus This Latin phrase means "false in one thing, false in everything", and it is often used to label someone found to be wrong on one issue to also be wrong with regard other issues. This is a logical fallacy because being found incompetent in one respect does not imply that one is incompetent in all other respects. This is an example of an ad hominem argument and a special case of the association fallacy. There is no alternative The assertion that there is no alternative is an example of the false dichotomy taken to its ultimate extreme, in which the options are reduced to one, the proposal of the speaker. Of course the speaker does not believe there are no alternatives otherwise they would not bother to argue the point; rather they oppose the alternatives and seek to dismiss them by denying their existence. "This was the mantra chanted by 'dries' during the prime ministerial reign of Margaret Thatcher, by which they demonstrated their belief that free-market capitalism was the only possible economic theory. The phrase was repeated so often amongst them that it was shortened to TINA. The hard-right Thatcherites called themselves 'dries' to demonstrate their opposition to the 'wets', i.e. the One-Nation Tories whom Thatcher despised." See also Bivalence Correlative-based fallacies Degrees of truth Fuzzy logic Law of excluded middle Nondualism Pascal's Wager Nolan chart Half-truths Multivalued logic Perspectivism Principle of bivalence Rogerian argument Sorites paradox You're either with us, or against us References External links The Black-or-White Fallacy entry in The Fallacy Files | False_dilemma |@lemmatized informal:1 fallacy:13 false:13 dilemma:7 also:3 call:4 dichotomy:2 either:5 involve:3 situation:1 two:7 alternative:6 consider:4 fact:3 option:6 closely:1 related:1 fail:1 range:1 tendency:1 think:3 extreme:3 black:5 white:5 thinking:4 strictly:1 speak:1 prefix:1 di:1 mean:2 list:1 choice:9 offer:1 mention:1 exhaustive:2 hypothesis:1 person:2 really:1 classic:1 short:1 story:1 lady:1 tiger:1 often:6 say:2 horn:1 arise:2 intentionally:1 use:4 attempt:2 force:1 u:4 simply:2 accidental:1 omission:1 possibly:1 form:2 wishful:1 ignorance:1 rather:2 deliberate:2 deception:1 friend:2 apartment:1 last:1 night:1 present:2 though:2 always:1 point:2 spectrum:2 possibility:3 lend:1 credence:1 large:1 argument:5 give:1 impression:1 mutually:1 exclusive:1 even:1 need:1 furthermore:1 typically:1 collectively:1 case:4 overcome:1 least:1 weaken:1 perhaps:1 whole:1 fuzzy:2 logic:3 examples:1 morton:2 fork:2 equally:1 unpleasant:1 phrase:4 originate:1 tax:3 english:1 noble:2 country:1 appear:2 wealthy:1 good:3 poor:1 live:1 frugally:1 must:2 immense:1 saving:1 ivor:1 h:1 evans:1 editor:1 brewer:1 dictionary:1 fable:1 edition:1 harper:1 row:1 isbn:1 member:1 nobility:1 may:1 lack:1 liquid:1 asset:1 presentation:1 reflect:1 eliminate:1 middle:2 ground:1 issue:3 eldridge:1 cleaver:1 quotation:3 presidential:1 campaign:1 part:4 solution:2 problem:2 turn:1 variation:1 guthrian:1 seven:1 year:1 earlier:1 every:1 yale:1 book:1 common:2 noise:5 pollution:1 law:2 new:1 york:1 city:2 regulate:1 would:2 drastically:1 change:1 negative:1 way:1 assume:1 example:5 bar:2 shut:1 cause:1 disturb:1 level:2 midnight:1 ignore:1 could:1 lower:1 install:1 soundproof:1 structural:1 element:1 keep:1 excessively:1 transmit:1 onto:1 others:1 property:1 many:1 people:2 routinely:1 engage:1 feel:1 boundless:1 optimism:1 thing:2 go:1 well:1 suddenly:1 switch:1 total:1 despair:1 first:1 setback:1 another:1 someone:2 label:2 bad:1 aj:1 giannini:1 fiction:1 therapy:1 psychiatric:1 time:1 falsus:2 unus:1 omnibus:1 latin:1 one:6 everything:1 find:2 wrong:2 regard:1 logical:1 incompetent:2 respect:2 imply:1 ad:1 hominem:1 special:1 association:1 assertion:1 take:1 ultimate:1 reduce:1 proposal:1 speaker:2 course:1 believe:1 otherwise:1 bother:1 argue:1 oppose:1 seek:1 dismiss:1 deny:1 existence:1 mantra:1 chant:1 dry:2 prime:1 ministerial:1 reign:1 margaret:1 thatcher:2 demonstrate:2 belief:1 free:1 market:1 capitalism:1 possible:1 economic:1 theory:1 repeat:1 amongst:1 shorten:1 tina:1 hard:1 right:1 thatcherite:1 opposition:1 wet:1 e:1 nation:1 tory:1 despise:1 see:1 bivalence:2 correlative:1 base:1 degree:1 truth:2 excluded:1 nondualism:1 pascal:1 wager:1 nolan:1 chart:1 half:1 multivalued:1 perspectivism:1 principle:1 rogerian:1 sorites:1 paradox:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 entry:1 file:1 |@bigram informal_fallacy:1 false_dilemma:5 false_dichotomy:2 closely_related:1 wishful_thinking:1 lend_credence:1 mutually_exclusive:1 fuzzy_logic:2 harper_row:1 aj_giannini:1 logical_fallacy:1 ad_hominem:1 hominem_argument:1 margaret_thatcher:1 excluded_middle:1 external_link:1 |
5,033 | 2001_Mars_Odyssey | 2001 Mars Odyssey is a robotic spacecraft orbiting the planet Mars. Its mission is to use spectrometers and imagers to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars. It is hoped that the data Odyssey obtains will help answer the question of whether life has ever existed on Mars. It also acts as a relay for communications between the Mars Explorations Rovers and Phoenix lander to Earth. The mission was named after the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey, and refers to the differences between the movie and real life by the year 2001. Odyssey was launched April 7, 2001 on a Delta II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and reached Mars on October 24, 2001, 0230 Universal Time (October 23, 7:30 p.m. PDT/ 10:30 EDT). The spacecraft's main engine fired to brake the spacecraft's speed and allowed it to be captured into orbit around Mars. Odyssey used a technique called "aerobraking" that gradually brought the spacecraft closer to Mars with each orbit. By using the atmosphere of Mars to slow down the spacecraft in its orbit rather than firing its engine or thrusters, Odyssey was able to save more than 200 kilograms (440 pounds) of propellant. Aerobraking ended in January, and Odyssey began its science mapping mission on February 19, 2002. Scientific instruments The three primary instruments Odyssey uses are the: Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS). Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS), which includes the High Energy Neutron Detector (HEND), provided by Russia. Mars Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE). On May 28, 2002, NASA reported that Odyssey's GRS had detected large amounts of hydrogen, a sign that there must be ice lying within a meter of the planet's surface. Mission Summary of the Mars Odyssey mission NASA has approved a third two year extended mission through September 2010 to allow for the observation of year-to-year differences in phenomena like polar ice, clouds and dust storms as well as a much more sensitive mapping of martian minerals. On September 30, 2008 the spacecraft activated its thrusters for 6 min to begin altering the spacecrafts orbit to gain an even better sensitivity for its infrared mapping of Martian minerals. The change will cause the spacecraft to move from a late afternoon orbit to a mid afternoon orbit over time by decreasing the time it passed over a location by 20 second per day until a new thruster burn in late 2009 will solidify the orbit. Unfortunately, the new orbit will eliminate the use of one of the instruments, the Gamma Ray Spectrometer Suite, due to potential overheating of the instrument at the new orbit. The extension will also continue Odyssey's support for other Mars missions. The orbiter contains enough propellant to operate at least until 2015. About 85 percent of images and other data from NASA's twin Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, have reached Earth via communications relay by Odyssey, which receives transmissions from both rovers every day. The orbiter helped analyze potential landing sites for the rovers and performed the same task for NASA's Phoenix mission, which landed on Mars in May, 2008. Odyssey aided NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which reached Mars in March 2006, by monitoring atmospheric conditions during months when the newly arrived orbiter used aerobraking to alter its orbit into the desired shape. Mars Odyssey as imaged by Mars Global Surveyor Water on Mars On July 31, 2008, NASA announced that the Phoenix lander confirmed the presence of water on Mars, Confirmation of Water on Mars as predicted on 2002 by the Odyssey orbiter. The science team is trying to determine whether the water ice ever thaws enough to be available for biology and if carbon-containing chemicals and other raw materials for life are present. Naming Mars Odyssey was originally named the Mars Surveyor 2001 Orbiter and was intended to have a companion spacecraft known as Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander. The lander mission was canceled in May 2000 following the failures of Mars Climate Orbiter and Mars Polar Lander in late 1999. Subsequently, the name 2001 Mars Odyssey was selected for the orbiter as a specific tribute to the vision of space exploration shown in works by Arthur C. Clarke, including 2001: A Space Odyssey. The music from Mythodea by Greek composer Vangelis was used as the theme music for the mission. The project was developed by NASA, and contracted out to Lockheed Martin. The expected cost for the entire mission is US$297 million. See also Exploration of Mars Nickel hydrogen battery Space exploration Image of 2001 Mars Odyssey Mission References External links The Mars Odyssey site The Mars Odyssey blog Mars 2001 Odyssey Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration BBC News story on Mars Odyssey observations of apparent ice deposits | 2001_Mars_Odyssey |@lemmatized mar:33 odyssey:23 robotic:1 spacecraft:8 orbit:11 planet:2 mission:13 use:6 spectrometer:3 imagers:1 hunt:1 evidence:1 past:1 present:2 water:5 volcanic:1 activity:1 hop:1 data:2 obtains:1 help:2 answer:1 question:1 whether:2 life:3 ever:2 exist:1 also:3 act:1 relay:2 communication:2 explorations:1 rover:4 phoenix:3 lander:5 earth:2 name:4 movie:2 space:4 refers:1 difference:2 real:1 year:4 launch:1 april:1 delta:1 ii:1 rocket:1 cape:1 canaveral:1 air:1 force:1 station:1 reach:3 october:2 universal:1 time:3 p:1 pdt:1 edt:1 main:1 engine:2 fire:2 brake:1 speed:1 allow:2 capture:1 around:1 technique:1 call:1 aerobraking:3 gradually:1 bring:1 closer:1 atmosphere:1 slow:1 rather:1 thruster:3 able:1 save:1 kilogram:1 pound:1 propellant:2 end:1 january:1 begin:2 science:2 mapping:3 february:1 scientific:1 instrument:4 three:1 primary:1 us:1 thermal:1 emission:1 image:4 system:2 themis:1 gamma:2 ray:2 grs:2 include:2 high:1 energy:1 neutron:1 detector:1 hend:1 provide:1 russia:1 radiation:1 environment:1 experiment:1 marie:1 may:3 nasa:8 report:1 detect:1 large:1 amount:1 hydrogen:2 sign:1 must:1 ice:4 lie:1 within:1 meter:1 surface:1 summary:1 approve:1 third:1 two:1 extend:1 september:2 observation:2 phenomenon:1 like:1 polar:2 cloud:1 dust:1 storm:1 well:1 much:1 sensitive:1 martian:2 mineral:2 activate:1 min:1 alter:2 spacecrafts:1 gain:1 even:1 good:1 sensitivity:1 infrared:1 change:1 cause:1 move:1 late:3 afternoon:2 mid:1 decrease:1 pass:1 location:1 second:1 per:1 day:2 new:3 burn:1 solidify:1 unfortunately:1 eliminate:1 one:1 suite:1 due:1 potential:2 overheating:1 extension:1 continue:1 support:1 orbiter:8 contain:1 enough:2 operate:1 least:1 percent:1 twin:1 spirit:1 opportunity:1 via:1 receive:1 transmission:1 every:1 analyze:1 landing:1 site:2 perform:1 task:1 land:1 aid:1 reconnaissance:1 march:1 monitor:1 atmospheric:1 condition:1 month:1 newly:1 arrive:1 desired:1 shape:1 global:1 surveyor:3 july:1 announce:1 confirm:1 presence:1 confirmation:1 predict:1 team:1 try:1 determine:1 thaws:1 available:1 biology:1 carbon:1 containing:1 chemical:1 raw:1 material:1 originally:1 intend:1 companion:1 know:1 cancel:1 follow:1 failure:1 climate:1 subsequently:1 select:1 specific:1 tribute:1 vision:1 exploration:4 show:1 work:1 arthur:1 c:1 clarke:1 music:2 mythodea:1 greek:1 composer:1 vangelis:1 theme:1 project:1 develop:1 contract:1 lockheed:1 martin:1 expected:1 cost:1 entire:1 u:1 million:1 see:1 nickel:1 battery:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 blog:1 profile:1 solar:1 bbc:1 news:1 story:1 apparent:1 deposit:1 |@bigram cape_canaveral:1 kilogram_pound:1 gamma_ray:2 ray_spectrometer:2 dust_storm:1 raw_material:1 climate_orbiter:1 lockheed_martin:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
5,034 | Demographics_of_El_Salvador | This article is about the demographic features of the population of El Salvador, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. {| style="toc: 25em; font-size: 85%; lucida grande, sans-serif; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Demographics of El Salvador |- {{#if:Image:Volcano San Salvador 1960.jpg| |- !style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Population |style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 7,066,403 (2008 est.) |- !align="left" valign="top"|Male population |valign="top"| 3,440,918 |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Female population | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 3,625,485 |- !align="left" valign="top"|Population growth |valign="top"| 1.68% |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Birth rate | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 25.72/1,000 |- !align="left" valign="top"|Death rate |valign="top"| 5.53/1,000 |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Infant mortality rate | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 22.19/1,000 |- !align="left" valign="top"|Life expectancy |valign="top"|72.1 years |- !align="left" valign="top"|Nationality |valign="top"| Salvadoran |- !style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Demographic bureaus |style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| INEC |- | align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"| |} El Salvador's population numbers about 7,066,403 with 90% identifying as Mestizo (mixed Amerindian and European). CIA - The World Factbook - El Salvador 9% of the Salvadoran population are White including Spanish, French, Lebanese, Syrian, Turkish, Swiss, German, and Italian descendants. About 1% is of indigenous origin (Pipil). Very few Amerindians have retained their customs and traditions, having over time assimilated into the dominant Mestizo/Spanish culture. EL SALVADOR Visa Application - Tourist Visas, Business Visas, Expedited Visas - El Salvador Page The low numbers of indigenous people may be partly explained by La Matanza in 1938 which saw (estimates of) up to 30,000 peasants killed in a short period of time (nowadays this would be considered a genocide by the army's methods to exterminate a certain racial group). They were not necessarily killed because they were indigenous, one of the identifying features of the peasants was their indigenous dress. Many authors note that since La Matanza the indigenous in El Salvador have been very reluctant to describe themselves as such (in census declarations for example) or to wear indigenous dress or be seen to be taking part in any cultural activities or customs that might be understood as indigenous. Military Rule, 1931-1979 - History - El Salvador - Central America: 1979 history, center poverty, cause condition, party pdc, soccer war There is a significant population of Palestinian Christian and Chinese immigrants. There is also a small community of Jews and Muslims. While the plurality of country's population is Roman Catholic, it no longer constitutes a majority. According to an October 2006 survey by the Technological University Public Opinion Center, 48% of the population was Roman Catholic, while some 28.2% are members of Protestant churches. Groups that constitute less than 5 percent of the population include Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormons; 14.6 percent are not affiliated with any religious group. International Religious Freedom Report 2007 Spanish is the language spoken by virtually all inhabitants. The capital city of San Salvador has about 316,090 people; an estimated 37% of El Salvador's population live in rural areas. The total impact of civil wars, dictatorships and socioeconomics drove over a million Salvadorans (both as immigrants and refugees) into the US; in addition small Salvadoran communities sprung up in Canada, Mexico, Costa Rica, Europe and Australia since the migration trend began in the early 1970s. Cities and metropolitan areas Municipalities of El Salvador CIA World Factbook demographic statistics {| style="width: 22em; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Ethnic groups |- |- {{#if:Image:DSCN4716.JPG| ! style="background:#efefef;" align=center | Group ! style="background:#efefef;" align=center | Number |- |Mestizo (86%) |align=right|4,210,000 |- |White (12%) |align=right|621,000 |- |Amerindian (2%) |align=right|69,000 |- |colspan=2 style="background:#e9e9e9;" align=center|Source: CDI (2006) |- |} Population growth 1961-2003. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 7,066,403 (July 2009 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 36% (male 1,291,147; female 1,237,453) 15-64 years: 59% (male 1,987,671; female 2,179,620) 65 years and over: 5% (male 162,100; female 208,412) (2008 est.) Population growth rate 1.68% (2008 est.) Birth rate 29.02 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 25.72 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate 6.27 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 5.53 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate -4.0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) -3.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.78 male(s)/female total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2008 est.) Infant mortality rate 29.22 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 22.19 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 72.1 years male: 68.5 years female: 75.8 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate 3.38 children born/woman (2000 est.) 3.04 children born/woman (2008 est.) Nationality noun: Salvadoran(s) adjective: Salvadoran Ethnic groups Mestizo: 86% White:2% Amerindian: 10-12% The Ameridian population could actually reach higher numbers due to the repression people are reluctant to call themselves "Indian" in public http://www.soitu.es/soitu/2008/08/09/info/1218307640_720352.html Religions Roman Catholic: 52.5% Protestant: 27.6% Other: 11.1% Languages Spanish, Nahuat (among some Amerindians/ not to be confused with Nahuatl a related language) Literacy definition: age 10 and over can read and write total population: 80.2% male: 82.8% female: 77.7% (2003 est.) See also El Salvador Ethnic groups in Central America History of the Jews in El Salvador Religion in El Salvador References | Demographics_of_El_Salvador |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:5 feature:2 population:27 el:13 salvador:15 include:3 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:3 affiliation:1 aspect:1 style:15 toc:1 font:2 size:2 lucida:1 grande:1 sans:1 serif:1 text:2 align:21 leave:12 class:2 infobox:2 center:8 bgcolor:3 lightblue:3 colspan:4 image:2 volcano:1 san:2 jpg:2 background:13 valign:20 top:20 est:17 male:11 female:11 growth:3 birth:8 rate:9 death:6 infant:2 mortality:2 life:2 expectancy:2 year:10 nationality:2 salvadoran:6 bureau:1 inec:1 number:4 identifying:2 mestizo:4 mixed:1 amerindian:5 european:1 cia:3 world:3 factbook:3 white:3 spanish:4 french:1 lebanese:1 syrian:1 turkish:1 swiss:1 german:1 italian:1 descendant:1 indigenous:7 origin:1 pipil:1 retain:1 custom:2 tradition:1 time:2 assimilate:1 dominant:1 culture:1 visa:4 application:1 tourist:1 business:1 expedite:1 page:1 low:1 people:3 may:1 partly:1 explain:1 la:2 matanza:2 saw:1 estimate:2 peasant:2 kill:2 short:1 period:1 nowadays:1 would:1 consider:1 genocide:1 army:1 method:1 exterminate:1 certain:1 racial:1 group:7 necessarily:1 one:1 dress:2 many:1 author:1 note:1 since:2 reluctant:2 describe:1 census:1 declaration:1 example:1 wear:1 see:2 take:1 part:1 cultural:1 activity:1 might:1 understand:1 military:1 rule:1 history:3 central:2 america:2 poverty:1 cause:1 condition:1 party:1 pdc:1 soccer:1 war:2 significant:1 palestinian:1 christian:1 chinese:1 immigrant:2 also:2 small:2 community:2 jew:2 muslim:1 plurality:1 country:1 roman:3 catholic:3 longer:1 constitute:2 majority:1 accord:1 october:1 survey:1 technological:1 university:1 public:2 opinion:1 member:1 protestant:2 church:1 less:1 percent:2 jehovah:1 witness:1 mormon:1 affiliate:1 international:1 freedom:1 report:1 language:3 speak:1 virtually:1 inhabitant:1 capital:1 city:2 live:3 rural:1 area:2 total:5 impact:1 civil:1 dictatorship:1 socioeconomics:1 drive:1 million:1 refugee:1 u:1 addition:1 spring:1 canada:1 mexico:1 costa:1 rica:1 europe:1 australia:1 migration:2 trend:1 begin:1 early:1 metropolitan:1 municipality:1 statistic:2 width:1 ethnic:3 efefef:2 right:3 source:1 cdi:1 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 age:2 structure:1 net:1 migrant:2 sex:1 ratio:1 fertility:1 child:2 bear:2 woman:2 noun:1 adjective:1 ameridian:1 could:1 actually:1 reach:1 high:1 due:1 repression:1 call:1 indian:1 http:1 www:1 soitu:2 e:1 info:1 html:1 religion:2 nahuat:1 among:1 confuse:1 nahuatl:1 related:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 |@bigram el_salvador:13 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 sans_serif:1 infobox_align:2 align_center:6 center_bgcolor:3 bgcolor_lightblue:3 lightblue_colspan:3 valign_top:20 background_valign:5 infant_mortality:2 mortality_rate:2 life_expectancy:2 mestizo_mixed:1 mixed_amerindian:1 lebanese_syrian:1 jehovah_witness:1 costa_rica:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 background_efefef:2 efefef_align:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 http_www:1 literacy_definition:1 |
5,035 | Michael_Crichton | John Michael Crichton - Crichton, Michael. "For Younger Readers", michaelcrichton.com, 2005. Retrieved 11 December 2005. , (October 23, 1942 – November 4, 2008) was an American author, producer, director, screenwriter, and physician, best known for his work in the science fiction, medical fiction, and thriller genres. His books have sold over 150 million copies worldwide, and many have been adapted into films. In 1994 he became the only creative artist to ever have works simultaneously charting at #1 in television, as creator of ER; in film, with the adaptation of Jurassic Park; and in book sales, with Disclosure. His literary works were usually based on the action genre and heavily feature technology. His novels epitomised the techno-thriller genre of literature, often exploring technology and failures of human interaction with it, especially resulting in catastrophes with biotechnology. Many of his future history novels have medical or scientific underpinnings, reflecting his medical training and science background. He was the author of The Andromeda Strain, Congo, Disclosure, Rising Sun, Sphere, Timeline, State of Fear, Airframe, Prey, Next (the final book published before his death), Pirate Latitudes (to be published November 24, 2009), and a final unfinished techno-thriller to be released sometime in the fall of 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/06/books/06crichton.html?_r=2&ref=arts Early life and education John Michael Crichton was born in Chicago, "Michael Crichton’s Mark on the Science Fiction World"; "Michael Crichton"; ; Profile by IGN; see the IMDB entry here Illinois, to John Henderson Crichton, a journalist and Zula Miller Crichton on October 23 1942. He was raised in Long Island, in Roslyn, New York., and had three siblings, two sisters, Kimberly and Catherine, and a younger brother, Douglas. Crichton showed a keen interest in writing from a young age and at the age of just 14 had a column related to travel published in the New York Times. Crichton had always planned on becoming a writer and commenced his studies at Harvard College in 1960. During his undergraduate study in literature, Crichton conducted an experiment to catch off guard a professor who he believed was giving him abnormally low marks and criticising his own literary style. Informing another professor of his suspicions, Crichton plagiarized a work by George Orwell and submitted it as his own. Unaware, the paper was received by his professor with a mark of "B−". King of the techno-thriller, The Observer, December 3, 2006 His issues with the English Department led Crichton to switch his course to biological anthropology as an undergraduate, obtaining his bachelor's degree summa cum laude in 1964. http://www.crichton-official.com/aboutmichaelcrichton-biography.html Crichton was also initiated into the Phi Beta Kappa Society. He went on to become the Henry Russell Shaw Traveling Fellow from 1964 to 1965 and Visiting Lecturer in Anthropology at the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom in 1965. Crichton later enrolled at Harvard Medical School when he began publishing work. By this time Crichton had become unusually tall. According to his own words, he was approximately 6 feet 9 inches (2.06 meters) tall in 1997. Mean Body Weight, Height, and Body Mass Index 1960–2002 In reference to his height, while in medical school, he began writing novels under the pen names John Lange and Jeffery Hudson (Lange is a surname in Germany, meaning "long" and Sir Jeffrey Hudson was a famous 17th century dwarf in the court of Queen Consort Henrietta Maria of England). In Travels, he recalls overhearing unaware doctors discussing the flaws in The Andromeda Strain while he maintained anonymity in medical school. A Case of Need, written under the Hudson pseudonym, won him his first Edgar Award for Best Novel in 1969. He also co-authored Dealing with his younger brother Douglas under the shared pen name Michael Douglas. The back cover of that book contains a picture of Michael and Douglas at a very young age taken by their mother. Crichton graduated from Harvard, obtaining an M.D. in 1969, and undertook a post-doctoral fellowship study at the Jonas Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, from 1969 to 1970. In 1988, he was a Visiting Writer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Writing career Fiction Odds On was Michael Crichton's first published novel. It was released in 1966 under the pseudonym of John Lange. It is a short 215-page paperback novel which describes an attempt of robbery in an isolated hotel on Costa Brava. The robbery is planned scientifically with the help of a Critical Path Analysis computer program, but unforeseen events get in the way. The following year he published Scratch One. The novel relates the story of Roger Carr, a handsome, charming and privileged man who practices law, more as a means to support his playboy lifestyle than a career. Carr is sent to Nice, France where he has notable political connections, but is mistaken for an assassin and finds his life in jeopardy, implicated in the world of terrorism. In 1968 he published two novels, Easy Go and A Case of Need, the second of which was re-published in 1993 under his real name. Easy Go relates the story of Harold Barnaby, a brilliant Egyptologist who discovers a concealed message while translating hieroglyphics, informing him of an unnamed Pharaoh whose tomb is yet to be discovered. A Case of Need, on the other hand was a medical thriller in which a Boston pathologist, Dr. John Berry, investigates an apparent illegal abortion conducted by an obstretrician friend which caused the early demise of a young woman. The novel would prove a turning point in Crichton's future novels, in which technology is important in the subject matter, although this novel was as much about medical practice. The novel garnered him an Edgar Award in 1969. In 1969 Crichton published three novels. The first, Zero Cool, dealt with an American radiologist on vacation in Spain who becomes caught in a murderous crossfire between rival gangs seeking a precious artifact. The second, The Andromeda Strain, would prove to be the important novel in his career which established him as a best selling author. The novel documenting the efforts of a team of scientists investigating a deadly extraterrestrial microorganism that fatally clots human blood, infecting the sufferer and causing death within two minutes. The microbe, code named "Andromeda", mutates with each growth cycle, changing its biologic properties. The novel became an instant success, and it was only two years before the novel was sought after by film producers and turned into the eponymous 1971 film under the directorship of Robert Wise and featuring Arthur Hill, James Olson, Kate Reid as Leavitt, and David Wayne. In September 2004, the Sci Fi Channel would announce a production of a miniseries, executive-produced by Ridley Scott, Tony Scott and Frank Darabont, premiering on May 26 2008. Crichton's third novel of 1969, The Venom Business relates the story of a smuggler who uses his exceptional skill as a snake handler to his advantage by smuggling snakes out of Mexico under the guise of medical research to be used by drug companies and universities for research. The snakes are simply a ruse to hide the identity of rare Mexican artifacts. In 1969 Crichton also wrote a review for the New Republic (as J. Michael Crichton), critiquing Slaughterhouse Five by Kurt Vonnegut. In 1970 Crichton again published three novels: Drug of Choice, Dealing: Or the Berkeley-to-Boston Forty-Brick Lost-Bag Blues and Grave Descend. Grave Descend earned him an Edgar Award nomination the following year. In 1972 Crichton published two novels. The first, Binary relates the story of a villainous middle-class businessman who attempts to assassinate the President of the United States by stealing an army shipment of the two precursor chemicals that form a deadly nerve agent. The second, The Terminal Man is about a psychomotor epileptic sufferer, Harry Benson, who in regularly suffering seizures followed by blackouts, conducts himself inappropriately during seizures, waking up hours later with no knowledge of what he has done. Believed to be psychotic, he is investigated, electrodes are implanted in his brain, continuing the trend in Crichton's novels with machine-human interaction and technology. The novel was adapted into a film directed by Mike Hodges and starring George Segal, Joan Hackett, Richard A. Dysart and Donald Moffat, released in June 1974. However neither the novel nor the film were well received by critics. In 1975, Crichton ventured into the nineteenth century with his historical novel The Great Train Robbery which would become a bestseller. The novel related a mild re-representation of the Great Gold Robbery of 1855, a massive gold heist, which takes place on a train traveling through Victorian era England. A considerable proportion of the book was set in London. The novel was later made into a 1979 film directed by Crichton himself, starring Sean Connery and Donald Sutherland. The film would go on to be nominated for Best Cinematography Award by the British Society of Cinematographers, also garnering a nomination for Best Motion Picture by the Edgar Allan Poe award by the Mystery Writers Association of America. In 1976 Crichton published Eaters of the Dead, a novel about a 10th century Muslim who travels with a group of Vikings to their settlement. Eaters of the Dead is narrated as a scientific commentary on an old manuscript and was inspired by two sources. The first three chapters retelling Ahmad ibn Fadlan's personal account of his actual journey north and his experiences in encountering the Rus', the early Russian peoples, whilst the remainder is based upon the story of Beowulf, culminating in battles with the 'mist-monsters', or 'wendol', a relict group of Neanderthals. The novel was adapted into film as The 13th Warrior, initially directed by John McTiernan, who was later fired with Crichton himself taking over direction. In 1980 Crichton published the novel Congo, which centers on an expedition searching for diamonds in the tropical rain forest of Congo. An expedition, searching for deposits of valuable diamonds, discover the legendary lost city of Zinj and an unusual race of barbarous gorillas. The novel was adapted into a film loosely based on the novel in 1995, starring Laura Linney, Tim Curry, and Ernie Hudson. Seven years later, Crichton published Sphere, a novel which relates the story of psychologist Norman Johnson, who is required by the U.S. Navy to join a team of scientists assembled by the U.S. Government to examine an enormous alien spacecraft discovered on the bed of the Pacific Ocean, believed to have been there for over 300 years. The novel begins as a science fiction story, but rapidly transforms into a psychological thriller, ultimately exploring the nature of the human imagination. The novel was adapted into the film Sphere in 1998, directed by Barry Levinson, with a cast including Dustin Hoffman as Norman Johnson, (renamed Norman Goodman), Samuel L. Jackson, Liev Schreiber and Sharon Stone. In 1990, Crichton published the novel Jurassic Park. Crichton utilized the presentation of "fiction as fact", used in his previous novels, Eaters of the Dead and The Andromeda Strain, in conjunction the mathematical concept of chaos theory and its philosophical implications to explain the collapse of an amusement park showcasing certain genetically recreated dinosaur species in a "biological preserve" on Isla Nublar, an island that is 120 miles west of Costa Rica. Paleontologist Alan Grant along with his paleobotanist graduate student, Ellie Sattler, are brought by the billionaire John Hammond, founder and chief executive officer of International Genetic Technologies, or InGen to investigate. Upon arrival, the park is revealed to contain cloned dinosaurs, 15 different species, including species such as Dilophosaurus, Velociraptor, Triceratops, Stegosaurus and Tyrannosaurus rex which have been recreated using damaged dinosaur DNA, found in mosquitoes that sucked Saurian blood and were then trapped and preserved in amber). Crichton had originally conceived a screenplay about a graduate student who recreates a dinosaur; but decided to explore his fascination with dinosaurs and cloning until he began writing the novel. Spielberg learned of the novel in October 1989 while he and Crichton were discussing a screenplay that would become the television series ER. Before the book was published, Crichton demanded a non-negotiable fee of $1.5 million as well as a substantial percentage of the gross. Warner Bros. and Tim Burton, Sony Pictures Entertainment and Richard Donner, and 20th Century Fox and Joe Dante bid for the rights, Joseph McBride (1997). Steven Spielberg. Faber and Faber, 416–9. ISBN 0-571-19177-0 but Universal eventually acquired them in May 1990 for Spielberg. DVD Production Notes Universal paid Crichton a further $500,000 to adapt his own novel, which he had completed by the time Spielberg was filming Hook. Crichton noted that because the book was "fairly long" his script only had about 10–20 percent of the novel's content, resulting in scenes from the novel being dropped for budgetary and practical reasons. Steve Biodrowski. Cinefantastique Magazine, Vol. 24, No.2, pg. 12, "Jurassic Park: Michael Crichton" The film, directed by Spielberg was eventually released in 1993, starring Sam Neill as Dr. Alan Grant, Laura Dern as Dr. Ellie Sattler, Jeff Goldblum as Dr. Ian Malcolm (the chaos theorist) and Richard Attenborough as billionaire CEO of InGen. The film would become extremely successful. In 1992, Crichton published the novel Rising Sun, an international best-selling crime thriller about a murder in the Los Angeles headquarters of Nakamoto, a fictional Japanese corporation. The book was instantly adapted into a film, released the same year of the movie adaption of Jurassic Park in 1993 and starring Sean Connery, Wesley Snipes, Tia Carrere and Harvey Keitel. Crichton would continue with the subject matter of a high tech corporation in his next novel, Disclosure, published in 1994. The novel again revolves around a fictional high tech company, but specifically addresses the theme of sexual harassment which had been explored in previous novels such as 1972's Binary. Unlike that novel however, Crichton centers on sexual politics in the workplace, emphasising an array of paradoxes in traditional gender functions, by featuring a male protagonist who is being sexually harassed by a female executive. As a result, the book has been harshly criticized by feminist commentators and accused of anti-feminism. Crichton, anticipating this response, offered a rebuttal at the close of the novel which states that a "role-reversal" story uncovers aspects of the subject that would not be as easily seen with a female protagonist. The novel was made into a film the same year under the helm of Barry Levinson, and starring Michael Douglas, Demi Moore and Donald Sutherland. Crichton then published The Lost World in 1995 as the sequel to Jurassic Park. It was made into a film sequel two years later in 1997, again directed by Spielberg and starring Jeff Goldblum, Julianne Moore, Vince Vaughn and Pete Postlethwaite. Then, in 1996, Crichton published Airframe, an aero-techno-thriller which relates the story of a quality assurance vice-president at the fictional aerospace manufacturer Norton Aircraft, as she investigates an in-flight accident aboard a Norton-manufactured airliner that leaves three passengers dead and fifty-six injured. Like many of his other novels, Crichton uses the false document literary device, presenting numerous technical documents to create a sense of authenticity. In the novel, Crichton draws from real life accidents to increase its sensation of realism, including American Airlines Flight 191 and Aeroflot Flight 593 which flew from Moscow's Sheremetyevo International Airport (SVO) and crashed at Hong Kong's Kai Tak Airport in 1994. Air safety procedures are a central theme in the novel. Crichton challenges public perception of air safety and somewhat relates an element of investigative journalism, and the consequences of exaggerated media reports to sell the story. The book also continues Crichton's overall theme of the failure of humans in human-machine interaction, given that plane itself worked perfectly, and had the pilot known how to react properly, the accident would not have occurred within it. Then in 1999, Crichton published Timeline, a science fiction novel which tells the story of a team of historians and archaeologists studying at site in the Dordogne region of France where the medieval towns of Castelgard and La Roque stood who travel back to the 1357 to uncover some startling truths. The novel which continues Crichton's long history of combining technical details and action in his books, addresses quantum physics and time travel directly. The novel quickly spawned Timeline Computer Entertainment, a computer game developer that created the Timeline PC game published by Eidos Interactive in 2000. A film based on the book was released in 2003 by Paramount Pictures, with a screen adaptation by Jeff Maguire and George Nolfi, under the directorship of Richard Donner. The film stars Paul Walker, Gerard Butler and Frances O'Connor. In 2002, Crichton published Prey, a cautionary tale about developments in science and technology; specifically nanotechnology. The novel explores relatively recent phenonomen in the scientific community, such as artificial life, emergence (and by extension, complexity), genetic algorithms, and agent-based computing. Reiterating components in many of his other novels, Crichton once again brings fictional companies to the readers attention, this time Xymos, a nanorobotics company which is claimed to be on the verge of perfecting a revolutionary new medical imaging technology based on nanotechnology and a rival company, MediaTronics. Elements of the novel were utilized in the 2008 film The Day the Earth Stood Still, in which a swarm of nanobots escape from a secure military facility. Then in 2004, Crichton published State of Fear, a novel concerning eco-terrorists who attempt mass murder to support their views. Global warming and climate change serve as a central theme to the novel, and in Appendix I of the book, Crichton warns both sides of the global warming debate against the politicization of science. NATURE| VOL 433 |20 JANUARY 2005 He provides two examples of the disastrous combination of pseudo-science and politics, the early 20th-century idea of eugenics, which he directly links to be one of the theories that allowed for the Holocaust and Lysenkoism. The novel had an initial print run of 1.5 million copies and reached the #1 bestseller position at Amazon.com and #2 on the New York Times Best Seller list for one week in January 2005. Cold, Hard Facts - New York Times Michael Crichton’s “Scientific Method” James Hansen Union of Concerned Scientists Crichton's Thriller State of Fear: Separating Fact from Fiction His final novel, published while he was still living was Next, printed in 2006. The novel follows many characters, including transgenic animals, in the quest to survive in a world dominated by genetic research, corporate greed, and legal interventions where government and private investors spend billions of dollars every year on genetic research. In his novel, Crichton introduces a minor character named "Mick Crowley" who is portrayed by Crichton as a child molester with a small penis. There is a real person named Michael Crowley, who is also a Yale graduate, and a senior editor of The New Republic, a left-leaning Washington D.C.-based political magazine who had written an article strongly critical of Crichton for his stance on global warming in his novel, State of Fear, earlier in March 2006. Cock and Bull Crowley, Michael The New Republic December 2006 His last novel was originally scheduled for a release date of December 2, 2008. http://abcnews.go.com/print?id=6190315 It was postponed and will now be published on November 24, 2009. It's entitled Pirate Latitudes. Additionally, an unfinished, untitled novel is tentatively scheduled for publication in the fall of 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/06/books/06crichton.html?_r=2&ref=arts Non-fiction Aside from fiction, Crichton wrote several other books based on medical or scientific themes, often based upon his own observations in his field of expertise. In 1970 he published Five Patients, a book which recounts his experiences of hospital practices in the late 1960s at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts. The book follows each of five patients through their hospital experience and the context of their treatment, revealing inadequacies in the hospital institution at the time. The book relates the experiences of Ralph Orlando, a construction worker seriously injured in a scaffold collapse, John O'Connor, a middle aged dispatcher suffering from fever that has reduced him to a delirious wreck, Peter Luchesi, a young man who severs his hand in an accident, Sylvia Thompson, an airline passenger who suffers chest pains, and Edith Murphy, a mother of three who is diagnosed with a life threatening disease. in Five Patients, Crichton examines a brief history of medicine up to 1969 to help place hospital culture and practice into context, and addresses the costs and politics of the national healthcare service. As a personal friend to the artist Jasper Johns, Crichton compiled many of his works in a coffee table book, published as Jasper Johns. It was originally published in 1970 by Harry N. Abrams, Inc. in association with the Whitney Museum of American Art and again in January 1977, with a second revised edition published in 1994. In 1983, Crichton authored Electronic Life, a book that introduces BASIC programming to its readers. The book, written like a glossary, with entries such as "Afraid of Computers (everybody is)," "Buying a Computer," and "Computer Crime", was intended to introduce the idea of personal computers to a reader who might be faced with the hardship of using them at work or at home for the first time. It defined basic computer jargon and assured readers that they could master the machine when it inevitably arrived. In his words, being able to program a computer is liberation; "In my experience, you assert control over a computer—show it who's the boss—by making it do something unique. That means programming it....If you devote a couple of hours to programming a new machine, you'll feel better about it ever afterwards". Crichton, Michael. Electronic Life, Knopf, 1983, p. 44. ISBN 0-394-53406-9 In the book, Crichton predicts a number of events in the history of computer development, that computer networks would increase in importance as a matter of convenience, including the sharing of information and pictures that we see online today which the telephone never could. He also makes predictions for computer games, dismissing them as "the hula hoops of the '80s", and saying "already there are indications that the mania for twitch games may be fading." In a section of the book called "Microprocessors, or how I flunked biostatistics at Harvard," Crichton again seeks his revenge on the medical school teacher who had given him abnormally low grades in college. Within the book, Crichton included many self-written demonstrative Applesoft (for Apple II) and BASICA (for IBM PC compatibles) programs. He once considered updating it, but the project was canceled. Then in 1988 he published Travels, which also contains autobiographical episodes covered in a similar fashion to his 1970 book Five Patients. Literary techniques Crichton's novels, including Jurassic Park have been described by The Guardian as "harking back to the fantasy adventure fiction of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Jules Verne, Edgar Rice Burroughs and Edgar Wallace, but with a contemporary spin, assisted by cutting-edge technology references made accessible for the general reader". According to the Guardian, "Michael Crichton wasn't really interested in characters, but his innate talent for storytelling enabled him to breathe new life into the science fiction thriller".Like The Guardian, the New York Times has also noted the boys adventure quality to his novels interfused with modern technology and science. According to the New York Times, Crichton's works were frequently cautionary; his plots often portrayed scientific advancements going awry, commonly resulting in worst-case scenarios. A notable recurring theme in Crichton's plots is the pathological failure of complex systems and their safeguards, whether biological (Jurassic Park), military/organizational (The Andromeda Strain), technical (Airframe) or cybernetic (Westworld). This theme of the inevitable breakdown of "perfect" systems and the failure of "fail-safe measures" can be seen strongly in the poster for Westworld (slogan: "Where nothing can possibly go worng .." (sic) ) and in the discussion of chaos theory in Jurassic Park. The use of author surrogate was a feature of Crichton's writings from the beginning of his career. In A Case of Need, one of his pseudonymous whodunit stories, Crichton used first-person narrative to portray the hero, a Bostonian pathologist, who is running against the clock to clear a friend's name from medical malpractice in a girl's death from a hack-job abortion. Some of Crichton's fiction used a literary technique called false document. For example, Eaters of the Dead is a fabricated recreation of the Old English epic Beowulf in the form of a scholarly translation of Ahmad ibn Fadlan's 10th century manuscript. Other novels, such as The Andromeda Strain and Jurassic Park, incorporated fictionalized scientific documents in the form of diagrams, computer output, DNA sequences, footnotes and bibliography. Some of his novels included authentic published scientific works to illustrate his point, such as in The Terminal Man and State of Fear. At the prose level, one of Crichton's trademarks was the single word paragraph: a dramatic question answered by a single-word sitting on its own as a paragraph. As a film director and screenwriter Crichton has written or directed in several motion pictures or TV series. In the 1970s in particular he was intent on being a successful filmmaker. His first film, Pursuit (1972) was a TV movie both written and directed by Crichton that is based on his novel Binary. Westworld was the first feature film that used 2D computer-generated imagery (CGI) and the first use of 3D CGI was in its sequel, Futureworld (1976), which featured a computer-generated hand and face created by then University of Utah graduate students Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke. Crichton directed the film Coma, adapted from a Robin Cook novel. There are other similarities in terms of genre and the fact that both Cook and Crichton were physicians, were of similar age, and wrote about similar subjects. He wrote the screenplay for the movies Extreme Close Up (1973) and Twister (1996) (the latter co-written with Anne-Marie Martin, his wife at the time). Although Jurassic Park and The Lost World were both based on Crichton's novels, Jurassic Park III was not. Crichton was also the creator and executive producer of the television drama ER. ER was originally slated to be a movie, directed by Steven Spielberg. However, during the early stages of pre-production, Spielberg asked Michael Crichton what his current project was. Crichton said he was working on a novel about dinosaurs and DNA. Spielberg subsequently dropped what he was doing to film this project. Afterwards, he returned to ER and helped develop the show, serving as a producer on season one and offering advice (he insisted on Julianna Margulies becoming a regular, for example). It was also through Spielberg's Amblin Entertainment that John Wells was contacted to be the show's executive producer. In December 1994, he achieved the unique distinction of having the #1 movie (Jurassic Park), the #1 TV show (ER), and the #1 book (Disclosure, atop the paperback list). Crichton wrote only three episodes of ER: Episode 1-1: "24 Hours" Episode 1-2: "Day One" Episode 1-3: "Going Home" Computer games Amazon is a graphical text adventure game created by Michael Crichton and produced by John Wells under Trillium Corp. Amazon was released in the United States in 1984 and it runs on Apple II, Atari ST, Commodore 64, and the DOS systems. Amazon was considered by some to be a breakthrough in the way it updated text adventure games by adding music. It sold more than 100,000 copies, making it a significant commercial success at the time. It featured plot elements similar to those later used in Congo. Amazon at Home of the Underdogs In 1999, Crichton founded Timeline Computer Entertainment with David Smith. Despite signing a multi-title publishing deal with Eidos Interactive, only one game was ever published, Timeline. Released on 8 December 2000 for the PC, the game received poor reviews and sold poorly. Speeches Crichton conducted a number of notable speeches in his lifetime. Aliens Cause Global Warming In 2003 he gave a lecture at Caltech entitled "Aliens Cause Global Warming" www.crichton-official.com in which he expressed his views of the danger of "consensus science" — especially with regard to what he regarded as popular but disputed theories such as nuclear winter, the dangers of second-hand smoke, and the global warming controversy. Crichton was critical of widespread belief in ETs and UFOs, citing the fact that there is no conclusive proof of their existence. Crichton stated that "The Drake equation cannot be tested and therefore SETI is not science. SETI is unquestionably a religion." Crichton commented that belief in purported scientific theories without a factual basis is more akin to faith than science. Environmentalism as a religion In a related speech given to the Commonwealth Club of California in 2003, called "Environmentalism as a religion" (see Radical environmentalism), Crichton described what he saw as similarities between the structure of various religious views (particularly Judeo-Christian beliefs) and the beliefs of many modern urban atheists who he asserted have romantic ideas about Nature and our past, who he suggested believe in the initial "paradise", the human "sins", and the "judgment day". He also articulated his belief that it is the tendency of modern environmentalists to cling stubbornly to elements of their faith in spite of evidence to the contrary. Crichton cited alleged misconceptions about DDT, passive smoking, and global warming as examples. Crichton was an atheist and saw religion as irrational. Complexity Theory and Environmental Management In a 2005 speech given at the Washington Center for Complexity and Public Policy, titled "Complexity Theory and Environmental Management" , Crichton challenges the notion that humanity is prepared or even able to manage anything as complex as the environment, drawing strongly on the century of relentless errors in attempting to manage the much more limited ecosystem of Yellowstone National Park. He also argued that the nonlinearity of environmental interactions, where small things can have large, unexpected consequences strongly constricts our current ability to alter or "tweak" anything to do with the environment in a reliable manner, or with sufficient assuredness as to have desirable consequences. Widespread speculation in the media In a speech entitled "Why Speculate?", www.crichton-official.com delivered in 2002 to the International Leadership Forum, Crichton criticized the media for engaging in what he saw as pointless speculation rather than the delivery of facts. As an example, he pointed to a front-page article of the March 6 New York Times that speculated about the possible effects of U.S. President George W. Bush's decision to impose tariffs on imported steel. Crichton also singled out Susan Faludi's book Backlash for criticism, saying that it "presented hundreds of pages of quasi-statistical assertions based on a premise that was never demonstrated and that was almost certainly false." He referred to what he calls the "Murray Gell-Mann Amnesia Effect" to describe the public's tendency to discount one story in a newspaper they may know to be false because of their knowledge of the subject, but believe the same paper on subjects with which they are unfamiliar. Crichton used the Latin expression falsus in uno, falsus in omnibus, which he translated as "untruthful in one part, untruthful in all," to describe what he thought should be a more appropriate reaction. The speech also made several references to Crichton's skepticism of environmentalists' assertions about the possible future ramifications of human activity on the Earth's environment. Role of science in environmental policy-making In September 2005 Crichton testified at a Congressional hearing on climate change, having been called by global warming skeptic Senator James Inhofe Inhofe's senate page to advise the Environment and Public Works Committee. Crichton spoke on issues such as the role of science in policy making, criticisms of climate-change researcher Michael E. Mann and what Crichton claimed was the deliberate obstruction of research into the subject by some in the scientific community. U.S. Senate Committee on Environment & Public Works Hearing Statements September 2005 Reception Criticism Many of Crichton's publicly expressed views, particularly on subjects like the global warming controversy, have caused heated debate. An example is meteorologist Jeffrey Masters' review of State of Fear: Peter Doran, author of the paper in the January 2002 issue of Nature which reported the finding referred to above, that some areas of Antarctica had cooled between 1986 and 2000, wrote an opinion piece in the July 27, 2006 New York Times in which he stated "Our results have been misused as 'evidence' against global warming by Michael Crichton in his novel State of Fear."<ref>Cold, Hard Facts Doran, Peter The New York Times July 2006</ref> Crichton himself states in the book that though he uses a number of studies to support his stance, the authors of these studies do not necessarily agree with his interpretations. Additionally, some of the characters in the novel caution that they do not necessarily claim that global warming is not an issue, but only that more research is necessary before we make any definitive conclusions. Al Gore said on March 21, 2007 before a US House committee: "The planet has a fever. If your baby has a fever, you go to the doctor [...] if your doctor tells you you need to intervene here, you don't say 'Well, I read a science fiction novel that tells me it's not a problem'." This has been recognized by several commentators as a reference to State of Fear. Ansible 237, April 2007 Climate of fear, The Boston Globe, 1 April 2007 More from 'Inconvenient Gore', Alaska Report, 22 March 2007 Michael Crowley In his 2006 novel Next (released November 28 of that year), Crichton introduced a character named "Mick Crowley" who is a Yale graduate and a Washington D.C.-based political columnist. "Crowley" was portrayed by Crichton as a child molester with a small penis. The character is a minor one who does not appear elsewhere in the book. A real person named Michael Crowley is also a Yale graduate, and a senior editor of The New Republic, a liberal Washington D.C.-based political magazine. In March 2006, the real Crowley had written an article strongly critical of Crichton for his stance on global warming in State of Fear. Cock and Bull Crowley, Michael The New Republic December 2006 Awards Mystery Writers of America's Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Novel, 1969 (A Case of Need; written as Jeffery Hudson) Association of American Medical Writers Award, 1970 (Five Patients) Mystery Writers of America's Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Motion Picture Screenplay, 1980 (The Great Train Robbery) Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Technical Achievement Award, 1994 1994 Technical Achievement Award - with Jack C Smith and Emil Safier, for pioneering computerized motion picture budgeting and scheduling The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Journalism Award, 2006 (State of Fear) An Emmy A Peabody A Writers Guild of America A dinosaur, Crichtonsaurus bohlini, was named after him in honor of Jurassic Park. Michael Crichton Official Site Crichton was named to the list of the "Fifty Most Beautiful People" by People magazine, 1992 Personal life and death As an adolescent, Crichton felt isolated with regard to his height (at 6'9") and different from others. As an adult, he was acutely aware of his intellect which also left him often feeling alienated from people around him. During the 1970s and 1980s he consulted psychics and enlightenment gurus to make him feel more socially acceptable and to improve his karma. As a result of these experiences, Crichton practised meditation throughout much of his life. Crichton was a workaholic. When drafting a novel which would typically take him six or seven weeks, Crichton withdrew completely and ritualistically to follow what he called "a structured approach". As he approached writing the end of each book, he would rise increasingly earlier each day, to the extent that on nearing completion he would sleep for less than 4 hours, by going to bed at 10pm and awaking at 2am. In 1992 Crichton was ranked among People magazine's 50 most beautiful people. Crichton was married five times, four of the marriages ending in divorce. He was married to Suzanna Childs, Joan Radam (1965 – 1970), Kathy St. Johns (1978 – 1980) and actress Anne-Marie Martin (1987 - 2003), the mother of his daughters Alana Marie (born 1981) and Taylor Anne (born 1989). At the time of his death, Crichton was married to Sherri Alexander, who was six months pregnant with their son. John Michael Todd Crichton was born on February 12, 2009. Given the private way in which Crichton lived his life, his battle with throat cancer was not made public until his death, and he died of the disease on November 4, 2008. Harvard Crimson The Crichton family has not revealed where he has been buried or if some other means had been utilized such as cryonics. Works Fiction Year Title Notes 1966 Odds On as John Lange 1967 Scratch One as John Lange 1968 Easy Go as John Lange A Case of Need as Jeffery Hudson (re-released as Crichton in 1993) 1969 Zero Cool as John Lange The Andromeda Strain The Venom Business as John Lange 1970 Drug of Choice as John Lange Dealing as Michael Douglas (with brother Douglas Crichton) Grave Descend as John Lange 1972 Binary as John Lange The Terminal Man 1975 The Great Train Robbery 1976 Eaters of the Dead 1980 Congo 1987 Sphere 1990 Jurassic Park 1992 Rising Sun 1994 Disclosure 1995 The Lost World 1996 Airframe 1999 Timeline 2002 Prey 2004 State of Fear 2006 Next 2009 Pirate Latitudes posthumous publication 2010 Title not yet revealed (Techno-Thriller) posthumous publication Non-fiction Year Title Notes 1970 Five Patients 1977 Jasper Johns 1983 Electronic Life 1988 Travels Film and television Novels adapted into films Year Title Filmmaker/Director 1971 The Andromeda Strain Robert Wise 1972 Dealing: Or the Berkeley-to-Boston Forty-Brick Lost-Bag Blues Paul Williams 1972 The Carey Treatment (A Case of Need) Blake Edwards 1974 The Terminal Man Mike Hodges 1993 Jurassic Park Steven Spielberg 1993 Rising Sun Philip Kaufman 1994 Disclosure Barry Levinson 1995 Congo Frank Marshall 1997 The Lost World: Jurassic Park Steven Spielberg 1998 Sphere Barry Levinson 1999 The 13th Warrior (Eaters of the Dead) John McTiernan 2003 Timeline Richard Donner 2008 The Andromeda Strain (TV miniseries) Mikael Salomon As a screenwriter and/or director Year Title Notes 1972 Pursuit (TV film) Co-Writer/Director 1973 Westworld Writer/Director 1978 Coma Writer/Director 1979 The First Great Train Robbery Writer/Director 1981 Looker Writer/Director 1984 Runaway Writer/Director 1989 Physical Evidence Director 1993 Jurassic Park Co-Writer 1993 Rising Sun Co-Writer 1996 Twister Co-Writer/Producer TV series Year Title Notes 1980 Beyond Westworld Creator/Writer 1994-2009 ER Creator/Writer/Executive Producer References Bibliography Hayhurst, Robert Readings on Michael Crichton, Greenhaven Press, 2004, ISBN 0737716622 Trembley, Elizabeth A. Michael Crichton: A Critical Companion'', Greenwood Press, 1996, ISBN 0313294143 External links Recorded BBC Five Live interview with Michael Crichton AP Obituary in the Chicago Sun-Times Builder of Windup Realms That Thrillingly Run Amok, An Appraisal: Michael Crichton, Charles McGrath, The New York Times, Nov. 5, 2008 He Brought Science to Life, The Wall Street Journal, November 11, 2008 Michael Crichton bibliography on the Internet Book List Posthumous Crichton Novels on the Way, Motoko Rich, The New York Times, April 5, 2009 | Michael_Crichton |@lemmatized john:25 michael:31 crichton:131 young:7 reader:6 michaelcrichton:1 com:8 retrieve:1 december:7 october:3 november:6 american:6 author:8 producer:7 director:11 screenwriter:3 physician:2 best:9 know:3 work:14 science:18 fiction:16 medical:14 thriller:11 genre:4 book:32 sell:4 million:3 copy:3 worldwide:1 many:9 adapt:9 film:28 become:10 creative:1 artist:2 ever:3 simultaneously:1 chart:1 television:4 creator:4 er:8 adaptation:2 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5,036 | Israeli_Declaration_of_Independence | David Ben-Gurion proclaiming independence beneath a large portrait of Theodor Herzl, founder of modern Zionism Independence Hall as it appears today The Israeli Declaration of Independence (, Hakhrazat HaAtzma'ut or Megilat HaAtzma'ut), made on 14 May 1948 (5 Iyar, 5708), the day the British Mandate expired, was the official announcement that the new Jewish state named the State of Israel had been formally established in parts of what was known as the British Mandate for Palestine and on land where, in antiquity, the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah had once been. In Israel the event is celebrated annually with the national holiday Yom Ha'atzmaut (, lit. Independence Day), the timing of which is based on the Hebrew calendar date of the declaration (5, Iyar, 5708). Palestinians commemorate the event as Nakba Day (, Yawm al-nakba, lit. Catastrophe Day) on 15 May every year. 58th anniversary of the Palestinian Catastrophe Al Bawaba, 3 May 2006 Background The General Assembly of the United Nations had resolved that a declaration to the effect of "No discrimination of any kind shall be made between the inhabitants on the ground of race, religion, language or sex" would be made to the United Nations by the Provisional Government of each proposed state before independence. The General Assembly resolution mandated that the stipulations contained in the Declarations were to be non-derogatory and they were to be "recognized as fundamental laws of the State and no law, regulation or official action shall conflict or interfere with these stipulations, nor shall any law, regulation or official action prevail over them." United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181, Part I. - Future Constitution and Government of Palestine, C. DECLARATION While the possibility of a Jewish homeland in Palestine had been a goal of Zionist organisations since the late 19th century, it was not until 1917 and the Balfour Declaration that the idea gained the official backing of a major power. The declaration stated that the British government supported the creation of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. In 1936 the Peel Commission suggested partitioning Mandate Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state, though it was rejected as unworkable by the government and was at least partially to blame for the 1936-39 Arab revolt. The UN partition plan In the face of increasing violence, the British handed the issue over to the United Nations. The result was Resolution 181, a partition plan to divide Palestine between Jews and Arabs. The Jewish state was to receive around 56% of the land area of Mandate Palestine, encompassing 82% of the Jewish population, though it would be separated from Jerusalem, designated as an area to be administered by the UN. The plan was accepted by most of the Jewish population, but rejected by much of the Arab populace. On 29 November 1947, the plan was put to a vote in the United Nations General Assembly. The result was 33 to 13 in favour of the plan, with 10 abstentions. The Arab countries (all of which had opposed the plan) proposed to query the International Court of Justice on the competence of the General Assembly to partition a country against the wishes of the majority of its inhabitants, but were again defeated. The division was to take effect on the date of British withdrawal from the territory (15 May 1948), though the UK refused to implement the plan, arguing it was unacceptable to both sides. Drafting the text The declaration was first drafted by Zvi Berenson, the Histadrut trade union's legal advisor and later a justice of the Supreme Court, at the request of Pinchas Rosen. A revised second draft was made by three lawyers, A. Beham, A. Hintzheimer and Z.E. Baker, and was framed by a committee including David Remez, Pinchas Rosen, Haim-Moshe Shapira, Moshe Sharett and Aharon Zisling. A second committee meeting which included Ben-Gurion, Yehuda Leib Maimon, Sharett and Zisling produced the final text, Harris, J. (1998) The Israeli Declaration of Independence The Journal of the Society for Textual Reasoning, Vol. 7 which was approved in a meeting of Moetzet HaAm at the JNF building in Tel Aviv on 14 May, starting at 1:50. It ended at 15:00, an hour before the declaration was due to be made, and despite ongoing disagreements, with a unanimous vote in favour of the final text. During the process, there were two major debates, centering around the issues of borders and religion. On the border issue, the original draft had declared that the borders would be that decided by the UN partition plan. While this was supported by Rosen and Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit, it was opposed by Ben-Gurion and Zisling, with Ben-Gurion stating, "We accepted the UN Resolution, but the Arabs did not. They are preparing to make war on us. If we defeat them and capture western Galilee or territory on both sides of the road to Jerusalem, these areas will become part of the state. Why should we obligate ourselves to accept boundaries that in any case the Arabs don't accept?" The State of Israel Declares Independence Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs Its inclusion in the text was dropped after the provisional government of Israel, the Minhelet HaAm, voted 5-4 against it. The Revisionists, committed to a Jewish state on both sides of the Jordan River (that is, including Transjordan), wanted the phrase "within its historic borders" included but were unsuccessful. The second major issue was over the inclusion of God in the last section of the document, with the draft using the phrase "and placing our trust in the Almighty". The two rabbis, Shapira and Yehuda Leib Maimon, argued for its inclusion, saying that it could not be omitted, with Shapira supporting the wording "God of Israel" or "the Almighty and Redeemer of Israel." It was strongly opposed by Zisling, a member of the secularist Mapam. In the end the phrase "Rock of Israel" was used, which could be interpreted as either referring to God, or the land of Eretz Israel, Ben-Gurion saying "Each of us, in his own way, believes in the 'Rock of Israel' as he conceives it. I should like to make one request: Don't let me put this phrase to a vote." Although its use was still opposed by Zisling, the phrase was accepted without a vote. At the meeting on 14 May, several other members of Moetzet HaAm suggested additions to the document. Meir Vilner wanted it to denounce the British Mandate and military but Sharett said it was out of place. Meir Argov pushed to mention the Displaced Persons camps in Europe and to guarantee freedom of language. Ben-Gurion agreed with the latter but noted that Hebrew should be the main language of the state. The writers also had to decide on the name for the new state. Eretz Israel, Ever (from the name Eber), Judea, and Zion were all suggested, as were Ziona, Ivriya and Herzliya. Gilbert, M. (1998) Israel: A History, London: Doubleday. p. 187. ISBN 0385404018 Judea and Zion were rejected because, according to the partition plan, Jerusalem (Zion) and most of Judean mountains would be outside the new state. Why not Judea? Zion? State of the Hebrews? Haaretz, 7 May 2008 Ben-Gurion put forward "Israel" and it passed by a vote of 6-3. The debate over wording did not end completely even after the Declaration had been made. Declaration signer Meir David Loewenstein later claimed that "It ignored our sole right to Eretz Israel, which is based on the covenant of the Lord with Abraham, our father, and repeated promises in the Tanach. It ignored the aliya of the Ramban and the students of the Vilna Gaon and the Ba'al Shem Tov, and the [rights of] Jews who lived in the 'Old Yishuv'." Wallish and the Declaration of Independence Jerusalem Post, 1998 (republished on Eretz Israel Forever) Vote On 12 May the Minhelet HaAm was convened to vote on declaring independence. Three of the members were missing; Yehuda Leib Maimon and Yitzhak Gruenbaum were stuck in besieged Jerusalem, whilst Yitzhak-Meir Levin was in the United States. The meeting started at 1:45 and ended after midnight. The decision was between accepting the American proposal for a truce, or declaring independence. The latter option was put to a vote, with six of the ten members present supporting it: For: David Ben-Gurion, Moshe Sharett (Mapai), Peretz Bernstein (General Zionists), Haim-Moshe Shapira (Hapoel HaMizrachi), Mordechai Bentov, Aharon Zisling (Mapam). Against: Eliezer Kaplan, David Remez (Mapai), Pinchas Rosen (New Aliyah), Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit (Sephardim and Oriental Communities). Chaim Weizmann, chairman of the World Zionist Organization and soon to be the first President of Israel, endorsed the decision, after reportedly asking "What are they waiting for, the idiots?" Proclamation ceremony The invitation to the ceremony, dated 13 May 1948. The ceremony to proclaim independence was to be held in the Tel Aviv Museum (today known as Independence Hall) but was not widely publicised as it was feared that the British Authorities might attempt to prevent it or that the Arab armies might invade earlier than expected. An invitation was sent out by messenger on the morning of 14 May telling recipients to arrive at 15:30 and to keep the event a secret. The event was to start at 16:00 (a time chosen so as not to breach the sabbath), and was to be broadcast live as the first transmission of the new radio station Kol Yisrael. The final draft of the declaration was typed at the JNF building following its approval earlier in the day. Ze'ev Sharef, who had remained at the building in order to deliver the text, had forgotten to arrange transport for himself. Ultimately, he had to flag down a passing car and ask the driver (who was driving a borrowed car without a license) to take him to the ceremony. Sharef's request was initially refused but he managed to persuade the driver to take him. The car was stopped by a policemen for speeding while driving across the city though a ticket was not issued after it was explained that he was delaying the declaration of independence. Sharef arrived at the museum at 15:59. At 16:00, Ben-Gurion opened the ceremony by banging his gavel on the table, prompting a spontaneous rendition of Hatikvah, soon to be Israel's national anthem, from the 250 guests. One Day that Shook the world The Jerusalem Post, 30 April 1998 On the wall behind the podium hung a picture of Theodor Herzl, the founder of modern Zionism, and two flags, later to become the official flag of Israel. After telling the audience "I shall now read to you the scroll of the Establishment of the State, which has passed its first reading by the National Council", Ben-Gurion proceeded to read out the declaration, taking 16 minutes, ending with the words "Let us accept the Foundation Scroll of the Jewish State by rising" and calling on Rabbi Fishman to recite the Shehecheyanu blessing. Signatories A celebratory crowd outside the Tel Aviv Museum to hear the Declaration As leader of the Yishuv, David Ben-Gurion was the first person to sign. The declaration was due to be signed by all 37 members of Moetzet HaAm. However, twelve members could not attend, eleven of them trapped in besieged Jerusalem and one abroad. The remaining 24 signatories present were called up in alphabetical order to sign, leaving spaces for those absent. Although a space was left for him between the signatures of Eliyahu Dobkin and Meir Vilner, Zerach Warhaftig signed at the top of the next column, leading to speculation that Vilner's name had been left alone to isolate him, or to stress that even a communist agreed with the declaration. When Herzl Rosenblum, a journalist, was called up to sign, Ben-Gurion instructed him to sign under the name Herzl Vardi, his pen name, as he wanted more Hebrew names on the document. Although Rosenblum acquiesced to Ben-Gurion's request and legally changed his name to Vardi, he later admitted to regretting not signing as Rosenblum. Several other signatories later Hebraised their names, including Meir Argov (Grabovsky), Peretz Bernstein (then Fritz Bernstein), Avraham Granot (Granovsky), Avraham Nissan (Katznelson), Moshe Kol (Kolodny), Yehuda Leib Maimon (Fishman), Golda Meir (Myerson), Pinchas Rosen (Felix Rosenblueth) and Moshe Sharett (Shertok). Other signatories added their own touches, including Saadia Kobashi who added the phrase "HaLevy", referring to the tribe of Levi. For this reason we congregated Iton Tel Aviv, 23 April 2004 After Moshe Shertok, the last of the signatories, had put his name to paper, the audience again stood and sung Hatikvah, accompanied by the Palestine Philharmonic Orchestra. Ben-Gurion concluded the event with the words "The State of Israel is established. This meeting is adjourned." Aftermath Eleven minutes after the Declaration of Independence was signed, President Truman de facto recognized the State of Israel, End of Palestine mandate, The Times, May 15, 1948. Retrieved March 19, 2009. followed by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's Iran (which had voted against the UN partition plan), Guatemala, Iceland, Nicaragua, Romania and Uruguay. The Soviet Union was the first nation to fully recognize Israel de jure on 17 May 1948, followed by communist Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Ireland and South Africa. What countries recognized the State of Israel? Palestine Facts The United States extended official recognition only several months later, on 31 January 1949. The Recognition of the State of Israel: Introduction Truman Library The declaration was followed by an invasion of the new state by troops from Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon and Syria, starting the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, known in Israel as the War of Independence (, Milhamat HaAtzma'ut). Although a truce began on 11 June, fighting resumed on 8 July and stopped again on 18 July, before restarting in mid-October and finally ending on 24 July 1949 with the signing of the armistice agreement with Syria. By then Israel had retained its independence and increased its land area by almost 50% compared to the UN partition plan of 1947. Following independence, Moetzet HaAm was transformed into the Provisional State Council, which acted as the legislative body for the new state until the first elections in January 1949. Many of the signatories would play a prominent role in Israeli politics following independence; Moshe Sharett and Golda Meir both served as Prime Minister, Yitzhak Ben-Zvi became the country's second president in 1952, and several others served as ministers. David Remez was the first signatory to pass away, dying in May 1951, whilst Meir Vilner, the youngest signatory at just 29, was the longest living, serving in the Knesset until 1990 and dying in June 2003. Eliyahu Berligne, the oldest signatory at 82, died in 1959. Status in Israeli law The declaration stated that the State of Israel would ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex, and guaranteed freedom of religion, conscience, language, education and culture. However, the Knesset maintains that the declaration is neither a law nor an ordinary legal document. The Proclamation of Independence Knesset website The Supreme Court has ruled that the guarantees were merely guiding principles, and that the declaration is not a constitutional law making a practical ruling on the upholding or nullification of various ordinances and statutes. Whenever an explicit statutory measure of the Knesset leaves no room for doubt, it is honored even if inconsistent with the principles in the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs In 1994 the Knesset amended two basic laws, Human Dignity and Liberty and Freedom of Occupation, introducing (among other changes) a statement saying that "the fundamental human rights in Israel will be honored (...) in the spirit of the principles included in the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel". The scroll Although Ben-Gurion had told the audience that he was reading from the scroll of independence, he was actually reading from handwritten notes because only the bottom part of the scroll had been finished by artist and calligrapher Otte Wallish by the time of the declaration (he did not complete the entire document until June). The scroll, which is bound together in three parts, is generally kept in the country's National Archives, though it is currently on display at the Israel Museum. Context and content The document commences by drawing a direct line from Biblical times to the present: It acknowledges the Jewish exile over the millennia, mentioning both ancient "faith" and new "politics": It speaks of the urge of Jews to return to their ancient homeland: It describes Jewish immigrants to Israel in the following terms: The European Holocaust of 1939–45 is part of the imperative for the re-settlement of the homeland: On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution outlining the 'Future Constitution and Government of Palestine'. It called for the establishment of a provisional government for the Jewish State, which would be subject to certain constitutional requirements and guarantees. It required the inhabitants of Israel to take such steps as were necessary on their part for the implementation of that constitutional form of government. On the issues of sovereignty and self-determination: The new state pledged that it will take steps to bring about the economic union of the whole of Eretz Israel and appealed: A final appeal is made to the Jewish people throughout the Diaspora to rally round the "Free Hebrew people in its land" in the tasks of immigration and upbuilding and to stand by them in the struggle for the realization of their age-old dream, the redemption of Israel. The Declaration is making a distinction between the "Hebrew" people in "the Land of Israel", and "the Jewish people" in the rest of the world. It concludes with the phrase "MiToh Bitahon BeTzur Yisrael", roughly translated as "With faith in the God of Israel," or alternatively "From the strength of Israel." This double meaning ended the document in a manner satisfactory to both the religious and secular factions of the Yishuv. References External links Official text Original Recording Original Document: Press Release Announcing US Recognition of Israel "Signatorius", exhibition held at the Engel Gallery dealing with the independence declaration in Israeli art. | Israeli_Declaration_of_Independence |@lemmatized david:7 ben:16 gurion:15 proclaim:2 independence:22 beneath:1 large:1 portrait:1 theodor:2 herzl:4 founder:2 modern:2 zionism:2 hall:2 appear:1 today:2 israeli:8 declaration:30 hakhrazat:1 haatzma:3 ut:3 megilat:1 make:11 may:13 iyar:2 day:6 british:7 mandate:7 expire:1 official:7 announcement:1 new:9 jewish:14 state:32 name:10 israel:38 formally:1 establish:2 part:7 know:3 palestine:11 land:6 antiquity:1 kingdom:1 judah:1 event:5 celebrate:1 annually:1 national:5 holiday:1 yom:1 ha:1 atzmaut:1 lit:2 timing:1 base:2 hebrew:6 calendar:1 date:3 palestinian:2 commemorate:1 nakba:2 yawm:1 al:3 catastrophe:2 every:1 year:1 anniversary:1 bawaba:1 background:1 general:7 assembly:6 united:8 nation:7 resolve:1 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5,037 | Mercator_projection | Mercator world map Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigatium Emendate (1569) The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by the Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator, in 1569. It became the standard map projection for nautical purposes because of its ability to represent lines of constant course, known as rhumb lines or loxodromes, as straight segments. While the linear scale is constant in all directions around any point, thus preserving the angles and the shapes of small objects (which makes the projection conformal), the Mercator projection distorts the size and shape of large objects, as the scale increases from the Equator to the poles, where it becomes infinite. Properties and historical details Mercator's 1569 edition was a large planisphere measuring 202 by 124 cm, printed in eighteen separate sheets. As in all cylindrical projections, parallels and meridians are straight and perpendicular to each other. In accomplishing this, the unavoidable east-west stretching of the map, which increases as distance away from the equator increases, is accompanied by a corresponding north-south stretching, so that at every point location, the east-west scale is the same as the north-south scale, making the projection conformal. A Mercator map can never fully show the polar areas, since linear scale becomes infinitely high at the poles. Being a conformal projection, angles are preserved around all locations, however scale varies from place to place, distorting the size of geographical objects. In particular, areas closer to the poles are more affected, transmitting an image of the geometry of the planet which is more distorted the closer to the poles. At latitudes higher than 70° north or south, the Mercator projection is practically unusable. All lines of constant bearing (rhumb lines or loxodromes — those making constant angles with the meridians), are represented by straight segments on a Mercator map. This is precisely the type of route usually employed by ships at sea, where compasses are used to indicate geographical directions and to steer the ships. The two properties, conformality and straight rhumb lines, make this projection uniquely suited to marine navigation: courses and bearings are measured using wind-roses or protractors, and the corresponding directions are easily transferred from point to point, on the map, with the help of a parallel ruler or a pair of navigational squares. The name and explanations given by Mercator to his world map (Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigatium Emendate: "new and augmented description of Earth corrected for the use of navigation") show that it was expressly conceived for the use of marine navigation. Although the method of construction is not explained by the author, Mercator probably used a graphical method, transferring some rhumb lines previously plotted on a globe to a square graticule, and then adjusting the spacing between parallels so that those lines became straight, making the same angle with the meridians as in the globe. The development of the Mercator projection represented a major breakthrough in the nautical cartography of the 16th century. However, it was much ahead of its time, since the old navigational and surveying techniques were not compatible with its use in navigation. Two main problems prevented its immediate application: the impossibility of determining the longitude at sea with adequate accuracy and the fact that magnetic directions, instead of geographical directions, were used in navigation. Only in the middle of the 18th century, after the marine chronometer was invented and the spatial distribution of magnetic declination was known, could the Mercator projection be fully adopted by navigators. Several authors are associated with the development of Mercator projection: German Erhard Etzlaub (c. 1460–1532), who had engraved miniature "compass maps" (about 10×8 cm) of Europe and parts of Africa, latitudes 67°–0°, to allow adjustment of his portable pocket-size sundials, was for decades declared to have designed "a projection identical to Mercator’s". Portuguese mathematician and cosmographer Pedro Nunes (1502–1578), who first described the loxodrome and its use in marine navigation, and suggested the construction of several large-scale nautical charts in the cylindrical equidistant projection to represent the world with minimum angle distortion (1537). English mathematician Edward Wright (c. 1558–1615), who formalized the mathematics of Mercator projection (1599), and published accurate tables for its construction (1599, 1610). English mathematicians Thomas Harriot (1560–1621) and Henry Bond (c.1600–1678) who, independently (c. 1600 and 1645), associated the Mercator projection with its modern logarithmic formula, later deduced by calculus. Mathematics of the projection Relation between vertical position on the map (horizontal in the graph) and latitude (vertical in the graph). The following equations determine the x and y coordinates of a point on a Mercator map from its latitude φ and longitude λ (with λ0 being the longitude in the center of map): This is the inverse of the Gudermannian function: The scale is proportional to the secant of the latitude φ, getting arbitrarily large near the poles, where φ = ±90°. Moreover, as seen from the formulas, the pole's y is plus or minus infinity. Derivation of the projection The Mercator projection is a cylindrical projection. Assume a spherical Earth. (It is actually slightly flattened, but for small-scale maps the difference is immaterial. For more precision, interpose conformal latitude.) We seek a transform of longitude-latitude (λ, φ) to Cartesian (x, y) that is "a cylinder tangent to the equator" (i.e. x = λ) and conformal, so that: From x = λ we get giving Thus y is a function only of φ with from which a table of integrals gives It is convenient to map φ = 0 to y = 0, so take C = 0. Uses Tissot's Indicatrix The above reprojected as sinusoidal Like all map projections that attempt to fit a curved surface onto a flat sheet, the shape of the map is a distortion of the true layout of the Earth's surface. The Mercator projection exaggerates the size of areas far from the equator. For example: Greenland is presented as having roughly as much land area as Africa, when in fact Africa's area is approximately 14 times greater than Greenland. Alaska is presented as having similar or even slightly more land area than Brazil, when Brazil's area is actually more than 5 times that of Alaska. Finland appears with a greater north-south extent than India, although India's is the greater. Although the Mercator projection is still in common use for navigation, due to its unique properties, cartographers agree that it is not suited to large area maps due to its distortion of land area. Mercator himself used the equal-area sinusoidal projection to show relative areas. As a result of these criticisms, modern atlases no longer use the Mercator projection for world maps or for areas distant from the equator, preferring other cylindrical projections, or forms of equal-area projection. The Mercator projection is still commonly used for areas near the equator, however, where distortion is minimal. Arno Peters stirred controversy when he proposed what is known as the Gall-Peters projection, a slight modification of the Lambert Cylindrical Equal-Area projection, as the alternative to the Mercator. A 1989 resolution by seven North American geographical groups decried the use of all rectangular-coordinate world maps, including the Mercator and Gall-Peters. American Cartographer. 1989. 16(3): 222-223. Google Maps currently uses a Mercator projection for its map images. Despite its obvious scale distortions at small scales, the projection is well-suited as an interactive world map that can be zoomed seamlessly to large-scale (local) maps, where there is relatively little distortion due to the projection's conformal nature. (Google Satellite Maps, on the other hand, used a plate carrée projection until 2005-07-22.) The Google Maps tiling system displays most of the world at zoom level 0 as a single 256 pixel-square image, excluding the polar regions. Since the Mercator coordinate x varies over 2π, the other coordinate is limited to -π ≤ y ≤ π. Because the corresponding latitude extrema are φ = ±85.05113°. Latitude values outside this range are mapped using a different relationship that doesn't diverge at φ = ±90°. See also Cartography Cassini projection Dymaxion map Equirectangular projection Gall-Peters projection with resolution regarding the use of rectangular world maps Gnomonic projection Lambert conformal conic projection (used extensively in aviation) Map projection Mollweide projection Nautical chart Robinson projection Reversed map Transverse Mercator projection Winkel Tripel projection Notes References This paper can be downloaded from USGS pages. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3; Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Google Maps Coordinates External links Ad maiorem Gerardi Mercatoris gloriam - contains high resolution images of the 1569 world map by Mercator. Table of examples and properties of all common projections, from radicalcartography.net. An interactive Java Applet to study the metric deformations of the Mercator Projection. Mathematics and Derivation of the Mercator projection. | Mercator_projection |@lemmatized mercator:31 world:9 map:32 nova:2 et:2 aucta:2 orbis:2 terrae:2 descriptio:2 ad:3 usum:2 navigatium:2 emendate:2 projection:48 cylindrical:6 present:3 flemish:1 geographer:1 cartographer:3 gerardus:1 become:4 standard:1 nautical:4 purpose:1 ability:1 represent:4 line:7 constant:4 course:2 know:3 rhumb:4 loxodrome:3 straight:5 segment:2 linear:2 scale:12 direction:5 around:2 point:5 thus:2 preserve:2 angle:5 shape:3 small:3 object:3 make:5 conformal:7 distort:2 size:4 large:6 increase:3 equator:6 pole:6 infinite:1 property:4 historical:1 detail:1 edition:1 planisphere:1 measure:2 cm:2 print:1 eighteen:1 separate:1 sheet:2 parallel:3 meridian:3 perpendicular:1 accomplish:1 unavoidable:1 east:2 west:2 stretching:2 distance:1 away:1 accompany:1 corresponding:3 north:5 south:4 every:1 location:2 never:1 fully:2 show:3 polar:2 area:15 since:3 infinitely:1 high:3 however:3 varies:2 place:2 geographical:4 particular:1 closer:2 affected:1 transmit:1 image:4 geometry:1 planet:1 distorted:1 latitudes:2 practically:1 unusable:1 bearing:2 precisely:1 type:1 route:1 usually:1 employ:1 ship:2 sea:2 compass:2 use:18 indicate:1 steer:1 two:2 conformality:1 uniquely:1 suit:3 marine:4 navigation:7 wind:1 rose:1 protractor:1 easily:1 transfer:2 help:1 ruler:1 pair:1 navigational:2 square:3 name:1 explanation:1 give:3 new:1 augmented:1 description:1 earth:4 correct:1 expressly:1 conceive:1 although:3 method:2 construction:3 explain:1 author:2 probably:1 graphical:1 previously:1 plot:1 globe:2 graticule:1 adjust:1 spacing:1 development:2 major:1 breakthrough:1 cartography:2 century:2 much:2 ahead:1 time:3 old:1 survey:1 technique:1 compatible:1 main:1 problem:1 prevent:1 immediate:1 application:1 impossibility:1 determine:2 longitude:4 adequate:1 accuracy:1 fact:2 magnetic:2 instead:1 middle:1 chronometer:1 invent:1 spatial:1 distribution:1 declination:1 could:1 adopt:1 navigator:1 several:2 associate:2 german:1 erhard:1 etzlaub:1 c:5 engrave:1 miniature:1 europe:1 part:2 africa:3 allow:1 adjustment:1 portable:1 pocket:1 sundial:1 decade:1 declare:1 design:1 identical:1 portuguese:1 mathematician:3 cosmographer:1 pedro:1 nunes:1 first:1 describe:1 suggest:1 chart:2 equidistant:1 minimum:1 distortion:6 english:2 edward:1 wright:1 formalize:1 mathematics:4 publish:1 accurate:1 table:3 thomas:1 harriot:1 henry:1 bond:1 independently:1 modern:2 logarithmic:1 formula:2 later:1 deduce:1 calculus:1 relation:1 vertical:2 position:1 horizontal:1 graph:2 latitude:7 following:1 equation:1 x:5 coordinate:5 φ:8 λ:4 center:1 inverse:1 gudermannian:1 function:2 proportional:1 secant:1 get:2 arbitrarily:1 near:2 moreover:1 see:2 plus:1 minus:1 infinity:1 derivation:2 assume:1 spherical:1 actually:2 slightly:2 flatten:1 difference:1 immaterial:1 precision:1 interpose:1 seek:1 transform:1 cartesian:1 cylinder:1 tangent:1 e:1 integral:1 convenient:1 take:1 us:1 tissot:1 indicatrix:1 reprojected:1 sinusoidal:2 like:1 attempt:1 fit:1 curved:1 surface:2 onto:1 flat:1 true:1 layout:1 exaggerate:1 far:1 example:2 greenland:2 roughly:1 land:3 approximately:1 great:3 alaska:2 similar:1 even:1 brazil:2 finland:1 appear:1 extent:1 india:2 still:2 common:2 due:3 unique:1 agree:1 equal:3 relative:1 result:1 criticism:1 atlases:1 longer:1 distant:1 prefer:1 form:1 commonly:1 minimal:1 arno:1 peter:4 stir:1 controversy:1 propose:1 gall:3 slight:1 modification:1 lambert:2 alternative:1 resolution:3 seven:1 american:2 group:1 decry:1 rectangular:2 include:1 google:4 currently:1 despite:1 obvious:1 well:1 interactive:2 zoom:2 seamlessly:1 local:1 relatively:1 little:1 nature:1 satellite:1 hand:1 plate:1 carrée:1 tile:1 system:1 display:1 level:1 single:1 pixel:1 exclude:1 region:1 limit:1 π:2 extremum:1 value:1 outside:1 range:1 different:1 relationship:1 diverge:1 also:1 cassini:1 dymaxion:1 equirectangular:1 regard:1 gnomonic:1 conic:1 extensively:1 aviation:1 mollweide:1 robinson:1 reverse:1 transverse:1 winkel:1 tripel:1 note:1 reference:1 paper:1 download:1 usgs:1 page:1 needham:2 joseph:2 science:3 civilization:2 china:2 volume:2 heaven:1 taipei:2 cave:2 book:2 ltd:2 physic:1 physical:1 technology:1 civil:1 engineering:1 nautics:1 external:1 link:1 maiorem:1 gerardi:1 mercatoris:1 gloriam:1 contains:1 radicalcartography:1 net:1 java:1 applet:1 study:1 metric:1 deformation:1 |@bigram ad_usum:2 mercator_projection:17 rhumb_line:4 cylindrical_projection:3 marine_chronometer:1 nautical_chart:2 plus_minus:1 longitude_latitude:1 stir_controversy:1 gall_peter:3 π_π:1 dymaxion_map:1 needham_joseph:2 taipei_cave:2 external_link:1 java_applet:1 |
5,038 | Information_explosion | Information explosion is a term that describes the rapidly increasing amount of published information and the effects of this abundance of data. As the amount of available data grows, the problem of managing the information becomes more difficult, which can lead to information overload. The Online Oxford English Dictionary (“Information.” http://dictionary.oed.com. accessed January 4, 2008) indicates use of the phrase in a March 1964 New Statesman article. The New York Times first used the phrase in its editorial content in an article by Walter Sullivan in June 7, 1964 in which he described the phrase as “much discussed.” (pE11.) The earliest use of the phrase seems to have been in an IBM advertising supplement to the New York Times published on April 30, 1961 and by Frank Fremont-Smith, Director of the American Institute of Biological Sciences Interdisciplinary Conference Program, in an April 1961 article in the AIBS Bulletin (p.18.) Fortunately, techniques to gather knowledge from an overabundance of electronic information (e.g., data fusion may help in data mining) have existed since the 1970s. Web Servers As of August 2005, there were over 70 million web servers. As of September 2007, there were over 135 million web servers. Blogs According to Technorati, the number of blogs doubles about every 6 months with a total of 35.3 million blogs as of April 2006. . This is an example of the early stages of logistic growth, where growth is approximately exponential, since blogs are a recent innovation. As the number of blogs approaches the number of possible producers (humans), saturation occurs, growth declines, and the number of blogs eventually stabilizes. See also Metcalfe's law External links Information Explosion The Information Overload Conceptualizing Information Systems and Cognitive Sustainability in 21st Century 'Attention' Economies (Includes Syllabus) How Much Information? 2003 Surviving the Information Explosion: How People Find Their Electronic Information Why the Information Explosion Can Be Bad for Data Mining, and How Data Fusion Provides a Way Out | Information_explosion |@lemmatized information:13 explosion:4 term:1 describe:2 rapidly:1 increase:1 amount:2 publish:2 effect:1 abundance:1 data:6 available:1 grows:1 problem:1 manage:1 become:1 difficult:1 lead:1 overload:2 online:1 oxford:1 english:1 dictionary:2 http:1 oed:1 com:1 access:1 january:1 indicate:1 use:3 phrase:4 march:1 new:3 statesman:1 article:3 york:2 time:2 first:1 editorial:1 content:1 walter:1 sullivan:1 june:1 much:2 discuss:1 early:2 seem:1 ibm:1 advertising:1 supplement:1 april:3 frank:1 fremont:1 smith:1 director:1 american:1 institute:1 biological:1 science:1 interdisciplinary:1 conference:1 program:1 aibs:1 bulletin:1 p:1 fortunately:1 technique:1 gather:1 knowledge:1 overabundance:1 electronic:2 e:1 g:1 fusion:2 may:1 help:1 mining:2 exist:1 since:2 web:3 server:3 august:1 million:3 september:1 blog:6 accord:1 technorati:1 number:4 double:1 every:1 month:1 total:1 example:1 stage:1 logistic:1 growth:3 approximately:1 exponential:1 recent:1 innovation:1 approach:1 possible:1 producer:1 human:1 saturation:1 occurs:1 decline:1 eventually:1 stabilize:1 see:1 also:1 metcalfe:1 law:1 external:1 link:1 conceptualize:1 system:1 cognitive:1 sustainability:1 century:1 attention:1 economy:1 include:1 syllabus:1 survive:1 people:1 find:1 bad:1 provide:1 way:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
5,039 | Double_jeopardy | Double jeopardy is a procedural defense (and, in many countries such as the United States, Canada, Mexico and India, a constitutional right) that forbids a defendant from being tried twice for the same crime on the same set of facts. At common law a defendant may plead autrefois acquit or autrefois convict (a peremptory plea), meaning the defendant has been acquitted or convicted of the same offense. If this issue is raised, evidence will be placed before the court, which will normally rule as a preliminary matter whether the plea is substantiated, and if it so finds, the projected trial will be prevented from proceeding. Australia In contrast to other common law nations, Australian double jeopardy law has been held to extend to the prevention of prosecution for perjury following a previous acquittal where a finding of perjury would controvert the previous acquittal. This was confirmed in the case of The Queen v Carroll, where the police found new evidence convincingly disproving Caroll's sworn alibi two decades after he had been acquitted of murder charges in the death of Ipswich child Deidre Kennedy, and successfully prosecuted him for perjury. Public outcry following the overturning of his conviction (for perjury) by the High Court has led to widespread calls for reform of the law along the lines of the UK legislation. In December 2006, New South Wales Premier Morris Iemma scrapped substantial parts of the double jeopardy law in that state. Retrials of serious cases with a minimum sentence of twenty years or more are now possible, even when the original trial preceded the 2006 reform. NSW seeks to scrap double jeopardy principle, The World Today. South Australia currently is also in the process of reforming its laws which will see the principle of double jeopardy abolished for serious indictable offences. On 18 October, 2007, Queensland modified its double jeopardy laws to allow a retrial where fresh and compelling evidence becomes available after an acquittal for murder or a 'tainted acquittal' for a crime carrying a 25-year or more sentence. A 'tainted acquittal' requires a conviction for an administration of justice offence, such as perjury, that led to the original acquittal. Unlike reforms in the United Kingdom and New South Wales, this law does not have a retrospective effect, making its introduction less than fully appreciated by those who, over the years, have been advocating reform. Canada The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms includes provisions such as section 11(h) prohibiting double jeopardy. But often this prohibition applies only after the trial is finally concluded. In contrast to the laws of the United States, Canadian law allows the prosecution to appeal from an acquittal. If the acquittal is thrown out, the new trial is not considered to be double jeopardy because the first trial and its judgment would have been annulled. In rare circumstances, a court of appeal might also substitute a conviction for an acquittal. This is not considered to be double jeopardy either - in this case the appeal and subsequent conviction are deemed to be a continuation of the original trial. For an appeal from an acquittal to be successful, the Supreme Court of Canada requires that the Crown show an error in law was made during the trial and that the error contributed to the verdict. It has been suggested that this test is unfairly beneficial to the prosecution. For instance, Martin L Friedland, in his book My Life in Crime and Other Academic Adventures, contends that the rule should be changed so that a retrial is granted only when the error is shown to be responsible for the verdict, not just one of many factors. A notable example of this is the case of David Ahenakew, who was tried a second time after being acquitted. Europe Article 50 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union protects against double jeopardy. All members of the Council of Europe (which includes nearly all European countries, and every member of the European Union) have signed the European Convention of Human Rights, which protects against double jeopardy. The Seventh Protocol, Article Four, says: No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again in criminal proceedings under the jurisdiction of the same State for an offence for which he has already been finally acquitted or convicted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of that State. This specific optional protocol has been ratified by all EU states except five (namely Belgium, Germany, The Netherlands, Spain and the United Kingdom). Protocol No. 7 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Council of Europe. Those members states may still have the provision in their respective constitutions providing a prohibition against double jeopardy. In many European countries the prosecution may appeal an acquittal to a higher court (similar to the provisions of Canadian law) - this is not counted as double jeopardy but as a continuation of the same trial. This is allowed by the European Convention of Human Rights - note the word finally in the above quote. England and Wales The doctrines of autrefois acquit and autrefois convict persisted as part of the common law from the time of the Norman conquest; they were regarded as essential elements of protection of the liberty of the subject and respect for due process of law in that there should be finality of proceedings. There were only three exceptions, all relatively recent, to the rules- The prosecution has a right of appeal against acquittal in summary cases if the decision appears to be wrong in law or in excess of jurisdiction. Magistrates’ Courts Act 1980 ss.28, 111; Supreme Court Act 1981 s.28 A retrial is permissible if the interests of justice so require, following appeal against conviction by a defendant. Criminal Appeal Act 1968 s.7 A "tainted acquittal", where there has been an offence of interference with, or intimidation of, a juror or witness, can be challenged in the High Court. Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996 s.54 The rule in Connelly v DPP ([1964] AC 1254) also limits the operation of the autrefois doctrine; it was said there that where the facts relied upon in a prosecution are substantially the same as those in a previous trial, the defendant cannot be tried on a subsequent occasion for any offence arising out of those facts unless there are "special circumstances" proven by the prosecution (such as, for example, the "tainted trial" situation). There is little case law on the meaning of "special circumstances", but it has been suggested that the emergence of new evidence would suffice. Attorney-General for Gibraltar v Leoni, Court of Appeal, 1999 (unreported) see Law Com CP No 156, para 2.24 Additionally, a defendant who has been convicted of an offence can be tried for an aggravated form of that offence if the facts constituting the aggravation have arisen after the first conviction. R v Thomas [1950] 1 KB 26 By contrast, a person who has been acquitted of a lesser offence may not be tried for an aggravated form even if the new evidence becomes available. R v Beedie [1998] QB 356, Dingwall, 2000 The prohibition of a second trial after an acquittal was clarified by the Criminal Justice Act 2003. Following the murder of Stephen Lawrence, the MacPherson Report suggested that double jeopardy should be abrogated where "fresh and viable" new evidence came to light, and the Law Commission recommended in 2001 that it should be possible to subject an acquitted murder suspect to a second trial. The Parliament of the United Kingdom implemented these recommendations by passing the Criminal Justice Act 2003 Criminal Justice Act 2003 (c. 44). , introduced by then Home Secretary David Blunkett. Under the 2003 Act, retrials are now allowed if there is "new" and "compelling" evidence for crimes, including murder, but also manslaughter, kidnapping, rape, armed robbery, and serious drug crimes. All cases must be approved by the Director of Public Prosecutions, and the Court Of Appeal must agree to quash the original acquittal. The CPS : Retrial of Serious Offences The double jeopardy provisions of the 2003 Act came into force in April 2005. Double jeopardy law ushered out, BBC News. On 11 September 2006, William Dunlop became the first person to be convicted of murder after previously being acquitted. Twice he was tried for the murder of Julie Hogg in Billingham in 1989, but two juries failed to reach a verdict and he was formally acquitted in 1991. Some years later, he confessed to the crime, and was convicted of perjury. The case was re-investigated in early 2005, when the new law came into effect, and his case was referred to the Court of Appeal in November 2005 for permission for a new trial. Man faces double jeopardy retrial, BBC News. Murder conviction is legal first, BBC News. The law of 'double jeopardy', BBC News. William Dunlop was re-tried and lodged a guilty plea for the murder of Julie Hogg and sentenced to life imprisonment, with a recommendation he serve no less than 17 years. Double jeopardy man is given life, BBC News. The law change only applies to England and Wales. In Scotland the old double jeopardy rule still applies. On 21 May 2009, Mario Celaire, who had previously been found not guilty of murdering his ex-girlfriend, was found guilty under double jeopardy laws of her manslaughter. Cleared man admits killing woman BBC News retrieved 21-05-2009 France Once all appeals have been exhausted on a case, the judgment is final and the action of the prosecution is closed (code of penal procedure, art. 6), except if the final ruling was forged. Prosecution for an already judged crime is impossible even though new incriminating evidence has been found. However, a person who has been convicted may request another trial on grounds of new exculpating evidence. Germany In Germany, the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany provides protection against double jeopardy: Based on pre-constitutional case law, the clause is constructed to also protect against double jeopardy in the case of an acquittal. However, it is not considered double jeopardy if the prosecution appeals an acquittal. The rule applies to the whole "historical event, which is usually considered a single historical course of actions the separation of which would seem unnatural". This is true even if new facts occur that indicate other and/or much serious crimes. The Criminal Procedural Code (Strafprozessordnung - StPO) provides some exceptions to the double jeopardy rule: In the case of an order of summary punishment (Strafbefehl), which can be issued by the court without a trial for lesser misdemeanours (German: Vergehen), there is a further exception: A felony (German: Verbrechen) is defined as a crime which has a usual minimum sanction of one year of imprisonment. Netherlands In the Netherlands, the state prosecution can appeal against a not-guilty verdict at the bench. New evidence can be brought to bear during a retrial at a district court. Thus one can be tried twice for the same alleged crime. If one is convicted at the district court, the defence can make an appeal on procedural grounds to the supreme court. The supreme court might admit this complaint, and the case will be reopened yet again, at another district court. Again, new evidence might be introduced by the prosecution. According to Dutch legal experts Crombag, Wagenaar, van Koppen, the Dutch system contravenes the provisions of the European Human Rights convention, in the imbalance between the power of the prosecution service and the defence. India In India, protection against double jeopardy is a Fundamental Right guaranteed under Article 20 of the Constitution of India. Accordingly no person can be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once. Right to Freedom in the Constitution of India. The provision enshrines the principle that a person cannot be tried twice for the same offense by any equally competent court. Thus a person cannot be tried for an offense for which he has been tried and convicted. Double Jeopardy involves the concept of Autrefois Acquit or Autrefois Convict. Autrefois acquit means again acquit and autrefois convict means again convict. The Constitution of India under article 20(3) only provides for autrefois convict. Thus in India if a person is acquitted once he can be tried twice. But if a person is prosecuted and punished then he can't be prosecuted again. Japan The Japanese Constitution states that Article 39 No person shall be held criminally liable for an act which was lawful at the time it was committed, or of which he has been acquitted, nor shall he be placed in double jeopardy. However, in practice, if someone is acquitted in lower district court, then the prosecutor can appeal to High court then to Supreme court. Only the acquittal in the Supreme court is the final acquittal which prevent any further retrial. This process could take decades. United States The double jeopardy rule arises from the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the relevant clause of which reads: This clause is intended to limit abuse by the government in repeated prosecution for the same offense as a means of harassment or oppression. It is also in harmony with the common law concept of res judicata which prevents courts from relitigating issues which have already been the subject of a final judgment. More specifically, as stated in Ashe v. Swenson, 397 U.S. 436 (1970): "...when an issue of ultimate fact has once been determined by a valid and final judgment, that issue cannot again be litigated between the same parties in any future lawsuit." Res judicata is a term of general application. Underneath that conceptual umbrella is the concept of collateral estoppel. As applied to double jeopardy, the court will use collateral estoppel as its basis for forming an opinion. There are three essential protections included in the double jeopardy principle, which are: being retried for the same crime after an acquittal retrial after a conviction being punished multiple times for the same offense This rule is occasionally referred to as a legal technicality because it allows defendants a defense that does not address whether the crime was actually committed. For example, were police to uncover new evidence conclusively proving the guilt of someone previously acquitted, there is little they can do because the defendant may not be tried again—at least not on the same or a substantially similar charge. Fong Foo v. United States, 369 U.S. 141 (1962). Although the Fifth Amendment initially applied only to the federal government, the US Supreme Court has ruled that the double jeopardy clause applies to the states as well through incorporation by the Fourteenth Amendment (Benton v. Maryland). Jeopardy attaches in a jury trial once the jury and alternates are impaneled and sworn in. In a non-jury trial jeopardy attaches once the first evidence is put on which occurs when the first witness is sworn. Exceptions As double jeopardy applies only to charges that were the subject of an earlier final judgment, there are many situations in which it does not apply despite the appearance of a retrial. For example, a second trial held after a mistrial does not violate the double jeopardy clause because a mistrial ends a trial prematurely without a judgment of guilty or not guilty. Cases dismissed because of insufficient evidence may constitute a final judgment for these purposes though many state and federal laws allow for limited prosecutorial appeals from these orders. Also a retrial after a conviction has been reversed on appeal does not violate double jeopardy because the judgment in the first trial has been invalidated. In both of these cases, however, the previous trials do not entirely vanish. Testimony from them may be used in later retrials such as to impeach contradictory testimony given at any subsequent proceeding. There are two exceptions to the general rule that the prosecution cannot appeal from an acquittal. If the earlier trial is proven to be a fraud or scam, double jeopardy will not prohibit a new trial. In Harry Aleman v. Judges of the Criminal Division, Circuit Court of Cook County, Illinois, et al., 138 F.3d 302 (1998), an appeals court ruled that a man who bribed his trial judge and was acquitted of murder was allowed to be tried again because his bribe prevented his first trial from actually putting him in jeopardy. The other exception is that prosecutors may appeal when a trial judge sets aside a jury verdict for conviction with a judgment notwithstanding the verdict for the defendant. A successful appeal by the prosecution would simply reinstate the jury verdict and so would not place the defendant at risk of another trial. The Supreme Court has also upheld laws allowing the government to appeal criminal sentences in limited circumstances (such as ). The Court ruled that sentences were not accorded the same constitutional finality as jury verdicts under the double jeopardy clause, and giving this right of appeal also did not put the defendant at risk of a succession of prosecutions. Double jeopardy is also not implicated for separate offenses or in separate jurisdictions arising from the same act. For example, in United States v. Felix 503 U.S. 378 (1992), the Supreme Court ruled: 'a[n]...offense and a conspiracy to commit that offense are not the same offense for double jeopardy purposes.' As another example, a state might try a defendant for murder, after which the federal government might try the same defendant for a federal crime (perhaps a civil rights violation or kidnapping) related to the same act. For example, the Los Angeles Police Department officers charged with assaulting Rodney King in 1991 were acquitted by a county court, but some were later convicted and sentenced in federal court for violating his civil rights. Similar techniques were used for prosecuting racially-motivated crimes in the Southern United States in the 1960s during the time of the Civil Rights Movement, when those crimes had not been actively prosecuted, or had resulted in acquittals by juries thought to be racist or sympathetic to the accused in local courts. The 'separate sovereigns' exception to double jeopardy arises from the unique nature of the American federal system, in which states are sovereigns with plenary power that have relinquished a number of enumerated powers to the federal government. Double jeopardy attaches only to prosecutions for the same criminal act by the same sovereign, but as separate sovereigns, both the federal and state governments can bring separate prosecutions for the same act. For example, Timothy McVeigh was executed by the federal government for murdering eight federal employees with a bomb, but could also have been tried in state court for murdering numerous other persons in the same explosion. Furthermore, the 'separate sovereigns' rule allows two states to prosecute for the same criminal act. For example, if a man stood in New York and shot and killed a man standing over the border in Connecticut, both New York and Connecticut could charge the shooter with murder. (reference: United States v. Claiborne, 92 F.Supp.2d 503 (E.D.Va.); tandem state-federal prosecutions not prohibited under "sovereign rule") Double jeopardy also does not attach if the later charge is civil rather than criminal in nature, which involves a different legal standard. Acquittal in a criminal case does not prevent the defendant from being the defendant in a civil suit relating to the same incident (though res judicata operates within the civil court system). For example, O.J. Simpson was acquitted of a double homicide in a California criminal prosecution, but lost a civil wrongful death claim brought over the same victims. If the defendant happened to be on parole from an earlier offense at the time, the act for which he was acquitted may also be the subject of a parole violation hearing, which is not considered a criminal trial. Since parolees are usually subject to restrictions not imposed on other citizens, evidence of actions that were not deemed criminal by the court may be re-considered by the parole board, which could deem the same evidence as proof of a parole violation. In addition, like civil trials parole violation hearings are also subject to a lower standard of proof so it is possible for a parolee to be punished by the parole board for criminal actions that he was acquitted of in court. In the US military courts martial are subject to the same law of double jeopardy, as the US Constitution is the supreme law of the military, superseding the Uniform Code of Military Justice. Nonjudicial punishment is considered akin to a civil case and is subject to lower standards than a court martial, which is the same as a court of law. However if a non-judicial or NJP proceeding fails to produce conclusive evidence, the commanding officer (or ranking official presiding over the NJP) is not allowed to prepare the same charge against the military member in question. In a court martial, acquittal of the defendant means he is protected permanently from having those charges reinstated. The most famous US court case invoking the claim of double jeopardy is probably the second 1876 murder trial of Jack McCall, killer of Wild Bill Hickock. McCall was acquitted in his first trial, which federal authorities later ruled illegal because it took place in an illegal town, Deadwood, then located in South Dakota Indian Territory. At the time Federal law prohibited whites from settling in the Indian Territory, but this did not stop them from coming in droves after the discovery of gold in the area. McCall was retried in federal Indian Territorial court, convicted, and hanged in 1877. He was the first person ever executed by federal authorities in the Dakota Territory. Double jeopardy also does not apply if the defendant was never tried from the start. Charges that were dropped or put on hold for any reason can always be reinstated in the future if not barred by any statute of limitations. In 1989, Kenneth Curtis was found mentally incompetent to stand trial for a murder he had committed two years earlier, which was followed by an attempt to take his own life. He survived with severe physical and mental disability, and through a competency evaluation, it was found that he was not mentally competent to stand trial. As a result, he was not incarcerated, and was allowed to live free. Years later, following an investigation chartered by the victim's parents, it was learned that he enrolled in college, and earned high grades. This led to the case being reopened. Curtis's lawyers took the case to the Connecticut Supreme Court in an attempt to prevent him from being re-evaluated, but the court ruled in favor of the prosecution, and he later pleaded guilty. Footnotes See also Dutch and German law: Ne bis in idem U.S. law: Fifth Amendment External links United States FindLaw Annotation of the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution Double Jeopardy Game on uscourts.gov Australia In favor of current rule prohibiting retrial after acquittal NSW Public Defenders Office Opposing the rule that prohibits retrial after acquittal Questioning Double Jeopardy DoubleJeopardyReform.Org Other countries Law Reform Commission of Ireland Consultation Paper on Prosecution Appeals Brought on Indictment | Double_jeopardy |@lemmatized double:48 jeopardy:50 procedural:3 defense:2 many:5 country:4 united:12 state:25 canada:3 mexico:1 india:7 constitutional:3 right:14 forbid:1 defendant:18 try:18 twice:5 crime:15 set:2 fact:6 common:4 law:36 may:12 plead:2 autrefois:10 acquit:22 convict:16 peremptory:1 plea:3 mean:5 offense:10 issue:5 raise:1 evidence:17 place:4 court:45 normally:1 rule:20 preliminary:1 matter:1 whether:2 substantiate:1 find:7 project:1 trial:33 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5,040 | Pretty_Good_Privacy | Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) is a computer program that provides cryptographic privacy and authentication. PGP is often used for signing, encrypting and decrypting e-mails to increase the security of e-mail communications. It was originally created by Philip Zimmermann in 1991. PGP and other similar products follow the OpenPGP standard (RFC 4880) for encrypting and decrypting data. How PGP encryption works PGP encryption uses public-key cryptography and includes a system which binds the public keys to a user name and/or an e-mail address. The first version of this system was generally known as a web of trust to contrast with the X.509 system which uses a hierarchical approach based on certificate authority and which was added to PGP implementations later. Current versions of PGP encryption include both options through an automated key management server. Digital signatures PGP supports message authentication and integrity checking. The latter is used to detect whether a message has been altered since it was completed (the message integrity property), and the former to determine whether it was actually sent by the person/entity claimed to be the sender (a digital signature). In PGP, these are used by default in conjunction with encryption, but can be applied to plaintext as well. The sender uses PGP to create a digital signature for the message with either the RSA or DSA signature algorithms. To do so, PGP computes a hash (also called a message digest) from the plaintext, and then creates the digital signature from that hash using the sender's private keys. Web of trust Both when encrypting messages and when verifying signatures, it is critical that the public key one used to send messages to someone or some entity actually does 'belong' to the intended recipient. Simply downloading a public key from somewhere is not overwhelming assurance of that association; deliberate (or accidental) spoofing is possible. PGP has, from its first versions, always included provisions for distributing a user's public keys in an 'identity certificate' which is so constructed cryptographically that any tampering (or accidental garble) is readily detectable. But merely making a certificate which is impossible to modify without being detected effectively is also insufficient. It can prevent corruption only after the certificate has been created, not before. Users must also ensure by some means that the public key in a certificate actually does belong to the person/entity claiming it. From its first release, PGP products have included an internal certificate 'vetting scheme' to assist with this; a trust model which has been called a web of trust. A given public key (or more specifically, information binding a user name to a key) may be digitally signed by a third party user to attest to the association between someone (actually a user name) and the key. There are several levels of confidence which can be included in such signatures. Although many programs read and write this information, few (if any) include this level of certification when calculating whether to trust a key. The web of trust protocol was first described by Zimmermann in 1992 in the manual for PGP version 2.0: The web of trust mechanism has advantages over a centrally managed public key infrastructure scheme such as that used by S/MIME but has not been universally used. Users have been willing to accept certificates and check their validity manually or to simply accept them. The underlying problem has found no satisfactory solution. Certificates In the (more recent) OpenPGP specification, trust signatures can be used to support creation of certificate authorities. A trust signature indicates both that the key belongs to its claimed owner and that the owner of the key is trustworthy to sign other keys at one level below their own. A level 0 signature is comparable to a web of trust signature since only the validity of the key is certified. A level 1 signature is similar to the trust one has in a certificate authority because a key signed to level 1 is able to issue an unlimited number of level 0 signatures. A level 2 signature is highly analogous to the trust assumption users must rely on whenever they use the default certificate authority list (like those included in web browsers); it allows the owner of the key to make other keys certificate authorities. PGP versions have always included a way to cancel ('revoke') identity certificates. A lost or compromised private key will require this if communication security is to be retained by that user. This is, more or less, equivalent to the certificate revocation lists of centralized PKI schemes. Recent PGP versions have also supported certificate expiration dates. The problem of correctly identifying a public key as belonging to a particular user is not unique to PGP. All public key / private key cryptosystems have the same problem, if in slightly different guise, and no fully satisfactory solution is known. PGP's original scheme, at least, leaves the decision whether or not to use its endorsement/vetting system to the user, while most other PKI schemes do not, requiring instead that every certificate attested to by a central certificate authority be accepted as correct. Security quality To the best of publicly available information, there is no known method which will allow a person or group to break PGP encryption by cryptographic or computational means. Indeed, in 1996, cryptographer Bruce Schneier characterized an early version as being "the closest you're likely to get to military-grade encryption." Early versions of PGP have been found to have theoretical vulnerabilities and so current versions are recommended. In addition to protecting data in transit over a network, PGP encryption can also be used to protect data in long-term data storage such as disk files. The cryptographic security of PGP encryption depends on the assumption that the algorithms used are unbreakable by direct cryptanalysis with current equipment and techniques. For instance, in the original version, the RSA algorithm was used to encrypt session keys; RSA's security depends upon the one-way function nature of mathematical integer factoring . Likewise, the secret key algorithm used in PGP version 2 was IDEA, which might, at some future time, be found to have a previously unsuspected cryptanalytic flaw. Specific instances of current PGP, or IDEA, insecurities—if they exist—are not publicly known. As current versions of PGP have added additional encryption algorithms, the degree of their cryptographic vulnerability varies with the algorithm used. In practice, each of the algorithms in current use is not publicly known to have cryptanalytic weaknesses. New versions of PGP are released periodically and vulnerabilities that developers are aware of are progressively fixed. Any agency wanting to read PGP messages would probably use easier means than standard cryptanalysis, e.g. rubber-hose cryptanalysis or black-bag cryptanalysis i.e. installing some form of trojan horse or keystroke logging software/hardware on the target computer to capture encrypted keyrings and their passwords. The FBI has already used this attack against PGP United States v. Scarfo (Key-Logger Case) Feds use keylogger to thwart PGP, Hushmail | Tech news blog - CNET News.com in its investigations. However, any such vulnerabilities apply not just to PGP, but to all encryption software. In 2003, an incident involving seized Psion PDAs belonging to members of the Red Brigade indicated that neither the Italian police nor the FBI were able to decode PGP-encrypted files stored on them. http://www.pcworld.com/article/110841/pgp_encryption_proves_powerful.html A more recent incident in December 2006 (see United States v. Boucher) involving US customs agents and a seized laptop PC which allegedly contained child pornography indicates that US Government agencies find it "nearly impossible" to access PGP-encrypted files. Additionally, a judge ruling on the same case in November 2007 has stated that forcing the suspect to reveal his PGP passphrase would violate his Fifth Amendment rights i.e. a suspect's constitutional right not to incriminate himself. Judge: Man can't be forced to divulge encryption passphrase | The Iconoclast - politics, law, and technology - CNET News.com Feds appeal loss in PGP compelled-passphrase case | The Iconoclast - politics, law, and technology - CNET News.com The Fifth Amendment issue has been opened again as the case was appealed and the federal judge again ordered the defendant to provide the key. Evidence suggests that as of 2007, British police investigators are unable to break PGP http://www.theregister.co.uk/2007/11/14/ripa_encryption_key_notice , so instead have resorted to using RIPA legislation to demand the passwords/keys. History Early history Phil Zimmermann created the first version of PGP encryption in 1991. The name, "Pretty Good Privacy", is humorously ironic and was inspired by the name of a grocery store, "Ralph's Pretty Good Grocery," featured in radio host Garrison Keillor's fictional town, Lake Wobegon. This first version included a symmetric-key algorithm that Zimmermann had designed himself, named BassOmatic after a Saturday Night Live skit. Zimmermann had been a long-time anti-nuclear activist, and created PGP encryption so that similarly inclined people might securely use BBSs and securely store messages and files. No license was required for its non-commercial use. There was not even a nominal charge, and the complete source code was included with all copies. PGP found its way onto Usenet and from there onto the Internet, and it very rapidly acquired a considerable following around the world. Users and supporters included dissidents in totalitarian countries (some affecting letters to Zimmermann have been published, and some have been included in testimony before the US Congress), civil libertarians in other parts of the world (see Zimmermann's published testimony in various hearings), and the 'free communications' activists who call themselves cypherpunks (who provided both publicity and distribution). Criminal investigation Shortly after its release, PGP encryption found its way outside the United States, and in February 1993 Zimmermann became the formal target of a criminal investigation by the US Government for "munitions export without a license". Cryptosystems using keys larger than 40 bits were then considered munitions within the definition of the US export regulations; PGP has never used keys smaller than 128 bits so it qualified at that time. Penalties for violation, if found guilty, were substantial. After several years, the investigation of Zimmermann was closed without filing criminal charges against him or anyone else. Zimmermann challenged these regulations in a curious way. He published the entire source code of PGP in a hardback book , via MIT Press, which was distributed and sold widely. Anybody wishing to build their own copy of PGP could buy the $60 book, cut off the covers, separate the pages, and scan them using an OCR program, creating a set of source code text files. One could then build the application using the freely available GNU C Compiler. PGP would thus be available anywhere in the world. The claimed principle was simple: export of munitions—guns, bombs, planes, and software—was (and remains) restricted; but the export of books is protected by the First Amendment. The question was never tested in court in respect to PGP, but had been established by the Supreme Court in the Bernstein case. US export regulations regarding cryptography remain in force, but were liberalized substantially throughout the late 1990s. Since 2000, compliance with the regulations is also much easier. PGP encryption no longer meets the definition of a non-exportable weapon, and can be exported internationally except to 7 specific countries and a named list of groups and individuals. PGP 3 During this turmoil, Zimmermann's team worked on a new version of PGP encryption called PGP 3. This new version was to have considerable security improvements, including a new certificate structure which fixed small security flaws in the PGP 2.x certificates as well as permitting a certificate to include separate keys for signing and encryption. Furthermore, the experience with patent and export problems led them to eschew patents entirely. PGP 3 introduced use of the CAST-128 (a.k.a. CAST5) symmetric key algorithm, and the DSA and ElGamal asymmetric key algorithms, all of which were unencumbered by patents. After the Federal criminal investigation ended in 1996, Zimmermann and his team started a company to produce new versions of PGP encryption. They merged with Viacrypt (to whom Zimmermann had sold commercial rights and who had licensed RSA directly from RSADSI) which then changed its name to PGP Incorporated. The newly combined Viacrypt/PGP team started work on new versions of PGP encryption based on the PGP 3 system. Unlike PGP 2, which was an exclusively command line program, PGP 3 was designed from the start as a software library allowing users to work from a command line or inside a GUI environment. The original agreement between Viacrypt and the Zimmermann team had been that Viacrypt would have even-numbered versions and Zimmermann odd-numbered versions. Viacrypt, thus, created a new version (based on PGP 2) that they called PGP 4. To remove confusion about how it could be that PGP 3 was the successor to PGP 4, PGP 3 was renamed and released as PGP 5 in May 1997. OpenPGP Inside PGP Inc., there was still concern about patent issues. RSADSI was challenging the continuation of the Viacrypt RSA license to the newly merged firm. The company adopted an informal internal standard called "Unencumbered PGP": "use no algorithm with licensing difficulties". Because of PGP encryption's importance worldwide (it is thought to be the most widely chosen quality cryptographic system), many wanted to write their own software that would interoperate with PGP 5. Zimmermann became convinced that an open standard for PGP encryption was critical for them and for the cryptographic community as a whole. In July 1997, PGP Inc. proposed to the IETF that there be a standard called OpenPGP. They gave the IETF permission to use the name OpenPGP to describe this new standard as well as any program that supported the standard. The IETF accepted the proposal and started the OpenPGP Working Group. OpenPGP is on the Internet Standards Track and is under active development. The current specification is RFC 4880 (November 2007), the successor to RFC 2440. Many e-mail clients provide OpenPGP-compliant email security as described in RFC 3156. The Free Software Foundation has developed its own OpenPGP-compliant program called GNU Privacy Guard (abbreviated GnuPG or GPG). GnuPG is freely available together with all source code under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and is maintained separately from several Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) that interact with the GnuPG library for encryption, decryption and signing functions (see KGPG, Seahorse, MacGPG). Several other vendors have also developed OpenPGP-compliant software. Network Associates acquisition In December 1997, PGP Inc. was acquired by Network Associates, Inc. Zimmermann and the PGP team became NAI employees. NAI continued to pioneer export through software publishing, being the first company to have a legal export strategy by publishing source code. Under its aegis, the PGP team added disk encryption, desktop firewalls, intrusion detection, and IPsec VPNs to the PGP family. After the export regulation liberalizations of 2000 which no longer required publishing of source, NAI stopped releasing source code, over the PGP team's objection. There was consternation amongst PGP users worldwide at this and, inevitably, some conspiracy theories as well. In early 2001, Zimmermann left NAI. He served as Chief Cryptographer for Hush Communications, who provide an OpenPGP-based e-mail service, Hushmail. He has also worked with Veridis and other companies. In October, 2001, NAI announced that its PGP assets were for sale and that it was suspending further development of PGP encryption. The only remaining asset kept was the PGP E-Business Server (the original PGP Commandline version). In February 2002, NAI cancelled all support for PGP products, with the exception of the re-named commandline product. NAI (now McAfee) continues to sell and support the product under the name McAfee E-Business Server. Current situation In August 2002, several ex-PGP team members formed a new company, PGP Corporation, and bought the PGP assets (except for the command line version) from NAI. PGP Corporation is supporting existing PGP users and honoring NAI support contracts. Zimmermann now serves as a special advisor and consultant to PGP Corporation, as well as continuing to run his own consulting company. In 2003 PGP Corporation created a new server-based product offering called PGP Universal. In mid-2004, PGP Corporation shipped its own command line version called PGP Command Line, which integrates with the other PGP Encryption Platform applications. In 2005 PGP Corporation made its first acquisition—the German software company Glueck and Kanja Technology AG, which is now PGP Deutschland AG. Since the 2002 purchase of NAI PGP assets, PGP Corporation has offered worldwide PGP technical support from their office in Draper, Utah and Offenbach,Germany and as well Tokyo, Japan. PGP Corporation encryption applications This section describes commercial programs available from PGP Corporation. For information on other programs compatible with the OpenPGP specification, see OpenPGP implementations below. While originally used primarily for encrypting the contents of e-mail messages and attachments from a desktop client, PGP products have been diversified since 2002 into a set of encryption applications which can be managed by an optional central policy server. PGP encryption applications include e-mail and attachments, digital signatures, laptop full disk encryption, file and folder security, protection for IM sessions, batch file transfer encryption, and protection for files and folders stored on network servers and, more recently, encrypted and/or signed HTTP request/responses by means of a client side (Enigform) and a server side (mod_openpgp) plugin. There is also a Wordpress plugin available that takes advantage of the session management features of Enigform with mod_openpgp. The PGP Desktop 9.x family includes PGP Desktop Email, PGP Whole Disk Encryption, and PGP NetShare. Additionally, a number of Desktop bundles are also available. Depending on application, the products feature desktop e-mail, digital signatures, IM security, whole disk encryption, file and folder security, self decrypting archives, and secure shredding of deleted files. Capabilities are licensed in different ways depending on features required. The PGP Universal Server 2.x management console handles centralized deployment, security policy, policy enforcement, key management, and reporting. It is used for automated e-mail encryption in the gateway and manages PGP Desktop 9.x clients. In addition to its local keyserver, PGP Universal Server works with the PGP public keyserver—called the PGP Global Directory—to find recipient keys. It has the capability of delivering e-mail securely when no recipient key is found via a secure HTTPS browser session. With PGP Desktop 9.x managed by PGP Universal Server 2.x, first released in 2005, all PGP encryption applications are based on a new proxy-based architecture. These newer versions of PGP software eliminate the use of e-mail plug-ins and insulate the user from changes to other desktop applications. All desktop and server operations are now based on security policies and operate in an automated fashion. The PGP Universal server automates the creation, management, and expiration of keys, sharing these keys among all PGP encryption applications. The current shipping versions are PGP Desktop 9.10 and PGP Universal 2.10 Also available are PGP Command Line, which enables command line-based encryption and signing of information for storage, transfer, and backup, as well as the PGP Support Package for BlackBerry which enables RIM BlackBerry devices to enjoy sender-to-recipient messaging encryption. New versions of PGP applications use both OpenPGP and the S/MIME, allowing communications with any user of a NIST specified standard. See also GPG X.509 E-mail privacy E-mail encryption Public-key cryptography S/MIME secured e-mail PGP word list ZRTP Further reading References External links OpenPGP implementations PGP Corporation GNU Privacy Guard cGeep Pro OpenPGP::SDK Authora Inc. McAfee Inc. Feneris Solutions Inc. Canada EasyByte Cryptocx - Component Veridis Legion of The Bouncy Castle BSD Privacy Guard Prime Factors Inc. Oxford Brookes Secure Email Proxy qooxdoo Ajax framework cl.cam.ac.uk PGP information Support PGP Corporation Support Forum community support plus contributions from PGP Support staff Phil Zimmermann's Home Page MIT Public Key Directory for Registration and Search List of public keyservers IETF OpenPGP working group OpenPGP Alliance be-x-old:PGP | Pretty_Good_Privacy |@lemmatized pretty:3 good:3 privacy:7 pgp:126 computer:2 program:8 provide:5 cryptographic:6 authentication:2 often:1 use:36 signing:4 encrypt:5 decrypt:3 e:19 mail:14 increase:1 security:13 communication:5 originally:2 create:9 philip:1 zimmermann:20 similar:2 product:8 follow:2 openpgp:18 standard:9 rfc:4 data:4 encryption:38 work:8 public:15 key:42 cryptography:3 include:16 system:6 bind:2 user:18 name:10 address:1 first:10 version:28 generally:1 know:4 web:7 trust:12 contrast:1 x:9 hierarchical:1 approach:1 base:9 certificate:20 authority:6 add:3 implementation:3 later:1 current:9 option:1 automate:2 management:5 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5,041 | Lee_Van_Cleef | Lee Van Cleef (January 9 1925 – December 16 1989) was an American film actor who appeared mostly in Western and action pictures. His sharp features and piercing eyes led to his casting as a villain in scores of films, though in later years he was often a film's protagonist, such as with his co-lead role as a former colonel in For a Few Dollars More. Biography Early life Van Cleef was born Clarence LeRoy Van Cleef, Jr. in Somerville, New Jersey, the son of Marion Levinia (née Van Fleet) and Clarence LeRoy Van Cleef, Sr. Lee Van Cleef Biography (1925-1989) "Lee Van Cleef, Actor, Dies at 64; Played Villains in Many Westerns", The New York Times, December 17, 1989. Accessed November 25, 2007. "Lee Van Cleef was born in Somerville, N.J., on January 9, 1925. His first job was as a farm worker in his home state. He then worked as an accountant in Somerville before beginning in his movie career in 1950." Van Cleef served in the United States Navy during World War II and became an actor after a brief career as an accountant. His first acting experiences were on stage, including a small role in the original Broadway production of Mister Roberts. His first film was the classic Western High Noon, in which he played a villain. He also had a bit part as the sharpshooter in the climax of The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms around the same time. In 1956 he co-starred with Peter Graves in the B-grade Sci-Fi movie It Conquered the World. Career Van Cleef appeared six times between 1951 and 1955 as Burt Tanner on the children's western The Adventures of Kit Carson, starring Bill Williams. He played different minor characters on four episodes of ABC's The Rifleman between 1959 and 1962 and twice on ABC's Tombstone Territory. He appeared with Chuck Connors and Pippa Scott in the 1960 episode "Trial by Fear" of CBS's The DuPont Show with June Allyson. He guest starred on the NBC western series Laramie and on Rod Cameron's syndicated crime dramas, City Detective and State Trooper. He guest starred in an episode of John Bromfield's syndicated series Sheriff of Cochise. Van Cleef starred as minor villains and henchmen in various westerns, including The Tin Star and Gunfight at the OK Corral. He also played one of Lee Marvin's villainous henchmen in the 1962 John Ford classic The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, with James Stewart and John Wayne. He had a small, uncredited role as one of the river pirates in 1962's How the West Was Won. In 1958, Van Cleef was involved in a serious car accident and was forced temporarily to retire from acting. Between 1962 and 1965 Van Cleef worked as a painter, after which the actor appeared in several spaghetti Westerns, including For a Few Dollars More and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (both co-starring Clint Eastwood), as well as The Big Gundown and The Sabata Trilogy. Van Cleef also had a supporting role in John Carpenter's cult hit Escape from New York. He also appeared as a villainous swindler in the Bonanza episode, The Bloodline (December 31, 1960), along with 90 movie roles and 109 other television appearances over a 38-year span. In the early 1980s he played John Peter McCallister, the "first Occidental to become a ninja" in NBC's The Master. His last television appearance was in 1984 when he left the show The Master. La mort de Lee Van Cleef, Le Monde. Mardi 19 décembre 1989, p. 17. accessed on October 7, 2006. Episodes of the show were later remarketed as made-for-TV movies (by editing two episodes together), two of which were featured on Mystery Science Theater 3000. Personal life Van Cleef lost the tip of his middle finger on his right hand while building a playhouse for his daughter. This can be seen in the close-up shots of his hand during a scene in which he signals to the Eastwood character in For a Few Dollars More, in the gunfights in The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, and in an early scene of The Grand Duel. Death He died from a heart attack in Oxnard, California and was interred in Forest Lawn - Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles. His gravestone reads "Lee Van Cleef January 9, 1925 - December 16, 1989 'Best of the Bad' Love and Light". In Popular Culture The name of Marshall Nathan Van Cleef played by Xander Berkeley in 2000 action comedy film Shanghai Noon is a homage to Lee Van Cleef. The character, "Revolver Ocelot" in the video game series "Metal Gear Solid" had his appearance modeled after Lee Van Cleef. Filmography High Noon (1952) Untamed Frontier (1952) Kansas City Confidential (1952) The Beast From 20,000 Fathoms (1953) The Lawless Breed (1953) The Bandits of Corsica (1953) White Lightning (1953) Arena (1953) Vice Squad (1953) Jack Slade (1953) The Nebraskan (1953) Private Eyes (1953) Tumbleweed (1953) Gypsy Colt (1954) Arrow In The Dust (1954) Rails Into Laramie (1954) The Yellow Tomahawk (1954) Princess of the Nile (1954) (Uncredited Bit Part) The Desperado (1954) Dawn At Socorro (1954) Treasure of Ruby Hills (1955) Ten Wanted Men (1955) Man Without A Star (1955) (Uncredited Bit Part) I Cover The Underworld (1955) The Road To Denver (1955) A Man Alone (1955) The Vanishing American (1955) The Conqueror (1955) The Big Combo (1955) It Conquered the World (1956) Tribute To A Bad Man (1956) Pardners (1956) Accused of Murder (1956) The Lonely Man (1957) The Tin Star (1957) The Quiet Gun (1957) Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957) China Gate (1957) The Badge of Marshal Brennan (1957) The Last Stagecoach West (1957) Joe Dakota (1957) Gun Battle of Monterey (1957) Raiders of Old California (1957) Day of the Bad Man (1958) The Bravados (1958) The Young Lions (1958) Machete (1958) Guns, Girls and Gangsters (1959) Ride Lonesome (1959) The Slowest Gun In The West (TV) (1960) Posse From Hell (1961) The Twilight Zone, The Grave (1961) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962) How the West Was Won (1962) (uncredited) For a Few Dollars More (1965) The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly (1966) The Big Gundown (1966) Death Rides a Horse (1967) Day of Anger (1967) Beyond the Law (1968) Commandos (1968) Sabata (1969) Barquero (1970) El Condor (1970) Captain Apache (1971) Return of Sabata (1971) Grand Duel (Storm Rider) (1972) Bad Man's River (1972) The Magnificent Seven Ride! (1972) Mean Frank and Crazy Tony, aka Escape From Death Row (1973) The Stranger and the Gunfighter (1974) Take A Hard Ride (1975), Filmed in Gran Canaria (Canary Islands) God's Gun (1976) Kid Vengeance (1977) (Filmed in Gran Canaria) The Perfect Killer (1977) Nowhere To Hide (1977)(TV) The Squeeze (1978) The Hard Way (1979) (TV) The Octagon (1980) Escape from New York (1981) Killing Machine (1983) Codename: Wild Geese (1984) [[The Master (TV series)|The Master]] (1984) (TV series) Jungle Raiders (1985) Armed Response (1986) The Commander (1986) Speed Zone! aka Cannonball Fever (1989) Thieves of Fortune (1989) References External links Retrieved on 2008-02-08 Van Cleef's only published English-language biography TheBad.net: A Tribute to Lee Van Cleef Lee Van Cleef page | Lee_Van_Cleef |@lemmatized lee:11 van:23 cleef:22 january:3 december:4 american:2 film:7 actor:4 appear:5 mostly:1 western:7 action:2 picture:1 sharp:1 feature:2 pierce:1 eye:2 lead:2 casting:1 villain:4 score:1 though:1 later:2 year:2 often:1 protagonist:1 co:3 role:5 former:1 colonel:1 dollar:4 biography:3 early:3 life:2 bear:2 clarence:2 leroy:2 jr:1 somerville:3 new:4 jersey:1 son:1 marion:1 levinia:1 née:1 fleet:1 sr:1 die:2 play:6 many:1 york:3 time:3 access:2 november:1 n:1 j:1 first:4 job:1 farm:1 worker:1 home:1 state:3 work:2 accountant:2 begin:1 movie:4 career:3 serve:1 united:1 navy:1 world:3 war:1 ii:1 become:2 brief:1 acting:1 experience:1 stage:1 include:3 small:2 original:1 broadway:1 production:1 mister:1 robert:1 classic:2 high:2 noon:3 also:4 bit:3 part:3 sharpshooter:1 climax:1 beast:2 fathom:2 around:1 star:9 peter:2 graf:1 b:1 grade:1 sci:1 fi:1 conquer:2 six:1 burt:1 tanner:1 child:1 adventure:1 kit:1 carson:1 bill:1 williams:1 different:1 minor:2 character:3 four:1 episode:6 abc:2 rifleman:1 twice:1 tombstone:1 territory:1 chuck:1 connors:1 pippa:1 scott:1 trial:1 fear:1 cbs:1 dupont:1 show:3 june:1 allyson:1 guest:2 nbc:2 series:5 laramie:2 rod:1 cameron:1 syndicate:2 crime:1 drama:1 city:2 detective:1 trooper:1 john:5 bromfield:1 sheriff:1 cochise:1 henchman:2 various:1 tin:2 gunfight:3 ok:1 corral:2 one:2 marvin:1 villainous:2 ford:1 man:8 shoot:2 liberty:2 valance:2 james:1 stewart:1 wayne:1 uncredited:4 river:2 pirate:1 west:4 win:2 involve:1 serious:1 car:1 accident:1 force:1 temporarily:1 retire:1 act:1 painter:1 several:1 spaghetti:1 good:3 bad:7 ugly:3 clint:1 eastwood:2 well:1 big:3 gundown:2 sabata:3 trilogy:1 supporting:1 carpenter:1 cult:1 hit:1 escape:3 swindler:1 bonanza:1 bloodline:1 along:1 television:2 appearance:3 span:1 mccallister:1 occidental:1 ninja:1 master:4 last:2 leave:1 la:1 mort:1 de:1 le:1 monde:1 mardi:1 décembre:1 p:1 october:1 remarketed:1 make:1 tv:6 edit:1 two:2 together:1 mystery:1 science:1 theater:1 personal:1 lose:1 tip:1 middle:1 finger:1 right:1 hand:2 build:1 playhouse:1 daughter:1 see:1 close:1 shot:1 scene:2 signal:1 grand:2 duel:2 death:3 heart:1 attack:1 oxnard:1 california:2 inter:1 forest:1 lawn:1 hollywood:1 hill:2 cemetery:1 los:1 angeles:1 gravestone:1 read:1 best:1 love:1 light:1 popular:1 culture:1 name:1 marshall:1 nathan:1 xander:1 berkeley:1 comedy:1 shanghai:1 homage:1 revolver:1 ocelot:1 video:1 game:1 metal:1 gear:1 solid:1 model:1 filmography:1 untamed:1 frontier:1 kansa:1 confidential:1 lawless:1 breed:1 bandit:1 corsica:1 white:1 lightning:1 arena:1 vice:1 squad:1 jack:1 slade:1 nebraskan:1 private:1 tumbleweed:1 gypsy:1 colt:1 arrow:1 dust:1 rail:1 yellow:1 tomahawk:1 princess:1 nile:1 desperado:1 dawn:1 socorro:1 treasure:1 ruby:1 ten:1 want:1 men:1 without:1 cover:1 underworld:1 road:1 denver:1 alone:1 vanishing:1 conqueror:1 combo:1 tribute:2 pardner:1 accuse:1 murder:1 lonely:1 quiet:1 gun:5 k:1 china:1 gate:1 badge:1 marshal:1 brennan:1 stagecoach:1 joe:1 dakota:1 battle:1 monterey:1 raider:2 old:1 day:2 bravado:1 young:1 lion:1 machete:1 girl:1 gangster:1 ride:3 lonesome:1 slow:1 posse:1 hell:1 twilight:1 zone:2 grave:1 rid:1 horse:1 anger:1 beyond:1 law:1 commando:1 barquero:1 el:1 condor:1 captain:1 apache:1 return:1 storm:1 rider:1 magnificent:1 seven:1 mean:1 frank:1 crazy:1 tony:1 aka:2 row:1 stranger:1 gunfighter:1 take:1 hard:2 gran:2 canaria:2 canary:1 island:1 god:1 kid:1 vengeance:1 perfect:1 killer:1 nowhere:1 hide:1 squeeze:1 way:1 octagon:1 kill:1 machine:1 codename:1 wild:1 goose:1 jungle:1 arm:1 response:1 commander:1 speed:1 cannonball:1 fever:1 thief:1 fortune:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 retrieve:1 publish:1 english:1 language:1 thebad:1 net:1 page:1 |@bigram van_cleef:22 sci_fi:1 kit_carson:1 june_allyson:1 liberty_valance:2 bad_ugly:3 clint_eastwood:1 supporting_role:1 la_mort:1 le_monde:1 forest_lawn:1 los_angeles:1 twilight_zone:1 gran_canaria:2 canary_island:1 external_link:1 |
5,042 | Newfoundland_English | Newfoundland English is a name for several dialects of English found in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, often regarded as the most distinctive dialect of English in Canada. Some specific Newfoundland dialects are similar to the accent heard in the southeast of Ireland (See Wexford and Waterford), while others are similar to those of West Country England, or a combination of both, mainly due to mass immigration from a limited number of ports in those specific regions. These separate dialects developed because of Newfoundland's history as well as its geography. Newfoundland was one of the first areas settled by England in North America, beginning in small numbers in the early 1600s before peaking in the early 1800s. Newfoundland was a British colony until 1907 when it became an independent Dominion within in the British Empire and did not become a part of Canada until 1949. Newfoundland is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, separated by the Strait of Belle Isle from Labrador, the sparsely populated mainland part of the province. Most of the population remained rather isolated on the island, allowing the dialects time to develop independently of those on the North American continent. Newfoundland English was recognized as a separate dialect by the late 1700s when George Cartwright published a glossary of Newfoundland words. Phonological and grammatical features Some Newfoundland English differs from General Canadian English in vowel pronunciation (e.g., in much of Newfoundland, the words fear and fair are homophones), in morphology and syntax (e.g., in Newfoundland the word bes is sometimes used in place of the normally conjugated forms of to be to describe continual actions or states of being, as in that rock usually bes under water instead of that rock usually is under water, but normal conjugation of to be is used in all other cases; bes is likely a carryover of Irish grammar into English), and in preservation of archaic adverbial-intensifiers (e.g., in Newfoundland that play was right boring and that play was some boring both mean "that play was very boring"). Dialect can vary markedly from community to community, as well as from region to region, reflecting ethnic origin as well as a past in which there were few roads and many communities, and fishing villages in particular remained very isolated. Other marked characteristics of Newfoundland English include the loss of dental fricatives (voiced and voiceless th sounds) in many varieties of the dialect (as in many other nonstandard varieties of English); they are usually replaced with the closest voiced or voiceless alveolar stop (t or d). The dialect also includes nonstandard or innovative features in verb conjugation. In many varieties, the third-person singular inflection is generalized to a present tense marker; for example, the verb "to like" is conjugated I likes, you likes, he/she/it likes, we likes, you likes, and they likes. (And in some communities on the island's northeast coast, you (singular), you (plural), and they become dee, ye, and dey, respectively.) In a move almost certainly taken from Hiberno-English and influenced by the Irish language, speakers avoid using the verb to have in past participles, preferring formulations including after, such as I'm after telling him to stop instead of I have told him to stop. The merger of diphthongs [ai] and [ɔi] to [ɑi] (an example of the line-loin merger) is extensive throughout Newfoundland and is a significant feature of Newfoundland English. In Newfoundland English the affirmative yeah is made with an inhalation rather than an exhalation. This is an example of a rare pulmonic ingressive phone. To non-Newfoundlanders, speakers of Newfoundland English may seem to speak faster than speakers of General Canadian. This perceived tempo difference may be a coupling of subtle pronunciation differences and unusual sayings and can be a contributing factor to the difficulty non-Newfoundlanders sometimes experience with the dialect. Other languages and dialects that have influenced Newfoundland English There is also a dialect of French centred mainly on the Port au Port Peninsula on the west coast of the island which has had an impact on the syntax of English in the area. One example of these constructs unique to Newfoundland is Throw grandpa down the stairs his hat, in which the hat makes the trip, not the grandfather. Another is the use of French reflexive constructions in sentences such as the reply to a question like Where are you going?, reply: Me I'm goin' downtown (this reflexive form of grammar also exists in Irish Gaelic). Newfoundland French was deliberately discouraged by the Newfoundland government through the public schools during the mid-20th-century, and only a small handful of mainly elderly people are still fluent in the French-Newfoundland dialect. In the last couple of decades, many parents in the region have demanded and obtained French education for their children, but this would be Standard French education and does not represent a continuation of the old dialect per se. Some people living in the Codroy Valley on the south-west tip of the island are also ancestrally Francophone, but represent Acadian settlers from the Maritime Provinces of Canada who arrived during the 19th century. This population has also lost the French language. The greatest distinction between Newfoundland English and General Canadian English is its vocabulary. It includes some Inuit and First Nations words (for example tabanask, a kind of sled), preserved archaic English words no longer found in other English dialects (for example pook, a mound of hay), Irish language survivals like sleveen and angishore, compound words created from English words to describe things unique to Newfoundland (for example stun breeze, a wind of at least 20 knots (37 km/h)), English words which have undergone a semantic shift (for example rind, the bark of a tree), and unique words whose origins are unknown (for example diddies, a nightmare). Deterioration of the dialectic distinctiveness Newfoundland English dialects are steadily losing their distinctiveness through the action of the mass media and an education system that has traditionally regarded the dialect as a backward corruption of "proper" English. This perception occurs in both the public and private sectors of the system. Institutional education steadily became more and more available and normative after Confederation in 1949. This encouraged many Newfoundlanders, particularly in the urban centres, to take steps to ensure their children spoke in a fashion similar to their mainland counterparts lest they be perceived as inferior. This is not to suggest the transformation was always viewed as a necessarily coerced response. Rather, many Newfoundlanders embraced the notion of the inferiority of the dialect in favour of "proper English" as they moved toward an economic system closer to those of the Canadian Mainland. It is tempting to speculate that these persons attached the dialect to a way of life that appeared to be economically untenable and fading fast. In other words, the dialect has fallen victim to notions of "progress". In general, each generation speaks a dialect of English closer to General Canadian though it is significant to note that this trend is far more pronounced in the urban centres. The employment of strict General Canadian can actually hinder the speaker's ability to effectively socially mesh in rural areas as it signifies that the speaker is closely attached with the social structures of the non-rural world. The speaker runs the risk of being treated as a non-community member for an extended period. Pride in Newfoundland language and culture has also encouraged a conscious retention of some obvious Newfoundlandisms, however, and speakers can often be observed switching between standard Canadian English for formal settings and language closer to Newfoundland English for personal communication. Indeed, the transformation of Newfoundland English offers a case study of the politics of language. On the one hand, Newfoundlanders have learned that to be taken seriously in institutional settings connected to off island structures standard Canadian English is necessary. This also occurred in the pre-confederation period though the adopted dialect was closer to British English reflecting the political circumstances of the day. On the other hand, use of Newfoundland English is used to establish common political identity with other Newfoundlanders in a fashion unavailable to non-Newfoundlanders who have yet to be accepted into the local cultural community. This manner of using language can be readily observed in other socially marginalized populations including persons of African descent in the United States, persons of african descent from rural areas and persons originating from lower strata in the social class structure in a general sense. Each group must learn to speak the language of the dominant group yet may also derive social benefits from retaining the original dialect when interacting with fellow group members. This perspective lends credence to the complex and contentious argument that Newfoundlanders resemble what conventional wisdom posits as a discrete and unique "ethnic group" quite separate from the ethnicity of the larger population. Newfoundland English expressions In recent years, the most commonly noted Newfoundland English expression might be Whadd'ya at? (What are you at?), loosely translated to "How's it going?" or "What are you doing?" Coming in a close second might be How's she cuttin'? to which one often responds Like a knife (the question/greeting is a phrase still current in the Irish midlands although it is often pronounced as cudding and rarely if ever responded to with such a literal answer). Other colourful local expressions include: Eh b'y: To agree with what someone is saying. Where ya to?: Where are you? Stay where you're to till I comes where you're at.: "Wait there for me." Stay where you're at till I comes where you're to.: "Wait there for me." Get on the go: "Let's go" (also, a common euphemism for partying, on the go by itself can also refer to a relationship- similar to a dating stage, but more hazy.) You knows yourself: Responding to statement in agreement. Yes b'y: Expression of awe or disbelief What are ye at?: or "Wadda ya'at b'y?" : "What are you doing?" Wah?: A general expression meaning, "what?" The length of the vowel sound varies. Luh!: this is used to draw attention to something or someone, often by pointing. It is a variant of "Lo!" or "Look!" G'wan b'y!: meaning, "No, really?" or "Are you joking?" Hows you gettin' on cocky?" : "How are you today?" Your a nice kind young feller" : "You are a nice person" Me Son : "My Son" You're some crooked : "You are grouchy" Mudder : "mother" (Some examples taken from A Biography of the English Language by C.M. Millward) Also of note is the widespread use of the term b'y as a common form of address. It is shorthand for "boy", but is used variably to address members of either sex. Another term of endearment, often spoken by older generations, is me ducky, used when addressing a female in an informal manner, and usually placed at the end of a sentence which is often a question (Example: How's she goin', me ducky?) -- a phrase also found in East Midlands British English. Also pervasive as a sentence ending is right used in the same manner as the Canadian eh or the American huh or y'know. Even if the sentence would otherwise be a non-question, the pronunciation of right can sometimes make it seem like affirmation is being requested. Certain words have also gained prominence amongst the speakers of Newfoundland English. For instance, a large body of water that may be referred to as a "lake" elsewhere, can often (but not uniformly) be referred to as a pond. In addition, a large landmass that rises high out of the ground, regardless of elevation, is referred to unwaveringly as a "hill". Yet there is a difference between a hill and a big hill. Another major characteristic of some variants of Newfoundland English is adding the letter 'h' to words that begin with vowel sounds, or removing 'h' from words that begin with it. In some districts, the term house commonly is referred to as the "ouse," for example, while "even" might be said "h'even." The idiom "'E drops 'is h in 'Olyrood and picks en up in H'Avondale." is often used to describe this using the eastern towns Holyrood and Avondale as examples. There are many different variations of the Newfoundland dialect depending on geographical location within the province. It is also important to note that Labrador has a very distinct culture and dialect within its region. Other Although it is referred to as "Newfoundland English" or "Newfinese", Newfoundland is not the only place which uses this dialect. An area near the Labrador border, the Basse-Côte-Nord of Quebec, also use this form of speaking. Younger generations of this area have adapted the way of speaking, and created some of their own expressions. Some older generations that speak Newfoundland English, but it is more commonly used by the younger generations. B'y is one of the most common terms used in this area. It is also common to hear Newfoundland English in Fort McMurray, Alberta, where many Newfoundlanders have moved to or commute regularly for employment. Australian Some of the constructs discussed here can also be found in rural Australian areas, although, as noted, the dialect is fading fast with the onslaught of mass media. C.J. Dennis' "The Sentimental Bloke" and some of Henry Lawson's writings can be used to see the forms that have their origins in Irish and Irish-Gaelic in the Australian Language. Some of these are similar to Newfoundland accent. References See also Newfoundland Irish List of communities in Newfoundland and Labrador List of people of Newfoundland and Labrador External links Dictionary of Newfoundland English, 2d ed CBC News report (8 November 1982) on the publication of the Dictionary Samples of Newfoundland Dialect(s)/Accent(s) | Newfoundland_English |@lemmatized newfoundland:45 english:41 name:1 several:1 dialect:28 find:4 province:4 labrador:6 often:9 regard:2 distinctive:1 canada:3 specific:2 similar:5 accent:3 heard:1 southeast:1 ireland:1 see:3 wexford:1 waterford:1 others:1 west:3 country:1 england:2 combination:1 mainly:3 due:1 mass:3 immigration:1 limited:1 number:2 port:3 region:5 separate:4 develop:2 history:1 well:3 geography:1 one:5 first:2 area:8 settle:1 north:2 america:1 begin:3 small:2 early:2 peak:1 british:4 colony:1 become:4 independent:1 dominion:1 within:3 empire:1 part:2 island:6 atlantic:1 ocean:1 strait:1 belle:1 isle:1 sparsely:1 populated:1 mainland:3 population:4 remain:2 rather:3 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5,043 | Insulin | The idealised diagram shows the fluctuation of blood sugar (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone insulin (blue) in humans during the course of a day containing three meals. In addition, the effect of a sugar-rich versus a starch-rich meal is highlighted. Insulin is a hormone that has extensive effects on metabolism and other body functions, such as vascular compliance. Insulin causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take up glucose from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle, and stopping use of fat as an energy source. When insulin is absent (or low), glucose is not taken up by body cells, and the body begins to use fat as an energy source, for example, by transfer of lipids from adipose tissue to the liver for mobilization as an energy source. As its level is a central metabolic control mechanism, its status is also used as a control signal to other body systems (such as amino acid uptake by body cells). It has several other anabolic effects throughout the body. When control of insulin levels fails, diabetes mellitus results. Insulin is used medically to treat some forms of diabetes mellitus. Patients with Type 1 diabetes mellitus depend on external insulin (most commonly injected subcutaneously) for their survival because the hormone is no longer produced internally. Patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus are insulin resistant, and because of such resistance, may suffer from a relative insulin deficiency. Some patients with Type 2 diabetes may eventually require insulin when other medications fail to control blood glucose levels adequately. Insulin is a peptide hormone composed of 51 amino acid residues and has a molecular weight of 5808 Da. It is produced in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. The name comes from the Latin insula for "island". Insulin's structure varies slightly between species of animal. Insulin from animal sources differs somewhat in 'strength' (in carbohydrate metabolism control effects) in humans because of those variations. Porcine (pig) insulin is especially close to the human version. Gene The proinsulin precursor of insulin is encoded by the INS gene. Alleles A variety of mutant alleles with changes in the coding region have been identified. There is a read-through gene, INS-IGF2, which overlaps with this gene at the 5' region and with the IGF2 gene at the 3' region. Regulation There are several regulatory sequences in the promoter region of the human insulin gene, to which transcription factors bind. In general, the A-boxes bind to Pdx1 factors, E-boxes bind to NeuroD, C-boxes bind to MafA and cAMP response elements to CREB. There are also silencers that inhibit transcription. + Regulatory sequences and their transcription factors for the insulin gene. Regulatory sequence binding transcription factors ILPR Par1 A5 Pdx1 negative regulatory element (NRE) glucocorticoid receptor, Oct1 Z (overlapping NRE and C2) ISF C2 Pax4, MafA(?) E2 USF1/USF2 A3 Pdx1 CREB RE - CREB RE CREB, CREM A2 - CAAT enhancer binding (CEB) (partly overlapping A2 and C1) - C1 - E1 E2A, NeuroD1, HEB A1 Pdx1 G1 - Protein structure Within vertebrates, the similarity of insulins is extremely close. Bovine insulin differs from human in only three amino acid residues, and porcine insulin in one. Even insulin from some species of fish is similar enough to human to be clinically effective in humans. Insulin in some invertebrates (eg, the Caenorhabditis elegans nematode) is quite close to human insulin, has similar effects inside cells, and is produced very similarly. Insulin has been strongly preserved over evolutionary time, suggesting its centrality in animal metabolic control. The C-peptide of proinsulin (discussed later), however, differs much more amongst species; it is also a hormone, but a secondary one. Insulin is produced and stored in the body as a hexamer (a unit of six insulin molecules), while the active form is the monomer. The hexamer is an inactive form with long-term stability which serves as a way to keep the highly reactive insulin protected, yet readily available. The hexamer-monomer conversion is one of the central aspects of insulin formulations for injection. The hexamer is far more stable than the monomer, which is desirable for practical reasons, however the monomer is a much faster reacting drug because diffusion rate is inversely related to particle size. A fast reacting drug means that insulin injections do not have to proceed mealtimes by hours, which in turn gives diabetics more flexibility in their daily schedule. M. F. Dunn, “Zinc-ligand interactions modulate assembly and stability of the insulin hexamer - a review,” BioMetals, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 295–303, 2005. Synthesis, physiological effects, and degradation Synthesis Insulin is produced in the pancreas and released when any of the several stimuli is detected. The stimuli include ingested protein and glucose in the blood produced from digested food. Carbohydrate produces glucose, although not all types of carbohydrate produce glucose and thereby increase blood glucose levels. In target cells, they initiate a signal transduction, which has the effect of increasing glucose uptake and storage. Finally, insulin is degraded, terminating the response. Insulin undergoes extensive posttranslational modification along the production pathway. Production and secretion are largely independent; prepared insulin is stored awaiting secretion. Both C-peptide and mature insulin are biologically active. Cell components and proteins in this image are not to scale. In mammals, insulin is synthesized in the pancreas within the beta cells (β-cells) of the islets of Langerhans. One million to three million islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets) form the endocrine part of the pancreas, which is primarily an exocrine gland. The endocrine portion only accounts for 2% of the total mass of the pancreas. Within the islets of Langerhans, beta cells constitute 60–80% of all the cells. In beta cells, insulin is synthesized from the proinsulin precursor molecule by the action of proteolytic enzymes, known as prohormone convertases (PC1 and PC2), as well as the exoprotease carboxypeptidase E. These modifications of proinsulin remove the center portion of the molecule (ie, C-peptide), from the C- and N- terminal ends of proinsulin. The remaining polypeptides (51 amino acids in total), the B- and A- chains, are bound together by disulfide bonds/disulphide bonds. Confusingly, the primary sequence of proinsulin goes in the order "B-C-A", since B and A chains were identified on the basis of mass, and the C peptide was discovered after the others. The endogenous production of insulin is regulated in several steps along the synthesis pathway: At transcription from the insulin gene In mRNA stability At the mRNA translation In the posttranslational modifications It has been shown that insulin and its related proteins, are also produced inside the brain and that reduced levels of these proteins are linked to Alzheimer's disease. Release Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans release insulin in two phases. The first phase insulin release is rapidly triggered in response to increased blood glucose levels. The second phase is a sustained, slow release of newly formed vesicles that are triggered independently of sugar. The description of first phase release is as follows: Glucose enters the beta cells through the glucose transporter GLUT2 Glucose goes into the glycolysis and the respiratory cycle where multiple high-energy ATP molecules are produced by oxidation Dependent on ATP levels, and hence blood glucose levels, the ATP-controlled potassium channels (K+) close and the cell membrane depolarizes On depolarization, voltage controlled calcium channels (Ca2+) open and calcium flows into the cells An increased calcium level causes activation of phospholipase C, which cleaves the membrane phospholipid phosphatidyl inositol 4,5-bisphosphate into inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate and diacylglycerol. Inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) binds to receptor proteins in the membrane of endoplasmic reticulum (ER). This allows the release of Ca2+ from the ER via IP3 gated channels, and further raises the cell concentration of calcium. Significantly increased amounts of calcium in the cells causes release of previously synthesized insulin, which has been stored in secretory vesicles This is the main mechanism for release of insulin. In addition some insulin release takes place generally with food intake, not just glucose or carbohydrate intake, and the beta cells are also somewhat influenced by the autonomic nervous system. The signaling mechanisms controlling these linkages are not fully understood. Other substances known to stimulate insulin release include amino acids from ingested proteins, acetylcholine, released from vagus nerve endings (parasympathetic nervous system), cholecystokinin, released by enteroendocrine cells of intestinal mucosa and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP). Three amino acids (alanine, glycine and arginine) act similarly to glucose by altering the beta cell's membrane potential. Acetylcholine triggers insulin release through phospholipase C, while the last acts through the mechanism of adenylate cyclase. The sympathetic nervous system (via Alpha2-adrenergic stimulation as demonstrated by the agonists clonidine or methyldopa) inhibit the release of insulin. However, it is worth noting that circulating adrenaline will activate Beta2-Receptors on the Beta cells in the pancreatic Islets to promote insulin release. This is important since muscle cannot benefit from the raised blood sugar resulting from adrenergic stimulation (increased gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis from the low blood insulin: glucagon state) unless insulin is present to allow for GLUT-4 translocation in the tissue. Therefore, beginning with direct innervation, norepinephrine inhibits insulin release via alpha2-receptors, then subsequently, circulating adrenaline from the adrenal medulla will stimulate beta2-receptors thereby promoting insulin release. When the glucose level comes down to the usual physiologic value, insulin release from the beta cells slows or stops. If blood glucose levels drop lower than this, especially to dangerously low levels, release of hyperglycemic hormones (most prominently glucagon from Islet of Langerhans' alpha cells) forces release of glucose into the blood from cellular stores, primarily liver cell stores of glycogen. By increasing blood glucose, the hyperglycemic hormones correct life-threatening hypoglycemia. Release of insulin is strongly inhibited by the stress hormone norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which leads to increased blood glucose levels during stress. Evidence of impaired first phase insulin release can be seen in the glucose tolerance test, demonstrated by a substantially elevated blood glucose level at 30 minutes, a marked drop by 60 minutes, and a steady climb back to baseline levels over the following hourly timepoints. Oscillations Insulin release from pancreas oscillates with a period of 3–6 minutes. Even during digestion, generally one or two hours following a meal, insulin release from pancreas is not continuous, but oscillates with a period of 3–6 minutes, changing from generating a blood insulin concentration more than ~800 pmol/l to less than 100 pmol/l. This is thought to avoid downregulation of insulin receptors in target cells and to assist the liver in extracting insulin from the blood. This oscillation is important to consider when administering insulin-stimulating medication, since it is the oscillating blood concentration of insulin release which should, ideally, be achieved, not a constant high concentration. It is also important to consider in that all methods of insulin replacement can never hope to replicate this delivery mechanism precisely. This may be achieved by delivering insulin rhythmically to the portal vein or by islet cell transplantation to the liver. Future insulin pumps could attempt to address this characteristic. (See also Pulsatile Insulin.) Signal transduction There are special transporter proteins in cell membranes through which glucose from the blood can enter a cell. These transporters are, indirectly, under blood insulin's control in certain body cell types (e.g., muscle cells). Low levels of circulating insulin, or its absence, will prevent glucose from entering those cells (e.g., in Type 1 diabetes). However, more commonly there is a decrease in the sensitivity of cells to insulin (e.g., the reduced insulin sensitivity characteristic of Type 2 diabetes), resulting in decreased glucose absorption. In either case, there is 'cell starvation', weight loss, sometimes extreme. In a few cases, there is a defect in the release of insulin from the pancreas. Either way, the effect is, characteristically, the same: elevated blood glucose levels. Activation of insulin receptors leads to internal cellular mechanisms that directly affect glucose uptake by regulating the number and operation of protein molecules in the cell membrane that transport glucose into the cell. The genes that specify the proteins that make up the insulin receptor in cell membranes have been identified and the structure of the interior, cell membrane section, and now, finally after more than a decade, the extra-membrane structure of receptor (Australian researchers announced the work 2Q 2006). Two types of tissues are most strongly influenced by insulin, as far as the stimulation of glucose uptake is concerned: muscle cells (myocytes) and fat cells (adipocytes). The former are important because of their central role in movement, breathing, circulation, etc, and the latter because they accumulate excess food energy against future needs. Together, they account for about two-thirds of all cells in a typical human body. Physiological effects Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism. Insulin binds to its receptor (1) which in turn starts many protein activation cascades (2). These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose (3), glycogen synthesis (4), glycolysis (5) and fatty acid synthesis (6). The actions of insulin on the global human metabolism level include: Control of cellular intake of certain substances, most prominently glucose in muscle and adipose tissue (about ⅔ of body cells). Increase of DNA replication and protein synthesis via control of amino acid uptake. Modification of the activity of numerous enzymes. The actions of insulin on cells include: Increased glycogen synthesis – insulin forces storage of glucose in liver (and muscle) cells in the form of glycogen; lowered levels of insulin cause liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose and excrete it into the blood. This is the clinical action of insulin which is directly useful in reducing high blood glucose levels as in diabetes. Increased fatty acid synthesis – insulin forces fat cells to take in blood lipids which are converted to triglycerides; lack of insulin causes the reverse. Increased esterification of fatty acids – forces adipose tissue to make fats (i.e., triglycerides) from fatty acid esters; lack of insulin causes the reverse. Decreased proteolysis – decreasing the breakdown of protein. Decreased lipolysis – forces reduction in conversion of fat cell lipid stores into blood fatty acids; lack of insulin causes the reverse. Decreased gluconeogenesis – decreases production of glucose from non-sugar substrates, primarily in the liver (remember, the vast majority of endogenous insulin arriving at the liver never leaves the liver); lack of insulin causes glucose production from assorted substrates in the liver and elsewhere. Decreased autophagy - decreased level of degradation of damaged organelles. Postprandial levels inhibit autophagy completely. Increased amino acid uptake – forces cells to absorb circulating amino acids; lack of insulin inhibits absorption. Increased potassium uptake – forces cells to absorb serum potassium; lack of insulin inhibits absorption. Thus lowers potassium levels in blood. Arterial muscle tone – forces arterial wall muscle to relax, increasing blood flow, especially in micro arteries; lack of insulin reduces flow by allowing these muscles to contract. Increase in the secretion of hydrochloric acid by Parietal cells in the stomach. Degradation Once an insulin molecule has docked onto the receptor and effected its action, it may be released back into the extracellular environment, or it may be degraded by the cell. Degradation normally involves endocytosis of the insulin-receptor complex followed by the action of insulin degrading enzyme. Most insulin molecules are degraded by liver cells. It has been estimated that insulin molecule produced endogenously by the pancreatic beta cells is degraded within approximately one hour after its initial release into circulation (insulin half-life ~ 70 minutes). Hypoglycemia Although other cells can use other fuels for a while (most prominently fatty acids), neurons depend on glucose as a source of energy in the non-starving human. They do not require insulin to absorb glucose, unlike muscle and adipose tissue, and they have very small internal stores of glycogen. Glycogen stored in liver cells (unlike glycogen stored in muscle cells) can be converted to glucose, and released into the blood, when glucose from digestion is low or absent, and the glycerol backbone in triglycerides can also be used to produce blood glucose. Sufficient lack of glucose and scarcity of these sources of glucose can dramatically make itself manifest in the impaired functioning of the central nervous system; dizziness, speech problems, and even loss of consciousness, can occur. Low glucose is known as hypoglycemia or, in cases producing unconsciousness, "hypoglycemic coma" (sometimes termed "insulin shock" from the most common causative agent). Endogenous causes of insulin excess (such as an insulinoma) are very rare, and the overwhelming majority of insulin-excess induced hypoglycemia cases are iatrogenic and usually accidental. There have been a few reported cases of murder, attempted murder, or suicide using insulin overdoses, but most insulin shocks appear to be due to errors in dosage of insulin (e.g., 20 units of insulin instead of 2) or other unanticipated factors (didn't eat as much as anticipated, or exercised more than expected, or unpredicted kinetics of the subcutaneously injected insulin itself). Possible causes of hypoglycemia include: External insulin (usually injected subcutaneously). Oral hypoglycemic agents (e.g., any of the sulfonylureas, or similar drugs, which increase insulin release from beta cells in response to a particular blood glucose level). Ingestion of low-carbohydrate sugar substitutes (animal studies show these can trigger insulin release (albeit in much smaller quantities than sugar) according to a report in Discover magazine, August 2004, p 18, although this is only an issue in people who do not have diabetes, or those who have type 2 diabetes because type 1 diabetes is caused by a complete absence of insulin. As a result, this can never be a cause of hypoglycemia in patients with type 1 diabetes since there is no endogenous insulin production to stimulate. Diseases and syndromes There are several conditions in which insulin disturbance is pathologic: Diabetes mellitus – general term referring to all states characterized by hyperglycemia. Type 1 – autoimmune-mediated destruction of insulin producing beta cells in the pancreas resulting in absolute insulin deficiency. Type 2 – multifactoral syndrome with combined influence of genetic susceptibility and influence of environmental factors, the best known being obesity, age, and physical inactivity, resulting in insulin resistance in cells requiring insulin for glucose absorption. This form of diabetes is strongly inherited. Other types of impaired glucose tolerance (see the diabetes article). Insulinoma - a tumor of pancreatic beta cells producing excess of insulin or reactive hypoglycemia. Metabolic syndrome – a poorly understood condition first called Syndrome X by Gerald Reaven, Reaven's Syndrome after Reaven, CHAOS in Australia (from the signs which seem to travel together), and sometimes prediabetes. It is currently not clear whether these signs have a single, treatable cause, or are the result of body changes leading to type 2 diabetes. It is characterized by elevated blood pressure, dyslipidemia (disturbances in blood cholesterol forms and other blood lipids), and increased waist circumference (at least in populations in much of the developed world). The basic underlying cause may be the insulin resistance of type 2 diabetes which is a diminished capacity for insulin response in some tissues (e.g., muscle, fat) to respond to insulin. Commonly, morbidities such as essential hypertension, obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) develop. Polycystic ovary syndrome – a complex syndrome in women in the reproductive years where there is anovulation and androgen excess commonly displayed as hirsutism. In many cases of PCOS insulin resistance is present. As a medication Synthetic "human" insulin is now manufactured for widespread clinical use using genetic engineering techniques using recombinant DNA technology. More recently, researchers have succeeded in introducing the gene for human insulin into plants and in producing insulin in plants, specifically safflower. From SemBiosys, A New Kind Of Insulin INSIDE WALL STREET By Gene G. Marcial(AUGUST 13, 2007) http://www.i-sis.org.uk/gmSaffloweHumanPro-Insulin.php It is anticipated that this technique will reduce production costs. Several of these are slightly modified versions of human insulin which, while having a clinical effect on blood glucose levels as though they were exact copies, but have been designed to have somewhat different absorption or duration of action characteristics. They are usually referred to as 'insulin analogs'. For instance, the first available, insulin lispro, does not exhibit a delayed absorption effect found in 'regular' insulin, and begins to have effect in as little as 15 minutes. Using it therefore does not require the pre-planning required for other insulins which begin to take effect much later (up to many hours) after administration. Another type is extended release insulin; the first of these was 'insulin glargine'. These have a steady effect for the entire time they are active, without the peak and droop of effect in other insulins; typically, they continue to have an insulin effect for an extended period from 18 to 24 hours. Unlike many medicines, insulin currently cannot be taken orally. Like nearly all other proteins introduced into the gastrointestinal tract, it is reduced to fragments (even single amino acid components), whereupon all 'insulin activity' is lost. There has been some research into ways to protect insulin from the digestive tract, so that it can be administered orally or sublingually. While experimental, several companies now have various formulations in human clinical trials, which if successful, could see commercialization in several years. Insulin is usually taken as subcutaneous injections by single-use syringes with needles, an insulin pump, or by repeated-use insulin pens with needles. History Discovery and characterization In 1869 Paul Langerhans, a medical student in Berlin, was studying the structure of the pancreas under a microscope when he identified some previously un-noticed tissue clumps scattered throughout the bulk of the pancreas. The function of the "little heaps of cells," later known as the Islets of Langerhans, was unknown, but Edouard Laguesse later suggested that they might produce secretions that play a regulatory role in digestion. Paul Langerhans' son, Archibald, also helped to understand this regulatory role. In 1889, the Polish-German physician Oscar Minkowski in collaboration with Joseph von Mering removed the pancreas from a healthy dog to test its assumed role in digestion. Several days after the dog's pancreas was removed, Minkowski's animal keeper noticed a swarm of flies feeding on the dog's urine. On testing the urine they found that there was sugar in the dog's urine, establishing for the first time a relationship between the pancreas and diabetes. In 1901, another major step was taken by Eugene Opie, when he clearly established the link between the Islets of Langerhans and diabetes: Diabetes mellitus … is caused by destruction of the islets of Langerhans and occurs only when these bodies are in part or wholly destroyed. Before his work, the link between the pancreas and diabetes was clear, but not the specific role of the islets. The structure of insulin. The left side is a space-filling model of the insulin monomer, believed to be biologically active. Carbon is green, hydrogen white, oxygen red, and nitrogen blue. On the right side is a cartoon of the insulin hexamer, believed to be the stored form. A monomer unit is highlighted with the A chain in blue and the B chain in cyan. Yellow denotes disulfide bonds, and magenta spheres are zinc ions. Over the next two decades, several attempts were made to isolate whatever it was the islets produced as a potential treatment. In 1906 George Ludwig Zuelzer was partially successful treating dogs with pancreatic extract but was unable to continue his work. Between 1911 and 1912, E.L. Scott at the University of Chicago used aqueous pancreatic extracts and noted a slight diminution of glycosuria but was unable to convince his director of his work's value; it was shut down. Israel Kleiner demonstrated similar effects at Rockefeller University in 1919, but his work was interrupted by World War I and he did not return to it. Nicolae Paulescu, a professor of physiology at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Bucharest, was the first one to isolate insulin, which he called at that time pancrein, and published in 1921 the work that he had carried out in Bucharest. Use of his techniques was patented in Romania, though no clinical use resulted. In October 1920 Canadian Frederick Banting was reading one of Minkowski's papers and concluded that it is the very digestive secretions that Minkowski had originally studied that were breaking down the islet secretion(s), thereby making it impossible to extract successfully. He jotted a note to himself Ligate pancreatic ducts of the dog. Keep dogs alive till acini degenerate leaving islets. Try to isolate internal secretion of these and relieve glycosurea. The idea was that the pancreas's internal secretion, which supposedly regulates sugar in the bloodstream, might hold the key to the treatment of diabetes. A surgeon by training, Banting knew that certain arteries could be tied off that would lead to atrophy of most of the pancreas while leaving the islets of Langerhans intact. He theorized that a relatively pure extract could be made from the islets once most of the rest of pancreas was gone. In the Spring of 1921 Banting traveled to Toronto to explain his idea to J.J.R. Macleod who was Professor of Physiology at the University of Toronto, and asked Macleod if he could use his lab space to test the idea. Macleod was initially skeptical, but eventually agreed to let Banting use his lab space while he was on vacation for the summer. He also supplied Banting with ten dogs to experiment on, and two medical students, Charles Best and Clark Noble, to use as lab assistants, before leaving for Scotland. Since Banting only required one lab assistant, Best and Noble flipped a coin to see which would assist Banting for the first half of the summer. Best won the coin toss, and took the first shift as Banting's assistant. Loss of the coin toss may have proved unfortunate for Noble, given that Banting decided to keep Best for the entire summer, and eventually shared half his Nobel Prize money and a large part of the credit for the discovery of insulin with the winner of the toss. Had Noble won the toss, his career might have taken a different path. http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/167/12/1391 Banting's method was to tie a ligature (string) around the pancreatic duct, and, when examined several weeks later, the pancreatic digestive cells had died and been absorbed by the immune system, leaving thousands of islets. They then isolated an extract from these islets, producing what they called isletin (what we now know as insulin), and tested this extract on the dogs. Banting and Best were then able to keep a pancreatectomized dog named Alpha alive for the rest of the summer by injecting her with the crude extract they had prepared. Removal of the pancreas in test animals essentially mimics diabetes, leading to elevated blood glucose levels. Alpha was able to remain alive because the extracts, containing islitin, were able to lower her blood glucose levels. Banting and Best presented their results to Macleod on his return to Toronto in the fall of 1921, but Macleod pointed out flaws with the experimental design, and suggested the experiments be repeated with more dogs and better equipment. He then supplied Banting and Best with a better laboratory, and began paying Banting a salary from his research grants. Several weeks later, it was clear the second round of experiments was also a success; and Macleod helped publish their results privately in Toronto that November. However, they needed six weeks to extract the isletin, which forced considerable delays. Banting suggested that they try to use fetal calf pancreas, which had not yet developed digestive glands; he was relieved to find that this method worked well. With the supply problem solved, the next major effort was to purify the extract. In December 1921, Macleod invited the biochemist James Collip to help with this task, and, within a month, the team felt ready for a clinical test. On January 11, 1922, Leonard Thompson, a 14-year-old diabetic who lay dying at the Toronto General Hospital, was given the first injection of insulin. However, the extract was so impure that Thompson suffered a severe allergic reaction, and further injections were canceled. Over the next 12 days, Collip worked day and night to improve the ox-pancreas extract, and a second dose was injected on the 23rd. This was completely successful, not only in having no obvious side-effects, but in completely eliminating the glycosuria sign of diabetes. Children dying from diabetic keto-acidosis were kept in large wards, often with 50 or more patients in a ward, mostly comatose. Grieving family members were often in attendance, awaiting the (until then, inevitable) death. In one of medicine's more dramatic moments Banting, Best, and Collip went from bed to bed, injecting an entire ward with the new purified extract. Before they had reached the last dying child, the first few were awakening from their coma, to the joyous exclamations of their families. However, Banting and Best never worked well with Collip, regarding him as something of an interloper, and Collip left the project soon after. Over the spring of 1922, Best managed to improve his techniques to the point where large quantities of insulin could be extracted on demand, but the preparation remained impure. The drug firm Eli Lilly and Company had offered assistance not long after the first publications in 1921, and they took Lilly up on the offer in April. In November, Lilly made a major breakthrough and were able to produce large quantities of highly refined, 'pure' insulin. Insulin was offered for sale shortly thereafter. Purified animal-sourced insulin was the only type of insulin available to diabetics until genetic breakthroughs occurred later with medical research. The amino-acid structure of insulin was characterized in the 1950s and the first genetically-engineered, synthetic "human" insulin was produced in a laboratory in 1977 by Genentech using E. coli. http://www.gene.com/gene/news/press-releases/display.do?method=detail&id=4160 http://www.littletree.com.au/dna.htm Partnering with Genentech, Eli Lilly went on in 1982 to sell the first commercially available biosynthetic human insulin under the brand name Humulin. http://www.madehow.com/Volume-7/Insulin.html The vast majority of insulin currently used worldwide is now biosynthetic recombinant "human" insulin or its analogs. Nobel prizes The Nobel Prize committee in 1923 credited the practical extraction of insulin to a team at the University of Toronto and awarded the Nobel Prize to two men; Frederick Banting and J.J.R. Macleod. They were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1923 for the discovery of insulin. Banting, insulted that Best was not mentioned, shared his prize with Best, and Macleod immediately shared his with James Collip. The patent for insulin was sold to the University of Toronto for one dollar. Surprisingly, while Paulescu's pioneering work was being completely ignored by the Nobel prize committee, Professor Ian Murray was particularly active in working to correct the historical wrong against Paulescu. Murray was a professor of physiology at the Anderson College of Medicine in Glasgow, Scotland, the head of the department of Metabolic Diseases at a leading Glasgow hospital, vice-president of the British Association of Diabetes, and a founding member of the International Diabetes Federation. In an article for a 1971 issue of the Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, Murray wrote: "Insufficient recognition has been given to Paulesco, the distinguished Roumanian scientist, who at the time when the Toronto team were commencing their research had already succeeded in extracting the antidiabetic hormone of the pancreas and proving its efficacy in reducing the hyperglycaemia in diabetic dogs." Furthermore, Murray reported: "In a recent private communication Professor Tiselius, head of the Nobel Institute, has expressed his personal opinion that Paulesco was equally worthy of the award in 1923." The primary structure of insulin was determined by British molecular biologist Frederick Sanger. It was the first protein to have its sequence be determined. He was awarded the 1958 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work. In 1969, after decades of work, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin determined the spatial conformation of the molecule, the so-called tertiary structure, by means of X-ray diffraction studies. She had been awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964 for the development of crystallography. Rosalyn Sussman Yalow received the 1977 Nobel Prize in Medicine for the development of the radioimmunoassay for insulin. See also Insulin analog Anatomy and physiolology Glucagon Pancreas Islets of Langerhans Endocrinology Forms of diabetes mellitus Diabetes mellitus Diabetes mellitus type 1 Diabetes mellitus type 2 Treatment Diabetic coma Insulin therapy Intensive insulinotherapy Insulin pump Conventional insulinotherapy Other medical / diagnostic uses Insulin tolerance test Triple bolus test References Further reading The True Inventor of Insulin - Nicolae Paulescu Famous Canadian Physicians: Sir Frederick Banting at Library and Archives Canada External links The Insulin Protein Inspired by Insulin article by parent of a diabetic child Frederick Sanger, Nobel Prize for sequencing Insulin Freeview video with John Sanger and John Walker by the Vega Science Trust. Insulin: entry from protein databank The History of Insulin Insulin Lispro CBC Digital Archives - Banting, Best, Macleod, Collip: Chasing a Cure for Diabetes Cosmos Magazine: Insulin mystery cracked after 20 years National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse Discovery and Early Development of Insulin, 1920–1925 Secretion of Insulin and Glucagon Insulin Types Comparison Chart Insulin hormone dosage and side effects | Insulin |@lemmatized idealised:1 diagram:1 show:3 fluctuation:1 blood:35 sugar:10 red:2 lower:4 hormone:10 insulin:180 blue:3 human:18 course:1 day:4 contain:2 three:4 meal:3 addition:2 effect:21 rich:2 versus:1 starch:1 highlight:2 extensive:2 metabolism:4 body:12 function:2 vascular:1 compliance:1 cause:15 cell:61 liver:14 muscle:13 fat:8 tissue:9 take:11 glucose:52 store:10 glycogen:9 stop:2 use:22 energy:6 source:6 absent:2 low:8 begin:5 example:1 transfer:1 lipid:4 adipose:4 mobilization:1 level:27 central:4 metabolic:4 control:11 mechanism:6 status:1 also:12 signal:4 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5,044 | Foreign_relations_of_North_Korea | The foreign relations of North Korea are often tense and unpredictable. Since the Korean War ceasefire in 1953, the North Korean government has been largely isolationist, becoming one of the world's most authoritarian societies. Technically still in a state of war with South Korea and the West, North Korea has maintained close relations with China and often limited relations with other nations. Both Korean governments claim that the Military Demarcation Line (MDL) is only a temporary administrative line, not a permanent border. A demilitarized zone (DMZ) extends 2,000 meters (about 1.25 miles) on both sides of the MDL. Relations with other countries North Korea has a history of poor relations with neighboring countries. During the 1970s and 1980s, North Korean abductions of Japanese and South Koreans occurred. Although having since partly resolved the issue by admitting its role in the abductions, it remains a contentious issue with the two countries. In addition, the United States accuses North Korea of counterfeiting large numbers of high quality U.S. bills. However, South Korea has maintained a Sunshine policy towards North Korea since the 1990s, stressing Korean reunification and thus often going to great lengths to avoid antagonizing the leadership of the country. Since the late 1980s, North Korea's nuclear program has become a pressing issue in international affairs. After allegations from the United States about the continued existence of a military nuclear program in defiance of the 1994 Agreed Framework, North Korea allegedly admitted to the existence of uranium enrichment activities during a private meeting with American military officials. Afterwards, North Korea withdrew from the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty on January 10, 2003. After insisting on bilateral negotiations with the United States, it agreed to six-party talks between itself, the United States, South Korea, China, Russia, and Japan in August 2003. The talks continued for two years until an agreement was reached on September 19, 2005, which was placed under severe strain by the subsequent nuclear test by North Korea in October 2006. Since then, a very similar agreement was reached on February 13, 2007, that includes normalizing US-North Korean and Japanese-North Korean diplomatic ties on the condition that North Korea freeze its Yongbyon nuclear facility. After 1945, the Soviet Union supplied the economic and military aid that enabled North Korea to mount its invasion of the South in 1950. Soviet aid and influence continued at a high level during the Korean war; as mentioned, the Soviet Union was largely responsible for rebuilding North Korea's economy after the cessation of hostilities. In addition, the assistance of Chinese volunteers during the war and the presence of these troops until 1958 gave China some degree of influence in North Korea. In 1961, North Korea concluded formal mutual security treaties with the Soviet Union (inherited by Russia) and China, which have not been formally ended. For most of the Cold War, North Korea followed a policy of equidistance between the Soviet Union and China by accepting favors from both while avoiding a clear preference for either. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the establishment of diplomatic relations between the United States and China, the Soviet-backed Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia, and the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan created strains between China and the Soviet Union and, in turn, in North Korea's relations with its two major communist allies. North Korea tried to avoid becoming embroiled in the Sino-Soviet split, obtaining aid from both the Soviet Union and China and trying to avoid dependence on either. Following Kim Il Sung's 1984 visit to Moscow, there was a dramatic improvement in Soviet-DPRK relations, resulting in renewed deliveries of advanced Soviet weaponry to North Korea and increases in economic aid. South Korea established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1990 and the People's Republic of China in 1992, which put a serious strain on relations between North Korea and its traditional allies. Moreover, the fall of communism in eastern Europe in 1989 and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 had resulted in a significant drop in communist aid to North Korea, resulting in largely decreased relations with Russia. Despite these changes and its past reliance on this military and economic assistance, North Korea proclaims a militantly independent stance in its foreign policy in accordance with its official ideology of Juche, or self-reliance. At the same time, North Korea maintains membership in a variety of multilateral organizations. It became a member of the United Nations in September 1991. North Korea also belongs to the Food and Agriculture Organization; the International Civil Aviation Organization; the International Postal Union; the UN Conference on Trade and Development; the ITU; the UN Development Programme; the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization; the World Health Organization; the World Intellectual Property Organization; the World Meteorological Organization; the International Maritime Organization; the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Non-Aligned Movement. In July 2000, North Korea began participating in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), as Foreign Minister Paek Nam Sun attended the ARF ministerial meeting in Bangkok July 26-27. The DPRK also expanded its bilateral diplomatic ties in that year, establishing diplomatic relations with Italy, Australia, and the Philippines. The United Kingdom established diplomatic relations with the DPRK on December 13, 2000 FCO: Country Profile: North Korea , as did Canada in February, 2001 - Bilateral Relations Canada-DPRK - Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade followed by Germany and New Zealand on March 1, 2001 Auswärtiges Amt: Länderinformation North Korea - Country Information Paper - NZ Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade . Mexico maintains diplomatic relations with North Korea. Other countries such as France, the United States, and South American nations do not have formal diplomatic ties with North Korea and have not announced any intention to have any. North Korea, however, maintains a delegation, not an embassy, near Paris. In January 2008, North Korea closed its embassy in Canberra, citing financial difficulties. Embassy spokesman Pak Myong Guk explained: "It is very expensive to stay here in Australia. When our financial situation is to be resolved [sic] then I think our embassy will be re-established again here in Canberra." Australia and North Korea maintain diplomatic relations nonetheless. "Cash-strapped Korea closes embassy", Herald Sun, January 22, 2008 Steps have been taken to normalize US and Japanese ties since the landmark February 13, 2007 agreement reached, in exchange for North Korea freezing its nuclear facility at Yongbyon. North Korea fired short-range missiles off its western coast March 28 2008, told a South Korean defense source. South Korea's presidential office dismissed reports of the missile launches as part of "ordinary military training" by the communist state. On March 27 2008, the Seoul-government pulled 11 of its diplomats from an industrial park the two countries operate in North Korea. Their departure followed comments made in the week of March 17 2008 by South Korean Unification Minister Kim Ha-joong. He said it would be hard to expand the industrial complex without North Korean progress on denuclearization. "Report: North Korea test-fires missiles", CNN, March 28, 2008 Reunification efforts In August 1971, both North and South Korea agreed to hold talks through their respective Red Cross societies with the aim of reuniting the many Korean families separated following the division of Korea and the Korean War. After a series of secret meetings, both sides announced on July 4, 1972, an agreement to work toward peaceful reunification and an end to the hostile atmosphere prevailing on the peninsula. Officials exchanged visits, and regular communications were established through a North-South coordinating committee and the Red Cross. However, these initial contacts broke down and ended in 1973 following the announcement by South Korean President Park Chung Hee that the South would seek separate entry into the United Nations and the kidnapping of South Korean opposition leader Kim Dae-Jung in Tokyo by the South Korean intelligence service. There was no other significant contact between North and South Korea until 1984. Dialogue was renewed on several fronts in September 1984, when South Korea accepted the North's offer to provide relief goods to victims of severe flooding in South Korea. Red Cross talks to address the plight of separated families resumed, as did talks on economic and trade issues and parliamentary-level discussions. However, the North then unilaterally suspended all talks in January 1986, arguing that the annual US-South Korea "Team Spirit" military exercise was inconsistent with dialogue. There was a brief flurry of negotiations on co-hosting the 1988 Seoul Olympics, which ended in failure, and were followed by the 1987 KAL Flight 858 bombing. In a major initiative in July 1988, South Korean President Roh Tae Woo called for new efforts to promote North-South exchanges, family reunification, inter-Korean trade and contact in international forums. Roh followed up this initiative in a UN General Assembly speech in which South Korea offered to discuss security matters with the North for the first time. Initial meetings that grew out of Roh's proposals started in September 1989. In September 1990, the first of eight prime minister-level meetings between North Korean and South Korean officials took place in Seoul, beginning an especially fruitful period of dialogue. The prime ministerial talks resulted in two major agreements: the Agreement on Reconciliation, Nonaggression, Exchanges, and Cooperation (the Basic Agreement) and the Declaration on the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula (the Joint Declaration). The Basic Agreement, signed on December 13, 1991, called for reconciliation and nonaggression established four joint commissions. These commissions - on South-North reconciliation, South-North military affairs, South-North economic exchanges and cooperation, and South-North social and cultural exchange - were to work out the specifics for implementing the general terms of the Basic Agreement. Sub-committees to examine specific issues were created and liaison offices established in Panmunjom, but in the fall of 1992 the process came to a halt because of rising tension over the nuclear issue. The Joint Declaration on denuclearization was initiated on December 31, 1991. It forbade both sides to test, manufacture, produce, receive, possess, store, deploy, or use nuclear weapons and forbade the possession of nuclear reprocessing and uranium enrichment facilities. A procedure for inter-Korean inspection was to be organized and a North-South Joint Nuclear Control Commission (JNCC) was mandated with verification of the denuclearization of the peninsula. On January 30, 1992, the DPRK also signed a nuclear safeguards agreement with the IAEA, as it had pledged to do in 1985 when acceding to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. This safeguards agreement allowed IAEA inspections to begin in June 1992. In March 1992, the JNCC was established in accordance with the Joint Declaration, but subsequent meetings failed to reach agreement on the main issue of establishing a bilateral inspection regime. As the 1990s progressed, concern over the North's nuclear program became a major issue in North-South relations and between North Korea and the US. The lack of progress on implementation of the joint nuclear declaration's provision for an inter-Korean nuclear inspection regime led to reinstatement of the U.S.-South Korea Team Spirit military exercise for 1993. The situation worsened rapidly when North Korea, in January 1993, refused IAEA access to two suspected nuclear waste sites and then announced in March 1993 its intent to withdraw from the NPT. During the next 2 years, the US held direct talks with the DPRK. that resulted in a series of agreements on nuclear matters (see, under U.S. Policy Toward North Korea, U.S. Efforts on Denuclearization). During former US President Jimmy Carter's 1994 visit, Kim Il Sung agreed to a first-ever North-South summit. The two sides went ahead with plans for a meeting in July but had to shelve it because of Kim's death. Eleven South Korean diplomats left an industrial park, in the North Korean city of Kaesong, near the border between the two nations their country runs with North Korea on March 27 2008 after North Korea demanded their withdrawal. Their departure follows comments made in the week of March 17 2008 by South Korean Unification Minister Kim Ha-joong. He said it would be hard to expand the industrial complex without North Korean progress on denuclearization. "Pyongyang pressures S. Korean envoys to leave", CNN, March 27, 2008 Nuclear program North Korea's nuclear program started with Soviet help in the 1980s, on condition that it joined the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), with a 5MW(e) reactor in Yongbyon. After that, a 50MW(e) reactor was discussed. Concerns that North Korea had non-civilian nuclear ambitions were first raised in the late 1980s and almost resulted in their withdrawal from the NPT in 1994. However, the Agreed Framework and the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO) temporarily resolved this crisis by having the US and several other countries agree that in exchange for dismantling its nuclear weapons program, two light-water reactors (LWRs) would be provided. This agreement broke down in 2001 as relations with the US soured. It then announced it would withdraw from the NPT in 2003 after the US refused to follow the NPT and accused North Korea in late 2002 of continuing its nuclear weapons program in contravention of the NPT. North Korea at the time denied these allegations and insisted upon its right to produce nuclear energy for civilian purposes, as allowed by Article X of the NPT. Following this withdrawal, North Korea's neighbours quickly sought a diplomatic solution to an escalating crisis. This resulted in a series of meetings held periodically in Beijing from 2003, known as the six-party talks. Its success has been questioned as US-NK bilateral relations have been the main aggravating factor. For example, North Korea declared on February 10, 2005 that it had nuclear weapons. On October 6, 2006, North Korea then announced it had successfully detonated a nuclear bomb. In response, the US froze North Korean bank assets. This resulted in a 13-month postponement of the six-party talks until mid-December, 2006. The third (and last) phase of the fifth round of six-party talks have been held on 8 February, 2007, and implementation of the agreement reached at the end of the round has been successful according to the requirements of steps to be taken by all six parties within 30 days, and within 60 days after the agreement, including normalization of US-North Korean and Japanese-Korean diplomatic ties, among other things. At the time of writing, the 30 days commitments have generally been met by all parties, with further talks due to be scheduled. North Korea threatened to bolster its nuclear deterrent on March 3 2008 in response to U.S.-South Korean war games, striking a discordant note after a week of cultural diplomacy that raised hopes of warmer ties between Washington and Pyongyang, with the 2008 New York Philharmonic visit to North Korea. U.S. intelligence officials told members of the United States Congress on April 24 2008 that North Korea was helping Syria to build a nuclear facility, which was bombed by Israeli planes in September 2007. It is less clear whether North Korea had provided or was about to provide essential fuel components to Syria. Territorial disputes The Demarcation Line provides a tense border with South Korea. In addition, a 33 km section of boundary with China in the Baekdu Mountain area is indefinite. North Korea also currently claims sovereignty over the entire Korean peninsula, though this is rarely heard of. Diplomacy North Korea is one of the few countries in which the giving of presents still plays a significant role in diplomatic protocol. The Korean Central News Agency (KCNA) regularly reports that Kim Jong-il has received a floral basket or gift from a foreign leader or organization. Past news The announcements never mention what sort of gift, but Kim has a large collection of cultural and other souvenirs from leaders all over the world, which is partly or entirely on public display. During a 2000 visit to Pyongyang, US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright gave Kim a basketball signed by Michael Jordan as he takes an interest in NBA basketball. North Korea's diplomacy with the United States and Japan is marked by frequent dire warnings through KCNA about its military capabilities. It regards seemingly minor statements and actions in these countries as declarations of renewed war and once responded by threatening to turn South Korea into a "sea of fire" by firing its artillery along the DMZ at Seoul, though the official who made this threat was immediately relieved of his position. New Zealand's Foreign Affairs Minister Winston Peters took a trip to Pyongyang on November 20, 2007. The Foreign Affairs Minister had talks with President Kim Yong-nam in his two-day visit to the communist regime. Areas of in which New Zealand is looking to co-operate in could include agriculture, training and conservation. The lack of trade to the UN-sanctioned state has led to the vast poverty-stricken regions in N. Korea, resulting in almost NZD$8.5 million of aid to various organizations that assist in the development of farming regions and humanitarian assistance. The 2008 New York Philharmonic visit to North Korea marked the first presentation of a major U.S. cultural group to North Koreans. Bilateral Relations South-North Korean relations In the decades following the Korean War, relations between North and South Korea have gone through ups and downs. As the South's economy grew to gain "Asian Tiger" status, it took steps to reach out to the North. The South sent food and other aid to the North, but it also took a softer stance on the North's nuclear weapons programme. Huntington, Samuel. Clash of Civilizations. In October 2008, however, the North ratcheted up its war talk in response to an alleged Southern "smear campaign." The North's military warned the South to end its alleged policy of confrontation and threatened to turn the South into "debris" if it continued. A North Korea military spokesperson said that "the puppet authorities had better bear in mind that the advanced preemptive strike of our own style will reduce everything opposed to the nation and reunification to debris, not just setting them on fire." This turn of events came just one day after a rare face-to-face meeting between the two countries' military officials at the behest of the North, to discuss ways of improving communications between military commanders on both sides. No progress was made on the issue, however.http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia-pacific/2008/10/2008102854049888618.html Bulgarian-North Korean relations Bulgaria and North Korea generally have good relations. Diplomatic relations between the countries were established on 29 November 1948, and a bilateral agreement on cultural and scientific cooperation was signed in 1970. Kim Il-Sung visited the People's Republic of Bulgaria for the first time in the 1950s, and again in 1975. Bulgarian volunteers provided basic aid to North Korea during the Korean war by providing items such as clothing and foodstuffs. Дума - Деветдесет и две годишната Василка Никифорова е превърнала дома си в библиотека, посветена на Ким Ир Сен - Duma.bg Even after the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, the countries retained active diplomatic relations. Bulgaria is a NATO and member, and its capital Sofia hosts the only North Korean embassy in the Balkan region. The foreign language institute in Pyongyang maintains a Bulgarian language department. In the past, the two countries also cooperated closely in the sphere of sports, and still maintain such cooperation albeit to a lesser degree. Portuguese-North Korean relations Portugal and North Korea have a good relationship, in part due to the former Portuguese colony of Macau. One of Kim Jong-il's sons, in addition to his North Korean citizenship, holds Portuguese citizenship from the time he lived in Macau. Kim Yong Nam has made statements affirming the good relationship between the two countries, such as the condolences he gave then-President Jorge Sampaio when Francisco da Costa Gomes died , and the congratulations he extended to President Cavaco Silva after he won the Portuguese elections . New Zealand–North Korea relations Relations between the two countries have been almost non-existent since the establishment of the current dictatorship in North Korea. During the 1950s, New Zealand fought against North Korea in the Korean War, siding with the United States and South Korea. Since then, New Zealand had little contact with the DPRK until 2001, when the New Zealand's Foreign Affairs Minister Phil Goff met with his Korean counterpart Paek Nam-sun. Diplomatic relations were established shortly thereafter. New Zealand does not have an official ambassador to North Korea; diplomatic relations between the two countries are handled by the New Zealand ambassador to South Korea. North Korea - Country Information Paper - NZ Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade France-North Korean relations Relations between the French Republic and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea are officially non-existent. France is one of only two European Union members not to recognise North Korea, the other being Estonia. France therefore officially recognises South Korean sovereignty over the entire Korean Peninsula. There is no French embassy, nor any other type of French diplomatic representation, in Pyongyang, and no DPRK embassy in Paris, although a North Korean diplomatic office is located in nearby Neuilly sur Seine. Official website of the French National Assembly Address of the North Korean diplomatic representation in France France's official position is that it will consider establishing diplomatic relations with DPRK if and when the latter abandons its nuclear weapons programme and improves its human rights record. United Kingdom-North Korea relations Following initial progress in North Korea-South Korea relations, North Korea and the United Kingdom established diplomatic relations on December 12, 2000, opening resident embassies in London and Pyongyang. The United Kingdom provides English language and human rights training to DPRK officials, urging the North Korean government to allow a visit by the UN Special Rapporteur for Human Rights, and it oversees bilateral humanitarian projects in North Korea. British Foreign & Commonwealth Office - North Korea North Korea–United States relations North Korea–United States relations developed primarily during the Korean War, but in recent years have been largely defined by the United States' suspicions regarding North Korea's nuclear programs and North Korea's desire to normalize relations with the U.S., tempered by its stated perception of an imminent U.S. attack. Although hostility between the two countries remains largely a product of Cold War politics, there were earlier conflicts and animosity between the US and Korea. In the mid-19th century, Korea closed its borders to Western trade. In the General Sherman Incident, Korean forces attacked a US gunboat sent to negotiate a trade treaty and killed its crew, after it defied instructions from Korean officials. A US retribution attack, the Sinmiyangyo, followed. North Korea–Russia relations Russia-North Korea relations are determined by Russia’s strategic interests in Korea and the goal of preserving peace and stability in the Korean peninsula. Russia’s official position, and by extension its stance on settlement of the North Korean nuclear crisis, is that it stands firmly behind a peaceful resolution of the crisis, achieved through diplomacy and negotiation. North Korea–Pakistan relations Pakistan maintains diplomatic and trade relations with North Korea. The start of relations between the two countries emerged sometime in the 1970s during the rule of Pakistani Prime Minister Bhutto. North Korea maintains an embassy in Islamabad and consulate offices in other Pakistani cities. Relations between the two countries are reported to be strong in both civilian and military spheres. Iran–North Korea relations Iran-North Korea relations are described as being positive by official news agencies of the two countries. Iran and North Korea have pledged cooperation in educational, scientific, and cultural spheres. North Korea also provides assistance to Iran in its attempts to develop nuclear capabilities. North Korea-Mongolia relations North Korea–Mongolia relations date back to 1948, when Mongolia recognised Kim Il-sung's Soviet-backed government in the North. Mongolia also provided assistance to the North during the Korean War. The two countries signed their first friendship and cooperation treaty in 1986. Kim Il-sung also paid a visit to the country in 1988. However, relations became strained after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The two countries nullified their earlier friendship and cooperation treaty in 1995, and in 1999, North Korea closed its embassy in Ulan Bator during an official visit by Kim Dae-jung, the first-ever such visit by a South Korean president. At that point, Mongolia began intensifying its engagement with North Korea to improve relations. In 2001, Mongolia expelled two North Korean diplomats for attempting to pass counterfeit US $100 bills. Japan-Korea relations Japanese-Korean relations involve three parties: Japan, North Korea, and South Korea. A legacy of bitterness exists in Japan's relations with both North and South Korea, stemming from Japanese colonial rule over Korea from 1910 to 1945. In the early 2000s, Japanese-South Korean relations soured when the Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi visited the Yasukuni shrine. Conflict continues over claims to the Liancourt Rocks, a small island in the Sea of Japan. Bilaterally and through the Six-Party Talks, North Korea and Japan continue to discuss issues surrounding the fate of Japanese citizens abducted by North Korea in the 1970s and 1980s. See also List of Korea-related topics List of diplomatic missions in North Korea Diplomatic missions of North Korea References External links North Korea International Documentation Project | Foreign_relations_of_North_Korea |@lemmatized foreign:12 relation:56 north:140 korea:123 often:3 tense:2 unpredictable:1 since:8 korean:62 war:15 ceasefire:1 government:5 largely:5 isolationist:1 become:6 one:5 world:5 authoritarian:1 society:2 technically:1 still:3 state:16 south:51 west:1 maintain:8 close:5 china:10 limited:1 nation:6 claim:3 military:15 demarcation:2 line:3 mdl:2 temporary:1 administrative:1 permanent:1 border:4 demilitarized:1 zone:1 dmz:2 extend:2 meter:1 mile:1 side:6 country:27 history:1 poor:1 neighboring:1 abduction:2 japanese:9 occur:1 although:3 partly:2 resolve:3 issue:10 admit:2 role:2 remain:2 contentious:1 two:23 addition:4 united:17 accuses:1 counterfeit:2 large:2 number:1 high:2 quality:1 u:26 bill:2 however:8 sunshine:1 policy:5 towards:1 stress:1 reunification:5 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5,045 | Jawaharlal_Nehru | Jawaharlal Nehru (, ; 14 November 1889 –27 May 1964) was the first, and has been the longest-serving prime minister of India so far, having served from 1947 to 1964. A leading figure in the Indian independence movement, Nehru was elected by the Congress party to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister, and later when the Congress won India's first general election in 1952. As one of the founders of the Non-aligned Movement, he was also an important figure in the international politics of the post-war era. He is referred to as Pandit Nehru ("pandit," Sanskrit, "scholar", as honorific) and in India, as Panditji (-ji, honorific suffix). The son of a wealthy Indian barrister and politician, Motilal Nehru, Nehru became a leader of the left wing of the Indian National Congress when still fairly young. Rising to become Congress President, under the mentorship of Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru was a charismatic and radical leader, advocating complete independence from the British Empire. In the long struggle for Indian independence, in which he was a key player, Nehru was eventually recognized as Gandhi's political heir. A life-long liberal, Nehru was also an advocate for Fabian socialism and the public sector as the means by which long-standing challenges of economic development could be addressed by poorer nations. To Nehru was given the singular honour of raising the flag of independent India in New Delhi on 15 August 1947, when India gained Independence. Nehru's appreciation of the virtues of parliamentary democracy, secularism and liberalism coupled with concerns for the poor and underprivileged are recognised to have guided him in formulating policies that influence India to this day. They also reflect the socialist origins of his worldview. As prime minister and as Congress' leader Nehru pushed through India's Parliament, which was dominated by members of his own party, a series of legal reforms intended to emancipate Hindu women and bring equality. These reforms included raising the minimum marriageable age from twelve to fifteen, empowering women to divorce their husbands and inherit property, and declaring illegal the ruinous dowry system. His long tenure was instrumental in shaping the traditions and structures of independent India. He is sometimes referred to as the 'Architect of Modern India'. His daughter, Indira Gandhi, and grandson, Rajiv Gandhi, also served as Prime Ministers of India. Early life Nehru was born the eldest child of Swarup Rani and the wealthy barrister Motilal Nehru in the city of Allahabad, now in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The name 'Jawaharlal' comes from the Urdu Javâher-e La'al, meaning 'Red Jewel'). . The Nehru family came of Kashmiri Brahmin stock . Motilal had moved to Allahabad many years before and developed a successful legal practice. He was also an active member of the fledgling Indian national movement led by the Indian National Congress. Nehru and his two sisters—Vijaya Lakshmi and Krishna— were brought up in a large mansion, Anand Bhavan, and were raised predominantly in the English custom, then thought necessary by the Indian elite. They were also taught Hindi, Sanskrit and given a grounding in the Indian classics. Motilal Nehru wished his son to qualify for the Indian Civil Service, and duly sent young Jawaharlal to Harrow in England. Jawaharlal apparently did not enjoy his schooling at Harrow, finding the school syllabus stifling and the residency conditions far removed from home and quite unbearable. Nevertheless, after completing school, Nehru took the Cambridge entrance examinations in 1907 and went up to Trinity College, to study natural sciences. Jawaharlal stood second in his Tripos and graduated in 1910. The famously liberal atmosphere of the University also encouraged him to participate in a host of extra-curricular activities and has been noted as having been a key influence on his general outlook. He then enrolled at the Inner Temple for his legal studies in October 1910. This decision, as with studying at Harrow and Cambridge, was not apparently taken due to any fascination with the law on the part of Jawaharlal, but apparently at the behest of his father. Jawaharlal Nehru passed the Bar final examination in 1912 and was called to the bar later that year at the Inner Temple.. He returned to India soon after to set up a legal practice. However, the political world soon grasped his full attention. After the British massacre of protesters in Amritsar in 1919, an outraged Nehru devoted his energies to the political realm. Although initially sceptical of his son's political views, Motilal Nehru likewise joined the Congress party in the pursuit of Indian independence. Jawaharlal Nehru rapidly became Gandhi's trusted lieutenant. Nehru's protests, though strictly non-violent, landed him in jail for a total of nine years over the course of his life. During his time in prison, Nehru wrote "Glimpses of World History" (1934), his "Autobiography" (1936), and "The Discovery of India" (1946). These works earned him distinction as a writer in addition to his growing reputation in the independence movement. Under Gandhi's direction, Nehru led the Indian National Congress for the first time in 1929, at the Lahore session. He was again elected to the Congress presidency in 1936, 1937, and 1946, at which point he reached a political prestige in the independence movement second to none but Gandhi. India's First Prime Minister Teen Murti Bhavan, Nehru's residence as Prime Minister, now a museum in his memory. Nehru and his colleagues had been released as the British Cabinet Mission arrived to propose plans for transfer of power. Once elected, Nehru headed an interim government, which was impaired by outbreaks of communal violence and political disorder, and the opposition of the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who were demanding a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. After failed bids to form coalitions, Nehru reluctantly supported the partition of India, according to a plan released by the British on 3 June 1947. He took office as the Prime Minister of India on 15 August, and delivered his inaugural address titled "A Tryst With Destiny": "Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity." However, this period was marked with intense communal violence. This violence swept across the Punjab region, Delhi, Bengal and other parts of India. Nehru conducted joint tours with Pakistani leaders to encourage peace and calm angry and disillusioned refugees. Nehru would work with Maulana Azad and other Muslim leaders to safeguard and encourage Muslims to remain in India. The violence of the time deeply affected Nehru, who called for a ceasefire and UN intervention to stop the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. Fearing communal reprisals, Nehru also hesitated in supporting the annexation of Hyderabad State. In the years following independence, Nehru frequently turned to his daughter Indira to look after him and manage his personal affairs. Under his leadership, the Congress won an overwhelming majority in the elections of 1952. Indira moved into Nehru's official residence to attend to him. Indira would virtually become Nehru's chief of staff and constant companion in his travels across India and the world. Nehru's study in Teen Murti Bhavan. Economic policies Nehru presided over the introduction of a modified, Indian version of state planning and control over the economy. Creating the Planning commission of India, Nehru drew up the first Five-Year Plan in 1951, which charted the government's investments in industries and agriculture. Increasing business and income taxes, Nehru envisaged a mixed economy in which the government would manage strategic industries such as mining, electricity and heavy industries, serving public interest and a check to private enterprise. Nehru pursued land redistribution and launched programmes to build irrigation canals, dams and spread the use of fertilizers to increase agricultural production. He also pioneered a series of community development programs aimed at spreading diverse cottage industries and increasing efficiency into rural India. While encouraging the construction of large dams (which Nehru called the 'new temples of India'), irrigation works and the generation of hydroelectricity, Nehru also launched India's programme to harness nuclear energy. For most of Nehru's term as prime minister, India would continue to face serious food shortages despite progress and increases in agricultural production. Nehru's industrial policies, summarised in the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, encouraged the growth of diverse manufacturing and heavy industries , yet state planning, controls and regulations began to impair productivity, quality and profitability. Although the Indian economy enjoyed a steady rate of growth, chronic unemployment amidst widespread poverty continued to plague the population. Nehru's popularity remained unaffected, and his government succeeded to an extent in extending water and electricity supply, health care, roads and infrastructure for India's vast rural population. Education and social reform Jawaharlal Nehru was a passionate advocate of education for India's children and youth, believing it essential for India's future progress. His government oversaw the establishment of many institutions of higher learning, including the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, the Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Management. Nehru also outlined a commitment in his five-year plans to guarantee free and compulsory primary education to all of India's children. For this purpose, Nehru oversaw the creation of mass village enrollment programmes and the construction of thousands of schools. Nehru also launched initiatives such as the provision of free milk and meals to children in order to fight malnutrition. Adult education centres, vocational and technical schools were also organised for adults, especially in the rural areas. Under Nehru, the Indian Parliament enacted many changes to Hindu law to criminalize caste discrimination and increase the legal rights and social freedoms of women . A system of reservations in government services and educational institutions was created to eradicate the social inequalities and disadvantages faced by peoples of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Nehru also championed secularism and religious harmony, increasing the representation of minorities in government. National security and foreign policy Nehru led newly independent India from 1947 to 1964, during its first years of freedom from British rule. Both the U.S. and th U.S.S.R competed to make India an ally throughout the cold war. Although having promised in 1948 to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir under the auspices of the U.N., Nehru grew increasingly wary of the U.N. and declined to hold a plebiscite in 1953. He ordered the arrest of the Kashmiri politician Sheikh Abdullah, whom he had previously supported but now suspected of harbouring separatist ambitions; Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad replaced him. On the international scene, Nehru was a champion of pacifism and a strong supporter of the United Nations. He pioneered the policy of non-alignment and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement of nations professing neutrality between the rival blocs of nations led by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. Recognising the People's Republic of China soon after its founding (while most of the Western bloc continued relations with the Republic of China), Nehru argued for its inclusion in the United Nations and refused to brand the Chinese as the aggressors in their conflict with Korea. He sought to establish warm and friendly relations with it despite the invasion of Tibet in 1950, and hoped to act as an intermediary to bridge the gulf and tensions between the communist states and the Western bloc. This policy of pacifism and appeasement with respect to China soon came unraveled when China annexed Aksai Chin, the region of Kashmir adjoining Tibet in 1962 that led to the Sino-Indian war. Jawaharlal Nehru talks to Pakistan prime minister Muhammad Ali Bogra during his 1953 visit to Karachi. Nehru was hailed by many for working to defuse global tensions and the threat of nuclear weapons . He commissioned the first study of the human effects of nuclear explosions, and campaigned ceaselessly for the abolition of what he called "these frightful engines of destruction." He also had pragmatic reasons for promoting de-nuclearisation, fearing that a nuclear arms race would lead to over-militarisation that would be unaffordable for developing countries such as his own . In 1956 he had criticised the joint invasion of the Suez Canal by the British, French and Israelis. Suspicion and distrust cooled relations between India and the U.S., which suspected Nehru of tacitly supporting the Soviet Union. Accepting the arbitration of the UK and World Bank, Nehru signed the Indus Water Treaty in 1960 with Pakistani ruler Ayub Khan to resolve long-standing disputes about sharing the resources of the major rivers of the Punjab region. Final years Nehru had led the Congress to a major victory in the 1957 elections, but his government was facing rising problems and criticism. Disillusioned by intra-party corruption and bickering, Nehru contemplated resigning but continued to serve. The election of his daughter Indira as Congress President in 1959 aroused criticism for alleged nepotism, although Nehru disapproved of her election, partly because he considered it smacked of "dynastism"; he said, indeed it was "wholly undemocratic and an undesirable thing", and refused her a position in his cabinet . Indira herself was at loggerheads with her father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-stated personal deference to the Congress Working Committee to push through the dismissal of the Communist Party of India government in the state of Kerala, over his own objections. Nehru began to be frequently embarrassed by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary tradition, and was "hurt" by what he saw as an assertiveness with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father . Although the Pancha Sila (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence) was the basis of the 1954 Sino-Indian treaty over Tibet, in later years, Nehru's foreign policy suffered through increasing Chinese antagonism over border disputes and Nehru's decision to grant asylum to the Dalai Lama. After years of failed negotiations, Nehru authorized the Indian Army to annex Goa from Portugal in 1961. See liberation of Goa. While increasing his popularity, Nehru received criticism for opting for military action. In the 1962 elections, Nehru led the Congress to victory yet with a diminished majority. Opposition parties ranging from the right-wing Bharatiya Jana Sangh and Swatantra Party, socialists and the Communist Party of India performed well. In a matter of months, the border disputes with China turned into open conflict. Nehru assumed that as former victims of imperialism (India being a colony itself) they shared a sense of solidarity, as expressed in the phrase "Hindi-Chini bhai bhai" (Indians and Chinese are brothers). He was dedicated to the ideals of brotherhood and solidarity among developing nations. Nehru, naively, did not believe that one fellow Socialist country would attack another; and in any event, he felt secure behind the impregnable wall of ice that is the Himalayas. Both proved to be severe miscalculations of China's intentions and military capabilities. Following reports of his intention to confront Chinese occupation of the disputed areas—summarised in a memorable statement that he had asked the Army to "throw them (Chinese) out" - China launched a pre-emptive attack. Public viewing of Nehru's body, which lies in state, 1964 In a matter of days, a Chinese invasion of northeastern India exposed the weaknesses of India's military as Chinese forces came as far as Assam. Widely criticised for his government's insufficient attention to defence, Nehru was forced to sack the defence minister Krishna Menon and accept U.S. military aid. Nehru's health began declining steadily, and he was forced to spend months recuperating in Kashmir through 1963. Some historians attribute this dramatic decline to his surprise and chagrin over the invasion of India by the Chinese, which he perceived as a betrayal of trust. Upon his return from Kashmir in May 1964, Nehru suffered a stroke and later a heart attack. He died in the early hours of 27 May 1964. Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu rites at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River, witnessed by hundreds of thousands of mourners who had flocked into the streets of Delhi and the cremation grounds.'Legacy Nehru's statue in Aldwych, London. As India's first Prime minister and external affairs minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a major role in shaping modern India's government and political culture along with sound foreign policy. He is praised for creating a system providing universal primary education, reaching children in the farthest corners of rural India. Nehru's education policy is also credited for the development of world-class educational institutions such as the All India Institute of Medical Sciences www.aiims.ac.in , Indian Institutes of Technology, and the Indian Institutes of Management. Nehru is credited for establishing a widespread system of affirmative action to provide equal opportunities and rights for India's ethnic groups, minorities, women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes . Nehru's passion for egalitarianism meant that he put the state to work to try and end widespread practices of discrimination against women and depressed classes , though with limited success in his lifetime. Nevertheless, Nehru's stance as a unfailing nationalist led him to also implement policies which stressed commonality among Indians while still appreciating regional diversities. This proved particularly important as post-Independence differences surfaced since British withdrawal from the subcontinent prompted regional leaders to no longer relate to one another as allies against a common adversary. While differences of culture and, especially, language threatened the unity of the new nation, Nehru established programs such as the National Book Trust and the National Literary Academy which promoted the translation of regional literatures between languages and also organized the transfer of materials between regions. In pursuit of a single, unified India, Nehru warned, "Integrate or perish." Commemoration Jawaharlal Nehru on a 1989 USSR commemorative stamp. |Nehru hands out sweets to children in Nongpoh In his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed an iconic status in India and was widely admired across the world for his idealism and statesmanship. His birthday, 14 November, is celebrated in India as Children's Day in recognition of his lifelong passion and work for the welfare, education and development of children and young people. Children across India remember him as Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru). Nehru remains a popular symbol of the Congress party which frequently celebrates his memory. Congress leaders and activists often emulate his style of clothing, especially the Gandhi cap, and his mannerisms. Nehru's ideals and policies continue to shape the Congress party's manifesto and core political philosophy. An emotional attachment to his legacy was instrumental in the rise of his daughter Indira to leadership of the Congress party and the national government. Many documentaries about Nehru's life have been produced. He has also been portrayed in fictionalised films. The canonical performance is probably that of Roshan Seth, who played him three times: in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film Gandhi, Shyam Benegal's 1988 television series Bharat Ek Khoj, based on Nehru's The Discovery of India, and in a 2007 TV film entitled The Last Days of the Raj. The Last Days of the Raj (2007) (TV) In Ketan Mehta's film Sardar, Nehru was portrayed by Benjamin Gilani. Nehru's personal preference for the sherwani ensured that it continues to be considered formal wear in North India today; aside from lending his name to a kind of cap, the Nehru jacket is named in his honour due to his preference for that style. Numerous public institutions and memorials across India are dedicated to Nehru's memory. The Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi is among the most prestigious universities in India. The Jawaharlal Nehru Port near the city of Mumbai is a modern port and dock designed to handle a huge cargo and traffic load. Nehru's residence in Delhi is preserved as the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library. The Nehru family homes at Anand Bhavan and Swaraj Bhavan are also preserved to commemorate Nehru and his family's legacy. In 1951, he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC). AFSC's Past Nobel Nominations See also Political Families of The World The Discovery of India written by Jawaharlal Nehru Glimpses of World History written by Jawaharlal Nehru Tryst with destiny the historic speech made by Jawaharlal Nehru, considered in modern India to be a landmark oration that captures the essence of the triumphant culmination of the hundred-year Indian freedom struggle against the British Empire in India. Letters from a Father to His Daughter a collection of letters written by Jawaharlal Nehru to his daughter Indira. Nehru jacket Notes References A Tryst With Destiny historic speech made by Jawaharlal Nehru on 14 August 1947Nehru: The Invention of India by Shashi Tharoor (November 2003) Arcade Books ISBN 1-55970-697-XJawaharlal Nehru (Edited by S. Gopal and Uma Iyengar) (July 2003) The Essential Writings of Jawaharlal Nehru Oxford University Press ISBN 0195653246Autobiography:Toward freedom, Oxford University PressJawaharlal Nehru: Life and work by M. Chalapathi Rau, National Book Club (1 January 1966)Jawaharlal Nehru by M. Chalapathi Rau. [New Delhi] Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India [1973]Letters from a father to his daughter by Jawaharlal Nehru, Children's Book TrustNehru: A Political Biography by Michael Brecher (1959). London:Oxford University Press.After Nehru, Who by Welles Hangen (1963). London: Rupert Hart-Davis.Nehru: The Years of Power by Geoffrey Tyson (1966). London: Pall Mall Press.Independence and After: A collection of the more important speeches of Jawaharlal Nehru from September 1946 to May 1949 (1949). Delhi: The Publications Division, Government of India.Commanding Heights. by Joseph Stanislaw and Daniel A. Yergin. (Simon & Schuster, Inc: New York), 1998. "The Challenge to Indian Nationalism." by Selig S. Harrison Foreign Affairs vol. 34, no. 2 (1956): 620-636. “Nehru, Jawaharlal.” by Ainslie T. Embree, ed., and the Asia Society. Encyclopedia of Asian History. Vol. 3. Charles Scribner’s Sons. New York. (1988): 98-100. “Nehru: The Great Awakening.” by Robert Sherrod. Saturday Evening Post'' vol. 236, no. 2 (19 January 1963): 60-67. External links Jawahar Lal Nehru's Biography Jawaharlal Nehru University Nehru biography at Harappa.com Nehru's Quotes India Today's profile of Nehru Nehru Pictures Nehru's legacy to India Nehru on Communalism | Jawaharlal_Nehru |@lemmatized jawaharlal:26 nehru:126 november:3 may:4 first:9 long:8 serve:5 prime:10 minister:12 india:61 far:3 leading:1 figure:2 indian:25 independence:10 movement:6 elect:3 congress:18 party:11 assume:2 office:2 independent:5 later:3 win:2 general:2 election:6 one:3 founder:1 non:4 align:1 also:21 important:3 international:2 politics:1 post:3 war:4 era:1 refer:2 pandit:2 sanskrit:2 scholar:1 honorific:2 panditji:1 ji:1 suffix:1 son:4 wealthy:2 barrister:2 politician:2 motilal:5 become:4 leader:7 left:1 wing:2 national:9 still:3 fairly:1 young:3 rise:3 president:2 mentorship:1 mahatma:1 gandhi:9 charismatic:1 radical:1 advocate:3 complete:2 british:8 empire:2 struggle:2 key:2 player:1 eventually:1 recognize:1 political:10 heir:1 life:6 liberal:2 fabian:1 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press:3 toward:1 pressjawaharlal:1 chalapathi:2 rau:2 club:1 january:2 publication:2 division:2 ministry:1 information:1 broadcasting:1 govt:1 trustnehru:1 biography:3 michael:1 brecher:1 welles:1 hangen:1 rupert:1 hart:1 davis:1 geoffrey:1 tyson:1 pall:1 mall:1 september:1 command:1 height:1 joseph:1 stanislaw:1 daniel:1 yergin:1 simon:1 schuster:1 inc:1 york:2 nationalism:1 selig:1 harrison:1 vol:3 ainslie:1 embree:1 ed:1 asia:1 society:1 encyclopedia:1 asian:1 charles:1 scribner:1 great:1 awaken:1 robert:1 sherrod:1 saturday:1 even:1 link:1 jawahar:1 lal:1 harappa:1 com:1 quote:1 profile:1 picture:1 communalism:1 |@bigram jawaharlal_nehru:20 prime_minister:10 motilal_nehru:4 mahatma_gandhi:1 parliamentary_democracy:1 indira_gandhi:1 rajiv_gandhi:1 uttar_pradesh:1 communal_violence:2 muhammad_ali:2 ali_jinnah:1 inaugural_address:1 deeply_affected:1 indo_pakistani:1 overwhelming_majority:1 chief_staff:1 income_tax:1 irrigation_canal:1 health_care:1 caste_discrimination:1 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5,046 | Telecommunications_in_Greece | Telecommunications OTE, the former state monopoly, is the main player in fixed-line telephony. Since the liberalization of the telecommunications market, OTE has been slowly losing market share to "alternative", competing telecom operators, such as Vivodi, Q-Telecom, Tellas and Forthnet. As of 2005, OTE's share on the market hovered around 76%. Telephones - main lines in use: 6,348,800 (2004). Telephone system: modern networks reach all areas; microwave radio relay carries most traffic; 20.000 kilometers of fiber optics and extensive open-wire network; submarine cables to off-shore islands domestic: 100% digital; microwave radio relay, open wire, and submarine cable international: 100% digital; tropospheric scatter; 8 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Eutelsat, and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean region) Mobile Telecommunications Greece has three mobile telecom companies; Cosmote, Vodafone and WIND. Number of active lines: 12,500,000 (December 2005), which means 117% market penetration. Mobile penetration reached 123% in 2006, the second highest in the world. Satellite Telecommunications Greece owns one Telecommunications Satellite, named Hellasat, which provides telecommunication services in a major part of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. Internet Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 23 (1999). Internet penetration: 40% (End of 2007). Over 1.500.000 broadband connections, as of December 2008. Country code (Top-level domain): .gr Broadband Internet access Mass Media Radio broadcast stations: The state radio and television broadcasting agency is ERT (Elliniki Radiofonia kai Tileorasi - Greek Radio & Television). The station owns 3 national television stations, ET-1, NET (Nea Elliniki Tileorasi) and ET-3 which is based out of Thessaloniki. In January 2006, ERT launched Digital Terrestrial Television with 3 channels. By March 2006, at least 65% of the Greek population will be able to view Digital TV for free with the use of set-top boxes. ERT also operates 7 national radio stations, including ERA 5, the Voice of Greece, which broadcasts internationally via shortwave. ERT is based in Athens. The first non-pirate private radio station to broadcast in Greece was Athena 98,4 FM, in 1987. Private television began in November, 1989 when Mega Channel began operating. Today, over 1,000 radio stations and approximately 150 television stations broadcast in Greece. Digital satellite broadcasting began in 1999 by the South-African conglomerate Naspers which uses the trademark Nova. Radios: 5.02 million (1997) Television broadcast stations: 64 (plus about 1,000 low-power repeaters); also two stations in the US Armed Forces Network (1999) Televisions: 2.54 million (1997) Post ELTA is the state-owned postal service provider of Greece. A number of private courier services, such as ACS, United Parcel Service and FedEx (Speedex), also operate in Greece. Regulation The telecommunications and postal services market in Greece is regulated by the National Regulatory Authority (EETT). See also Greece OTE EETT | Telecommunications_in_Greece |@lemmatized telecommunication:7 ote:4 former:1 state:3 monopoly:1 main:2 player:1 fixed:1 line:3 telephony:1 since:1 liberalization:1 market:5 slowly:1 lose:1 share:2 alternative:1 compete:1 telecom:3 operator:1 vivodi:1 q:1 tellas:1 forthnet:1 hover:1 around:1 telephone:2 use:3 system:1 modern:1 network:3 reach:2 area:1 microwave:2 radio:9 relay:2 carry:1 traffic:1 kilometer:1 fiber:1 optic:1 extensive:1 open:2 wire:2 submarine:3 cable:3 shore:1 island:1 domestic:1 digital:5 international:1 tropospheric:1 scatter:1 satellite:4 earth:1 station:10 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:3 indian:2 eutelsat:1 inmarsat:1 region:1 mobile:3 greece:9 three:1 company:1 cosmote:1 vodafone:1 wind:1 number:2 active:1 december:2 mean:1 penetration:3 second:1 high:1 world:1 one:1 name:1 hellasat:1 provide:1 service:6 major:1 part:1 eastern:1 europe:1 western:1 asia:1 internet:4 provider:2 isps:1 end:1 broadband:2 connection:1 country:1 code:1 top:2 level:1 domain:1 gr:1 access:1 mass:1 medium:1 broadcast:5 television:8 broadcasting:2 agency:1 ert:4 elliniki:2 radiofonia:1 kai:1 tileorasi:2 greek:2 national:3 et:2 net:1 nea:1 base:2 thessaloniki:1 january:1 launch:1 terrestrial:1 channel:2 march:1 least:1 population:1 able:1 view:1 tv:1 free:1 set:1 box:1 also:4 operate:3 include:1 era:1 voice:1 internationally:1 via:1 shortwave:1 athens:1 first:1 non:1 pirate:1 private:3 athena:1 fm:1 begin:3 november:1 mega:1 today:1 approximately:1 south:1 african:1 conglomerate:1 naspers:1 trademark:1 nova:1 million:2 plus:1 low:1 power:1 repeater:1 two:1 u:1 arm:1 force:1 post:1 elta:1 postal:2 courier:1 ac:1 united:1 parcel:1 fedex:1 speedex:1 regulation:1 regulate:1 regulatory:1 authority:1 eett:2 see:1 |@bigram fiber_optic:1 tropospheric_scatter:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 eutelsat_inmarsat:1 provider_isps:1 isps_internet:1 broadband_internet:1 |
5,047 | Dylan_(programming_language) | The Dylan programming language is a multi-paradigm language that includes support for functional and object-oriented programming, and is dynamic and reflective while providing a programming model designed to support efficient machine code generation, including fine-grained control over dynamic and static behaviors. It was created in the early 1990s by a group led by Apple Computer. “Dylan” is ("dill-un"), like the surname of Bob Dylan. Dylan derives from Scheme and Lisp and adds an integrated object system derived from the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS). In Dylan, all values (including numbers, characters, functions, and classes) are first-class objects. Dylan supports multiple inheritance, polymorphism, multiple dispatch, keyword arguments, object introspection, pattern-based syntax extension macros, and many other advanced features. Programs can express fine-grained control over dynamism, admitting programs that occupy a continuum between dynamic and static programming and supporting evolutionary development (allowing for rapid prototyping followed by incremental refinement and optimization). Dylan's main design goal is to be a dynamic language well-suited for developing commercial software. Dylan attempts to address potential performance issues by introducing "natural" limits to the full flexibility of Lisp systems, allowing the compiler to clearly understand compilable units (i.e., libraries). Although deriving much of its semantics from Scheme and Lisp—some implementations were in fact initially built within existing Scheme and Lisp systems—Dylan has an ALGOL-like syntax rather than a Scheme-like prefix syntax. History Dylan was created in the early 1990s by a group led by Apple Computer. At one point in its development it was intended for use with Apple's Newton computer, but the Dylan implementation did not reach sufficient maturity in time, and Newton instead used a combination of C and the NewtonScript developed by Walter Smith. Apple ended their Dylan development effort in 1995, though they made a "technology release" version available ("Apple Dylan TR1") that included an advanced IDE. Two other groups contributed to the design of the language and developed implementations: Harlequin released a commercial IDE for Microsoft Windows and Carnegie Mellon University released an open source compiler for Unix systems. Both of these implementations are now open source and maintained by a group of volunteers, the Gwydion Maintainers. The Dylan language was code-named Ralph. James Joaquin chose the name Dylan for "DYnamic LANguage." Syntax Initially, Dylan used a Scheme-like prefix syntax, which is based on s-expressions: (bind ((radius 5) (circumference (* 2 $pi radius))) (if (> circumference 42) (format-out "Hello big circle! c is %=" circumference) (format-out "Hello circle! c is %=" circumference))) By the time the language design was completed, it was changed to an Algol-like syntax, designed by Michael Kahl, with the expectation that it would be more familiar to a wider audience of programmers: begin let radius = 5; let circumference = 2 * $pi * radius; if (circumference > 42) format-out("Hello, big circle! c = %=", circumference); else format-out("Hello, circle! c is %=", circumference); end if end Similar to other functional programming languages, the result of a function is the value of the last expression evaluated—there is no explicit “return” statement. The following function returns the value of the “if” statement (statements, too, produce results), which evaluates to the value of either “1” or “n * factorial(n - 1)”: define method factorial(n :: <integer>) if (n = 0) 1 else n * factorial(n - 1) end end method; Modules vs. namespace In many object-oriented languages, classes are the primary means of encapsulation and modularization; each class defines a namespace and controls how and which definitions are externally visible. In addition, classes in many languages define an indivisible unit that must be used as a whole—if you want to use a String concatenation function, you must import and compile against all of String. Some languages also include a separate, explicit namespace or module system that performs encapsulation in a more general way. Dylan is such a language. In Dylan, the concepts of compile-unit and import-unit are separated, and classes have nothing specifically to do with either. A library defines items that should be compiled and handled together, while a module defines the namespace. Classes can be placed together in modules, or cut across them, as the programmer wishes. Often the complete definition for a class does not exist in a single module, but is spread across several that are optionally collected together. Different programs can have different definitions of the same class, including only what they need. For example, consider an add-on library for regex support on String. In some languages, in order for the functionality to be included in strings, the functionality has to be added to the String namespace itself. As soon as you do this, the String class becomes larger, and people who don't need to use regex still have to "pay" for it in increased library size. For this reason these sorts of add-ons are typically placed in their own namespaces and objects. The downside to this approach is that the new functionality is no longer a part of string; instead, it is isolated in its own set of functions that have to be called separately. Instead of myString.parseWith(myPattern), which would be the natural organization from an OO point of view, you use something like myPattern.parseString(myString), which effectively reverses the ordering. In addition, under Dylan many interfaces can be defined for the same code, for instance the String concatenation method could be placed in both the String interface, and the "concat" interface which collects together all of the different concatenation functions from various classes. This is more commonly used in math libraries, where functions tend to be applicable to widely differing object types. A more practical use of the interface construct is to build public and private versions of a module, something that other languages include as a "bolt on" feature that invariably causes problems and adds syntax. Under Dylan the programmer can simply place every function call in the "Private" or "Development" interface, and collect up publicly accessible functions in "Public". Under Java or C++ the visibility of an object is defined in the code itself, meaning that to support a similar change the programmer would be forced to re-write the definitions completely, and could not have two versions at the same time. Classes Classes in Dylan describe "slots" (data members, fields, ivars, etc.) of objects in a fashion similar to most OO languages. All access to slots are via methods, as in CLOS and Smalltalk. Default getter and setter methods are automatically generated based on the slot names. In contrast with most other OO languages, other methods applicable to the class are often defined outside of the class, and thus class definitions in Dylan typically include the definition of the storage only. For instance: define class <window> (<view>) slot title :: <string> = "untitled", init-keyword: title:; slot position :: <point>, required-init-keyword: position:; end class; In this example the class "<window>" is defined. The <class name> syntax is convention only, to make the class names stand out—the angle brackets are merely part of the class name. In comparison, in some languages the convention is to capitalize the first letter of the class name or to prefix the name with a "C" or "T" (for example). <window> inherits from a single class, <view>, and contains two slots, title holding a string for the window title, and position holding an X-Y point for a corner of the window. In this particular example the title has been given a default value, while the position has not. The optional "init-keyword" syntax allows the programmer to specify the initial value of the slot when instantiating an object of the class. In languages such as C++ or Java, the class would also define its interface. In this case the definition above has no explicit instructions, so in both languages access to the slots and methods is considered protected, meaning they can be used only by subclasses. In order to allow unrelated code to use the window instances, they would have to be declared public. In Dylan these sorts of visibility rules are not considered part of the code itself, but of the module/interface system. This adds considerable flexibility. For instance, one interface used during early development could declare everything public, whereas one used in testing and deployment could limit this. With C++ or Java these changes would require changes to the source code itself, so people won't do it, whereas in Dylan this is a completely unrelated concept. Although this example does not use it, Dylan also supports multiple inheritance. Methods and generic functions In Dylan, methods are not intrinsically associated with any particular class; methods can be thought of as existing outside of classes. Like CLOS, Dylan is based on multimethods, where the specific method to be called is chosen based upon the types of all its arguments. The method does not have to be known at compile time, the understanding being that the required functionality may be available or may not, based on the user's preferences. Under Java the same methods would be isolated in a particular class. In order to use that functionality the programmer is forced to import that class and refer to it explicitly in order to call the method. If that class is not available, or unknown at compile time, the application simply won't compile. In Dylan, code is isolated from storage in functions. Many classes have methods that call their own functions, thereby looking and feeling like most other OO languages. However code may also be located in generic functions, meaning they are not attached to a particular class, and can be called natively by anyone. Linking a particular generic function to a method in a class is accomplished this way: define method turn-blue (w :: <window>) w.color := $blue; end method; This definition is similar to those in other languages, and would likely be encapsulated within the <window> class. Note the := setter call, which is syntactic sugar for color-setter($blue, w). The utility of generic methods comes into its own when you consider more "generic" examples. For instance, one common function in most languages is the to-string, which returns some human-readable form for the object. For instance, a window might return its title and its position in parens, while a string would return itself. In Dylan these methods could all be collected into a single module called "to-string", thereby removing this code from the definition of the class itself. If a particular object did not support a to-string, it could be easily added in the to-string module. Extensibility This whole concept might strike some readers as very odd. The code to handle to-string for a window isn't defined in <window>? This might not make any sense until you consider how Dylan handles the call to to-string. In most languages when the program is compiled the to-string for <window> is looked up and replaced with a pointer (more or less) to the method. In Dylan this occurs when the program is first run; the runtime builds a table of method-name/parameters details and looks up methods dynamically via this table. That means that a function for a particular method can be located anywhere, not just in the compile-time unit. In the end the programmer is given considerable flexibility in terms of where to place their code, collecting it along class lines where appropriate, and functional lines where it's not. The implication here is that a programmer can add functionality to existing classes by defining functions in a separate file. For instance, you might wish to add spell checking to all <string>s, which in most languages would require access to the source code of the string class—and such basic classes are rarely given out in source form. In Dylan (and other "extensible languages") the spell checking method could be added in the spell-check module, defining all of the classes on which it can be applied via the define method construct. In this case the actual functionality might be defined in a single generic function, which takes a string and returns the errors. When the spell-check module is compiled into your program, all strings (and other objects) will get the added functionality. This still might not sound all that obvious, but in fact it is a common problem faced by almost all OO languages; not everything fits into a class construct, many problems apply to all objects in the system and there's no natural way to handle this. Apple Dylan Apple Dylan is the implementation of Dylan produced by Apple Computer. See also Dylan Server Pages Koala (web server) External links The Dylan Reference Manual - The core language and library definition Getting Started with Dylan Gwydion Dylan - Host of two open source, optimizing Dylan compilers targeting Unix/Linux, Mac OS X, and Microsoft Windows The Marlais Dylan Interpreter - An implementation of a subset of Dylan, suitable for bootstrapping a compiler Dylan Programming Language - A general information website Dylan Language Wiki A Dylan Primer for Scheme Programmers | Dylan_(programming_language) |@lemmatized dylan:45 program:8 language:29 multi:1 paradigm:1 include:9 support:8 functional:3 object:15 orient:2 programming:4 dynamic:5 reflective:1 provide:1 model:1 design:5 efficient:1 machine:1 code:13 generation:1 fine:2 grain:2 control:3 static:2 behavior:1 create:2 early:3 group:4 lead:2 apple:8 computer:4 dill:1 un:1 like:8 surname:1 bob:1 derive:3 scheme:6 lisp:5 add:10 integrate:1 system:8 common:3 clos:3 value:6 number:1 character:1 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5,048 | Basenji | The Basenji is a breed of hunting dog that was bred from stock originating in central Africa. Only in North America is the breed considered to be of the sighthound type. Most of the major kennel clubs in the English-speaking world place the breed in the Hound Group, although The American Kennel Club has proposed realigning the dog breed groups, placing the Basenji into a new sighthound group. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale places the breed in Group 5, Spitz and Primitive types, and the United Kennel Club (US) places the breed in the Sighthound & Pariah Group. The Basenji produces an unusual yodel-like sound, due to its unusually shaped larynx. Adapted from the book "Why Pandas Do Handstands," 2006, by Augustus Brown. This trait also gives the Basenji the nickname "Barkless Dog." BCOA African Stock Project - 1945 Letter from Africa In behavior and temperament they have some traits in common with cats. Sometimes referred to as an Egyptian or African dingo, Basenjis share many unique traits with Pariah dog types. Basenjis, like dingos and some other breeds of dog, come into estrus only once annually, as compared to other dog breeds which may have two or more breeding seasons every year. Both dingos and Basenjis lack a distinctive odor, and both are considered relatively silent, more prone to howls, yodels, and other undulated vocalizations over the characteristic bark of modern dog breeds. While dogs that resemble the basenji in some respects are commonplace over much of Africa, the breed's original foundation stock came from the old growth forest regions of the Congo Basin, where its structure and type were fixed by adaptation to its habitat, as well as use (primarily net hunting in extremely dense old-growth forest vegetation). Characteristics Appearance Tri-colour with brindle points Basenji are small, elegant-looking, short-haired dogs with erect ears, a tightly curled tail, and a graceful neck. Some people consider their appearance similar to that of a miniature deer. A basenji's forehead is wrinkled, especially when the animal is young. Basenji eyes are typically almond shaped, which gives the dog the appearance of squinting seriously. Dogs typically weigh 24 pounds (11 kg) and stand 16 inches (40.6 cm) at the withers. They are typically a square breed, which means that they are as long as they are tall. The basenji is an athletic dog and is deceptively powerful for its size. They have a graceful, confident gait like a trotting horse, and skim the ground in a "double-suspension gallop", with their characteristic curled tail straightened out for greater balance, when running flat-out at their top speed. The basenji is recognized in the following standard colorations: red, black, tricolor (black with tan in the traditional pattern), and brindle (black stripes on a background of red), all with white, by the FCI, KC, AKC, and UKC. There are additional variations, such as the "trindle", which is a tricolor with brindle points, and several other colorations exist in the Congo such as liver, shaded reds and(sables), "capped" tricolors (creeping tan). Temperament A basenji standing on its hind legs to look over a wall The Basenji is alert, affectionate, energetic, and curious and reserved with strangers. The Basenji is somewhat aloof, but can also form strong bonds with people. Basenjis should not be trusted with non-canine pets. It is usually patient, but does best with older considerate handlers. Basenjis dislike wet weather, like to climb, can easily get over chain wire fences, and are very clever at getting their own way. The Basenji has the unique properties of not barking (it makes a low, liquid ululation instead) and cleaning itself like a cat. It can be described as speedy, frisky, tireless at play, and teasing the owner into play. Most Basenji problems usually involve a mismatch between owner and pet. Basenjis often stand on their hind legs, somewhat like a meerkat, by themselves or leaning on something. This behavior is observed when the dog is curious about something. Health Very young basenji puppies There is apparently only one completed health survey of basenjis, http://users.pullman.com/lostriver/breeddata.htm Dog Longevity Web Site, Breed Data page. Compiled by K. M. Cassidy. Retrieved July 8, 2007 a 2004 UK Kennel Club survey. http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/570 Kennel Club/British Small Animal Veterinary Association Scientific Committee. 2004. Purebred Dog Health Survey. Retrieved July 5, 2007 Many basenjis suffer from PRA (progressive retinal atrophy), which causes blindness, and Fanconi's syndrome, which can cause kidney failure. Besides Fanconi Syndrome and PRA, Basenjis also suffer from Hypothyroidism, IPSID (immunoproliferative systemic intestinal disease), HA (Hemolytic Anemia). Basenjis are also sensitive to environmental and household chemicals which can cause liver problems. Mortality Basenjis in the 2004 UK Kennel Club survey had a median longevity of 13.6 years (sample size of 46 deceased dogs), which is 1-2 years longer than the median longevity of other breeds of similar size. http://users.pullman.com/lostriver/weight_and_lifespan.htm Dog Longevity Web Site, Weight and Longevity page. Compiled by K. M. Cassidy. Retrieved July 5, 2007 The oldest dog in the survey was 17.5 years. Most common causes of death were old age (30%), urologic (incontinence, Fanconi syndrome, chronic kidney failure 13%), behavior ("unspecified" and aggression 9%), and cancer. (9%). Morbidity Among 78 live dogs in the 2004 UKC survey, the most common health issues noted by owners were dermatologic and urologic (urologic issues in basenjis can be signs of Fanconi syndrome). Fanconi Syndrome Fanconi syndrome, an inheritable disorder in which the kidneys fail to reabsorb electrolytes and nutrients, http://www.basenjiclub.com/?q=node/36 Basenji Club of America Fanconi Syndrome web page. Retrieved July 14, 2007 is unusually common in basenjis. Symptoms include excessive drinking, excessive urination, and glucose in the urine, which may lead to a misdiagnosis of diabetes. Fanconi syndrome usually presents between 4 and 8 years of age, but sometimes as early as 3 years or as late as 10 years. Fanconi syndrome is treatable and organ damage is reduced if treatment begins early. Basenji owners are advised to test their dog's urine for glucose once a month beginning at the age of 3 years. Glucose testing strips designed for human diabetics are inexpensive and available at most pharmacies. Fanconi DNA Linkage Test In July 2007, Dr. Gary Johnson of the University of Missouri released the linked marker DNA test for Fanconi Syndrome in basenjis. It is the first predictive test available for Fanconi Syndrome . With this test, it is possible to more accurately determine the probability of a dog carrying the gene for Fanconi Syndrome. Dogs tested using this "Linkage Test" will return one of the following statuses: Probably Clear/Normal Indicates the individual has most likely inherited normal DNA from both parents. It is unlikely that basenjis which test this way will produce affected puppies no matter which dog they are bred to. Probably Carrier Indicates the individual has most likely inherited normal DNA from one parent and DNA with the Fanconi syndrome mutation from the other parent. Although this basenji is unlikely to develop Fanconi syndrome, it could produce puppies that will develop Fanconi syndrome. To minimize the chances of this happening it is recommended carriers be bred only to those that test as Probably Clear/Normal for Fanconi Syndrome. Probably Equivocal/Indeterminant Indicates the individual's DNA contained features found in both "normal" and "carrier" basenjis. At present it cannot be predicted whether these basenjis are carriers or normal; however, it is unlikely that they will develop Fanconi syndrome. The safest strategy would be to treat them as “carriers” and only bred to those basenjis that test as Probably Clear/Normal for Fanconi Syndrome. Probably Affected Indicates the individual is likely to develop clinical Fanconi syndrome and is likely to produce puppies with Fanconi Syndrome if bred to basenjis other than those that test as Probably Clear/Normal for Fanconi Syndrome. This linkage test is being provided as a tool to assist breeders whilst research continues towards the development of the direct fanconi test. For more information about the linkage test visit: Basenji Health Endowment Fanconi Test FAQ. Other basenji health issues Basenjis sometimes carry a simple recessive gene which, when homozygous for the defect, causes genetic Hemolytic Anemia. Basenji Health Issues Most 21st-century basenjis are descended from ancestors that have tested clean. When lineage from a fully tested line (set of ancestors) cannot be completely verified, the dog should be tested before breeding. As this is a non-invasive DNA test, a basenji can be tested for HA at any time. Basenjis sometimes suffer from hip dysplasia, resulting in loss of mobility and arthritis-like symptoms. All dogs should be tested by either OFA or PennHIP prior to breeding. Malabsorption, or immunoproliferative enteropathy, is an autoimmune intestinal disease that leads to anorexia, chronic diarrhea, and even death. A special diet can improve the quality of life for afflicted dogs. The breed can also fall victim to progressive retinal atrophy (a degeneration of the retina causing blindness) and several less serious hereditary eye problems such as coloboma (a hole in the eye structure), and persistent pupillary membrane (tiny threads across the pupil). History A brindle Basenji The basenji is arguably one of the most ancient dog breeds. Originating on the continent of Africa, basenji-like dogs have lived with humans for thousands of years. Dogs resembling modern Basenjis can be seen on stelae in the tombs of Egyptian pharaohs, sitting at the feet of their masters, looking just as they do today, with pricked ears and tightly curled tails. Dogs of this type were originally kept for hunting small game by coursing. Europeans first described the type of dog from which the basenji breed was derived in the Congo in 1895. These local dogs, which Europeans identified as a unique breed and called "basenji" were prized by locals for their intelligence, courage, speed, and silence. However an article published called The Intelligence of Dogs by Stanley Coren, Ph.D. questions this. It ranks the breed at #78 out of 79 which is the second to lowest rank in intelligence. Many question the qualifications of this article and whether it accurately evaluates each breed. In fact, Dr. Coren equated "intelligence" with "obedience", and the basenji is not the most obedient of breeds because of its intelligence. Therefore, the veracity of Dr. Coren's findings is questionable. Basenjis were assistants to the hunt, chasing wild game into nets for their masters. The Azande and Mangbetu people from the northeastern Congo region describe basenjis, in the local Lingala language, as mbwá na basɛ́nzi. Translated, this means "dogs of the savages", or "dogs of the villagers". In the Congo, the basenji is also known as "dog of the bush." The dogs are also known to the Azande of southern Sudan as Ango Angari. BCOA African Stock Project - My Journey into the Home of the Basenji The word basɛ́nzi itself is the plural form of mosɛ́nzi. In Kiswahili, another Bantu language, from East Africa, mbwa shenzi translates to “wild dog”. Another local name is m’bwa m’kube m’bwa wamwitu, or “jumping up and down dog”, a reference to their tendency to jump straight up to spot their quarry. Several attempts were made to bring the breed to England, but the earliest imports succumbed to disease. In 1923, for example, Lady Helen Nutting brought six basenjis with her from Sudan, but all six died from distemper shots they received in quarantine. BCOA African Stock Project - Lady Helen Nutting It was not until the 1930s that foundation stock was successfully established in England, and then to the United States by animal importer Henry Trefflich. So it is that nearly all the basenjis in the Western world are descended from these few original imports. BCOA African Stock Project - History of the Breed Presented to the AKC The breed was officially accepted into the AKC in 1943. In 1990, the AKC stud book was reopened to several new imports at the request of the Basenji Club of America. Basenjis are also registered with the UKC. Although in the past it was speculated that Basenjis were somehow descended from jackals, modern genetic testing shows that Basenjis are related to all other dogs and are descended from the wolf, Canis lupus. {This statement requires a proper citation. The New Scientist article previously cited here makes no references to Basenjis much less their genetics whatsoever]. Basenjis in popular culture The title character of the 1954 novel Good-bye, My Lady, by James H. Street, is a basenji. It's the story of a young boy in Mississippi who takes in a most unusual stray. The book was made into a movie of the same name in 1956, with a cast that included Brandon De Wilde, Walter Brennan, and Sidney Poitier. Good-bye, My Lady (1956) Veronica Anne Starbuck's 2000 novel Heart of the Savannah features a basenji named Savannah. Savannah narrates this story about her adventures as an African-bred dog brought to America. Starbuck also wrote a sequel titled August Magic. Simon Cleveland wrote a novel titled The Basenji Revelation, published by Lulu Press in 2004, in which a government agent suffers amnesia and undergoes a change in personality after inheriting a basenji from his late mother. The book delivers insightful facts about the ancient origins of the breed. The true story of a basenji was featured in the episode The Cat Came Back http://www.thisamericanlife.org/pages/descriptions/06/316.html on the radio program This American Life. The segment tells the story of a family who chose a basenji because they do not shed or slobber, but became frustrated with his aloofness and destructiveness. They eventually bring him to live on a farm away, but within a few days the tenacious dog found its way all the way back home. In Spike Milligan's War Diaries "Mussolini: His Part in My Downfall" (Sept 24, 1943) the following exchange takes place: ...we are bloody lost. Lt. Budden is looking studiously at his map, the wrong way up. "It's upside down, Sir." "I know that, I turned it upside down for a reason." "Sorry, Sir, only trying to help." "If you want to help, Milligan, act like a basenji." According to the webcomic Achewood, if Jesus Christ were a dog, he'd be a basenji. An Afternoon With Molly Sanders A man and his Basenji were featured on an episode of LA Ink. YouTube excerpt The basenji has an unusual marking of a diamond in the middle of his back. The owner has a replica tattooed on his own back during the episode. Basenjis are featured in an episode of the animated television series The Wild Thornberrys In episode 3.04 "Tyler Tucker, I Presume?", Nigel Thornberry encounters a group of tribesmen along with their Congolese hunting dogs. References See also Pariah dog External links | Basenji |@lemmatized basenji:71 breed:32 hunt:4 dog:45 stock:7 originate:2 central:1 africa:5 north:1 america:4 consider:3 sighthound:3 type:6 major:1 kennel:6 club:8 english:1 speaking:1 world:2 place:5 hound:1 group:6 although:3 american:2 propose:1 realign:1 new:3 fédération:1 cynologique:1 internationale:1 spitz:1 primitive:1 united:2 u:1 pariah:3 produce:4 unusual:3 yodel:2 like:9 sound:1 due:1 unusually:2 shape:1 larynx:1 adapt:1 book:4 panda:1 handstand:1 augustus:1 brown:1 trait:3 also:10 give:2 nickname:1 barkless:1 bcoa:4 african:6 project:4 letter:1 behavior:3 temperament:2 common:4 cat:3 sometimes:4 refer:1 egyptian:2 dingo:3 share:1 many:3 unique:3 come:3 estrus:1 annually:1 compare:1 may:2 two:1 breeding:1 season:1 every:1 year:9 basenjis:4 lack:1 distinctive:1 odor:1 relatively:1 silent:1 prone:1 howl:1 undulated:1 vocalization:1 characteristic:3 bark:2 modern:3 resemble:2 respect:1 commonplace:1 much:2 original:2 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5,049 | Kofi_Annan | Kofi Atta Annan, GCMG (born 8 April 1938) is a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1 January 1997 to 1 January 2007. Annan and the United Nations were the co-recipients of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize. Early years and family Kofi Annan was born in the Kofandros section of Kumasi, Ghana. He is a twin, a respected status in Ghanaian culture. His twin sister Efua Atta, who died in 1991, shares the middle name 'Atta', which in Fante and Akan means 'twin'. Annan's family was part of the country's elite; both of his grandfathers and his uncle were tribal chiefs. His father was Fante, and so was his mother. Annan is married to Nane Maria Annan, a Swedish lawyer and artist who is the half-niece of Raoul Wallenberg. He has two children, Kojo and Ama, from his previous marriage to a Nigerian woman, Titi Alakija, whom he divorced in the late 1970s. Annan also has one stepchild, Nina Cronstedt de Groot, Nane's daughter from a previous marriage. Annan with Brad Pitt and his partner, Angelina Jolie at the World Economic Forum. Name In the Ghanaian tradition, children are named according to the day of the week on which they were born. Kofi in Akan is the name that corresponds with Friday. In his earlier years at the UN, Annan's last name had widely been mispronounced as rhyming with "anon"; Annan has let it be known that he pronounces his name to rhyme with "canon" (). Education From 1954 to 1957, Annan attended the elite Mfantsipim school, a Methodist boarding school in Cape Coast founded in the 1870s. Annan has said that the school taught him "that suffering anywhere concerns people everywhere". In 1957, the year Annan graduated from Mfantsipim, Ghana gained independence from Britain. In 1958, Annan began studying for a degree in economics at the Kumasi College of Science and Technology, now the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology of Ghana. He received a Ford Foundation grant, enabling him to complete his undergraduate studies at Macalester College in St. Paul, Minnesota, United States, in 1961. Annan then did a DEA degree in International Relations at the Graduate Institute of International Studies (Institut universitaire des hautes études internationales IUHEI) in Geneva, Switzerland, from 1961–62, later attending the MIT Sloan School of Management (1971–72) Sloan Fellows program and receiving a Master of Science (M.S.) degree from the MIT Sloan School of Management. Annan is fluent in English, French, Kru, other dialects of Akan, and other African languages. Early career In 1962, Annan started working as a Budget Officer for the World Health Organization, an agency of the United Nations. From 1974 to 1976, he worked as the Director of Tourism in Ghana. Annan then returned to work for the United Nations as an Assistant Secretary-General in three consecutive positions: Human Resources, Management and Security Coordinator, from 1987 to 1990; Program Planning, Budget and Finance, and Controller, from 1990 to 1992; and Peacekeeping Operations, from March 1993 to February 1994. The chain of events which lead up to the 1994 Rwandan Genocide unfolded while Annan was heading up Peacekeeping Operations. In his book Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda, Canadian ex-General Roméo Dallaire, who was force commander of the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda, claims that Annan was overly passive in his response to the incipient genocide. General Dallaire explicitly asserts that Annan held back U. N. troops from intervening to settle the conflict, and from providing more logistical and material support. In particular, Dallaire claims that Annan failed to provide any responses to his repeated faxes asking him for access to a weapons depository, something that could have helped defend the endangered Tutsis. Dallaire concedes, however, that Annan was a man whom he found extremely "committed" to the founding principles of the United Nations. Annan served as Under-Secretary-General until October 1995, when he was made a Special Representative of the Secretary-General to the former Yugoslavia, serving for five months in that capacity before returning to his duties as Under-Secretary-General in April 1996. Secretary-General of the United Nations Appointment On 13 December 1996, Annan was recommended by the United Nations Security Council to replace the previous Secretary-General, Dr. Boutros-Ghali of Egypt, whose second term faced the veto of the United States. He was confirmed four days later by the vote of the General Assembly, and he started his first term as Secretary-General on 1 January 1997. Activities Annan with then President of Russia Vladimir Putin at United Nations Headquarters on 16 November 2001. Mark Malloch Brown succeeded Louise Frechette as Annan's Deputy Secretary-General in April 2004. In April 2001, he issued a five-point "Call to Action" to address the HIV/AIDS pandemic. As Secretary-General, Annan saw this pandemic as a "personal priority" and proposed the establishment of a Global AIDS and Health Fund in an attempt to stimulate the increased spending needed to help developing countries confront the HIV/AIDS crisis. On 10 December 2001, Annan and the United Nations were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, "for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world". During the build-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Annan called on the United States and the United Kingdom not to invade without the support of the United Nations. In a September 2004 interview on the BBC, Annan was asked about the legal authority for the invasion, and responded, "from our point of view, from the charter point of view it was illegal." Annan supported sending a UN peacekeeping mission to Darfur, Sudan, and worked with the government of Sudan to accept a transfer of power from the African Union peacekeeping mission to a UN one. Annan also worked with several Arab and Muslim countries on women's rights and other topics. Beginning in 1998 Annan convened an annual UN Security Council Retreat with 15 States representatives of the Council at the Rockefeller Brothers Fund (RBF) Conference Center at the Rockefeller family estate at Pocantico, which was sponsored by both the RBF and the UN. He and his wife also attended the Playhouse at the family estate on the occasion of Brooke Astor's 100th birthday celebration. He is a strong supporter and guest of the family's Asia Society in New York. Lubbers sexual-harassment investigation In June 2004, Annan was given a copy of the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) report on the complaint of sexual harassment, abuse of authority, and retaliation against Ruud Lubbers, UN High Commissioner for Refugees. The report also discussed allegations of sexual harassment and misconduct against Werner Blatter, Director of UNHCR Personnel, by a long-serving staff member. The investigation report found Ruud Lubbers guilty of sexual harassment and no mention was made publicly of the other charge against a senior official or the two subsequent complaints she filed later that year. In the course of the official investigation, Lubbers wrote a letter that some speculate was a threat to the female worker who had brought the charges of misconduct. However, on 15 July 2004, Lubbers was declared innocent by Kofi Annan . His decision only lasted until November when OIOS issued its annual report to the UN General Assembly noting it has found Lubbers guilty. Widely reported in the media, these events served to weaken Annan's position. On 17 November 2004, Annan accepted a report clearing UN Under-Secretary-General for Internal Oversight Services Dileep Nair of political corruption and sexual harassment charges — charges which some viewed as retaliation against Nair for supporting the complainant in the Lubbers affair. However, clearance was not viewed favorably by some UN staff in New York, leading to extensive debate on 19 November. In February 2005, Lubbers resigned as head of the UN refugee agency. UN refugee chief quits over sex claims(February 21, 2005) www.theage.com.au Oil-for-Food scandal In December 2004, reports surfaced that the Secretary-General's son Kojo received payments from the Swiss company Cotecna Inspection SA, which won a lucrative contract under the UN Oil-for-Food Program. Kofi Annan called for an investigation into this matter. The Independent Inquiry Committee into The United Nations Oil-for-Food Program was appointed by Annan and led by former US Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker; , the director of the United Nations Association of the United States of America. In his first interview with the Inquiry Committee, Annan denied having had a meeting with Cotecna. Later in the inquiry he recalled that he had met with Cotecna's chief executive Elie-Georges Massey twice. In a final report issued on 27 October, the committee found insufficient evidence to indict Kofi Annan on any illegal actions, but did find fault with Mr. Benan Sevan, a Cypriot national who had worked for the UN for about 40 years. Appointed to his Oil-For-Food role by Kofi Annan, Mr. Sevan repeatedly asked Iraqis for allocations of oil to the African Middle East Petroleum Company. Sevan's behavior was "ethically improper", Volcker said to reporters. Sevan for his part, has repeatedly denied the charges and argues that he is being made a "scapegoat". The Volcker report was also highly critical of the UN management structure and the Security Council oversight and strongly recommended a new position of Chief Operating Officer to handle the fiscal and administrative responsibilities which currently fall to the Secretary General's office. The report listed the companies, both Western and Middle Eastern, who illegally benefited from the program. Conflict between the United States and the United Nations Kofi Annan supported his deputy Secretary-General Mark Malloch Brown, who openly criticized segments of the United States media in a speech on 6 June 2006: "[T]he prevailing practice of seeking to use the UN almost by stealth as a diplomatic tool while failing to stand up for it against its domestic critics is simply not sustainable. You will lose the UN one way or another. [...] [That] the US is constructively engaged with the UN [...] is not well known or understood, in part because much of the public discourse that reaches the US heartland has been largely abandoned to its loudest detractors such as Rush Limbaugh and Fox News." The interim U.S. ambassador John R. Bolton was reported to have told Annan on the phone: "I've known you since 1989 and I'm telling you this is the worst mistake by a senior UN official that I have seen in that entire time." At the end of Kofi Annan's tenure as Secretary General, Bolton was asked to sum up Annan's years at the UN. He responded simply: "I'll pass." "Iraq Study Group's Suggestion That U.S. Engage Iran And Syria In Talks About Iraq Leads To More Debate Than Resolve, In Washington And Iraq" - CNN NEWSROOM Transcripts (Aired December 11, 2006 - 09:00ET) UN Resolution 61/225: World Diabetes Day Kofi Annan was the overseeing Secretary-General of the United Nations General Assembly during the successful passing (by consensus) of UN Resolution 61/225 - World Diabetes Day. The Resolution was, and still remains, the second-ever UN General Assembly Resolution on any health-related issue (the other being HIV/AIDS). However, 61/225 remains the only Health-related UN Resolution to ever pass by consensus. The Resolution was sponsored by the Republic of South Africa and Bangladesh, and was passed on 20 December 2006. Farewell addresses On 19 September 2006, Annan gave a farewell address to world leaders gathered at the UN headquarters in New York, in anticipation of his retirement on 31 December. In the speech he outlined three major problems of "an unjust world economy, world disorder, and widespread contempt for human rights and the rule of law", which he believes "have not resolved, but sharpened" during his time as Secretary-General. He also pointed to violence in Africa, and the Arab-Israeli conflict as two major issues warranting attention. On 11 December 2006, in his final speech as Secretary-General, delivered at the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library in Independence, Missouri, Annan recalled Truman's leadership in the founding of the United Nations. He called for the United States to return to President Truman's multilateralist foreign policies, and to follow Truman's credo that "the responsibility of the great states is to serve and not dominate the peoples of the world". He also said that the United States must maintain its commitment to human rights, "including in the struggle against terrorism." Recommendations for UN reform After years of research, Annan presented a progress report, In Larger Freedom, to the UN General Assembly, on 21 March 2005. Annan recommended Security Council expansion and a host of other UN reforms. On 31 January 2006, Kofi Annan outlined his vision for a comprehensive and extensive reform of the UN in a policy speech to the United Nations Association UK. The speech, delivered at Central Hall, Westminster, also marked the 60th Anniversary of the first meetings of the UN General Assembly and UN Security Council. On 7 March 2006, he presented to the General Assembly his proposals for a fundamental overhaul of the United Nations Secretariat. The reform report is entitled: "Investing in the United Nations, For a Stronger Organization Worldwide". On 30 March 2006, he presented to the General Assembly his analysis and recommendations for updating the entire work programme of the United Nations Secretariat over the last 60 years. The report is entitled: "Mandating and Delivering: Analysis and Recommendations to Facilitate the Review of Mandates". Post-UN career Upon his return to Ghana, Annan was immediately suggested as a candidate to become the country's next head of state. Annan 'for president': Africa: News: News24 He has become involved with several organizations with both global and African focuses. In 2007, Annan was named chairman of the prize committee for the Mo Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership, was chosen to lead the new formation of Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), became a member of the Global Elders, was appointed president of the Global Humanitarian Forum in Geneva, and was selected for the MacArthur Foundation Award for International Justice. In the beginning of 2008, as head of the Panel of Eminent African Personalities, Annan participated in the negotiations to end the civil unrest in Kenya. He threatened to leave the negotiations as mediator if a quick decision was not made. Annan: Kenya factions 'not capable' of agreement - CNN.com On 26 February 2008 he suspended talks to end Kenya's violent post-election crisis. Annan suspends Kenya's post-election talks - CNN.com On 28 February, Annan managed to have President Mwai Kibaki and Raila Odinga sign a coalition government agreement and was widely lauded by many Kenyans for this landmark achievement. That was the best deal achieved then under the mediation efforts. Annan currently serves on the board of directors of the United Nations Foundation, a public charity created in 1998 with entrepreneur and philanthropist Ted Turner’s historic $1 billion USD gift to support UN causes. The UN Foundation builds and implements public-private partnerships to address the world’s most pressing problems, and broadens support for the UN. United Nations Foundation Board of Directors Annan is a member of the Africa Progress Panel (APP), an independent authority on Africa launched in April 2007 to focus world leaders’ attention on delivering their commitments to the continent. The Panel launched a major report in London on Monday 16 June 2008 entitled Africa's Development: Promises and Prospects. APP, Press Release: Africa Progress Panel demands action on global food crisis “reversing decades of economic progress”, 16 June 2008, http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/english/newsreleases.php Kofi Annan was appointed the Chancellor of the University of Ghana in 2008. Annan has signed up to be one of the Counsellors at One Young World a non-profit organisation which hopes to bring together 1500 young global leaders of tomorrow from every country in the world. In 2009 Columbia University announced that Annan will join a new program being launched by Dean John Coatsworth at the School of International and Public Affairs as one of the first group of Global Fellows.The Global Fellows program will bring students together with global practitioners to share firsthand knowledge of experiences in the life of an international or public figure. Honours Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, (Kumasi), Honorary Doctor of Science, 24 August 1998 United Nations Mandated University for Peace, Honorary President, 1999 Lund University, Honorary Doctor of Law, 1999 National University of Ireland, Doctor of Law, 22 January 1999 Technische Universität Dresden, doctor honoris causa, 27 April 1999 Howard University, honorary doctorate of humane letters, 8 May 1999 University of Notre Dame, Doctor of Letters, honoris causa, 21 May 2000 Seton Hall University, John C. Whitehead School of Diplomacy and International Relations, Honorary Doctorate, February 2001 Brown University, Doctor of Laws, honoris causa, 28 May 2001 Liberty Medal International Selection Commission, Liberty Medal, 4 July 2001 Free University of Berlin, doctor honoris causa, 13 July 2001 Nobel Foundation, The Nobel Peace Prize, jointly presented to Kofi Annan and the United Nations, 2001 Tilburg University, Honorary Doctorate, 2002 Northwestern University, Doctor of Laws, 21 June 2002 2002 winner of the "Profiles in Courage Award," given by the JFK Memorial Museum. University of Pittsburgh, honorary Doctor of Public and International Affairs degree 21 October 2003 Ghent University (Belgium), doctor honoris causa 21 March 2003 Carleton University, Legum Doctor, honoris causa, 9 March 2004 University of Ottawa, Doctor of the University Degree, 9 March 2004 University of Pennsylvania, Doctor of Laws, honoris causa, 16 May 2005 Grand Collar of the Order of Liberty (Portugal), 11 October 2005 Universidade Nova de Lisboa, doctor honoris causa, 12 October 2005 The George Washington University, Doctor of Public Service, 5 May 2006 University of Tokyo, Honorary Doctorate, 18 May 2006 Order of the Netherlands Lion, Knight Grand Cross, 2006 Georgetown University, Doctor of Humane Letters, honoris causa, 30 October 2006 University of St. Gallen, Switzerland, Max Schmidheiny Foundation Freedom Prize (originally awarded 2003, but postponed due to Annan's illness), 18 November 2006 Princeton University, Crystal Tiger Award, 28 November 2006 Inter Press Service, International Achievement Award for Annan's lasting contributions to peace, security, and development, 19 December 2006 Olof Palme Prize, 2006 Honorary Knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II (GCMG), 2007. MacArthur Foundation, MacArthur Award for International Justice King's College London, Doctor of Laws, honoris causa, 28 May 2008 North-South Prize of the Council of Europe 2007 Peace of Westphalia Prize 2008 See also Rwandan Genocide In Larger Freedom Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre in Ghana Black Nobel Prize laureates References External links Biographies, interviews, and profiles Official UN biography Nobel Peace Prize biography Kofi Annan: Center of the Storm Detailed PBS profile. Includes interactive biography and map of Annan's worldwide travels, among other things. Requires Flash. Kofi Annan: An Online News Hour Focus A compilation of information, interviews, and initiatives about and by Kofi Annan, by the website of the NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. From 1998-1999. Kofi Annan, President, Global Humanitarian Forum Geneva Kofi Annan: Biographical Note Basic biography by Phyllis Bennis of the Global Policy Forum. One-on-one with UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan October 1998 interview of Kofi Annan by Kevin Chappell of Ebony. Annan Article in Saga Magazine Short Biography at the Africa Progress Panel website Articles Ian Williams, The Guardian, 20 September 2005, "Annan has paid his dues: The UN declaration of a right to protect people from their governments is a millennial change" Annan, Kofi A. "Lessons from the U.N. leader" The Washington Post, Dec 12, 2006. "Kofi and U.N. Ideals" The Wall Street Journal, Dec 14, 2006. Colum Lynch, The Washington Post, 24 April 2005, "U.N. 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5,050 | American_Revolution | In this article, the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans", with occasional references to "Patriots", "Whigs", "Rebels", or "Revolutionaries". Colonists who supported the British in opposing the Revolution are usually referred to as "Loyalists" or "Tories". (See section 2 below for a detailed explanation.) The geographical area of the thirteen colonies that both groups shared is often referred to simply as "America". John Trumbull's Declaration of Independence, showing the five-man committee in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia The American Revolution refers to the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which the Thirteen Colonies of North America overthrew the governance of the British Empire and then rejected the British monarchy to become the sovereign United States of America. In this period the colonies first rejected the authority of the Parliament of Great Britain to govern them without representation, and formed self-governing independent states. These states then joined against the British to defend that self-governance in the armed conflict from 1775 to 1783 known as the American Revolutionary War (also: American War of Independence). This resulted in the independent states uniting to form one nation, breaking away from the empire in 1776 with the Declaration of Independence, rejecting not only the governance of Parliament, but also now the legitimacy of the monarchy to demand allegiance. After seven years of war came effective American victory on the battlefield in October 1781, with British recognition of the United States' independence and sovereignty in 1783. The American Revolution included a series of broad intellectual and social shifts that occurred in the early American society, such as the new republican ideals that took hold in the American population. In some states, sharp political debates broke out over the role of democracy in government, with a number of even the most liberal Founding Fathers fearing mob rule. Consequently, many issues of national governance were not settled until the Constitution of the United States (1787), including the United States Bill of Rights (1789) comprising its first 10 amendments, replaced the relatively weak Articles of Confederation (see Federalist Papers) that framed the first attempt at a national government. In contrast to the loose confederation, the Constitution enshrined the natural rights idealized by republican revolutionaries, and guaranteed them under a relatively strong federated government, as well as allowing for dramatically expanded suffrage for national elections. The American shift to republicanism, and the gradually increasing democracy, caused an upheaval of the traditional social hierarchy, and created the ethic that formed the core of American political values. Wood (1992); Greene & Pole (1994) ch 70 Origins Before the Revolution: The Thirteen Colonies are in pink The American Revolution was predicated by a number of ideas and events that, combined, led to a political and social separation of colonial possessions from the home nation and a coalescing of those former individual colonies into an independent nation. Summary The revolutionary era began in 1763, when the French military threat to British North American colonies ended. Adopting the policy that the colonies should pay an increased proportion of the costs associated with keeping them in the Empire, Britain imposed a series of taxes followed by other laws intended to demonstrate British authority that proved extremely unpopular. Because the colonies lacked elected representation in the governing British Parliament many colonists considered the laws to be illegitimate and a violation of their rights as Englishmen. Additionally, British mercantilist policies benefiting the home country resulted in trade restrictions, which limited the growth of the American economy and artificially constrained colonial merchants' earning potential. In 1772, Patriot groups began to create committees of correspondence, which would lead to their own Provincial Congress in most of the colonies. In the course of two years, the Provincial Congresses or their equivalents rejected the Parliament and effectively replaced the British ruling apparatus in the former colonies, culminating in 1774 with the unifying First Continental Congress. In response to Patriot protests in Boston over Parliament's attempts to assert authority, the British sent combat troops. Consequently, the colonies mobilized their militias, and fighting broke out in 1775. First ostensibly loyal to King George III, Congress' repeated pleas for royal intervention with Parliament on their behalf only resulted in the states being declared "in rebellion", and Congress traitors. In 1776, representatives from each of the original thirteen independent states voted unanimously to adopt a Declaration of Independence, which now rejected the British monarchy as well as its Parliament. The Declaration established the United States, which was originally governed as a loose confederation through a representative government selected by state legislatures (see Second Continental Congress). The Americans formed an alliance with France in 1778 that evened the military and naval strengths, later bringing Spain and the Dutch Republic into the conflict by their own alliance with France. Although Loyalists were estimated to comprise 15-20% of the population, Calhoon, "Loyalism and neutrality" in Greene and Pole, A Companion to the American Revolution (2000) p.235 throughout the war the Patriots generally controlled 80-90% of the territory; the British could hold only a few coastal cities for any extended period of time. Two main British armies surrendered to the Continental Army, at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781, amounting to victory in the war for the United States. The Second Continental Congress transitioned to the Congress of the Confederation with the ratification of the Articles of Confederation earlier in 1781. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 was ratified by this new national government, and ended British claims to any of the thirteen states. Liberalism, republicanism, and religion John Locke's ideas on liberalism greatly influenced the political minds behind the revolution; for instance, his theory of the "social contract" implied that among humanity's natural rights was the right of the people to overthrow their leaders, should those leaders betray the historic rights of Englishmen. Charles W. Toth, Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite: The American Revolution & the European Response. (1989) p. 26. page 101, Philosophical Tales, by Martin Cohen, (Blackwell 2008) In terms of writing state and national constitutions, the Americans used Montesquieu's analysis of the ideally "balanced" British Constitution. A motivating force behind the revolution was the American embrace of a political ideology called "republicanism", which was dominant in the colonies by 1775. The "country party" in Britain, whose critique of British government emphasized that corruption was to be feared, influenced American politicians. The commitment of most Americans to republican values and to their rights, helped bring about the American Revolution, as Britain was increasingly seen as hopelessly corrupt and hostile to American interests; it seemed to threaten to the established liberties that Americans enjoyed. Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1967) The greatest threat to liberty was depicted as corruption—not just in London but at home as well. Gordon S. Wood The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1992) pp 174-5 The colonists associated it with luxury and, especially, inherited aristocracy, which they condemned. Gordon S. Wood The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1992) p 35 The "Founding Fathers" were strong advocates of republican values, particularly Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, George Washington, Thomas Paine, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton. Robert E. Shalhope, "Toward a Republican Synthesis," William and Mary Quarterly, 29 (Jan. 1972), pp 49-80 which required men to put civic duty ahead of their personal desires. Men had a civic duty to be prepared and willing to fight for the rights and liberties of their countrymen and countrywomen. For women, "republican motherhood" became the ideal, exemplified by Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren; the first duty of the republican woman was to instill republican values in her children and to avoid luxury and ostentation. Of course the average Patriots had never heard of Locke nor read other Enlightenment thinkers. “When one farmer who had fought at Concord Bridge was asked … whether he was defending the ideas of such liberal writers, he declared for his part he had never heard of Locke or Sidney, his reading having been limited to the Bible, the Catechism, Watt’s Psalms and Hymns and the Almanac.” Patricia U. Bonomi, “Under the Cope of Heaven. Religion, Society and Politics in Colonial America”, (1986), p.5 Later, most knew about the summary of current political ideas so forcibly expressed in Tom Paine's pamphlet, Common Sense. Though it was printed in 1776 after the revolution had already started, it was a runaway best-seller and was often read aloud in taverns, contributing significantly in maintaining popular support for the revolution, advocacy for separation from Great Britain, and recruitment for the Continental Army. Dissenting (i.e. Protestant, non-Church of England) churches of the day have been called the “school of democracy.” Bonomi, p 186 Congregationalists, Baptists and Presbyterians based their principles and willingness to rebel against tyrants on their reading of the Old testament, especially Exodus, with its story of the ancient Israelites defying Pharaoh and escaping to freedom. David Gelernter, Americanism, the Fourth Great Western Religion, (2007). pp 64,71,81,96 College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) President John Witherspoon was especially influential. Michael Novak, "On Two Wings. Humble Faith and Common Sense at the American Founding", (2002), p. 15 His sermons were widely read; one that examined the Israelites rebelling against Pharaoh was distributed to 500 Presbyterian churches seven weeks before the Declaration of Independence. Novak, p. 15 Throughout the colonies, some ministers preached Revolutionary themes in their sermons, while others, especially Church of England members, supported the King. William H. Nelson, The American Tory (1961) esp p. 186 This moral motivation for Independence, unlike Enlightenment thinking, was not limited to an intellectual elite. It included rich and poor, men and women, frontiersmen and townsmen, farmers and merchants. Bonomi, p. 186, Chapter 7 “Religion and the American Revolution Incendiary British legislation The Revolution was predicated by a number of pieces of legislation originating from the British Parliament that, for Americans, were illegitimate acts of a government that had no right to pass laws on Englishmen in the Americas who did not have elected representation in that government. For the British, policy makers saw these laws as necessary to reign-in colonial subjects who had been allowed, in the name of economic development that was designed to benefit the home nation, near-autonomy for too long. Navigation Acts The British Empire at the time operated under the mercantile system, where economic assets, or capital, are represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state, which is best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations (exports minus imports). Merchantilism suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals through playing a protectionist role in the economy, by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, especially through the use of tariffs. Great Britain regulated the economies of the colonies through the Navigation Acts according to the doctrines of mercantilism. Widespread evasion of these laws had long been tolerated. Eventually, through the use of open-ended search warrants (Writs of Assistance), strict enforcement of these Acts became the practice. In 1761, Massachusetts lawyer James Otis argued that the writs violated the constitutional rights of the colonists. He lost the case, but John Adams later wrote, "American independence was then and there born". In 1762, Patrick Henry argued the Parson's Cause in Virginia, where the legislature had passed a law and it was vetoed by the King. Henry argued, "that a King, by disallowing Acts of this salutary nature, from being the father of his people, degenerated into a Tyrant and forfeits all right to his subjects' obedience". Miller (1943) Western Frontier The Proclamation of 1763 restricted colonization across the Appalachian Mountains as this was to be Indian Reserve. Regardless, groups of settlers continued to move west and lay claim to these lands. The proclamation was soon modified and was no longer a hindrance to settlement, but its promulgation and the fact that it had been written without consulting Americans angered the colonists. The Quebec Act of 1774 extended Quebec's boundaries to the Ohio River, shutting out the claims of the thirteen colonies. By then, however, the Americans had little regard for new laws from London; they were drilling militia and organizing for war. Greene & Pole (1994) ch 15 Taxation without representation By 1763, Great Britain possessed vast holdings in North America. In addition to the thirteen colonies, twenty-two smaller colonies were ruled directly by royal governors. Victory in the Seven Years' War had given Great Britain New France (Canada), Spanish Florida, and the Native American lands east of the Mississippi River. In North America there were six Colonies that remained loyal to Britain. The colonies included: Province of Quebec, Province of Nova Scotia, Colony of Bermuda, Province of West Florida and the Province of East Florida. In 1765 however, the colonists still considered themselves loyal subjects of the British Crown, with the same historic rights and obligations as subjects in Britain. Greene & Pole (1994) ch 11 The British did not expect the colonies to contribute to the interest or the retirement of debt incurred during the French and Indian War, but they did expect a portion of the expenses for colonial defense to be paid by the Americans. Estimating the expenses of defending the continental colonies and the West Indies to be approximately £200,000 annually, the British goal after the end of this war was that the colonies would be taxed for £78,000 of this needed amount. Middlekauff pg. 62. The issues with the colonists were both that the taxes were high and that the colonies had no representation in the Parliament which passed the taxes. Lord North in 1775 argued for the British position that Englishmen paid on average twenty-five shillings annually in taxes whereas Americans paid only sixpence (the average Englishman, however, also earned quite a bit more while receiving more services directly from the government). Miller, p.89 Colonists, however, as early as 1764, with respect to the Sugar Act, indicated that “the margin of profit in rum was so small that molasses could bear no duty whatever.” Miller pg. 101 The phrase "No taxation without representation" became popular in many American circles. London argued that the colonists were "virtually represented"; but most Americans rejected the theory that men in London, who knew nothing about their needs and conditions, could represent them. William S. Carpenter, "Taxation Without Representation" in Dictionary of American History, Volume 7 (1976); Miller (1943) New taxes 1764 In 1764, Parliament enacted the Sugar Act and the Currency Act, further vexing the colonists. Protests led to a powerful new weapon, the systematic boycott of British goods. The British pushed the colonists even further that same year by also enacting the Quartering Act, which stated that British soldiers were to be cared for by residents in certain areas. Stamp Act 1765 Burning of the Gaspée In 1765 the Stamp Act was the first direct tax ever levied by Parliament on the colonies. All newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, and official documents—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps. All 13 colonies protested vehemently, as popular leaders such as Patrick Henry in Virginia and James Otis in Massachusetts, rallied the people in opposition. A secret group, the "Sons of Liberty" formed in many towns and threatened violence if anyone sold the stamps, and no one did. Pauline Maier, From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765-1776 (1972) In Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice-admiralty court and looted the elegant home of the chief justice, Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765. Moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a "Declaration of Rights and Grievances" stating that taxes passed without representation violated their Rights of Englishmen. Lending weight to the argument was an economic boycott of British merchandise, as imports into the colonies fell from £2,250,000 in 1764 to £1,944,000 in 1765. In London, the Rockingham government came to power and Parliament debated whether to repeal the stamp tax or send an army to enforce it. Benjamin Franklin made the case for the boycotters, explaining the colonies had spent heavily in manpower, money, and blood in defense of the empire in a series of wars against the French and Indians, and that further taxes to pay for those wars were unjust and might bring about a rebellion. Parliament agreed and repealed the tax, but in a "Declaratory Act" of March 1766 insisted that parliament retained full power to make laws for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever". Townshend Act 1767 and Boston Massacre 1770 In 1767, the Parliament passed the Townshend Acts, which placed a tax on a number of essential goods including paper, glass, and tea. Angered at the tax increases, colonists organized a boycott of British goods. In Boston on March 5, 1770, a large mob gathered around a group of British soldiers. The mob grew more and more threatening, throwing snowballs, rocks and debris at the soldiers. One soldier was clubbed and fell. All but one of the soldiers fired into the crowd. Eleven people were hit; Three civilians were killed at the scene of the shooting, and two died after the incident. The event quickly came to be called the Boston Massacre. Although the soldiers were tried and acquitted (defended by John Adams), the widespread descriptions soon became propaganda to turn colonial sentiment against the British. This in turn began a downward spiral in the relationship between Britain and the Province of Massachusetts. Tea Act 1773 This 1846 lithograph has become a classic image of the Boston Tea Party In June 1772, in what became known as the Gaspée Affair, a British warship that had been vigorously enforcing unpopular trade regulations was burned by American patriots. Soon afterwards, Governor Thomas Hutchinson of Massachusetts reported that he and the royal judges would be paid directly from London, thus bypassing the colonial legislature. On December 16, 1773, a group of men, led by Samuel Adams and dressed to evoke American Indians, boarded the ships of the government-favored British East India Company and dumped an estimated £10,000 worth of tea on board (approximately £636,000 in 2008) into the harbor. This event became known as the Boston Tea Party and remains a significant part of American patriotic lore. Intolerable Acts 1774 An American version of London cartoon that denounces the "rape" of Boston in 1774 by the Intolerable Acts The British government responded by passing several Acts which came to be known as the Intolerable Acts, which further darkened colonial opinion towards the British. They consisted of four laws enacted by the British parliament. Miller (1943) pp 353-76 The first was the Massachusetts Government Act, which altered the Massachusetts charter and restricted town meetings. The second Act, the Administration of Justice Act, ordered that all British soldiers to be tried were to be arraigned in Britain, not in the colonies. The third Act was the Boston Port Act, which closed the port of Boston until the British had been compensated for the tea lost in the Boston Tea Party (the British never received such a payment). The fourth Act was the Quartering Act of 1774, which allowed royal governors to house British troops in the homes of citizens without requiring permission of the owner. The First Continental Congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, which declared the Intolerable Acts to be unconstitutional, called for the people to form militias, and called for Massachusetts to form a Patriot government. American political opposition American political opposition was initially through the colonial assemblies such as the Stamp Act Congress, which included representatives from all thirteen colonies. In 1765, the Sons of Liberty were formed which used public demonstrations, violence and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable. While openly hostile to what they considered an oppressive Parliament acting illegally, colonists persisted in numerous petitions and pleas for intervention from a monarch to whom they still claimed loyalty. In late 1772, after the Gaspée Affair, Samuel Adams set about creating new Committees of Correspondence, which linked Patriots in all thirteen colonies and eventually provided the framework for a rebel government. In early 1773 Virginia, the largest colony, set up its Committee of Correspondence, on which Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson served. Greene & Pole (1994) ch 22-24 In response to the Massachusetts Government Act, Massachusetts Bay and then other colonies formed provisional governments called Provincial Congresses. In 1774, the Continental Congress was formed, made up of representatives from each of the Provincial Congresses or their equivalents, to serve as a provisional national government. Standing Committees of Safety were created in each colony for the enforcement of the resolutions by the Committee of Correspondence, Provincial Congress, and the Continental Congress. Factions: Patriots, Loyalists and Neutrals The population of the Thirteen Colonies was far from homogenous, particularly in their political views and attitudes. Loyalties and allegencies varied widely not only within regions and communities, but also within families and sometimes shifted during the course of the Revolution. Patriots - The Revolutionaries At the time, revolutionaries were called 'Patriots', 'Whigs', 'Congress-men', or 'Americans'. They included a full range of social and economic classes, but a unanimity regarding the need to defend the rights of Americans. After the war, Patriots such as George Washington, James Madison, John Adams, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay were deeply devoted to republicanism while also eager to build a rich and powerful nation, while Patriots such as Patrick Henry, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson represented democratic impulses and the agrarian plantation element that wanted a localized society with greater political equality. The word "patriot" refers to a person in the colonies who sided with the American Revolution. Calling the revolutionaries "patriots" is a long-standing historical convention, which began prior to the war. For example, the term “Patriot” was in use by American colonists prior to the war during the 1760s, referring to the American Patriot Party. Members of the American Patriot Party also called themselves Whigs after 1768, identifying with members of the British Whig Party, i.e., Radical Whigs and Patriot Whigs, who favored similar colonial policies. Murray, Stuart: Smithsonian Q & A: The American Revolution, HarperCollins Publishers by Hydra Publishing (in collaboration with the Smithsonian Institution), New York (2006) p. 31. The terminology "Patriot party" was used in Virginia and Massachusetts early in colonial history during the 1600’s, with regard to groups asserting colonial rights The Outlook, Vol. LXXXVI, May-August 1907, The Outlook Co., New York (1907) p. 61. and resistance to the King. Ryerson, Egerton: The Loyalists of America and Their Times, Vol. I, Second Edition, William Briggs, Toronto (1880) p. 208. A Loyalist history published in Canada describes the colonial Patriot Party in 1683 in Massachusetts: “The announcement of this decisive act [writ of quo warranto] on the part of the King produced sensation throughout the colony, and gave rise to the question, “What shall Massachusetts do?” One part of the colony advocated submission; another party advocated resistance. The former were called the “Moderate party,” the latter the “Patriot party”—the commencement of the two parties which were afterwards known as United Empire Loyalists and Revolutionists.” Similarly, the "Patriot party" was known in Virginia in early colonial history during 1618: “By this time [1618] there were two distinct parties, not only in the Virginia Company, but in the Virginia Colony, the one being known as the “Court party,” the other as the “Patriot party…In 1619 the Patriot party secured the right for the settlers in Virginia to elect a Representative Assembly…This was the first representative body ever assembled on the American continent. From the first the representatives began to assert their rights.” Generally speaking, during the enlightenment era, the word "patriot" was not used interchangeably with "nationalist", as it is today. Rather, the concept of patriotism was linked to enlightenment values concerning a common good, which transcended national and social boundaries. Patriotism, thus, did not require you to stand behind your country at all costs, and there wouldn't necessarily be a contradiction between being a patriot and revolting against king and country. Class differences among the Patriots Historians, such as J. Franklin Jameson in the early 20th century, examined the class composition of the Patriot cause, looking for evidence that there was a class war inside the revolution. In the last 50 years, historians have largely abandoned that interpretation, emphasizing instead the high level of ideological unity. Just as there were rich and poor Loyalists, the Patriots were a 'mixed lot', with the richer and better educated more likely to become officers in the Army. Ideological demands always came first: the Patriots viewed independence as a means of freeing themselves from British oppression and taxation and, above all, reasserting what they considered to be their rights. Most yeomen farmers, craftsmen, and small merchants joined the patriot cause as well, demanding more political equality. They were especially successful in Pennsylvania and less so in New England, where John Adams attacked Thomas Paine's Common Sense for the "absurd democratical notions" it proposed. Nash (2005); Resch (2006) Loyalists and neutrals While there is no way of knowing the actual numbers, historians have estimated that about 15-20% of the population remained loyal to the British Crown; these were known at the time as "Loyalists", "Tories", or "King's men". Staff. Tory, Encyclopaedia Britannica Revolutionary War: The Home Front, The Library of Congress They were outnumbered by perhaps 2-1 by the patriots; the Loyalists never controlled territory unless the British Army occupied it. Loyalists were typically older, less willing to break with old loyalties, often connected to the Church of England, and included many established merchants with business connections across the Empire, as well as royal officials such as Thomas Hutchinson of Boston. The revolution sometimes divided families; for example, the Franklins. William Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin and Governor of New Jersey remained Loyal to the Crown throughout the war and never spoke to his father again. Recent immigrants who had not been fully Americanized were also inclined to support the King, such as recent Scottish settlers in the back country; among the more striking examples of this, see Flora MacDonald. Calhoon, Robert M. "Loyalism and neutrality" in Greene and Pole, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (1991) Most Native Americans rejected pleas that they remain neutral and supported the king. The tribes that depended most heavily upon colonial trade tended to side with the revolutionaries, though political factors were important as well. The most prominent Native American leader siding with the king was Joseph Brant of the Mohawk nation, who led frontier raids on isolated settlements in Pennsylvania and New York until an American army under John Sullivan secured New York in 1779, forcing the Loyalist Indians permanently into Canada. Lawrence Nash, Freedom Bound, in The Beaver: Canada's History Magazine. Feb/Mar., 2007, pp. 16-23]; Colin G. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (1995) Some African-American slaves became politically active and supported the king, especially in Virginia where the royal governor actively recruited black men into the British forces in return for manumission, protection for their families, and the promise of land grants. Following the war, many of these "Black Loyalists" settled in Nova Scotia, Upper and Lower Canada, and other parts of the British Empire, where the descendants of some remain today. Hill (2007), see also blackloyalist.com A minority of uncertain size tried to stay neutral in the war. Most kept a low profile. However, the Quakers, especially in Pennsylvania, were the most important group that was outspoken for neutrality. As patriots declared independence, the Quakers, who continued to do business with the British, were attacked as supporters of British rule, "contrivers and authors of seditious publications" critical of the revolutionary cause. Gottlieb 2005 After the war, the great majority of the 450,000-500,000 Loyalists remained in America and resumed normal lives. Some, such as Samuel Seabury, became prominent American leaders. Estimates vary, but about 62,000 Loyalists relocated to Canada (46,000 according to the Canadian book on Loyalists, True Blue), Britain (7,000) or to Florida or the West Indies (9,000). This made up approximately 2% of the total population of the colonies. When the Loyalists left the South in 1783, they took thousands of blacks with them as slaves to the British West Indies. Greene & Pole (1994) ch 20-22 Women Abigail Adams Several types of women contributed to the American Revolution in multiple ways. Like men, women participated on both sides of the war. Among women, Anglo-Americans, African Americans, and Native Americans also divided between the Patriot and Loyalist causes. While formal Revolutionary politics did not include women, ordinary domestic behaviors became charged with political significance as patriot women confronted a war that permeated all aspects of political, civil, and domestic life. They participated by boycotting British goods, spying on the British, following armies as they marched, washing, cooking, and tending for soldiers, delivering secret messages, and in a few cases like Deborah Samson fighting disguised as men. Above all, they continued the agricultural work at home to feed the armies and their families. Carol Berkin, Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America's Independence (2005) The boycott of British goods required the willing participation of American women; the boycotted items were largely household items such as tea and cloth. Women had to return to spinning and weaving—skills that had fallen into disuse. In 1769, the women of Boston produced 40,000 skeins of yarn, and 180 women in Middletown, Massachusetts, wove of cloth. Berkin (2005); Greene & Pole (1994) ch 41 A crisis of political loyalties could also disrupt the fabric of colonial America women’s social worlds: whether a man did or did not renounce his allegiance to the king could dissolve ties of class, family, and friendship, isolating women from former connections. A woman’s loyalty to her husband, once a private commitment, could become a political act, especially for women in America committed to men who remained loyal to the king. Legal divorce, usually rare, was granted to patriot women whose husbands supported the king. Linda Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (1997) ch 4, 6; also see Mary Beth Norton, Liberty's Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women (1980) Other participants Native Americans For Native Americans, the American Revolution was not a war of patriotism or independence. The great majority supported the British cause. Some tried to remain neutral, seeing little value in participating yet again in a European conflict. A few supported the American cause. The losers lost their lands, especially in New York state, and were driven into Canada. African Americans, both men and women, understood Revolutionary rhetoric as promising freedom and equality. These hopes were not realized. Both British and American governments made promises of freedom for service and some slaves attempted to better their lives by fighting in or assisting one or the other armies. Starting in 1777 abolition occurred in the North, usually on a gradual schedule with no payments to the owners, but slavery persisted in the South and took on new life after the cotton gin made for a very profitable new crop. Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (1961) Slaves During the Revolution, efforts were made by the British to turn slavery against the Americans, but historian David Brion Davis explains the difficulties with a policy of wholesale arming of the slaves: Davis underscored the British dilemma: "Britain, when confronted by the rebellious American colonists, hoped to exploit their fear of slave revolts while also reassuring the large number of slaveholding Loyalists and wealth Caribbean planters and merchants that their slave property would be secure". Davis p. 149 The colonists accused the British of encouraging slave revolts. Schama p.28-30 p. 78-90 American advocates of independence were commonly lampooned in Britain for their hypocritical calls for freedom, while many of their leaders were slave-holders. Samuel Johnson observed "how is it we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the [slave] drivers of the negroes?" Weintraub p.7 Benjamin Franklin countered by criticizing the British self-congratulation about "the freeing of one negro" (Somersert) while they continued to permit the Slave Trade. Schama p.75 Hochschild p.50-51 In the North, slavery was first abolished in the state constitution of Vermont in 1777, in Massachusetts in 1780, and New Hampshire in 1784. Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and Rhode Island adopted systems of gradual emancipation during these years, freeing the children of slaves at birth. All the northern states passed laws to end slavery, the last being New Jersey in 1804. Slavery was banned in the Northwest Territories, but no southern state abolished it. During the Revolution, some African American writers rose to prominence, notable Phyllis Wheatley, who came to public attention when her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral appeared in London in 1773, while she was still a domestic slave in Boston. Kidnapped in Africa as young girl and converted to Christianity during the Great Awakening, Wheatley wrote poems combining piety and a concern for African Americans. Military hostilities begin Join, or Die by Benjamin Franklin was recycled to encourage the former colonies to unite against British rule. The Battle of Lexington and Concord took place April 19, 1775, when the British sent a force of roughly 1000 troops to confiscate arms and arrest revolutionaries in Concord. Morrisey p.35 They clashed with the local militia, marking the first fighting of the American Revolutionary War. The news aroused the 13 colonies to call out their militias and send troops to besiege Boston. The Battle of Bunker Hill followed on June 17, 1775. While a British victory, it was made a victory by heavy losses on the British side; about 1,000 British casualties from a garrison of about 6,000, as compared to 500 American casualties from a much larger force. Harvey p.208-210 Urban p.74 The Second Continental Congress convened in 1775, after the war had started. The Congress created the Continental Army and extended the Olive Branch Petition to the crown as an attempt at reconciliation. King George III refused to receive it, issuing instead the Proclamation of Rebellion, requiring action against the "traitors". In the winter of 1775, the Americans invaded Canada. Richard Montgomery captured Montreal but a joint attack on Quebec with the help of Benedict Arnold failed. In March 1776, with George Washington as commander, the Continental Army forced the British to evacuate Boston, withdrawing their garrison to Halifax, Nova Scotia. The revolutionaries were in control of governments throughout the 13 colonies and were ready to declare independence. While there still were many Loyalists, they were no longer in control anywhere by July 1776, and all of the Royal officials had fled. Miller (1948) p. 87 Prisoners In August 1775, the King declared Americans in arms against royal authority to be traitors to the Crown. The British government at first started treating captured rebel combatants as common criminals and preparations were made to bring them to trial for treason. American Secretary Lord Germain and First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Sandwich were especially eager to do so, with a particular emphasis on those who had previously served in British units (and thereby sworn an oath of allegiance to the crown). Many of the prisoners taken by the British at Bunker Hill apparently expected to be hanged, but British authorities declined to take the next step: treason trials and executions. There were tens of thousands of Loyalists under American control who would have been at risk for treason trials of their own (by the Americans), and the British built much of their strategy around using these Loyalists. After the surrender at Saratoga in 1777, there were thousands of British prisoners in American hands who were effectively hostages. Therefore no American prisoners were put on trial for treason, and although most were badly treated and many died nonetheless, Onderdonk, Henry. "Revolutionary Incidents of Suffolk and Kings Counties; With an Account of the Battle of Long Island and the British Prisons and Prison-Ships at New York". ISBN 978-0804680752 Dring, Thomas and Greene, Albert. "Recollections of the Jersey Prison Ship" (American Experience Series, No 8), 1986 (originally printed 1826). ISBN 978-0918222923 eventually they were technically accorded the rights of belligerents. In 1782, by act of Parliament, they were officially recognized as prisoners of war rather than traitors. At the end of the war, both sides released their surviving prisoners. John C. Miller, Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783 1948. Page 166. Creating new state constitutions Following the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, the Patriots had control of most of the territory and population; the Loyalists were powerless. In all thirteen colonies, Patriots had overthrown their existing governments, closing courts and driving British governors, agents and supporters from their homes. They had elected conventions and "legislatures" that existed outside of any legal framework; new constitutions were used in each state to supersede royal charters. They declared they were states now, not colonies. Nevins (1927); Greene & Pole (1994) ch 29 On January 5, 1776, New Hampshire ratified the first state constitution, six months before the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Then, in May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. Virginia, South Carolina, and New Jersey created their constitutions before July 4. Rhode Island and Connecticut simply took their existing royal charters and deleted all references to the crown. Nevins (1927) The new states had to decide not only what form of government to create, they first had to decide how to select those who would craft the constitutions and how the resulting document would be ratified. In states where the wealthy exerted firm control over the process, such as Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, New York and Massachusetts, the results were constitutions that featured: Substantial property qualifications for voting and even more substantial requirements for elected positions (though New York and Maryland lowered property qualifications); Bicameral legislatures, with the upper house as a check on the lower; Strong governors, with veto power over the legislature and substantial appointment authority; Few or no restraints on individuals holding multiple positions in government; The continuation of state-established religion. Dr. Benjamin Rush, 1783 In states where the less affluent had organized sufficiently to have significant power—especially Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New Hampshire—the resulting constitutions embodied universal white manhood suffrage, or minimal property requirements for voting or holding office (New Jersey enfranchised some property owning widows, a step that it retracted 25 years later); strong, unicameral legislatures; relatively weak governors, without veto powers, and little appointing authority; prohibition against individuals holding multiple government posts; Whether conservatives or radicals held sway in a state did not mean that the side with less power accepted the result quietly. The radical provisions of Pennsylvania's constitution lasted only fourteen years. In 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and rewrote the constitution. The new constitution substantially reduced universal white-male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America. Wood (1992) Independence and Union Common Sense by Thomas Paine On January 10, 1776, Thomas Paine published a political pamphlet entitled Common Sense arguing that the only solution to the problems with Britain was republicanism and independence. Greene and Pole (1994) ch 26. In the ensuing months, before the allied states declared independence in unison in the name of the United States, the colonies had begun the process of creating their own constitutions to form sovereign states and some of them individually took the step to declare independence. Virginia, for instance, declared its independence from Great Britain on May 15, 1776. The war had been underway since April 1775, and until this point, the states had sought favorable peace terms; compromise was no longer a possibility, despite belated British efforts to come to a political resolution. Greene and Pole (1994) ch 27. On June 11, 1776, the Second Continental Congress appointed a committee to prepare a draft declaration of independence. Thomas Jefferson, with John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, brought the draft before Congress on June 28. On July 2, 1776, Congress voted the independence of the United States; two days later, on July 4, it adopted the Declaration of Independence, which date is now celebrated as Independence Day in the United States. On June 12, 1776, the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of thirteen to prepare a draft agreement on a governing constitution and a perpetual union of the states. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, commonly known as the Articles of Confederation or simply the Articles, formed the first governing document of the United States of America, based on a confederation type government. Of equal importance is the fact that the Articles combined the sovereign states into a perpetual Union. The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for ratification by the States on November 15, 1777, and began operating under their terms. The Articles were formally ratified when the representatives of Maryland became the last to apply their signatures to the document on March 1, 1781. At that point, the Continental Congress was dissolved and on the following day a new government of the United States in Congress Assembled took its place, with Samuel Huntington as President. Greene and Pole (1994) ch 30; Defending the Revolution George Washington rallying his troops at the Battle of Princeton British return: 1776-1777 After Washington forced the British out of Boston in spring, 1776, neither the British nor the Loyalists controlled any significant areas. The British, however, were massing forces at their great naval base at Halifax, Nova Scotia. They returned in force in July 1776, landing in New York and defeating Washington's Continental Army in August at the Battle of Brooklyn in one of the largest engagements of the war. The British requested a meeting with representatives from Congress to negotiate an end to hostilities, and a delegation including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin met Howe on Staten Island in New York Harbor on September 11. Howe demanded a retraction of the Declaration of Independence, which was refused, and negotiations ended until 1781. The British then quickly seized New York City and nearly captured Washington. They made the city their main political and military base of operations in North America, holding it until November 1783. New York City consequently became the destination for Loyalist refugees, and a focal point of Washington's intelligence network. Schecter, Barnet. The Battle for New York: The City at the Heart of the American Revolution. (2002); McCullough, 1776 (2005) The British also took New Jersey, but in a surprise attack in late December, 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River into New Jersey and defeated Hessian and British armies at Trenton and Princeton, thereby regaining New Jersey. The victories gave an important boost to pro-independence supporters at a time when morale was flagging, and have become iconic images of the war. In 1777, as part of a grand strategy to end the war, the British sent an invasion force from Canada to seal off New England, which the British perceived as the primary source of agitators. In a major case of mis-coordination, the British army in New York City went to Philadelphia which it captured from Washington. The invasion army under Burgoyne waited in vain for reinforcements from New York, and became trapped upstate. It surrendered after the Battle of Saratoga, New York, in October 1777. From early October 1777 until November 15 a pivotal siege at Fort Mifflin, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania distracted British troops and allowed Washington time to preserve the Continental Army by safely leading his troops to harsh winter quarters at Valley Forge. American alliances after 1778 The capture of a British army at Saratoga encouraged the French to formally enter the war in support of Congress, as Benjamin Franklin negotiated a permanent military alliance in early 1778, significantly becoming the first country to officially recognize the Declaration of Independence. William Pitt spoke out in parliament urging Britain to make peace in America, and unite with America against France, Weintraub p. while other British politicians who had previously supported independence now turned against the American rebels for allying with a formerly mutual enemy. Later Spain (in 1779) and the Dutch (1780) became allies of the French, leaving the British Empire to fight a global war alone without major allies, and requiring it to slip through a combined blockade of the Atlantic. The American theater thus became only one front in Britain's war. Mackesy, 1992; Higginbotham (1983) The British were forced to withdraw troops from continental America to reinforce the sugar-producing Caribbean islands, which were considered more valuable. Because of the alliance with France and the deteriorating military situation, Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander, evacuated Philadelphia to reinforce New York City. General Washington attempted to intercept the retreating column, resulting in the Battle of Monmouth Court House, the last major battle fought in the north. After an inconclusive engagement, the British successfully retreated to New York City. The northern war subsequently became a stalemate, as the focus of attention shifted to the smaller southern theater. The British move South, 1778-1783 The British strategy in America now concentrated on a campaign in the southern colonies. With fewer regular troops at their disposal, the British commanders saw the Southern Strategy as a more viable plan, as the south was perceived as being more strongly Loyalist, with a large population of recent immigrants as well as large numbers of African Americans expected to be at best actively pro-British, and at worst indifferent.Jeffrey J. Crow and Larry E. Tise, eds. The Southern Experience in the American Revolution (1978) Beginning in late December 1778, the British captured Savannah and controlled the coastline. In 1780 they launched a fresh invasion and took Charleston as well. A significant victory at the Battle of Camden meant that royal forces soon controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina. The British set up a network of forts inland, hoping the Loyalists would rally to the flag. Despite the disaster at Saratoga, they once again appeared to have gained the upper hand. There was even a consideration of ten state independence (with the three southernmost colonies remaining British). Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to fight their way north into North Carolina and Virginia, with a severely weakened army. Behind them much of the territory they had already captured dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, fought predominantly between bands of Loyalist and American militia, which negated many of the gains the British had previously made.Henry Lumpkin, From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South (2000) Yorktown 1781 The siege of Yorktown ended with the surrender of a second British army, paving the way for the end of the American Revolutionary War The southern British army marched to Yorktown, Virginia where they expected to be rescued by a British fleet which would take them back to New York. Harvey p.493-95 When that fleet was defeated by a French fleet, however, they became trapped in Yorktown. Harvey p.502-06 In October 1781 under a combined siege by the French and Continental armies, the British under the command of General Cornwallis, surrendered. However, Cornwallis was so embarrassed at his defeat that he had to send his second in command to surrender for him. Harvey p.515 News of the defeat effectively ended major offensive operations in America. Support for the conflict had never been strong in Britain, where many sympathised with the rebels, but now it reached a new low. Harvey p.528 Although King George III personally wanted to fight on, his supporters lost control of Parliament, and no further major land offensives were launched in the American Theatre. Mackesy, 1992; Higginbotham (1983) A final naval battle was fought on March 10, 1783 off the coast of Cape Canaveral by Captain John Barry and his crew of the USS Alliance with three British warships led by HMS Sybil, who were trying to take the payroll of the Continental Army. Peace treaty The peace treaty with Britain, known as the Treaty of Paris, gave the U.S. all land east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, though not including Florida (On September 3, 1783, Britain entered into a separate agreement with Spain under which Britain ceded Florida back to Spain.). The Native American nations actually living in this region were not a party to this treaty and did not recognize it until they were defeated militarily by the United States. Issues regarding boundaries and debts were not resolved until the Jay Treaty of 1795. Miller (1948), pp 616-48 Immediate aftermath Interpretations Interpretations about the effect of the Revolution vary. Though contemporary participants referred to the events as "the revolution", McCullough, David. John Adams. Simon & Schuster, 2001. ISBN-9780743223133 at one end of the spectrum is the view that the American Revolution was not "revolutionary" at all, contending that it did not radically transform colonial society but simply replaced a distant government with a local one. More recent scholarship pioneered by historians such as Bernard Bailyn, Gordon Wood, and Edmund Morgan accepts the contemporary view of the participants that the American Revolution was a unique and radical event that produced deep changes and had a profound impact on world affairs, based on an increasing belief in the principles of republicanism, such as peoples' natural rights, and a system of laws chosen by the people. Wood (2003) Loyalist expatriation For roughly five percent of the inhabitants of the United States, defeat was followed by self-exile. Approximately 62,000 United Empire Loyalists left the newly founded republic, most settling in the remaining British colonies in North America, such as the Province of Quebec (concentrating in the Eastern Townships), Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. The new colonies of Upper Canada (now Ontario) and New Brunswick were created by Britain for their benefit. Van Tine (1902) Worldwide influence After the Revolution, genuinely democratic politics, such as those of Matthew Lyon, became possible, despite the opposition and dismay of the Federalist Party. Wood, Radicalism, p. 278-9 The rights of the people were incorporated into state constitutions. Thus came the widespread assertion of liberty, individual rights, equality and hostility toward corruption which would prove core values of republicanism to Americans. The greatest challenge to the old order in Europe was the challenge to inherited political power and the democratic idea that government rests on the consent of the governed. The example of the first successful revolution against a European empire, and the first successful establishment of a republican form of democratically elected government since ancient Rome, provided a model for many other colonial peoples who realized that they too could break away and become self-governing nations with directly elected representative government. Palmer, (1959) In 1777, Morocco was the first state to recognize the independence of the United States of America. The two countries signed the Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship ten years later. Friesland, one of the seven United Provinces of the Dutch Republic, was the next to recognize American independence (February 26, 1782), followed by the Staten-Generaal of the Dutch Republic on April 19, 1782). John Adams became the first US Ambassador in The Hague. The American Revolution was the first wave of the Atlantic Revolutions that took hold in the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American wars of independence. Aftershocks reached Ireland in the 1798 rising, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in the Netherlands. Palmer, (1959); Greene & Pole (1994) ch 53-55 The Revolution had a strong, immediate impact in Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France. Many British and Irish Whigs spoke in favor of the American cause. The Revolution, along with the Dutch Revolt (end of the 16th century) and the English Civil War (in the 17th century), was one of the first lessons in overthrowing an old regime for many Europeans who later were active during the era of the French Revolution, such as Marquis de Lafayette. The American Declaration of Independence had some impact on the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789. Palmer, (1959); Greene & Pole (1994) ch 49-52. The North American states' newly-won independence from the British Empire resulted in the abolition of slavery in some Northern states 51 years before it would be banned in the British colonies, and allowed slavery to continue in the Southern states until 1865, 32 years after it was banned in all British colonies. National debt The national debt after the American Revolution fell into three categories. The first was the $11 million owed to foreigners—mostly debts to France during the American Revolution. The second and third—roughly $24 million each—were debts owed by the national and state governments to Americans who had sold food, horses, and supplies to the revolutionary forces. Congress agreed that the power and the authority of the new government would pay for the foreign debts. There were also other debts that consisted of promissory notes issued during the Revolutionary War to soldiers, merchants, and farmers who accepted these payments on the premise that the new Constitution would create a government that would pay these debts eventually. The war expenses of the individual states added up to $114,000,000, compared to $37 million by the central government. Jensen, The New Nation (1950) p 379 In 1790, at the recommendation of first Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, Congress combined the state debts with the foreign and domestic debts into one national debt totaling $80 million. Everyone received face value for wartime certificates, so that the national honor would be sustained and the national credit established. See also Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760-1789) List of plays and films about the American Revolution Bibliography Notes Reference works Ian Barnes and Charles Royster. The Historical Atlas of the American Revolution (2000), maps and commentary Blanco, Richard. The American Revolution: An Encyclopedia 2 vol (1993), 1850 pages Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. (1966); revised 1974. ISBN 0-8117-0578-1; new expanded edition 2006 ed. by Harold E. Selesky Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Richard A. Ryerson, eds. The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History (ABC-CLIO 2006) 5 vol; 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics Greene, Jack P. and J. R. Pole, eds. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (1994), 845pp; emphasis on political ideas; revised edition (2004) titled A Companion to the American Revolution Nash, Lawrence Freedom Bound, in The Beaver: Canada's History Magazine. Feb/Mar., 2007, by Canada's National History Society. pp. 16–23. ISSN 0005-7517 Purcell, L. Edward. Who Was Who in the American Revolution (1993); 1500 short biographies Resch, John P., ed. Americans at War: Society, Culture and the Homefront vol 1 (2005) Primary sources The American Revolution: Writings from the War of Independence (2001), Library of America, 880pp Commager, Henry Steele and Morris, Richard B., eds. The Spirit of 'Seventy-Six: The Story of the American Revolution As Told by Participants (1975) (ISBN 0-06-010834-7) short excerpts from hundreds of official and unofficial primary sources Dring, Thomas and Greene, Albert. Recollections of the Jersey Prison Ship (American Experience Series, No 8), 1986 (originally printed 1826). ISBN 978-0918222923 Humphrey, Carol Sue ed. The Revolutionary Era: Primary Documents on Events from 1776 to 1800 Greenwood Press, 2003 Morison, Samuel E. ed. Sources and Documents Illustrating the American Revolution, 1764-1788, and the Formation of the Federal Constitution (1923). 370 pp online version Onderdonk, Henry. Revolutionary Incidents of Suffolk and Kings Counties; With an Account of the Battle of Long Island and the British Prisons and Prison-Ships at New York. ISBN 978-0804680752 Tansill, Charles C. ed.; Documents Illustrative of the Formation of the Union of the American States. Govt. Print. Office. (1927). 1124 pages online version Martin Kallich and Andrew MacLeish, eds. The American Revolution through British eyes (1962) primary documents Surveys Bancroft, George. History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent. (1854-78), vol 4-10 online edition Cogliano, Francis D. Revolutionary America, 1763-1815; A Political History (2000), British textbook Harvey, Robert A few bloody noses: The American Revolutionary War (2004) Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763-1789 (1983) Online in ACLS History E-book Project. Comprehensive coverage of military and other aspects of the war. Hochschild, Adam. Bury the Chains: The British Struggle to Abolish Slavery (2006) Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 1763-1776. (2004) Bernhard Knollenberg, Growth of the American Revolution: 1766-1775 (2003) online edition Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. The American Revolution, 1763-1783 (1898), British perspective online edition Mackesy, Piers. The War for America: 1775-1783 (1992), British military study online edition Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789 (2005). The 1985 version is available online at online edition Miller, John C. Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783 (1948) online edition Miller, John C. Origins of the American Revolution (1943) online edition Morrissey, Brendan. Boston 1775:The Shot Heard Around The World. Osprey (1993) Schama, Simon. Rough Crossings: Britain, The Slaves and the American Revolution (2006) Urban, Mark. Generals:Ten British Commanders who shaped the World (2005) Weintraub, Stanley. Iron Tears: Rebellion in America 1775-83 (2005) Wood, Gordon S. The American Revolution: A History (2003), short survey Wrong, George M. Washington and His Comrades in Arms: A Chronicle of the War of Independence (1921) online short survey by Canadian scholar Specialized studies Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Harvard University Press, 1967. ISBN 0-674-44301-2 Becker, Carl. The Declaration of Independence: A Study on the History of Political Ideas (1922)online edition Samuel Flagg Bemis. The Diplomacy of the American Revolution (1935) online edition Berkin, Carol.Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America's Independence (2006) Breen, T. H. The Marketplace of Revolution: How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence (2005) Crow, Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise, eds. The Southern Experience in the American Revolution (1978) Davis, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery n the New World. (2006) Fischer, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing (2004). 1776 campaigns; Pulitzer prize. ISBN 0–195–17034–2 Greene, Jack, ed. The Reinterpretation of the American Revolution (1968) collection of scholarly essays Kerber, Linda K. Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (1979) McCullough, David. 1776 (2005). ISBN 0-7432-2671-2 Morris, Richard B. ed. The Era of the American revolution (1939); older scholarly essays Nash, Gary B. The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America. (2005). ISBN 0-670-03420-7 Nevins, Allan; The American States during and after the Revolution, 1775-1789 1927. online edition Norton, Mary Beth. Liberty's Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750-1800 (1980) Palmer, Robert R. The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800. vol 1 (1959) online edition Resch, John Phillips and Walter Sargent, eds. War And Society in the American Revolution: Mobilization And Home Fronts (2006) Rothbard, Murray, Conceived in Liberty (2000), Volume III: Advance to Revolution, 1760-1775 and Volume IV: The Revolutionary War, 1775-1784. ISBN 0-945466-26-9. Schecter, Barnet. The Battle for New York: The City at the Heart of the American Revolution. Walker & Company. New York. October 2002. ISBN 0-8027-1374-2 Shankman, Andrew. Crucible of American Democracy: The Struggle to Fuse Egalitarianism and Capitalism in Jeffersonian Pennsylvania. University Press of Kansas, 2004. Van Tyne, Claude Halstead. American Loyalists: The Loyalists in the American Revolution (1902) Volo, James M. and Dorothy Denneen Volo. Daily Life during the American Revolution (2003) Wahlke, John C. ed. The Causes of the American Revolution (1967) readings Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution: How a Revolution Transformed a Monarchical Society into a Democratic One Unlike Any That Had Ever Existed. Alfred A. Knopf, 1992. External links Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution American Revolution Digital Learning ProjectNew-York Historical Society PBS Television Series Smithsonian study unit on Revolutionary Money http://www.theamericanrevolution.org Haldimand Collection Letters regarding the war to important generals. 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5,051 | Falsifiability | Falsifiability (or refutability) is the logical possibility that an assertion can be shown false by an observation or a physical experiment. That something is "falsifiable" does not mean it is false; rather, that if it is false, then this can be shown by observation or experiment. Falsifiability is an important concept in science and the philosophy of science. The term "Testability" is related but more specific; it means that an assertion can be falsified through experimentation alone. Some philosophers and scientists, most notably Karl Popper, have asserted that a hypothesis, proposition, or theory is scientific only if it is falsifiable. For example, "all men are mortal" is unfalsifiable, since no finite amount of observation could ever demonstrate its falsehood: that one or more men can live forever. "All men are immortal," by contrast, is falsifiable, by the presentation of just one dead man. Not all statements that are falsifiable in principle are falsifiable in practice. For example, "it will be raining here in one million years" is theoretically falsifiable, but not practically. Popper stressed that unfalsifiable statements are still very important for science and are often contained in scientific theories as unfalsifiable consequences. For example, while "all men are mortal" is unfalsifiable, it is still contained as a consequence of the falsifiable theory that "every man dies before he reaches the age of 150 years". Similarly, the ancient metaphysical idea of the existence of atoms has led to corresponding falsifiable modern theories. Popper invented the notion of metaphysical research programs to name such ideas. In contrast to Positivism, which held that statements are senseless if they cannot be verified or falsified, Popper denied that falsifiability somehow makes scientific theories special. According to Popper, falsifiability is merely a special case of the much more general notion of criticizability, even though he admitted that falsification is one of the most effective methods by which theories can be criticized. Naïve falsification Two types of statements: observational and categorical In work beginning in the 1930s, Popper gave falsifiability a renewed emphasis as a criterion of empirical statements in science. Popper noticed that two types of statements are of particular value to scientists. The first are statements of observations, such as "this is a white swan". Logicians call these statements singular existential statements, since they assert the existence of some particular thing. They can be parsed in the form: There is an x that is a swan, and x is white. The second are statements that categorize all instances of something, such as "all swans are white". Logicians call these statements universal. They are usually parsed in the form: For all x, if x is a swan, then x is white. Scientific laws are commonly supposed to be of this type. One difficult question in the methodology of science is: How does one move from observations to laws? How can one validly infer a universal statement from any number of existential statements? Inductivist methodology supposed that one can somehow move from a series of singular existential statements to a universal statement. That is, that one can move from 'this is a white swan', 'that is a white swan', and so on, to a universal statement such as 'all swans are white'. This method is clearly deductively invalid, since it is always possible that there may be a non-white swan that has eluded observation (and, in fact, the discovery of the Australian black swan demonstrated the deductive invalidity of this particular statement). Inductive categorical inference Popper held that science could not be grounded on such an invalid inference. He proposed falsification as a solution to the problem of induction. Popper noticed that although a singular existential statement such as 'there is a white swan' cannot be used to affirm a universal statement, it can be used to show that one is false: the singular existential observation of a black swan serves to show that the universal statement 'all swans are white' is false -- in logic this is called modus tollens. 'There is a black swan' implies 'there is a non-white swan,' which, in turn, implies 'there is something that is a swan and that is not white', hence 'all swans are white' is false, because that is the same as 'there is nothing that is a swan and that is not white'. One notices a white swan. From this one can conclude: At least one swan is white. From this, one may wish to conjecture: All swans are white. It is impractical to observe all the swans in the world to verify that they are all white. Even so, the statement all swans are white is testable by being falsifiable. For, if in testing many swans, the researcher finds a single black swan, then the statement all swans are white would be falsified by the counterexample of the single black swan. Deductive falsification Deductive falsification is different from an absence of verification. The falsification of statements occurs through modus tollens, via some observation. Suppose some universal statement U forbids some observation O: Observation O, however, is made: So by modus tollens, Although the logic of naïve falsification is valid, it is rather limited. Nearly any statement can be made to fit the data, so long as one makes the requisite 'compensatory adjustments'. Popper drew attention to these limitations in The Logic of Scientific Discovery in response to criticism from Pierre Duhem. W. V. Quine expounded this argument in detail, calling it confirmation holism. In order to logically falsify a universal, one must find a true falsifying singular statement. But Popper pointed out that it is always possible to change the universal statement or the existential statement so that falsification does not occur. On hearing that a black swan has been observed in Australia, one might introduce the ad hoc hypothesis, 'all swans are white except those found in Australia'; or one might adopt another, more cynical view about some observers, 'Australian bird watchers are incompetent'. Thus, naïve falsification ought to, but does not, supply a way of handling competing hypotheses for many subject controversies (for instance conspiracy theories and urban legends). People arguing that there is no support for such an observation may argue that there is nothing to see, that all is normal, or that the differences or appearances are too small so as to be statistically insignificant. On the other side are those who concede that an observation has occurred and that a universal statement has been falsified as a consequence. Therefore, naïve falsification does not enable scientists, who rely on objective criteria, to present a definitive falsification of universal statements. Falsificationism Naïve falsificationism is an unsuccessful attempt to prescribe a rationally unavoidable method for science. Sophisticated methodological falsification, on the other hand, is a prescription of a way in which scientists ought to behave as a matter of choice. The object of this is to arrive at an evolutionary process whereby theories become less bad. Naïve falsification considers scientific statements individually. Scientific theories are formed from groups of these sorts of statements, and it is these groups that must be accepted or rejected by scientists. Scientific theories can always be defended by the addition of ad hoc hypotheses. As Popper put it, a decision is required on the part of the scientist to accept or reject the statements that go to make up a theory or that might falsify it. At some point, the weight of the ad hoc hypotheses and disregarded falsifying observations will become so great that it becomes unreasonable to support the base theory any longer, and a decision will be made to reject it. In place of naïve falsification, Popper envisioned science as evolving by the successive rejection of falsified theories, rather than falsified statements. Falsified theories are to be replaced by theories that can account for the phenomena that falsified the prior theory, that is, with greater explanatory power. For example, Aristotelian mechanics explained observations of everyday situations, but were falsified by Galileo’s experiments, and were replaced by Newtonian mechanics, which accounted for the phenomena noted by Galileo (and others). Newtonian mechanics' reach included the observed motion of the planets and the mechanics of gases. Or at least most of them; the size of the precession of the orbit of Mercury was not predicted by Newtonian mechanics, but was by Einstein's general relativity. The Youngian wave theory of light (i.e., waves carried by the luminiferous aether) replaced Newton's (and many of the Classical Greeks') particles of light but in turn was falsified by the Michelson-Morley experiment and was superseded by Maxwell's electrodynamics and Einstein's special relativity, which did account for the new phenomena. Furthermore, Newtonian mechanics applied to the atomic scale was replaced with Quantum Mechanics, when the old theory couldn't provide an answer to the Ultraviolet catastrophe, the Gibbs paradox, or how electron orbits could exist without the particles radiating away their energy and spiraling towards the centre. Thus the new theory had to posit the existence of unintuitive concepts such as Energy levels, Quanta and Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. At each stage, experimental observation made a theory untenable (i.e., falsified it) and a new theory was found that had greater explanatory power (i.e., could account for the previously unexplained phenomena), and as a result, provided greater opportunity for its own falsification. The criterion of demarcation Popper uses falsification as a criterion of demarcation to draw a sharp line between those theories that are scientific and those that are unscientific. It is useful to know if a statement or theory is falsifiable, if for no other reason than that it provides us with an understanding of the ways in which one might assess the theory. One might at the least be saved from attempting to falsify a non-falsifiable theory, or come to see an unfalsifiable theory as unsupportable. Popper claimed that, if a theory is falsifiable, then it is scientific. The Popperian criterion excludes from the domain of science not unfalsifiable statements but only whole theories that contain no falsifiable statements; thus it leaves us with the Duhemian problem of what constitutes a 'whole theory' as well as the problem of what makes a statement 'meaningful'. Popper's own falsificationism, thus, is not only an alternative to verificationism, it is also an acknowledgement of the conceptual distinction that previous theories had ignored. Verificationism In the philosophy of science, verificationism (also known as the verifiability theory of meaning) holds that a statement must be in principle empirically verifiable in order to be both meaningful and scientific. This was an essential feature of the logical positivism of the so-called Vienna Circle that included such philosophers as Moritz Schlick, Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath, the Berlin philosopher Hans Reichenbach, and the logical empiricism of A.J. Ayer. Popper noticed that the philosophers of the Vienna Circle had mixed two different problems, that of meaning and that of demarcation, and had proposed in verificationism a single solution to both. In opposition to this view, Popper emphasized that there are meaningful theories that are not scientific, and that, accordingly, a criterion of meaningfulness does not coincide with a criterion of demarcation. Verifiability came to be replaced by falsifiability as the criterion of demarcation. Falsificationism strictly opposes the view that non-falsifiable statements are meaningless or otherwise inherently bad. Logic of Scientific Discovery, section 6, footnote *3 Use in courts of law Falsifiability was one of the criteria used by Judge William Overton in the McLean v. Arkansas ruling to determine that 'creation science' was not scientific and should not be taught in Arkansas public schools. In his conclusion related to this criterion he stated that "While anybody is free to approach a scientific inquiry in any fashion they choose, they cannot properly describe the methodology as scientific, if they start with the conclusion and refuse to change it regardless of the evidence developed during the course of the investigation." McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, Decision January 5, 1982. It was also enshrined in United States law as part of the Daubert Standard set by the Supreme Court for whether scientific evidence is admissible in a jury trial. Criticisms Contemporary philosophers Many contemporary philosophers of science and analytic philosophers, notably W.H. Newton-Smith, Kurt Hübner, John W. N. Watkins, A. J. Ayer, Mary Hesse, Geoffrey James Warnock, Arnold Levison, Jennifer Trusted, Anthony O'Hear, George N. Schlesinger, Adolf Grünbaum, Alan Musgrave, R. H. Vincent, Henry E. Kyburg, Jr., John Worrall, Herbert Feigl, L. Jonathan Cohen, Wesley C. Salmon, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Raimo Tuomela, Colin Howson, Hilary Putnam, David Stove and Richard C. Jeffrey, are strongly critical of Popper's philosophy of science. Popper's mistrust of inductive reasoning has led to claims that he misrepresents scientific practice. Among the professional philosophers of science, the Popperian view has never been seriously preferred to probabilistic induction, which is the mainstream account of scientific reasoning. Confirmation, Induction and Science Adherents of Popper speak with disrespect of "professional philosophy", for example W. W. Bartley: Sir Karl Popper is not really a participant in the contemporary professional philosophical dialogue; quite the contrary, he has ruined that dialogue. If he is on the right track, then the majority of professional philosophers the world over have wasted or are wasting their intellectual careers. The gulf between Popper's way of doing philosophy and that of the bulk of contemporary professional philosophers is as great as that between astronomy and astrology. W. W. Bartley, III: Biology & evolutionary epistemology. Philosophia 6:3–4 (September–December 1976), pp. 463–494 Rafe Champion: Popper's ideas have failed to convince the majority of professional philosophers because his theory of conjectural knowledge does not even pretend to provide positively justified foundations of belief. Nobody else does better, but they keep trying, like chemists still in search of the Philosopher's Stone or physicists trying to build perpetual motion machines. Rafe Champion: Agreeing to Disagree: Bartley's Critique of Reason. Melbourne Age Monthly Review (October 1985) and David Miller:‘What distinguishes science from all other human endeavours is that the accounts of the world that our best, mature sciences deliver are strongly supported by evidence and this evidence gives us the strongest reason to believe them.’ That anyway is what is said at the beginning of the advertisement for a recent conference on induction at a celebrated seat of learning in the UK. It shows how much critical rationalists still have to do to make known the message of Logik der Forschung concerning what empirical evidence is able to do and what it does. David Miller: Some hard questions for critical rationalism Kuhn and Lakatos Whereas Popper was concerned in the main with the logic of science, Thomas Kuhn’s influential book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions examined in detail the history of science. Kuhn argued that scientists work within a conceptual paradigm that strongly influences the way in which they see data. Scientists will go to great length to defend their paradigm against falsification, by the addition of ad hoc hypotheses to existing theories. Changing a 'paradigm' is difficult, as it requires an individual scientist to break with his or her peers and defend a heterodox theory. Some falsificationists saw Kuhn’s work as a vindication, since it provided historical evidence that science progressed by rejecting inadequate theories, and that it is the decision, on the part of the scientist, to accept or reject a theory that is the crucial element of falsificationism. Foremost amongst these was Imre Lakatos. Lakatos attempted to explain Kuhn’s work by arguing that science progresses by the falsification of research programs rather than the more specific universal statements of naïve falsification. In Lakatos' approach, a scientist works within a research program that corresponds roughly with Kuhn's 'paradigm'. Whereas Popper rejected the use of ad hoc hypotheses as unscientific, Lakatos accepted their place in the development of new theories. Some philosophers of science, such as Paul Feyerabend, take Kuhn's work as showing that social factors, rather than adherence to a purely rational method, decide which scientific theories gain general acceptance. Many other philosophers of science dispute such a view, such as Alan Sokal and Kuhn himself. Feyerabend Paul Feyerabend examined the history of science with a more critical eye, and ultimately rejected any prescriptive methodology at all. He rejected Lakatos’ argument for ad hoc hypothesis, arguing that science would not have progressed without making use of any and all available methods to support new theories. He rejected any reliance on a scientific method, along with any special authority for science that might derive from such a method. Rather, he claimed that if one is keen to have a universally valid methodological rule, epistemological anarchism or anything goes would be the only candidate. For Feyerabend, any special status that science might have derives from the social and physical value of the results of science rather than its method. Physicists In their book Fashionable Nonsense (published in the UK as Intellectual Impostures) the physicists Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont criticized falsifiability on the grounds that it does not accurately describe the way science really works. They argue that theories are used because of their successes, not because of the failures of other theories. Their discussion of Popper, falsifiability and the philosophy of science comes in a chapter entitled "Intermezzo," which contains an attempt to make clear their own views of what constitutes truth, in contrast with the extreme epistemological relativism of postmodernism. Sokal and Bricmont write, "When a theory successfully withstands an attempt at falsification, a scientist will, quite naturally, consider the theory to be partially confirmed and will accord it a greater likelihood or a higher subjective probability. ... But Popper will have none of this: throughout his life he was a stubborn opponent of any idea of 'confirmation' of a theory, or even of its 'probability'. ... [but] the history of science teaches us that scientific theories come to be accepted above all because of their successes." (Sokal and Bricmont 1997, 62f) They further argue that falsifiability cannot distinguish between astrology and astronomy, as both make technical predictions that are sometimes incorrect. David Miller, a contemporary philosopher of critical rationalism, has attempted to defend Popper against these claims. , also chapter 6 of Examples Claims about verifiability and falsifiability have been used to criticize various controversial views. Examining these examples shows the usefulness of falsifiability by showing us where to look when attempting to criticise a theory. Non-falsifiable theories can usually be reduced to a simple uncircumscribed existential statement, such as there exists a green swan. It is entirely possible to verify whether or not this statement is true, simply by producing the green swan. But since this statement does not specify when or where the green swan exists; it is simply not possible to show that the swan does not exist, and so it is impossible to falsify the statement. That such theories are unfalsifiable says nothing about either their validity or truth. But it does assist us in determining to what extent such statements might be evaluated. If evidence cannot be presented to support a case, and yet the case cannot be shown to be indeed false, not much credence can be given to such a statement. However, you can also look at this case from another perspective. Let's say that the statement is "all swans are not green". An attempt to verify this positively would require a search for non-green swans, which you are sure to find. However, having rounded up and examined every known swan, there is always the possibility that there is at least one more swan but we will never know for sure until we find it and if we do, there may be yet, one more swan, and it may be green. On the other hand, we may say that "all swans are not green" but instead of attempting to positively verify this statement we attempt to falsify it by looking for a green swan. In that case, we need only find one swan (a green one), in the absence of which we can accept the original statement as a working hypothesis until such a swan is discovered. Economics Aspects of economics have been accused of not being falsifiable, mainly by sociologists and other social scientists in general. The most common argument is made against rational expectations theories, which work under the assumption that people act to maximize their utility. However, under this viewpoint, it is impossible to disprove the fundamental theory that people are utility-maximizers. The political scientist Graham T. Allison, in his book Essence of Decision, attempted to both quash this theory and substitute other possible models of behavior. Another construct that has been accused of being irrefutable is the principle of comparative advantage Schumpeter, Joseph A., 1954. History of Economic Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 472-473. Ethics Ethical statements such as "murder is evil" or "it is good to help those in need" are not usually considered to be falsifiable. This does not necessarily amount to conclusion that they are all false, or without truth-values. It mainly impacts their status as scientific theories. The meta-ethical thesis that ethical statements have no truth-value is called non-cognitivism. Evolution Many creationists have claimed that evolution is unfalsifiable. Numerous examples of potential ways to falsify common descent have been proposed. Richard Dawkins said that "If there were a single hippo or rabbit in the Precambrian, that would completely blow evolution out of the water. None have ever been found." Similarly, J.B.S. Haldane, when asked what hypothetical evidence could disprove evolution, replied "fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era". Similarly, the evolution of the great apes and humans from a common ancestor predicts a (geologically) recent common ancestor of apes and humans. This assertion could have been disproven with the invention of DNA analysis. Molecular biology identifies DNA as the mechanism for inherited traits. Therefore if common descent is true, human DNA should be more similar to great apes than other mammals. If this is not the case, then common descent is falsified. DNA analysis has shown that humans and the great apes share a large percentage of their DNA, and hence human evolution has passed a falsifiable test. Popper himself drew a distinction between common descent and the process of natural selection. While he agreed common descent was falsifiable (he used the even more drastic example of the remains of a car in cambrian sediments), ; online German translation Popper said that natural selection "is not a testable scientific theory but a metaphysical research programme". However, Popper later said "I have changed my mind about the testability and logical status of the theory of natural selection, and I am glad to have the opportunity to make a recantation." He went on to formulate natural selection in a falsifiable way and offered a more nuanced view of its status. He still felt that "Darwin's own most important contribution to the theory of evolution, his theory of natural selection, is difficult to test." However, "[t]here are some tests, even some experimental tests; and in some cases, such as the famous phenomenon known as 'industrial melanism', we can observe natural selection happening under our very eyes, as it were. Nevertheless, really severe tests of the theory of natural selection are hard to come by, much more so than tests of otherwise comparable theories in physics or chemistry." Historicism Theories of history or politics which allegedly predict the future course of history have a logical form that renders them neither falsifiable nor verifiable. They claim that for every historically significant event, there exists an historical or economic law that determines the way in which events proceeded. Failure to identify the law does not mean that it does not exist, yet an event that satisfies the law does not prove the general case. Evaluation of such claims is at best difficult. On this basis, Popper himself argued that neither Marxism nor psychoanalysis was science, although both made such claims. Again, this does not mean that any of these types of theories is necessarily incorrect. Popper considered falsifiability a test of whether theories are scientific, not of whether propositions that they contain or support are true. Logic and mathematics The question may be raised as to whether the theorems of logic and mathematics are falsifiable or not. After all, they appear on first encounter to be unexceptionally true. In considering this question, it is helpful to introduce a classical distinction that is frequently emphasized in this connection by Charles Sanders Peirce. On the one hand, he defines a positive science as "an inquiry which seeks for positive knowledge", that is, for knowledge that can be expressed in a categorical proposition (Peirce, EP 2, 144). He goes on to say the following of the normative sciences, namely, logic, ethics and aesthetics: Logic and the other normative sciences, although they ask, not what is but what ought to be, nevertheless are positive sciences since it is by asserting positive, categorical truth that they are able show that what they call good really is so; and the right reason, right effort, and right being of which they treat derive that character from positive categorical fact. (Peirce, EP 2, 144). On the other hand, Peirce distinguishes mathematics proper from all positive sciences, and reckons it more fundamental than any of them, saying that any positive science "must, if it is to be properly grounded, be made to depend upon the Conditional or Hypothetical Science of Pure Mathematics, whose only aim is to discover not how things actually are, but how they might be supposed to be, if not in our universe, then in some other" (Peirce, EP 2, 144). In this way of looking at things, logic is a science that seeks after knowledge of how we ought to conduct our reasoning if we want to achieve the goals of reasoning. As such, the logical knowledge that we have at any given time can easily fall short of perfection. However, the laws of logic themselves (the rules of inference and logical axioms) are not subject to falsifiability per se. That is, since truth values are defined in relation to the laws of logic any "falsification" of these laws would represent a self-contradictory situation though this conclusion has been argued against by philosophers such as W.V._Quine. Pure mathematics, on the contrary, contains no propositions that are not contingent on prior assumptions. Its apparent certainty is but a relative certainty, relative to the certainty of its axioms. One can say that its theorems are tautologies, so long as one remembers the original meaning of tautology, which is a repetition of something previously asserted. Mathematical theorems merely say more acutely what the axioms more obtusely already say. Applied mathematics, in particular, mathematics as applied in empirical science, is still another thing. The application of mathematical abstractions to a domain of experiential phenomena involves a critical comparison of many different mathematical models, not all of them consistent with each other, and it normally leads to a judgment that some of the hypothetical models are better analogues or more likely icons than others of the empirical domain in question. This is, of course, an extremely fallible business, and each judgment call is subject to revision as more empirical data comes in. How well a mathematical formula applies to the physical world is a physical question, and thus testable, within certain limits. For example, the proposition that all objects follow a parabolic path when thrown into the air is falsifiable; indeed, it is false. To see this, one has but to think of a feather. A slightly better proposition is that all objects follow a parabolic path when thrown in a vacuum and acted upon by gravity, which is itself falsified in regard to paths whose lengths are not negligible in proportion to a given planet's radius. What is the conclusion then? Are mathematical theorems falsifiable or not? The most that can be said of them is that they are true of what they are true of, but what they are true of may not be the object of a given experience. The above discussion addressed the nature of mathematical theorems in and of themselves, and then took up their application to empirical phenomena. But the actual practice of mathematics involves yet another level of consideration, and it may yet involve activities that are very similar to empirical science. Many working mathematicians, from Peirce in his day to Stephen Wolfram in ours, have remarked on the active, observational, and even experimental character of mathematical work. Imre Lakatos brings the concept of falsifiability to bear on the discipline of mathematics in his Proofs and Refutations. The question of whether mathematical practice is a quasi-experimental science depends in part on whether proofs are fundamentally different from experiments. Lakatos argues that often axioms, definitions, and proofs evolve through criticism and counterexample in a manner not unlike the way that a scientific theory evolves in response to experiments. Solipsism Metaphysical solipsism is the view that the individual self of the solipsistic philosopher is the whole of reality and that the external world and other persons are representations of that self having no independent existence (Wood, p. 295). Metaphysical solipsism is not empirically falsifiable because once one has taken the solipsistic position, any evidence that might establish an external world is already viewed as being within (or produced by) the self. However, expressions of solipsism may be self-refuting. Anti-solipsism--the position that an external world does exist--is similarly non-falsifiable because regardless of what evidence is produced, it is always possible that there exists an external world outside one's experiences that does not interact with them. Theism The idea of falsifiability can be used to draw a distinction between falsifiable and nonfalsifiable notions of God. The nonfalsifiable notions describe what we think of as God's transcendental qualities; because they are independent of anything in the physical world, no physical circumstances are sufficient to prove or disprove their existence. By contrast, falsifiable accounts of God are physically definite, and can therefore be thought of as a personification, or "deification," of ideas that, at least purportedly, could be formulated as (read: testable) theories of physics. How the Problem of Induction Defines the Relationship Between God and Science. Michael Redman, 2007. amichael123.dynalias.net/induction.shtml Note: This is a self-published source - if you know of a suitable reference in third-party publication, please share. Quotations No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong. — Albert Einstein Calaprice denotes this not as an exact quotation, but as a paraphrase of a translation of A. Einstein's "Induction and Deduction". Collected Papers of Albert Einstein Vol. 7, Document 28. The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918-1921. A. Einstein; M. Janssen, R. Schulmann, et al., eds. The criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability, or refutability, or testability. — Karl Popper, (Popper, CR, 36) Notes References Angeles, Peter A. (1992), Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd edition, Harper Perennial, New York, NY. ISBN 0-06-461026-8. Feyerabend, Paul K., Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge, Humanities Press, London, UK, 1975. Reprinted, Verso, London, UK, 1978. Kuhn, Thomas S., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1962. 2nd edition 1970. 3rd edition 1996. Peirce, C.S., "Lectures on Pragmatism", Cambridge, MA, March 26 – May 17, 1903. Reprinted in part, Collected Papers, CP 5.14–212. Published in full with editor's introduction and commentary, Patricia Ann Turisi (ed.), Pragmatism as a Principle and Method of Right Thinking: The 1903 Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism", State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, 1997. Reprinted, pp. 133–241, Peirce Edition Project (eds.), The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 2 (1893–1913), Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1998. Popper, Karl, The Logic of Scientific Discovery, Basic Books, New York, NY, 1959. Popper, Karl, Conjectures and Refutations, Routledge, London, 1963. Runes, Dagobert D. (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962. Sokal, Alan, and Bricmont, Jean, Fashionable Nonsense, Picador, New York, NY, 1998. Theobald, D.L. (2006). 29+ Evidences for Macroevolution: The Scientific Case for Common Descent. The Talk.Origins Archive. Version 2.87. Wood, Ledger (1962), "Solipsism", p. 295 in Runes (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy'', Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ. See also Cognitive bias Contingency Defeasible reasoning Demarcation problem Duhem–Quine thesis Fallibilism Hypothetico-deductive model Inquiry Logical positivism Metaphysical solipsism Methodological solipsism Not even wrong Occam's razor Philosophy of mathematics Philosophy of science Pragmatic maxim Precambrian rabbit Predictive power Reproducibility Scientific method Superseded scientific theory Tautology Testability Theory-ladenness External links Problems with Falsificationism at The Galilean Library | Falsifiability |@lemmatized falsifiability:17 refutability:2 logical:8 possibility:2 assertion:3 show:12 false:9 observation:15 physical:6 experiment:7 something:4 falsifiable:28 mean:5 rather:7 important:3 concept:3 science:45 philosophy:11 term:1 testability:4 relate:2 specific:2 falsify:17 experimentation:2 alone:1 philosopher:17 scientist:14 notably:2 karl:5 popper:38 assert:4 hypothesis:7 proposition:6 theory:67 scientific:33 example:10 men:4 mortal:2 unfalsifiable:8 since:7 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5,052 | Euroscepticism | Euroscepticism has become a general term for opposition to the process of further European integration. It is not, however, a single ideology, and eurosceptics differ on both their vision of Europe and on the manner in which it is perceived to fail: thus some eurosceptics seek a different form of European Union whilst some seek the withdrawal of their own country from the EU and yet others seek the complete dissolution of the EU. Euroscepticism is particularly strong in Austria, Denmark and the United Kingdom. Eurosceptics in the European Parliament In 2004, 37 MEPs from the UK, Poland, Denmark and Sweden founded a new European Parliament group called “Independence and Democracy” from the old Europe of Democracies and Diversities (EDD) group. The main goals of this group are to reject the Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe and to oppose further European integration. Some delegations within the group, notably the United Kingdom Independence Party, advocate the complete withdrawal of their country from the EU. The group’s leaders are Nigel Farage of the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) (10 MEPs) and, since May 2008, Kathy Sinnott from Ireland. The Union for Europe of the Nations Group is also eurosceptic as are some parties within the left-wing Confederal Group of the European United Left–Nordic Green Left and the European Greens–European Free Alliance. The UK’s largely eurosceptic Conservative Party are currently part of the European People's Party–European Democrats grouping in the European Parliament, which has mainly a pro-European agenda. However the party is currently committed to withdrawing from the EPP as soon as a new grouping, to be entitled Movement for European Reform, can recruit enough members to be viable. In the United Kingdom Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom (UK) is a very controversial issue and has been a significant element in British politics since the inception of the European Economic Community (EEC), the predecessor to the European Union (EU). Eurosceptic views have not diminished following UK membership of the Union. However, their nature and bases have tended to change over the years. Euroscepticism from religious groups The EU has received strong criticism from members of some religious groups, with dispensationalist views. They complain that the EU is rooted too strongly in secular humanism and undermines traditional Christianity with its policies. Some go as far to describe the EU as the beginnings of the one-world empire allegedly foretold in Bible prophecy, as for example some monks at Mount Athos http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/13520.stm . See also Pro-Europeanism Euromyth Nationalism Federal Europe References External links Eurosceptic groups No to the EU – Yes to Democracy The Social Capital Foundation Independence/Democracy Group in the European Parliament The Better Off Out Campaign The European Foundation British National Party United Kingdom Independence Party Bruges Group Research Centre Free Europe Campaign for National Independence Malta Rīcības partija (Latvia) Euroscepticism rebuttals The European Commission’s Press Office in London Benefits of European Union membership (Europa) Europe In 12 Lessons (Europa) Lisbon Reform Treaty (Europa) Britain in the EU (UK FCO) | Euroscepticism |@lemmatized euroscepticism:5 become:1 general:1 term:1 opposition:1 process:1 european:19 integration:2 however:3 single:1 ideology:1 eurosceptics:3 differ:1 vision:1 europe:8 manner:1 perceive:1 fail:1 thus:1 seek:3 different:1 form:1 union:5 whilst:1 withdrawal:2 country:2 eu:9 yet:1 others:1 complete:2 dissolution:1 particularly:1 strong:2 austria:1 denmark:2 united:7 kingdom:6 parliament:4 meps:2 uk:6 poland:1 sweden:1 found:1 new:2 group:13 call:1 independence:6 democracy:4 old:1 diversity:1 edd:1 main:1 goal:1 reject:1 treaty:2 establish:1 constitution:1 oppose:1 delegation:1 within:2 notably:1 party:8 advocate:1 leader:1 nigel:1 farage:1 ukip:1 since:2 may:1 kathy:1 sinnott:1 ireland:1 nation:1 also:2 eurosceptic:4 left:2 wing:1 confederal:1 leave:1 nordic:1 green:2 free:2 alliance:1 largely:1 conservative:1 currently:2 part:1 people:1 democrat:1 mainly:1 pro:2 agenda:1 commit:1 withdraw:1 epp:1 soon:1 grouping:1 entitle:1 movement:1 reform:2 recruit:1 enough:1 member:2 viable:1 controversial:1 issue:1 significant:1 element:1 british:2 politics:1 inception:1 economic:1 community:1 eec:1 predecessor:1 view:2 diminish:1 follow:1 membership:2 nature:1 base:1 tend:1 change:1 year:1 religious:2 receive:1 criticism:1 dispensationalist:1 complain:1 root:1 strongly:1 secular:1 humanism:1 undermines:1 traditional:1 christianity:1 policy:1 go:1 far:1 describe:1 beginning:1 one:1 world:1 empire:1 allegedly:1 foretell:1 bible:1 prophecy:1 example:1 monk:1 mount:1 athos:1 http:1 news:1 bbc:1 co:1 hi:1 stm:1 see:1 europeanism:1 euromyth:1 nationalism:1 federal:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 yes:1 social:1 capital:1 foundation:2 good:1 campaign:2 national:2 bruges:1 research:1 centre:1 malta:1 rīcības:1 partija:1 latvia:1 rebuttals:1 commission:1 press:1 office:1 london:1 benefit:1 europa:3 lesson:1 lisbon:1 britain:1 fco:1 |@bigram secular_humanism:1 mount_athos:1 uk_hi:1 external_link:1 |
5,053 | Jasmuheen | Jasmuheen in 2008 Jasmuheen (born 1957 as Ellen Greve) is an Australia-based proponent of 'pranic nourishment' or breatharianism, defined as the practice of living without food or fluid of any sort . She appears at New Age conferences and conducts spiritual retreats in many countries which are in part funded by the sale of her books and audios. Biography Ellen Greve was born in 1957 in New South Wales, of post-war Norwegian migrant parents. She married and had two children. Thereafter, Ellen developed her financial and business management skills, working full-time in the industry. From 1992, she began to combine her experience in business and finance with meditation, selling access to workshops and seminars on the topic and,by deed poll, changed her conventional, two-word name for the more esoteric 'Jasmuheen'. Jasmuheen maintains her own website, from where she promotes her many books. Breatharianism When the Australian television programme 60 Minutes challenged her to demonstrate how she could live without food and water, the supervising medical professional Dr Beres Wenck found that after just 48 hours, Jasmuheen displayed the physical symptoms of acute dehydration, stress and high blood pressure. Jasmuheen claimed that this was a result of 'polluted air'. On day 3, Jasmuheen was moved to a mountainside retreat about 15 miles from the city, where she was filmed enjoying the fresh air she said she could now live on happily. However, as the filming progressed, her speech slowed, her pupils dilated and she lost over a stone (6 kg) in weight. After 4 days Jasmuheen acknowledged that she had lost weight, but stated that she felt fine. Dr. Wenck stated "You are now quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%." The doctor also announced, "Her pulse is about double what it was when she started. The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure." Jasmuheen's condition continued to deteriorate rapidly in the clearly demonstrated context of acute dehydration, despite her insistence to the contrary. Dr. Wenck concluded that continuing the experiment would ultimately prove fatal. The film crew concurred with this assessment and ceased filming. She is quoted by the Correx Archives as saying, regarding how much she eats: Generally not much at all. Maybe a few cups of tea and a glass of water, but now and then if I feel a bit bored and I want some flavour, then I will have a mouthful of whatever it is I'm wanting the flavour of. So it might be a piece of chocolate or it might be a mouthful of a cheesecake or something like that. Jasmuheen has stated that she has lived on approximately 300 calories per day for the last fourteen years, maintaining full health through supplementing a fluid intake with 'cosmic particles' or micro-food, which she describes as prana. Jasmuheen has also stated that she has not yet mastered the ability to be fluid-free for more than short periods. She was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 ("presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle"). She was also awarded the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for her book Pranic Nourishment — Living on Light, "which explains that although some people do eat food, they don't ever really need to." The 2000 Ig Nobel Prize Winners Jasmuheen states that some of her beliefs are based on the writings and "more recent channelled material" of the Count of St Germain. She states that her DNA is expanding from 2 to 12 strands to take up more hydrogen. The extra strands of DNA have not been demonstrated, and in fact when offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she stated that "you cannot view spiritual energy under a microscope." She claims that such a challenge is a deliberate attack on her beliefs, and refuses to act as an example of her claimed paranormal attributes. In 2005, James Randi offered her the James Randi Educational Foundation $1 million prize to demonstrate her claims. Deaths Three deaths have been directly linked to breatharianism and her publications. Jasmuheen has denied any moral responsibility for this. In reference to the death of Lani Morris, for example, she said that perhaps Morris was "not coming from a place of integrity and did not have the right motivation." Verity Linn starved herself to death and her "diary mentioned the teachings of self-proclaimed prophet Jasmuheen who believes people can draw nourishment from the 'divine life force in the form of liquid light'." After an investigation by the Australian and Scottish police, Jasmuheen was not charged in connection with these deaths. She was also fully investigated in 1999 by UK Cult Investigators who were unable and unwilling to label her a cult leader, although the French government department 'Miluvides', which is responsible for investigating cults and sects in that country, stated in 2006 that her ideas were dangerous and exploitative. Jasmuheen (on a superseded but still available website) attempted to distance her writings from the death by dehydration of keen believer Verity Linn, whose body was found in a tent with little but a sleeping bag, her clothing and one of Jasmuheen's books. Jasmuheen wrote "If you haven't found the light that will nourish you, you may have the intention to become a breatharian, but in fact you may be putting yourself through food deprivation. There is one known case where a person died when trying to become a breatharian." Publications The Prana Program — Eliminating Global Health & Hunger Challenges Harmonious Healing and the Immortal's Way The Law of Love & Its Fabulous Frequency Of Freedom The Food of Gods In Resonance Pranic Nourishment — Living on Light Ambassadors of Light — World Health & World Hunger Project Divine Radiance: On the Road With the Masters Of Magic Four Body Fitness: Biofields & Bliss Co-creating Paradise The Madonna Frequency Planetary Peace Program References External links Jasmuheen's Cosmic Internet Academy Jasmuheen's personal website Jasmuheen on YouTube BBC: Scotland: "woman starved herself to death" BBC: Guru condemned as 'dangerous' - episode of 60 Minutes (Jasmuheen's aborted experiment) | Jasmuheen |@lemmatized jasmuheen:22 born:1 ellen:3 greve:2 australia:1 base:2 proponent:1 pranic:3 nourishment:4 breatharianism:3 define:1 practice:1 live:6 without:2 food:6 fluid:3 sort:1 appear:1 new:2 age:1 conference:1 conduct:1 spiritual:2 retreat:2 many:2 country:2 part:1 fund:1 sale:1 book:4 audio:1 biography:1 bear:1 south:1 wale:1 post:1 war:1 norwegian:1 migrant:1 parent:1 marry:1 two:2 child:1 thereafter:1 develop:1 financial:1 business:2 management:1 skill:1 work:1 full:2 time:1 industry:1 begin:1 combine:1 experience:1 finance:1 meditation:1 sell:1 access:1 workshop:1 seminar:1 topic:1 deed:1 poll:1 change:1 conventional:1 word:1 name:1 esoteric:1 maintain:2 website:3 promote:1 australian:3 television:1 programme:1 minute:2 challenge:3 demonstrate:3 could:2 water:2 supervise:1 medical:1 professional:1 dr:3 beres:1 wenck:3 find:3 hour:1 display:1 physical:1 symptom:1 acute:2 dehydration:3 stress:1 high:1 blood:2 pressure:1 claim:4 result:1 pollute:1 air:2 day:3 move:1 mountainside:1 mile:1 city:1 film:2 enjoy:1 fresh:1 say:3 happily:1 however:1 filming:2 progress:1 speech:1 slow:1 pupil:1 dilate:1 lose:2 stone:1 kg:1 weight:2 acknowledge:1 state:8 felt:1 fine:1 quite:1 dehydrate:1 probably:1 get:1 doctor:1 also:4 announce:1 pulse:1 double:1 start:1 risk:1 go:1 kidney:1 failure:1 condition:1 continue:2 deteriorate:1 rapidly:1 clearly:1 demonstrated:1 context:1 despite:1 insistence:1 contrary:1 conclude:1 experiment:2 would:1 ultimately:1 prove:2 fatal:1 crew:1 concur:1 assessment:1 cease:1 quote:1 correx:1 archive:1 regard:1 much:2 eat:2 generally:1 maybe:1 cup:1 tea:1 glass:1 feel:1 bit:1 bored:1 want:2 flavour:2 mouthful:2 whatever:1 might:2 piece:2 chocolate:1 cheesecake:1 something:1 like:1 approximately:1 calorie:1 per:1 last:1 fourteen:1 year:1 health:3 supplement:1 intake:1 cosmic:2 particle:1 micro:1 describe:1 prana:2 yet:1 master:2 ability:1 free:1 short:1 period:1 award:3 bent:1 spoon:1 skeptic:1 present:1 perpetrator:1 preposterous:1 paranormal:2 pseudoscientific:1 piffle:1 ig:2 nobel:2 prize:3 literature:1 light:5 explain:1 although:2 people:2 ever:1 really:1 need:1 winner:1 belief:2 writing:2 recent:1 channel:1 material:1 count:1 st:1 germain:1 dna:2 expand:1 strand:2 take:1 hydrogen:1 extra:1 fact:2 offer:2 test:1 cannot:1 view:1 energy:1 microscope:1 deliberate:1 attack:1 refuse:1 act:1 example:2 claimed:1 attribute:1 james:2 randi:2 educational:1 foundation:1 million:1 death:7 three:1 directly:1 link:2 publication:2 deny:1 moral:1 responsibility:1 reference:2 lani:1 morris:2 perhaps:1 come:1 place:1 integrity:1 right:1 motivation:1 verity:2 linn:2 starve:2 diary:1 mention:1 teaching:1 self:1 proclaim:1 prophet:1 believe:1 draw:1 divine:2 life:1 force:1 form:1 liquid:1 investigation:1 scottish:1 police:1 charge:1 connection:1 fully:1 investigate:2 uk:1 cult:3 investigator:1 unable:1 unwilling:1 label:1 leader:1 french:1 government:1 department:1 miluvides:1 responsible:1 sect:1 idea:1 dangerous:2 exploitative:1 supersede:1 still:1 available:1 attempt:1 distance:1 keen:1 believer:1 whose:1 body:2 tent:1 little:1 sleeping:1 bag:1 clothing:1 one:2 write:1 nourish:1 may:2 intention:1 become:2 breatharian:2 put:1 deprivation:1 known:1 case:1 person:1 die:1 try:1 program:2 eliminate:1 global:1 hunger:2 harmonious:1 healing:1 immortal:1 way:1 law:1 love:1 fabulous:1 frequency:2 freedom:1 god:1 resonance:1 ambassador:1 world:2 project:1 radiance:1 road:1 magic:1 four:1 fitness:1 biofields:1 bliss:1 co:1 create:1 paradise:1 madonna:1 planetary:1 peace:1 external:1 internet:1 academy:1 personal:1 youtube:1 bbc:2 scotland:1 woman:1 guru:1 condemn:1 episode:1 abort:1 |@bigram deed_poll:1 ig_nobel:2 nobel_prize:2 strand_dna:1 james_randi:2 unable_unwilling:1 external_link:1 |
5,054 | Andronikos_III_Palaiologos | Andronikos III Palaiologos, Latinized as Andronicus III Palaeologus (; March 25, 1297, Constantinople – June 15, 1341, Constantinople) reigned as Byzantine emperor 1328–1341, after being rival emperor since 1321. Andronikos III was the son of Michael IX Palaiologos and Princess Rita of Armenia (renamed Maria). His maternal grandparents were King Levon II of Armenia and Queen Keran of Armenia. Life Effective administrative authority during the reign of Andronikos III was wielded by his megas domestikos John Kantakouzenos, while the emperor enjoyed himself hunting or waging war. An alliance with his brother-in-law Michael Asen III of Bulgaria against Stefan Uroš III Dečanski of Serbia failed to secure any gains, as the Serbians defeated the Bulgarians before the latter could join with the Byzantines in the battle of Velbăžd (Kyustendil) in 1330. Andronikos III's attempt to make up for this setback by annexing Bulgarian Thrace failed in 1331, when he was defeated by the new Bulgarian emperor Ivan Alexander at Rousokastron. Peace with Bulgaria was secured through territorial concessions and a diplomatic marriage between the children of the two emperors. The subsequent years witnessed the gradual extinction of Byzantine rule in Asia Minor, as Orhan of the Ottoman Turks, who had already defeated Andronikos III at Pelekanos in 1329, took Nicaea in 1331 and Nicomedia in 1337. After that, only Philadelpheia and a handful of ports remained under Byzantine control in Asia Minor. Earlier Andronikos III had effected the recovery of Phocaea and the islands of Lesbos and Chios from Benedetto Zaccaria in 1329, but this did little to stem the Ottoman advance in Asia Minor. Under Stefan Uroš IV Dušan, Serbia expanded into Byzantine territory in Macedonia, taking Ohrid, Prilep, Kastoria, Strumica, and Voden in about 1334. The one time governor of Thessalonica Syrgiannes Palaeologos had deserted to the side of the Serbians and aided their advance in to Macedonia. Although Andronicus sent Sphrantzes to capture Syrgiannes, and Sphrantzes instead killed Syrgiannes, Syrgiannes had helped the advance of the Serbian forces. Norwich, John Kulius. Byzantium: The Decline and Fall (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996) p. 283-284 In August of 1334 Stefan Dusan and Andronicus made peace, and the forces of Andronicus was allowed to retake control of those parts of Macedonia that Syrgiannes had been directly responsible for capturing. Norwich. Byzantium: THe Decline and Fall p. 284 Despite these troubles Andronikos III secured the extension of Byzantine control over Thessaly in 1333 and Epirus in 1337, by taking advantage of succession crises in these principalities. Andronikos III reorganized the Byzantine navy (consisted of 10 ships by 1332) and reformed the judicial system by forming a panel of four universal judges whom he designated "Universal Justices of the Romans". In retrospect his reign may be said to end before the situation of the Byzantine Empire became untenable. In spite of several not insignificant reverses at the hands of Bulgarians, Serbians, and Ottomans, the emperor had provided the empire with active leadership, had cooperated with able administrators, and had come closer than any of his predecessors in re-establishing Byzantine control over the Greek peninsula. Andronikos III died aged 44 in 1341, and was succeeded by his son, John V Palaiologos. Family Andronikos III was first married, in 1318, with Adelheid of Brunswick, daughter of Henry I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg; she died in 1324. They had an unnamed son, who died shortly after birth in 1321. Andronikos III married as his second wife, in 1326, with Anna of Savoy. She was a daughter of Count Amadeus V of Savoy and his second wife Maria of Brabant. They had several children, including: John V Palaiologos Michael Palaiologos, despotes Maria (renamed Eirene), who married Emperor Michael Asen IV of Bulgaria Eirene (renamed Maria), who married Francesco I of Lesbos According to Nicephorus Gregoras, Andronikos also had an illegitimate daughter, Irene Palaiologina of Trebizond. She married Basil of Trebizond and took over the throne of the Empire of Trebizond from 1340 to 1341. Profile of Irene in "Medieval Lands" by Charles Cawley The Dictionnaire historique et Généalogique des grandes familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople (1983) by Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza adds a second illegitimate daughter of Andronikos, converting to Islam under the name Bayalun. She was reportedly one of several wives of Uzbeg Khan of the Golden Horde. Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza, Dictionnaire historique et Généalogique des grandes familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople (1983), page 373 This daughter is not included in the older Europäische Stammtafeln: Stammtafeln zur Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten (1978) by Detlev Schwennicke and her existence may reflect Sturdza's own theories. Profile of Bayalun in "Medieval Lands" by Charles Cawley References Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991. John V.A. Fine Jr., The Late Medieval Balkans, Ann Arbor, 1987. | Andronikos_III_Palaiologos |@lemmatized andronikos:13 iii:14 palaiologos:5 latinize:1 andronicus:4 palaeologus:1 march:1 constantinople:4 june:1 reign:3 byzantine:9 emperor:7 rival:1 since:1 son:3 michael:4 ix:1 princess:1 rita:1 armenia:3 rename:3 maria:4 maternal:1 grandparent:1 king:1 levon:1 ii:1 queen:1 keran:1 life:1 effective:1 administrative:1 authority:1 wield:1 megas:1 domestikos:1 john:5 kantakouzenos:1 enjoy:1 hunt:1 wag:1 war:1 alliance:1 brother:1 law:1 asen:2 bulgaria:3 stefan:3 uroš:2 dečanski:1 serbia:2 fail:2 secure:3 gain:1 serbian:4 defeat:3 bulgarian:4 latter:1 could:1 join:1 battle:1 velbăžd:1 kyustendil:1 attempt:1 make:2 setback:1 annex:1 thrace:1 new:2 ivan:1 alexander:1 rousokastron:1 peace:2 territorial:1 concession:1 diplomatic:1 marriage:1 child:2 two:1 subsequent:1 year:1 witness:1 gradual:1 extinction:1 rule:1 asia:3 minor:3 orhan:1 ottoman:3 turk:1 already:1 pelekanos:1 take:4 nicaea:1 nicomedia:1 philadelpheia:1 handful:1 port:1 remain:1 control:4 early:1 effect:1 recovery:1 phocaea:1 island:1 lesbos:2 chios:1 benedetto:1 zaccaria:1 little:1 stem:1 advance:3 iv:2 dušan:1 expand:1 territory:1 macedonia:3 ohrid:1 prilep:1 kastoria:1 strumica:1 voden:1 one:2 time:1 governor:1 thessalonica:1 syrgiannes:5 palaeologos:1 desert:1 side:1 aid:1 although:1 send:1 sphrantzes:2 capture:2 instead:1 kill:1 help:1 force:2 norwich:2 kulius:1 byzantium:3 decline:2 fall:2 york:1 alfred:1 knopf:1 p:2 august:1 dusan:1 allow:1 retake:1 part:1 directly:1 responsible:1 despite:1 trouble:1 extension:1 thessaly:1 epirus:1 advantage:1 succession:1 crisis:1 principality:1 reorganize:1 navy:1 consist:1 ship:1 reform:1 judicial:1 system:1 form:1 panel:1 four:1 universal:2 judge:1 designate:1 justice:1 roman:1 retrospect:1 may:2 say:1 end:1 situation:1 empire:3 become:1 untenable:1 spite:1 several:3 insignificant:1 revers:1 hand:1 provide:1 active:1 leadership:1 cooperate:1 able:1 administrator:1 come:1 closer:1 predecessor:1 establish:1 greek:1 peninsula:1 die:3 aged:1 succeed:1 v:4 family:1 first:1 marry:5 adelheid:1 brunswick:2 daughter:5 henry:1 duke:1 lüneburg:1 unnamed:1 shortly:1 birth:1 second:3 wife:3 anna:1 savoy:2 count:1 amadeus:1 brabant:1 include:2 despotes:1 eirene:2 francesco:1 accord:1 nicephorus:1 gregoras:1 also:1 illegitimate:2 irene:2 palaiologina:1 trebizond:3 basil:1 throne:1 profile:2 medieval:3 land:2 charles:2 cawley:2 dictionnaire:2 historique:2 et:4 généalogique:2 de:6 grandes:2 familles:2 grèce:2 albanie:2 mihail:2 dimitri:2 sturdza:3 add:1 convert:1 islam:1 name:1 bayalun:2 reportedly:1 uzbeg:1 khan:1 golden:1 horde:1 page:1 old:1 europäische:1 stammtafeln:2 zur:1 geschichte:1 der:1 europäischen:1 staaten:1 detlev:1 schwennicke:1 existence:1 reflect:1 theory:1 reference:1 oxford:2 dictionary:1 university:1 press:1 fine:1 jr:1 late:1 balkan:1 ann:1 arbor:1 |@bigram andronikos_iii:11 maternal_grandparent:1 stefan_uroš:2 ottoman_turk:1 alfred_knopf:1 norwich_byzantium:1 brunswick_lüneburg:1 empire_trebizond:1 charles_cawley:2 familles_de:2 golden_horde:1 zur_geschichte:1 geschichte_der:1 ann_arbor:1 |
5,055 | Disease | A disease or medical condition is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions, associated with specific symptoms and signs. eMedicine/Stedman Medical Dictionary Lookup! WordNet Search - 3.0 It may be caused by external factors, such as invading organisms, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune diseases. In human beings, "disease" is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes extreme pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, and/or death to the person afflicted, or similar problems for those in contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories. Terminology In many cases, the terms disease, disorder, morbidity and illness are used interchangeably. Mental Illness—Glossary In some situations, specific terms are considered preferable. Infection This term broadly refers to any abnormal condition that impairs normal function. Commonly, this term is used to refer specifically to infectious diseases, which are clinically evident diseases that result from the presence of pathogenic microbial agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular parasites, and aberrant proteins known as prions. An infection that does not produce clinically evident impairment of normal functioning is not considered a disease. Non-infectious diseases are all other diseases, including most forms of cancer, heart disease, and genetic disease. Illness Illness and sickness are generally used as synonyms for disease. However, this term is occasionally used to refer specifically to the patient's personal experience of his or her disease. In this model, it is possible for a person to be diseased without being ill, (to have an objectively definable, but asymptomatic, medical condition), and to be ill without being diseased (such as when a person perceives a normal experience as a medical condition, or medicalizes a non-disease situation in his or her life). Illness is often not due to infection but a collection of evolved responses, sickness behavior, by the body aids the clearing of infection. Such aspects of illness can include lethargy, depression, anorexia, sleepiness, hyperalgesia, and inability to concentrate. Hart, B. L. (1988) "Biological basis of the behavior of sick animals". Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 12: 123-137. Johnson, R. (2002) "The concept of sickness behavior: a brief chronological account of four key discoveries". Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology. 87: 443-450 Kelley, K. W., Bluthe, R. M., Dantzer, R., Zhou, J. H., Shen, W. H., Johnson, R. W. Broussard, S. R. (2003) "Cytokine-induced sickness behavior". Brain Behav Immun. 17 Suppl 1: S112-118 Disorder In medicine, a disorder is a functional abnormality or disturbance. eMedicine/Stedman Medical Dictionary Medical disorders can be categorized into mental disorders, physical disorders, genetic disorders, behavioral disorders and functional disorders. The term disorder is often considered more value-neutral and less stigmatizing than the terms disease or illness, and therefore is preferred terminology in some circumstances. In mental health, the term mental disorder is used as a way of acknowledging the complex interaction of biological, social, and psychological factors in psychiatric conditions. However, the term disorder is also used in many other areas of medicine, primarily to identify physical disorders that are not caused by infectious organisms, such as organic brain syndrome. Medical condition A medical condition is a broad term that includes all diseases and disorders, but also includes normal situations, such as pregnancy, that might benefit from medical assistance or have implications for medical treatments. As it is more value-neutral than terms like disease, it is sometimes preferred by people with these conditions. On the other hand, by emphasizing the medical nature of the condition, this term is sometimes rejected, such as by proponents of the autism rights movement. Additionally, the term medical condition is used as a synonym for medical state, where it describes a patient's current state, as seen from a medical standpoint. This usage is seen in statements that describe a patient as being "in critical condition", for example. Morbidity Morbidity (from Latin morbidus: sick, unhealthy) refers to a diseased state, disability, or poor health due to any cause. http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/dorland/five/000067536.htm The term may be used to refer to the existence of any form of disease, or to the degree that the health condition affects the patient. Among severely ill patients, the level of morbidity is often measured by ICU scoring systems. Comorbidity is the simultaneous presence of two medical conditions, such as a person with schizophrenia and substance abuse. In epidemiology and actuarial science, the term morbidity rate can refer to either the incidence rate, or the prevalence of a disease or medical condition. This measure of sickness is contrasted with the mortality rate of a condition, which is the proportion of people dying during a given time interval. Transmission of disease Some diseases such as influenza are contagious and infectious. The micro-organisms that cause these diseases are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. Infectious diseases can be transmitted by as, by hand to mouth contact with infectious material on surfaces, by bites of insects or other carriers of the disease, and from contaminated water or food (often via faecal contamination), etc. In addition, there are sexually transmitted diseases. In some cases, micro-organisms that are not readily spread from person to person play a role, while other diseases can be prevented or ameliorated with appropriate nutrition or other lifestyle changes. Some diseases such as cancer, heart disease and mental disorders are , in most cases, not considered to be caused by infection (see Non infectious disease), although there are important exceptions. Many diseases (including some cancers, heart disease and mental disorders) have a partially or completely genetic basis (see Genetic disorder) and may thus be transmitted from one generation to another. Social significance of disease Obesity was a status symbol in renaissance culture: "The Tuscan General Alessandro del Borro", attributed to Charles Mellin, 1645. It is now generally regarded as a disease. A condition may be considered to be a disease in some cultures or eras but not in others. Conditions such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and obesity are considered to be diseases by developed countries, but which have been regarded differently in other cultures. For example, obesity can also represent wealth and abundance, and is a status symbol in famine-prone areas and some places hard-hit by HIV/AIDS. Sickness confers the social legitimization of certain benefits, such as illness benefits, work avoidance, and being looked after by others. In return, there is an obligation on the sick person to seek treatment and work to become well once more. As a comparison, consider pregnancy, which is not usually interpreted as a disease or sickness by the individual. On the other hand, it is considered by the medical community as a condition requiring medical care. The identification of a condition as a disease, rather than as simply a variation of human structure or function, can have significant social or economic implications. The controversial recognitions as diseases of post-traumatic stress disorder, also known as "Soldier's heart," "shell shock," and "combat fatigue;" repetitive motion injury or repetitive stress injury (RSI); and Gulf War syndrome has had a number of positive and negative effects on the financial and other responsibilities of governments, corporations and institutions towards individuals, as well as on the individuals themselves. The social implication of viewing aging as a disease could be profound, though this classification is not yet widespread. Lepers were a group of afflicted individuals who were historically shunned and the term "leper" still evokes social stigma. Fear of disease can still be a widespread social phenomenon, though not all diseases evoke extreme social stigma. See also Lists of diseases List of acronyms on diseases and disorders Rare disease References External links Health Topics, MedlinePlus descriptions of most diseases, with access to current research articles. OMIM Comprehensive information on genes that cause disease at Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man CTD The Comparative Toxicogenomics Database is a scientific resource connecting chemicals, genes, and human diseases. NLM The most comprehensive database of top quality science information on the web at US National Library of Medicine Health Topics A-Z, fact sheets about many common diseases at Center for Disease Control The Merck Manual containing detailed description of most diseases Report: The global burden of disease from World Health Organization (WHO), 2004 | Disease |@lemmatized disease:51 medical:18 condition:21 abnormal:2 organism:5 impair:2 bodily:1 function:4 associate:1 specific:2 symptom:2 sign:1 emedicine:2 stedman:2 dictionary:2 lookup:1 wordnet:1 search:1 may:6 cause:8 external:2 factor:2 invade:1 internal:1 dysfunction:2 autoimmune:1 human:3 often:5 use:9 broadly:2 refer:5 extreme:2 pain:1 distress:1 social:9 problem:2 death:1 person:8 afflict:1 similar:1 contact:2 broad:2 sense:1 sometimes:3 include:8 injury:3 disability:2 disorder:21 syndrome:3 infection:6 isolate:1 deviant:1 behavior:5 atypical:1 variation:2 structure:2 context:1 purpose:1 consider:9 distinguishable:1 category:1 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5,056 | Four-poster_bed | Four poster bed A four poster bed is a bed with four vertical columns, one in each corner, that support a tester, or upper (usually rectangular) panel. There are a number of antique four poster beds extant dating to the 16th century and earlier; many of these early beds are highly ornate and are made from oak. An example of such an early 16th century four poster resides in Crathes Castle, which was made for the original castle owners in the Burnett of Leys family. Ornate Elizabethan four poster bed'' Usually, the function of the tester was to hold bed curtains that could surround the bed to keep out draughts. In the modern Western world, this function has become unnecessary because of improvements in insulation and draught exclusion. Consequently, the posts and tester became a redundant element of comfortable bedding, and their cost meant that they gradually became less popular in favour of postless beds. Nevertheless, the four-poster bed without the tester has remained a popular style for many bedrooms because of its traditional and luxurious appearance. See also Canopy bed | Four-poster_bed |@lemmatized four:7 poster:6 bed:11 vertical:1 column:1 one:1 corner:1 support:1 tester:4 upper:1 usually:2 rectangular:1 panel:1 number:1 antique:1 extant:1 date:1 century:2 earlier:1 many:2 early:2 highly:1 ornate:2 make:2 oak:1 example:1 resides:1 crathes:1 castle:2 original:1 owner:1 burnett:1 ley:1 family:1 elizabethan:1 function:2 hold:1 curtain:1 could:1 surround:1 keep:1 draught:2 modern:1 western:1 world:1 become:3 unnecessary:1 improvement:1 insulation:1 exclusion:1 consequently:1 post:1 redundant:1 element:1 comfortable:1 bedding:1 cost:1 meant:1 gradually:1 less:1 popular:2 favour:1 postless:1 nevertheless:1 without:1 remain:1 style:1 bedroom:1 traditional:1 luxurious:1 appearance:1 see:1 also:1 canopy:1 |@bigram |
5,057 | Histone | Schematic representation of the assembly of the core histones into the nucleosome. In biology, histones are the chief protein components of chromatin. They act as spools around which DNA winds, and they play a role in gene regulation. Without histones, the unwound DNA in chromosomes would be very long. For example, each human cell has about 1.8 meters of DNA, but wound on the histones it has about 90 millimeters of chromatin, which, when duplicated and condensed during mitosis, result in about 120 micrometers of chromosomes. Classes There are a total of six classes of histones (H1, H2A, H2B, H3, H4, and H5) organized into two super classes as follows: core histones – H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 linker histones – H1 and H5 Two of each of the core histones assemble to form one octameric nucleosome core particle by wrapping 146 base pairs of DNA around the protein spool in 1.65 left-handed super-helical turn. The linker histone H1 binds the nucleosome and the entry and exit sites of the DNA, thus locking the DNA into place and allowing the formation of higher order structure. The most basic such formation is the 10 nm fiber or beads on a string conformation. This involves the wrapping of DNA around nucleosomes with approximately 50 base pairs of DNA spaced between each nucleosome (also referred to as linker DNA). The assembled histones and DNA is called chromatin. Higher-order structures include the 30 nm fiber (forming an irregular zigzag) and 100 nm fiber, these being the structures found in normal cells. During mitosis and meiosis, the condensed chromosomes are assembled through interactions between nucleosomes and other regulatory proteins. The following is a list of human histone proteins: Super family Family Subfamily Members Linker H1 H1F H1F0, H1FNT, H1FOO, H1FX H1H1 HIST1H1A, HIST1H1B, HIST1H1C, HIST1H1D, HIST1H1E, HIST1H1T Core H2A H2AF H2AFB1, H2AFB2, H2AFB3, H2AFJ, H2AFV, H2AFX, H2AFY, H2AFY2, H2AFZ H2A1 HIST1H2AA, HIST1H2AB, HIST1H2AC, HIST1H2AD, HIST1H2AE, HIST1H2AG, HIST1H2AI, HIST1H2AJ, HIST1H2AK, HIST1H2AL, HIST1H2AM H2A2 HIST2H2AA3, HIST2H2AC H2B H2BF H2BFM, H2BFO, H2BFS, H2BFWT H2B1 HIST1H2BA, HIST1H2BB, HIST1H2BC, HIST1H2BD, HIST1H2BE, HIST1H2BF, HIST1H2BG, HIST1H2BH, HIST1H2BI, HIST1H2BJ, HIST1H2BK, HIST1H2BL, HIST1H2BM, HIST1H2BN, HIST1H2BO H2B2 HIST2H2BE H3 H3A1 HIST1H3A, HIST1H3B, HIST1H3C, HIST1H3D, HIST1H3E, HIST1H3F, HIST1H3G, HIST1H3H, HIST1H3I, HIST1H3J H3A2 HIST2H3C H3A3 HIST3H3 H4 H41 HIST1H4A, HIST1H4B, HIST1H4C, HIST1H4D, HIST1H4E, HIST1H4F, HIST1H4G, HIST1H4H, HIST1H4I, HIST1H4J, HIST1H4K, HIST1H4L H44HIST4H4 Structure The nucleosome core is formed of two H2A-H2B dimers and a H3-H4 tetramer, forming two nearly symmetrical halves by tertiary structure (C2 symmetry; one macromolecule is the mirror image of the other). The H2A-H2B dimers and H3-H4 tetramer also show pseudodyad symmetry. The 4 'core' histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) are relatively similar in structure and are highly conserved through evolution, all featuring a 'helix turn helix turn helix' motif (which allows the easy dimerisation). They also share the feature of long 'tails' on one end of the amino acid structure - this being the location of post-transcriptional modification (see below). Using an electron paramagnetic resonance spin-labeling technique, English researchers measured the distances between the spools around which eukaryotic cells wind their DNA. They determined the spacings range from 59 to 70 Å. In all, histones make five types of interactions with DNA: Helix-dipoles from alpha-helices in H2B, H3, and H4 cause a net positive charge to accumulate at the point of interaction with negatively charged phosphate groups on DNA Hydrogen bonds between the DNA backbone and the amide group on the main chain of histone proteins Nonpolar interactions between the histone and deoxyribose sugars on DNA Salt links and hydrogen bonds between side chains of basic amino acids (especially lysine and arginine) and phosphate oxygens on DNA Non-specific minor groove insertions of the H3 and H2B N-terminal tails into two minor grooves each on the DNA molecule The highly basic nature of histones, aside from facilitating DNA-histone interactions, contributes to the water solubility of histones. Histones are subject to post translational modification by enzymes primarily on their N-terminal tails, but also in their globular domains. Such modifications include methylation, citrullination, acetylation, phosphorylation, Sumoylation, ubiquitination, and ADP-ribosylation. This affects their function of gene regulation (see functions). In general, genes that are active have less bound histone, while inactive genes are highly associated with histones during interphase. It also appears that the structure of histones has been evolutionarily conserved, as any deleterious mutations would be severely maladaptive. Function Compacting DNA strands Histones act as spools around which DNA winds. This enables the compaction necessary to fit the large genomes of eukaryotes inside cell nuclei: the compacted molecule is 40,000 times shorter than an unpacked molecule. Chromatin regulation Histones undergo posttranslational modifications which alter their interaction with DNA and nuclear proteins. The H3 and H4 histones have long tails protruding from the nucleosome which can be covalently modified at several places. Modifications of the tail include methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitination, sumoylation, citrullination and ADP-ribosylation. The core of the histones H2A and H3 can also be modified. Combinations of modifications are thought to constitute a code, the so-called "histone code." Histone modifications act in diverse biological processes such as gene regulation, DNA repair and chromosome condensation (mitosis). The common nomenclature of histone modifications is: The name of the histone (e.g H3) The single letter amino acid abbreviation (e.g. K for Lysine) and the amino acid position in the protein The type of modification (Me: methyl, P: phosphate, Ac: acetyl, Ub: ubiquitin) So H3K4me1 denotes the monomethylation of the 4th residue (a lysine) from the start (i.e., the N-terminal) of the H3 protein. For an example of histone modifications in transcription regulation see RNA polymerase control by chromatin structure and table. Influence on gene expression in mammalian cells Type of modification H3K4 H3K9 H3K27 H3K79 H4K20 H2BK5 monomethylation activation activation activation activation activation activation dimethylation activation trimethylations activation repression repression repressionactivation H3K9 H3K14 acetylation activation activation History Histones were discovered in 1884 by Albrecht Kossel. The word "histone" dates from the late 19th century and is from the German "Histon", of uncertain origin: perhaps from Greek histanai or from histos. Until the early 1990s, histones were dismissed as merely packing material for nuclear DNA. During the early 1990s, the regulatory functions of histones were discovered. Conservation across species Histones are found in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells, and in certain Archaea, namely Euryarchaea, but not in bacteria. Archaeal histones may well resemble the evolutionary precursors to eukaryotic histones. Histone proteins are among the most highly conserved proteins in eukaryotes, emphasizing their important role in the biology of the nucleus. In contrast mature sperm cells largely use protamines to package their genomic DNA, most likely to achieve an even higher packaging ratio. Core histones are highly conserved proteins, that is, there are very few differences among the amino acid sequences of the histone proteins of different species. Linker histone usually has more than one form within a species and is also less conserved than the core histones. There are some variant forms in some of the major classes. They share amino acid sequence homology and core structural similarity to a specific class of major histones but also have their own feature that is distinct from the major histones. These minor histones usually carry out specific functions of the chromatin metabolism. For example, histone H3-like CenpA is a histone only associated with the centromere region of the chromosome. Histone H2A variant H2A.Z is associated with the promoters of actively transcribed genes and also involved in the formation of the heterochromatin. Another H2A variant H2A.X binds to the DNA with double strand breaks and marks the region undergoing DNA repair. Histone H3.3 is associated with the body of actively transcribed genes. See also Nucleosome Chromatin Histone-Modifying Enzymes Histone deacetylase PRMT4 pathway Gene silencing Genetics Histone methyltransferase Histone acetyltransferase References External links Chromatin, Histones & Cathepsin; PMAP The Proteolysis Map-animation Nextbio | Histone |@lemmatized schematic:1 representation:1 assembly:1 core:11 histone:55 nucleosome:7 biology:2 chief:1 protein:11 component:1 chromatin:8 act:3 spool:4 around:5 dna:26 wind:3 play:1 role:2 gene:9 regulation:5 without:1 unwound:1 chromosome:5 would:2 long:3 example:3 human:2 cell:7 meter:1 wound:1 millimeter:1 duplicate:1 condense:2 mitosis:3 result:1 micrometer:1 class:5 total:1 six:1 organize:1 two:5 super:3 follow:1 linker:5 assemble:2 form:6 one:4 octameric:1 particle:1 wrap:1 base:2 pair:2 leave:1 hand:1 helical:1 turn:3 bind:2 entry:1 exit:1 site:1 thus:1 lock:1 place:2 allow:2 formation:3 high:3 order:2 structure:9 basic:3 nm:3 fiber:3 bead:1 string:1 conformation:1 involve:2 wrapping:1 nucleosomes:2 approximately:1 space:1 also:10 refer:1 assembled:1 call:2 include:3 irregular:1 zigzag:1 find:2 normal:1 meiosis:1 interaction:6 regulatory:2 following:1 list:1 family:2 subfamily:1 member:1 dimer:2 tetramer:2 nearly:1 symmetrical:1 half:1 tertiary:1 symmetry:2 macromolecule:1 mirror:1 image:1 show:1 pseudodyad:1 relatively:1 similar:1 highly:5 conserve:2 evolution:1 feature:3 helix:5 motif:1 easy:1 dimerisation:1 share:2 tail:5 end:1 amino:6 acid:6 location:1 post:2 transcriptional:1 modification:11 see:4 use:2 electron:1 paramagnetic:1 resonance:1 spin:1 labeling:1 technique:1 english:1 researcher:1 measure:1 distance:1 eukaryotic:3 determine:1 spacing:1 range:1 å:1 make:1 five:1 type:3 dipole:1 alpha:1 cause:1 net:1 positive:1 charge:2 accumulate:1 point:1 negatively:1 phosphate:3 group:2 hydrogen:2 bond:2 backbone:1 amide:1 main:1 chain:2 nonpolar:1 deoxyribose:1 sugar:1 salt:1 link:2 side:1 especially:1 lysine:3 arginine:1 oxygen:1 non:1 specific:3 minor:3 groove:2 insertion:1 n:3 terminal:3 molecule:3 nature:1 aside:1 facilitate:1 contributes:1 water:1 solubility:1 subject:1 translational:1 enzyme:1 primarily:1 globular:1 domain:1 methylation:2 citrullination:2 acetylation:3 phosphorylation:2 sumoylation:2 ubiquitination:2 adp:2 ribosylation:2 affect:1 function:5 general:1 active:1 less:2 bound:1 inactive:1 associate:4 interphase:1 appear:1 evolutionarily:1 deleterious:1 mutation:1 severely:1 maladaptive:1 compact:1 strand:2 enable:1 compaction:1 necessary:1 fit:1 large:1 genome:1 eukaryote:2 inside:1 nucleus:3 compacted:1 time:1 short:1 unpacked:1 undergo:2 posttranslational:1 alter:1 nuclear:2 protrude:1 covalently:1 modify:2 several:1 combination:1 think:1 constitute:1 code:2 diverse:1 biological:1 process:1 repair:2 condensation:1 common:1 nomenclature:1 name:1 e:3 g:2 single:1 letter:1 abbreviation:1 k:1 position:1 methyl:1 p:1 ac:1 acetyl:1 ub:1 ubiquitin:1 denote:1 monomethylation:2 residue:1 start:1 transcription:1 rna:1 polymerase:1 control:1 table:1 influence:1 expression:1 mammalian:1 activation:10 dimethylation:1 trimethylations:1 repression:2 repressionactivation:1 history:1 discover:2 albrecht:1 kossel:1 word:1 date:1 late:1 century:1 german:1 histon:1 uncertain:1 origin:1 perhaps:1 greek:1 histanai:1 histos:1 early:2 dismiss:1 merely:1 pack:1 material:1 conservation:1 across:1 specie:3 certain:1 archaea:1 namely:1 euryarchaea:1 bacteria:1 archaeal:1 may:1 well:1 resemble:1 evolutionary:1 precursor:1 among:2 conserved:3 emphasize:1 important:1 contrast:1 mature:1 sperm:1 largely:1 protamine:1 package:1 genomic:1 likely:1 achieve:1 even:1 packaging:1 ratio:1 difference:1 sequence:2 proteins:1 different:1 usually:2 within:1 variant:3 major:3 homology:1 structural:1 similarity:1 distinct:1 carry:1 metabolism:1 like:1 cenpa:1 centromere:1 region:2 z:1 promoter:1 actively:2 transcribe:2 heterochromatin:1 another:1 x:1 double:1 break:1 mark:1 body:1 modifying:1 enzymes:1 deacetylase:1 pathway:1 silence:1 genetics:1 methyltransferase:1 acetyltransferase:1 reference:1 external:1 cathepsin:1 pmap:1 proteolysis:1 map:1 animation:1 nextbio:1 |@bigram schematic_representation:1 core_histone:7 linker_histone:3 nucleosome_core:2 linker_dna:1 mitosis_meiosis:1 amino_acid:6 post_transcriptional:1 transcriptional_modification:1 eukaryotic_cell:2 alpha_helix:1 negatively_charge:1 hydrogen_bond:2 post_translational:1 translational_modification:1 deleterious_mutation:1 posttranslational_modification:1 histone_modification:3 rna_polymerase:1 activation_activation:6 genomic_dna:1 external_link:1 pmap_proteolysis:1 proteolysis_map:1 |
5,058 | Economy_of_Mali | A pirogue carrying two passengers on the river Niger at Gao in Mali The Economy of Mali is based to a large extent on agriculture, with an overwhelmingly rural population, many of whom are engaged in subsistence agriculture. Mali is among the ten poorest nations of the world, is one of the 37 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, and is a major recipient of foreign aid from many sources, including multilateral organizations (most significantly the World Bank, African Development Bank, and Arab Funds), and bilateral programs funded by the European Union, France, United States, Canada, Netherlands, and Germany. Before 1991, the former Soviet Union, China and the Warsaw Pact countries had been a major source of economic and military aid. The per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of Mali was $820 in 1999. Mali's great potential wealth lies in mining and the production of agricultural commodities, livestock, and fish. The most productive agricultural area lies along the banks of the Niger River, the Inland Niger Delta and the southwestern region around Sikasso. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Mali at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of CFA Francs. imf.org, 2006. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1980 356,026 211.29 CFA Francs 48 1985 551,381 449.37 CFA Francs 75 1990 749,122 272.21 CFA Francs 70 1995 1,405,870 499.06 CFA Francs 92 2000 1,899,186 710.24 CFA Francs 100 2005 2,760,689 525.34 CFA Francs 111 Current GDP per capita of Mali registered a peak growth of 295% in the Seventies. But this proved unsustainable and growth consequently scaled back to just 5.20% in the Eighties. Finally, it grew by 24% in the Nineties. Current GDP per capita, earthtrends.wri.org. Average wages in 2007 hover around $2-3 per day. Agriculture Major Agricultural Region in Southern Mali, showing Isohyet lines and crop intensity percentages. Mali’s most productive agricultural region located between Bamako and Mopti. Irrigation is practiced in this region, but irrigation water is used mainly for rice while cotton is grown as a rainfed crop. Average rainfall varies in this region from 500-mm per year around Mopti to 1400-mm in the south near Bougouni.(USDA: 2001) Agricultural activities occupy 70% of Mali's labor force and provide 42% of the GDP. Cotton and livestock make up 75%-80% of Mali's annual exports. Small-scale traditional farming dominates the agricultural sector, with subsistence farming (of cereals, primarily sorghum, pearl millet, and maize) on about 90% of the 14,000 km² (3.4 million acres) under cultivation. The most productive agricultural area lies along the banks of the Niger River between Bamako and Mopti and extends south to the borders of Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, and Burkina Faso. Average rainfall varies in this region from 0.5 m per year (20 in) around Mopti to 1.4 m (55 in) in the south near Sikasso. This area is most important for the production of cotton, rice, pearl millet, maize, vegetables, tobacco, and tree crops. Annual rainfall, critical for Mali's agriculture, has been at or above average since 1993. Cereal production, including rice, has grown annually, and the 1997-98 cotton harvest reached a record 500,000 tons. Until the mid-1960s, Mali was self-sufficient in grains--pearl millet, sorghum, rice, and maize. Diminished harvests during bad years, a growing population, changing dietary habits, and, most importantly, policy constraints on agricultural production resulted in grain deficits almost every year from 1965 to 1986. Production has rebounded since 1987, however, thanks to agricultural policy reforms undertaken by the government and supported by the Western donor nations. Liberalization of producer prices and an open cereals market have created incentives to production. These reforms, combined with adequate rainfall, successful integrated rural agriculture programs in the south, and improved management of the Office du Niger, have led to surplus cereal production over the past 5 years. Rice Rice planting in Mali. Rice is grown extensively along the banks of the Niger between Segou and Mopti, with the most important rice-producing area at the Office du Niger, located north of Segou toward the Mauritanian border. Using water diverted from the Niger, the Office du Niger irrigates about 600 km² of land for rice and sugarcane production. About one-third of Mali's paddy rice is produced at the Office du Niger. Sorghum Sorghum is planted extensively in the drier parts of the country and along the banks of the Niger in eastern Mali, as well as in the lake beds in the Niger delta region. During the dry season, farmers near the town of Dire have cultivated wheat on irrigated fields for hundreds of years. Peanuts are grown throughout the country but are concentrated in the area around Kita, west of Bamako. Livestock Mali's resource in livestock consists of millions of cattle, sheep, and goats. Approximately 40% of Mali's herds were lost during the great drought in 1972-74. The level was gradually restored, but the herds were again decimated in the 1983-85 drought. The overall size of Mali's herds is not expected to reach pre-drought levels in the north of the country, where encroachment of the desert has forced many nomadic herders to abandon pastoral activities and turn instead to farming. The largest concentrations of cattle are in the areas north of Bamako and Ségou extending into the Niger delta, but herding activity is gradually shifting southward, due to the effects of previous droughts. Sheep, goats, and camels are raised to the exclusion of cattle in the dry areas north and east of Timbuktu. Fishing The Niger River also is an important source of fish, providing food for riverside communities; the surplus--smoked, salted, and dried--is exported. Due to drought and diversion of river water for agriculture, fish production has steadily declined since the early 1980s. Mining Mining has long been an important aspect of the Malian economy. Gold, the third largest source of Malian exports, is still mined in the southern region: at the end of the 20th century Mali had the third highest gold production in Africa (after South Africa and Ghana). These goldfields, the largest of which lie in the Bambouk Mountains in western Mali (Kenieba Cercle), were a major source of wealth and trade as far back as the Ghana Empire. As well, salt mining in the far north, especially in the Saharan oases of Taoudenni and Taghaza have been a crucial part of the Malian economy for at least seven hundred years. Both resources were vital components of the Trans-Saharan trade, stretching back to the time of the Roman Empire. From the 1960s to the 1990s state owned mining -- especially for gold -- expanded, followed by a period of expansion by international contract mining. In 1991, following the lead of the International Development Association, Mali relaxed the enforcement of mining codes which led to greater foreign investment in the mining industry. Campbell, Bonnie (2004). Regulating Mining in Africa: For Whose Benefit?. Uppsala, Sweeden: Nordic African Institute. ISBN 978-0761475712. p. 43. From 1994 to 2007, national and foreign companies were granted around 150 operating licences along with more that 25 certificates for exploitation and more than 200 research permits. Gold mining in Mali has increased dramatically, with more than 50 tonnes in 2007 from less than half a tonne produced annually at the end of the 1980s. Mining revenue totaled some 300 billion CFA francs in 2007 more than a thirty times increase from the 1995 total national mining revenue of less than 10 billion CFA. Government revenues from mining contracts, less than 1% of the state income in 1989 were almost 18% in 2007. Moussa K. Traoré. Extractive Industries And Their Socio-Economic Impacts, (tran. Les impacts économiques et sociaux des industries extractives, Pambazuka News #73, 2008) Fahamu: 30 October 2008 Gold Gold accounted for some 80% of mining activity in the mid 2000s, while there remain considerable proven reserves of other minerals not currently exploited. Gold has become Mali's third-largest export, after cotton -- historically the basis of Mali's export industry -- and livestock. The emergence of gold as Mali’s leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impacts caused by fluctuations in world cotton markets and loss of trade from the Ivorian Civil War to the south. African Development Bank (2001). African Economic Outlook. OECD Publishing. ISBN 9264197044. p. 186. Large private investments in gold mining include Anglogold-Ashanti ($250 million) in Sadiola and Yatela, and Randgold Resources ($140 million) in Morila - both multinational South African companies located respectively in the north-western and southern parts of the country. Social and environment impacts While great income is produced, most staff employed in the mining industries are from outside Mali, and residents in the areas of intensive mining complain of little benefit from the industry. Populations complain of displacement for the construction of mines: at Sadiola, 43 villages have lost some land to the mine there, while in Fourou, near the large Syama goldmines, 121 villages saw some displacement. Moussa K. Traoré (2008) In addition, the continued exploitation of unregulated small scale mining, often by child labourers, supplies a large international gold market in Bamako which feeds into international production. Report on Human Rights Practices 2006: Mali. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (March 6, 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Recent criticism has surfaced around the working conditions, pay, and the widespread use of child labour in these small gold mines, and the method which middlemen, in regional centers like Sikasso and Kayes, purchase and transport gold. Gold collected in the towns is sold on -- with almost no regulation or oversight -- to larger merchant houses in Bamako or Conakry, and eventually to smelters in Europe. Kids working in African gold mines. AP/RUKMINI CALLIMACHI AND BRADLEY S. KLAPPER – Aug 10, 2008. Ecological factors, especially pollution of water by mine tailings, is a major source of concern. Other minerals Other mining operations include kaolin, salt, phosphate, and limestone. The government is trying to generate interest in the potential of extracting petroleum from the Taoudeni basin. Manufacturing Dyeing bezin, one of several types of cloth made in Mali Malian exports in 2006 During the colonial period, private capital investment was virtually nonexistent, and public investment was devoted largely to the Office du Niger irrigation scheme and to administrative expenses. Following independence, Mali built some light industries with the help of various donors. Manufacturing, consisting principally of processed agricultural products, accounted for about 8% of the GDP in 1990. Economic Reform Between 1992 and 1995, Mali implemented an economic adjustment programme that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances. This was reflected in the increased GDP growth rates (9.6% in 2002) and decreased inflation. GDP in 2002 amounted to US$3.2 billion, made up of agriculture 37.8%, industry 26.4% and services 35.9%. Effective implementation of macroeconomic stabilization and economic liberalization policies and the stable political situation resulted in good economic performance and enabled Mali to strengthen the foundations for a market-oriented economy and encourage private sector development, backed up by significant progress in implementing the country’s privatization programme. Agricultural reform measures were aimed at diversifying and expanding production as well as at reducing costs. Mali’s economic performance is fragile, characterised by a vulnerability to climatic conditions, fluctuating terms of trade, dependence on ports in neighboring countries. Mali produces cotton, cereals and rice. Although locally produced rice now provides competition to imported Asian rice, Mali's primary export is cotton. Livestock exports and industry (producing vegetable and cottonseed oils, and textiles) have experienced growth. Although most of Mali is desert or semi-desert, the Niger River is a potential irrigation source. Exports are in three primary sector products (56% gold, 27% cotton, 5% livestock. Cote d’Ivore is where most of the country’s trade goes through and the crisis previously experienced here had a negative effect on Mali’s economy. The mining industry in Mali has recently attracted renewed interest and investment from foreign companies. Gold and phosphate are the only minerals mined in Mali although deposits of copper and diamonds do also exist. The emergence of gold as Mali’s leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impact of the cotton and Côte d’Ivoire crises. The development of the oil industry is important due to the country’s dependence on the importation of all petroleum products from neighbouring states. Electricity is provided by the parastatal utility, Electricite du Mali. Foreign Aid Mali is a major recipient of foreign aid from many sources, including multilateral organizations (most significantly the World Bank, African Development Bank, and Arab Funds), and bilateral programs funded by the European Union, France, United States, Canada, Netherlands, and Germany. Before 1991, the former Soviet Union had been a major source of economic and military aid, including construction of a cement plant and the Kalana gold mine. Currently, aid from Russia is restricted mainly to training and provision of spare parts. Chinese aid remains high, and Chinese-Malian joint venture companies have become more numerous in the last 3 years, leading to the opening of a Chinese investment center. The Chinese are major participants in the textile industry and in large scale construction projects, including a bridge across the Niger, a conference center, an expressway in Bamako, and a new national stadium scheduled to be completed for the Africa Cup competition in 2002. In 1998, U.S. assistance reached over $40 million. This included $39 million in sector support through United States Agency for International Development (USAID) programs, largely channeled to local communities through private voluntary agencies; Peace Corps program budget of $2.2 million for more than 160 Volunteers serving in Mali; Self Help and the Democracy Funds of $170,500; and $650,000 designated for electoral support. Military assistance includes $275,000 for the International Military Education Training (IMET) program, $1.6 million for the African Crisis Response Initiative (ACRI), $60,000 for Joint Combined Exercise Training (JCET), and $100,000 for Humanitarian Assistance. Statistics GDP: purchasing power parity - $14.77 billion (2006 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 5.1% (2006 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1300 (2006 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 45% industry: 17% services: 38% (2001) Population below poverty line: 64% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.4% (2001 est.) highest 10%: 30.2% (2001 est.) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.5% (2002 est.) Labor force: 3.93 million (2001 est.) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture and fishing: 80% (2001 est.) industry and services: 20% (2001 est.) Unemployment rate: 12% Budget: revenues: $764 million expenditures: $828 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (2002 est.) Industries: food processing; construction; phosphate and gold mining Industrial production growth rate: 0.6% (1995 est.) Electricity - production: 444 GWh (2005) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: NA% hydro: NA% nuclear: NA% other: NA% Electricity - consumption: 412.9 GWh (2005) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2005) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2005) Agriculture - products: cotton, pearl millet, rice, corn, maize, vegetables, peanuts; cattle, sheep, goats Exports: $640 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) Exports - commodities: cotton 50%, gold, livestock Exports - partners: China 35.2%, Thailand 9.3%, Taiwan 6.5%, Bangladesh 5.3%, Australia (2006) Imports: $1.858 billion (f.o.b., 2004 est.) Imports - commodities: petroleum, machinery and equipment, construction materials, foodstuffs, textiles Imports - partners: France 12.8%, Senegal 12.1%, Cote d'Ivoire 10.4%, (2006) Debt - external: $2.8 billion (2002) Economic aid - recipient: $691.5 million (2005) Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995) note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro Fiscal year: calendar year See also Mali Economy of Africa References External links Mineral resources of Mali Mali Market Information: Projet d'Appui au Systéme d'Information Décentralisé du Marché Agricole (PASIDMA). OBSERVATOIRE DU MARCHE AGRICOLE: Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Mali. Assemblée Permanente des Chambres d'Agriculture du Mali "APCAM": Agricultural cooperatives assembly, Bamako Mali. West African Agricultural Market Observer/Observatoire du Marché Agricole (RESIMAO), a project of the West-African Market Information Network (WAMIS-NET), provides live market and commodity prices from fifty seven regional and local public agricultural markets across Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Niger, Mali, Senegal, Togo, and Nigeria. Sixty commodities are tracked weekly. 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5,059 | Mary_Cassatt | Mary Stevenson Cassatt (May 22, 1844June 14, 1926) () was an American painter and printmaker. She lived much of her adult life in France, where she first befriended Edgar Degas and later exhibited among the Impressionists. Cassatt often created images of the social and private lives of women, with particular emphasis on the intimate bonds between mothers and children. Early life Cassatt was born in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, which is now part of Pittsburgh. She was born into favorable circumstances: her father, Robert Simpson Cassat (later Cassatt), was a successful stockbroker and land speculator, and her mother, Katherine Kelso Johnston, came from a banking family. The ancestral name had been Cossart. Nancy Mowll Mathews, Mary Cassatt: A Life, Villard Books, New York, 1994, p. 5, ISBN 0-394-58497-X. Cassatt was a distant cousin of artist Robert Henri. Perlman, Bennard B., Robert Henri: His Life and Art, page 1. Dover, 1991. Cassatt was one of seven children, of which two died in infancy. Her family moved eastward, first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, then to the Philadelphia area, where she began schooling at age six. Cassatt grew up in an environment that viewed travel as integral to education; she spent 5 years in Europe and visited many of the capitals, including London, Paris, and Berlin. While abroad she learned German and French and had her first lessons in drawing and music. Mathews, 1994, p. 11 Her first exposure to French artists Ingres, Delacroix, Corot, and Courbet was likely at the Paris World’s Fair of 1855. Also exhibited at the exhibition were Degas and Pissarro, both of whom would be her future colleagues and mentors. Robin McKown, The World of Mary Cassatt, Thomas Y. Crowell Co. , New York, 1972, pp. 10-12, ISBN 0-690-90274-3 Even though her family objected to her becoming a professional artist, Cassatt began studying painting at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at the early age of fifteen. Mathews, 1994, p. 26 Part of her parents' concern may have been Cassatt’s exposure to feminist ideas and the bohemian behavior of some of the male students. Although about 20% of the students were female, most viewed art as a socially valuable skill; few of them were determined, as Cassatt was, to make art their career. Mathews, 1994, p. 18 She continued her studies during the years of the American Civil War. Among her fellow students was Thomas Eakins, later the controversial director of the Academy. Impatient with the slow pace of instruction and the patronizing attitude of the male students and teachers, she decided to study the old masters on her own. She later said, “There was no teaching” at the Academy. Female students could not use live models (until somewhat later) and the principal training was primarily drawing from casts. McKown, 1974, p. 16 Cassatt decided to end her studies (at that time, no degree was granted). After overcoming her father’s objections she moved to Paris in 1866, with her mother and family friends acting as chaperones. Mathews, 1994, p. 29 Since women could not yet attend the École des Beaux-Arts, she applied to study privately with masters from the school Mathews, 1994, p. 31 and was accepted to study with Jean-Léon Gérôme, a highly regarded teacher known for his hyper-realistic technique and his depiction of exotic subjects. A few months later Gérôme would also accept Eakins as a student. Cassatt augmented her artistic training with daily copying in the Louvre (she obtained the required permit, which was necessary to control the “copyists”, usually low-paid women, who daily filled the museum to paint copies for sale). The museum also served as a social meeting place for Frenchmen and American female students, who like Cassatt, were not allowed to attend cafes where the avant-garde socialized. In this manner, fellow artist and friend Elizabeth Jane Gardner met and married famed academic painter William-Adolphe Bouguereau. Mathews, 1994, p. 32 Toward the end of 1866, she joined a painting class taught by Charles Chaplin, a noted genre artist. In 1868, Cassatt also studied with artist Thomas Couture, whose subjects were mostly romantic and urban. Mathews, 1994, p. 54 On trips to the countryside, the students drew from life, particularly the peasants going about their daily activities. In 1868 one of her paintings, A Mandoline Player, was accepted for the first time by the selection jury for the Paris Salon. This work is in the Romantic style of Corot and Couture, Mathews, 1998, p. 47 and is one of only two paintings from the first decade of her career that can be documented today. Mathews, 1998, p. 54 The French art scene was in a process of change, as radical artists such as Courbet and Manet tried to break away from accepted Academic tradition and the Impressionists were in their formative years. Cassatt’s friend Eliza Haldeman wrote home that artists “are leaving the Academy style and each seeking a new way, consequently just now everything is Chaos”. Cassatt, on the other hand, would continue to work in the traditional manner, submitting works to the Salon for over ten years, with increasing frustration. The Boating Party 1893-94| The Boating Party by Mary Cassatt, 1893–94, oil on canvas, 35 1/2 x 46 in., National Gallery of Art, Washington Returning to the United States in the late summer of 1870—as the Franco-Prussian War was starting—Cassatt lived with her family in Altoona. Her father continued to resist her chosen vocation, and paid for her basic needs, but not her art supplies. Mathews, 1998, p. 75 She placed two of her paintings in a New York gallery and found many admirers but no purchasers. She was also dismayed at the lack of paintings to study while staying at her summer residence. Cassatt even considered giving up art, as she was determined to make an independent living. She wrote in a letter of July, 1871, "I have given up my studio & torn up my father's portrait, & have not touched a brush for six weeks nor ever will again until I see some prospect of getting back to Europe. I am very anxious to go out west next fall & get some employment, but I have not yet decided where." Mathews, 1994, p. 74 She traveled to Chicago to try her luck but lost some of her early paintings in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. McKown, 1974, p. 36 Shortly afterward, her work attracted the attention of the Archbishop of Pittsburgh, who commissioned her to paint two copies of paintings by Correggio in Parma, Italy, advancing her enough money to cover her travel expenses and part of her stay. In her excitement she wrote, “O how wild I am to get to work, my fingers farely itch & my eyes water to see a fine picture again”. Mathews, 1994, p. 76 With Emily Sartain, a fellow artist from a well-regarded artistic family from Philadelphia, Cassatt set out for Europe again. Impressionism Tea by Mary Cassatt, 1880, oil on canvas, 25 1/2 x 36 1/4 in., Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Within months of her return to Europe in the autumn of 1871, Cassatt’s prospects had brightened. Her painting Two Women Throwing Flowers During Carnival was well received in the Salon of 1872, and was purchased. She attracted much favorable notice in Parma and was supported and encouraged by the art community there: “All Parma is talking of Miss Cassatt and her picture, and everyone is anxious to know her”. Mathews, 1994, p. 79 After completing her commission for the archbishop, Cassatt traveled to Madrid and Seville, where she painted a group of paintings of Spanish subjects, including Spanish Dancer Wearing a Lace Mantilla (1873, in the National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution). In 1874, she made the decision to take up residence in France. She was joined by her sister Lydia who shared an apartment with her. Cassatt continued to express criticism of the politics of the Salon and the conventional taste that prevailed there. She was blunt in her comments, as reported by Sartain, who wrote: “she is entirely too slashing, snubs all modern art, disdains the Salon pictures of Cabanel, Bonnat, all the names we are used to revere”. Mathews, 1994, p. 87 Cassatt saw that works by female artists were often dismissed with contempt unless the artist had a friend or protector on the jury, and she would not flirt with jurors to curry favor. Mathews, 1998, pp. 104-105 Her cynicism grew when one of the two pictures she submitted in 1875 was refused by the jury, only to be accepted the following year after she darkened the background. She had quarrels with Sartain, who thought Cassatt too outspoken and self-centered, and eventually they parted. Out of her distress and self-criticism, Cassatt decided that she needed to move away from genre paintings and onto more fashionable subjects, in order to attract portrait commissions from American socialites abroad, but that attempt bore little fruit at first. Mathews, 1994, p. 96 Degas, Portrait of Miss Cassatt, Seated, Holding Cards, c. 1876-1878, oil on canvas In 1877, both her entries were rejected, and for the first time in seven years she had no works in the Salon. Mathews, 1998, p. 100 At this low point in her career she was invited by Edgar Degas to show her works with the Impressionists, a group that had begun their own series of independent exhibitions in 1874 with much attendant notoriety. The Impressionists (also known as the “Independents” or “Intransigents”) had no formal manifesto and varied considerably in subject matter and technique. They tended to prefer open air painting and the application of vibrant color in separate strokes with little pre-mixing, which allows the eye to merge the results in an “impressionistic” manner. The Impressionists had been receiving the wrath of the critics for several years. Henry Bacon, a friend of the Cassatts, thought that the Impressionists were so radical that they were “afflicted with some hitherto unknown disease of the eye”. Mathews, 1994, p. 107 They already had one female member, artist Berthe Morisot, who became Cassatt’s friend and colleague. Cassatt admired Degas, whose pastels had made a powerful impression on her when she encountered them in an art dealer's window in 1875. "I used to go and flatten my nose against that window and absorb all I could of his art," she later recalled. "It changed my life. I saw art then as I wanted to see it." Mathews, 1998, p. 114 She accepted Degas' invitation with enthusiasm, and began preparing paintings for the next Impressionist show, planned for 1878, which (after a postponement because of the World’s Fair) took place on April 10, 1879. She felt comfortable with the Impressionists and joined their cause enthusiastically, declaring: “we are carrying on a despairing fight & need all our forces”. Mathews, 1994, p. 118 Unable to attend cafes with them without attracting unfavorable attention, she met with them privately and at exhibitions. She now hoped for commercial success selling paintings to the sophisticated Parisians who preferred the avant-garde. Her style had gained a new spontaneity during the intervening two years. Previously a studio-bound artist, she had adopted the practice of carrying a sketchbook with her while out-of-doors or at the theater, and recording the scenes she saw. Mathews, 1994, p. 125. Summertime, c. 1894, oil on canvas In 1877, Cassatt was joined in Paris by her father and mother, who returned with her sister Lydia. Mary valued their companionship, as neither she nor Lydia had married. Mary had decided early in life that marriage would be incompatible with her career. Lydia, who was frequently painted by her sister, suffered from recurrent bouts of illness, and her death in 1882 left Cassatt temporarily unable to work. Mathews, 1998, p. 163 Cassatt’s father insisted that her studio and supplies be covered by her sales, which were still meager. Afraid of having to paint “potboilers” to make ends meet, Cassatt applied herself to produce some quality paintings for the next Impressionist exhibition. Three of her most accomplished works from 1878 were Portrait of the Artist (self-portrait), Little Girl in a Blue Armchair, and Reading Le Figaro (portrait of her mother). Degas had considerable influence on Cassatt. She became extremely proficient in the use of pastels, eventually creating many of her most important works in this medium. Degas also introduced her to etching, of which he was a recognized master. The two worked side-by-side for awhile, and her draftsmanship gained considerable strength under his tutelage. He depicted her in a series of etchings recording their trips to the Louvre. She had strong feelings for him but learned not to expect too much from his fickle and temperamental nature. The sophisticated and well-dressed Degas, then forty-five, was a welcome dinner guest at the Cassatt residence. McKown, 1974, pp. 63-64 The Impressionist exhibit of 1879 was the most successful to date, despite the absence of Renoir, Sisley, Manet and Cézanne, who were attempting once again to gain recognition at the Salon. Through the efforts of Gustave Caillebotte, who organized and underwrote the show, the group made a profit and sold many works, although the criticism continued as harsh as ever. The Revue des Deux Mondes wrote, “M. Degas and Mlle. Cassatt are, nevertheless, the only artists who distinguish themselves...and who offer some attraction and some excuse in the pretentious show of window dressing and infantile daubing”. McKown, 1974, p. 73 Cassatt displayed eleven works, including La Loge. Although critics claimed that Cassatt’s colors were too bright and that her portraits were too accurate to be flattering to the subjects, her work was not savaged as was Monet's, whose circumstances were the most desperate of all the Impressionists at that time. She used her share of the profits to purchase a work by Degas and one by Monet. McKown, 1974, pp. 72-73 She exhibited in the Impressionist Exhibitions that followed in 1880 and 1881, and she remained an active member of the Impressionist circle until 1886. In 1886, Cassatt provided two paintings for the first Impressionist exhibition in the United States, organized by art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel. Her friend Louisine Elder married Harry Havemeyer in 1883, and with Cassatt as advisor, the couple began collecting the Impressionists on a grand scale. Much of their vast collection is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. Mathews, 1994, p. 167 She also made several portraits of family members during that period, of which Portrait of Alexander Cassatt and His Son Robert Kelso (1885) is one of her best regarded. Cassatt’s style then evolved, and she moved away from Impressionism to a simpler, more straightforward approach. She began to exhibit her works in New York galleries as well. After 1886, Cassatt no longer identified herself with any art movement and experimented with a variety of techniques. Later life Cassatt's popular reputation is based on an extensive series of rigorously drawn, tenderly observed, yet largely unsentimental paintings and prints on the theme of the mother and child. The earliest dated work on this subject is the drypoint Gardner Held by His Mother (an impression inscribed "Jan/88" is in the New York Public Library), Mathews, 1998, p. 182 and note, p. 346 although she had painted a few earlier works on the theme. Some of these works depict her own relatives, friends, or clients, although in her later years she generally used professional models in compositions that are often reminiscent of Italian Renaissance depictions of the Madonna and Child. After 1900, she concentrated almost exclusively on mother-and-child subjects. National Museum of American Art, 1985, p. 106 In 1891, she exhibited a series of highly original colored drypoint and aquatint prints, including Woman Bathing and The Coiffure, inspired by the Japanese masters shown in Paris the year before. (See Japonism) Cassatt was attracted to the simplicity and clarity of Japanese design, and the skillful use of blocks of color. In her intrepretation, she used primarily light, delicate pastel colors and avoided black (a “forbidden” color among the Impressionists). A. Breeskin, of the Smithsonian Institution, notes that these colored prints, “now stand as her most original contribution... adding a new chapter to the history of graphic arts...technically, as color prints, they have never been surpassed”. McKown, 1974, pp. 124-126. The Child's Bath (The Bath) by Mary Cassatt, 1893, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago The 1890s were Cassatt's busiest and most creative time. She had matured considerably and became more diplomatic and less blunt in her opinions. She also became a role model for young American artists who sought her advice. Among them was Lucy A. Bacon, whom Cassatt introduced to Camille Pissarro. Though the Impressionist group disbanded, Cassatt still had contact with some of the members, including Renoir, Monet, and Pissarro. McKown, 1974, p. 155. As the new century arrived, she served as an advisor to several major art collectors and stipulated that they eventually donate their purchases to American art museums. In recognition of her contributions to the arts, France awarded her the Légion d'honneur in 1904. Although instrumental in advising American collectors, recognition of her art came more slowly in the United States. Even among her family members back in America, she received little recognition and was totally overshadowed by her famous brother. McKown, 1974, p. 182. Mary Cassatt's brother, Alexander Cassatt, (president of the Pennsylvania Railroad from 1899 until his death) died in 1906. She was shaken, as they had been close, but she continued to be very productive in the years leading up to 1910. Mathews, 1998, p. 281 An increasing sentimentality is apparent in her work of the 1900s; her work was popular with the public and the critics, but she was no longer breaking new ground, and her Impressionist colleagues who once provided stimulation and criticism were dying off. She was hostile to such new developments in art as post-Impressionism, Fauvism and Cubism. Mathews, 1998, p. 284 A trip to Egypt in 1910 impressed Cassatt with the beauty of its ancient art, but was followed by a crisis of creativity; not only had the trip exhausted her, but she declared herself "crushed by the strength of this Art", saying, "I fought against it but it conquered, it is surely the greatest Art the past has left us ... how are my feeble hands to ever paint the effect on me." Mathews, 1998, p. 291 Diagnosed with diabetes, rheumatism, neuralgia, and cataracts in 1911, she did not slow down, but after 1914 she was forced to stop painting as she became almost blind. Nonetheless, she took up the cause of women's suffrage, and in 1915, she showed eighteen works in an exhibition supporting the movement. She died on June 14, 1926 at Château de Beaufresne, near Paris, and was buried in the family vault at Le Mesnil-Théribus, France. , her paintings have sold for as much as $2.9 million. See also The SS Mary Cassatt was a World War II Liberty ship History of painting Western painting Women artists Notes References Mathews, Nancy Mowll, Mary Cassatt: A Life, 1998, Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07754-8 McKown, Robin, The World of Mary Cassatt, Thomas Y. Crowell Co. , New York, 1972. ISBN 0690902743 National Museum of American Art (U.S.), & Kloss, W. (1985). Treasures from the National Museum of American Art. Washington: National Museum of American Art. ISBN 0874745950 Pollock, Griselda, Looking back to the Future. G&B 2001. ISBN 90-5701-132-8 White, John H., Jr. (Spring 1986), America's most noteworthy railroaders, Railroad History, Railway and Locomotive Historical Society, 154, p. 9-15. (mentions family relationship to Alexander Cassatt) External links Mary Cassatt at the National Gallery of Art Mary Cassatt Gallery at MuseumSyndicate.com Mary Cassatt at the WebMuseum. Mary Cassatt at the Cincinnati Art Museum Mary Cassatt at Dreamscity.net Mary Cassatt at Hill-Stead Museum, Farmington, Connecticut smARThistory: The Cup of Tea www.marycassatt.org - Gallery of 362 images by the artist Mary Cassatt prints at the National Art History Institut (INHA) in Paris | Mary_Cassatt |@lemmatized mary:19 stevenson:1 cassatt:67 may:2 american:12 painter:2 printmaker:1 live:3 much:6 adult:1 life:10 france:4 first:9 befriend:1 edgar:2 degas:11 later:8 exhibit:6 among:5 impressionist:18 often:3 create:2 image:2 social:2 private:1 woman:7 particular:1 emphasis:1 intimate:1 bond:1 mother:8 child:6 early:6 bear:2 allegheny:1 city:2 pennsylvania:5 part:4 pittsburgh:2 favorable:2 circumstance:2 father:6 robert:4 simpson:1 cassat:1 successful:2 stockbroker:1 land:1 speculator:1 katherine:1 kelso:2 johnston:1 come:2 banking:1 family:10 ancestral:1 name:2 cossart:1 nancy:2 mowll:2 mathews:29 villard:1 book:1 new:13 york:7 p:35 isbn:6 x:3 distant:1 cousin:1 artist:16 henri:2 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5,060 | Nature | Nature, in the broadest sense, is equivalent to the natural world, physical world or material world. "Nature" refers to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. Manufactured objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature, and are referred to as artificial or man-made. Nature is generally distinguished from the supernatural. It ranges in scale from the subatomic to the cosmic. The word nature is derived from the Latin word natura, or "essential qualities, innate disposition," but literally meaning "birth." Original sense is in "human nature." Natura was a Latin translation of the Greek word physis (φύσις), which originally related to the intrinsic characteristics that plants, animals, and other features of the world develop of their own accord. A useful though somewhat erratically presented account of the pre-Socratic use of the concept of φύσις may be found in Naddaf, Gerard The Greek Concept of Nature, SUNY Press, 2006. The word φύσις, while first used in connection with a plant in Homer, occurs very early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses match rather well the current senses in which the English word nature is used, as confirmed by Guthrie, W.K.C. Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus (volume 2 of his History of Greek Philosophy), Cambridge UP, 1965. The first known use of physis was by Homer in reference to the intrinsic qualities of a plant: ὣς ἄρα φωνήσας πόρε φάρμακον ἀργεϊφόντης ἐκ γαίης ἐρύσας, καί μοι φύσιν αὐτοῦ ἔδειξε. (So saying, Argeiphontes [=Hermes] gave me the herb, drawing it from the ground, and showed me its nature.) Odyssey 10.302-3 (ed. A.T. Murray). (The word is dealt with thoroughly in Liddell and Scott's Greek Lexicon.) For later but still very early Greek uses of the term, see earlier note. The concept of nature as a whole, the physical universe, is one of several expansions of the original notion; it began with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre-Socratic philosophers, and has steadily gained currency ever since. This usage was confirmed during the advent of modern scientific method in the last several centuries. Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), for example, is translated "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", and reflects the then-current use of the words "natural philosophy", akin to "systematic study of nature" The etymology of the word "physical" shows its use as a synonym for "natural" in about the mid-15th century: Within the various uses of the word today, "nature" may refer to the general realm of various types of living plants and animals, and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects–the way that particular types of things exist and change of their own accord, such as the weather and geology of the Earth, and the matter and energy of which all these things are composed. It is often taken to mean the "natural environment" or wilderness–wild animals, rocks, forest, beaches, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention, or which persist despite human intervention. This more traditional concept of natural things which can still be found today implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial, with the artificial being understood as that which has been brought into being by a human consciousness or a human mind. Earth Earth (or, "the earth") is the only planet known to support life, and as such, its natural features are the subject of many fields of scientific research. Within the solar system, it is third nearest to the sun; it is the largest terrestrial planet and the fifth largest overall. Its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones, and a wide equatorial tropical to subtropical region. Precipitation varies widely with location, from several metres of water per year to less than a millimetre. About 70 percent of the surface is covered by salt-water oceans. The remainder consists of continents and islands, with most of the inhabited land in the Northern Hemisphere. Earth has evolved through geological and biological processes that have left traces of the original conditions. The outer surface is divided into several gradually migrating tectonic plates, which have changed relatively quickly several times. The interior remains active, with a thick layer of molten mantle and an iron-filled core that generates a magnetic field. The atmospheric conditions have been significantly altered from the original conditions by the presence of life-forms, which create an ecological balance that stabilizes the surface conditions. Despite the wide regional variations in climate by latitude and other geographic factors, the long-term average global climate is quite stable during interglacial periods, and variations of a degree or two of average global temperature have historically had major effects on the ecological balance, and on the actual geography of the Earth. Historical perspective Earth is estimated to have formed 4.55 billion years ago from the solar nebula, along with the Sun and other planets. The moon formed roughly 20 million years later. Initially molten, the outer layer of the planet cooled, resulting in the solid crust. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, most or all of which came from ice delivered by comets, produced the oceans and other water sources. The highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago. Continents formed, then broke up and reformed as the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds of millions of years, occasionally combining to make a supercontinent. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia which broke apart about 540 million years ago, then finally Pangaea, which broke apart about 180 million years ago. There is significant evidence, still being discussed among scientists, that a severe glacial action during the Neoproterozoic era covered much of the planet in a sheet of ice. This hypothesis has been termed the "Snowball Earth", and it is of particular interest as it precedes the Cambrian explosion in which multicellular life forms began to proliferate about 530–540 million years ago. Since the Cambrian explosion there have been five distinctly identifiable mass extinctions. The last mass extinction occurred some 65 million years ago, when a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared small animals such as mammals, which then resembled shrews. Over the past 65 million years, mammalian life diversified. Several million years ago, a species of small African ape gained the ability to stand upright. The subsequent advent of human life, and the development of agriculture and further civilization allowed humans to affect the Earth more rapidly than any previous life form, affecting both the nature and quantity of other organisms as well as global climate. By comparison, the Oxygen Catastrophe, produced by the proliferation of algae during the Siderian period, required about 300 million years to culminate.) The present era is classified as part of a mass extinction event, the Holocene extinction event, the fastest ever to have occurred. Some, such as E. O. Wilson of Harvard University, predict that human destruction of the biosphere could cause the extinction of one-half of all species in the next 100 years. "The mid-Holocene extinction of silver fir (Abies alba) in the ..." pdf The extent of the current extinction event is still being researched, debated and calculated by biologists. See, e.g. , , Atmosphere, climate and weather The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon and other inert gases, carbon dioxide, etc.; but air also contains a variable amount of water vapor. The atmospheric pressure declines steadily with altitude, and has a scale height of about 8 kilometres at the Earth's surface: the height at which the atmospheric pressure has declined by a factor of e (a mathematical constant equal to 2.71...). The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes. Terrestrial weather occurs almost exclusively in the lower part of the atmosphere, and serves as a convective system for redistributing heat. Ocean currents are another important factor in determining climate, particularly the major underwater thermohaline circulation which distributes heat energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions. These currents help to moderate the differences in temperature between winter and summer in the temperate zones. Also, without the redistributions of heat energy by the ocean currents and atmosphere, the tropics would be much hotter, and the polar regions much colder. Weather can have both beneficial and harmful effects. Extremes in weather, such as tornadoes or hurricanes and cyclones, can expend large amounts of energy along their paths, and produce devastation. Surface vegetation has evolved a dependence on the seasonal variation of the weather, and sudden changes lasting only a few years can have a dramatic effect, both on the vegetation and on the animals dependent on its growth for their food. The planetary climate is a measure of the long-term trends in the weather. Various factors are known to influence the climate, including ocean currents, surface albedo, greenhouse gases, variations in the solar luminosity, and changes to the planet's orbit. Based on historical records, the Earth is known to have undergone drastic climate changes in the past, including ice ages. The climate of a region depends on a number of factors, especially latitude. A latitudinal band of the surface with similar climatic attributes forms a climate region. There are a number of such regions, ranging from the tropical climate at the equator to the polar climate in the northern and southern extremes. Weather is also influenced by the seasons, which result from the Earth's axis being tilted relative to its orbital plane. Thus, at any given time during the summer or winter, one part of the planet is more directly exposed to the rays of the sun. This exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit. At any given time, regardless of season, the northern and southern hemispheres experience opposite seasons. Weather is a chaotic system that is readily modified by small changes to the environment, so accurate weather forecasting is currently limited to only a few days. Overall, two things are currently happening worldwide: (1) temperature is increasing on the average; and (2) regional climates have been undergoing noticeable changes. Life Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction. Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms. Properties common to terrestrial organisms (plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea and bacteria) are that they are cellular, carbon-and-water-based with complex organization, having a metabolism, a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. An entity with these properties is generally considered life. However, not every definition of life considers all of these properties to be essential. Human-made analogs of life may also be considered to be life. The biosphere is the part of Earth's outer shell – including air, land, surface rocks and water – within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest geophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air). Currently the entire Earth contains over 75 billion tons (150 trillion pounds or about 6.8 x 1013 kilograms) of biomass (life), which lives within various environments within the biosphere. The figure "about one-half of one percent" takes into account the following (See, e.g., , which takes global average weight as 60 kg.), the total human biomass is the average weight multiplied by the current human population of approximately 6.5 billion (see, e.g., ): Assuming 60–70 kg to be the average human mass (approximately 130–150 lb on the average), an approximation of total global human mass of between 390 billion (390×109) and 455 billion kg (between 845 billion and 975 billion lb, or about 423 million–488 million short tons). The total biomass of all kinds on earth is estimated to be in excess of 6.8 x 1013 kg (75 billion short tons). By these calculations, the portion of total biomass accounted for by humans would be very roughly 0.6%. Over nine-tenths of the total biomass on Earth is plant life, on which animal life depends very heavily for its existence. More than 2 million species of plant and animal life have been identified to date, and estimates of the actual number of existing species range from several million to well over 50 million. "Animal." World Book Encyclopedia. 16 vols. Chicago: World Book, 2003. This source gives an estimate of from 2–50 million. The number of individual species of life is constantly in some degree of flux, with new species appearing and others ceasing to exist on a continual basis. Website based on the contents of the book: The total number of species is presently in rapid decline. Evolution |Amazon Rainforest in Brazil. The tropical rainforests of South America contain the largest diversity of species on Earth, with new species of plants and animals evolving from existing species on a frequent basis. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/view.php?id=28907 http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/12/051205163236.htm Life, as it is currently understood, is only known to exist on the planet Earth. The origin of life is still a poorly understood process, but it is thought to have occurred about 3.9 to 3.5 billion years ago during the hadean or archean eons on a primordial earth that had a substantially different environment than is found at present. These life forms possessed the basic traits of self-replication and inheritable traits. Once life had appeared, the process of evolution by natural selection resulted in the formation of ever-more diverse life forms. Species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life forms became extinct. However, the fossil record retains evidence of many of these older species. Current fossil and DNA evidence shows that all existing species can trace a continual ancestry back to the first primitive life forms. The advent of photosynthesis in very basic forms of plant life worldwide allowed the sun's energy to be harvested to create conditions allowing for more complex life. The resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the ozone layer. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of yet more complex cells called eukaryotes. Cells within colonies became increasingly specialized, resulting in true multicellular organisms. With the ozone layer absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation, life colonized the surface of Earth. Microbes The first form of life to develop on the Earth were microbes, and they remained the only form of life on the planet until about a billion years ago when multi-cellular organisms began to appear. Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally smaller than the human eye can see. They include Bacteria, Fungi, Archaea and Protista. These life forms are found in almost every location on the Earth where there is liquid water, including the interior of rocks within the planet. Their reproduction is both rapid and profuse. The combination of a high mutation rate and a horizontal gene transfer ability makes them highly adaptable, and able to survive in new environments, including outer space. They form an essential part of the planetary ecosystem. However some microorganisms are pathogenic and can post health risk to other organisms. Plants and animals The distinction between plant and animal life is not sharply drawn, with some categories of life that stand between or across the two. Originally Aristotle divided all living things between plants, which generally do not move, and animals. In Linnaeus' system, these became the kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Plantae) and Animalia. Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms. However, these are still often considered plants in many contexts. Bacterial life is sometimes included in flora, and some classifications use the term bacterial flora separately from plant flora. Among the many ways of classifying plants are by regional floras, which, depending on the purpose of study, can also include fossil flora, remnants of plant life from a previous era. People in many regions and countries take great pride in their individual arrays of characteristic flora, which can vary widely across the globe due to differences in climate and terrain. Regional floras commonly are divided into categories such as native flora and agricultural and garden flora, the lastly mentioned of which are intentionally grown and cultivated. Some types of "native flora" actually have been introduced centuries ago by people migrating from one region or continent to another, and become an integral part of the native, or natural flora of the place to which they were introduced. This is an example of how human interaction with nature can blur the boundary of what is considered nature. Another category of plant has historically been carved out for weeds. Though the term has fallen into disfavor among botanists as a formal way to categorize "useless" plants, the informal use of the word "weeds" to describe those plants that are deemed worthy of elimination is illustrative of the general tendency of people and societies to seek to alter or shape the course of nature. Similarly, animals are often categorized in ways such as domestic, farm animals, wild animals, pests, etc. according to their relationship to human life. Animals as a category have several characteristics that generally set them apart from other living things, though not traced by scientists to having legs or wings instead of roots and leaves. Animals are eukaryotic and usually multicellular (although see Myxozoa), which separates them from bacteria, archaea and most protists. They are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges (Phylum Porifera), animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues. These include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and a nervous system, which sends and processes signals. There is also typically an internal digestive chamber. The eukaryotic cells possessed by all animals are surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins. This may be calcified to form structures like shells, bones, and spicules, a framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized during development and maturation, and which supports the complex anatomy required for mobility. Ecosystems All forms of life interact with the environment in which they exist, and also with other life forms. In the 20th century this premise gave rise to the concept of ecosystems, which can be defined as any situation where there is interaction between organisms and their environment. Ecosystems are composed of a variety of abiotic and biotic components that function in an interrelated way. The structure and composition is determined by various environmental factors that are interrelated. Variations of these factors will initiate dynamic modifications to the ecosystem. Some of the more important components are: soil, atmosphere, radiation from the sun, water, and living organisms. Each living organism has a continual relationship with every other element that makes up its environment. Within the ecosystem, species are connected and dependent upon one another in the food chain, and exchange energy and matter between themselves as well as with their environment. </blockquote> Every species has limits of tolerance to factors that affect its survival, reproductive success and ability to continue to thrive and interact sustainably with the rest of its environment, which in turn may have effects on these factors for many other species or even on the whole of life. esp. section on "Abiotic Factors and Tolerance Limits." The concept of an ecosystem is thus an important subject of study, as such study provides information needed to make decisions about how human life may interact in a way that allows the various ecosystems to be sustained for future use rather than used up or otherwise rendered ineffective. For the purpose of such study, a unit of smaller size is called a microecosystem. For example, an ecosystem can be a stone and all the life under it. A macroecosystem might involve a whole ecoregion, with its drainage basin. The following ecosystems are examples of the kinds currently under intensive study: Another classification can be made by reference to its communities, such as in the case of a human ecosystem. Regional groupings of distinctive plant and animals best adapted to the region's physical natural environment, latitude, altitude, and terrain are known as biomes. The broadest classification, today under wide study and analysis, and also subject to widespread arguments about its nature and validity, is that of the entire sum of life seen as analogous to a self-sustaining organism; a theory studied as earth system science (less formally known as Gaia theory). Human interrelationship Although humans currently comprise only about one-half of one percent of the total living biomass on Earth, For an example of a range of opinions, see: and Ralph Waldo Emerson's analysis of the subject: the human effect on nature is disproportionately large. Because of the extent of human influence, the boundaries between what we regard as nature and "made environments" is not clear cut except at the extremes. Even at the extremes, the amount of natural environment that is free of discernible human influence is presently diminishing at an increasingly rapid pace, or, according to some, has already disappeared. The development of technology by the human race has allowed the greater exploitation of natural resources and has helped to alleviate some of the risk from natural hazards. In spite of this progress, however, the fate of human civilization remains closely linked to changes in the environment. There exists a highly complex feedback-loop between the use of advanced technology and changes to the environment that are only slowly becoming understood. Manmade threats to the Earth's natural environment include pollution, deforestation, and disasters such as oil spills. Humans have contributed to the extinction of many plants and animals. Humans employ nature for both leisure and economic activities. The acquisition of natural resources for industrial use remains the primary component of the world's economic system. Some activities, such as hunting and fishing, are used for both sustenance and leisure, often by different people. Agriculture was first adopted around the 9th millennium BCE. Ranging from food production to energy, nature influences economic wealth. Although early humans gathered uncultivated plant materials for food and employed the medicinal properties of vegetation for healing, most modern human use of plants is through agriculture. The clearance of large tracts of land for crop growth has led to a significant reduction in the amount available of forestation and wetlands, resulting in the loss of habitat for many plant and animal species as well as increased erosion. Wilderness Wilderness is generally defined as a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity. The WILD Foundation goes into more detail, defining wilderness as: "The most intact, undisturbed wild natural areas left on our planet - those last truly wild places that humans do not control and have not developed with roads, pipelines or other industrial infrastructure." Wilderness areas and protected parks are considered important for the survival of certain species, ecological studies, conservation, solitude, and recreation. Wilderness is deeply valued for cultural, spiritual, moral, and aesthetic reasons. Some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity. No Man's Garden by Daniel B. Botkin p155-157 Ecologists consider wilderness areas to be an integral part of the planet's self-sustaining natural ecosystem (the biosphere). The word, "wilderness", derives from the notion of wildness; in other words that which is not controllable by humans. The word's etymology is from the Old English wildeornes, which in turn derives from wildeor meaning wild beast (wild + deor = beast, deer). "Wilderness", in The Collins English Dictionary (2000) From this point of view, it is the wildness of a place that makes it a wilderness. The mere presence or activity of people does not disqualify an area from being "wilderness." Many ecosystems that are, or have been, inhabited or influenced by activities of people may still be considered "wild." This way of looking at wilderness includes areas within which natural processes operate without very noticeable human interference. Beauty Beauty in nature has long been a common theme in life and in art, and books emphasizing beauty in nature fill large sections of libraries and bookstores. That nature has been depicted and celebrated by so much art, photography, poetry and other literature shows the strength with which many people associate nature and beauty. Why this association exists, and what the association consists of, is studied by the branch of philosophy called aesthetics. Beyond certain basic characteristics that many philosophers agree about to explain what is seen as beautiful, the opinions are virtually endless. For an example of a range of opinions, see: and Ralph Waldo Emerson's analysis of the subject: Looked at through the lens of the visual arts, nature and wildness have been important subjects in various epochs of world history. An early tradition of landscape art began in China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907). The tradition of representing nature as it is became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a significant influence in Asian art. Artists learned to depict mountains and rivers "from the perspective of nature as a whole and on the basis of their understanding of the laws of nature ... as if seen through the eyes of a bird." In the 13th century, the Song Dynasty artist Shi Erji listed "scenes lacking any places made inaccessible by nature," as one of the 12 things to avoid in painting. Chinese brush painting Asia-art.net Accessed: May 20, 2006. In the Western world the idea of wilderness having intrinsic value emerged in the 1800s, especially in the works of the Romantic movement. British artists John Constable and JMW Turner turned their attention to capturing the beauty of the natural world in their paintings. Before that, paintings had been primarily of religious scenes or of human beings. William Wordsworth’s poetry described the wonder of the natural world, which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place. Increasingly the valuing of nature became an aspect of Western culture. History of Conservation BC Spaces for Nature. Accessed: May 20, 2006. This artistic movement also coincided with the Transcendentalist movement in the Western world. Many scientists, who study nature in more specific and organized ways, also share the conviction that nature is beautiful; the French mathematician, Jules Henri Poincaré (1854–1912) said:<blockquote>The scientist does not study nature because it is useful; he studies it because he delights in it, and he delights in it because it is beautiful.If nature were not beautiful, it would not be worth knowing, and if nature were not worth knowing, life would not be worth living. Of course I do not here speak of that beauty which strikes the senses, the beauty of qualities and of appearance; not that I undervalue such beauty, far from it, but it has nothing to do with science; I mean that profounder beauty which comes from the harmonious order of the parts and which a pure intelligence can grasp. </blockquote> A common classical idea of beautiful art involves the word mimesis, the imitation of nature. Also in the realm of ideas about beauty in nature is that the perfect is implied through symmetry, equal division, and other perfect mathematical forms and notions. Matter and energy Some fields of science see nature as matter in motion, obeying certain laws of nature which science seeks to understand. For this reason the most fundamental science is generally understood to be "physics" – the name for which is still recognizable as meaning that it is the study of nature. Matter is commonly defined as the substance of which physical objects are composed. It constitutes the observable universe. The visible components of the universe are now believed to compose only 4 percent of the total mass. The remainder is believed to consist of 23 percent cold dark matter and 73 percent dark energy. The exact nature of these components is still unknown and is currently under intensive investigation by physicists. The behavior of matter and energy throughout the observable universe appears to follow well-defined physical laws. These laws have been employed to produce cosmological models that successfully explain the structure and the evolution of the universe we can observe. The mathematical expressions of the laws of physics employ a set of twenty physical constants that appear to be static across the observable universe. The values of these constants have been carefully measured, but the reason for their specific values remains a mystery. Beyond Earth Atmospheric gases scatter blue wavelengths of visible light more than other wavelengths, giving the Earth’s visible edge a blue halo. Credit: NASA's Earth Observatory. Outer space, also simply called space, refers to the relatively empty regions of the universe outside the atmospheres of celestial bodies. Outer space is used to distinguish it from airspace (and terrestrial locations). There is no discrete boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and space, as the atmosphere gradually attenuates with increasing altitude. Outer space within the solar system is called interplanetary space, which passes over into interstellar space at what is known as the heliopause. Outer space is certainly spacious, but it is far from empty. Outer space is sparsely filled with several dozen types of organic molecules discovered to date by microwave spectroscopy, blackbody radiation left over from the big bang and the origin of the universe, and cosmic rays, which include ionized atomic nuclei and various subatomic particles. There is also some gas, plasma and dust, and small meteors. Additionally, there are signs of human life in outer space today, such as material left over from previous manned and unmanned launches which are a potential hazard to spacecraft. Some of this debris re-enters the atmosphere periodically. Although the planet Earth is currently the only known body within the solar system to support life, current evidence suggests that in the distant past the planet Mars possessed bodies of liquid water on the surface. For a brief period in Mars' history, it may have also been capable of forming life. At present though, most of the water remaining on Mars is frozen. If life exists at all on Mars, it is most likely to be located underground where liquid water can still exist. Conditions on the other terrestrial planets, Mercury and Venus, appear to be too harsh to support life as we know it. But it has been conjectured that Europa, the fourth-largest moon of Jupiter, may possess a sub-surface ocean of liquid water and could potentially host life. Recently, the team of Stéphane Udry have discovered a new planet named Gliese 581 c, which is an extrasolar planet orbiting the red dwarf star Gliese 581. Gliese 581 c appears to lie in the habitable zone of space surrounding the star, and therefore could possibly host life as we know it. See also Science: Natural history Natural science Philosophy: Mother Nature Nature (philosophy) Naturalism (philosophy): any of several philosophical stances, typically those descended from Materialism and Pragmatism that do not distinguish the supernatural from nature. This includes the methodological naturalism of natural science, which makes the methodological assumption that observable events in nature are explained only by natural causes, without assuming either the existence or non-existence of the supernatural. Balance of nature (biological fallacy): A discredited concept of natural equilibrium in predator:prey dynamics. Media: Natural History, by Pliny the Elder Nature, by Ralph Waldo Emerson Nature, a prominent scientific journal Nature (TV series) Organizations: Nature Detectives The Nature Conservancy Notes and references Landscape photograph of Tolima Colombia. Coastal Douglas fir woodland in northwest Oregon. Summer field in Belgium (Hamois). The blue flower is Centaurea cyanus and the red one a Papaver rhoeas. External links Nature Journal - Weekly journal of science. The WILD Foundation. BBC - Science and Nature. European Commission - Nature and Biodiversity homepage. 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5,061 | Gram_Parsons | Gram Parsons (November 5, 1946 – September 19, 1973) was an American singer, songwriter, guitarist and pianist. Parsons was a member of the International Submarine Band, The Byrds and The Flying Burrito Brothers. He was later a solo artist who recorded and performed duets with Emmylou Harris. Parsons died of a drug overdose at the age of 26 in a hotel room in Joshua Tree, California. Since his death, he has been credited with helping to found both country rock and alt-country. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked him #87 on their list of the 100 Most Influential Artists of All Time. Biography 1946–1968 Parsons was born Cecil Ingram Connor III in Winter Haven, Florida, the grandson of citrus fruit magnate John A. Snively, with extensive properties both there and in Waycross, Georgia, where Parsons was raised. A sister, "Little" Avis, soon followed. His father, "Coon Dog" Connor, was a World War II flying ace who suffered mood swings and abruptly committed suicide two days before Christmas Day, 1958. Parsons' mother, Avis, subsequently married Bob Parsons, whose surname was adopted by young Ingram, the elder Parsons going as far to have new birth certificates drawn up for his stepson and stepdaughter. Henceforth he would be known as Gram Parsons. Parsons attended the prestigious Bolles School in Jacksonville, Florida. For a time, the family found a stability of sorts until Avis rapidly descended into alcoholism, leading to her death from cirrhosis. As his family disintegrated around him, Parsons developed strong musical interests, particularly after seeing Elvis Presley perform in concert in 1957. Five years later, while barely in his teens, he played in rock and roll cover bands such as the Pacers and the Legends, headlining in clubs owned by his stepfather in the Winter Haven/Polk County area. By the age of 16 he graduated to folk music, and in 1963 he teamed with his first professional outfit, the Shilos. Heavily influenced by the Kingston Trio and the Journeymen, the band played hootenannies, coffee houses and high school auditoriums. Forays into New York City's Greenwich Village included appearances at The Bitter End. After the band folded he attended Harvard University, studying theology but departing after a semester. Despite being from the South, he did not become serious about country music until his time in Boston, Massachusetts after hearing Merle Haggard for the first time. In 1966, he and others from the Boston folk scene formed the International Submarine Band. The band relocated to Los Angeles the following year, and in 1968 released the album Safe at Home, which contains one of his best-known songs, "Luxury Liner", as well as an early version of "Do You Know How It Feels", which he would reprise on the first Flying Burrito Brothers album. But Parsons had already moved on to bigger things by the time of the album's release. 1968–1970 By 1968 Parsons had come to the attention of Chris Hillman of The Byrds, who, made vulnerable by the firing of David Crosby and the departure of Gene Clark, were seeking new members. Originally conceived by band leader Roger McGuinn as a history of twentieth-century music, beginning with traditional country, taking in jazz, R&B, and rock, and ending with the most advanced (for the time) form of electronic wizardry, Sweetheart of the Rodeo was their only album with Parsons. Contrary to what is often claimed, Parsons was never an official member of The Byrds. As Chris Hillman recalls, "Gram was hired. He was not a member of The Byrds, ever — he was on salary, that was the only way we could get him to turn up." Bud Scoppa, "Track-by-Track," in Sacred Hearts Fallen Angels (Rhino: 2001, p. 26) . Nonetheless, as recording plans were made, Parsons (originally hired as a jazz pianist) tried to exert a controlling influence over the group, persuading the other members to leave Los Angeles and record the album in Nashville. Along the way McGuinn's original album concept was jettisoned in favor of a fully fledged country and western project, and included Parsons' songs such as "One Hundred Years from Now" and "Hickory Wind", along with compositions by Bob Dylan and Merle Haggard. However, because Parsons was still under contract to Lee Hazlewood International, most of Parsons' vocals were removed from the final product. While touring with The Byrds in the summer of 1968, Parsons dropped out of a planned concert in South Africa, citing opposition to that country's apartheid policies. It appears that Parsons was mostly apolitical, although he did refer to one of the younger African-American butlers in the Connor household as being "like a brother" to him in an interview and did not seem to exhibit racist behavior. McGuinn and Hillman subsequently fired him from the tour. During this period Parsons became friendly with Mick Jagger and Keith Richards of The Rolling Stones. While in England, Parsons developed a close kinship with Richards and reintroduced him to country music. Sitting around for hours, the twosome would play obscure records and trade off on various songs with their guitars. They even traveled together on a few occasions to Stonehenge (with Chris Hillman and Roger McGuinn) in the English countryside of Wiltshire, where Richards had a house quite near to the ancient site. Parsons widely claimed to have been the author of "Honky Tonk Women" and attempted to add credence to this claim in interviews and in discussions with friends by insisting that he developed the acoustic guitar and fiddle dominated arrangement of the song included on Let It Bleed as "Country Honk". Nevertheless, Mick Jagger and Keith Richards have always claimed that they conceived the traditional country arrangement while on holiday in Brazil in late 1968. As this vacation came on the heels of Parsons' initial visits with the Stones, it is possible, however unlikely that he was an indirect influence in this new musical direction. It is more likely that partial authorship for the song can be attributed to Ry Cooder (who introduced Richards to the trademark open five string tunings that would become nearly synonymous with his style) and the disintegrating Brian Jones. Returning to Los Angeles, Parsons sought out Hillman (both as rhythm guitarists), and the two formed the Flying Burrito Brothers with bassist Chris Ethridge and pedal steel player Sneaky Pete Kleinow. Their 1969 album The Gilded Palace Of Sin was a modernized version of the Bakersfield style of country music made popular by Buck Owens, and the band appeared on the album cover wearing Nudie suits emblazoned with all sorts of hippie accoutrements. Along with the Parsons-Hillman originals "Christine's Tune" and "Hot Burrito #2" were versions of the soul music classics "The Dark End of the Street" and "Do Right Woman", the latter featuring David Crosby on high harmony. Most of the songs on the album were composed by Hillman with Parsons in a creatively suggestive position, while the latter's drug intake noticeably increased; the atypically pronounced (for Parsons) gospel soul influence likely comes from his frequent jamming with Delaney and Bonnie and Richards. Though not a commercial success, Gilded was measured by rock critic Robert Christgau as "an ominous, obsessive, tongue-in-cheek country-rock synthesis, absorbing rural and urban, traditional and contemporary, at point of impact." The album was recorded without a permanent drummer, but the group soon added original Byrd Michael Clarke on drums. Embarking on a cross-country tour via train, as Parsons suffered from periodic bouts of fear of flying, the group squandered most of their money in a perpetual poker game and received bewildered reactions in most cities. Parsons was frequently indulging in massive quantities of psilocybin and cocaine, so his performances were erratic at best, while much of the band's repertoire consisted of vintage honky tonk and soul standards with few originals. Perhaps the most successful appearance occurred in Philadelphia, where the group opened for the reconstituted Byrds. Midway through their set, Parsons joined the headline act and fronted his former group on renditions "Hickory Wind" and "You Don't Miss Your Water". The other Burritos surfaced with the exception of Clarke, and the joint aggregation played several songs. including "Long Black Veil" and "Goin' Back". After returning to Los Angeles the group recorded "The Train Song", written during an increasingly infrequent songwriting session on the train and produced by 1950s R&B legends Larry Williams and Johnny "Guitar" Watson. Despite a request from the Burritos that the remnants of their publicity budget be diverted to promotion of the single, it also flopped. Ethridge, who lacked total commitment to Parsons' musical vision and often indulged in drugs and drink on a level surpassing the guitarist, departed shortly thereafter. He was replaced by lead guitarist Bernie Leadon, while Hillman reverted to bass. By this time, Parsons's own use of drugs had increased to the extent that new songs were rare and much of his time was diverted to partying with the Stones, who briefly relocated to America in the summer of 1969 to finish their forthcoming Let It Bleed and prepare for an autumn cross country tour, their first series of regular live engagements since 1967. As they prepared to play the nation's largest sports arenas, the Burritos played to dwindling nightclub audiences; one night Jagger had to literally order Parsons to fulfill an obligation with his group. The singer's dedication to the Rolling Stones was rewarded when the Burrito Brothers were booked as the opening act of the infamous Altamont Music Festival. Playing a short set including "Six Days on the Road" and "Bony Moronie", Parsons left on one of the final helicopters and attempted to pick up Michelle Phillips. "Six Days..." was included in Gimme Shelter, a documentary of the event. With mounting debt incurred, A&M hoped to recoup some of their losses by marketing the Burritos as a straight country group. To this end, manager Jim Dickson instigated a loose session where the band recorded several honky tonk staples from their live act, contemporary pop covers in a countrified vein ("To Love Somebody", "Lodi", "I Shall Be Released", "Honky Tonk Women"), and Larry Williams' "Bony Moronie". This was soon scrapped in favor of a second album of originals on an extremely reduced budget. Faced with a dearth of new material, most of the material was hastily written in the studio by Leadon, Hillman, and Parsons, with two Gilded Palace of Sin outtakes thrown into the mix. The resulting album, entitled Burrito Deluxe, was released in April 1970. The album is considered less inspired than its predecessor, but it is notable for the Parsons-Hillman-Leadon song "Older Guys" and for its take on Jagger and Richards' "Wild Horses"—the first recording released of this famous song. Parsons was inspired to cover the song after hearing an advance tape of the Sticky Fingers sent to Kleinow, who was scheduled to overdub a part on the song. Jagger consented to the cover version, so long as the Flying Burrito Brothers did not issue it as a single. Burrito Deluxe, like its predecessor, underperformed commercially but faced the double whammy of being lambasted by critics. Disenchanted with the band, he left the Burritos in mutual agreement with Hillman, at his wits' end after two years of babysitting Parsons. Under his direction, the group recorded two more LPs. 1970–1972 Parsons immediately signed a solo deal with A&M Records and partnered with producer/scenester Terry Melcher, who had produced The Byrds' Mr. Tambourine Man and worked with The Beach Boys. With a mutual penchant for alcohol, cocaine, and (by this juncture) heroin, the sessions were unproductive and found the singer in a holding pattern of covering country hits and himself ("Hot Burrito #1"). Eventually losing interest altogether, he checked the master tapes out in 1971. He accompanied the Stones on their 1971 tour in the hope of being signed to the newly formed Rolling Stones Records, intending to record a duo album with Richards. Moving into Villa Nellcôte with the guitarist during the sessions for Exile on Main Street, Parsons remained in a consistently incapacitated state and frequently quarreled with his much younger girlfriend, aspiring actress Gretchen Burrell. Eventually, Parsons was asked to leave by Anita Pallenberg, Richards' longtime domestic partner. Rumors have persisted that he appears somewhere on the legendary album, and while Richards concedes that it is very likely he is among the chorus of singers on "Sweet Virginia", nothing has been substantiated to this day. Parsons attempted to rekindle his relationship with the band on their 1972 tour to no avail. After leaving the Stones' camp, Parsons married in 1971, for the only time, to Burrell at his stepfather's New Orleans estate. Allegedly, the relationship was far from stable, with Burrell cutting a needy and jealous figure while Parsons quashed her burgeoning film career. Many of the singer's closest associates and friends claim that Parsons was preparing to commence divorce proceedings at the time of his death; the couple had already separated by this point. 1972–1973 Parsons and Burrell enjoyed the most idyllic time of their relationship, visiting old cohorts like Ian Dunlop and Family/Blind Faith/Traffic member Ric Grech in England. With the assistance of Grech and one of the bassist's friends, Hank Wangford a doctor friend who dabbled in country music, Parsons managed to kick his heroin habit once and for all (a treatment suggested by William Burroughs proved unsuccessful). He returned to the US for a one-off concert with the Burritos, and at Hillman's instigation went to hear Emmylou Harris sing in a small club in Washington, D.C. They became friends and, within a year, he asked her to join him in Los Angeles for another attempt to record his first solo album. Having gained thirty pounds since his Burrito days from Southern food and excessive alcohol consumption, it came as a surprise to many when Parsons was enthusiastically signed to Reprise Records by Mo Ostin in mid-1972. GP, released in 1973, utilized the guitar-playing of James Burton (sideman to Elvis Presley and Ricky Nelson), and featured new songs from a creatively revitalized Parsons such as "Big Mouth Blues" and "Kiss the Children," as well as a cover of Tompall Glaser's "Streets of Baltimore." Parsons, by now featuring Harris as his duet partner, played dates across the United States as Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels. Unable to afford the services of the Elvis band for a month, the band featured the talents of obscure Colorado-based rock guitarist Jock Bartley (soon to skyrocket to fame with Firefall), veteran Nashville sideman Neil Flanz on pedal steel, Kyle Tullis on bass and former Mountain drummer N.D. Smart (once described by Canadian folksinger Ian Tyson as "a psychotic redneck"). The touring party also included Gretchen Parsons—by this point extremely envious of Harris—and Harris' young daughter. Coordinating the spectacle as road manager was Phil Kaufman, who had served time with Charles Manson on Terminal Island in the mid-sixties and first met Parsons while working for the Stones in 1968. Kaufman ensured that the performer stayed away from substance abuse, limiting his alcohol intake during shows and throwing out any drugs smuggled into hotel rooms. At first, the band was under-rehearsed and played poorly, but improved markedly with steady gigging and received rapturous responses at the Armadillo World Headquarters in Austin, Texas and at a filmed concert at Liberty Hall in Houston (with Neil Young and Linda Ronstadt sitting in) and Max's Kansas City in New York City. According to a number of sources, it was Emmylou who forced the band to practice and work up an actual set list. Nevertheless, the tour did absolutely nothing for record sales. While he had been in the vanguard with The Byrds and the Burrito Brothers, Parsons was now perceived as being too authentic and traditional in an era dominated by the stylings of The Eagles, whose sound Parsons disdained (although he did maintain cordial relations with Leadon, now an Eagle). For his next and final album, 1974's Grievous Angel, he again used Harris and Burton. The record, which was released after his death, received even more enthusiastic reviews than had GP, and has since attained classic status. Among its most celebrated songs is "$1000 Wedding", a holdover from the Burrito Brothers era which was covered by one of the many groups influenced by Parsons, the Mekons, and "Brass Buttons", a 1965 opus which addresses his mother's alcoholism. Also included was a new version of "Hickory Wind" and "Ooh Las Vegas", co-written with Grech and dating from the G.P. sessions. Despite the fact that Parsons only contributed two new songs to the album ("In My Hour of Darkness", "Return of the Grievous Angel"), Parsons was highly enthused with his new sound and seemed to have finally adopted a serious, diligent mindset to his musical career, eschewing most drugs and alcohol during the sessions. Before recording, Parsons and Harris played a preliminary three show mini tour as the headline act in a Warner Brothers country-rock package. The backing band included Clarence White, Pete Kleinow, and Chris Etheridge. On July 14, 1973, the legendary White was killed by a drunk driver while loading equipment in his car for a concert with the New Kentucky Colonels. At White's funeral, Parsons and Bernie Leadon launched into an impromptu touching rendition of "Farther Along"; that night, the distraught and drunken musician reportedly informed Phil Kaufman of his final wish: to be cremated in Joshua Tree. Despite the almost insurmountable setback, Parsons, Harris, and the other musicians decided to continue with plans for a fall tour. In the summer of 1973 Parsons' Topanga Canyon home burned to the ground, the result of a stray cigarette. Nearly all of his possessions were destroyed with the exception of a guitar and a prized Jaguar automobile. The fire proved to be the last straw in the relationship between Burrell and Parsons, who moved into a spare room in Kaufman's house. While not recording, he frequently hung out and jammed with members of New Jersey-based country rockers Quacky Duck and His Barnyard Friends (whose members included Tony Bennett's sons, Danny and Dae Bennett as well as future Dylan sideman and member of the Alpha Band, multi-instrumentalist David Mansfield) and the proto-punk Jonathan Richman & the Modern Lovers, who were being managed by Kaufman. Richman credits Parsons with introducing him to acoustic-based music. Parsons is credited as producer on Quacky Duck's only album, Media Push, released by Warner Bros. in 1974. According to the road manager of Quacky Duck, Parsons was, despite being frequently drunk, a kind soul who provided business and musical guidance to the younger band. Before formally breaking up with Burrell, Parsons already had a woman waiting in the wings. While recording, he saw a photo of a beautiful woman at a friend's home and was instantly smitten. The woman turned out to be Margaret Fisher, a high school sweetheart of the singer from his Waycross, Georgia days. Like Parsons, Fisher had drifted west and became established in the Bay Area rock scene. A meeting was arranged and the two instantly rekindled their relationship, with Fisher dividing her weeks between Los Angeles and San Francisco at Parsons' expense. Death In the late 1960s, Parsons became enamored of Joshua Tree National Monument in southeastern California. Alone or with friends, he would disappear in the desert for days, searching for UFOs while under the influence of psilocybin or LSD. After splitting from Burrell, Parsons would frequently spend his weekends in the area with Margaret Fisher and Phil Kaufman. Before his tour was scheduled to commence in October 1973, Parsons decided to go on one more excursion. Accompanying him were Fisher, personal assistant Michael Martin, and Dale McElory, Martin's girlfriend. Less than two days after arriving, Parsons died September 19, 1973 in Joshua Tree, California at the age of 26 from a lethal combination, purportedly of morphine and alcohol. "What's up with the strange end of country-rock pioneer Gram Parsons?" from The Straight Dope According to Fisher in the 2005 biography Grievous Angel: An Intimate Biography of Gram Parsons, the amount of morphine consumed by Parsons would be lethal to three addicts and thus he had likely overestimated his tolerance considering his past experience with opiates. Fisher and McElroy were returned to Los Angeles by Kaufman, who dispersed the remnants of Parsons' stash in the desert. In a story that has remarkable similarities to a Keystone Cops movie, Parsons' body disappeared from the Los Angeles International Airport, where it was being readied to be shipped to Louisiana for burial. Prior to his death, Parsons stated that he wanted his body cremated at Joshua Tree and his ashes spread over Cap Rock, a prominent natural feature there. However, Parson's stepfather arranged for a private ceremony back in New Orleans and neglected to invite any of his friends from the music industry. To fulfill Parsons' "funeral" wishes, Kaufman and a friend stole his body from the airport and, in a borrowed hearse, drove it to Joshua Tree where they attempted to cremate it, by pouring five gallons of gasoline into the open coffin and throwing a lit match inside. What resulted was an enormous fireball. Police chased them, but, according to one account, they were unencumbered by sobriety and got away. The two were arrested several days later, but since there was no law against stealing a dead body, were only fined $750 (or $700) for stealing the coffin, and were not prosecuted for leaving 35 lbs of his charred remains in the desert. Legacy The site of the cremation was marked by a small concrete slab and is presided over by a large rock flake known to rock climbers as 'The Gram Parsons memorial hand traverse'. Gram Parsons from Find A Grave The slab has since been removed by the U.S. National Park Service and was relocated to the Joshua Tree Inn which was where he was staying at the time of his death. At the site of the original memorial now are simple rock structures and writings on the rock which the park service sand blasts to remove from time to time. The 2003 film Grand Theft Parsons stars Johnny Knoxville as Phil Kaufman and chronicles a farcical version of the theft of Parsons' corpse. In February 2008, Gram's protégée, Emmylou Harris, was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame. The Gram Parsons Petition Project (G3P) Petition to Induct Gram Parsons into Country Music Hall of Fame was begun in May 2008 in support of an ongoing drive to induct Parsons into the Country Music Hall of Fame. On September 19, 2008, the 35th anniversary of Parsons' death, it was presented to the Country Music Association (CMA) and Hall as a "List of Supporters" together with the official nomination proposal. Nomination Proposal to Induct Gram Parsons Into the Country Music Hall of Fame Discography Year Album Chart Positions US US Country 1968 Safe at Home (International Submarine Band) Sweetheart of the Rodeo (The Byrds) 77 1969 The Gilded Palace of Sin (Flying Burrito Brothers) 164 1970 Burrito Deluxe (Flying Burrito Brothers) 1973 GP 1974 Grievous Angel 195 1976 Sleepless Nights (Gram Parsons & the Flying Burrito Brothers) 185 1979 Early Years (1963–1965) 1982 Live 1973 (Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels) 2001 Sacred Hearts & Fallen Angels: The Gram Parsons Anthology Another Side of This Life: The Lost Recordings of Gram Parsons 2006 The Complete Reprise Sessions 2007 Gram Parsons Archives Vol.1: Live at the Avalon Ballroom 1969(Gram Parsons with the Flying Burrito Brothers) 45 Tributes Return of the Grievous Angel: A Tribute to Gram Parsons (1999) The Gram Parsons Tribute, in Waycross, Georgia, is a music festival remembering Parsons in the town in which he grew up. References Christgau, Robert. 1990. Rock Albums of the '70s: A Critical Guide. (New York: Da Capo Press). ISBN 0-306-80409-3. Fong-Torres, Ben. (1998). "Gram Parson". In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kingsbury, Editor. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 405-6. Further reading Twenty Thousand Roads: The Ballad of Gram Parsons and His Cosmic American Music, David N. Meyer, Villard Books, 2007. ISBN 978-0-375-50570-6 Road Mangler Deluxe, Phil Kaufman with Colin White, White-Boucke Publishing, 2005 (3rd edition). ISBN 1-888580-31-3 Are You Ready for the Country: Elvis, Dylan, Parsons and the Roots of Country Rock, Peter Dogget, Penguin Books, 2001. ISBN 0-14-026108-7 Dreaming Out Loud: Garth Brooks, Wynonna Judd, Wade Hayes and the Changing Face of Nashville, Bruce Feiler, Avon Books, 1998. ISBN 0-380-97578-5 In the Country of Country: A Journey to the Roots of American Music, Nicholas Dawidoff, Vintage Books, 1998. ISBN 0-375-70082-X Hickory Wind: The Life and Times of Gram Parsons, Ben Fong-Torres, Pocket Books, 1991. ISBN 0-671-70513-X Grievous Angel: An Intimate Biography of Gram Parsons, Jessica Hundley and Polly Parsons, Thunder's Mouth Press, 2005. ISBN 978-1-56025-673-1 Proud to Be an Okie: Cultural Politics, Country Music, and Migration to Southern California, Peter La Chapelle. University of California Press, Berkeley, 2007. ISBN 978-0-520-24889-2 Gram Parsons: God's Own Singer, Jason Walker, Helter Skelter Books, London, 2002. ISBN 1-900924-27-7 Moody Food, Ray Robertson, SFWP, 2006. ISBN 0-9776799-0-X ''Trailblazers: Gram Parsons, Nick Drake & Jeff Buckley"" David Bret JRBooks, London, 2009. 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5,062 | Politics_of_Jordan | Politics of Jordan takes place in a framework of a parliamentary monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister of Jordan is head of government, and of a multi-party system. Jordan is a constitutional monarchy based on the constitution promulgated on January 8, 1952. Executive branch |King | Abdullah bin al Hussein | |7 February 1999 |- |Prime Minister |Nader al-Dahabi | |25 November 2007 |} Executive authority is vested in the king and his council of ministers. The king signs and executes all laws. His veto power may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the National Assembly. He appoints and may dismiss all judges by decree, approves amendments to the constitution, declares , and commands the armed forces. Cabinet decisions, court judgments, and the national currency are issued in his name. The council of ministers, led by a prime minister, is appointed by the king, who may dismiss other cabinet members at the prime minister's request. The cabinet is responsible to the Chamber of Deputies on matters of general policy and can be forced to resign by a two-thirds vote of "no confidence" by that body. Legislative branch Legislative power rests in the bicameral National Assembly. The National Assembly (Majlis al-Umma) has two chambers. The Chamber of Deputies (Majlis al-Nuwaab) has 110 members, 104 elected for a four year term in single-seat constituencies and 6 female members by a special electoral college. Of the 110 seats, Christians are reserved 9 seats and Chechens/Circassians are reserved 3. The Assembly of Senators (Majlis al-Aayan) has 40 members appointed by the king for an 8-year term. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The constitution provides for three categories of courts--civil (in this case meaning 'regular'), religious, and special. Regular courts consist of both civil and criminal varieties at the first level – First Instance or Conciliation Courts, second level – Appelette or Appeals Courts – and the Cassation Court which is the highest judicial authority in the kingdom. There are two types of religious courts: Sharia courts which enforce the provisions of Islamic law and civil status, and tribunals of other religious communities officially recognized in Jordan. Political conditions King Hussein ruled Jordan from 1953 to 1999, surviving a number of challenges to his rule, drawing on the loyalty of his military, and serving as a symbol of unity and stability for both the East Bank and Palestinian communities in Jordan. King Hussein ended martial law in 1991 and legalized political parties in 1992. In 1989 and 1993, Jordan held free and fair parliamentary elections. Controversial changes in the election law led Islamist parties to boycott the 1997 elections. King Abdullah II succeeded his father Hussein following the latter's death in February 1999. Abdullah moved quickly to reaffirm Jordan's peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the United States. Abdullah, during the first year in power, refocused the government's agenda on economic reform. Jordan's continuing structural economic difficulties, burgeoning population, and more open political environment led to the emergence of a variety of political parties. Moving toward greater independence, Jordan's parliament has investigated corruption charges against several regime figures and has become the major forum in which differing political views, including those of political Islamists, are expressed. While King Abdullah remains the ultimate authority in Jordan, the parliament plays an important role. Administrative divisions Administratively, Jordan is divided into twelve governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah), each headed by a governor appointed by the king. They are the sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in their respective areas: Ajlun Aqaba Balqa Karak Mafraq Amman Tafilah Zarqa Irbid Jerash Ma'an Madaba International organization participation ABEDA, ACC, AFESD, AL, AMF, CAEU, CCC, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTAET, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO External links Constitution of Jordan | Politics_of_Jordan |@lemmatized politics:1 jordan:13 take:1 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:2 monarchy:2 whereby:1 prime:4 minister:6 head:2 government:3 multi:1 party:5 system:1 constitutional:1 base:1 constitution:4 promulgate:1 january:1 executive:2 branch:3 king:10 abdullah:5 bin:1 al:6 hussein:4 february:2 nader:1 dahabi:1 november:1 authority:4 vest:1 council:2 sign:1 execute:1 law:4 veto:1 power:3 may:3 override:1 two:4 third:2 vote:2 house:1 national:4 assembly:4 appoint:4 dismiss:2 judge:1 decree:1 approve:1 amendment:1 declare:1 command:1 armed:1 force:2 cabinet:3 decision:1 court:8 judgment:1 currency:1 issue:1 name:1 lead:3 member:4 request:1 responsible:1 chamber:3 deputy:2 matter:1 general:1 policy:1 resign:1 confidence:1 body:1 legislative:2 rest:1 bicameral:1 majlis:3 umma:1 nuwaab:1 elect:1 four:1 year:3 term:2 single:1 seat:3 constituency:1 female:1 special:2 electoral:1 college:1 christian:1 reserve:2 chechen:1 circassian:1 senator:1 aayan:1 political:7 election:4 judicial:2 provide:1 three:1 category:1 civil:3 case:1 mean:1 regular:2 religious:3 consist:1 criminal:1 variety:2 first:3 level:2 instance:1 conciliation:1 second:1 appelette:1 appeal:1 cassation:1 high:1 kingdom:1 type:1 sharia:1 enforce:1 provision:1 islamic:1 status:1 tribunal:1 community:2 officially:1 recognize:1 condition:1 rule:2 survive:1 number:1 challenge:1 draw:1 loyalty:1 military:1 serve:1 symbol:1 unity:1 stability:1 east:1 bank:1 palestinian:1 end:1 martial:1 legalize:1 hold:1 free:1 fair:1 controversial:1 change:1 islamist:2 boycott:1 ii:1 succeed:1 father:1 follow:1 latter:1 death:1 move:2 quickly:1 reaffirm:1 peace:1 treaty:1 israel:1 relation:1 united:1 state:1 refocus:1 agenda:1 economic:2 reform:1 continue:1 structural:1 difficulty:1 burgeon:1 population:1 open:1 environment:1 emergence:1 toward:1 great:1 independence:1 parliament:2 investigate:1 corruption:1 charge:1 several:1 regime:1 figure:1 become:1 major:1 forum:1 differ:1 view:1 include:1 express:1 remain:1 ultimate:1 play:1 important:1 role:1 administrative:1 division:1 administratively:1 divide:1 twelve:1 governorates:1 muhafazat:1 singular:1 muhafazah:1 governor:1 sole:1 department:1 development:1 project:1 respective:1 area:1 ajlun:1 aqaba:1 balqa:1 karak:1 mafraq:1 amman:1 tafilah:1 zarqa:1 irbid:1 jerash:1 madaba:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 abeda:1 acc:1 afesd:1 amf:1 caeu:1 ccc:1 escwa:1 fao:1 g:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icc:2 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 observer:1 iso:1 correspondent:1 itu:1 nam:1 oic:1 opcw:1 osce:1 partner:1 pca:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 unmibh:1 unmik:1 unmop:1 unmot:1 unomig:1 unrwa:1 untaet:1 upu:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram prime_minister:4 constitutional_monarchy:1 constitution_promulgate:1 chamber_deputy:2 legislative_branch:1 majlis_al:3 seat_constituency:1 judicial_branch:1 court_cassation:1 afesd_al:1 al_amf:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icc:1 icc_icc:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_observer:1 iso_correspondent:1 correspondent_itu:1 itu_nam:1 nam_oic:1 oic_opcw:1 opcw_osce:1 pca_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unmibh_unmik:1 unmik_unmop:1 upu_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 external_link:1 |
5,063 | History_of_Lebanon | Map of Lebanon. The history of Lebanon is almost as old as the earliest evidence of humankind. Its geographic position as a crossroads linking the Mediterranean Basin with the great Asian hinterland has conferred on it a cosmopolitan character and a multicultural legacy. Text used in this cited section originally came from: Lebanon Country Study (1987) from the Library of Congress Country Studies project. At different periods of its history, Lebanon has come under the domination of foreign rulers, including Assyrians, Babylonians, Armenians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottomans, and French. Although often conquered, the Lebanese take pride in their rebellions against despotic and repressive rulers. Moreover, despite foreign domination, Lebanon's mountainous terrain has provided it with a certain protective isolation, enabling it to survive with an identity all its own. Its proximity to the sea has ensured that throughout its history Lebanon has held an important position as a trading center. This tradition of commerce began with the Phoenicians and continued through many centuries, remaining almost unaffected by foreign rule and the worst periods of internal strife. Phoenicia Main Article Phoenicia. Map of Phoenicia. The coastal plain of Lebanon is the historic home of a string of coastal trading cities of Semitic culture, which the Greeks termed Phoenicia, whose maritime culture flourished there for more than 2,000 years. Ancient ruins in Byblos, Berytus (Beirut), Sidon, Sarepta (Sarafand), and Tyre show a civilized nation, with urban centres and sophisticated arts. Present-day Lebanon was a cosmopolitan centre for many nations and cultures. Its people roamed the Mediterranean seas, skilled in trade and in art, and founded trading colonies. They were also the creators of the oldest known 24-letter alphabet, a shortening of earlier 30-letter alphabets such as Proto-Sinaitic and Ugaritic. The ancient Lebanese set for sail and colonized overseas. Their most famous colonies were Cadiz in today’s Spain and Carthage in today’s Tunisia. Phoenicia maintained an uneasy tributary relationship with the neo-Assyrian and neo-Babylonian empires; it was conquered outright by the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia, which organized it as a satrapy. It was added to the empire of Alexander the Great, who notably conquered Tyre (332 BC) by extending a still-extant causeway from the mainland in a seven-month effort. It fell to the Seleucid Empire after Alexander's death. The area was conquered by the Roman Empire in the first century and remained Roman until the advent of the Caliphate. Christianity was introduced to Phoenicia from neighboring Galilee soon after the time of Jesus of Nazareth; the Arab advances brought Islam soon after the death of Muhammad. Muslim influence increased greatly in the seventh century when the Umayyad capital was established at nearby Damascus. Arab rule and the Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, Lebanon was heavily involved in the Crusades. Lebanon was in the main path of the First Crusade's advance on Jerusalem. Later, Frankish nobles occupied present-day Lebanon as part of the southeastern Crusader States. The southern half of present-day Lebanon formed the northern march of the Kingdom of Jerusalem; the northern half was the heartland of the County of Tripoli. Although Saladin eliminated Christian control of the Holy Land around 1190, the Crusader states in Lebanon and Syria were better defended. Muslim control of Lebanon was reestablished in the late 13th century under the Mamluk sultans of Egypt. Lebanon was later contested between Muslim rulers until the Ottoman Empire solidified authority over the eastern Mediterranean. Ottoman control was uncontested during the early modern period, but the Lebanese coast became important for its contacts and trades with Venice and other Italian city-states. The mountainous territory of Mount Lebanon has long been a shelter for minority and persecuted groups, including its historic Maronite Christian majority along with Druze, and local Shi'a Muslims. It was an autonomous Druzes region of the Ottoman empire. Ottoman rule The Ottoman Turks formed an empire starting from the 14th century which came to encompass the Balkans, Middle east and North Africa. The Ottoman sultan, Selim I (1516-20), after defeating the Persians, conquered the Mamluks. His troops, invading Syria, destroyed Mamluk resistance in 1516 at Marj Dabaq, north of Aleppo. During the conflict between the Mamluks and the Ottomans, the amirs of Lebanon linked their fate to that of Ghazali, governor (pasha) of Damascus. He won the confidence of the Ottomans by fighting on their side at Marj Dabaq and, apparently pleased with the behavior of the Lebanese amirs, introduced them to Salim I when he entered Damascus. Salim I, moved by the eloquence of the Lebanese ruler Amir Fakhr ad Din I (1516-44), decided to grant the Lebanese amirs a semiautonomous status. The Ottomans, through two great Druze feudal families, the Maans and the Shihabs, ruled Lebanon until the middle of the nineteenth century. It was during Ottoman rule that the term Greater Syria was coined to designate the approximate area included in present-day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel. The Maans, 1120-1697 The Maan family, under orders from the governor of Damascus, came to Lebanon in 1120 won against the invading Crusaders. They settled on the southwestern slopes of the Lebanon Mountains and soon adopted the Druze religion. Their authority began to rise with Fakhr ad-Din I, who was permitted by Ottoman authorities to organize his own army, and reached its peak with Fakhr ad-Din II (1570-1635). Although Fakhr ad-Din II's aspirations toward complete independence for Lebanon ended tragically, he greatly enhanced Lebanon's military and economic development. Noted for religious tolerance , Fakhr ad-Din attempted to merge the country's different religious groups into one Lebanese community. In an effort to attain complete independence for Lebanon, he concluded a secret agreement with Ferdinand I, duke of Tuscany in Italy, the two parties pledging to support each other against the Ottomans. Informed of this agreement, the Ottoman ruler in Constantinople reacted violently and ordered Ahmad al Hafiz, governor of Damascus, to attack Fakhr ad Din. Realizing his inability to cope with the regular army of Al Hafiz, the Lebanese ruler went to Tuscany in exile in 1613. He returned to Lebanon in 1618, after his good friend Muhammad Pasha became governor of Damascus. Following his return from Tuscany, Fakhr ad-Din II, realizing the need for a strong and disciplined armed force, channeled his financial resources into building a regular army. This army proved itself in 1623, when Mustafa Pasha, the new governor of Damascus, underestimating the capabilities of the Lebanese army, engaged it in battle and was decisively defeated at Anjar in the Biqa Valley. Impressed by the victory of the Lebanese ruler, the sultan of Constantinople gave him the title of Sultan al Barr (Sultan of Land). In addition to building up the army, Fakhr ad-Din II, who became acquainted with Italian culture during his stay in Tuscany, initiated measures to modernize the country. After forming close ties with the dukes of Tuscany and Florence and establishing diplomatic relations with them, he brought in architects, irrigation engineers, and agricultural experts from Italy in an effort to promote prosperity in the country. He also strengthened Lebanon's strategic position by expanding its territory, building forts as far away as Palmyra in Syria, and gaining control of Palestine. Finally, the Ottoman sultan Murad IV of Constantinople, wanting to thwart Lebanon's progress toward complete independence, ordered Kutshuk, then governor of Damascus, to attack the Lebanese ruler. This time Fakhr ad Din was defeated, and he was executed in Constantinople in 1635. No significant Maan rulers succeeded Fakhr ad Din II. The Shihabs, 1697-1842 The Shihabs succeeded the Maans in 1697. They originally lived in the Hawran region of southwestern Syria and settled in Wadi at Taim in southern Lebanon. The most prominent among them was Bashir Shihab II, who was much like his predecessor, Fakhr ad Din II. His ability as a statesman was first tested in 1799, when Napoleon besieged Acre, a well-fortified coastal city in Palestine, about forty kilometers south of Tyre. Both Napoleon and Al Jazzar, the governor of Acre, requested assistance from the Shihab leader; Bashir, however, remained neutral, declining to assist either combatant. Unable to conquer Acre, Napoleon returned to Egypt, and the death of Al Jazzar in 1804 removed Bashir's principal opponent in the area. 19th century During the nineteenth century the town of Beirut became the most important port of the region supplanting Acre further to the south. This was mostly because Mount Lebanon became a centre of silk production for export to Europe. This industry made the region wealthy, but also dependent on links to Europe. Since most of the silk went to Marseille the French began to have a great impact in the region. The rise and fall of Emir Bashir II In 1788 Bashir Shihab II (sometimes spelled Bachir in French sources) would rise to become the Emir. Born into poverty, he was elected emir upon the abdication of his predecessor, and would rule under Ottoman suzerainty, being appointed wali or governor of Mt Lebanon, the Biqa valley and Jabal Amil. Together this is about two thirds of modern day Lebanon. He would reform taxes and attempt to break the feudal system, in order to undercut rivals, the most important of which was also named Bashir: Bashir Jumblatt, whose wealth and feudal backers equaled or exceeded Bashir II – and who had increasing support in the Druze community. In 1822 the Ottoman wali of Damascus went to war with Acre, which was allied with Muhammad Ali, the pasha of Egypt. As part of this conflict one of the most remembered massacres of Maronite Christians by Druze forces occurred, forces that were aligned with the wali of Damascus. Jumblatt represented the increasingly disaffected Druze, who were both shut out from official power and angered at the growing ties with the Maronites by Bashir II, who was himself a Maronite Christian. Bashir II was overthrown as wali when he backed Acre, and fled to Egypt, later to return and organize an army. Jumblatt gathered the Druze factions together, and the war became sectarian in character: the Maronites backing Bashir II, the Druze backing Bashir Jumblatt. Jumblatt declared a rebellion, and between 1821 and 1825 there were massacres and battles, with the Maronites attempting to gain control of the Mt. Lebanon district, and the Druze gaining control over the Biqa valley. In 1825 Bashir II defeated his rival and killed him after the battle of al Simqaniya. Bashir II was not a forgiving man and repressed the Druze, particularly in and around Beirut. Bashir II, who had come to power through local politics and nearly fallen from power because of his increasing detachment from them, reached out for allies, allies who looked on the entire area as “the Orient” and who could provide trade, weapons and money, without requiring fealty and without, it seemed, being drawn into endless internal squabbles. He disarmed the Druze and allied with France, governing in the name of the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali, who entered Lebanon and formally took overlordship in 1832. For the remaining 8 years, the sectarian and feudal rifts of the 1821–1825 conflict were heightened by the increasing economic isolation of the Druze, and the increasing wealth of the Maronites. Sectarian conflict: European Powers begin to intervene The discontent grew to open rebellion, fed by both Ottoman and British money and support: Bashir II fled, the Ottoman empire reasserted control and Mehmed Hüsrev Pasha, whose sole term as Grand Vizier ran from 1839 to 1841, appointed another member of the Shihab family, who styled himself Bashir III. Bashir III, coming on the heels of a man who by guile, force and diplomacy had dominated Mt Lebanon and the Biqa for 52 years, did not last long. In 1841 conflicts between the impoverished Druze and the Maronite Christians exploded: There was a massacre of Christians by the Druze at Deir al Qamar, and the fleeing survivors were slaughtered by Ottoman regulars. The Ottomans attempted to create peace by dividing Mt Lebanon into a Christian district and a Druze district, but this would merely create geographic powerbases for the warring parties, and it plunged the region back into civil conflict which included not only the sectarian warfare but a Maronite revolt against the Feudal class, which ended in 1858 with the overthrow of the old feudal system of taxes and levies. The situation was unstable: the Maronites lived in the large towns, but these were often surrounded by Druze villages living as perioikoi. Christian refugees during the 1860 strife between Druze and Maronites in Lebanon In 1860, this would boil back into full scale sectarian war, when the Maronites began openly opposing the power of the Ottoman Empire. The Druze took advantage of this and began burning Maronite villages. The long siege of Deir al Qamar found a Maronite garrison holding out against Druze forces backed by Ottoman soldiers; the area in every direction was despoiled by the besiegers. In July 1860, with European intervention threatening, the Turkish government tried to quiet the strife, but Napoleon III of France sent 7,000 troops to Beirut and helped impose a partition: The Druze control of the territory was recognized as the fact on the ground, and the Maronites were forced into an enclave, arrangements ratified by the concert of Europe in 1861. They were confined to a mountainous district, cut off from both the Biqa and Beirut, and faced with the prospect of ever growing poverty. Resentments and fears would brood, ones which would resurface in the coming decades. It is estimated that more than 4000 Christians were killed in the conflict, with another 4000 dying of destitution. Furthermore, more than 100 000 were made homeless (Salibi, K. 1965 The Modern History of Lebanon). Lebanese soldiers, 1861-1914. Another destabilizing factor was France's support for the Maronite Christians against the Druze which in turn led the British to back the Druze, exacerbating religious and economic tensions between the two communities. In 1859–60 violence erupted between the Maronites and the Druze. The Druze had grown increasingly resentful of the favoring of the Maronites by Bashir II, and were backed by the Ottoman Empire and the wali of Damascus in an attempt to gain greater control over Lebanon; the Maronites were backed by the French, out of both economic and political expediency. The Druze began a military campaign that included the burning of villages and massacres, while Maronite irregulars retaliated with attacks of their own. However, the Maronites were gradually pushed into a few strongholds and were on the verge of military defeat when the Congress of Europe intervened and established a commission to determine the outcome. The French forces deployed there were then used to enforce the final decision. The French accepted the Druze as having established control and the Maronites were reduced to a semi-autonomous region around Mt Lebanon, without even direct control over Beirut itself. The Province of Lebanon that would be controlled by the Maronites, but the entire area was placed under direct rule of the governor of Damascus, and carefully watched by the Ottoman Empire. Rising prosperity and peace Lebanese dress from the late 19th century. The remainder of the 19th century saw a relative period of stability, as Islamic, Druze and Maronite groups focused on economic and cultural development which saw the founding of the American University of Beirut and a flowering of literary and political activity associated with the attempts to liberalize the Ottoman Empire. Late in the century there was a short Druze uprising over the extremely harsh government and high taxation rates, but there was far less of the violence that had scalded the area earlier in the century. In the approach to World War I, Beirut became a center of various reforming movements, and would send delegates to the Arab Syrian conference and Franco-Syrian conference held in Paris. There was a complex array of solutions, from pan-Arab nationalism, to separatism for Beirut, and several status quo movements that sought stability and reform within the context of Ottoman government. The Young Turk revolution brought these movements to the front, hoping that the reform of Ottoman Empire would lead to broader reforms. The outbreak of hostilities changed this, as Lebanon was to feel the weight of the conflict in the Middle East more heavily than most other areas. League of Nations Mandate Greater Lebanon (yellow) in the Mandate of Syria Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the League of Nations mandated the five provinces that make up present-day Lebanon to the direct control of France. Initially the division of the Arab speaking areas of the Ottoman empire were to be divided by the Sykes-Picot Agreement, however, the final disposition was at the San Remo conference of 1920, whose determinations on the mandates, their boundaries, purposes and organization was ratified by the League in 1921 and put into effect in 1922. According to the agreements reached at San Remo, France also had its control over what was termed Syria recognised, the French having taken Damascus in 1920. However Syria was scheduled to be an independent country, a so called Class A Mandate, and the rights granted to France were far less than over other mandate territories. A Class B mandate granted the right to administer the territories. The entire mandate area was termed "Syria" at the time, including the administrative districts along the Mediterranean coast. Wanting to maximize the area under its direct control, contain an Arab Syria centered on Damascus, and insure a defensible border, France established the Lebanon-Syrian border to the "Anti-Lebanon" mountains, on the far side of the Beqaa Valley, territory which had belonged to the province of Damascus for hundreds of years, and was far more attached to Damascus than Beirut by culture and influence. This doubled the territory under the control of Beirut, at the expense of what would become the state of Syria. Consequently, the demographics of Lebanon were profoundly altered, as the territory added contained people who were predominantly Muslim or Druze: Lebanese Christians, of which the Maronites were the largest subgrouping, now constituted barely more than 50% of the population, while Sunni Muslims in Lebanon saw their numbers increase eightfold, Shi'ite Muslims fourfold. Modern Lebanon's constitution, drawn up in 1926, specified a balance of power between the various religious groups, but France designed it to guarantee the political dominance of its Christian allies. The president was required to be a Christian (in practice, a Maronite), the prime minister a Sunni Muslim. On the basis of the 1932 census, parliament seats were divided according to a 6 to 5 Christian/Muslim ratio. The constitution gave the president veto power over any legislation approved by parliament, virtually ensuring that the 6:5 ratio would not be revised in the event that the population distribution changed. By 1960, Muslims were thought to constitute a majority of the population, which contributed to Muslim unrest regarding the political system. Independence Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany. General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of both nations. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. Britain, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon. After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941, General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon. The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War Two. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's history from independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a freely trading regional center for finance and trade. Lebanon was also a major center for the production of opium in the Mideast. Beirut became a mecca for institutions of international commerce and finance, as well as wealthy tourists, and enjoyed a reputation as the "Paris of the Middle East" until the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War. Regional conflict Meanwhile, in the aftermath of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Lebanon became home to more than 110,000 Palestinian refugees. Some were expelled from the newly formed Jordan, where King Hussein saw the wave of Palestinian refugees from Israel (which doubled the population of Jordan) as a threat to the stability of his kingdom. More Palestinians fled to Lebanon than to any other Arab country. In 1958, during the last months of President Camille Chamoun's term, an insurrection broke out, and 5,000 United States Marines were briefly dispatched to the capital Beirut on July 15 in response to an appeal by the government. After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general Fuad Chehab. During the 1960s, Lebanon enjoyed a period of relative calm, with Beirut-focused tourism and banking sector-driven prosperity. Lebanon reached the peak of its economic success in the mid-1960’s – the country was seen as a bastion of economic strength by the oil-rich Persian Gulf Arab states, whose funds made Lebanon one of the world’s fastest growing economies and fashionable Beirut seen as the “Paris of the East”. This period of economic stability and prosperity was brought to an abrupt halt with the collapse of Yousef Beidas' Intra Bank, the country's largest bank and financial backbone, in 1966. Additional Palestinian refugees arrived after the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. Following their defeat in the Jordanian civil war, thousands of Palestinian militiamen regrouped in Lebanon, led by Yasir Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization, with the intention of replicating the modus operandi of attacking Israel from a politically and militarily weak neighbour. Starting in 1968, Palestinian militants of various affiliations began to use southern Lebanon as a launching pad for attacks on Israel. Two of these attacks led to a watershed event in Lebanon's inchoate civil war. In July 1968, a faction of George Habash's Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) hijacked an Israeli El Al civilian plane en route to Algiers; in December, Habash himself oversaw an attack on an El Al plane in Athens, resulting in two deaths. Later that month, Israeli agents flew into Beirut's international airport and destroyed 13 civilian airliners belonging to various Arab carriers. Israel defended its actions by informing the Lebanese government that it was responsible for encouraging the PFLP. The retaliation, which was intended to encourage a Lebanese government crackdown on Palestinian militants, instead polarized Lebanese society on the Palestinian question, deepening the divide between pro- and anti-Palestinian factions, with the Muslims leading the former grouping and Maronites primarily constituting the latter. This dispute reflected increasing tensions between Christian and Muslim communities over the distribution of political power, and would ultimately foment the outbreak of civil war in 1975. In the interim, while armed Lebanese forces under the Maronite-controlled government sparred with Palestinian fighters, Egyptian leader Gamal Abd al-Nasser helped to negotiate the 1969 "Cairo Agreement" between Arafat and the Lebanese government, which granted the PLO autonomy over Palestinian refugee camps and access routes to northern Israel in return for PLO recognition of Lebanese sovereignty. The agreement incited Maronite frustration over what were perceived as excessive concessions to the Palestinians, and pro-Maronite paramilitary groups were subsequently formed to fill the vacuum left by government forces, which were now required to leave the Palestinians alone. Notably, the Phalange, a Maronite militia, rose to prominence around this time, led by members of the Gemayel family. (Charles D. Smith, Palestine and the Arab Israeli Conflict, pp. 310, 353.) For its part, the PLO used its new privileges to establish an effective "mini-state" in southern Lebanon, and to ramp up its attacks on settlements in northern Israel. Compounding matters, Lebanon received an influx of armed Palestinian militants, including Arafat and his Fatah movement, fleeing the 1970 Jordanian crackdown. The PLO's "vicious terrorist attacks in Israel" (Noam Chomsky, The Fateful Triangle, p. 184) dating from this period were countered by Israeli bombing raids in southern Lebanon, where "150 or more towns and villages...have been repeatedly savaged by the Israeli armed forces since 1968," of which the village of Khiyam is probably the best-known example (Ibid., p. 191, quoting Guardian correspondent Irene Beeson). Palestinian terror claimed 106 lives in northern Israel from 1967, according to official IDF statistics, while the Lebanese army had recorded "1.4 Israeli violations of Lebanese territory per day from 1968–74" (Ibid., p. 74, citing Ha'aretz, June 22, 1982, and p. 191, citing The New York Times, October 2, 1977.) Where Lebanon had no conflict with Israel during the period 1949–1968, after 1968 Lebanon's southern border began to experience an escalating cycle of attack and retaliation, leading to the chaos of the civil war, foreign invasions and international intervention. The consequences of the PLO's arrival in Lebanon continue to this day. The Lebanese Civil War: 1975–1990 The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) had its origin in the conflicts and political compromises of Lebanon's colonial period and was exacerbated by the nation's changing demographic trends, inter-religious strife, and proximity to Syria, the Palestine Liberation Organization, and Israel. By 1975, Palestinians in Lebanon numbered more than 300,000. Events and political movements that contributed to Lebanon's violent implosion include, among others, the departure of European colonial powers, the emergence of Arab Nationalism, Arab Socialism in the context of the Cold War, the Arab-Israeli Conflict, Ba'athism, the Iranian Revolution, Palestinian militants, Black September in Jordan, Islamic fundamentalism, and the Iran–Iraq War. In all, it is estimated that more than 100,000 were killed, and another 100,000 handicapped by injuries, during Lebanon's 16-year war. Up to one-fifth of the pre-war resident population, or about 900,000 people, were displaced from their homes, of whom perhaps a quarter of a million emigrated permanently. Thousands of people lost limbs during many stages of planting of land-mines. The War can be divided broadly into several periods: The initial outbreak in the mid-1970s, the Syrian and then Israeli intervention of the late 1970s, escalation of the PLO-Israeli conflict in the early 1980s, the 1982 Israeli invasion, a brief period of multinational involvement, and finally resolution which took the form of Syrian occupation. Initial outbreak, 1975–76 and Syrian intervention Constitutionally guaranteed Christian control of the government had come under increasing fire from Muslims and leftists, leading them to join forces as the National Movement in 1969, which called for the taking of a new census and the subsequent drafting of a new governmental structure that would reflect the census results. Political tension became military conflict, with full-scale civil war in April 1975. The Maronite leadership called for Syrian intervention in 1976, leading to the presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon, and an Arab summit in 1976 was called to stop the crisis. PLO and Israeli conflict, Israeli intervention 1976–82 In the south, military exchanges between Israel and the PLO led Israel to support Saad Haddad's South Lebanon Army (SLA) in an effort to establish a security belt along Israel's northern border, an effort which intensified in 1977 with the election of new Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin. Israel invaded Lebanon in response to Fatah attacks in Israel in March 1978, occupying most of the area south of the Litani River, and resulting in the evacuation of at least 100,000 Lebanese (Smith, op. cit., 356), as well as approximately 2,000 deaths (Newsweek, March 27, 1978; Time, April 3, 1978; cited in Chomsky, Towards a New Cold War, p. 485 n115). The UN Security Council passed Resolution 425 calling for an immediate Israeli withdrawal and creating the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), charged with maintaining peace. Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, leaving an SLA-controlled border strip as a protective buffer against PLO cross-border attacks. Concurrently, tension between Syria and Phalange increased Israeli support for the Maronite group and led to direct Israeli-Syrian exchanges in April 1981, leading to American diplomatic intervention. Philip Habib was dispatched to the region to head off further escalation, which he successfully did via an agreement concluded in May. Intra-Palestinian fighting and PLO-Israeli conflict continued, and July 24, 1981, Habib brokered a cease-fire agreement with the PLO and Israel: the two sides agreed to cease hostilities in Lebanon proper and along the Israeli border with Lebanon. Israeli invasion and international intervention: 1982–84 After continued PLO-Israeli exchanges, Israel invaded Lebanon on June 6 in Operation Peace for Galilee. By June 15, Israeli units were entrenched outside Beirut and Yassir Arafat attempted through negotiations to evacuate the PLO. It is commonly estimated that during the entire campaign, approximately 20,000 were killed on all sides, including many civilians. A multinational force composed of U.S. Marines, French, Italian units arrived to ensure the departure of the PLO and protect defenseless civilians. Nearly 15,000 Palestinian militants were evacuated by September 1. President Bashir Gemayel agreed to send troops from his Phalange militia into camps to clear out 2,000 PLO fighters. On September 14, Gemayel was assassinated. Phalangists entered the camps on September 16 at 6:00 PM and remained until the morning of September 19, massacring 700–800 Palestinians, according to official Israeli statistics, "none apparently members of any PLO unit" (Smith, op. cit., 380-1). These are known as the Sabra and Shatila massacres. Amine Gemayel succeeded his brother and focused on securing the withdrawal of Israeli and Syrian forces. A May 17, 1983, agreement among Lebanon, Israel, and the United States arranged an Israeli withdrawal conditional on the departure of Syrian troops. Syria opposed the agreement and declined to discuss the withdrawal of its troops, effectively stalemating further progress. In 1983 the IDF withdrew southward, and would remain only in the "security zone" until the year 2000. Explosion at the Marine barracks seen from afar Intense attacks against U.S. and Western interests, including two truck bombings of the US Embassy in 1983 and 1984 and the landmark attacks on the U.S. Marine and French parachute regiment barracks on October 23, 1983, led to an American withdrawal, while the virtual collapse of the Lebanese Army in February 1984 was a major blow to the government. On March 5 the Lebanese Government canceled the May 17 agreement and the Marines departed a few weeks later. Assassination of Bachir el Gemayel Israeli forces invaded Lebanon in 1982. Although Gemayel did not cooperate with the Israelis publicly, his long history of tactical collaboration with Israel counted against him in the eyes of many Lebanese, especially Muslims. Although the only announced candidate for the presidency of the republic, the National Assembly elected him by the second narrowest margin in Lebanese history (57 votes out of 92) on August 23, 1982; most Muslim members of the Assembly boycotted the vote. Nine days before he was due to take office, Gemayel was assassinated along with twenty-five others in an explosion at the Kataeb party headquarters in Beirut's Christian neighborhood of Achrafieh on September 14, 1982. Bachir Gemayel was succeeded as president by his older brother Amine Gemayel, who served from 1982 to 1988. Rather different in temperament, Amine Gemayel was widely regarded as lacking the charisma and decisiveness of his brother, and many of the latter's followers were dissatisfied. Habib Tanious Shartouni, a member of the pro-Damascus Syrian Social Nationalist Party, confessed to the crime, was apprehended and handed to Amine Gemayel. He escaped but was captured again a few hours later and handed over to Lebanon's justice system. He was imprisoned in the Roumieh prison. He was released from Roumieh in October 1990 as part of Lebanon's post-war general amnesty. Worsening conflict and political crisis: 1985–89 Between 1985 and 1989, heavy fighting took place in the "War of the Camps." The Shi'a Muslim Amal militia sought to rout the Palestinians from Lebanese strongholds. Combat returned to Beirut in 1987, with Palestinians, leftists, and Druze fighters allied against Amal, eventually drawing further Syrian intervention. Violent confrontation flared up again in Beirut in 1988 between Amal and Hezbollah. Meanwhile, on the political front, Prime Minister Rashid Karami, head of a government of national unity set up after the failed peace efforts of 1984, was assassinated on June 1, 1987. President Gemayel's term of office expired in September 1988. Before stepping down, he appointed another Maronite Christian, Lebanese Armed Forces Commanding General Michel Aoun, as acting Prime Minister, as was his right under the Lebanese constitution of 1943. This action was highly controversial. Muslim groups rejected the move and pledged support to Selim al-Hoss, a Sunni who had succeeded Karami. Lebanon was thus divided between a Christian government in East Beirut and a Muslim government in West Beirut, with no President. In February 1989, General Aoun launched the "Harb El Tahrir", a war against the Syrian Armed Forces in Lebanon. He did not receive aid or support from any other Lebanese group or militia, except the Lebanese Forces (who were to later side with the Syrian regime against Aoun). In October 1990, the Syrian air force, backed by the US and pro-Syrian Lebanese groups (including Hariri, Joumblatt, Berri, Geagea and Lahoud) attacked the Presidential Palace at B'abda and forced Aoun to take refuge in the French embassy in Beirut and later go into exile in Paris. October 13, 1990 is regarded as the date the civil war ended, and Syria is widely recognized as playing a critical role in its end. End of the Civil War: 1989–91 The Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the war, and was ratified on November 4. President Rene Mouawad was elected the following day, but was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut on November 22 as his motorcade returned from Lebanese independence day ceremonies. He was succeeded by Elias Hrawi, who remained in office until 1998. In August 1990, the parliament and the new president agreed on constitutional amendments embodying some of the political reforms envisioned at Taif. The National Assembly expanded to 128 seats and was divided equally between Christians and Muslims. In March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned most political crimes prior to its enactment, excepting crimes perpetrated against foreign diplomats or certain crimes referred by the cabinet to the Higher Judicial Council. In May 1991, the militias (with the important exception of Hizballah) were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly rebuild themselves as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian institution. Some violence still occurred. In late December 1991 a car bomb (estimated to carry 100 kg (220 pounds) of TNT) exploded in the Muslim neighborhood of Basta. At least thirty people were killed, and 120 wounded, including former Prime Minister Shafik Wazzan, who was riding in a bulletproof car. It was the deadliest car bombing in Lebanon since June 18, 1985, when an explosion in the northern Lebanese port of Tripoli killed sixty people and wounded 110. The last of the Westerners kidnapped by Hezbollah during the mid-1980s were released in May 1992. Postwar reconstruction: 1992 to July 2006 Since the end of the war, the Lebanese have conducted several elections, most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have extended central government authority over about two-thirds of the country. Only Hezbollah retained its weapons, and was supported by Lebanon's parliament in doing so, because it was defending Lebanon against the ongoing Israeli occupation of almost one-quarter of the country. That occupation finally ended in 2000. Postwar social and political instability, fueled by economic uncertainty and the collapse of the Lebanese currency, led to the resignation of Prime Minister Omar Karami, also in May 1992, after less than 2 years in office. He was replaced by former Prime Minister Rashid al Sulh, who was widely viewed as a caretaker to oversee Lebanon's first parliamentary elections in 20 years. By early November 1992, a new parliament had been elected, and Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri had formed a cabinet, retaining for himself the finance portfolio. The formation of a government headed by a successful billionaire businessman was widely seen as a sign that Lebanon would make a priority of rebuilding the country and reviving the economy. Solidere, a private real estate company set up to rebuild downtown Beirut, was a symbol of Hariri's strategy to link economic recovery to private sector investment. After the election of then-commander of the Lebanese Armed Forces Émile Lahoud as President in 1998 following Hrawi's extended term as President, Salim al-Hoss again served as Prime Minister. Hariri returned to office as Prime Minister in November 2000. Although problems with basic infrastructure and government services persist, and Lebanon is now highly indebted, much of the civil war damage has been repaired throughout the country, and many foreign investors and tourists have returned. If Lebanon has in part recovered over the past decade from the catastrophic damage to infrastructure of its long civil war, the social and political divisions that gave rise to and sustained that conflict remain largely unresolved. Parliamentary and more recently municipal elections have been held with fewer irregularities and more popular participation than in the immediate aftermath of the conflict, and Lebanese civil society generally enjoys significantly more freedoms than elsewhere in the Arab world. However, there are continuing sectarian tensions and unease about Syrian and other external influences. In the late 1990s, the government took action against Sunni Muslim extremists in the north who had attacked its soldiers, and it continues to move against groups such as Asbat al-Ansar, which has been accused of being partnered with Osama bin Laden's al-Qaida network. On January 24, 2002, Elie Hobeika, another former Lebanese Forces figure associated with the Sabra and Shatilla massacres who later served in three cabinets and the parliament, was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut. Syrian military presence During Lebanon's civil war, Syria's troop deployment in Lebanon was legitimized by the Lebanese Parliament in the Taif Agreement, supported by the Arab League, and is given a major share of the credit for finally bringing the civil war to an end in October 1990. In the ensuing fifteen years, Damascus and Beirut justified Syria's continued military presence in Lebanon by citing the continued weakness of a Lebanese armed forces faced with both internal and external security threats, and the agreement with the Lebanese Government to implement all of the constitutional reforms in the Taif Agreement. Under Taif, the Hezbollah militia was eventually to be dismantled, and the LAF allowed to deploy along the border with Israel. Lebanon was called on to deploy along its southern border by UN Security Council Resolution 1391, urged to do so by UN Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 1496, and deployment was demanded by UN Security Council Resolution 1559. The Syrian military and intelligence presence in Lebanon was criticised by some on Lebanon's right-wing inside and outside of the country, others believed it helped to prevent renewed civil war and discourage Israeli aggression, and others believed its presence and influence was helpful for Lebanese stability and peace but should be scaled back. Major powers United States and France rejected Syrian reasoning that they were in Lebanon by the consent of the Lebanese government. They insist that the latter had been co-opted and that in fact Lebanon's Government was a Syrian puppet. Up to 2005, 14-15,000 Syrian troops (down from 35,000) remained in position in many areas of Lebanon, although the Taif called for an agreement between the Syrian and Lebanese Governments by September 1992 on their redeployment to Lebanon's Bekaa Valley. Syria's refusal to exit Lebanon following Israel's 2000 withdrawal from south Lebanon first raised criticism among the Lebanese Maronite Christians and Druze, who were later joined by many of Lebanon's Sunni Muslims.) Lebanon's Shiites, on the other hand, have long supported the Syrian presence, as has the Hezbollah militia group and political party. The U.S. began applying pressure on Syria to end its occupation and cease interfering with internal Lebanese matters. In 2004, many believe Syria pressured Lebanese MPs to back a constitutional amendment to revise term limitations and allow Lebanon's two term pro-Syrian president Émile Lahoud to run for a third time. France, Germany and the United Kingdom, along with many Lebanese politicians joined the U.S. in denouncing alleged Syria's interference. On September 2, 2004, the UN Security Council adopted UN Security Council Resolution 1559, authored by France and the U.S. in an uncommon show of cooperation. The resolution called "upon all remaining foreign forces to withdraw from Lebanon" and "for the disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias". On May 25, 2000, Israel completed its withdrawal from the south of Lebanon in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425 . A 50 square kilometer piece of Lebanese mountain terrain, commonly referred to as the Shebaa Farms, remains under the control of Israel. The UN has certified Israel's pullout , and regards the Shebaa Farms as occupied Syrian territory, while Lebanon and Syria have stated they regard the area as Lebanese territory. The January 20, 2005, UN Secretary-General's report on Lebanon stated: "The continually asserted position of the Government of Lebanon that the Blue Line is not valid in the Shab'a farms area is not compatible with Security Council resolutions. The Council has recognized the Blue Line as valid for purposes of confirming Israel's withdrawal pursuant to resolution 425 (1978). The Government of Lebanon should heed the Council's repeated calls for the parties to respect the Blue Line in its entirety." In Resolution 425, the UN had set a goal of assisting the Lebanese government in a "return of its effective authority in the area", which would require an official Lebanese army presence there. Further, UN Security Council Resolution 1559 requires the dismantling of the Hezbollah militia. Yet, Hezbollah remains deployed along the Blue Line . Both Hezbollah and Israel have violated the Blue Line more than once, according to the UN . The most common pattern of violence have been border incursions by the Hezbollah into the Shebaa Farms area, and then Israeli air strikes into southern Lebanon. The UN Secretary-General has urged "all governments that have influence on Hezbollah to deter it from any further actions which could increase the tension in the area" . Staffan de Misura, Personal Representative of the Secretary-General for Southern Lebanon stated that he was "deeply concerned that air violations by Israel across the Blue Line during altercations with Hezbollah are continuing to take place" , calling "upon the Israeli authorities to cease such violations and to fully respect the Blue Line" . In 2001 de Misura similarly expressed his concern to Lebanon's prime minister for allowing Hezbollah to violate the Blue Line, saying it was a "clear infringement" of UN Resolution 425, under which the UN certified Israel's withdrawal from south Lebanon as complete . On January 28, 2005, UN Security Council Resolution 1583 called upon the Government of Lebanon to fully extend and exercise its sole and effective authority throughout the south, including through the deployment of sufficient numbers of Lebanese armed and security forces, to ensure a calm environment throughout the area, including along the Blue Line, and to exert control over the use of force on its territory and from it. On January 23, 2006 The UN Security Council called on the Government of Lebanon to make more progress in controlling its territory and disbanding militias, while also calling on Syria to cooperate with those efforts. In a statement read out by its January President, Augustine Mahiga of Tanzania, the Council also called on Syria to take measures to stop movements of arms and personnel into Lebanon. 2004 Amendments to the Constitution On September 3 2004, the National Assembly voted 96–29 to amend the constitution to allow the pro-Syrian president, Émile Lahoud, three more years in office by extending a statute of limitations to nine years. Many regarded this as a second time Syria had pressured Lebanon's Parliament to amend the constitution in a way that favored Lahoud (the first allowing for his election in 1998 immediately after he had resigned as commander-in-chief of the LAF.) a study from Carnegie Endowment Three cabinet ministers were absent from the vote and later resigned. The USA charged that Syria exercised pressure against the National Assembly to amend the constitution, and many of the Lebanese rejected it, saying that it was considered as contradictive to the constitution and its principles. The limits of loyalty from Al-Aharam weekly.com, retrieved at April 2, 2007. Including these is the Maronite Patriarch Mar Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir – the most eminent religious figure for Maronites – and the Druze leader Walid Jumblatt. To the surprise of many, Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri, who had vehemently opposed this amendment, appeared to have finally accepted it, and so did most of his party. However, he ended up resigning in protest against the amendment. He was assassinated soon afterwards (see below), triggering the Cedar Revolution. This amendment comes in discordance with the UN Security Council Resolution 1559, which called for a new presidential election in Lebanon. On October 1 2004, one of the main dissenting voices to Émile Lahoud's term extension, the newly resigned Druze ex-minister Marwan Hamadeh was the target of a car bomb attack as his vehicle slowed to enter his Beirut home. Mr. Hamadeh and his bodyguard were wounded and his driver killed in the attack. Druze leader Walid Jumblatt appealed for calm, but said the car bomb was a clear message for the opposition. The quote is: "The police state ... has proven its efficiency in targeting one of the symbols of the nation... ", see Lebanon at the crossroads, Al-Aharam Weekly, retrieved at April 2, 2007 UN Secretary General Kofi Annan expressed his serious concern over the attack . On October 7 2004, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan reported to the Security Council that Syria had failed to withdraw its forces from Lebanon. Mr. Annan concluded his report saying that "It is time, 14 years after the end of hostilities and four years after the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, for all parties concerned to set aside the remaining vestiges of the past. The withdrawal of foreign forces and the disbandment and disarmament of militias would, with finality, end that sad chapter of Lebanese history." . On October 19 2004, following the UN Secretary General's report, the UN Security Council voted unanimously (meaning that it received the backing of Algeria, the only Arab member of the Security Council) to put out a statement calling on Syria to pull its troops out of Lebanon, in accordance with Resolution 1559. Assassination of Hariri, 2005 See also: Cedar Revolution On October 20 2004, Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri resigned; the next day former Prime Minister and loyal supporter of Syria Omar Karami was appointed Prime Minister . On February 14, 2005, former Prime Minister Hariri was assassinated in a car-bomb attack which killed 16 and wounded 100. This was a second car-bomb assassination of a Lebanese Parliament member that opposed Syria in a four month period. On February 21 2005, tens of thousand Lebanese protestors held a rally at the site of the assassination calling for the withdrawal of Syria's peacekeeping forces and blaming Syria and the pro-Syrian president Lahoud for the murder. Hariri's murder triggered increased international pressure on Syria. In a joint statement U.S. President Bush and French president Chirac condemned the killing and called for full implementation of UNSCR 1559. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan announced that he was sending a team led by Ireland's deputy police commissioner, Peter Fitzgerald, to investigate the assassination . And while Arab League head Amr Moussa declared that Syrian president Assad promised him a phased withdrawal over a two year period, the Syrian Information Minister Mahdi Dakhlallah said Mr Moussa had misunderstood the Syrian leader. Mr Dakhlallah said that Syria will merely move its troops to eastern Lebanon. Local Lebanese pressure mounted as well. As daily protests against the Syrian occupation grew to 25,000, a series of dramatic events occurred. Massive protests such as these have been quite uncommon in the Arab world, and while in the 90s most anti-Syrian demonstrators were predominantly Christian, the new demonstrations were Christian and Sunni. On February 28 the government of pro-Syrian Prime Minister Omar Karami resigned, calling for a new election to take place. Mr Karami said in his announcement: "I am keen the government will not be a hurdle in front of those who want the good for this country." The tens of thousands gathered at Beirut's Martyrs' Square cheered the announcement, then chanted "Karami has fallen, your turn will come, Lahoud, and yours, Bashar". Opposition MPs were also not satisfied with Karami's resignation, and kept pressing for full Syrian withdrawal. Former minister and MP Marwan Hamadeh, who survived a similar car bomb attack on October 1, 2004, said "I accuse this government of incitement, negligence and shortcomings at the least, and of covering up its planning at the most... if not executing". Two days later Syrian leader Bashar Assad announced that his troops will leave Lebanon completely "in the next few months". Responding to the announcement, opposition leader Walid Jumblatt said that he wanted to hear more specifics from Damascus about any withdrawal: "It's a nice gesture but 'next few months' is quite vague – we need a clear-cut timetable". On March 3 Russia, Syria's Cold War ally, and Germany had joined those calling for Syria to comply with UNSCR 1559. German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder said: "Lebanon should be given an opportunity for sovereignty and development and this can only be achieved by complying with Security Council resolutions that stipulate immediate Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon.". The Russian Foreign Minister, Sergei Lavrov, stated that "Syria should withdraw from Lebanon, but we all have to make sure that this withdrawal does not violate the very fragile balance which we still have in Lebanon, which is a very difficult country ethnically". Arab states have also joined in with the withdrawal demands. As Al-Assad arrived in Saudi Arabia for emergency consultation with Crown Prince Abdullah bin Abdel-Aziz, Assad was told in no uncertain terms that Syria must comply with UN Security Council demands immediately. It was reported that Assad offered to remove most of the 15,000 troops Syria has stationed in Lebanon during the talks, but insisted on leaving a force of 3,000 in the country. The Saudis also rejected a Syrian plea that an Arab summit, due to take place on March 23 in Algeria, should officially ask Syria to withdraw, giving the pullback an Arab endorsement as envisaged in the 1989 Taif Agreement, rather than making it conditional on UNSCR 1559. Algerian Foreign Minister Abdel-Aziz Belkhadem discussed the consensus ahead of the summit, stating that "we all agreed to demand the implementation of the Taif Accord with respect to international legitimacy." On March 5 Syrian leader Assad declared in a televised speech that Syria would withdraw its forces to the Bekaa valley in eastern Lebanon, and then to the border between Syria and Lebanon. Assad did not provide a timetable for a complete withdrawal of Syrian forces from Lebanon – 14,000 soldiers and intelligence agents. Meanwhile, Hezbollah leader Nasrallah called for a "massive popular gathering" on Tuesday against UN Resolution 1559 saying "The resistance will not give up its arms ... because Lebanon needs the resistance to defend it", and added "all the articles of UN resolution give free services to the Israeli enemy who should have been made accountable for his crimes and now finds that he is being rewarded for his crimes and achieves all its demands". In opposition to Nasrallah's call, Monday, March 7 saw at least 70,000 people – with some estimates putting the number at twice as high – gathered at central Martyrs' Square to demand that Syria leave completely. The following day a pro-Syrian demonstration set a new record when Hezbollah amassed 400–500 thousand protestors at Riad Solh square in Beirut, most of them bussed in from the heavily Shi'ite south Lebanon and eastern Beka'a valley. The show of power demonstrated Hezbollah's influence, wealth and organization as the sole Lebanese party allowed to hold a militia by Syria. In his speech Nasrallah blasted UN Security-Council Resolution 1559, which calls for Hezbollah's militia to be disbanded, as foreign intervention. Nasrallah also reiterated his earlier calls for the destruction of Israel saying "To this enemy we say again: There is no place for you here and there is no life for you among us. Death to Israel!". Though Hezbollah organized a very successful rally, opposition leaders were quick to point out that Hezbollah had active support from Lebanon's government and Syria. While the pro-democracy rallies had to deal with road blocks forcing protestors to either turn back or march long distances to Martyr's Square, Hezbollah was able to bus people directly to Riad Solh square. Dory Chamoun, an opposition leader, pointed out that "the difference is that in our demonstrations, people arrive voluntarily and on foot, not in buses". Another opposition member said the pro-Syrian government pressured people to turn out and some reports said Syria had bused in people from across the border. But on a mountain road leading to Beirut, only one bus with a Syrian license plate was spotted in a convoy of pro-Syrian supporters heading to the capital and Hezbollah officials denied the charges. Opposition MP Akram Chehayeb said "That is where the difference between us and them lies: They asked these people to come and they brought them here, whereas the opposition's supporters come here on their own. Our protests are spontaneous. We have a cause. What is theirs?". After weeks of international and local pressure it appeared that a UN showdown was on its way. A meeting between UN special envoy Terje Roed-Larsen and Syrian leader Assad was scheduled for March 12. Roed-Larsen preceded the meeting by consulting with Egypt, Jordan, Arab League chief Amr Mousa, and Lebanon. Roed-Larsen was expected to deliver an ultimatum to Assad over compliance with UNSCR 1559. This included compliance with honoring Lebanon's sovereignty; not undermining its upcoming legislative elections; providing a complete timeline for a full pullout of troops. A phased withdrawal, or "sequencing" would be accepted, but must be expeditious; providing a timeline for the withdrawal of some 5,000 Syrian intelligence agents in Lebanon; Finally, disarming and dismantling foreign and domestic Syrian-supported militias in Lebanon. Supporting Roed-Larsen's mission, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov, speaking after talks with Lebanese opposition leader Walid Jumblatt, said Russia was keeping a close eye on Syrian troop movements and that Syria's intelligence services should also pull out. One month after Hariri's murder, an enormous anti-Syrian rally gathered at Martyr's Square in Beirut. Multiple news agencies estimated the crowd at between 800,000 and 1 million – a show of force for the Sunni, Christian and Druze communities. The rally was double the size of the mostly Shi'ite pro-Syrian one organized by Hezbollah the previous week. When Hariri's sister took a pro-Syrian line saying that Lebanon should "stand by Syria until its land is liberated and it regains its sovereignty on the [Israeli-] occupied Golan Heights" the crowd jeered her. This sentiment was prevalent among the rally participants who opposed Hezbollah's refusal to disarm based on the claim that Lebanese and Syrian interests are linked. Withdrawal of Syrian troops See also: 2005 Lebanon bombings Maj. Gen. Jamil Sayyed, a Syrian ally in the Lebanese security forces, resigned on Monday, April 25, just a day before the final Syrian troops pulled out of Lebanon. On April 26, 2005, the last 250 Syrian troops left Lebanon. During the departure ceremonies, Gen. Ali Habib, Syria's chief of staff, said that Syria's president had decided to recall his troops after the Lebanese army had been "rebuilt on sound national foundations and became capable of protecting the state." UN forces led by Senegalese Brig. Gen. Mouhamadou Kandji and guided by Lebanese Brig. Gen. Imad Anka were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by Security Council resolution 1559. Following the Syrian withdrawal a series of assassinations of Lebanese politicians and journalists with the anti-Syrian camp had begun. Over nine bombings have occurred to date and have triggered condemnations from the UN Security Council and UN Secretary General. Amnesty for Samir Geagea Parliament voted for the release of the former Lebanese Forces warlord Samir Geagea in the first session since election were held in the spring of 2005. Geagea was the only leader during the civil war to be charged with crimes related to that conflict. With the return of Michel Aoun, the climate was right to try to heal wounds to help unite the country after former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated on February 14, 2005. Geagea was released on July 26, 2005 and left immediately for an undisclosed European nation to undergo medical examinations and convalesce. Hariri Assassination Investigations Eight months after Syria withdrew from Lebanon under intense domestic and international outrage over the assassination of Lebanese prime minister Rafiq Hariri the UN investigation has yet to be completed. While UN investigator Detlev Mehlis has pointed the finger at Syria's intelligence apparatus in Lebanon he has yet to be allowed full access to Syrian officials who are suspected by the UN International Independent Investigation Commission (UNIIIC) as being behind the assassination. In its latest report UNIIIC said it had "credible information" that Syrian officials had arrested and threatened close relatives of a witness who recanted testimony he had previously given the Commission, and that two Syrian suspects it questioned indicated that all Syrian intelligence documents on Lebanon had been burned. A campaign of bomb attacks against politicians, journalists and even civilian neighborhoods associated with the anti-Syrian camp has provoked much negative attention for Syria in the UN and elsewhere. On December 15, 2005 the UN Security Council extended the mandate of the UNIIIC. On December 28, 2005 Lebanese newspaper An-Nahar said it had received a statement signed by "The Strugglers for the Unity and Freedom in al-Sham," the group that claimed responsibility for the death of its former editor Gibran Tueni with a car bomb on December 12. The statement said outgoing UNIIIC chairman Mehlis was lucky to escape death and threatened any new chairman with assassination if he too implicated Syria. On December 30, 2005 Syria's former Vice-President, Abdul Halim Khaddam, said that "Hariri received many threats" from Syria's President Bashar Al-Assad. Prior to Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon Mr Khaddam was in charge of Syria's Lebanon policy and mainly responsible for Syria's abuse of Lebanon's resources. Many believe that Khaddam seized the opportunity to clear his history of corruption and blackmail. Border Tension During the Cedar Revolution Hezbollah organized a series of pro-Syrian rallies. Hezbollah became a part of the Lebanese government following the 2005 elections but is at a crossroads regarding UNSCR 1559's call for its militia to be dismantled. On November 21, 2005 Hezbollah launched an attack along the entire border with Israel, the heaviest in the five and a half years since Israel's withdrawal. The barrage was supposed to provide tactical cover for an attempt by a squad of Hezbollah special forces to abduct Israeli troops in the Israeli side of the village of Al-Ghajar. The attack failed when an ambush by the IDF Paratroopers killed 4 Hezbollah members and scattered the rest. The UN Security Council accused Hezbollah of initiating the hostilities. On December 27, 2005 Katyusha rockets fired from Hezbollah territory smashed into houses in the Israeli village of Kiryat Shmona wounding three people. UN Secretary General Kofi Annan called on the Lebanese Government "to extend its control over all its territory, to exert its monopoly on the use of force, and to put an end to all such attacks". Lebanese Prime Minister Fuad Saniora denounced the attack as "aimed at destabilizing security and diverting attention from efforts exerted to solve the internal issues prevailing in the country". On December 30, 2005 the Lebanese army dismantled two other Katyusha rockets found in the border town of Naqoura, an action suggesting increased vigilance following PM Saniora's angry remarks. In a new statement Saniora also rejected claims by Al-Qaeda that it was responsible for the attack and insisted again that it was a domestic action challenging his government's authority.. 2006 Lebanon War The 2006 Lebanon War was a 33-day in Lebanon and northern Israel. The principal parties were Hezbollah paramilitary forces and the Israeli military. The conflict started on 12 July 2006, and continued until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect in the morning on 14 August 2006, though it formally ended on 8 September 2006 when Israel lifted its naval blockade of Lebanon. Events after the 2006 Lebanon War An explosion was heard in one of Beirut's Muslim sections on 21 May 2007. In May 2007, militants in the Nahr al Bared Palestinian refugee camp outside of Tripoli, allied with Al Qaeda began a struggle against government forces located outside of the camp. The violence shook the country and a wave of car bombings, including one in Verdun in Beirut, followed. The violence ended early in September 2007, with the fall of the camp to the Army. There had been no ripple effect across the country, but despite this containment the violence had been the worst to shake Lebanon since the Lebanese Civil War. In May 2008, fighting broke out in Beirut after the government attempted to disable Hezbollah's private communications network. On 8 January 2009, during the conflict in Gaza, Katyusha rockets were fired at the northern Israeli city of Nahariyya from Lebanon. On 14 January, rockets were again launched from Lebanese territory. See also Lebanese Civil War References Abu-Husayn, Abdul-Rahim. Provincial Leaderships in Syria, 1575-1650, Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1985. Abu-Husayn, A. The View from Istanbul. Ottoman Lebanon and the Druze Emirate, London: I.B. Tauris in association with the Centre for Lebanese Studies, 2002. Abou Issa,Chady. " Rouassa el- joumhoriya al-libnaniya ",Beirut,All-Prints,2008. Akarli, Engin Deniz. The Long Peace. Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1920, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Azar, Fabiola. Construction idéntitaire et appartenance confessionelle au Liban, Paris: L'Harmattan, 1999. Beydoun, Ahmad. Le Liban, une histoire disputée: identité et temps dans l'histoire libanaise contemporaine, Beyrouth: Publications de l'Université Libanaise, 1984. Chevallier, Dominique. La société du Mont-Liban à l'époque de la révolution industrielle en Europe, Beyrouth: IFAPO, 1971. Corm, Georges. Liban: les guerres de l'Europe et de l'Orient 1840-1922, Paris: Gallimard, 1992. Farah, Caesar E. The Politics of Interventionism in Ottoman Lebanon 1830-1861, London: The Centre for Lebanese Studies in association with I.B. Tauris, 2000. Fawaz Tarazi, Leila. An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860. London: I.B. Tauris, 1994. Fawaz Tarazi, L. Merchants and Migrants in Nineteenth-Century Beirut. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983. Firro, Kais. Inventing Lebanon. Nationalism and the State Under the Mandate, London: I.B. Tauris, 2002. Gilsenan, Michael. Lords of the Lebanese Marches: Violence and Narrative in an Arab Society, London: I.B. Tauris, 1996. Havemann, Axel. Rurale Bewegungen im Libanongebirge des 19. Jahrhunderts: ein Beitrag zur Problematik sozialer Veränderungen, Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 1983. Johnson, Michael. All Honourable Men. The Social Origins of War in Lebanon, London: I.B. Tauris, 2001. Khalaf, Samir. Persistence and Change in 19th Century Lebanon: A Sociological Essay, Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1979. Khalidi, Tarif. Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East, Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1984. Makdisi, Ussama. The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. Ma'oz Moshe. Ottoman Reforms in Syria and Palestine 1840-1861: The Impact of Tanzimat on Politics and Society, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968. Picard, Elizabeth. Lebanon: A Shattered Country. Myths and Realities of the Wars in Lebanon, New York City: Holmes&Meier, 1996. Rabbath, Edmond. La formation historique du Liban politique et constitutionnel. Essai de synthèse, Beyrouth: Publications de l'Université Libanaise, 1986. Salibi, Kamal. A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered, London: I.B. Tauris, 1988. ISBN 0-520-06517-4 Salibi, K. Maronite Historians of Medieval Lebanon, Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1959. Salibi, K. The Modern History of Lebanon, Delmar: Caravan Books, 1977. ISBN 0-88206-015-5 Shehadi, Nadim & Mills Haffar, Dana (eds.), Lebanon: A History of Conflict and Consensus, The Centre for Lebanese Studies in association with I.B. Tauris, 1988. Spagnolo, John P. France and Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1914, London: Ithaca Press, 1977. Touma, Toufic. Paysans et institutions féodales chez les Druses et les Maronites du Liban du XVIIe siècle à 1914, Beyrouth: Publications de l'Université Libanaise, 1971. Zamir, Meir. The Formation of Modern Lebanon, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985. Lebanon's struggle for Independence (The Political History of Lebanon, 1920-1950 ; v. 3-4, 1980. ISBN 0-89712-021-3 Thackston Wheeler, Murder, Mayhem, Pillage and Plunder: The History of the Lebanon in the 18th and 19th Centuries, 1988. ISBN 0-88706-714-X Thomas L. Friedman, From Beirut to Jerusalem: One Man's Middle Eastern Odyssey, second edition, Harpers Collins, 1998. ISBN 0-00-653070-2 Charles D. Smith, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, fourth edition, 2001. ISBN 0-312-20828-6 (paperback) Noam Chomsky, Fateful Triangle'', updated edition, 1999. ISBN 0-89608-601-1 External links The Center for Democracy in Lebanon Lebanon, the Cedars' Land The historic and touristic cities of Lebanon Lebanese army sappers defuse rockets intended for Israel AP, December 30, 2005 Al-Ghajar Village Flashpoint Defense Update, December 5, 2005 Who's who in Lebanon BBC, March 14, 2005 A Look at Mass Rallies Held in Lebanon AP, March 14, 2005 Lebanon finds unity in street rallies BBC, March 3, 2005 Lebanese groups stand up to Syria BBC, March 2, 2005 Q&A: Syria's involvement in Lebanon BBC, March 1, 2005 Opposition accuses Syria of assassination Daily Star, February 15, 2005 Timeline: Lebanon A chronology of key events-BBC News February 14, 2005 Explosion kills former Lebanon PM BBC, February 14, 2005 UN rebukes Lebanon over Har Dov Reuters, January 29, 2005 UN urges Syria to leave Lebanon BBC, October 19, 2004 Lebanon 'split' over Assad tirade BBC, October 11, 2004 Syria has not withdrawn troops from Lebanon, Annan reports UN News Centre, October 7, 2004 Syria 'refusing to leave Lebanon' BBC, October 2, 2004 Ex-minister hurt in Beirut blast BBC, October 1, 2004 Hizballah and Syria's "Lebanese Card" Nicholas Blanford, Middle East Online Report, September 14, 2004 In rare move, Gulf ministers urge Syria to withdraw troops from Lebanon CNews, September 13, 2004 Syria feels squeeze over Lebanon Kim Ghattas, BBC, September 5, 2004 UN Press Release SC/8181 UN, September 2, 2004 Lebanon: Close Security Council vote backs free elections, urges foreign troop pullout UN, September 2, 2004 Maronite archbishops slam corruption, Syrian role Daily Star, September 2, 2004 US draft resolution at UN demands respect for Lebanon's sovereignty, AFP, September 2, 2004 UN vote due on Syria resolution BBC, September 2, 2004 US and France press for UN resolution on Lebanese sovereignty Financial Times, September 1, 2004 Move to bolster Lebanon president BBC, August 28, 2004 Thirteen-Year Itch - The Demise of Lebanon's Taif Agreement? Middle East Report, August 13, 2002 Syria: The power in Lebanon BBC, 16 April, 2001 Center for Lebanese Study-Oxford University Country Profile: Lebanon-BBC News War is Peace Noam Chomsky, excerpts from "The Fateful Triangle" on The Israeli invasion of Lebanon, 1983 Israel, Lebanon, and the "Peace Process" Noam Chomsky, April 23, 1996 "Limited War" in Lebanon Noam Chomsky September, 1993 | History_of_Lebanon |@lemmatized map:2 lebanon:211 history:15 almost:3 old:4 early:7 evidence:1 humankind:1 geographic:2 position:6 crossroad:3 link:6 mediterranean:4 basin:1 great:7 asian:1 hinterland:1 confer:1 cosmopolitan:2 character:2 multicultural:1 legacy:1 text:1 use:7 cited:1 section:2 originally:2 come:12 country:23 study:7 library:1 congress:2 project:1 different:3 period:14 domination:2 foreign:14 ruler:9 include:17 assyrian:2 babylonian:2 armenian:1 persian:3 greek:2 roman:3 arab:28 ottoman:36 french:15 although:7 often:2 conquer:6 lebanese:94 take:14 pride:1 rebellion:3 despotic:1 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5,064 | Adobe | Renewal of the surface coating of an adobe wall in Chamisal, New Mexico Detail of adobe kilns in Arizona Adobe is a natural building material made from sand, clay, and water, with some kind of fibrous or organic material (sticks, straw, dung), which is shaped into bricks using frames and dried in the sun. It is similar to cob and mudbrick. Adobe structures are extremely durable and account for some of the oldest extant buildings on the planet. In hot climates, compared to wooden buildings, adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, but they are known to be particularly susceptible to seismic damage in an event such as an earthquake. Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common in the Middle East, North Africa, South America, southwestern North America, and in Spain (usually in the Mudéjar style). Adobe had been in use by indigenous peoples of the Americas in the Southwestern United States, Mesoamerica, and the Andean region of South America for several thousand years, although often substantial amounts of stone are used in the walls of Pueblo buildings. (Also, the Pueblo people built their adobe structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to the making of bricks.) Adobe brickmaking was used in Spain already in the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age, from the eighth century B.C. on. [Chazelles-Gazzal 1997:49-57] Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and make, and the cheapness thereby in creating it. A distinction is sometimes made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines, some of which are as much as from one to two yards (2 m) long. Etymology The word adobe () has come to us over some 4000 years with little change in either pronunciation or meaning: the word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian (c. 2000 BC) word dj-b-t "mud [i.e., sun-dried] brick." As Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic, and finally Coptic (c. 600 BC), dj-b-t became tobe "[mud] brick." This evolved into Arabic al-tub (الطّوب al "the" + tub "brick") "[mud] brick," which was assimilated into Old Spanish as adobe , still with the meaning "mud brick." English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. Adobe style in Santa Fe, New Mexico In more modern English usage, the term "adobe" has come to include a style of architecture that is popular in the desert climates of North America, especially in New Mexico. (Compare with stucco). Composition of adobe An adobe brick is a composite material made of clay mixed with water and an organic material such as straw or dung. The soil composition typically contains clay and sand. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly. Dung offers the same advantage and is also added to repel insects. The mixture is roughly half sand (50%), one-third clay (35%), and one-sixth straw (15%). Adobe bricks Adobe bricks near a construction site in Milyanfan, Kyrgyzstan Bricks are made in an open frame, 25 cm (10 inches) by 36 cm (14 inches) being a reasonable size, but any convenient size is acceptable. The mixture is molded by the frame, and then the frame is removed quickly. After drying a few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking. The same mixture to make bricks, without the straw, is used for mortar and often for plaster on interior and exterior walls. Some ancient cultures used lime-based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage. The brick’s thickness is preferred partially due to its thermal capabilities, and partially due to the stability of a thicker brick versus a more standard size brick. Depending on the form that the mixture is pressed into, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying time is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, cement, rebar or wooden posts. Experience has shown that straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can all produce a strong brick. A general testing is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. After the jar is sealed the container is shaken vigorously for at least one minute. It is then allowed to sit on a flat surface until the soil sediment has either collected on the bottom or remained a blended liquid. If the sediment collects on the bottom, that indicates there is a high clay content and is good for adobe. If the mixture remains a liquid, then there is little clay in the soil and using it would yield weak bricks. Abode was then used by the Mayans The largest structure ever made from adobe (bricks) was the Bam Citadel, which suffered serious damage (up to 80%) by an earthquake on December 262003. Other large adobe structures are the Huaca del Sol in Peru, with 100 million signed bricks, the ciudellas of Chan Chan and Tambo Colorado, both in Peru. Thermal properties An adobe wall can serve as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In desert and other climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass of adobe levels out the heat transfer through the wall to the living space. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun (radiation) and from the surrounding air (convection) before they warm through to the interior and begin to transfer heat to the living space. After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will then continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time lag effect. Thus a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates, a factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material. In addition, the exterior of an adobe wall can be covered with glass to increase heat collection. In a passive solar home, this is called a Trombe wall. Adobe wall construction When building an adobe structure, the ground should be compressed because the weight of adobe bricks is significantly greater than a frame house and may cause cracking in the wall. The footing is dug and compressed once again. Footing depth depends on the region and its ground frost level. The footing and stem wall are commonly 24" and 14", much larger than a frame house because of the weight of the walls. Adobe bricks are laid by course. Each course is laid the whole length of the wall, overlapping at the corners on a layer of adobe mortar. Adobe walls usually never rise above 2 stories because they're load bearing and have low structural strength. When placing window and door openings, a lintel is placed on top of the opening to support the bricks above. Within the last courses of brick, bond beams are laid across the top of the bricks to provide a horizontal bearing plate for the roof to distribute the weight more evenly along the wall. To protect the interior and exterior adobe wall, finishes can be applied, such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco. These finishes protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied periodically, or the walls can be finished with other nontraditional plasters providing longer protection. Adobe roof The traditional adobe roof has been generally constructed using a mixture of soil/clay, water, sand, and other available organic materials. The mixture was then formed and pressed into wood forms producing rows of dried, earth bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood and plastered into place with more adobe. For a deeper understanding of adobe, one might examine a cob building. Cob, a close cousin to adobe, contains proportioned amounts of soil, clay, water, manure, and straw. This is blended, but not formed like adobe. Cob is spread and piled around a frame and allowed to air dry for several months before habitation. Adobe, then, can be described as dried bricks of cob, stacked and mortared together with more adobe mixture to create a thick wall and/or roof. Roof materials Depending on the materials available, a roof can be assembled using lengths of wood or metal to create a frame work to begin layering adobe bricks. Depending on the thickness of the adobe bricks, the frame work has been performed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even drying and prevent major cracking. Traditional adobe roof More traditional adobe roofs were often flatter than the familiar steeped roof as the native climate yielded more sun and heat than mass amounts of snow or rain that would find use in precipitous roofs. Moisture, however, is often foe to a composite of mud and organic matter, so the introduction of cement is often more common to help ward off any undue water damage. It is at this turn that sense is required before the construction of any adobe is begun; be sure that the location for such a structure is similar to the climate it naturally comes from (that is, a hot, arid climate.) Cool and moist climates would do well with moisture precautions planned out. Raising a traditional adobe roof To raise a flattened adobe roof, beams of wood or metal should be assembled and span the extent of the building. The ends of the beams should then be fixed to the tops of the walls using the builder’s preferred choice of attachments. Taking into account the material the beams and walls are made from, choosing the attachments may prove difficult. In combination to the bricks and adobe mortar that are laid across the beams creates an even load-bearing pressure that can last for many years depending on attrition. Once the beams are laid across the building, it is then time to begin the placing of adobe bricks to create the roof. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks slightly larger in width to ensure a larger expanse is covered when placing the bricks onto the beams. This wider shape also provides the future homeowner with thermal protection enough to stabilize an even temperature through out the year. Following each individual brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least an inch thick to make certain there is ample strength between the brick’s edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during the seasons where the arid climate does produce rain. Attributes Adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof, an attribute well received when the fireplace is kept lit during the cold nights, depending on the materials used. This feature leads the homeowner and builders to begin thinking about the installation of a chimney, a feat regarded as a necessity in any adobe building. The construction of the chimney can also greatly influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra need for care in choosing the right materials. An adobe chimney can be made from simple adobe bricks and stacked in similar fashion as the surrounding walls. Basically outline the location and perimeter of the hearth, minding the safety elements common to a fireplace, and begin to stack and mortar the walls with pre-made adobe bricks, cut to size. Around the world See also Cob (building) Compressed earth block Great Mosque of Djenné Hassan Fathy Mudbrick Rammed Earth Sod house Super Adobe Qalat (fortress) Notes <Claire-Anne de Chazelles-Gazzal 1997, Les maisons en terre de la Gaule méridionale, Éditions Monique Mergoil, Montagnac, France, pp. 49-57.> External links Building With Awareness - A detailed how-to DVD video that shows adobe wall construction and their use as thermal mass walls "Cal-Earth" (The California Institute of Earth Art and Architecture) has developed a patented system called Superadobe, in which bags filled with stabilized earth are layered with strands of barbed wire to form a structure strong enough to withstand earthquakes, fire and flood. Earth Architecture - A website whose focus is contemporary issues in earth architecture. "Earth Architecture and Conservation in East Anglia" - British organisation that focuses on the proper maintenance and conservation of earth buildings in a region of the UK that has a long history of building with mud. Kerpic.org - A website on earthen architecture researches stabilized with gypsum. '"Kleiwerks'" - International organization recognized for their unique contribution to modern earthen and natural building techniques throughout the world, their focus is on education through hands on experience. Very experienced experts are contactable and there are regular demonstrations in the area. 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5,065 | Eusebius | Eusebius of Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 263 – c. 339) (often called Eusebius Pamphili, "Eusebius [the friend] of Pamphilus") became the bishop of Caesarea Palaestina, the capital of Iudaea province, c 314. He is often referred to as the Father of Church History because of his work in recording the history of the early Christian church, especially Chronicle and Ecclesiastical History Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994. . Biography His date and place of birth are unknown and little is known of his youth, however it is estimated that he was born in 265 Encyclopedia of the Early Church, Published in 1992, English Version, page 299 . He became acquainted with the presbyter Dorotheus in Antioch and probably received exegetical instruction from him. In 296 he was in Palestine and saw Constantine who visited the country with Diocletian. He was in Caesarea when Agapius was bishop and became friendly with Pamphilus of Caesarea, with whom he seems to have studied the text of the Bible, with the aid of Origen's Hexapla and commentaries collected by Pamphilus, in an attempt to prepare a correct version. In 307, Pamphilus was imprisoned, but Eusebius continued their project. The resulting defence of Origen, in which they had collaborated, was finished by Eusebius after the death of Pamphilus and sent to the martyrs in the mines of Phaeno located in modern Jordan. Eusebius then seems to have gone to Tyre and later to Egypt, where he first suffered persecution. Eusebius is next heard of as bishop of Caesarea Maritima. He succeeded Agapius, whose time of office is not certain, but Eusebius must have become bishop soon after 313. Nothing is known about the early years of his tenure. When the Council of Nicaea met in 325, Eusebius was prominent in its transactions. He was not naturally a spiritual leader or theologian, but as a very learned man and a famous author who enjoyed the special favour of the emperor, he came to the fore among the members of the council (traditionally given as 318 attendees). He presented a confession to the council which was rejected in favour of a more specifically anti-Arian creed from Palestine. This later creed became the basis of the council's major theological statement, the Nicene Creed. Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, (2nd ed. Dallas, TX: Word Publishing, 1995.), p.102. Eusebius was involved in the further development of the Arian controversies. For instance he was involved in the dispute with Eustathius of Antioch who opposed the growing influence of Origen, including his practice of an allegorical exegesis of scripture. Eustathius perceived in Origen's theology the roots of Arianism. Eusebius was an admirer of Origen and was reproached by Eustathius for deviating from the Nicene faith - he was even alleged to hold to Sabellianism. Eustathius was accused, condemned, and deposed at a synod in Antioch. Part of the population of Antioch rebelled against this action, and the anti-Eustathians proposed Eusebius as its new bishop—he declined. After Eustathius had been removed, Athanasius of Alexandria, a more powerful opponent, was attacked by the anti-Nicene party headed by Eusebius of Nicomedia (not to be confused with Eusebius of Caesarea). In 334, Athanasius was summoned before a synod in Caesarea; he did not attend. In the following year, he was again summoned before a synod in Tyre at which Eusebius of Caesarea presided. Athanasius, foreseeing the result, went to Constantinople to bring his cause before the emperor. Constantine called the bishops to his court, among them Eusebius. Athanasius was condemned and exiled at the end of 335. At the same synod, another opponent was successfully attacked: Marcellus of Ancyra had long opposed the ant-Nicene party and had protested against the reinstitution of Arius. He was accused of Sabellianism and deposed in 336. Constantine died the next year, and Eusebius did not long survive him. Eusebius' date of death is unknown. It is estimated that he died between 337 and 340 after the death of Constantine The Essential Eusebius page 31. Published by Mentor-Omega Book in New yYork and Toronto. Year of publication 1966 . Works Of the extensive literary activity of Eusebius, a relatively large portion has been preserved. Although posterity suspected him of Arianism, Eusebius had made himself indispensable by his method of authorship; his comprehensive and careful excerpts from original sources saved his successors the painstaking labor of original research. Hence, much has been preserved, quoted by Eusebius, which otherwise would have been destroyed. The literary productions of Eusebius reflect on the whole the course of his life. At first, he occupied himself with works on Biblical criticism under the influence of Pamphilus and probably of Dorotheus of Tyre of the School of Antioch. Afterward, the persecutions under Diocletian and Galerius directed his attention to the martyrs of his own time and the past, and this led him to the history of the whole Church and finally to the history of the world, which, to him, was only a preparation for ecclesiastical history. Then followed the time of the Arian controversies, and dogmatic questions came into the foreground. Christianity at last found recognition by the State; and this brought new problems—apologies of a different sort had to be prepared. Lastly, Eusebius wrote eulogies in praise of Constantine. To all this activity must be added numerous writings of a miscellaneous nature, addresses, letters, and the like, and exegetical works that extended over the whole of his life and that include both commentaries and treatises on Biblical archaeology. Some historians doubt the reliability of Eusebius' works because in his work "Ecclesiastical History" (book 12, Chapter 32), Eusebius writes, "We shall introduce to this history in general only those events which may be useful first to ourselves and after to prosperity." Eusebius is also reported to have written later that at times it is a "necessary medicine" that historians fabricate history. Biblical text criticism Pamphilus and Eusebius occupied themselves with the textual criticism of the Septuagint text of the Old Testament and especially of the New Testament. An edition of the Septuagint seems to have been already prepared by Origen, which, according to Jerome, was revised and circulated by Eusebius and Pamphilus. For an easier survey of the material of the four Evangelists, Eusebius divided his edition of the New Testament into paragraphs and provided it with a synoptical table so that it might be easier to find the pericopes that belong together. These canon tables or "Eusebian canons" remained in use throughout the Middle Ages, and illuminated manuscript versions are important for the study of early medieval art. Eusebius explained detailed in Epistula ad Carpianum how to use his canons. Chronicle The two greatest historical works of Eusebius are his Chronicle and his Church History. The former (Greek (Pantodape historia), "Universal History") is divided into two parts. The first part ( (Chronographia), "Annals") gives an epitome of universal history from the sources, arranged according to nations. The second part ( (Chronikoi kanones), "Chronological Canons") furnishes a synchronism of the historical material in parallel columns, the equivalent of a parallel timeline. The work as a whole has been lost in the original, but it may be reconstructed from later chronographists of the Byzantine school who made excerpts from the work with untiring diligence, especially George Syncellus. The tables of the second part have been completely preserved in a Latin translation by Jerome, and both parts are still extant in an Armenian translation. The loss of the Greek originals has given an Armenian translation a special importance; thus, the first part of Eusebius's "Chronicle", of which only a few fragments exist in the Greek, has been preserved entirely in Armenian. The "Chronicle" as preserved extends to the year 325. It was written before the "Church History." Church History In his Church History or Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius wrote what was in fact the first attempted history of the Christian Church, as a chronologically-ordered account, based on earlier sources, and complete from the period of the Apostles to his own epoch. He also wrote that Matthew composed the Gospel according to the Hebrews. The time scheme correlated the history with the reigns of the Roman Emperors, and the scope was broad. Included were the bishops and other teachers of the Church; Christian relations with the Jews and those deemed heretical; and the Christian martyrs. Life of Constantine Eusebius' Life of Constantine (Vita Constantini) is a eulogy or panegyric, and therefore its style and selection of facts are affected by its purpose, rendering it inadequate as a continuation of the Church History. As the historian Socrates Scholasticus said, at the opening of his history that was designed as a continuation of Eusebius, "Also in writing the life of Constantine, this same author has but slightly treated of matters regarding Arius, being more intent on the rhetorical finish of his composition and the praises of the emperor, than on an accurate statement of facts." The work was unfinished at Eusebius' death. Minor historical works Before he compiled his church history, Eusebius edited a collection of martyrdoms of the earlier period and a biography of Pamphilus. The martyrology has not survived as a whole, but it has been preserved almost completely in parts. It contained: an epistle of the congregation of Smyrna concerning the martyrdom of Polycarp; the martyrdom of Pionius; the martyrdoms of Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonike; the martyrdoms in the congregations of Vienne and Lyon; the martyrdom of Apollonius. Of the life of Pamphilus, only a fragment survives. A work on the martyrs of Palestine in the time of Diocletian was composed after 311; numerous fragments are scattered in legendaries which still have to be collected. The life of Constantine was compiled after the death of the emperor and the election of his sons as Augusti (337). It is more a rhetorical eulogy on the emperor than a history but is of great value on account of numerous documents incorporated in it. Apologetic and dogmatic works To the class of apologetic and dogmatic works belong: <li> the Apology for Origen, the first five books of which, according to the definite statement of Photius, were written by Pamphilus in prison, with the assistance of Eusebius. Eusebius added the sixth book after the death of Pamphilus. We possess only a Latin translation of the first book, made by Rufinus; <li> a treatise against Hierocles (a Roman governor and Neoplatonic philosopher), in which Eusebius combated the former's glorification of Apollonius of Tyana in a work entitled "A Truth-loving Discourse" (Greek, Philalethes logos); <li> Praeparatio evangelica ('Preparation for the Gospel'), commonly known by its Latin title, which attempts to prove the excellence of Christianity over every pagan religion and philosophy. The Praeparatio consists of fifteen books which have been completely preserved. Eusebius considered it an introduction to Christianity for pagans. But its value for many later readers is more because Eusebius studded this work with so many fascinating and lively fragments from historians and philosophers which are nowhere else preserved. Here alone is preserved a summary of the writings of the Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon of which the accuracy has been shown by the mythological accounts found on the Ugaritic tables, here alone is the account from Diodorus Siculus's sixth book of Euhemerus' wondrous voyage to the island of Panchaea where Euhemerus purports to have found his true history of the gods, and here almost alone is preserved writings of the neo-Platonist philosopher Atticus along with so much else. <li> Demonstratio evangelica ('Proof of the Gospel') is closely connected to the Praeparatio and comprised originally twenty books of which ten have been completely preserved as well as a fragment of the fifteenth. Here Eusebius treats of the person of Jesus Christ. The work was probably finished before 311; <li> another work which originated in the time of the persecution, entitled "Prophetic Extracts" (Eklogai prophetikai). It discusses in four books the Messianic texts of Scripture. The work is merely the surviving portion (books 6-9) of the General elementary introduction to the Christian faith, now lost. <li> the treatise "On Divine Manifestation" (Peri theophaneias), of unknown date. It treats of the incarnation of the Divine Logos, and its contents are in many cases identical with the Demonstratio evangelica. Only fragments are preserved in Greek, but a complete Syriac translation of the Theophania survives in an early 5th century manuscript. Samuel Lee, the editor (1842) and translator (1843) of the Syriac Theophania thought that the work must have been written "after the general peace restored to the Church by Constantine, and before either the 'Praeparatio,' or the 'Demonstratio Evengelica,' was written . . . it appears probable . . . therefore, that this was one of the first productions of Eusebius, if not the first after the persecutions ceased." Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea On the Theophania, or Divine Manifestation of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ (Cambridge, 1843), pp. xxi-xxii. Lee's full passage is as follows: "As to the period at which it was written, I think it must have been, after the general peace restored to the Church by Constantine, and before either the "Praeparatio," or the "Demonstratio Evangelica," was written. My reason for the first of these suppositions is: Our author speaks repeatedly of the peace restored to the Church; of Churches and Schools restored, or then built for the first time : of the nourishing state of the Church of Caesarea; of the extended, and then successfully extending, state of Christianity : all of which could not have been said during the times of the last, and most severe persecution. My reasons for the second of these suppositions are, the considerations that whatever portions of this Work are found, either in the "Praeparatio," |22 the "Demonstratio Evangelica," or the " Oratio de laudibus Constantini," they there occur in no regular sequence of argument as they do in this Work: especially in the latter, into which they have been carried evidently for the purpose of lengthening out a speech. Besides, many of these places are amplified in these works, particularly in the two former as remarked in my notes; which seems to suggest, that such additions were made either to accommodate these to the new soil, into which they had been so transplanted, or, to supply some new matter, which had suggested itself to our author. And again, as both the "Praeparatio" and "Demonstratio Evangelica," are works which must have required very considerable time to complete them, and which would even then be unfit for general circulation ; it appears probable to me, that this more popular, and more useful work, was first composed and published, and that the other two,--illustrating as they generally do, some particular points only,--argued in order in our Work,-- were reserved for the reading and occasional writing of our author during a considerable number of years, as well for the satisfaction of his own mind, as for the general reading of the learned. It appears probable to me therefore, that this was one of the first productions of Eusebius, if not the first after the persecutions ceased." Hugo Gessmann, noting in 1904 that the Demonstratio seems to be mentioned at IV. 37 and V. 1, and that II. 14 seems to mention the extant practice of temple prostitution at Hieropolis in Phoenica, concluded that the Theophania was probably written shortly after 324. Others have suggested a date as late as 337. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius (Harvard, 1981), p. 367, n.176. Note that Lee (p. 285) thinks that the passage in V. 1 refers to an earlier section within the Theophania itself, rather than to the Demonstratio. <li> A polemical treatise against Marcellus of Ancyra, the "Against Marcellus," dating from about 337; <li> a supplement to the last-named work, also against Marcellus, entitled "The Ecclesiastical Theology," in which he defended the Nicene doctrine of the Logos against the party of Athanasius. A number of writings, belonging in this category, have been entirely lost. Exegetical and miscellaneous works All of the exegetical works of Eusebius have suffered damage in transmission. The majority of them are known to us only from long portions quoted in Byzantine catena-commentaries. However these portions are very extensive. Extant are: An enormous Commentary on the Psalms. A commentary on Isaiah, discovered more or less complete in a manuscript in Florence early in the 20th century and published 50 years later. Small fragments of commentaries on Romans and 1 Corinthians. Eusebius also wrote a work Quaestiones ad Stephanum et Marinum, "On the Differences of the Gospels" (including solutions). This was written for the purpose of harmonizing the contradictions in the reports of the different Evangelists. The work existed in the 16th century, but has since been lost. However a long epitome was discovered in the 19th century, and there are also long quotations in the Catena on Luke of Nicetas Edition and notes in J.-P.Migne, Patrologia Graeca. . The original work was also translated into Syriac, and lengthy quotations exist in a catena in that language, and also in Coptic and Arabic catenas Georg Graf, Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur vol. 1 . Eusebius also wrote treatises on Biblical archaeology: A work on the Greek equivalents of Hebrew Gentilic nouns; A description of old Judea with an account of the loss of the ten tribes; A plan of Jerusalem and the Temple of Solomon. These three treatises have been lost. A work known as the Onomasticon, entitled in the main Greek manuscript "Concerning the Place-names in Sacred Scripture", is still in existence. This is an alphabetical dictionary of Biblical place names, often including identifications with places existing in Eusebius' own time. The addresses and sermons of Eusebius are mostly lost, but some have been preserved, e.g., a sermon on the consecration of the church in Tyre and an address on the thirtieth anniversary of the reign of Constantine (336). Most of Eusebius' letters are lost. His letters to Carpianus and Flacillus exist complete. Fragments of a letter to the empress Constantia also exists. Estimate of Eusebius Doctrine From a dogmatic point of view, Eusebius stands entirely upon the shoulders of Origen. Like Origen, he started from the fundamental thought of the absolute sovereignty (monarchia) of God. God is the cause of all beings. But he is not merely a cause; in him everything good is included, from him all life originates, and he is the source of all virtue. God sent Christ into the world that it may partake of the blessings included in the essence of God. Christ is God and is a ray of the eternal light; but the figure of the ray is so limited by Eusebius that he expressly emphasizes the self-existence of Jesus. Eusebius was intent upon emphasizing the difference of the persona of the Trinity and maintaining the subordination of the Son (Logos, or Word) to God (he never calls him theos) because in all contrary attempts he suspected polytheism or Sabellianism. The Son (Jesus), as Arianism asserted, is a creature of God whose generation, for Eusebius, took place before time. Jesus acts as the organ or instrument of God, the creator of life, the principle of every revelation of God, who in his absoluteness and transcendent is enthroned above and isolated from all the world. This Logos, as a derivative creature and not truly God as the Father is truly God, could therefore change (Eusebius, with most early theologians, assumed God was immutable), and he assumed a human body without altering the immutable divine Father. The relation of the Holy Spirit within the Trinity Eusebius explained similarly to that of the Son to the Father. No point of this doctrine is original with Eusebius, all is traceable to his teacher Origen. The lack of originality in his thinking shows itself in the fact that he never presented his thoughts in a system. After nearly being excommunicated for his heresy by Alexander of Alexandria, Eusebius submitted and agreed to the Nicene Creed at the First Council of Nicaea. Limitations Notwithstanding the great influence of his works on others, Eusebius was not himself a great historian . His treatment of heresy, for example, is limited, and he knew very little about the Western church. The panegyrical tone of the Life of Constantine has grated on modern sensibilities. Nor was he always critical about the material that he reproduces; he includes in the "Ecclesiastical History" letters supplied to him by a Syriac source purporting to be written back and forth between King Abgar and Jesus The Legend of Abgar http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01042c.htm . These and other issues have invited controversy. Edward Gibbon (18th century historian) dismissed his testimony on the number of martyrs and impugned his honesty by referring to a passage in the abbreviated version of the Martyrs of Palestine attached to the Ecclesiastical History, book 8, chapter 2, in which Eusebius introduces his description of the martyrs of the Great Persecution under Diocletian with: "Wherefore we have decided to relate nothing concerning them except the things in which we can vindicate the Divine judgment. […] We shall introduce into this history in general only those events which may be useful first to ourselves and afterwards to posterity." Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vol. 1, chapter 16 In the longer text of the Martyrs of Palestine, chapter 12, Eusebius states: "I think it best to pass by all the other events which occurred in the meantime: such as […] the lust of power on the part of many, the disorderly and unlawful ordinations, and the schisms among the confessors themselves; also the novelties which were zealously devised against the remnants of the Church by the new and factious members, who added innovation after innovation and forced them in unsparingly among the calamities of the persecution, heaping misfortune upon misfortune. I judge it more suitable to shun and avoid the account of these things, as I said at the beginning.". When his own honesty was challenged by his contemporaries See Gibbon's Vindication for examples of the accusations that he faced. , Gibbon appealed to the chapter heading -- not the text -- in Eusebius' Praeparatio evangelica (xii, 31), which says how fictions (pseudos) — which Gibbon rendered 'falsehoods' — may be a "medicine", which may be "lawful and fitting" to use . Jacob Burckhardt (19th century cultural historian) dismissed Eusebus as "the first thoroughly dishonest historian of antiquity". Questions were long raised by scholars about whether all the documents in the Life of Constantine were authentic. Other critics of Eusebius' work cite the panegyrical tone of the Vita, plus the omission of internal Christian conflicts in the Canones, as reasons to interpret his writing with caution Burgess, R. W., and Witold Witakowski. 1999. Studies in Eusebian and Post-Eusebian chronography 1. The "Chronici canones" of Eusebius of Caesarea: structure, content and chronology, AD 282-325 -- 2. The "Continuatio Antiochiensis Eusebii": a chronicle of Antioch and the Roman Near East during the Reigns of Constantine and Constantius II, AD 325-350. Historia (Wiesbaden, Germany), Heft 135. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. Page 69. . But other views have tended to prevail. With reference to Gibbon's comments, Joseph Barber Lightfoot (late 19th century theologian and former Bishop of Durham) pointed out that Eusebius' statements indicate his honesty in stating what he was not going to discuss, and also his limitations as a historian in not including such material. He also discusses the question of accuracy. "The manner in which Eusebius deals with his very numerous quotations elsewhere, where we can test his honesty, is a sufficient vindication against this unjust charge." Lightfoot also notes that Eusebius cannot always be relied on: "A far more serious drawback to his value as a historian is the loose and uncritical spirit in which he sometimes deals with his materials. This shews itself in diverse ways. He is not always to be trusted in his discrimination of genuine and spurious documents." Averil Cameron (professor at King's College and Oxford) and Stuart Hall (historian and theologian), in their recent translation of the Life of Constantine, point out that writers such as Burckhardt found it necessary to attack Eusebius in order to undermine the ideological legitimacy of the Habsburg empire, which based itself on the idea of Christian empire derived from Constantine, and that the most controversial letter in the Life has since been found among the papyri of Egypt Averil Cameron, Stuart G. Hall, Eusebius' Life of Constantine. Introduction, translation and commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Pp. xvii + 395. ISBN 0-19-814924-7. Reviewed in BMCR . In Church History (Vol. 59, 1990), Michael J. Hollerich (assistant professor at the Jesuit Santa Clara University, California) replies to Burckhardt's criticism of Eusebius, that "Eusebius has been an inviting target for students of the Constantinian era. At one time or another they have characterized him as a political propagandist, a good courtier, the shrewd and worldly adviser of the Emperor Constantine, the great publicist of the first Christian emperor, the first in a long succession of ecclesiastical politicians, the herald of Byzantinism, a political theologian, a political metaphysician, and a caesaropapist. It is obvious that these are not, in the main, neutral descriptions. Much traditional scholarship, sometimes with barely suppressed disdain, has regarded Eusebius as one who risked his orthodoxy and perhaps his character because of his zeal for the Constantinian establishment." Hollerich concludes that "... the standard assessment has exaggerated the importance of political themes and political motives in Eusebius's life and writings and has failed to do justice to him as a churchman and a scholar". While many have shared Burckhardt's assessment, particularly with reference to the Life of Constantine, others, while not pretending to extol his merits, have acknowledged the irreplaceable value of his works which may principally reside in the copious quotations that they contain from other sources, often lost. See also Early Christianity Constantine I and Christianity Church Fathers Notes References Initial text from Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion, subjected to edits for style. External links Texts online Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes Complete Greek text of all his works. Translations online Writings of Church Fathers Extensive collection of Eusebius's works online in English. Historia Ecclesiastica (English translation for the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers) Church History'' Librivox Audio at Internet Archive Eusebius Pamphili of Caesarea at the Tertullian Project (English translation) Letters at the Patristics In English Project (English Translation From Various Sources) Other links "Article on Eusebius in the New Advent Catholic Encylopeida" Eusebius of Caesarea at the Tertullian Project EarlyChurch.org.uk Extensive bibliography. Chronological list of Eusebius's writings. 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5,066 | Millbridge,_Plymouth | Millbridge is a small neighbourhood of Plymouth, on the boundary of what used to be the towns of Plymouth and Devonport, in the English county of Devon. What was originally a self-standing village (which has now been subsumed within the city) lies to the north of the toll bridge, originally built by Sir Piers Edgcumbe in 1525, that crossed what used to be the Deadlake or Stonehouse Creek, to the west of Pennycomequick, the south of Stoke village and to the east of Stoke Church. It derives its name from the old toll bridge (adjacent to a naval saw mill) across the creek between Eldad Hill and Molesworth Road, at one time the principal link between Plymouth and Devonport. The creek to the east of the bridge was filled in with material from the quarries at Cattedown and Oreston during the late 1890s and the ground created became a municipal park, Victoria Park, which was officially opened in 1903. The remainder of the creek to the west of Millbridge, up to Stonehouse Bridge and Pool, was filled in and by 1972 the whole area had been developed as rugby pitches. These pitches are often used by Devonport High School for Boys and the Old Boys RFC. | Millbridge,_Plymouth |@lemmatized millbridge:2 small:1 neighbourhood:1 plymouth:3 boundary:1 use:3 town:1 devonport:3 english:1 county:1 devon:1 originally:2 self:1 standing:1 village:2 subsume:1 within:1 city:1 lie:1 north:1 toll:2 bridge:4 build:1 sir:1 pier:1 edgcumbe:1 cross:1 deadlake:1 stonehouse:2 creek:4 west:2 pennycomequick:1 south:1 stoke:2 east:2 church:1 derive:1 name:1 old:2 adjacent:1 naval:1 saw:1 mill:1 across:1 eldad:1 hill:1 molesworth:1 road:1 one:1 time:1 principal:1 link:1 fill:2 material:1 quarry:1 cattedown:1 oreston:1 late:1 ground:1 create:1 become:1 municipal:1 park:2 victoria:1 officially:1 open:1 remainder:1 pool:1 whole:1 area:1 develop:1 rugby:1 pitch:2 often:1 high:1 school:1 boy:2 rfc:1 |@bigram |
5,067 | Telecommunications_in_Guatemala | Transportation Airports La Aurora International Airport Mundo Maya International Airport Telecomunications Guatemala's incumbent telephone company is TELGUA, who won the bidding of the privatization of the government run GUATEL. Telephones - main lines in use: 665,061 (2000) Approximately 1,384,997 (December 2006) Telephones - mobile cellular: 663,296 (2000) Approximately December 2006: 6,800,000 December 2007 10,151,000 (70% of the population) Operators: International Operator Brand / Users Technology Web Site America Movil Claro/PCS Digital 3,591,138 (June 2007) CDMA 1x EVDO Rev 0 1900 mHz, GSM/GPRS/EDGE 900/1900 mHz, UMTS/HSPA 1900 mHz (1.5 Mbit/s) Claro Guatemala Telefónica Movistar 2,514,612 (June 2007) CDMA 1x EVDO Rev A 1900 mHz and GSM/GPRS/EDGE 1900 mHz, soon UMTS/HSPA 1900 mHz (7.2 Mbit/s) MoviStar Guatemala Millicom / Local partners TIGO/COMCEL 3,116,998 (June 2007) TDMA/N-AMPS (to be shut down) and GSM/GPRS/EDGE 850 mHz, UMTS/HSDPA 850 mHz (3.6 Mbit/s) TIGO Guatemala Digicel Group Digicel must be launch before June 18, 2008 Planned GSM/GPRS/EDGE 900 MHz Digicel Group Intelfon/RED Intelfon Launch 2008 (Not Commercial) Planned iDEN/CDMA 1x EVDO Rev A 800 MHz (Life only for Roaming from Intelfon/RED El Salvador Intelfon Guatemala Telephone system: fairly modern network centered in the city of Guatemala domestic: NA international: connected to Central American Microwave System; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) Radio broadcast stations: AM 130, FM 487, shortwave 15 (2000) Radios: 835,000 (1997) Television broadcast stations: 26 (plus 27 repeaters) (1997) Televisions: 640,000 (1997) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 27 (2004) Internet Users: Year Users 2002 200,000 2003 600,000 2004 1,000,000 2005 1,700,000 2006 2,400,000 2007 over 3,800,000 Country code (Top-level domain): GT. Guatemala Domains Online newspapers http://www.albedrio.org/ http://www.prensalibre.com/ http://www.sigloxxi.com/ http://www.elperiodico.com.gt http://www.elmetropolitano.net See also Guatemala References Source for telephone numbers - prensalibre.com.gt External links The Guatemala Times, English daily online newspaper | Telecommunications_in_Guatemala |@lemmatized transportation:1 airport:3 la:1 aurora:1 international:4 mundo:1 maya:1 telecomunications:1 guatemala:9 incumbent:1 telephone:5 company:1 telgua:1 win:1 bidding:1 privatization:1 government:1 run:1 guatel:1 main:1 line:1 use:1 approximately:2 december:3 mobile:1 cellular:1 population:1 operator:2 brand:1 user:3 technology:1 web:1 site:1 america:1 movil:1 claro:2 pcs:1 digital:1 june:4 cdma:3 evdo:3 rev:3 mhz:10 gsm:4 gprs:4 edge:4 umts:3 hspa:2 mbit:3 telefónica:1 movistar:2 soon:1 millicom:1 local:1 partner:1 tigo:2 comcel:1 tdma:1 n:1 amp:1 shut:1 hsdpa:1 digicel:3 group:2 must:1 launch:2 plan:2 intelfon:4 red:2 commercial:1 iden:1 life:1 roam:1 el:1 salvador:1 system:2 fairly:1 modern:1 network:1 center:1 city:1 domestic:1 na:1 connect:1 central:1 american:1 microwave:1 satellite:1 earth:1 station:3 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 radio:2 broadcast:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 television:2 plus:1 repeater:1 internet:2 service:1 provider:1 isps:1 year:1 country:1 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 gt:3 domains:1 online:2 newspaper:2 http:5 www:5 albedrio:1 org:1 prensalibre:2 com:4 sigloxxi:1 elperiodico:1 elmetropolitano:1 net:1 see:1 also:1 reference:1 source:1 number:1 external:1 link:1 time:1 english:1 daily:1 |@bigram mobile_cellular:1 gsm_gprs:4 gprs_edge:4 el_salvador:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 plus_repeater:1 repeater_television:1 provider_isps:1 isps_internet:1 http_www:5 external_link:1 |
5,068 | National_Lampoon_(magazine) | The January 1973 cover of National Lampoon. National Lampoon was a ground-breaking American humor magazine started in 1970, originally as an spinoff of the Harvard Lampoon. During National Lampoons most successful years, parody of every kind was a mainstay; surrealist content was also central to its appeal. Almost all the issues included long text pieces, shorter written pieces, a section of actual news items (dubbed "True Facts"), cartoons and comic strips. Most issues also included "Foto Funnies" or fumetti, which often featured nudity. At its best, the magazine's humor was intelligent, imaginative and cutting edge. However, the Lampoon simultaneously promoted its brand of crass, bawdy comedy http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE7DA1038F936A35751C1A966958260 , and it often pushed far beyond the boundaries of what was generally considered appropriate and acceptable. As co-founder Henry Beard described the experience years later: "There was this big door that said, 'Thou shalt not.' We touched it, and it fell off its hinges." The magazine reached its height of popularity and critical acclaim during the mid-to-late 1970s, when it had a disproportionately far-reaching effect on American humor. The magazine also directly spawned films, radio, live theatre, various kinds of recordings, and books. Many members of the creative staff from the magazine subsequently went on to perform in, or write for, or otherwise contribute creatively to successful films, television shows, books and other media forms. The magazine declined irreversibly during the late 1980s. It was subsequently kept barely alive for a number of years for brand name reasons, but ceased publication altogether in 1998. The original humor magazine National Lampoon was started by Harvard graduates and Harvard Lampoon alumni Douglas Kenney, Henry Beard and Robert Hoffman in 1969, when they licensed the "Lampoon" name for a monthly national publication. The magazine's first issue was dated April 1970. After a shaky start, the magazine very rapidly grew in popularity. It regularly skewered pop culture, the counterculture and politics with recklessness and gleeful bad taste. Like the Harvard Lampoon, individual issues were often devoted to a particular theme such as "The Future", "Back to School", "Death", "Self-Indulgence", or "Blight". The magazine regularly reprinted material in "best-of" omnibus collections. The magazine took aim at every kind of phoniness, and had no specific political stance, even though individual staff members had strong political views. [[Image:TeddyVWad.jpg|right|thumb|200px|National Lampoon'''s fake Volkswagen Beetle print ad mocking Ted Kennedy's Chappaquiddick incident.]] Cover artNational Lampoon became infamous for its often acerbic and humorous magazine covers. Some notable cover images include: Court-martialed Vietnam War murderer William Calley sporting the guileless grin of Alfred E. Neuman, complete with the parody catchphrase 'What, My Lai?" (August 1971) ; The iconic image of Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara being splattered with a cream pie (January 1972). A dog looking worriedly at a revolver pressed to its head, with the famous caption "If You Don't Buy This Magazine, We'll Kill This Dog" (January 1973). In 2005 the American Society of Magazine Editors selected this magazine cover as the seventh-greatest of the last 40 years. ASME Unveils Top 40 Magazine Covers ASME's Top 40 Magazine Covers of the Last 40 Years A replica of the starving child from the cover of George Harrison's charity album The Concert for Bangla Desh, rendered in chocolate and with a large bite taken out of its head. Staff The magazine produced and fostered some notable writing and comic talents, including (but by no means limited to) Kenney, Beard, Chris Miller, P. J. O'Rourke, Michael O'Donoghue, Sean Kelly, Tony Hendra and John Hughes. Many important cartoonists, photographers and illustrators appeared in the magazine's pages, including Neal Adams, Gahan Wilson, Ron Barrett, Vaughn Bode, Bruce McCall, Rick Meyerowitz, M.K. Brown, Shary Flenniken, Bobby London, Edward Gorey, Jeff Jones, Joe Orlando, Arnold Roth, Rich Grote, Ed Subitzky, Mara McAfee, Sam Gross, Charles Rodriquez, Buddy Hickerson, B.K. Taylor, Bernie Lettick, Frank Frazetta, Boris Vallejo, Marvin Mattelson, Stan Mack, Chris Callis, and John Barrett. Comedy actors John Belushi, Chevy Chase, Gilda Radner and Bill Murray first gained national attention for their performances in the National Lampoon's stage show and radio show, and subsequently went on to become part of Saturday Night Lives original wave of Not Ready For Primetime Players. The magazine was art directed by Michael C. Gross (1970-1974), then Peter Kleinman (1974-1987). The business side of the magazine was controlled by Matty Simmons, who was Chairman of the Board and CEO of 21st Century Communications, a publishing company. Circulation peak 1973-1975 The Lampoon's commercial heyday was roughly 1973-75. Its national circulation peaked at 1,000,096 copies sold of the October 1974 "Pubescence" issue . The Lampoon's 1974 monthly average was 830,000, which was also a peak. Former Lampoon editor Tony Hendra's book "Going Too Far" includes a series of precise circulation figures. The magazine was considered by many to be at its creative zenith during this time, but it should also be noted that the publishing industry's newsstand sales were excellent for many titles. The Lampoon's circulation height coincided with the historic sales peaks for other magazines such as Mad (more than 2 million), Playboy (more than 7 million), and TV Guide (more than 19 million). 1975 changes Some fans consider the glory days of National Lampoon magazine to have ended in 1975, when the three founders (Kenney, Beard and Hoffman) took advantage of a buyout clause in their contracts for $7.5 million. At about the same time some of the magazine's contributors left to join the NBC comedy show "Saturday Night Live" (SNL), notably O'Donoghue and Anne Beatts. Despite this change the magazine still made money, and it continued to be produced on a monthly schedule throughout the 1970s and early 1980s. However from the mid 1980s on the magazine was on an increasingly shaky financial footing. Beginning in November 1986 the magazine was published only every other month. Books, recordings, radio and theater The magazine spun off successes in a variety of media: Books Numerous books, including: The Best of National Lampoon No. 1, 1971, an anthology The Breast of National Lampoon, 1972, an anthology The Best of National Lampoon No. 3, 1973, an anthology The National Lampoon Encyclopedia of Humor, 1973, edited by Michael O'Donoghue The Best of National Lampoon No. 4, 1973, an anthology National Lampoon Comics, an anthology, 1974 The Best of National Lampoon No. 5, 1974, an anthology National Lampoon 1964 High School Yearbook Parody, 1974, Edited by P.J. O'Rourke and Doug Kenney The National Lampoon Encyclopedia of Humor, 1973, edited by Michael O'Donoghue The Very Large Book of Comical Funnies, 1975, edited by Sean Kelly National Lampoon The Gentleman's Bathroom Companion, 1975 The 199th Birthday Book, 1975, edited by Tony Hendra National Lampoon Songbook, 1976, edited by Sean Kelly, musical parodies in sheet music form Would You Buy a Used War from This Man?, 1972, edited by Henry Beard Letters from the Editors of National Lampoon, 1973, edited by Brian McConnachie This Side of Parodies, 1974, edited by Brian McConnachie and Sean Kelly The Paperback Conspiracy, 1974, edited by Brian McConnachie The Job of Sex, 1974, edited by Brian McConnachie The Naked and the Nude, 1977, written by Brian McConnachie National Lampoon Art Poster Book, 1975 Official National Lampoon Bicentennial Calendar 1976, 1975, written and compiled by Christopher Cerf & Bill Effros National Lampoon Gentleman's Bathroom Companion 2, 1977 National Lampoon The Book Of Books, 1977 edited by Jeff Greenfield National Lampoon Tenth Anniversary Anthology, 1979 National Lampoon's Doon, 1984 Recordings Vinyl record albums including: National Lampoon Radio Dinner, 1972, produced by Tony Hendra Lemmings, 1973, an album of material taken from the stage show, and produced by Tony Hendra The Missing White House Tapes, 1974, an album taken from the radio show, creative directors Tony Hendra and Sean Kelly Official National Lampoon Stereo Test and Demonstration Record, 1974, conceived and written by Ed Subitzky National Lampoon Gold Turkey, 1975, creative director Brian McConnachie Goodbye Pop 1952-1976, 1975, creative director Sean Kelly That's Not Funny, That's Sick!, 1977 Greatest Hits of the National Lampoon, 1978 National Lampoon's White Album, 1979 Cassette tape: Official National Lampoon Stereo Test and Demonstration Tape, 1980, conceived and written by Ed Subitzky CDs: A CD boxed set Gold Turkey 1996, recordings from The National Lampoon Radio Hour, was released by Rhino Records in the 1990s Vinyl record singles: A snide parody of Les Crane's 1971 hit "Desiderata" written by Tony Hendra was recorded and released as "Deteriorata," and stayed on the lower reaches of the Billboard magazine charts for a month in late 1972. Deteriorata became one of National Lampoon's best-selling posters. The gallumphing theme to Animal House rose slightly higher and charted slightly longer in December 1978. Radio The National Lampoon Radio Hour, a nationally syndicated radio comedy show which was on the air weekly from 1973 to 1974. For a complete listing of shows, see . Theater Lemmings (1973) was National Lampoon's most successful theatrical venture. The off-Broadway production took the form of a parody of the Woodstock Festival. Co-written by Tony Hendra and Sean Kelly, and directed and produced by Hendra, it introduced John Belushi, Chevy Chase and Christopher Guest in their first major roles. The show formed several companies and ran for a year at New York's Village Gate. National Lampoon's Class of '86: This show was performed at the Village Gate in 1986, aired on cable in the 80's, and is now available on VHS. It was a sketch-based satire of 1980's culture, told against a frame story of two characters named Galahad and Dewdrop, hippies who had taken LSD in 1969, fallen into a deep sleep and then woken up 17 years later, in 1986. The sketches in the show lampooned yuppie culture, health food, the Reagan Administration, airplane hijackings and psychotherapy. Films There is considerable ambiguity about what actually constitutes a "National Lampoon" film. During the 1970s and early 1980s a few films were made as spin-offs from the original National Lampoon magazine, using its creative staff. The first and by far the most successful National Lampoon film was National Lampoon's Animal House (1978). Starring John Belushi and written by Doug Kenney, Harold Ramis and Chris Miller, it became the highest grossing film comedy of all time. Produced on a low budget, it was so enormously profitable that the name "National Lampoon" applied to the title of a movie was considered to be a valuable selling point in and of itself. Numerous movies were subsequently made that had "National Lampoon" as part of the title, many made after the name "National Lampoon" could simply be licensed on a one-time basis, by any company, for a fee. It has been said that this practice cheapened the National Lampoon brand. The first of the "National Lampoon" movies was a not very successful made-for-TV movie called "Disco Beaver from Outer Space", broadcast in 1978. National Lampoon's Animal House In 1978, National Lampoon's Animal House was released. Made on a small budget, it did phenomenally well at the box office. In 2001, the United States Library of Congress considered the film "culturally significant", and preserved it in the National Film Registry. The script had its origins in a series of short stories which had been previously published in the magazine. These included Chris Miller's "Night of the Seven Fires," which dramatized a frat initiation and included the characters Pinto and Otter, which contained prose versions of the toga party, the "road trip", and the dead horse incident. According to the authors, most of these elements were based on real incidents. National Lampoon's Class Reunion This 1982 movie was an attempt by John Hughes to make something similar to "Animal House". "National Lampoon's Class Reunion" was not successful however. National Lampoon's Vacation Released in 1983, the movie National Lampoon's Vacation was based upon John Hughes' "National Lampoon" story "Vacation '58". The movie's financial success gave rise to several follow-up films, including National Lampoon's European Vacation, National Lampoon's Christmas, and National Lampoon Visits Vietnam. Influences on other films: The Robert Altman film O.C. and Stiggs, 1987, was based on two characters who had been featured in several written pieces in National Lampoon magazine, including an issue-long story from October 1982 entitled: "The Utterly Monstrous, Mind-Roasting Summer of O.C. and Stiggs." The film was actually completed in 1984, but it was not released until 1987, when it was shown in a small number of theaters, without the "National Lampoon" name. It was not a success. Following the success of "Animal House", MAD Magazine lent its name to a 1981 comedy titled "Up the Academy". But whereas two of "Animal House"'s co-writers were the Lampoon's Doug Kenney and Chris Miller, "Up The Academy" was strictly a licensing maneuver with no creative input from MAD's staff or contributors. It was a critical and commercial failure. Later years In 1989, the magazine was acquired in a hostile takeover by a business partnership headed by actor Tim Matheson (who played "Otter" in the 1978 film National Lampoon's Animal House). Matheson instituted a policy banning frontal nudity in the magazine, which had become an overused staple of the magazine's content. However in 1991, after only two years, Matheson was forced to sell, in order to avoid bankruptcy due to mounting debts. The magazine (and more importantly the rights to the brand name "National Lampoon") were bought by a company called J2 Communications, headed by James P. Jimirro. (J2 was previously known for marketing Tim Conway's "Dorf" videos.) J2 Communications' focus was to make money by licensing out the brand name "National Lampoon". The company was contractually obliged to publish at least one new issue of the magazine per year in order to retain the rights to the Lampoon name. However the company had very little interest in the magazine itself, and thus, throughout the 1990s, the number of issues per year declined precipitously and erratically. In 1991 there was an attempt at monthly publication: nine issues were produced that year. Only two issues were released in 1992. This was followed by one issue in 1993, five in 1994 and three in 1995. For the last three years of its existence the magazine was published only once annually. The magazine's final print publication was November 1998, after which the contract was renegotiated, and in a sharp reversal J2 Communications was then prohibited from publishing issues of the magazine. J2 still however owned the rights to the brand name, which it continued to franchise out to other users. In 2002 the brand name was purchased from J2 Communications by Dan Laikin, current CEO of a company which was subsequently entitled "National Lampoon Inc". (This is a separate and distinct company from "National Lampoon, Inc", the subsidiary of 21st Century Communications which oversaw the magazine during its 1970s heyday.) References Books about the Lampoon Going Too Far, Tony Hendra, 1987, Doubleday, New York. ISBN 978-0385232234 Mr. Mike: the Life and Work of Michael O'Donoghue, Dennis Perrin, 1998, AvonBooks, New York. ISBN 978-0380973309 A Futile and Stupid Gesture: How Doug Kenney and National Lampoon Changed Comedy Forever, Josh Karp, 2006. ISBN 1556526024 If You Don't Buy This Book, We'll Kill This Dog! Life, Laughs, Love, & Death at National Lampoon 1994, Matty Simmons, Bariccade Books, New York. ISBN 978-1569800027 External links Mark's Very Large National Lampoon website Gallery of all National Lampoon covers, 1970-1998 Two part interview with the Lampoon's first female contributing editor, Anne Beatts, on her involvement with the magazine: Part One / Part Two Gallery of art director Michael Gross' covers and art [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/03/arts/03tapp.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5090&en=7912f064b27caa5b&ex=1278043200&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss "National Lampoon Grows Up By Dumbing Down] by Jake Tapper, The New York Times'', July 3 2005. 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5,069 | NASCAR | Nascar Sprint Cup's newest car design "The CoT" (Car of Tomorrow) The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) is a family-owned and operated business venture that sanctions and governs multiple auto racing sports events; and was founded by Bill France Sr. in 1947-48. As of 2009, the CEO for the company is Brian France, grandson of the late Bill France Sr. NASCAR is the largest sanctioning body of stock car racing in the United States. The three largest racing series sanctioned by NASCAR are the Sprint Cup, the Nationwide Series and the Camping World Truck Series. It also oversees NASCAR Local Racing, the Whelen Modified Tour, and the Whelen All-American Series. NASCAR sanctions over 1,500 races at over 100 tracks in 39 states, Canada, and Mexico. NASCAR has presented exhibition races in Suzuka City, Japan, Motegi City, Japan, and Melbourne, Australia. NASCAR's headquarters are located in Daytona Beach, Florida, although it also maintains offices in four North Carolina cities: Charlotte, Mooresville, Concord, and Conover. Regional offices are also located in New York City, Los Angeles, Bentonville, Arkansas, and international offices in Mexico City and Toronto. Additionally, owing to its southern roots, all but a handful of NASCAR teams are still based in North Carolina, especially near Charlotte. In October 2000, the Time Warner Company, Turner Sports Interactive, acquired all of NASCAR's interactive rights and the rights to the nascar.com domain. As of January 2001, Turner Sports Interactive is the exclusive producer, and NASCAR.com is the official site for NASCAR Inc. The NASCAR.COM staff is located in Atlanta, GA., with additional personnel in Charlotte, NC., and Daytona FL. The nascar.com domain is currently leased through Network Solutions, and extends through the year 2016. NASCAR is one of the most viewed professional sports in terms of television ratings in the United States. Internationally, NASCAR races are broadcast in over 150 countries. NASCAR holds 17 of the top 20 attended single-day sporting events in the U.S. http://www.publicvenuesecurity.com/articles/411feat3.html , and claims 75 million fans who purchase over $3 billion in annual licensed product sales. Many marketers consider NASCAR fans the most brand-loyal in all of sports and as a result, Fortune 500 companies sponsor NASCAR more than any other Motor Sport. Harris, Mike, Associated Press, 19 February 1995, The New Orleans Times-Picayune,C1 History Early stock car racing In the 1920s and 1930s, Daytona Beach became known as the place to set world land speed records, supplanting France and Belgium as the preferred location for land speed records, with 8 consecutive world records set between 1927 and 1935. After a historic race between Ransom Olds and Alexander Winton in 1903, the beach became a mecca for racing enthusiasts and fifteen records were set on what became the Daytona Beach road course between 1905 and 1935. By the time the Bonneville Salt Flats became the premier location for pursuit of land speed records, in 1936, Daytona beach had become synonymous with fast cars. Drivers raced on a course, consisting of a 1.5 to stretch of beach as one straightaway, and a narrow blacktop beachfront highway, A1A, as the other. The two straights were connected by 2 tight, deeply rutted and sand covered turns at each end. Stock car racing in the United States has its origins in bootlegging during Prohibition, when drivers ran bootleg whiskey made in Appalachia region of the United States. Bootleggers needed to distribute their illicit products, and they typically used small, fast vehicles to better evade the police. Many of the drivers would modify their cars for speed and handling, as well as increased cargo capacity, and some of them came to love the fast-paced driving down twisty mountain roads. One of the main 'strips' in Knoxville, Tennessee, had its beginning as a mecca for aspiring bootlegging drivers. The repeal of Prohibition in 1933 dried up some of their business, but by then Southerners had developed a taste for moonshine, and a number of the drivers continued "runnin' shine," this time evading the "revenuers" who were attempting to tax their operations. The cars continued to improve, and by the late 1940s, races featuring these cars were being run for pride and profit. These races were popular entertainment in the rural Southern United States, and they are most closely associated with the Wilkes County region of North Carolina. Most races in those days were of modified cars. Street vehicles were lightened and reinforced. Significant people William France, Sr. Mechanic William France, Sr., moved to Daytona Beach, Florida, from Washington, DC, in 1935 to escape the Great Depression. He was familiar with the history of the area from the land speed record attempts. France entered the 1936 Daytona event, finishing fifth. He took over running the course in 1938. He promoted a few races before World War II. France had the notion that people would enjoy watching "stock cars" race. Drivers were frequently victimized by unscrupulous promoters who would leave events with all the money before drivers were paid. In 1947, he decided this racing would not grow without a formal sanctioning organization, standardized rules, regular schedule, and an organized championship. On December 14 1947, France began talks with other influential racers and promoters at the Ebony Bar at the Streamline Hotel at Daytona Beach, Florida, that ended with the formation of NASCAR on February 21 1948. Induction in the Automotive Hall of Fame, Retrieved April 18 2009 Erwin "Cannonball" Baker The first Commissioner of NASCAR was Erwin "Cannonball" Baker. A former stock car, motorcycle, and open-wheel racer who competed in the Indianapolis 500 and set over one hundred land speed records. Cannonball Baker earned most of his fame for his transcontinental speed runs. Baker would prove a car's worth by driving it from New York to Los Angeles. After his death, the famous transcontinental race the 'Cannonball Run' and the film that was inspired by it were both named in his honor. Baker is enshrined in the Automotive Hall of Fame, The Motorcycle Hall of Fame, The Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame, and The NASCAR Hall of Fame. This level of honor and success in each diverse racing association earned Baker the title of "King of the Road". Lap #1 How Barky Got Started RACING, Davis Motorsports, reminiscence by Bob Barkhimer, former race driver and Business Manager for BCRA (Bay Cities Racing Association) and NASCAR co-founder Bob "Barky" Barkhimer In the early 1950s the United States Navy stationed Bill France, Jr., at the Moffett Federal Airfield in northern California. His father asked him to look up Bob Barkhimer in San Jose, California. Barkhimer was a star of midget car racing from the World War II era, and later ran about 22 different speedways as the head of the California Stock Car Racing Association. Young Bill developed a relationship with Bob Barkhimer and his partner, Margo Burke. He went to events with them, stayed weekends with them and generally became very familiar with racing on the west coast. "Barky," as he was called by his friends, journeyed to Daytona Beach and met with Bill France, Sr. In the spring of 1954, NASCAR became the stock car sanctioning body on the Pacific Coast under Barky. Founding On March 8, 1936, a collection of drivers gathered at Daytona Beach, Florida. The drivers brought coupes. hardtops, convertibles, and sports cars to compete in an event to determine the fastest cars, and best drivers. Throughout the race, the heavier cars got bogged down in the sand, while the lightweight Fords navigated the ruts of the course, eventually claiming the top 6 finishes for the race. Of the 27 cars that started the event, only 10 managed to survive the ordeal, as officials halted the event 10 miles short of the scheduled 250 mile distance. Driver Milt Marion was declared the winner, and a young Bill France placed 5th at the end of the day. By early 1947 Bill France saw the potential for a unified series of racing competitors. France announced the foundation of the "National Championship Stock Car Series", otherwise known as NCSSC. France approached the American Automobile Association, or AAA, in hopes of obtaining financial backing for the venture. When the AAA declined support of the venture, France proceeded to announce a set of rules and awards for the NCSSC. France declared that the winner of the 1947 NCSSC season would receive $1000.00, and a trophy. The season would begin in January 1947 at the Daytona Beach track, and conclude in Jacksonville the following December. Nearly 40 events were logged during the season, and attendance often exceeded the venue's capacity. The competitors were paid as promised, and by the end of the season, driver Flonty Flock was declared the season champion after winning 7 events of the 24 that he entered. Bill France delivered the $1000 and 4 foot high trophy to Flock at the end of the season, along with $3000 in prize money to other drivers who competed throughout the season. At the end of the 1947 season, Bill France announced that there would be a series of meetings held at the Streamline Hotel in Florida, beginning on December 14, 1947. At 1:00 pm, France called to order the 35 men who represented the NCSCC on the top floor of the hotel. The meeting was the first of four seminars in which France would outline his vision of an organized group of race car drivers. NASCAR was founded by William France, Sr., on February 21 1948, with the help of several other drivers of the time. The points system was written on a bar room napkin. The original plans for NASCAR included three distinct divisions: Modified, Roadster, and Strictly Stock. The Modified and Roadster classes were seen as more attractive to fans. It turned out that NASCAR fans wanted nothing to do with the roadsters, which fans perceived as a Northeast or Midwest series. The roadster division was quickly abandoned, while the modified division now operates as the Whelen Modified Tour. The Strictly Stock division was put on hold as American automobile manufacturers were unable to produce family sedans quickly enough to keep up with post-World War II demand. The 1948 schedule featured 52 Modified dirt track races. The sanctioning body hosted its first event at Daytona Beach on February 15 1948. Red Byron beat Marshall Teague in the Modified division race. Byron won the 1948 national championship. Things had changed dramatically by 1949, and the Strictly Stock division was able to debut with a exhibition in February near Miami. The first NASCAR "Strictly Stock" race ever was held at Charlotte Speedway, although this is not the same track as the Charlotte Motor Speedway that is a fixture on current NASCAR schedule. The race was held on June 19 1949, and won by driver Jim Roper when Glenn Dunnaway was disqualified after the discovery of his altered rear springs. Initially, the cars were known as the "Strictly Stock Division" and raced with virtually no modifications on the factory models. This division was renamed the "Grand National" division beginning in the 1950 season. Over a period of more than a decade, modifications for both safety and performance were allowed, and by the mid-1960s, the vehicles were purpose-built race cars with a stock-appearing body. Richard Petty's 1970 426 C.I. Plymouth Superbird on display The first NASCAR competition held outside of the U.S. was in Canada, where on July 1 1952, Buddy Shuman won a 200-lap race on a half-mile (800 m) dirt track in Stamford Park, Ontario, near Niagara Falls. Beginning of the modern era NASCAR made major changes in its structure in the early 1970s. The top series found sponsorship from R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (RJR). Tobacco companies, which had been banned from television advertising, found a popular and demographically suitable consumer base in NASCAR fans and engaged NASCAR as a promotional outlet. As a result of that sponsorship, the Grand National Series became known as the Winston Cup Series (today called the Sprint Cup Series) starting in 1971, with a new points system and some significant cash benefits to compete for championship points. In 1972, the season was shortened from 48 races (including two on dirt tracks) to 31. Fielden, Greg. NASCAR Chronicle. Publications International, Ltd., Lincolnwood, Illinois, USA, 2006. p. 36. 1972 is often acknowledged as the beginning of NASCAR's "modern era". The next competitive level, called Late Model Sportsman, gained the "Grand National" title passed down from the top division and soon found a sponsor in Busch Beer. ABC Sports aired partial or full live telecasts of Grand National races from Talladega, North Wilkesboro, Darlington, Charlotte, and Nashville in 1970. These events were less exciting than many GN races, and ABC abandoned live coverage. Races were instead broadcast, delayed and edited, on the ABC sports variety show "Wide World of Sports." Finally, in 1979, the Daytona 500 became the first stock car race that was nationally televised from flag to flag on CBS. The leaders going into the last lap, Cale Yarborough and Donnie Allison, wrecked on the backstretch while dicing for the lead, allowing Richard Petty to pass them both and win the race. Immediately, Yarborough, Allison, and Allison's brother Bobby were engaged in a fistfight on national television. This underlined the drama and emotion of the sport and increased its broadcast marketability. Luckily for NASCAR, the race coincided with a major snowstorm along the United States' eastern seaboard, successfully introducing much of the captive audience to the sport. NASCAR-sanctioned series Sprint Cup The "NASCAR Sprint Cup Series" is the sport's highest level of professional competition. It is consequently the most popular and most profitable NASCAR series. The 2006 Sprint Cup season consisted of 36 races over 10 months, with over $4 million in total prize money at stake at each race. Writers and fans often use "Cup" to refer to the Sprint Cup series and the ambiguous use of "NASCAR" as a synonym for the Sprint Cup series is common. The winner of the most recent season was Jimmie Johnson in 2008; Johnson was also the 2007 and 2006 champion. He is the first winner of three in a row since Cale Yarborough. In 2004, NEXTEL took over sponsorship of the premier series from R. J. Reynolds, who had sponsored it as the Winston Cup from 1972 until 2003, and formally renamed it the NEXTEL Cup Series. A new championship points system, "The Chase for the NEXTEL Cup " was also developed, which reset the point standings with ten races to go, making only drivers in the top ten or within 400 points of the leader eligible to win the championship. In 2007, NASCAR announced it was expanding "The Chase" from ten to twelve drivers, eliminating the 400-point cutoff, and giving a ten-point bonus to the top twelve drivers for each of the races they have won out of the first 26. Wins throughout the season will also be worth five more points than in previous seasons. In 2008, the premier series title name became the Sprint Cup Series and The Chase for The NEXTEL Cup became the "Chase for the Sprint Cup", as part of the merger between NEXTEL and Sprint. Nationwide Series The Nationwide Series field following the pace car at the O'Reilly 300 at Texas Motor Speedway The "NASCAR Nationwide Series" is the second-highest level of professional competition in NASCAR. The most recent series champion was Clint Bowyer in 2008. The modern incarnation of this series began in 1982, with sponsorship by Anheuser-Busch Brewing's Budweiser brand. In 1984 it was renamed to the Busch Grand National Series. The Anheuser-Busch sponsorship expired at the end of 2007, and the series is now sponsored by Nationwide Insurance. Nationwide will also become NASCAR's official insurance agency replacing Allstate. The Nationwide Series is currently the only series of the top three to race outside the United States. The season is a few races shorter than that of the Sprint Cup, and the prize money is significantly lower. However, over the last several years, a number of Sprint Cup drivers have run both the Nationwide and Sprint Cup series events each weekend, using the Nationwide race as a warm-up to the Cup event at the same facility. Detractors of this practice believe this gives the Sprint Cup teams an unfair advantage, and that the presence of the Sprint Cup drivers squeezes out Nationwide Series competitors who would otherwise be able to qualify. These dual-series drivers have been labeled "Buschwhackers", a play on words which combines the original series sponsor's name with the notion of being bushwhacked. In May 2007, NNS director Joe Balash confirmed that NASCAR is exploring options to deal with the Buschwhacker controversy. One of the most often-cited proposals would be for Sprint Cup drivers participating in the Nationwide Series to receive no points for their participation in a Nationwide race. According to NASCAR Chairman Brian France, all options, except an outright ban of Cup competitors, are still being considered. Beginning in 2010, the Nationwide cars will adapt somewhat to the current "Car of Tomorrow" (or COT) design used by Cup cars, with different bodies from the Sprint Cup Series. Some critics hope that the discrepancy between the Nationwide and Sprint Cup cars will help solve the Buschwhacker problem by reducing the advantages of running both series. Camping World Truck Series Mike Skinner racing Todd Bodine in the Texas Craftsman Truck Series race. The '"NASCAR Camping World Truck Series" features modified pickup trucks. It is one of the three national divisions of NASCAR, together with the Nationwide Series and the Sprint Cup. The most recent series champion was Johnny Benson in 2008; It was Benson's first championship in the series. In 1994, NASCAR announced the formation of the NASCAR SuperTruck Series presented by Craftsman. The first series race followed in 1995. In 1996, the series was renamed the NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series to emphasize Craftsman's involvement. The series was first considered something of an oddity or a "senior tour" for NASCAR drivers, but eventually grew in popularity and has produced Sprint Cup series drivers who had never raced in the Nationwide Series. Beginning in 2009 the series will become the Camping World Truck Series. NASCAR Canadian Tire Series NASCAR Canadian Tire Series Logo NASCAR announced the purchase of Canadian racing series CASCAR in September 2006. The CASCAR Western Series will become NASCAR's fourth-tier series starting in the Fall of 2007. NASCAR Corona Series In December 2006, NASCAR also announced the creation of a new series in Mexico, the NASCAR Corona Series, replacing the existing Desafío Corona Series, to begin in 2007. Regional racing series In addition to the five main series, NASCAR operates several other racing circuits. Many local race tracks across the United States and Canada run under the Whelen All-American Series banner, where local drivers are compared against each other in a formula where the best local track champion of the nation wins the Whelen All-American Weekly Series National Championship. The Whelen All-American series is split into four divisions. Each division champion receives a point-fund money payout and even more goes to the National champion (driver with most points out of the four division winners). The Whelen All-American Series is the base for stock car racing, developing NASCAR names such as Clint Bowyer, Jimmy Spencer, Tony Stewart, the Bodine brothers and many others along the way. NASCAR also sanctions two regional racing divisions. The Whelen Modified Tour races open-wheel "modified" cars in Northern and Southern divisions. The Camping World Series, which consists of East and West divisions, race cars that are similar to Nationwide Series cars, although they are less powerful. In the past, NASCAR also sanctioned the AutoZone Elite Division, which raced late-model cars that were lighter and less powerful than Sprint Cup cars, and was originally split into four divisions: Northwest, Southwest, Southeast, and Midwest. At the end of 2005, NASCAR announced that the AutoZone Elite Division would be discontinued after the 2006 season due to having trouble securing NASCAR-sanctioned tracks to successfully host AutoZone Elite Division events, plus escalating costs of competing and downsizing of the Division in recent years. In 2003, NASCAR standardized rules for its AutoZone Elite and Grand National divisions regional touring series as to permit cars in one series to race against cars in another series in the same division. The top 15 (Grand National) or 10 (AutoZone Elite) in each series will race in a one-race playoff, called the NASCAR Toyota All-Star Showdown, to determine the annual AutoZone Elite and Grand National champions. This event has been hosted at Irwindale Speedway in California since its inception. Many drivers move up through the series before reaching the Sprint Cup series. In 2002, over 9,000 drivers had licenses from NASCAR to race at all levels. The winners of the Dodge Weekly Series National Championship, the four AutoZone Elite Divisions, the two Whelen Modified and Grand National Divisions, and the three national series are invited to New York City in December to participate in Champions Week ceremonies which conclude with the annual awards banquet at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. Driver safety Although NASCAR frequently publicizes the safety measures it mandates for drivers, these features are often only adopted long after they were initially developed. The impact-absorbing "SAFER Barrier" that is now in use had been proposed by legendary mechanic Smokey Yunick during the 1970s, but his idea had been dismissed as too expensive and unnecessary. Only after the deaths of Kenny Irwin, Tony Roper, Adam Petty, and Dale Earnhardt in 2000 and 2001 did NASCAR revisit the idea of decreasing the G-forces a driver sustained during a crash. Other examples of available safety features that were slow to be implemented include the mandating of a throttle "kill switch". The "kill switch" was mandated after the death of Adam Petty, along with the requirements of an anti-spill bladder in fuel cells. Fire-retardant driver suits were required only after the death of Glen "Fireball" Roberts, who died in a crash when flames engulfed his car during a Talladega race. Dale Earnhardt was killed after he received massive head and neck trauma from a hard crash in the 2001 Daytona 500. Earnhardt's death prompted NASCAR to require all drivers to use the "HANS Device" (Head And Neck Restraint System), a device that keeps the driver's neck from going forward in a wreck. Also with the introduction of the COT (Car of Tomorrow), safety features of the car itself has been greatly improved. The 2008 Dodge Charger CoT Criticism Similar to other professional leagues and sanctioning bodies, NASCAR has been the target of criticism on various topics from various sources. Some critics note the significant differences between today's NASCAR vehicles and true "stock" cars. Others frequently cite the dominance of the France family in NASCAR's business structure, policies, and decision making. Recently, the increased number of Cup drivers competing consistently in the Nationwide Series races has been hotly debated. Another general area of criticism, not only of NASCAR but other motorsports as well, includes questions about fuel consumption, emissions and pollution, and the use of lead additives in the gasoline. While other series, such as the FIA Formula 1 series have addressed these criticisms by instituting "green" mandates, NASCAR has not. As NASCAR has made moves to improve its national appeal, it has begun racing at new tracks, and ceased racing at some traditional ones — a sore spot for the traditional fan base. Most recently, NASCAR has been challenged on the types and frequency of caution flags, with some critics suggesting the outcome of races is being manipulated, and that the intention is not safety, as NASCAR claims, but closer racing. There have been numerous accidents during races and even some off the tracks, with several spectators receiving fatal injuries. It was revealed in 2008 that one wrongful death lawsuit against NASCAR was settled for $2.4 million. Education NASCAR Technical Institute located in Mooresville, North Carolina, is the country's first technical training school to combine a complete automotive technology program and a NASCAR-specific motor sports program, and is the exclusive educational partner of NASCAR. See also NASCAR rules and regulations NASCAR lore Car of Tomorrow List of NASCAR champions List of NASCAR drivers List of NASCAR race tracks List of current NASCAR races List of NASCAR seasons List of NASCAR teams List of NASCAR drivers who have won in each of top three series Closest NASCAR Sprint Cup Series finishes NASCAR dad NASCAR Hall of Fame NASCAR Rookie of the Year NASCAR Video Games NASCAR Angels Notes <cite id="fn_1">Note 1: The largest NASCAR tracks can accommodate upwards of 170,000 people in the stands and infield, far larger than any non-motorsport venue in North America. References External links NASCAR.COM - The Official Site of NASCAR NASCAR Technology - from PopularMechanics.com Results of Every Race in NASCAR History at Racing-Reference.info NASCAR Video on ESPN Video Archive | NASCAR |@lemmatized nascar:105 sprint:24 cup:33 new:9 car:44 design:2 cot:4 tomorrow:4 national:19 association:5 stock:18 auto:2 racing:9 family:3 operated:1 business:4 venture:3 sanction:9 governs:1 multiple:1 race:72 sport:15 event:16 found:3 bill:9 france:24 sr:6 ceo:1 company:5 brian:2 grandson:1 late:4 large:4 body:6 united:9 state:10 three:7 series:82 nationwide:18 camping:3 world:11 truck:7 also:12 oversee:1 local:4 whelen:9 modify:9 tour:5 american:7 track:13 canada:3 mexico:3 present:2 exhibition:2 suzuka:1 city:7 japan:2 motegi:1 melbourne:1 australia:1 headquarters:1 locate:4 daytona:14 beach:12 florida:5 although:4 maintain:1 office:3 four:6 north:6 carolina:4 charlotte:6 mooresville:2 concord:1 conover:1 regional:4 york:3 los:2 angeles:2 bentonville:1 arkansas:1 international:2 toronto:1 additionally:1 owe:1 southern:3 root:1 handful:1 team:3 still:2 base:4 especially:1 near:3 october:1 time:5 warner:1 turner:2 interactive:3 acquire:1 right:2 com:7 domain:2 january:2 exclusive:2 producer:1 official:4 site:2 inc:1 staff:1 atlanta:1 ga:1 additional:1 personnel:1 nc:1 fl:1 currently:2 lease:1 network:1 solution:1 extend:1 year:4 one:10 viewed:1 professional:4 term:1 television:3 rating:1 internationally:1 broadcast:3 country:2 hold:6 top:10 attend:1 single:1 day:3 u:2 http:1 www:1 publicvenuesecurity:1 article:1 html:1 claim:3 million:3 fan:8 purchase:2 billion:1 annual:3 licensed:1 product:2 sale:1 many:6 marketer:1 consider:3 brand:2 loyal:1 result:3 fortune:1 sponsor:5 motor:5 harris:1 mike:2 associated:1 press:1 february:5 orleans:1 picayune:1 history:3 early:4 become:14 know:4 place:2 set:5 land:5 speed:7 record:7 supplant:1 belgium:1 preferred:1 location:2 consecutive:1 historic:1 ransom:1 old:1 alexander:1 winton:1 mecca:2 enthusiast:1 fifteen:1 road:3 course:4 bonneville:1 salt:1 flat:1 premier:3 pursuit:1 synonymous:1 fast:4 driver:39 consist:3 stretch:1 straightaway:1 narrow:1 blacktop:1 beachfront:1 highway:1 two:4 straight:1 connect:1 tight:1 deeply:1 rut:2 sand:2 cover:1 turn:2 end:8 origin:1 bootleg:3 prohibition:2 run:9 whiskey:1 make:4 appalachia:1 region:2 bootlegger:1 need:1 distribute:1 illicit:1 typically:1 use:8 small:1 vehicle:4 good:1 evade:2 police:1 would:12 handling:1 well:2 increase:2 cargo:1 capacity:2 come:1 love:1 pace:2 drive:2 twisty:1 mountain:1 main:2 strip:1 knoxville:1 tennessee:1 beginning:3 aspire:1 repeal:1 dry:1 southerner:1 develop:5 taste:1 moonshine:1 number:3 continue:2 runnin:1 shine:1 revenuer:1 attempt:2 tax:1 operation:1 improve:3 feature:6 pride:1 profit:1 popular:3 entertainment:1 rural:1 closely:1 associate:1 wilkes:1 county:1 modified:4 street:1 lighten:1 reinforce:1 significant:3 people:3 william:3 mechanic:2 move:3 washington:1 dc:1 escape:1 great:1 depression:1 familiar:2 area:2 enter:2 finish:3 fifth:1 take:2 promote:1 war:3 ii:3 notion:2 enjoy:1 watch:1 frequently:3 victimize:1 unscrupulous:1 promoter:2 leave:1 money:5 pay:2 decide:1 grow:2 without:1 formal:1 sanctioning:1 organization:1 standardize:2 rule:4 regular:1 schedule:3 organize:2 championship:9 december:5 begin:9 talk:1 influential:1 racer:2 ebony:1 bar:2 streamline:2 hotel:4 formation:2 induction:1 automotive:3 hall:6 fame:7 retrieve:1 april:1 erwin:2 cannonball:4 baker:6 first:12 commissioner:1 former:2 motorcycle:2 open:2 wheel:2 compete:6 indianapolis:2 hundred:1 earn:2 transcontinental:2 prove:1 worth:2 death:6 famous:1 film:1 inspire:1 name:4 honor:2 enshrine:1 speedway:6 level:5 success:1 diverse:1 title:3 king:1 lap:3 barky:4 get:2 started:1 davis:1 motorsports:2 reminiscence:1 bob:4 barkhimer:5 manager:1 bcra:1 bay:1 co:1 founder:1 navy:1 station:1 jr:1 moffett:1 federal:1 airfield:1 northern:2 california:4 father:1 ask:1 look:1 san:1 jose:1 star:2 midget:1 era:3 later:1 different:2 head:3 young:2 relationship:1 partner:2 margo:1 burke:1 go:5 stay:1 weekend:2 generally:1 west:2 coast:2 call:5 friend:1 journey:1 meet:1 spring:2 pacific:1 march:1 collection:1 gather:1 bring:1 coupe:1 hardtop:1 convertible:1 determine:2 best:2 throughout:3 heavy:1 bogged:1 lightweight:1 ford:1 navigate:1 eventually:2 start:3 manage:1 survive:1 ordeal:1 halt:1 mile:3 short:2 scheduled:1 distance:1 milt:1 marion:1 declare:3 winner:6 saw:1 potential:1 unified:1 competitor:4 announce:8 foundation:1 otherwise:2 ncssc:3 approach:1 automobile:2 aaa:2 hope:2 obtain:1 financial:1 backing:1 decline:1 support:1 proceed:1 award:2 season:17 receive:5 trophy:2 conclude:2 jacksonville:1 following:1 nearly:1 log:1 attendance:1 often:5 exceed:1 venue:2 promise:1 flonty:1 flock:2 champion:10 win:10 deliver:1 foot:1 high:3 along:4 prize:3 meeting:2 pm:1 order:1 men:1 represent:1 ncscc:1 floor:1 seminar:1 outline:1 vision:1 group:1 help:2 several:4 point:12 system:4 write:1 room:1 napkin:1 original:2 plan:1 include:4 distinct:1 division:26 roadster:4 strictly:5 class:1 see:2 attractive:1 want:1 nothing:1 perceive:1 northeast:1 midwest:2 quickly:2 abandon:2 operate:2 put:1 manufacturer:1 unable:1 produce:2 sedan:1 enough:1 keep:2 post:1 demand:1 dirt:3 host:3 red:1 byron:2 beat:1 marshall:1 teague:1 thing:1 change:2 dramatically:1 able:2 debut:1 miami:1 ever:1 fixture:1 current:3 june:1 jim:1 roper:2 glenn:1 dunnaway:1 disqualify:1 discovery:1 altered:1 rear:1 initially:2 virtually:1 modification:2 factory:1 model:3 rename:4 grand:9 period:1 decade:1 safety:6 performance:1 allow:2 mid:1 purpose:1 build:1 appear:1 richard:2 petty:4 c:1 plymouth:1 superbird:1 display:1 competition:3 outside:2 july:1 buddy:1 shuman:1 half:1 stamford:1 park:1 ontario:1 niagara:1 fall:2 modern:3 major:2 structure:2 find:3 sponsorship:5 r:2 j:2 reynolds:2 tobacco:2 rjr:1 ban:2 advertising:1 demographically:1 suitable:1 consumer:1 engage:2 promotional:1 outlet:1 winston:2 today:2 cash:1 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previous:1 part:1 merger:1 field:1 follow:2 reilly:1 texas:2 second:1 clint:2 bowyer:2 incarnation:1 anheuser:2 brewing:1 budweiser:1 expire:1 insurance:2 agency:1 replace:2 allstate:1 significantly:1 low:1 however:1 warm:1 facility:1 detractor:1 practice:1 believe:1 unfair:1 advantage:2 presence:1 squeeze:1 qualify:1 dual:1 label:1 buschwhackers:1 play:1 word:1 combine:2 bushwhack:1 may:1 nns:1 director:1 joe:1 balash:1 confirm:1 explore:1 option:2 deal:1 buschwhacker:2 controversy:1 cite:3 proposal:1 participate:2 participation:1 accord:1 chairman:1 except:1 outright:1 adapt:1 somewhat:1 critic:3 discrepancy:1 solve:1 problem:1 reduce:1 camp:2 skinner:1 todd:1 bodine:2 craftsman:4 pickup:1 together:1 johnny:1 benson:2 supertruck:1 emphasize:1 involvement:1 something:1 oddity:1 senior:1 popularity:1 never:1 canadian:3 tire:2 logo:1 cascar:2 september:1 western:1 fourth:1 tier:1 corona:3 creation:1 exist:1 desafío:1 addition:1 circuit:1 across:1 banner:1 compare:1 formula:2 nation:1 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5,070 | Dachshund | {{Infobox Dogbreed |name = Dachshund |image = short-haired-Dachshund.jpg |image_caption = A short-haired standard dachshund |nickname = Doxie (US), Dackel or Teckel (GER, FR), wiener dog/hotdog (US), sausage dog (UK/US/AUS/NZ), Worshond, Weenie Dog (US) (S.A.) |fcisection = 1 |fcinum = 148 |fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:g3iEOGxB_EAJ:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/148gb99.doc+site:www.fci.be+%22148+/+13.+07.+2001%22&hl=en&ie=UTF-8 |akcgroup = Hound |akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/recbreeds/dach.cfm |ankcgroup = Group 4 - (Hounds) |ankcstd =/dachmwh.html miniature wire-haired] |ckcgroup = dfshfffffffffffffffffzghjfgnfghdgh|nzkcgroup = Hounds |nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br428.html long-haired]smooth-hairedwire-haired[http://www.nzkc.orgoh ' miniature smooth-haired]miniature wire-haired |ukcgroup = Scenthound Breeds |ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/scenthounds/dachshund.std.shtml |}} The dachshund is a short-legged, elongated dog breed of the hound family. Variations of the pronunciation include däks'hoont, -hʊnt, -hʊnd, -ənd, dɑks-, dæks-, dæʃ-), the breed's name is German and literally means "badger dog", from [der] Dachs, "badger", and [der] Hund, "dog". Due to the long, narrow build, they are sometimes referred to as a wiener dog or a sausage dog. Not withstanding the German origin of the dachshund's name, within German-speaking countries, the breed is known—both formally and informally—as the Dackel or Teckel. While classified as a hound in English-speaking countries, some consider the classification to be in error, speculating that it arose from the fact that the German word Hund is similar to the English word hound. In fact, many dachshunds, especially the wire-haired sub type, exhibit behavior and appearance that are far more similar to that of the terrier group of dogs. The standard size was developed to scent, chase, and flush badgers and other burrow-dwelling animals, while the miniature was developed to hunt rabbits. Characteristics Appearance The typical dachshund is long-bodied and muscular. They are also known for their short and stubby legs. There are three types: wired-haired, short-haired, and long-haired. Size A standard long-haired dachshund (left) and miniature short-haired dachshund (right) Dachshunds come in three sizes: standard, miniature, and kaninchen. Although the first two sizes are recognized almost universally, the third size (which means rabbit) is recognized only by non-English speaking clubs like the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (World Canine Federation) (FCI). A full-grown standard dachshund averages to , while the miniature variety normally weighs less than . The kaninchen weighs to . According to most kennel club standards, the miniature (and kaninchen, where recognized) variety differs from the full-size only by size and weight, thus offspring from miniature parents must never weigh more than the miniature standard to be considered a miniature as well. While most kennel club size divisions use weight for classification, other kennel club standards determine the difference between the miniature and standard by chest circumference; some kennel clubs even measure chest circumference in addition to height and weight. H. L. Mencken said that "A dachshund is a half-dog high and a dog-and-a-half long," although many poems and songs refer to them as "two dogs long". This characteristic has led them to be quite a recognizable breed, and they are featured in many a joke and cartoon, particularly The Far Side by Gary Larson. Coat and color Black and tan double dapple smooth-haired miniature dachshund with one blue eye and one brown eye Dachshunds exhibit three coat varieties: smooth coat (short hair), long hair, and wire-hair. Wire hair is the least commonly seen coat in the US (it is the most common in Germany) and the most recent coat to appear in breeding standards. Many people are unfamiliar with wire-hairs and commonly mistake them for other breeds. Dachshunds have a wide variety of colors and patterns. They can be single-colored, single colored with spots ("dappled"—called "merle" in other dog breeds), and single-colored with tan points plus any pattern. Dachshunds also come in Piebald. The piebald has a white background with various shades of brown. The dominant color is red, the most common along with black and tan. Two-colored dogs can be black, wild boar, chocolate, or fawn ("Isabella") with tan "points", or markings over the eyes, ears, paws, and tail, of tan or cream. A two-colored dachshund would be called by its dominant color first followed by the point color, such as "black and tan" or "chocolate and cream". Other patterns include piebald, in which a white pattern is imposed upon the base color or any other pattern, and a lighter "boar" red. The reds range from coppers to deep rusts, with or without somewhat common black hairs peppered along the back, tail, face, and ear edges, lending much character and an almost burnished appearance; this is referred to among breeders and enthusiasts as a "stag" or an "overlay" or "sable". True sable is a dachshund with each single hair banded with three colors: light at the base of the hair, red in the middle, black at the end. An additional, striking coat marking is the brindle pattern. "Brindle" refers to dark stripes over a solid background, usually red; if a dachshund is brindled on a dark coat and has tan points, you will see brindling on the tan points only. Even one single, lone stripe of brindle is brindle. If a dachshund has one single spot of dapple, it is a dapple. Solid black and solid chocolate dachshunds occur and, even though dogs with such coloration are often considered handsome, the colors are nonstandard, that is, the dogs are frowned upon in the conformation ring in the US and Canada. Chocolate is commonly confused with dilute red. Additionally, according to the conformation judges of the Dachshund Club of America (DCA) and the American Kennel Club (AKC) the piebald pattern is nonstandard. However, The Piebald dachshund can still be shown, the ONLY disqualifying Fault in Dachshunds is Knuckling over. While some judges choose to dismiss a dog of color, many choose to judge them and those who are actually judging the dog will look past the cosmetic color of a dog and judge the conformation of the dog FIRST. There were several Piebald dachshunds that became AKC Champions in 2008. All things being equal between the dogs in the ring, the traditional colors which are listed in the Official AKC Standard (governed by DCA) should be put up. Light-colored dachshunds can sport amber, light brown, or green eyes; however, kennel club standards state that the darker the eye color, the better. They can also have eyes of two different colors; however, this is only found in dapple and double dapple dachshunds. Dachshunds can have a blue and a brown eye. Blue eyes, partially blue eyes, or a blue eye and a brown eye are called "wall" coloring, not considered a non-desirable trait in kennel club standards. The standard was changed by the DCA in 2007 to exclude the wording double-dapple from the standard and strictly use the wording dapple. The reason is that the double merle gene is linked to blindness and deafness. Wall-eye is permissible. Piebald-patterned dachshunds will never have blue in their eyes, unless the dapple pattern is present. Temperament A long-haired standard dachshund Dachshunds are playful, fun dogs, known for their propensity for chasing small animals, birds, and tennis balls with great determination and ferocity. Many dachshunds are stubborn, making them a challenge to train. They have a loud bark, making dachshunds good watchdogs. Dachshunds are known for their devotion and loyalty to their owners, though they can be standoffish towards strangers. If left alone, many dachshunds will whine until they have companionship. Like many dogs if left alone too frequently, some dachshunds are prone to separation anxiety and may chew objects in the house to relieve stress. They rank 49th in Stanley Coren's Intelligence of Dogs, being of average working and obedience intelligence. The dachshund will, in some cases, show above-average intelligence, being able to break out of improperly made cages or figuring out how to get their favorite blanket out of a basket. According to the American Kennel Club’s breed standards, "the dachshund is clever, lively and courageous to the point of rashness, persevering in above and below ground work, with all the senses well-developed. Any display of shyness is a serious fault." Their temperament and body language give the impression that they do not know or care about their relatively small size. Like many small hunting dogs, they will challenge a larger dog. Indulged dachshunds may become snappy. The dachshund's temperament may vary greatly from dog to dog. Long-haired dachshunds have a calmer, intelligent character inherited from the spaniel. Wire-hair doxies have much of the terrier's spunky personality. Many dachshunds do not like unfamiliar people, and many will growl or bark at them. Although the dachshund is generally an energetic dog, some are sedate. This dog's behavior is such that it is not the dog for everyone. A bored dachshund will become destructive. If raised improperly and not socialized at a young age, dachshunds can become aggressive or fearful. They require a caring owner who understands their need to have entertainment and exercise. The best way to prevent future anxiety or stress is to take your Dachshund with you to public places, such as parks, or just running errands. The more socialized your Dachshund is with people and other dogs, the better off it will be around strangers in the future. Although some might say Dachshunds may not be the best pets for small children, like any smaller breed dog they need the proper introduction at a young age. Otherwise they may be aggressive and bite an unfamiliar child, especially one that moves quickly around them. However, many Dachshunds are very tolerant and loyal to children within their family, but these children should be mindful of the vulnerability of the breed's back and not carry them around roughly. A 2008 University of Pennsylvania study of 6,000 dog owners who were interviewed indicated that dogs of smaller breeds were more likely to be "genetically predisposed towards aggressive behaviour". Dachshunds were rated the most aggressive, with 20% having bitten strangers, as well as high rates of attacks on other dogs and their owners. The study noted that attacks by small dogs were unlikely to cause serious injuries and because of this were probably under-reported. Why Sausage dogs are really just four-legged fiends Health Wire-haired dachshund The breed is known to have spinal problems, especially intervertebral disk disease (IVDD), due in part to an extremely long spinal column and short rib cage. V. F. Jensen, A. K. Ersbøll (2000) "Mechanical Factors affecting the Occurrence of Intervertebral Disc Calcification in the Dachshund - a Population Study", Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series A 47 (5), 283–296. The risk of injury may be worsened by obesity, jumping, rough handling, or intense exercise, which place greater strain on the vertebrae. Treatment consists of various combinations of crate confinement and courses of anti-inflammatory medications (steroids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like carprofen and meloxicam). Serious cases may require surgery to remove the troublesome disk contents. Sarit Dhupa BVSc, Nita Glickman MS, MPH, David J. Waters DVM, PhD, Diplomate ACVS (1999) "Reoperative Neurosurgery in Dogs With Thoracolumbar Disc Disease", Veterinary Surgery 28 (6), 421–428. A dog may need the aid of a cart to get around if paralysis occurs. A new minimally invasive procedure called "percutaneous laser disk ablation" has been developed at the Oklahoma State University Veterinary Hospital. On the Forefront: Prophylactic laser disk ablation in dogs at Oklahoma State University - Veterinary Medicine Originally, the procedure Bartels KE, Higbee RG, Bahr RJ, et al. Outcome of and complications associated with prophylactic percutaneous laser disk ablation in dogs with thoracolumbar disk disease: 277 cases (1992-2001). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003;222:1733-1739 was used in clinical trials AVMA - Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association - 222(12):1733 - Abstract only on dachshunds that had suffered previous back incidents. Since dachshunds are prone to back issues, the goal is to expand this treatment to dogs in a normal population. In addition to back problems, the breed is also prone to patellar luxation. Some double dapples have problems with deafness and blindness. Other health problems include hereditary epilepsy, granulomatous meningoencephalitis, dental issues, Cushings disease, thyroid problems, various allergies and atopies, and various eye conditions including cataracts, glaucoma, progressive retinal atrophy, corneal ulcers, nonucerative corneal disease, sudden acquired retinal degeneration, and cherry eye. Since the occurrence and severity of these health problems is largely hereditary, breeders are working to eliminate these characteristics. History Old-style dachshund showing the longer legs. Walter Rothschild Zoological Museum, Tring, England Some have theorized that the early roots of the dachshund go back to ancient Egypt, where engravings were made featuring short-legged hunting dogs. M. Zedda, P. Manca, V. Chisu, S. Gadau, G. Lepore, A. Genovese, V. Farina (2006) "Ancient Pompeian Dogs - Morphological and Morphometric Evidence for Different Canine Populations, Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia", Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series C 35 (5), 319–324. Recent discoveries by the American University in Cairo of mummified dachshund-like dogs from ancient Egyptian burial urns may lend credibility to this theory. But in its modern incarnation, the dachshund is a creation of German breeders and includes elements of German, French, and English hounds and terriers. Dachshunds have been kept by royal courts all over Europe, including that of Queen Victoria, who was particularly enamored of the breed. They were originally bred for hunting badgers by trailing them. The first verifiable references to the dachshund, originally named the "Dachs Kriecher" ("badger crawler") or "Dachs Krieger'''" ("badger warrior"), came from books written in the early 1700s. Prior to that, there exist references to "badger dogs" and "hole dogs", but these likely refer to purposes rather than to specific breeds. The original German dachshunds were larger than the modern full-size variety, weighing between 30 and 40 lb (14 to 18 kg), and originally came in straight-legged and crook-legged varieties (the modern dachshund is descended from the latter). Though the breed is famous for its use in exterminating badgers and badger-baiting, dachshunds were also commonly used for rabbit and fox hunting, for locating wounded deer, and in packs were known to hunt game as large as wild boar and as fierce as the wolverine. Double-dapple dachshunds are prone to eye disease and therefore are rare. It is generally believed that the breed was introduced to the United States between 1879 and 1885. The flap-down ears and famous curved tail of the dachshund have deliberately been bred into the dog. In the case of the ears, this is so that grass seeds, dirt, and other matter do not enter the ear canal. The curved tail is dual-purposed: to be seen more easily in long grass and, in the case of burrowing dachshunds, to help haul the dog out if it becomes stuck in a burrow. The smooth-haired dachshund is a cross between the German shorthaired pinscher, and the bracke. The long-haired dachshund is a cross between all the small dog breeds in the spaniel group, the German stoberhund, and the smooth-haired dachshund. The wire-haired dachshund is a cross between the smooth-haired dachshund, the Dandie Dinmont terrier, and the German wirehaired pinscher. Symbol of Germany Waldi, the mascot of the 1972 Summer Olympic Games Dachshunds have traditionally been viewed as a symbol of Germany. Political cartoonists commonly used the image of the dachshund to ridicule Germany. During World War I the dachshunds' popularity in the United States plummeted because of this association and there are even anecdotes such as a Dachshund being stoned to death on the high street of Berkhamstead, England at this time because of its association with the enemy. Graham Greene, A Sort of Life, p.49 The stigma of the association was revived to a lesser extent during World War II, though it was comparatively short-lived. German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was known for keeping dachshunds. Due to the association of the breed with Germany, the dachshund was chosen to be the first official mascot for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, with the name Waldi. Sports Some people train and enter their dachshund to compete in dachshund racing, such as the Wiener Nationals. Several races across the United States routinely draw several thousand attendees, including races in Buda, Texas; Davis, California;Phoenix, Arizona; Los Alamitos, California; Findlay, Ohio; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Kansas City, Kansas; Palo Alto, California; and Shakopee, Minnesota. There is also an annual dachshund run in Kennywood Park, located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, called the Wiener 100, and in Huntington, West Virginia called the Dachshund Dash. Despite the popularity of these events, the Dachshund Club of America opposes "wiener racing", as many greyhound tracks use the events to draw large crowds to their facilities. The DCA also is worried about potential injuries to dogs, due to their predisposition to back injuries. Another favorite sport is earthdog trials, in which dachshunds enter tunnels with dead ends and obstacles attempting to locate an artificial bait or live but caged and protected Rats. Dackel versus Teckel In Germany, dachshunds are widely called Dackel (both singular and plural). To be classified as a full Teckel, these dogs must undergo blood tracking tests. Classically, any dog of Dackel heritage is given an official tattoo upon one ear. After suitable training, the dog must then follow a blood trail that is at least 48 hours old successfully to its conclusion. Once this is completed, another tattoo is marked on the other ear to denote full Teckel rank. Teckel, whether tattooed or not, are bred for hunting purposes, and they tend to be visibly larger in their chests than their Dackel counterparts, though marginally shorter in length. Popularity Dachshunds are popular pets in the United States, ranking seventh in the 2008 AKC registration statistics. 2008 AKC Dog Registration Statistics They are popular with urban and apartment dwellers, ranking among the top ten most popular breeds in 76 of 190 major US cities surveyed by the AKC. 2006 AKC Top Breeds By City One will find varying degrees of organized local dachshund clubs in most major American cities, including New York, New Orleans, Los Angeles, and Chicago. The breed is popular in Germany, France, Switzerland, Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, and Japan. Dachshunds are famous for their peculiar size, body, and face. In popular culture William Randolf Hearst was an avid lover of dachshunds. When his own dachshund Helena died, he eulogized her in his "In The News" column. Belozerskaya, Marina The Medici Giraffe (2006) 371. Fred, E.B. White's dachshund, appeared in many of his famous essays. Lola bean is a black dachshund who has starred in many motion pictures, but is much more notably known for her vast awards and honors she has received for being one of the first dachshunds to function as a seeing eye dog. A collection of Gary Larson's Far Side cartoons was published in the 1990 book Wiener Dog Art. A special section was inserted that chronicled the presence and influence of dachshunds throughout the history of art. Lump, the pet of Pablo Picasso, who was thought to have inspired some of his artwork. (Pronounced: loomp; German for "Rascal") Picasso & Lump: A Dachshund's Odyssey tells the story of Picasso and Lump. Kevin Smith has a dachshund named Shecky. Jack Ruby the killer of U.S. President John F. Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald had a dachshund named Sheba who he often referred to as his wife. At the time he committed his infamous murder, he had four of them - although he'd had as many as ten. Bugliosi, Vincent Reclaiming History: The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy Norton. 2007 pg 8 Andy Warhol had a pair of dachshunds, Archie and Amos, whom he depicted in his paintings and mentioned frequently in his diaries. Stanley and Boodgie, immortalized on canvas by owner David Hockney, and published in the book David Hockney's Dog Days. Howie in the Bunnicula books Wadl and Hexl, Kaiser Wilhelm II's famous ferocious pair. Upon arriving at Archduke Franz Ferdinand's country seat, château Konopiste, on a semi-official visit, they promptly proceeded to do away with one of the Austro-Hungarian heir presumptive's priceless golden pheasants, thereby almost causing an international incident Senta, Kaiser Wilhelm II's companion during World War I and his exile to Huis Doorn. Senta died in 1927 at age 20 and is buried in the park of Huis Doorn, near the Kaiser's grave. Hot Dog in renegade Krypto the Superdog Schatzi (German for "little treasure") in That '70s Show Itchy Itchiford in All Dogs Go to Heaven Boots in Emergency! Dennis the Dachshund, a German sausage dog in the BBC's Children's Hour radio serial Toy Town, a scheming ne'er do well who spoke English with a German accent. Little Dog in 2 Stupid Dogs Slinky in Toy Story and Toy Story 2 Buster in Toy Story 2 Wiener Dog, the name of Norm Henderson's dachshund on The Norm Show Mr. Weenie in Open Season and Open Season 2 Jorge in Clifford's Puppy Days Both Augie Doggie and Doggie Daddy, from Hanna-Barbera are weiner dogs. Waldi, the mascot of the 1972 Summer Olympics Dinah the Dachshund Pretzel in Pretzel by H.A. and Margaret Rey Hundley in Curious George by H.A. and Margaret Rey Weenie, the pet of Oswald the Octopus, Oswald Oscar, in the comic strip Liberty Meadows. Schnitzel von Krumm, in the Hairy Maclary series of children's picture books by Lynley Dodd. The dogs of The Ugly Dachshund Willie from the books by Ezra Jack Keats Oliver in the anime series Ginga Nagareboshi Gin Bodo in Hausmeister Krause (a German sitcom) Origami in Raising Helen Rufus "The Red" (of Morehead, Kentucky). Credited for saving 4 children from a burning daycare in Kentucky. Has appeared on many talk shows. Belle Constantine Chappy, [Katakana: ベルコンスタンティンチャピ－] the name of the miniature dachshund owned by Japanese artist Gackt. In the early Mickey Mouse comics, Mickey had a dachshund named Weenie. When Cap Toys resurrected Stretch Armstrong in the 1990s, they also created Stretch's dog, a dachshund named Fetch Armstrong. Joe, owned by General Claire Lee Chennault and the mascot of Chennault's Flying Tigers of World War II. Shadow and Duke from the Shadow Adventures by Mavis Duke Hinton. Petey from Searching For A Starry Night by Christine Verstraete. Schultzie from Lady and the Tramp trying to tunnel out the Dog Pound while the dog quartet sings. Cheerio from Hank Zipzer Jepha Howard from The Used has a Long Haired Miniature named Zelda Wally - the dachshund in the Drabble comic Dusty- the dog of the Fariss family Dogs looking like dachshunds appear in the clip "Number 1" by Goldfrapp where they appear as plastic surgeons; though more probably they are Saluki. Harry Mulisch, one of the three famous Dutch postwar writers, owns a dachshund. He once said his dog is more intelligent than a lot of people. On the TV show iCarly there are many Dachshund-related items on their set. The character of the Baron in Edmund Goulding's classic film Grand Hotel (1932) is accompanied by a dachshund. On MTV's A Double Shot At Love with the Ikki Twins family visits, contestant Rosie owns a dachshund named Donkey. In Lewis Black's album Luther Burbank Performing Arts Center Blues, he remarks that it would be more fun to watch a dachshund defecate than hear Condoleezza Rice talk. Japanese singer Namie Amuro owns two Miniature Long-haired Dachshund, named Koto and Gat-chan. Blitzcrek , a mean Dachshund from, The Suite Life of Zack and Cody that belongs to Mr Moseby's business rival. Mike Graziola from Gennero'' has a Miniature named Artie, after Artie Lange See also Badger-baiting Nintendogs: Dachshund and Friends Chihuachshund Doxie-Pin References Further reading Dachshund Breed Standard Russian Kennel Club 13.03.2001 Dachshund Breed Standard Poland Kennel Club 09.05.2001 Dachushund Breed Standard American Kennel Club External links Dachshund Club of America, Inc. | Dachshund |@lemmatized infobox:1 dogbreed:1 name:15 dachshund:113 image:2 short:11 haired:24 jpg:1 standard:20 nickname:1 doxie:2 u:8 dackel:6 teckel:6 ger:1 fr:1 wiener:7 dog:73 hotdog:1 sausage:4 uk:1 aus:1 nz:2 worshond:1 weenie:4 fcisection:1 fcinum:1 fcistd:1 http:5 www:7 google:1 com:2 search:2 q:1 cache:1 fci:3 doc:1 site:1 hl:1 en:1 ie:1 utf:1 akcgroup:1 hound:7 akcstd:1 akc:8 org:2 breed:30 recbreeds:1 dach:1 cfm:1 ankcgroup:1 group:3 ankcstd:1 dachmwh:1 html:2 miniature:17 wire:10 ckcgroup:1 dfshfffffffffffffffffzghjfgnfghdgh:1 nzkcgroup:1 nzkcstd:1 nzkc:2 long:16 smooth:7 hairedwire:1 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5,071 | Inverse_function | A function ƒ and its inverse ƒ–1. Because ƒ maps a to 3, the inverse ƒ–1 maps 3 back to a. In mathematics, if ƒ is a function from A to B then an inverse function for ƒ is a function in the opposite direction, from B to A, with the property that a round trip (a composition) from A to B to A (or from B to A to B) returns each element of the initial set to itself. Thus, if an input x into the function ƒ produces an output y, then inputting y into the inverse function ƒ–1 (read f inverse, not to be confused with exponentiation) produces the output x. Not every function has an inverse; those that do are called invertible. For example, let ƒ be the function that converts a temperature in degrees Celsius to a temperature in degrees Fahrenheit: then its inverse function converts degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius: Or, suppose ƒ assigns each child in a family of three the year of its birth. An inverse function would tell us which child was born in a given year. However, if the family has twins (or triplets) then we cannot know which to name for their common birth year. As well, if we are given a year in which no child was born then we cannot name a child. But if each child was born in a separate year, and if we restrict attention to the three years in which a child was born, then we do have an inverse function. For example, Definitions If ƒ maps X to Y, then ƒ–1 maps Y back to X. Let ƒ be a function whose domain is the set X, and whose range is the set Y. Then, if it exists, the inverse of ƒ is the function ƒ–1 with domain Y and range X, defined by the following rule: Stated otherwise, a function is invertible if and only if its inverse relation is a function, in which case the inverse relation is the inverse function: the inverse relation is the relation obtained by switching x and y everywhere. Thus, an inverse function uniquely identifies the input x of another function based only on its output y, for all y ∈ Y. A function is invertible if and only if this rule defines a function. Not all functions have an inverse. For this rule to be applicable, each element y ∈ Y must correspond to exactly one element x ∈ X. This is generally stated as two conditions: Every corresponds to no more than one ; a function ƒ with this property is called one-to-one, or information-preserving, or an injection. Every corresponds to at least one ; a function ƒ with this property is called onto, or a surjection. In elementary mathematics, the domain is often assumed to be the real numbers, if not otherwise specified, and the range is assumed to be the image. Most functions encountered in elementary calculus do not have an inverse. Smith, William K. Inverse Functions, MacMillan, 1966 (p. 60). Example: square root The function ƒ(x) = y = x2 may or may not be invertible, depending on the domain and codomain. If the domain is the real numbers, then each element in Y would correspond to two different elements in X (±x), and therefore ƒ would not be invertible. More precisely, the square of x is not invertible because it is impossible to deduce from its output the sign of its input. Such a function is called non-injective or information-losing. Notice that neither the square root nor the principal square root function is the inverse of x2 because the first is not single-valued, and the second returns -x when x is negative. If the domain and codomain are both the non-negative numbers, then it is invertible, by the principal square root Inverses in higher mathematics The definition given above is commonly adopted in calculus. In higher mathematics, the notation means "ƒ is a function mapping elements of a set X to elements of a set Y". The source, X, is called the domain of ƒ, and the target, Y, is called the codomain. The codomain contains the range of ƒ as a subset, and is considered part of the definition of ƒ. When using codomains, the inverse of a function is required to have domain Y and codomain X. For the inverse to be defined on all of Y, every element of Y must lie in the range of the function ƒ. A function with this property is called onto or a surjection. Thus, a function with a codomain is invertible if and only if it is both one-to-one and onto. Such a function is called a one-to-one correspondence or a bijection, and has the property that every element corresponds to exactly one element . Inverses and composition If ƒ is an invertible function with domain X and range Y, then This statement is equivalent to the first of the above-given definitions of the inverse, and it becomes equivalent to the second definition if Y coincides with the codomain of ƒ. Using the composition of functions we can rewrite this statement as follows: where idX is the identity function on the set X. In category theory, this statement is used as the definition of an inverse morphism. If we think of composition as a kind of multiplication of functions, this identity says that the inverse of a function is analogous to a multiplicative inverse. This explains the origin of the notation ƒ–1. Note on notation The superscript notation for inverses can sometimes be confused with other uses of superscripts, especially when dealing with trigonometric and hyperbolic functions. To avoid this confusion, the notation ƒ[–1] is sometimes used. It is important to realize that ƒ–1(x) is not the same as ƒ(x)–1. In ƒ−1(x), the superscript "−1" is not an exponent. A similar notation is used in dynamical systems for iterated functions. For example, ƒ2 denotes two iterations of the function ƒ; if , then , or x + 2. In symbols: In calculus, ƒ(n), with parentheses, denotes the nth derivative of a function ƒ. For instance: In trigonometry, for historical reasons, sin2(x) usually does mean the square of sin(x): However, the expression sin-1(x) does not represent the multiplicative inverse to sin(x): It denotes the inverse function for sin(x) (actually a partial inverse; see below). To avoid confusion, an inverse trigonometric function is often indicated by the prefix "arc". For instance the inverse sine is typically called the arcsine: The function is the multiplicative inverse to the sine, and is called the cosecant. It is usually denoted csc x: Hyperbolic functions behave similarly, using the prefix "ar", as in arsinh(x), for the inverse function of sinh(x), and csch(x) for the multiplicative inverse of sinh(x). Properties Uniqueness If an inverse function exists for a given function ƒ, it is unique: it must be the inverse relation. Symmetry There is a symmetry between a function and its inverse. Specifically, if the inverse of ƒ is ƒ–1, then the inverse of ƒ–1 is the original function ƒ. In symbols: This follows because invertion of relations is an involution: if you repeat it, you get back to where you started. This statement is an obvious consequence of the above-explained deduction that, for ƒ to be invertible, it must be injective (first definition of the inverse) or bijective (second definition). The property of symmetry can be concisely expressed by the following formula: Inverse of a composition The inverse of is . The inverse of a composition of functions is given by the formula Notice that the order of ƒ and g have been reversed; to undo g followed by ƒ, we must first undo ƒ and then undo g. For example, let , and let . Then the composition is the function that first multiplies by three and then adds five: To reverse this process, we must first subtract five, and then divide by three: This is the composition . Self-inverses If X is a set, then the identity function on X is its own inverse: More generally, a function is equal to its own inverse if and only if the composition is equal to idx. Such a function is called an involution. Inverses in calculus Single-variable calculus is primarily concerned with functions that map real numbers to real numbers. Such functions are often defined through formulas, such as: A function ƒ from the real numbers to the real numbers possesses an inverse as long as it is one-to-one, i.e. as long as the graph of the function passes the horizontal line test. The following table shows several standard functions and their inverses: {| class="wikitable" align="center" |- !align="center"| Function ƒ(x) !align="center"| Inverse ƒ–1(y) !align="center"| Notes |- |align="center"| x + a |align="center"| y – a | |- |align="center"| a – x |align="center"| a – y | |- |align="center"| mx |align="center"| y / m | m ≠ 0 |- |align="center"| 1 / x |align="center"| 1 / y | x, y ≠ 0 |- |align="center"| x2 |align="center"| | x, y ≥ 0 only |- |align="center"| x3 |align="center"| | no restriction on x and y |- |align="center"| xp |align="center"| y1/p (i.e. ) | x, y ≥ 0 in general, p ≠ 0 |- |align="center"| ex |align="center"| ln y | y > 0 |- |align="center"| ax |align="center"| loga y | y > 0 and a > 0 |- |align="center"| trigonometric functions |align="center"| inverse trigonometric functions | various restrictions (see table below) |} Formula for the inverse One approach to finding a formula for ƒ–1, if it exists, is to solve the equation for x. For example, if ƒ is the function then we must solve the equation for x: Thus the inverse function ƒ–1 is given by the formula Sometimes the inverse of a function cannot be expressed by a formula. For example, if ƒ is the function then ƒ is one-to-one, and therefore possesses an inverse function ƒ–1. There is no simple formula for this inverse, since the equation cannot be solved algebraically for x. Graph of the inverse The graphs of and . The dotted line is . If ƒ and ƒ–1 are inverses, then the graph of the function is the same as the graph of the equation This is identical to the equation that defines the graph of ƒ, except that the roles of x and y have been reversed. Thus the graph of ƒ–1 can be obtained from the graph of ƒ by switching the positions of the x and y axes. This is equivalent to reflecting the graph across the line . Inverses and derivatives A continuous function ƒ is one-to-one (and hence invertible) if and only if it is either strictly increasing or decreasing (with no local maxima or minima). For example, the function is invertible, since the derivative is always positive. If the function ƒ is differentiable, then the inverse ƒ–1 will be differentiable as long as . The derivative of the inverse is given by the inverse function theorem: If we set , then the formula above can be written This result follows from the chain rule (see the article on inverse functions and differentiation). The inverse function theorem can be generalized to functions of several variables. Specifically, a differentiable function is invertible in a neighborhood of a point p as long as the Jacobian matrix of ƒ at p is invertible. In this case, the Jacobian of ƒ–1 at ƒ(p) is the matrix inverse of the Jacobian of ƒ at p. Generalizations Partial inverses The square root of x is a partial inverse to . Even if a function ƒ is not one-to-one, it may be possible to define a partial inverse of ƒ by restricting the domain. For example, the function is not one-to-one, since . However, the function becomes one-to-one if we restrict to the domain , in which case (If we instead restrict to the domain , then the inverse is the negative of the square root of x.) Alternatively, there is no need to restrict the domain if we are content with the inverse being a multivalued function: The inverse of this cubic function has three branches. Sometimes this multivalued inverse is called the full inverse of ƒ, and the portions (such as √x and −√x) are called branches. The most important branch of a multivalued function (e.g. the positive square root) is called the principal branch, and its value at y is called the principal value of ƒ–1(y). For a continuous function on the real line, one branch is required between each pair of local extrema. For example, the inverse of a cubic function with a local maximum and a local minimum has three branches (see the picture to the right). The arcsine is a partial inverse of the sine function. These considerations are particularly important for defining the inverses of trigonometric functions. For example, the sine function is not one-to-one, since for every real x (and more generally for every integer n). However, the sine is one-to-one on the interval , and the corresponding partial inverse is called the arcsine. This is considered the principal branch of the inverse sine, so the principal value of the inverse sine is always between –π⁄2 and π⁄2. The following table describes the principal branch of each inverse trigonometric function: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- !function !Range of usual principal value |- | sin–1 || –π⁄2 ≤ sin–1(x) ≤ π⁄2 |- | cos–1 || 0 ≤ cos–1(x) ≤π |- | tan–1 || –π⁄2 < tan–1(x) < π⁄2 |- | cot–1 || 0 < cot–1(x) < π |- | sec–1 || 0 ≤ sec–1(x) < π⁄2 or π⁄2 < sec–1(x) ≤ π |- | csc–1 || −π⁄2 ≤ csc–1(x) < 0 or 0 < csc–1(x) ≤ π⁄2 |- |} Left and right inverses If ƒ: X → Y, a left inverse for ƒ (or retraction of ƒ) is a function such that That is, the function g satisfies the rule Thus, g must equal the inverse of ƒ on the range of ƒ, but may take any values for elements of Y not in the range. A function ƒ has a left inverse if and only if it is injective. A right inverse for ƒ (or section of ƒ) is a function such that That is, the function h satisfies the rule Thus, h(y) may be any of the elements of x that map to y under ƒ. A function ƒ has a right inverse if and only if it is surjective (though constructing such an inverse in general requires the axiom of choice). An inverse which is both a left and right inverse must be unique; otherwise not. Likewise, if g is a left inverse for ƒ then ƒ may not be a right inverse for g; and if ƒ is a right inverse for g then g is not necessarily a left inverse for ƒ. Preimages If ƒ: X → Y is any function (not necessarily invertible), the preimage (or inverse image) of an element is the set of all elements of X that map to y: The preimage of y can be thought of as the image of y under the (multivalued) full inverse of the function f. Similarly, if S is any subset of Y, the preimage of S is the set of all elements of X that map to S: The preimage of a single element is sometimes called the fiber of y. When Y is the set of real numbers, it is common to refer to ƒ–1(y) as a level set. See also Inverse trigonometric function Logarithm Inverse function theorem Inverse functions and differentiation Inverse relation Inverse element References Bibliography | Inverse_function |@lemmatized function:103 ƒ:84 inverse:101 map:9 back:3 mathematics:4 b:5 opposite:1 direction:1 property:7 round:1 trip:1 composition:9 return:2 element:17 initial:1 set:12 thus:7 input:3 x:68 produce:2 output:4 inputting:1 read:1 f:2 confuse:2 exponentiation:1 every:7 call:17 invertible:15 example:11 let:4 convert:2 temperature:2 degree:4 celsius:2 fahrenheit:2 suppose:1 assign:1 child:6 family:2 three:6 year:6 birth:2 would:3 tell:1 u:1 bear:4 give:8 however:4 twin:1 triplet:1 cannot:4 know:1 name:2 common:2 well:1 separate:1 restrict:5 attention:1 definition:8 whose:2 domain:13 range:9 exist:3 define:7 following:2 rule:6 state:2 otherwise:3 relation:7 case:3 obtain:2 switch:2 everywhere:1 uniquely:1 identify:1 another:1 base:1 applicable:1 must:9 correspond:4 exactly:2 one:28 generally:3 two:3 condition:1 corresponds:1 information:2 preserving:1 injection:1 least:1 onto:3 surjection:2 elementary:2 often:3 assume:2 real:9 number:8 specify:1 image:3 encounter:1 calculus:5 smith:1 william:1 k:1 macmillan:1 p:7 square:9 root:7 may:6 depend:1 codomain:7 different:1 therefore:2 precisely:1 impossible:1 deduce:1 sign:1 non:2 injective:3 losing:1 notice:2 neither:1 principal:8 first:6 single:3 value:6 second:3 negative:3 high:2 commonly:1 adopt:1 notation:6 mean:2 source:1 target:1 contain:1 subset:2 consider:2 part:1 use:6 codomains:1 require:3 lie:1 correspondence:1 bijection:1 statement:4 equivalent:3 become:2 coincides:1 rewrite:1 follow:6 idx:2 identity:3 category:1 theory:1 morphism:1 think:2 kind:1 multiplication:1 say:1 analogous:1 multiplicative:4 explain:2 origin:1 note:2 superscript:3 sometimes:5 us:1 especially:1 deal:1 trigonometric:7 hyperbolic:2 avoid:2 confusion:2 important:3 realize:1 exponent:1 similar:1 dynamical:1 system:1 iterated:1 denotes:1 iteration:1 symbol:2 n:2 parenthesis:1 denote:3 nth:1 derivative:3 instance:2 trigonometry:1 historical:1 reason:1 usually:2 sin:6 expression:1 represent:1 actually:1 partial:6 see:5 indicate:1 prefix:2 arc:1 sine:7 typically:1 arcsine:3 cosecant:1 csc:4 behave:1 similarly:2 ar:1 arsinh:1 sinh:2 csch:1 uniqueness:1 unique:2 symmetry:3 specifically:2 original:1 invertion:1 involution:2 repeat:1 get:1 start:1 obvious:1 consequence:1 deduction:1 bijective:1 concisely:1 express:2 formula:9 order:1 g:10 reverse:3 undo:3 multiplies:1 add:1 five:2 process:1 subtract:1 divide:1 self:1 equal:3 variable:2 primarily:1 concern:1 possess:2 long:4 e:3 graph:9 pass:1 horizontal:1 line:4 test:1 table:3 show:1 several:2 standard:1 class:2 wikitable:2 align:25 center:25 mx:1 restriction:2 xp:1 general:2 ex:1 ln:1 ax:2 loga:1 various:1 approach:1 find:1 solve:3 equation:5 simple:1 since:4 algebraically:1 dotted:1 identical:1 except:1 role:1 position:1 reflect:1 across:1 derivatives:1 continuous:2 hence:1 either:1 strictly:1 increase:1 decrease:1 local:4 maximum:2 minimum:2 always:2 positive:2 differentiable:3 theorem:3 write:1 result:1 chain:1 article:1 differentiation:2 generalize:1 neighborhood:1 point:1 jacobian:3 matrix:2 generalization:1 inverses:1 even:1 possible:1 instead:1 alternatively:1 need:1 content:1 multivalued:4 cubic:2 branch:8 full:2 portion:1 pair:1 extremum:1 picture:1 right:7 consideration:1 particularly:1 integer:1 interval:1 corresponding:1 π:13 describe:1 style:1 text:1 usual:1 co:2 tan:2 cot:2 sec:3 leave:2 left:4 retraction:1 satisfy:2 take:1 section:1 h:2 surjective:1 though:1 construct:1 axiom:1 choice:1 likewise:1 necessarily:2 preimages:1 preimage:4 fiber:1 refer:1 level:1 also:1 logarithm:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 |@bigram inverse_ƒ:15 ƒ_ƒ:5 degree_celsius:2 degree_fahrenheit:2 invertible_inverse:1 domain_codomain:3 multiplicative_inverse:4 avoid_confusion:2 inverse_trigonometric:5 trigonometric_function:6 inverse_sine:5 class_wikitable:2 wikitable_align:1 align_center:25 dotted_line:1 jacobian_matrix:1 multivalued_function:2 π_π:2 axiom_choice:1 |
5,072 | Nerd | Nerd is a term often bearing a derogatory connotation or stereotype, that refers to a person who passionately pursues intellectual activities, esoteric knowledge, or other obscure interests rather than engaging in more social or popular activities. Therefore, a nerd is often excluded from physical activity and considered a loner by peers, or will tend to associate with like-minded people. Etymology The first documented appearance of the word "nerd" is as the name of a creature in Dr. Seuss's book If I Ran the Zoo (1950), in which the narrator Gerald McGrew claims that he would collect "a Nerkle, a Nerd, and a Seersucker too" for his imaginary zoo. American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition, p. 1212, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston - New York - London, 1992 Geisel, Theodor Seuss, If I Ran the Zoo, p. 47, Random House Books for Young Readers, New York, 1950 The slang meaning of the term dates back to 1951, when Newsweek magazine reported on its popular use in Detroit, Michigan. Newsweek (1951-10-8), p. 16 By the early 1960s, usage of the term had spread throughout the United States and even as far as Scotland. Gregory J. Marsh in Special Collections at the Swarthmore College library as reported in Humanist Discussion Group (1990-6-28) Vol. 4, No. 0235. Glasgow, Scotland, Sunday Mail (1957-2-10) It was originally a synonym for "square" or "drip;" at some point, the word took on connotations of bookishness and social ineptitude. An alternate spelling, as nurd, also began to appear in the mid-1960s or early '70s. Current Slang: A Quarterly Glossary of Slang Expressions Currently In Use (1971), Vol. V, No. 4, Spring 1971, p. 17 Author Philip K. Dick claimed to have coined this spelling in 1973, but its first recorded use appeared in a 1965 student publication at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Personal Correspondence (1973-9-4) reported on the web RPI Bachelor (1965), V14 #1 Oral tradition there holds that the word is derived from "knurd" ("drunk" spelled backwards), which was used to describe people who studied rather than partied. On the other hand, the variant "gnurd" was in wide use at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology throughout the first half of the 1970s. Other theories of the word's origin suggest that it may derive from Mortimer Snerd, Edgar Bergen's ventriloquist dummy, or the Northern Electric Research and Development labs in Ontario (now Nortel). The Online Etymology Dictionary speculates that the word is an alteration of the 1940s term nert (meaning "stupid or crazy person"), which is itself an alteration of "nut." The Online Etymology Dictionary. "Nerd." The term was popularized in the 1970s by its heavy use in the sitcom Happy Days. Characteristics The stereotypical nerd is intelligent but socially and physically awkward. Kids Called Nerds: Challenge and Hope For Children With Mild Pervasive Developmental Disorders, by Nicholas Putnam, M.D. In film and television depictions, nerds are disproportionately white males with very large glasses, braces, severe acne and pants highly lifted up. Lori Kendall. "OH NO! I'M A NERD!": Hegemonic Masculinity on an Online Forum. Gender Society. 14:256. (2000) Ron Eglash. Race, Sex, and Nerds. Social Text. 20: 49 (2002) It has been suggested by some, such as linguist Mary Bucholtz, that being a nerd may be a state of being "hyperwhite" and rejecting African-American culture and slang that "cool" white children use. However, after the introduction of the Steve Urkel character on the television series Family Matters, nerds have been seen in all races and colors as well as more recently being a frequent young Asian male stereotype in North America. They typically appear either to lack confidence or to be indifferent or oblivious to the negative perceptions held of them by others, with the result that they become frequent objects of scorn, ridicule, bullying, and social isolation. Some nerds show a pronounced interest in subjects which others tend to find dull or complex and difficult to comprehend, or overly mature for their age, especially topics related to science, mathematics and technology. On the opposite end of the spectrum, nerds may show an interest in activities that are viewed by their peers as immature for their age, such as trading cards, comic books, or role playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons and other things relating to fantasy and science fiction. They are also stereotyped for being obsessed with Star Trek, Star Wars, and other science fiction shows or movies. Nerds are often portrayed as unfit and either obese or very thin. Nerds are also sometimes portrayed as having symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder, such as by showing an extreme devotion to following rules. Stereotypical nerd qualities have evolved in recent years, from awkwardness and social ostracism to a more widespread acceptance and sometimes even celebration of their abilities. This is largely attributable to the rise of the computer industry, which has allowed many "nerdy" people (most notably Bill Gates) to accumulate large fortunes and other measures of social prestige. Some measure of nerdiness is widely considered desirable, because it suggests a person who is intelligent, respectful, interesting, and able to earn a large salary. This evolution has dovetailed with waning emphasis on the social awkwardness of nerds, with more attention placed on their intelligence and academic enthusiasm. Nerd pride In the 1984 film Revenge of the Nerds, starring Robert Carradine and Anthony Edwards, Carradine in particular worked to embody the nerd stereotype and, in doing so, helped create a definitive image. Additionally, the storyline presaged, and may have helped inspire, the "nerd pride" that emerged in the 1990s. American Splendor regular Toby Radloff claims this was the movie that inspired him to become "The Genuine Nerd from Cleveland, Ohio." In the American Splendor film, Toby's friend, American Splendor author Harvey Pekar, was less receptive to the movie, believing it to be hopelessly idealistic. Many seem to share Radloff's view, as "nerd pride" has become more widespread in the years since. MIT professor Gerald Sussman, for example, seeks to instill pride in nerds: The popular computer-news website Slashdot uses the tagline "News for nerds. Stuff that matters." The Charles J. Sykes quote "Be nice to nerds. Chances are you'll end up working for one" has been popularized on the Internet and incorrectly attributed to Bill Gates. In Spain, Nerd Pride Day has been observed on May 25 since 2006. An episode from the animated series Freakazoid, titled "Nerdator", includes the use of nerds to power the mind of a Predator-like enemy, who delivers a memorable monologue on the importance of nerds: {{cquote|...what they lack in physical strength they make up in brain power. Who writes all the best selling books? Nerds. Who directs the top grossing Hollywood movies? Nerds. Who creates the highly advanced technology that only they can understand? ...Nerds. And who are the people who run for the high office of the Presidency? No one but nerds.}} The Danish reality TV show FC Zulu, known in the internationally franchised format as FC Nerds, established a format wherein a team of nerds, after two or three months of training, competes with a professional soccer team. Nerdcore hip hop is a genre of hip hop music that has risen in popularity over the last few years, often expressing nerd themes with pride and humor. Notable artists include mc chris, MC Plus+, MC Hawking, MC Lars, and MC Frontalot. The term nerdcore has seen wider application to refer to webcomics (most notably Penny Arcade, User Friendly, PvP, and Megatokyo) and other media that express nerd themes without inhibition. Although the idea of nerds is popular, those adapting the characteristics of nerds are not actually nerds by definition. One cannot be an authentic nerd by imitation alone; a nerd is an outsider and someone who is unable to follow trends. Popular culture is borrowing the concept and image of nerds in order to stand out as individuals. Chicago Tribune See also Anorak (slang) Boffin Geek White & Nerdy References Further reading Bucholtz, Mary. ""Why be normal?": Language and identity practices in a community of nerd girls." Language in Society (1999), 28: 203-223. Cambridge University Press. Frayling, Christopher. Mad, Bad And Dangerous?: The Scientist and the Cinema. Reaktion Books, 2005. Genuine Nerd (2006) - Feature-length documentary on Toby Radloff. Kendall, Lori. "'The Nerd Within': Mass Media and the Negotiation of Identity Among Computer-Using Men." The Journal of Men's Studies, 7(3) (1999): 353-69. Kendall, Lori. "Nerd Nation: Images of Nerds in U.S. Popular Culture." International Journal of Cultural Studies, Vol. 2, No. 2, 260-283 (1999) Kendall, Lori. "'Oh No! I'm a Nerd!': Hegemonic Masculinity on an Online Forum." Gender & Society, 14 (2) (2000): 256-274. Nugent, Benjamin. American Nerd: The Story of My People. 2008. ISBN 978-0743288019 Newitz, A. & Anders, C. (Eds) She's Such a Geek: Women Write About Science, Technology, and Other Nerdy Stuff. Seal Press, 2006. Okada, Toshio. Otaku Gaku Nyumon (Translated: 'Introduction to Otakuology'). Ohta Verlag. Tokyo, 1996. External links "The Well-Dressed Geek: Media Appropriation and Subcultural Style" (Paper by Jason Tocci presented at the MIT5 conference. PDF, 180kb). Media in Transition 5 "Why Nerds are Unpopular", an essay by Paul Graham about the conformist society in American high schools. "The Nerds Have Won", an article by Brian Hayes in American Scientist,'' September-October 2000. | Nerd |@lemmatized nerd:53 term:6 often:4 bear:1 derogatory:1 connotation:2 stereotype:4 refer:2 person:3 passionately:1 pursue:1 intellectual:1 activity:4 esoteric:1 knowledge:1 obscure:1 interest:3 rather:2 engage:1 social:7 popular:6 therefore:1 exclude:1 physical:2 consider:2 loner:1 peer:2 tend:2 associate:1 like:2 minded:1 people:5 etymology:3 first:3 documented:1 appearance:1 word:5 name:1 creature:1 dr:1 seuss:2 book:5 run:3 zoo:3 narrator:1 gerald:2 mcgrew:1 claim:3 would:1 collect:1 nerkle:1 seersucker:1 imaginary:1 american:8 heritage:1 dictionary:3 english:1 language:3 third:1 edition:1 p:4 houghton:1 mifflin:1 co:1 boston:1 new:2 york:2 london:1 geisel:1 theodor:1 random:1 house:1 young:2 reader:1 slang:5 meaning:1 date:1 back:1 newsweek:2 magazine:1 report:3 use:10 detroit:1 michigan:1 early:2 usage:1 spread:1 throughout:2 united:1 state:2 even:2 far:2 scotland:2 gregory:1 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5,073 | Foreign_relations_of_Lithuania | Lithuania became a member of the United Nations on September 18, 1991, and is a signatory to a number of its organizations and other international agreements. It is also a member of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, NATO and its adjunct North Atlantic Coordinating Council, the Council of Europe, and the European Union. Lithuania gained membership in the World Trade Organization on May 31 2001. It also seeks membership in the OECD and other Western organizations. Lithuania maintains foreign diplomatic missions in 94 countries on six continents and consular posts in two countries that are not represented by an embassy. Lithuania's liberal "zero-option" citizenship law has substantially erased tensions with its neighbors. Lithuania's suspension of two strongly ethnic Polish district councils on charges of blocking reform or disloyalty during the August 1991 coup had cooled relations with Poland, but bilateral cooperation markedly increased with the holding of elections in those districts and the signing of a bilateral Friendship Treaty in 1994. Relations with Poland are now among the closest enjoyed by Lithuania. Although a similar bilateral friendship agreement was signed with Belarus in 1995, Lithuania has joined the United States and other European nations in urging the Government of Belarus to adopt democratic and economic reforms. Relations with other countries Lithuania has established diplomatic relations with 149 countries. Ministry of Foreign Affairs: List of countries with which Lithuania has established diplomatic relations Baltic States Lithuania is in warm and good relations with Latvia and Estonia. Latvia takes the 1st place on the list of Lithuanian investments abroad. Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Lithuania's Cooperation with Latvia Poland Relations with Poland are now among the closest enjoyed by Lithuania, while they were very strained in the interwar period. Lithuanian President Brazauskas mentioned that relations with Poland were the best they had been in the history of modern statehood. Timothy Snyder. The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003, p.285. Lithuania concluded the treaty of friendship with Poland in April of 1994. United States Lithuania has friendly relations with and support from the United States, who never recognized their forced incorporation into the Soviet Union. Since the fall of the U.S.S.R. in 1991, the United States and Lithuania have maintained strong economic and military ties, and the efforts of Lithuanian-Americans are said to have been an important factor both in restoring Lithuania's independence and in her admittance to NATO in 2004. Embassy of the Republic of Lithuania to the United States of America and to the United Mexican States: Lithuanian-US Political Relations Then-President George W. Bush visited Lithuania in November 2002 President's Visit to Eastern Europe and Russia: Nov. 19-23, 2002 and again in February 2007, US-Lithuania Relations - US Embassy Vilnius, Lithuania and expressed pride in Lithuania's determined commitment to democracy over the last two decades. Bush Interview by Lithuanian State Television - US Embassy Vilnius, Lithuania Japan Relations between Lithuania and Japan started on December 20, 1922, when Lithuania was recognized by Japan de jure. Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Lithuania's Cooperation with Japan Embassy of the Republic of Lithuania in Tokyo: Bilateral relations In 1939 the Consulate of Japan, headed by vice-consul Chiune Sugihara, was opened in Kaunas. It was closed in 1940 when Lithuania was annexed by the Soviet Union. On September 6, 1991, Japan recognized the independence of the Republic of Lithuania from USSR and on October 10, Diplomatic relations were restored. In 1997, Embassy of Japan was established in Lithuania, in 1998, Embassy of Lithuania was established in Japan. In 2006 May, Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs Taro Aso visited Lithuania, and Kirkilas, the Prime Minister of Lithuania, visited Japan just three months later. Bilateral relations were strengthen by the official state visit of Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko in 2007 May. In 2005 the Lithuanian Community in Japan was established. It has 45 members. Disputes Latvia Talks continue over a maritime boundary dispute with Latvia, primarily concerning oil exploration rights. Russia There are ongoing popular demands to formally condemn the crimes committed by the Soviet regime, including the occupation and annexation of the country to the Soviet Union. In 2005, a fighter aircraft accompanying a Russian spy plane over the Baltic Sea violated Lithuanian airspace for about 20 minutes before crashing near Kaunas Russian military aircraft crashes near Kaunas In October 2006, Russia's FSB security service arrested an official in the Kaliningrad region accused of spying for Lithuania Russian arrest of an officer accused of spying for Lithuania Illicit drug trafficking Lithuania has been a transshipment point for opiates and other illicit drugs from Russia, Southwest Asia, Latin America, and Western Europe to Western Europe and Scandinavia Drug issues in the Baltics Anti-terrorism Lithuania is a signatory to 8 of the 12 International Conventions related to counter- terrorist activities Interpol Civil rights Human trafficking The International Organization for Migration (IOM) reports that about 1,000 citizens of Lithuania fall victim to trafficking annually. Most are women between the ages of 21 and 30 who are sold into prostitution Human Trafficking in the Baltics Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotes Armenia is represented in Lithuania through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland). Lithuania has an embassy in Yerevan. There are around 2,500 people of Armenian descent living in Lithuania. Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Armenia (in Lithuanian only) Austria has an embassy in Vilnius. Lithuania has an embassy in Vienna. Lithuanian embassy in Vienna (in German and Lithuanian only) Both countries are full members of the European Union. Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Austria (in Lithuanian only) 1995-11-27 Azerbaijan recognized the independence of Lithuania on September 10, 1991. Lithuania recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on December 20, 1991. Azerbaijan has an embassy in Vilnius. Lithuania has an embassy in Baku. Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Cooperation with Azerbaijan Foreign Minister of Lithuania to pay official visit to Azerbaijan 1991-10-24 Belarus has an embassy in Vilnius. Belarussian embassy in Vilnius Lithuania has an embassy in Minsk Lithuanian embassy in Minsk (in Lithuanian and Russian only) and a general consulate in Hrodna. Lithuanian general consulate in Hrodna (in Lithuanian and Russian only) Both countries shares 680 km of common border. Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Poland (in Lithuanian only) See Bulgaria–Lithuania relationsSee Canada–Lithuania relationsSee Croatia–Lithuania relationsSee Cyprus–Lithuania relationsSee Czech Republic – Lithuania relationsSee Denmark–Lithuania relationsSee Estonia–Lithuania relationsSee Finland–Lithuania relationsSee France–Lithuania relationsSee Georgia–Lithuania relationsSee Germany–Lithuania relationsSee Greece–Lithuania relationsSee Holy See – Lithuania relationsSee Hungary–Lithuania relations 1991-08-26See Iceland–Lithuania relations Iceland was the first country which recognised Lithuania's Independence from the USSR on January 11, 1991]. Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Lithuania’s Cooperation with Iceland See Ireland–Lithuania relationsSee Israel–Lithuania relationsSee Italy–Lithuania relationsSee Japan–Lithuania relations Kazakhstan has an embassy in Vilnius. Kazakh embassy in Vilnius Lithuania has an embassy in Astana and an honorary consulate in Almaty. Lithuanian embassy in Astana (in Lithuanian and Russian only) Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Kazakhstan (in Lithuanian only) 2008-07-16See Kosovan–Lithuanian relations Lithuania recognized Kosovo on 6 May 2008. Diplomatic relations commenced on 16 July 2008. 1991-10-05 Latvia has an embassy in Vilnius. Embassy of the Republic of Latvia in the Republic of Lithuania Lithuania has an embassy in Riga. Embassy of the Republic of Lithuania in the Republic of Latvia The two states share of commone border. Both countries are full members of the European Union. Malta is represented in Lithuania through a non resident ambassador based in Valletta (in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Vilnius. Direction of the Maltese representations in Lithuania Lithuania is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and an honorary consulate in Valletta. Lithuania embassy in Rome (also accredited to Malta) Both countries are full members of the European Union. Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Malta (in Lithuanian only) 1992See People's Republic of China-Lithuania relationsSee Lithuania–Poland relationsSee Lithuania–Romania relationsSee Lithuania–Russia relationsSee Lithuania–Serbia relationsSee Lithuania–Slovakia relationsSee Lithuania–Ukraine relationsSee Lithuania – United Kingdom relationsSee Lithuania – United States relations See also Lithuanian diplomatic missions List of diplomatic missions in Lithuania References | Foreign_relations_of_Lithuania |@lemmatized lithuania:87 become:1 member:7 united:8 nation:3 september:3 signatory:2 number:1 organization:6 international:3 agreement:2 also:4 security:3 cooperation:6 europe:7 nato:2 adjunct:1 north:1 atlantic:1 coordinating:1 council:4 european:5 union:7 gain:1 membership:2 world:1 trade:1 may:4 seek:1 oecd:1 western:3 maintain:2 foreign:14 diplomatic:7 mission:3 country:14 six:1 continent:1 consular:1 post:1 two:4 represent:4 embassy:28 liberal:1 zero:1 option:1 citizenship:1 law:1 substantially:1 erase:1 tension:1 neighbor:1 suspension:1 strongly:1 ethnic:1 polish:1 district:2 charge:1 block:1 reform:2 disloyalty:1 august:1 coup:1 cool:1 relation:23 poland:10 bilateral:10 markedly:1 increase:1 hold:1 election:1 signing:1 friendship:3 treaty:7 among:2 close:3 enjoy:2 although:1 similar:1 sign:1 belarus:4 join:1 state:11 urge:1 government:1 adopt:1 democratic:1 economic:2 establish:5 ministry:11 affair:12 list:8 baltic:4 warm:1 good:1 latvia:8 estonia:2 take:1 place:1 lithuanian:28 investment:1 abroad:1 strain:1 interwar:1 period:1 president:3 brazauskas:1 mention:1 best:1 history:1 modern:1 statehood:1 timothy:1 snyder:1 reconstruction:1 ukraine:2 new:1 yale:1 university:1 press:1 p:1 conclude:1 april:1 friendly:1 support:1 never:1 recognize:6 forced:1 incorporation:1 soviet:4 since:1 fall:2 u:5 r:1 strong:1 military:2 tie:1 effort:1 american:1 say:1 important:1 factor:1 restore:2 independence:5 admittance:1 republic:9 america:2 mexican:1 political:1 george:1 w:1 bush:2 visit:6 november:1 eastern:1 russia:5 nov:1 february:1 vilnius:10 express:1 pride:1 determine:1 commitment:1 democracy:1 last:1 decade:1 interview:1 television:1 japan:11 start:1 december:2 de:1 jure:1 tokyo:1 consulate:6 head:1 vice:1 consul:1 chiune:1 sugihara:1 open:1 kaunas:3 annex:1 ussr:2 october:2 japanese:1 minister:3 taro:1 aso:1 kirkilas:1 prime:1 three:1 month:1 later:1 strengthen:1 official:3 emperor:1 akihito:1 empress:1 michiko:1 community:1 dispute:2 talk:1 continue:1 maritime:1 boundary:1 primarily:1 concern:1 oil:1 exploration:1 right:2 ongoing:1 popular:1 demand:1 formally:1 condemn:1 crime:1 commit:1 regime:1 include:1 occupation:1 annexation:1 fighter:1 aircraft:2 accompany:1 russian:6 spy:3 plane:1 sea:1 violate:1 airspace:1 minute:1 crash:2 near:2 fsb:1 service:1 arrest:2 kaliningrad:1 region:1 accuse:2 officer:1 illicit:2 drug:3 traffic:3 transshipment:1 point:1 opiate:1 southwest:1 asia:1 latin:1 scandinavia:1 issue:1 anti:1 terrorism:1 convention:1 relate:1 counter:1 terrorist:1 activity:1 interpol:1 civil:1 human:2 migration:1 iom:1 report:1 citizen:1 victim:1 annually:1 woman:1 age:1 sell:1 prostitution:1 trafficking:1 formal:1 begannotes:1 armenia:2 warsaw:1 yerevan:1 around:1 people:2 armenian:1 descent:1 living:1 austria:2 vienna:2 german:1 full:4 azerbaijan:5 baku:1 co:1 operation:1 osce:1 pay:1 belarussian:1 minsk:2 general:2 hrodna:2 share:2 km:1 common:1 border:2 see:4 bulgaria:1 relationssee:24 canada:1 croatia:1 cyprus:1 czech:1 denmark:1 finland:1 france:1 georgia:1 germany:1 greece:1 holy:1 hungary:1 iceland:3 first:1 recognise:1 january:1 ireland:1 israel:1 italy:2 kazakhstan:2 kazakh:1 astana:2 honorary:3 almaty:1 kosovan:1 kosovo:1 commence:1 july:1 riga:1 commone:1 malta:4 non:1 resident:1 ambassador:1 base:1 valletta:2 direction:1 maltese:1 representation:1 rome:2 accredit:1 china:1 romania:1 serbia:1 slovakia:1 unite:1 kingdom:1 reference:1 |@bigram diplomatic_mission:3 diplomatic_relation:4 foreign_affair:12 latvia_estonia:1 estonia_latvia:1 interwar_period:1 soviet_union:3 w_bush:1 embassy_vilnius:9 vilnius_lithuania:6 de_jure:1 prime_minister:1 emperor_akihito:1 baltic_sea:1 illicit_drug:2 migration_iom:1 relation_begannotes:1 bilateral_treaty:5 azerbaijan_belarus:1 lithuania_relationssee:17 relationssee_cyprus:1 relationssee_czech:1 czech_republic:1 relationssee_estonia:1 relationssee_finland:1 honorary_consulate:3 embassy_riga:1 maltese_representation:1 malta_embassy:1 consulate_valletta:1 romania_relationssee:1 slovakia_relationssee:1 ukraine_relationssee:1 |
5,074 | Gold | Gold () is a chemical element with the symbol Au () and an atomic number of 79. It is a highly sought-after precious metal in jewelry, in sculpture, and for ornamentation since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits. Gold is dense, soft, shiny and the most malleable and ductile pure metal known. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without rusting in air or water. It is one of the coinage metals and formed the basis for the gold standard used before the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971. At the end of 2006, it was estimated that all the gold ever mined totaled 158,000 tonnes. This can be represented by a cube with an edge length of just 20.2 meters. Modern industrial uses include dentistry and electronics, where gold has traditionally found use because of its good resistance to oxidative corrosion. Chemically, gold is a transition metal and can form trivalent and univalent cations upon solvation. At STP it is attacked by aqua regia (a mixture of acids), forming chloroauric acid and by alkaline solutions of cyanide but not by single acids such as hydrochloric, nitric or sulfuric acids. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but does not react with it. Since gold is insoluble in nitric acid which will dissolve silver and base metals, this is exploited as the basis of the gold refining technique known as "inquartation and parting". Nitric acid has long been used to confirm the presence of gold in items, and this is the origin of the colloquial term "acid test", referring to a gold standard test for genuine value. Characteristics Electron shell diagram of gold. Gold is the most malleable and ductile of all metals; a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of one square meter, or an ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can be beaten thin enough to become translucent. The transmitted light appears greenish blue, because gold strongly reflects yellow and red. Gold readily creates alloys with many other metals. These alloys can be produced to modify the hardness and other metallurgical properties, to control melting point or to create exotic colors (see below). Gold is a good conductor of heat and electricity and reflects infra red radiation strongly. Chemically, it is unaffected by air, moisture and most corrosive reagents, and is therefore well-suited for use in coins and jewelry and as a protective coating on other, more reactive, metals. However, it is not chemically inert. Free halogens will react with gold, and aqua regia dissolves it via formation of chlorine gas which attacks gold to form the chloraurate ion. Gold also dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium cyanide and in mercury, forming a gold-mercury amalgam. Common oxidation states of gold include +1 (gold(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 (gold(III) or auric compounds). Gold ions in solution are readily reduced and precipitated out as gold metal by adding any other metal as the reducing agent. The added metal is oxidized and dissolves allowing the gold to be displaced from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate. High quality pure metallic gold is tasteless; in keeping with its resistance to corrosion (it is metal ions which confer taste to metals). In addition, gold is very dense, a cubic meter weighing 19300 kg. By comparison, the density of lead is 11340 kg/m³, and that of the densest element, osmium, is 22610 kg/m³. Color of gold The color of pure gold is metallic yellow. Gold, caesium and copper are the only metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or white. The usual gray color of metals depends on their "electron sea" that is capable of absorbing and re-emitting photons over a wide range of frequencies. Gold reacts differently, depending on subtle relativistic effects that affect the orbitals around gold atoms. Common colored gold alloys such as rose gold can be created by the addition of various amounts of copper and silver, as indicated in the diagram below. Alloys containing palladium or nickel are also important in commercial jewelry as these produce white gold alloys. Less commonly, addition of manganese, aluminium, iron, indium and other elements can produce more unusual colors of gold for various applications. Different colors of Ag-Au-Cu alloys Applications As the metal Special issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin with the highest purity of any gold coin at a guaranteed 99.999% Medium of monetary exchange In various countries, gold was used as a standard for monetary exchange, but this practice has been abandoned with the rise of fiat currency. The last country to back their money with gold was Switzerland, which backed 40% of its value until it joined the International Monetary Fund in 1999. Pure gold is too soft for ordinary use and is typically hardened by alloying with copper or other base metals. The gold content of gold alloys is measured in carats (k), pure gold being designated as 24k. The 220 kg gold brick displayed in Chinkuashi Gold Museum, Taiwan, Republic of China Gold coins intended for circulation from 1526 into the 1930s were typically a standard 22k alloy called crown gold, for hardness. Modern collector/investment bullion coins (which do not require good mechanical wear properties) are typically 24k, although the American Gold Eagle, the British gold sovereign and the South African Krugerrand continue to be made at 22k, on historical tradition. The special issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin contains the highest purity gold of any bullion coin, at 99.999% (.99999 fine). The popular issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin has a purity of 99.99%. Several other 99.99% pure gold coins are currently available, including Australia's Gold Kangaroos (first appearing in 1986 as the Australian Gold Nugget, with the kangaroo theme appearing in 1989), the several coins of the Australian Lunar Calendar series, and the Austrian Philharmonic. In 2006, the U.S. Mint began production of the American Buffalo gold bullion coin also at 99.99% purity. Gold was used as a medium of monetary exchange throughout history together with or instead of other minerals, like silver, salt, and copper. At the beginning of World War I the warring nations went onto a fractional gold standard, inflating their currencies to finance the war effort. After World War II gold was replaced by a system of convertible currency following the Bretton Woods system. Many holders of gold in storage (as bullion coin or bullion) hold it as a hedge against inflation or other economic disruptions. The ISO currency code of gold bullion is XAU. Jewelry Because of the softness of pure (24k) gold, it is usually alloyed with base metals for use in jewelry, altering its hardness and ductility, melting point, color and other properties. Alloys with lower caratage, typically 22k, 18k, 14k or 10k, contain higher percentages of copper, or other base metals or silver or palladium in the alloy. Copper is the most commonly used base metal, yielding a redder color. Eighteen carat gold containing 25% copper is found in antique and Russian jewellery and has a distinct, though not dominant, copper cast, creating rose gold. Fourteen carat gold-copper alloy is nearly identical in color to certain bronze alloys, and both may be used to produce police, as well as other, badges. Blue gold can be made by alloying with iron and purple gold can be made by alloying with aluminium, although rarely done except in specialized jewelry. Blue gold is more brittle and therefore more difficult to work with when making jewelry. Fourteen and eighteen carat gold alloys with silver alone appear greenish-yellow and are referred to as green gold. White gold alloys can be made with palladium or nickel. White 18 carat gold containing 17.3% nickel, 5.5% zinc and 2.2% copper is silver in appearance. Nickel is toxic, however, and its release from nickel white gold is controlled by legislation in Europe. Alternative white gold alloys are available based on palladium, silver and other white metals (World Gold Council), but the palladium alloys are more expensive than those using nickel. High-carat white gold alloys are far more resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver. The Japanese craft of Mokume-gane exploits the color contrasts between laminated colored gold alloys to produce decorative wood-grain effects. Medicine In medieval times, gold was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something that rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy. Even some modern esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic gold a healing power. Some gold salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and are used as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions. However, only salts and radioisotopes of gold are of pharmacological value, as elemental (metallic) gold is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body. In modern times injectable gold has been proven to help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis and tuberculosis. Dentistry. Gold alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges. The gold alloys' slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating surface with other teeth and produces results that are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns. The use of gold crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some cultures and discouraged in others. Colloidal gold (colloidal sols of gold nanoparticles) in water are intensely red-colored, and can be made with tightly-controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nm across by reduction of gold chloride with citrate or ascorbate ions. Colloidal gold is used in research applications in medicine, biology and materials science. The technique of immunogold labeling exploits the ability of the gold particles to adsorb protein molecules onto their surfaces. Colloidal gold particles coated with specific antibodies can be used as probes for the presence and position of antigens on the surfaces of cells (Faulk and Taylor 1979). In ultrathin sections of tissues viewed by electron microscopy, the immunogold labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of the antigen (Roth et al. 1980). Colloidal gold is also the form of gold used as gold paint on ceramics prior to firing. Gold, or alloys of gold and palladium, are applied as conductive coating to biological specimens and other non-conducting materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in a scanning electron microscope. The coating, which is usually applied by sputtering with an argon plasma, has a triple role in this application. Gold's very high electrical conductivity drains electrical charge to earth, and its very high density provides stopping power for electrons in the SEM's electron beam, helping to limit the depth to which the electron beam penetrates the specimen. This improves definition of the position and topography of the specimen surface and increases the spatial resolution of the image. Gold also produces a high output of secondary electrons when irradiated by an electron beam, and these low-energy electrons are the most commonly-used signal source used in the scanning electron microscope. The isotope gold-198, (half-life: 2.7 days) is used in some cancer treatments and for treating other diseases. Nanoscience and Nanotechnology in Nanomedicine: Hybrid Nanoparticles In Imaging and Therapy of Prostate Cancer - Radiopharmaceutical Sciences Institute, University of Missouri-Columbia Food and drink Gold can be used in food and has the E Number 175. http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist Gold leaf, flake or dust is used on and in some gourmet foods, notably sweets and drinks as decorative ingredient. Gold flake was used by the nobility in Medieval Europe as a decoration in food and drinks, in the form of leaf, flakes or dust, either to demonstrate the host's wealth or in the belief that something that valuable and rare must be beneficial for one's health. Goldwasser () is a traditional herbal liqueur produced in Gdańsk, Poland, and Schwabach, Germany, and contains flakes of gold leaf. There are also some expensive (~$1000) cocktails which contain flakes of gold leaf Guiness Book of World Records 2008 . However, since metallic gold is inert to all body chemistry, it adds no taste nor has it any other nutritional effect and leaves the body unaltered. Industry Gold solder is used for joining the components of gold jewelry by high-temperature hard soldering or brazing. If the work is to be of hallmarking quality, gold solder must match the carat weight of the work, and alloy formulas are manufactured in most industry-standard carat weights to color match yellow and white gold. Gold solder is usually made in at least three melting-point ranges referred to as Easy, Medium and Hard. By using the hard, high-melting point solder first, followed by solders with progressively lower melting points, goldsmiths can assemble complex items with several separate soldered joints. Gold can be made into thread and used in embroidery. Gold is ductile and malleable, meaning it can be drawn into very thin wire and can be beaten into very thin sheets known as gold leaf. Gold produces a deep, intense red color when used as a coloring agent in cranberry glass. In photography, gold toners are used to shift the color of silver bromide black and white prints towards brown or blue tones, or to increase their stability. Used on sepia-toned prints, gold toners produce red tones. Kodak published formulas for several types of gold toners, which use gold as the chloride (Kodak, 2006). As gold is a good reflector of electromagnetic radiation such as infrared and visible light as well as radio waves, it is used for the protective coatings on many artificial satellites, in infrared protective faceplates in thermal protection suits and astronauts' helmets and in electronic warfare planes like the EA-6B Prowler. Gold is used as the reflective layer on some high-end CDs. Automobiles may use gold for heat insulation. McLaren uses gold foil in the engine compartment of its F1 model. Super cars.net. 1994 McLaren F1 Electronics The concentration of free electrons in gold metal is 5.90×1022 cm-3. Gold is highly conductive to electricity, and has been used for electrical wiring in some high energy applications (silver is even more conductive per volume, but gold has the advantage of corrosion resistance). For example, gold electrical wires were used during some of the Manhattan Project's atomic experiments, but large high current silver wires were used in the calutron isotope separator magnets in the project. Though gold is attacked by free chlorine, its good conductivity and general resistance to oxidation and corrosion in other environments (including resistance to non-chlorinated acids) has led to its widespread industrial use in the electronic era as a thin layer coating electrical connectors of all kinds, thereby ensuring good connection. For example, gold is used in the connectors of the more expensive electronics cables, such as audio, video and USB cables. The benefit of using gold over other connector metals such as tin in these applications is highly debated. Gold connectors are often criticized by audio-visual experts as unnecessary for most consumers and seen as simply a marketing ploy. However, the use of gold in other applications in electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost (certain computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines) remains very common, and is unlikely to be replaced in the near future by any other metal. Besides sliding electrical contacts, gold is also used in electrical contacts because of its resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, ductility and lack of toxicity. Switch contacts are generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts. Fine gold wires are used to connect semiconductor devices to their packages through a process known as wire bonding. Other Many competitions, and honors, such as the Olympics and the Nobel Prize, award a gold medal to the winner. As gold chemical compounds Gold is attacked by and dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide, and gold cyanide is the electrolyte used in commercial electroplating of gold onto base metals and electroforming. Gold chloride (chloroauric acid) solutions are used to make colloidal gold by reduction with citrate or ascorbate ions. Gold chloride and gold oxide are used to make highly-valued cranberry or red-colored glass, which, like colloidal gold sols, contains evenly-sized spherical gold nanoparticles. History The Turin Papyrus Map Gold has been known and highly valued since prehistoric times. It may have been the first metal used by humans and was valued for ornamentation and rituals. Egyptian hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BC describe gold, which king Tushratta of the Mitanni claimed was "more plentiful than dirt" in Egypt. Nicholas Reeves, Egypt's False Prophet: Akhenaten, Thames & Hudson, p.69 Egypt and especially Nubia had the resources to make them major gold-producing areas for much of history. The earliest known map is known as the Turin Papyrus and shows the plan of a gold mine in Nubia together with indications of the local geology. The primitive working methods are described by Strabo and included fire-setting. Large mines also occurred across the Red Sea in what is now Saudi Arabia. The symbol for the Sun has been used since ancient times to represent gold Funerary mask of Tutankhamun Gold mask of Sanxingdui, 12th to 11th century BC Moche gold necklace depicting feline heads. Larco Museum Collection. Lima-Peru The legend of the golden fleece may refer to the use of fleeces to trap gold dust from placer deposits in the ancient world. Gold is mentioned frequently in the Old Testament, starting with Genesis 2:11 (at Havilah) and is included with the gifts of the magi in the first chapters of Matthew New Testament. The Book of Revelation 21:21 describes the city of New Jerusalem as having streets "made of pure gold, clear as crystal". The south-east corner of the Black Sea was famed for its gold. Exploitation is said to date from the time of Midas, and this gold was important in the establishment of what is probably the world's earliest coinage in Lydia between 643 and 630 BC. From 6th or 5th century BC, Chu (state) circulated Ying Yuan, one kind of square gold coin. Jason returns with the golden fleece on an Apulian red-figure calyx krater, ca. 340–330 BC. The Romans developed new methods for extracting gold on a large scale using hydraulic mining methods, especially in Spain from 25 BC onwards and in Romania from 150 AD onwards. One of their largest mines was at Las Medulas in León (Spain), where seven long aqueducts enabled them to sluice most of a large alluvial deposit. The mines at Roşia Montană in Transylvania were also very large, and until very recently, still mined by opencast methods. They also exploited smaller deposits in Britain, such as placer and hard-rock deposits at Dolaucothi. The various methods they used are well described by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia written towards the end of the first century AD. The Mali Empire in Africa was famed throughout the old world for its large amounts of gold. Mansa Musa, ruler of the empire (1312–1337) became famous throughout the old world for his great hajj to Mecca in 1324. When he passed through Cairo in July 1324, he was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels. He gave away so much gold that it depressed the price in Egypt for over a decade. Mansa Musa - Black History Pages A contemporary Arab historian remarked: The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Central America, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. Although the price of some platinum group metals can be much higher, gold has long been considered the most desirable of precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies (known as the gold standard) in history. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties. Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was made fun of by Thomas More in his treatise Utopia. On that imaginary island, gold is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware and lavatory-seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly-dressed of their party. There is an age-old tradition of biting gold in order to test its authenticity. Although this is certainly not a professional way of examining gold, the bite test should score the gold because gold is a soft metal, as indicated by its score on the Mohs' scale of mineral hardness. The purer the gold the easier it should be to mark it. Painted lead can cheat this test because lead is softer than gold (and may invite a small risk of lead poisoning if sufficient lead is absorbed by the biting). This 156-ounce (4.85 kg) nugget was found by an individual prospector in the Southern California Desert using a metal detector. Gold in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically; however, 75% of all gold ever produced has been extracted since 1910. It has been estimated that all the gold in the world that has ever been refined would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft) on a side (equivalent to 8000 m³). One main goal of the alchemists was to produce gold from other substances, such as lead — presumably by the interaction with a mythical substance called the philosopher's stone. Although they never succeeded in this attempt, the alchemists promoted an interest in what can be done with substances, and this laid a foundation for today's chemistry. Their symbol for gold was the circle with a point at its center (☉), which was also the astrological symbol, and the ancient Chinese character, for the Sun. For modern creation of artificial gold by neutron capture, see gold synthesis. During the 19th century, gold rushes occurred whenever large gold deposits were discovered. The first documented discovery of gold in the United States was at the Reed Gold Mine near Georgeville, North Carolina in 1803. The first major gold strike in the United States occurred in a small north Georgia town called Dahlonega. Further gold rushes occurred in California, Colorado, Otago, Australia, Witwatersrand, Black Hills, and Klondike. Because of its historically high value, much of the gold mined throughout history is still in circulation in one form or another. Occurrence In nature, when pure gold occurs, it appears most often as a metal solid solution of gold with silver, i.e. a gold silver alloy. Such alloys usually have a silver content of 8–10%. Electrum is elemental gold with more than 20% silver. Electrum's color runs from golden silvery to silvery, dependent upon the silver content. The more silver, the lower the specific gravity. Gold is found in ores made up of rock with very small or microscopic particles of gold. This gold ore is often found together with quartz or sulfide minerals such as Fool's Gold, which is a pyrite. These are called "lode" deposits. Native gold is also found in the form of free flakes, grains or larger nuggets that have been eroded from rocks and end up in alluvial deposits (called placer deposits). Such free gold is always richer at the surface of gold-bearing veins owing to the oxidation of accompanying minerals followed by weathering, and washing of the dust into streams and rivers, where it collects and can be welded by water action to form nuggets. Gold sometimes occurs combined with tellurium as the minerals calaverite, krennerite, nagyagite, petzite and sylvanite, and as the rare bismuthide maldonite (Au2Bi) and antimonide aurostibite (AuSb2). Gold also occurs in rare alloys with copper, lead, and mercury: the minerals auricupride (Cu3Au), novodneprite (AuPb3) and weishanite ((Au,Ag)3Hg2). Recent research suggests that microbes can sometimes play an important role in forming gold deposits, transporting and precipitating gold to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits. This is doctoral research undertaken by Frank Reith at the Australian National University, published 2004. Production Gold nuggets found in Arizona Gold extraction is most economical in large, easily mined deposits. Ore grades as little as 0.5 g/1000 kg (0.5 parts per million, ppm) can be economical. Typical ore grades in open-pit mines are 1–5 g/1000 kg (1–5 ppm); ore grades in underground or hard rock mines are usually at least 3 g/1000 kg (3 ppm). Because ore grades of 30 g/1000 kg (30 ppm) are usually needed before gold is visible to the naked eye, in most gold mines the gold is invisible. Since the 1880s, South Africa has been the source for a large proportion of the world’s gold supply, with about 50% of all gold ever produced having come from South Africa. Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of the world supply, producing about 1,000 tonnes. However by 2007 production was just 272 tonnes. This sharp decline was due to the increasing difficulty of extraction, changing economic factors affecting the industry, and tightened safety auditing. In 2007 China (with 276 tonnes) overtook South Africa as the world's largest gold producer, the first time since 1905 that South Africa has not been the largest. The entrance to an underground gold mine in Victoria, Australia The city of Johannesburg located in South Africa was founded as a result of the Witwatersrand Gold Rush which resulted in the discovery of some of the largest gold deposits the world has ever seen. Gold fields located within the basin in the Free State and Gauteng provinces are extensive in strike and dip requiring some of the world's deepest mines, with the Savuka and TauTona mines being currently the world's deepest gold mine at 3,777 m. The Second Boer War of 1899–1901 between the British Empire and the Afrikaner Boers was at least partly over the rights of miners and possession of the gold wealth in South Africa. Other major producers are the United States, Australia, Russia and Peru. Mines in South Dakota and Nevada supply two-thirds of gold used in the United States. In South America, the controversial project Pascua Lama aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains of Atacama Desert, at the border between Chile and Argentina. Today about one-quarter of the world gold output is estimated to originate from artisanal or small scale mining. After initial production, gold is often subsequently refined industrially by the Wohlwill process or the Miller process. Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of gold include parting and inquartation as well as cuppelation, or refining methods based on the dissolution of gold in aqua regia. The world's oceans hold a vast amount of gold, but in very low concentrations (perhaps 1–2 parts per 10 billion, e.g. every cubic kilometer of water could contain 10 to 20 kg of gold). A number of people have claimed to be able to economically recover gold from sea water, but so far they have all been either mistaken or crooks. Reverend Prescott Jernegan ran a gold-from-seawater swindle in the United States in the 1890s. A British fraudster ran the same scam in England in the early 1900s. Dan Plazak, A Hole in the Ground with a Liar at the Top (Salt Lake: Univ. of Utah Press, 2006) (contains a chapter on gold-from seawater swindles) World gold production trend Gold output in 2005 Fritz Haber (the German inventor of the Haber process) attempted commercial extraction of gold from sea water in an effort to help pay Germany's reparations following World War I. Unfortunately, his assessment of the concentration of gold in sea water was unduly high, probably due to sample contamination. The effort produced little gold and cost the German government far more than the commercial value of the gold recovered. No commercially viable mechanism for performing gold extraction from sea water has yet been identified. Gold synthesis is not economically viable and is unlikely to become so in the foreseeable future. The average gold mining and extraction costs are $238 per troy ounce but these can vary widely depending on mining type and ore quality. In 2001, global mine production amounted to 2,604 tonnes, or 67% of total gold demand in that year. At the end of 2006, it was estimated that all the gold ever mined totaled 158,000 tonnes. This can be represented by a cube with an edge length of just 20.2 meters. Gold is so stable and so valuable that it is always recovered and recycled. There is no true "consumption" of gold in the economic sense; the stock of gold remains essentially constant while ownership shifts from one party to another. Consumption India is the world’s largest consumer of gold. Indian consumers buy about 25 per cent of the world’s gold. http://www.nakedcapitalism.com/2008/03/indias-love-affair-with-gold-tarnishing.html Indians buy approximately 800 tonnes of gold every year. India is also the largest importer of the yellow metal; in 2008 India imported around 400 tonnes of gold. http://www.commodityonline.com/news/Gold-Why-China-outbeats-India-in-gold-reserves-17196-3-1.html Price LBMA USD morning price fixings ($US per troy ounce) from Jan 2001 to Apr 2006 Gold price per ounce in USD since 1968, in actual US$ and 2006 US$. Like other precious metals, gold is measured by troy weight and by grams. When it is alloyed with other metals the term carat or karat is used to indicate the amount of gold present, with 24 karats being pure gold and lower ratings proportionally less. The purity of a gold bar can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal fineness, such as 0.995 being very pure. The price of gold is determined on the open market, but a procedure known as the Gold Fixing in London, originating in September 1919, provides a daily benchmark figure to the industry. The afternoon fixing appeared in 1968 to fix a price when US markets are open. Historically gold coinage was widely used as currency; When paper money was introduced, it typically was a receipt redeemable for gold coin or bullion. In an economic system known as the gold standard, a certain weight of gold was given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period, the United States government set the value of the US dollar so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($664.56/kg), but in 1934 the dollar was devalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($1125.27/kg). By 1961 it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased gold demand. On March 17, 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse of the gold pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby gold was still used to settle international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of gold on the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was abandoned in 1975 when the price of gold was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold historical gold reserves as a store of value although the level has generally been declining. The largest gold depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New York, which holds about 3% of the gold ever mined, as does the similarly-laden U.S. Bullion Depository at Fort Knox. In 2005 the World Gold Council estimated total global gold supply to be 3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes. Price records Since 1968 the price of gold on the open market has ranged widely, from a high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on January 21, 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on June 21, 1999 (London Gold Fixing). The 1980 high was not overtaken until January 3, 2008 when a new maximum of $865.35 per troy ounce was set (a.m. London Gold Fixing). The current record price was set on March 17, 2008 at $1023.50/oz (am. London Gold Fixing). Long term price trends Since April 2001 the gold price has more than tripled in value against the US dollar, prompting speculation that this long secular bear market (or the Great Commodities Depression) has ended and a bull market has returned. In March 2008, the gold price increased above $1000, which in real terms is still well below the $850/oz. peak on January 21, 1980. Indexed for inflation, the 1980 high would equate to a price of around $2400 in 2007 US dollars. In the last century, major economic crises (such as the Great Depression, World War II, the first and second oil crisis) lowered the Dow/Gold ratio (which is inherently inflation adjusted) substantially, in most cases to a value well below 4. During these difficult times, investors tried to preserve their assets by investing in precious metals, most notably gold and silver. Compounds Although gold is a noble metal, it forms many and diverse compounds. The oxidation state of gold in its compound ranges from −1 to +5 but Au(I) and Au(III) dominate. Gold(I), referred to as the aurous ion, is the most common oxidation state with “soft” ligands such as thioethers, thiolates, and tertiary phosphines. Au(I) compounds are typically linear. A good example is Au(CN)2−, which is the soluble form of gold encountered in mining. Curiously, aurous complexes of water are rare. The binary gold halides, such as AuCl, form zig-zag polymeric chains, again featuring linear coordination at Au. Most drugs based on gold are Au(I) derivatives. Gold(III) (“auric”) is a common oxidation state and is illustrated by gold(III) chloride, AuCl3. Its derivative is chloroauric acid, HAuCl4, which forms when Au dissolves in aqua regia. Au(III) complexes, like other d8 compounds, are typically square planar. Less common oxidation states: Au(-I), Au(II), and Au(V) Compounds containing the Au− anion are called aurides. Caesium auride, CsAu which crystallizes in the caesium chloride motif. Other aurides include those of Rb+, K+, and tetramethylammonium (CH3)4N+. Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5. Gold(II) compounds are usually diamagnetic with Au-Au bonds such as [Au(CH2)2P(C6H5)2]2Cl2. A noteworthy, legitimate Au(II) complex is the tetraxenonogold(II) cation, which contains xenon as a ligand, [AuXe4](Sb2F11)2. Gold pentafluoride is the sole example of Au(V), the highest verified oxidation state. Some gold compounds exhibit aurophilic bonding, which describes the tendency of gold ions to interact at distances that are too long to be a conventional Au-Au bond but shorter that van der Waals bonding. The interaction is estimated to be comparable in strength to that of a hydrogen bond. Mixed valence compounds Well-defined cluster compounds are numerous. In such cases, gold has a fractional oxidation state. A representative example is the octahedral species {Au(P(C6H5)3)}62+. Gold chalcogenides, e.g. "AuS" feature equal amounts of Au(I) and Au(III). Isotopes Gold has only one stable isotope, 197Au, which is also its only naturally-occurring isotope. 36 radioisotopes have been synthesized ranging in atomic mass from 169 to 205. The most stable of these is 195Au with a half-life of 186.1 days. 195Au is also the only isotope to decay by electron capture. The least stable is 171Au, which decays by proton emission with a half-life of 30 µs. Most of gold's radioisotopes with atomic masses below 197 decay by some combination of proton emission, α decay, and β+ decay. The exceptions are 195Au, which decays by electron capture, and 196Au, which has a minor β- decay path. All of gold's radioisotopes with atomic masses above 197 decay by β- decay. At least 32 nuclear isomers have also been characterized, ranging in atomic mass from 170 to 200. Within that range, only 178Au, 180Au, 181Au, 182Au, and 188Au do not have isomers. Gold's most stable isomer is 198 m2Au with a half-life of 2.27 days. Gold's least stable isomer is 177 m2Au with a half-life of only 7 ns. 184 m1Au has three decay paths: β+ decay, isomeric transition, and alpha decay. No other isomer or isotope of gold has three decay paths. Symbolism Three Gold Sovereigns with a Krugerrand Swiss-cast 1 kg gold bar Gold has been associated with the extremities of utmost evil and great sanctity throughout history. In the Book of Exodus, the Golden Calf is a symbol of idolatry and rebellion against God. In popular culture, the golden pocket watch and its fastening golden chain were the characteristic accessories of the capitalists, the rich and the industrial tycoons. Credit card companies associate their product with wealth by naming and coloring their top-of-the-range cards “gold” although, in an attempt to out-do each other, platinum has now overtaken gold. In the Book of Genesis, Abraham was said to be rich in gold and silver, and Moses was instructed to cover the Mercy Seat of the Ark of the Covenant with pure gold. Eminent orators such as John Chrysostom were said to have a “mouth of gold with a silver tongue.” Gold is associated with notable anniversaries, particularly in a 50-year cycle, such as a golden wedding anniversary, golden jubilee, etc. Great human achievements are frequently rewarded with gold, in the form of medals and decorations. Winners of races and prizes are usually awarded the gold medal (such as the Olympic Games and the Nobel Prize), while many award statues are depicted in gold (such as the Academy Awards, the Golden Globe Awards the Emmy Awards, the Palme d'Or, and the British Academy Film Awards). Medieval kings were inaugurated under the signs of sacred oil and a golden crown, the latter symbolizing the eternal shining light of heaven and thus a Christian king's divinely inspired authority. Wedding rings are traditionally made of gold; since it is long-lasting and unaffected by the passage of time, it is considered a suitable material for everyday wear as well as a metaphor for the relationship. In Orthodox Christianity, the wedded couple is adorned with a golden crown during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites. The symbolic value of gold varies greatly around the world, even within geographic regions . Toxicity Symptoms of gold toxicity. Pure gold is non-toxic and non-irritating when ingested and is sometimes used as a food decoration in the form of gold leaf. It is also a component of the alcoholic drinks Goldschläger, Gold Strike, and Goldwasser. Gold is approved as a food additive in the EU (E175 in the Codex Alimentarius). Soluble compounds (gold salts) such as potassium gold cyanide, used in gold electroplating, are toxic to the liver and kidneys. There are rare cases of lethal gold poisoning from potassium gold cyanide. Gold toxicity can be ameliorated with chelation therapy with an agent such as Dimercaprol. It was voted Allergen of the Year in 2001 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society. See also Altai Mountains ChipGold Commodity fetishism Digital gold currency Gold fingerprinting Gold Prospectors Association of America Mining in Roman Britain Prospecting Roman engineering Footnotes Bibliography Faulk W, Taylor G (1979) An Immunocolloid Method for the Electron Microscope Immunochemistry 8, 1081–1083. Kodak (2006) Toning black-and-white materials. Technical Data/Reference sheet G-23, May 2006. Roth J, Bendayan M, Orci L (1980) FITC-Protein A-Gold Complex for Light and Electron Microscopic Immunocytochemistry. Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry 28, 55–57. World Gold Council, Jewellery Technology, Jewellery Alloys Los Alamos National Laboratory – Gold External links Getting Gold 1898 book Technical Document on Extraction and Mining of Gold Picture in the Element collection from Heinrich Pniok WebElements.com — Gold | Gold |@lemmatized gold:335 chemical:3 element:5 symbol:6 au:25 atomic:6 number:3 highly:6 seek:1 precious:4 metal:36 jewelry:8 sculpture:1 ornamentation:2 since:12 beginning:2 recorded:1 history:8 occur:9 nugget:7 grain:4 rock:5 vein:2 alluvial:4 deposit:13 dense:4 soft:5 shiny:1 malleable:3 ductile:3 pure:15 know:11 bright:1 yellow:6 color:20 luster:1 traditionally:3 consider:3 attractive:1 maintain:2 without:1 rust:1 air:2 water:9 one:11 coinage:3 form:21 basis:2 standard:9 use:61 collapse:2 bretton:2 wood:3 system:5 end:6 estimate:6 ever:7 mine:20 total:4 tonne:11 represent:3 cube:3 edge:2 length:2 meter:4 modern:5 industrial:3 us:1 include:9 dentistry:3 electronics:3 find:8 good:7 resistance:6 oxidative:1 corrosion:7 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5,075 | Nylon | Nylon NylonDensity1.15 g/cm³Electrical conductivity (σ)10-12 S/mThermal conductivity0.25 W/(m·K)Melting point463 K-624 K 190°C-350°C 374°F-663°F Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers known generically as polyamides and first produced on February 28, 1935 by Wallace Carothers at DuPont. Nylon is one of the most commonly used polymers. Overview Nylon is a thermoplastic silky material, first used commercially in a nylon-bristled toothbrush (1938), followed more famously by women's stockings ("nylons"; 1940). It is made of repeating units linked by peptide bonds (another name for amide bonds) and is frequently referred to as polyamide (PA). Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic polymer. There are two common methods of making nylon for fiber applications. In one approach, molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with molecules containing amine (NH2) groups on each end. The resulting nylon is named on the basis of the number of carbon atoms separating the two acid groups and the two amines. These are formed into monomers of intermediate molecular weight, which are then reacted to form long polymer chains. Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in many different products after silk became scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes and flak vests, and was used in many types of vehicle tires. Nylon fibers are used in many applications, including fabrics, bridal veils, carpets, musical strings, and rope. Solid nylon is used for mechanical parts such as machine screws, gears and other low- to medium-stress components previously cast in metal. Engineering-grade nylon is processed by extrusion, casting, and injection molding. Solid nylon is used in hair combs. Type 6/6 Nylon 101 is the most common commercial grade of nylon, and Nylon 6 is the most common commercial grade of molded nylon. Nylon is available in glass-filled variants which increase structural and impact strength and rigidity, and molybdenum sulfide-filled variants which increase lubricity. Aramids are another type of polyamide with quite different chain structures which include aromatic groups in the main chain. Such polymers make excellent ballistic fibres. Chemistry Nylons are condensation copolymers formed by reacting equal parts of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid, so that peptide bonds form at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptide biopolymers. Chemical elements included are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The numerical suffix specifies the numbers of carbons donated by the monomers; the diamine first and the diacid second. The most common variant is nylon 6-6 which refers to the fact that the diamine (hexamethylene diamine) and the diacid (adipic acid) each donate 6 carbons to the polymer chain. As with other regular copolymers like polyesters and polyurethanes, the "repeating unit" consists of one of each monomer, so that they alternate in the chain. Since each monomer in this copolymer has the same reactive group on both ends, the direction of the amide bond reverses between each monomer, unlike natural polyamide proteins which have overall directionality: C terminal → N terminal. In the laboratory, nylon 6-6 can also be made using adipoyl chloride instead of adipic. It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to chain termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons (u). To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid "nylon salt" can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1:1 ratio of the acid and the base to neutralize each other. Heated to 285 °C, the salt reacts to form nylon polymer. Above 20,000 daltons, it is impossible to spin the chains into yarn, so to combat this, some acetic acid is added to react with a free amine end group during polymer elongation to limit the molecular weight. In practice, and especially for 6,6, the monomers are often combined in a water solution. The water used to make the solution is evaporated under controlled conditions, and the increasing concentration of "salt" is polymerized to the final molecular weight. DuPont patented History of Nylon US Patent 2,130,523 'Linear polyamides suitable for spinning into strong pliable fibers', U.S. Patent 2,130,947 'Diamine dicarboxylic acid salt' and U.S. Patent 2,130,948 'Synthetic fibers', all issued September 20, 1938 nylon 6,6, so in order to compete, other companies (particularly the German BASF) developed the homopolymer nylon 6, or polycaprolactam — not a condensation polymer, but formed by a ring-opening polymerization (alternatively made by polymerizing aminocaproic acid). The peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side being incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone. In this case, all amide bonds lie in the same direction, but the properties of nylon 6 are sometimes indistinguishable from those of nylon 6,6 — except for melt temperature (N6 is lower) and some fiber properties in products like carpets and textiles. There is also nylon 9. Nylon 5,10, made from pentamethylene diamine and sebacic acid, was studied by Carothers even before nylon 6,6 and has superior properties, but is more expensive to make. In keeping with this naming convention, "nylon 6,12" (N-6,12) or "PA-6,12" is a copolymer of a 6C diamine and a 12C diacid. Similarly for N-5,10 N-6,11; N-10,12, etc. Other nylons include copolymerized dicarboxylic acid/diamine products that are not based upon the monomers listed above. For example, some aromatic nylons are polymerized with the addition of diacids like terephthalic acid (→ Kevlar) or isophthalic acid (→ Nomex), more commonly associated with polyesters. There are copolymers of N-6,6/N6; copolymers of N-6,6/N-6/N-12; and others. Because of the way polyamides are formed, nylon would seem to be limited to unbranched, straight chains. But "star" branched nylon can be produced by the condensation of dicarboxylic acids with polyamines having three or more amino groups. The general reaction is: A molecule of water is given off and the nylon is formed. Its properties are determined by the R and R' groups in the monomers. In nylon 6,6, R' = 6C and R = 4C alkanes, but one also has to include the two carboxyl carbons in the diacid to get the number it donates to the chain. In Kevlar, both R and R' are benzene rings. Nylon fiber The Federal Trade Commission's definition for Nylon Fiber: A manufactured fiber in which the fiber forming substance is a long-chain synthetic polyamide in which less than 85% of the amide-linkages are attached directly (-CO-NH-) to two aliphatic groups. A synthetic thermoplastic fiber (Nylon melts/glazes easily at relatively low temperatures) Round, smooth, and shiny filament fibers cross sections can be either trilobal to imitate silk multilobal to increase staple like appearance and hand Its most widely used structures are multifilament, monofilament, staple or tow and is available as partially drawn or as finished filaments. Regular nylon has a round cross section and is perfectly uniform. The filaments are generally completely transparent unless they have been delustered or solution dyed. Thus, they are microscopically recognized as glass rods. Molecular chains of nylon are long and straight variations but have no side chains or linkages. Cold drawing (step 18 on the model) can align the chains so they are oriented with the lengthwise direction and are highly crystalline. Nylon is related chemically to the protein fibers silk and wool. They both have similar dye sites but nylon has many fewer dye sites than wool. Basic concepts of nylon production The first approach: combining molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with two chemicals that contain amine (NH2) groups on each end. This process creates nylon 6,6, made of hexamethylene diamine with six carbon atoms and acidipic acid, as well as six carbon atoms. The second approach: a compound has an acid at one end and an amine at the other and is polymerized to form a chain with repeating units of (-NH-[CH2]n-CO-)x. In other words, nylon 6 is made from a single six-carbon substance called caprolactam. In this equation, if n=5, then nylon 6 is the assigned name. (may also be referred to as polymer) Nylon 6,6 Pleats and creases can be heat-set at higher temperatures More compact molecular structure Better weathering properties; better sunlight resistance Softer "Hand" Higher melting point (256°C) Superior colorfastness Excellent abrasion resistance Nylon 6 More rapid moisture absorption Easy to dye, more readily fades Greater elasticity and elastic recovery Higher impact resistance Producers The producers of nylon include: Honeywell Nylon Inc., Invista, Wellman Inc. among many others. The DuPont Company, is the most famous pioneer of the nylon we know today. Characteristics Variation of luster: nylon has the ability to be very lustrous, semilustrous or dull. Durability: its high tenacity fibers are used for seatbelts, tire cords, ballistic cloth and other uses. High elongation Excellent abrasion resistance Highly resilient (nylon fabrics are heat-set) Paved the way for easy-care garments High resistance to: insects, fungi and animals molds, mildew, rot many chemicals Used in carpets and nylon stockings Melts instead of burning Used in many military applications Bulk properties Above their melting temperatures, Tm, thermoplastics like nylon are amorphous solids or viscous fluids in which the chains approximate random coils. Below Tm, amorphous regions alternate with regions which are lamellar crystals. The amorphous regions contribute elasticity and the crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity. The planar amide (-CO-NH-) groups are very polar, so nylon forms multiple hydrogen bonds among adjacent strands. Because the nylon backbone is so regular and symmetrical, especially if all the amide bonds are in the trans configuration, nylons often have high crystallinity and make excellent fibers. The amount of crystallinity depends on the details of formation, as well as on the kind of nylon. Apparently it can never be quenched from a melt as a completely amorphous solid. Nylon 6,6 can have multiple parallel strands aligned with their neighboring peptide bonds at coordinated separations of exactly 6 and 4 carbons for considerable lengths, so the carbonyl oxygens and amide hydrogens can line up to form interchain hydrogen bonds repeatedly, without interruption. Nylon 5,10 can have coordinated runs of 5 and 8 carbons. Thus parallel (but not antiparallel) strands can participate in extended, unbroken, multi-chain β-pleated sheets, a strong and tough supermolecular structure similar to that found in natural silk fibroin and the β-keratins in feathers. (Proteins have only an amino acid α-carbon separating sequential -CO-NH- groups.) Nylon 6 will form uninterrupted H-bonded sheets with mixed directionalities, but the β-sheet wrinkling is somewhat different. The three-dimensional disposition of each alkane hydrocarbon chain depends on rotations about the 109.47° tetrahedral bonds of singly-bonded carbon atoms. When extruded into fibers through pores in an industrial spinneret, the individual polymer chains tend to align because of viscous flow. If subjected to cold drawing afterwards, the fibers align further, increasing their crystallinity, and the material acquires additional tensile strength. In practice, nylon fibers are most often drawn using heated rolls at high speeds. Block nylon tends to be less crystalline, except near the surfaces due to shearing stresses during formation. Nylon is clear and colorless, or milky, but is easily dyed. Multistranded nylon cord and rope is slippery and tends to unravel. The ends can be melted and fused with a heat source such as a flame or electrode to prevent this. When dry, polyamide is a good electrical insulator. However, polyamide is hygroscopic. The absorption of water will change some of the material's properties such as its electrical resistance. Nylon is less absorbent than wool or cotton. Historical uses Bill Pittendreigh, DuPont, and other individuals and corporations worked diligently during the first few months of World War II to find a way to replace Asian silk and hemp with nylon in parachutes. It was also used to make tires, tents, ropes, ponchos, and other military supplies. It was even used in the production of a high-grade paper for U.S. currency. At the outset of the war, cotton accounted for more than 80% of all fibers used and manufactured, and wool fibers accounted for the remaining 20%. By August 1945, manufactured fibers had taken a market share of 25% and cotton had dropped. Some of the terpolymers based upon nylon are used every day in packaging. Nylon has been used for meat wrappings and sausage sheaths. Use in composites Nylon can be used as the matrix material in composite materials, with reinforcing fibres like glass or carbon fiber, and has a higher density than pure nylon. Such thermoplastic composites (25% glass fibre) are frequently used in car components next to the engine, such as intake manifolds, where the good heat resistance of such materials makes them feasible competitors to metals. Hydrolysis and degradation All nylons are susceptible to hydrolysis, especially by strong acids, a reaction essentially the reverse of the synthetic reaction shown above. The molecular weight of nylon products so attacked drops fast, and cracks form quickly at the affected zones. Lower members of the nylons (such as nylon 6) are affected more than higher members such as nylon 12. This means that nylon parts cannot be used in contact with sulphuric acid for example, such as the electrolyte used in lead-acid batteries. When being molded, nylon must be dried to prevent hydrolysis in the molding machine barrel since water at high temperatures can also degrade the polymer. The reaction is of the type Image:amide hydrolysis.png Etymology In 1940 John W. Eckelberry of DuPont stated that the letters "nyl" were arbitrary and the "on" was copied from the suffixes of other fibers such as cotton and rayon. A later publication by DuPont (Context, vol. 7, no. 2, 1978) explained that the name was originally intended to be "No-Run" ("run" meaning "unravel"), but was modified to avoid making such an unjustified claim and to make the word sound better. The story goes that Carothers changed one letter at a time until DuPont's management was satisfied. But he was not involved in the nylon project during the last year of his life, and committed suicide before the name was coined. There is a story that the name is a compounding of "New York" (N.Y.) and "London" (LON), but this is erroneous. See also Aramid Forensic engineering Polymers Plastic Nylon 6 Nylon 6-6 Ballistic Nylon Rip-Stop Nylon Cordura Nylon riots step-growth polymerization References Textiles by Sara J. Kadolph, ISBN 0131187694 External links For historical perspectives on nylon, see the Documents List of "The Stocking Story: You Be The Historian" at the Smithsonian website, by The Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. A chemical demonstration of the synthesis of nylon in Carleton University's CHEM 1000 course. (Video) Article on making Nylon at home Typical physical characteristics of nylon Polyamide material description Nylon at fibersource.com Discussion of nylon synthesis and properties | Nylon |@lemmatized nylon:95 g:1 conductivity:1 σ:1 mthermal:1 w:2 k:3 melt:7 c:5 f:2 generic:1 designation:1 family:1 synthetic:7 polymer:14 know:2 generically:1 polyamide:10 first:6 produce:2 february:1 wallace:1 carothers:3 dupont:7 one:6 commonly:2 used:1 overview:1 thermoplastic:4 silky:1 material:7 use:23 commercially:2 bristle:1 toothbrush:1 follow:1 famously:1 woman:1 stocking:2 make:16 repeat:3 unit:3 link:2 peptide:4 bond:14 another:2 name:7 amide:8 frequently:2 refer:2 pa:2 successful:1 two:7 common:4 method:1 fiber:22 application:4 approach:3 molecule:4 acid:20 cooh:2 group:14 end:9 react:6 contain:2 amine:5 result:1 basis:1 number:3 carbon:13 atom:4 separate:2 form:15 monomer:10 intermediate:1 molecular:7 weight:5 long:3 chain:18 intend:2 replacement:1 silk:7 substitute:1 many:7 different:3 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5,076 | Politics_of_Montserrat | Politics of Montserrat takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic dependency, whereby the Chief Minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Montserrat is an internally self-governing overseas territory of the United Kingdom. The United Nations Committee on Decolonization includes Montserrat on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Council. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Military defence is the responsibility of the United Kingdom. Executive branch |Queen |Elizabeth II | |6 February 1952 |- |Governor |Peter Andrew Waterworth | |2007 |- |Chief Minister |Lowell Lewis |MDP |2 June 2006 |} The governor is appointed by the monarch. The chief minister is appointed by the governor from among the members of the Legislative Council. His cabinet, the Executive Council, is appointed by the governor from among the elected members of the Legislative Council and consists also of the Executive Council of the governor, the attorney general, and the finance secretary. The current Chief Minister of the island is Lowell Lewis, of the Montserrat Democratic Party, replacing the outgoing Chief Minister, John Osborne of the New People's Liberation Party. The New People's Liberation Party, after losing its majority in the Legislative Council of Montserrat because of its poor showing in the 2006 election, supported Lewis for Chief Minister Moves towards full independence have been effectively halted by the volcano and the consequent evacuation. Legislative branch Montserrat elects on territorial level a legislature. The Legislative Council has 9 members, elected for a five year term in one constituency. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, consists of the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of Montserrat. Administrative divisions Montserrat is divided in 3 parishes; Saint Anthony, Saint Georges, and Saint Peter. International organization participation Caricom, CDB, ECLAC (associate), ICFTU, Interpol (subbureau), OECS, WCL | Politics_of_Montserrat |@lemmatized politics:1 montserrat:8 take:1 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:1 democratic:2 dependency:1 whereby:1 chief:6 minister:6 head:1 government:3 multi:1 party:5 system:1 internally:1 self:2 govern:1 overseas:1 territory:2 united:4 kingdom:2 nation:2 committee:1 decolonization:1 include:1 list:1 non:1 governing:1 executive:5 power:2 exercise:1 legislative:7 vest:1 council:7 judiciary:1 independent:1 legislature:2 military:1 defence:1 responsibility:1 branch:3 queen:1 elizabeth:1 ii:1 february:1 governor:5 peter:2 andrew:1 waterworth:1 lowell:2 lewis:3 mdp:1 june:1 appoint:3 monarch:1 among:2 member:3 cabinet:1 elected:1 consist:2 also:1 attorney:1 general:1 finance:1 secretary:1 current:1 island:1 replace:1 outgo:1 john:1 osborne:1 new:2 people:2 liberation:2 lose:1 majority:1 poor:1 showing:1 election:2 support:1 move:1 towards:1 full:1 independence:1 effectively:1 halt:1 volcano:1 consequent:1 evacuation:1 elect:2 territorial:1 level:1 five:1 year:1 term:1 one:2 constituency:1 political:1 judicial:1 eastern:1 caribbean:1 supreme:2 court:4 high:1 justice:1 appeal:1 judge:1 resident:1 administrative:1 division:1 divide:1 parish:1 saint:3 anthony:1 george:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 caricom:1 cdb:1 eclac:1 associate:1 icftu:1 interpol:1 subbureau:1 oecs:1 wcl:1 |@bigram dependency_whereby:1 self_governing:1 judiciary_independent:1 queen_elizabeth:1 legislative_branch:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:2 interpol_subbureau:1 |
5,077 | Mauritius | Mauritius (; ; Mauritian Creole: Maurice), officially the Republic of Mauritius, , is an island nation off the coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about 900 kilometres (560 mi) east of Madagascar. In addition to the island of Mauritius, the Republic includes the islands of St. Brandon, Rodrigues and the Agalega Islands. Mauritius is part of the Mascarene Islands, with the French island of Réunion 200 km (125 mi) to the southwest and the island of Rodrigues to the northeast. The island of Mauritius is renowned for having been the only known home of the dodo. First sighted by Europeans around 1600 on Mauritius, the dodo was extinct less than eighty years later. History The island was known by Arab and Austronesian sailors as early as the 10th century. The Portuguese sailors first visited it in 1507 and established a visiting base leaving the island uninhabited. Three ships of the eight Dutch Second Fleet that were sent to the Spice Islands were blown off course during a cyclone and landed on the island in 1598, naming it in honour of Prince Maurice of Nassau, the Stadtholder of the Netherlands. , p.13. The Hudson River in North America was first named "Mauritius River" for the same Stadtholder. In 1638, the Dutch established the first permanent settlement. Because of tough climatic conditions including cyclones and the deterioration of the settlement, the Dutch abandoned the island some decades later. France, which already controlled the neighbouring Île Bourbon (now Réunion) seized Mauritius in 1715 and later renamed it Île de France (Isle of France). Under French rule, the island developed a prosperous economy based on sugar production. In the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) the British set out to gain control of the island. Despite winning the Battle of Grand Port, Napoleon's only naval victory over the British, the French surrendered to a British invasion at Cap Malheureux three months later. They formally surrendered on 3 December 1810, on terms allowing settlers to keep their land and property and to use the French language and law of France in criminal and civil matters. Under British rule, the island's name reverted to the original Mauritius. A postcard c.1900-1910 showing the Port Louis theatre. In 1965, the United Kingdom split the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius to create the British Indian Ocean Territory in order to use the strategic islands for defence purposes in co-operation with the United States. Although the Government of Mauritius agreed to the move at the time, subsequent administrations have laid claim to the islands stating that the divestment was illegal under international law, a claim recognised by the United Nations. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,497477982,49749ce6c,0.html Mauritius attained independence in 1968, and the country became a republic within the Commonwealth in 1992. Mauritius has been a stable democracy with regular elections based on religious beliefs or sectary groups. It has a positive human rights record, Human Rights Committee Takes Up Report of Mauritius: Experts Praise Creation of National Human Rights Commission but Raise Concerns Regarding Anti-Terrorism Law, 18 March 2005 - retrieved 8 January 2007 and has attracted considerable foreign investment earning one of Africa's highest per capita incomes. CIA World Factbook: Mauritius Introduction Politics The Government is elected on a five-year basis. The most recent general elections took place on July 3 2005 in all the 20 mainland constituencies, as well as the constituency covering the island of Rodrigues. Historically, elections have tended to be a contest between two major coalitions of parties. In international affairs, Mauritius is part of the Indian Ocean Commission, the Southern African Development Community and the Commonwealth of Nations and La Francophonie (French speaking countries), amongst others. A more complete list can be found in the main Politics of Mauritius article. In 2006, Mauritius asked to be an observing member of Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) in order to become closer to those countries. The Rt Hon. Sir Anerood Jugnauth Qc, KCMG, Pc, GCSK Head of StatePresidentCommander in Chief The Hon. Dr Navinchandra Ramgoolam GCSK ,MP Prime MinisterDefence Minister & Home Affairs Hon. Xavier Luc Duval GCSK ACCA, MP Minister Of Tourism Hon. Dr Rama Sithanen GCSK, MP Finance Minister Of Mauritius The Hon. Mrs Sheilabai Bappoo GOSK, MP Senior MinisterNational Social Security Minister Military and police Mauritius does not have a standing army. All military, police, and security functions are carried out by 10,000 active-duty personnel under the command of the Commissioner of Police. This consists of an 8,000 member National Police which is responsible for domestic law enforcement, a 1,500 member Special Mobile Force (SMF), and a 500-member National Coast Guard. Geography Map of Mauritius Satellite image of Mauritius, February 2003, with traced outline of island. Together with Réunion and Rodrigues, Mauritius is part of the Mascarene Islands. This archipelago was formed in a series of undersea volcanic eruptions 8-10 million years ago, as the African plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot. They are no longer volcanically active, and the hotspot now rests under Réunion. The island of Mauritius itself is formed around a central plateau, with its highest peak in the southwest, Piton de la Petite Rivière Noire at 828 metres (2,717 ft). Around the plateau, the original crater can still be distinguished from several mountains. The local climate is tropical, modified by southeast trade winds; there is a warm, dry winter from May to November and a hot, wet, and humid summer from November to May. Anti-cyclones affect the country during May to September. Cyclones affect the country during November-April. Hollanda (1994) and Dina (2002) were the worst two last cyclones to have affected the island. Beach scenery in Mauritius. The island's capital and largest city is Port Louis, in the northwest. Other important towns are Rose-Hill and Beau-Bassin, Curepipe, Vacoas, Phoenix, Quatre Bornes. The island is well known for its natural beauty. Author Mark Twain, for example, noted in Following the Equator, his personal travelogue, "You gather the idea that Mauritius was made first and then heaven, and that heaven was copied after Mauritius". (This quote is often taken out of context. Twain actually wrote: "From one citizen you gather the idea that Mauritius was made first, and then heaven; and that heaven was copied after Mauritius. Another one tells you that this is an exaggeration…") Environment Districts and dependencies Thumb|Districts of Mauritius The island of Mauritius itself is divided into nine districts: Black River (Capital: Bambous) Flacq (Capital: Centre de Flacq) Grand Port (Capital: Mahebourg) Moka (Capital: Quartier Militaire) Pamplemousses (Capital: Triolet) Plaines Wilhems (Capital: Beau Bassin and Rose Hill, Phoenix) Port Louis (Capital of Mauritius) Rivière du Rempart (Capital: Mapou) Savanne (Capital: Souillac) Dependencies Rodrigues, an island north-east of Mauritius, which attained limited autonomy in October 2002. It had the status of the 10th administrative district of Mauritius before autonomy was attained. Agalega, two small islands about 933 kilometres (580 mi) north of Mauritius, famous for supplying chickens. Cargados Carajos Shoals, also known as the Saint Brandon islands, about 402 kilometres (250 mi) north of Mauritius. Other Mauritian territories Soudan Banks (including East Soudan Bank) Nazareth Bank Saya de Malha Bank Hawkins Bank Mauritius also claims the following territories: Tromelin Island, currently in French possession. Chagos Archipelago, currently a British possession as the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). Economy Skyline of Port Louis, the capital of Mauritius. Despite having a low GDP, Mauritius is widely regarded as a developed country as the GDP is enough for all 1.3 million people. Since independence in 1968, Mauritius has developed from a low-income, agriculturally based economy to a middle income diversified economy with growing industrial, financial, and tourist sectors. For most of the period, annual growth has been of the order of 5% to 6%. This has been reflected in increased life expectancy, lowered infant mortality and an improved infrastructure. Estimated at US$10,155 for 2005 at purchasing power parity (PPP), Mauritius has the seventh-highest GDP per capita in Africa, behind Réunion (US$19,233 at real exchange rates), Seychelles (US$13,887 at PPP), Gabon (US$12,742 at PPP), Botswana (US$12,057 at PPP), Equatorial Guinea (US$11,999 at PPP), and Libya (US$10,727 at PPP). The economy is mainly dependent on sugarcane plantations, tourism, textiles, and services, but other sectors are rapidly developing as well. Mauritius, Libya, and Seychelles are the only three African nations with a "high" Human Development Index rating (Réunion, as part of France, is not listed by the UN in their Human Development Index ranking). Sugar cane is grown on about 90% of the cultivated land area and accounts for 25% of export earnings. However, a record-setting drought severely damaged the sugar crop in 1999. The government's development strategy centres on foreign investment. Mauritius has attracted more than 9,000 offshore entities; many aimed at commerce in India and South Africa while investment in the banking sector alone has reached over $1 billion. Economic performance during the period from 2000 through 2004 combined strong economic growth with unemployment at 7.6% in December 2004. France is the country's biggest trading partner, has close ties with the country, and provides technical assistance in various forms. In order to provide locals with access to imports at lower prices and attract more tourists going to Singapore and Dubai, Mauritius is gearing towards becoming a duty-free island within the next four years. Duty has been eliminated for several products and decreased for more than 1850 products including clothing, food, jewelry, photographic equipment, audio visual equipment and lighting equipment. Duty-free plan in Mauritius, TREND-News.com, 04-06-2005 In addition, reforms aimed at attracting new business opportunities have also been implemented. But, one of the biggest impediments is the traffic movement between the towns, which is slowing the development of Mauritius. The corporate tax has recently been reduced to 15% to encourage non resident companies to trade or invest through a permanent establishment or otherwise. A plan by ADB Networks calls for Mauritius to become the first nation to have coast-to-coast wireless internet access. The wireless hot spot currently covers about 60% of the island and is accessible by about 70% of its population. Mauritius ranks first among all countries in FDI inflows to India, with cumulative inflows amounting to US$10.98 billion. The top sectors attracting FDI inflows from Mauritius between January 2000 and December 2005 were electrical equipment, telecommunications, fuels, cement and gypsum products and services sector (financial and non-financial). Transportation Transport in Mauritius has been free since July 2005 for students, the disabled, and seniors. Credit for this goes to Hon. Dr Navinchandra Ramgoolam, the current Prime Minister of Mauritius, who promised this scheme to Mauritians during his election campaign. Education Mauritius has an educational system. Education from pre-primary through to secondary is free for each citizen born in the country. Most prestigious schools are designated as "Star Schools" The following are a selection of the "Star schools" in no particular order http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/education/menuitem.90dd48116d1a5504631e691048a521ca/?content_id=1d9f800e57af7010VgnVCM100000ca6a12acRCRD#TRANSFORMATIONOFSTARSTATESECONDARYSCHOOLSINTOFORMVICOLLEGES : State Schools Dr. Maurice Curé SSS – Vacoas Droopnath Ramphul SSS – Calebasses Gaetan Raynal SSS - Belle Rose John Kennedy College - Beau Bassin Mahatma Gandhi Institute - Moka Queen Elizabeth College - Rose Hill Royal College Curepipe Royal College Port Louis Sir A. Raman Osman SSS – Phoenix Sir Leckraz Teeluck SSS - Centre-de-Flacq Sookdeo Bissoondoyal SSS - Rose Belle Catholic Schools College du St. Esprit, Quatre Bornes St. Joseph's College, Curepipe Saint Mary's College, Rose Hill Loreto College Quatre Bornes Loreto College Curepipe Loreto College Mahebourg Loreto College Port Louis Bon et Pertuel Secours, Beau-Bassin Notre Dame college St Andrew's School Private Schools Le Bocage International School New Educational College Aleemiah College Lycee La Bourdonnais London college Mauritius College Lycee Des Mascareignes Ecole du Nord Ecole du Centre Demographics The population estimate for the whole republic is 1,264,866. For the island of Mauritius only, as at 31 December 2007, it is 1,227,078 . Mauritian society includes people from many different ethnic groups. The republic's residents are the descendants of people from India (Indo-Mauritian), continental Africa (Mauritian Creole people usually known as 'Creoles'), France (Franco-Mauritian) and China (Sino-Mauritian), among other places. Religion Hindus make up 52%, Roman Catholic 28.4%, and Muslim 16.6% while other unspecified religions around up to 3%. There is supposedly also a significant migrant population of Bhumihar Brahmins in Mauritius who have made a mark for themselves in different fields. Churches and Dravidian Tamil pagodas and temples are found in large numbers. Most Creoles are Christians. The majority of the Muslims and the whole Hindu population come from India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. Some Muslims are also from the Middle East. Hindus include Bhojpuri, Marathi, Tamil and Telugu speakers. A minority of people are of Chinese descent, many of whom have embraced Christianity, following mainly Roman Catholicism. Some follow Buddhism and Confucian traditions. The constitution of the country sees the rest of the people as General Population. Recently, there has been voices calling for the advocation of 'creolity' from people with slave-descent blood. The authorities seem to be approving the recognition of this request since the 'Festival Creole' was hosted and financed by the government. Language In Mauritius, people switch languages according to the occasion. Over the course of a day a typical Mauritian might use English to write a school essay, Creole Morisien to chat with friends and French to read a novel. http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~cpercy/courses/6362-chiba.htm The Indian Ocean country's constitution makes no mention of an official language and its one million citizens speak either English, French, Hindi or Mauritian Creole—a French patois. Only in parliament is English stipulated as the official language—but lawmakers are allowed to address the speaker in French. http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/AssemblySite/menuitem.ee3d58b2c32c60451251701065c521ca/?content_id=4cb54555fc808010VgnVCM100000ca6a12acRCRD#assembly http://www.antimoon.com/forum/t12090.htm http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20081018/wl_africa_afp/mauritiusculturelanguagefrancophonie_081018200526 However, even if English is generally accepted as the official language of Mauritius and as the language of government administration and the court business, the lingua franca remains French. http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~cpercy/courses/6362-chiba.htm http://www.antimoon.com/forum/t12090.htm . Road signs are in English, and most newspapers and media communications are in French, and while exams are written in English, during business meetings and in the work environment, French is used. http://m2002.thecgf.com/Nations/Africa/Mauritius/default.asp It appears that English and French can co-exist in harmony here. http://www.antimoon.com/forum/t12090.htm Moreover, Creole, which is spoken by 90 per cent of the population, was developed in the 18th century by slaves who used a pidgin language to communicate with each other as well as with their French masters, who did not understand the various African languages. The pidgin evolved with later generations to become a useful, casual language. http://m2002.thecgf.com/Nations/Africa/Mauritius/default.asp Mauritian Creole has close ties with French pronunciation, but with a few marked differences and is considered to be the native tongue of the country. Other languages spoken in Mauritius include Hindi, Urdu, Hakka (a Chinese dialect) and Bojpoori (also written "Bhojpuri"), which is an amalgamation of several Indian dialects spoken by the early Indian settlers http://www.brandeis.edu/coexistence/linked%20documents/Nigel%20-%20Mauritius%20FINAL.pdf. . Most Mauritians are at least bilingual, if not trilingual http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/Mainhomepage/menuitem.a42b24128104d9845dabddd154508a0c/?content_id=dd86a309d9ece110VgnVCM1000000a04a8c0RCRD http://74.125.113.132/search?q=cache:9wPofOfgOiEJ:www.gov.mu/portal/goc/webattorney/file/briefing.pdf+most+MAURITIANS+bilingual<&cd=10&hl=fr&ct=clnk&gl=ca http://m2002.thecgf.com/Nations/Africa/Mauritius/default.asp http://www.brandeis.edu/coexistence/linked%20documents/Nigel%20-%20Mauritius%20FINAL.pdf. Culture A woman performs the sega in Pointe-aux-Piments, Mauritius. The cuisine of Mauritius is a blend of Indian, Creole, Chinese and European influences. It is common for a combination of cuisines to form part of the same meal. Famous Sega singer is Hon .Linzy Bacbotte, MSK is one of the most desired soul and vocal personality in the country . The production of rum, which is made from sugar cane, is widespread on the island. Sugarcane was first introduced to Mauritius by the Dutch in 1638. The Dutch mainly cultivated sugarcane for the production of "arrack", a precursor to rum. However, it was during the French and British administrations that sugar production was fully exploited, which considerably contributed to the economical development of the island. Pierre Charles François Harel was the first to propose the concept of local distillation of rum in Mauritius, in 1850. The sega is a local folklore music. Sega has African roots, and main traditional instruments for producing the music are goat-skin percussion instruments called ravane and metallic clicks using metal triangles. The songs usually describe the miseries of slavery, and has been adapted nowadays as social satires to voice out inequalities as felt by the blacks. Men are usually at the instruments while women perform an accompanying dance which is more often erotic. Mauritius was the only known habitat of the extinct Dodo bird. In 1847, Mauritius became the fifth location in the world to issue postage stamps. The two types of stamps issued then, known as the Mauritius "Post Office" stamps, consisting of a "Red Penny" and a "Blue Two Pence" denomination, are probably the most famous and valuable stamps in the world. When it was discovered, the island of Mauritius was the home of a previously unknown species of bird, which the Portuguese named the dodo (simpleton), as they appeared to be not too bright. By 1681, all dodos had been killed by the settlers or by their domesticated animals. An alternate theory suggests that the imported wild boars that were set free destroyed the slow-breeding dodo population. The dodo is prominently featured as a supporter of the national coat-of-arms (see above). The island has also given rise to a diversified literature, prominent in French, English and Creole. Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio, the 2008 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature, is of Franco-mauritian origin and lives on the island for part of each year. In Mauritius the following festivals Christmas, Cavadee, Chinese New Year, Père Laval, Diwali, Mahashivratri and Eid Al-Fitr are celebrated. Mauritius should also be discovered in the back-country, where the culture is highly contrasting with what is seen in the cities. Recreational activities in Mauritius are quite varied to support the local tourism industry. Water sports are facilitated as the island is surrounded with coral reef, providing plenty of relatively shallow and calm water. Activities such as deep sea fishing, windsurfing, water-skiing, cruising in yachts and even submarines are some of the many water based recreations available. Land based leisure activities include deer hunting, quad & mountain biking, abseiling, zip lining, horse riding and trekking. However, all these are most often practiced by the elite only. International rankings Survey Organisation Ranking Index of Economic Freedom 2008 Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal 18 out of 157 Corruption Perceptions Index 2008 Transparency International 41 out of 180 Ease of Doing Business Index (2009 report) World Bank Group 22 out of 181 Digital Opportunity Index (2007) International Telecommunication Union 50 out of 181 Press Freedom Index (2007) Reporters Without Borders 25 out of 169 Human Development Index (2008) United Nations Development Programme 74 out of 177 See also Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport Air Mauritius - National Airline The Mauritius Scout Association The Mauritius Command, a novel by Patrick O'Brian Book: LOST LAND OF THE DODO: An Ecological History of Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodrigues. by Anthony Cheke and Julian Hume. 464 pp. Yale University Press, 2008. $55. References Further reading Dodd, Jan and Madeleine Philippe. Lonely Planet Mauritius Reunion & Seychelles. Lonely Planet Publications, 2004. ISBN 1-74059-301-4 Lee, Jacques: Mauritius: Its Creole Language - The Ultimate Creole Phrase Book and Dictionary, Paperback 160 pages (August 15 2005), Publisher: Nautilus, ISBN 0-9511296-4-3. Lee, Jacques: Sega: The Mauritian Folk Dance, Paperback 104 pages (December 1990), Publisher: Nautilus, ISBN 0-9511296-1-9 Khal Torabully, Coolitude : An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora (with Marina Carter, Anthem Press, London, 2002) ISBN 1843310031 External links Government of Mauritius Chief of State and Cabinet Members Mauritius Yellow Pages Mauritius News Portal Mauritius from UCB Libraries GovPubs Mauritius-Rodrigues history Le Morne, Mauritius Map be-x-old:Маўрыкій | Mauritius |@lemmatized mauritius:84 mauritian:15 creole:13 maurice:3 officially:1 republic:5 island:38 nation:9 coast:4 african:6 continent:1 southwest:3 indian:9 ocean:5 kilometre:3 mi:4 east:4 madagascar:1 addition:2 include:8 st:4 brandon:2 rodrigues:7 agalega:2 part:6 mascarene:2 french:18 réunion:8 km:1 northeast:1 renowned:1 known:2 home:3 dodo:8 first:10 sight:1 european:2 around:4 extinct:2 less:1 eighty:1 year:6 later:4 history:3 know:5 arab:1 austronesian:1 sailor:2 early:2 century:2 portuguese:3 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5,078 | Iodine | Iodine (, , or in chemistry ; from "violet"), is a chemical element that has the symbol I and atomic number 53. Naturally-occurring iodine is a single isotope with 74 neutrons. Chemically, iodine is the second least reactive of the halogens, and the second most electropositive halogen; trailing behind astatine in both of these categories. However, the element does not occur in the free state in nature. As with all other halogens (members of Group XVII in the periodic table), when freed from its compounds iodine forms diatomic molecules (I2). Iodine and its compounds are primarily used in medicine, photography, and dyes. Although it is rare in the solar system and Earth's crust, the iodides are very soluble in water, and the element is concentrated in seawater. This mechanism helps to explain how the element came to be required in trace amounts by all animals and some plants, being the heaviest element commonly used by living organisms (only tungsten, used in enzymes by a few bacteria, is heavier). Characteristics Iodine under standard conditions is a shiny grey solid. It can be seen apparently sublimating at standard temperatures into a violet-pink gas that has an irritating odor. This halogen forms compounds with many elements, but is less reactive than the other members of its Group VII (halogens) and has some metallic light reflectance. Elemental iodine dissolves easily in chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. The solubility of elemental iodine in water can be vastly increased by the addition of potassium iodide. The molecular iodine reacts reversibly with the negative ion, creating the triiodide anion, I3−, which dissolves well in water. This is also the formulation of some types of medicinal (antiseptic) iodine, although tincture of iodine classically dissolves the element in alcohol. The deep blue color of starch-iodine complexes is produced only by the free element. Students who have seen the classroom demonstration in which iodine crystals are gently heated in a test tube to violet vapor may gain the impression that liquid iodine does not exist at atmospheric pressure. This misconception arises because the vapor produced has such a deep colour that the liquid appears not to form. In fact, if iodine crystals are heated carefully to just above their melting point of 113.7 °C, the crystals melt into a liquid which is present under a dense blanket of the vapor. Occurrence Iodomethane Iodine naturally occurs in the environment chiefly as a dissolved iodide in seawater, although it is also found in some minerals and soils. This element also exists in small amounts in the mineral caliche, found in Chile, between the Andes and the sea. A type of seaweed, kelp, tends to be high in iodine as well. Organoiodine compounds are produced by marine life forms, the most notable being iodomethane (commonly called methyl iodide). The total iodomethane that is produced by the marine environment, by microbial activitiy in rice paddies and by the burning of biological material is estimated to be 214 kilotonnes. The volatile iodomethane is broken up by oxidation reactions in the atmosphere and a global iodine cycle is established. Although the element is actually quite rare, kelp and certain plants and other algae have some ability to concentrate iodine, which helps introduce the element into the food chain. Structure Iodine crystallizes in the orthorombic space group Cmca, the same as black phosphorus. In the solid state, I2 molecules are still represented by a short I-I bond of 270pm. Production From the several places in which iodine occures in nature only two are used as source for iodine: the caliche, found in Chile and the iodine containing brines of gas and oil fields, especially in Japan and the United States. The caliche, found in Chile contains sodium nitrate, which is the main product of the mining activities and small amounts of sodium iodate and sodium iodide. During leaching and production of pure sodium nitrate the sodium iodate and iodide is extracted. The high concentration of iodine in the caliche and the extensive mining made Chile the largest producer of iodine in 2007. Iodine output in 2005 Most other producers use natural occurring brine for the production of iodine. The Japanese Minami Kanto gas field east of Tokyo and the American Anadarko Basin gas field in northwest Oklahoma are the two largest sources for iodine from brine. The brine has a temperature of over 60°C due to the depth it came from. The brine is first purified and acidified using sulfuric acid, then the iodide present is oxidized to iodine with chlorine. An iodine solution is produced, but it is yet too dilute and has to be concentrated. Air is blown into the solution, causing the iodine to evaporate, then it is passed into an absorbing tower containing acid where sulfur dioxide is added to reduce the iodine. The hydrogen iodide (HI) is reacted with chlorine to precipitate the iodine. After filtering and purification the iodine is packed. 2 HI + Cl2 → I2↑ + 2 HCl I2 + H2O + SO2 → 2 HI + H2SO4 2 HI + Cl2 → I2↓ + 2 HCl The production of iodine from via electrolysis of seawater is not used due to the sufficient abundance of iodine rich brine. Another source of iodine was kelp, a kind of brown alga. This source was used in the 18th and 19th centuries but is no longer economically viable. Commercial samples often contain a large amount of impurities; they may be removed by sublimation. The element may also be prepared in an ultrapure form through the reaction of potassium iodide with copper(II) sulfate, which gives copper(II) iodide initially. That decomposes spontaneously to copper(I) iodide and iodine: Cu2+ + 2 I− → CuI2 2 CuI2 → 2 CuI + I2 There are also a few other methods of isolating this element in the laboratory, for example the method used to isolate other halogens: oxidation of the iodide in hydroiodic acid (often made in situ with an iodide and sulfuric acid) by manganese dioxide (see below in Descriptive chemistry). Isotopes There are 37 isotopes of iodine, but only one, 127I, is stable. In many ways, 129I is similar to 36Cl. It is a soluble halogen, fairly non-reactive, exists mainly as a non-sorbing anion, and is produced by cosmogenic, thermonuclear, and in-situ reactions. In hydrologic studies, 129I concentrations are usually reported as the ratio of 129I to total I (which is virtually all 127I). As is the case with 36Cl/Cl, 129I/I ratios in nature are quite small, 10−14 to 10−10 (peak thermonuclear 129I/I during the 1960s and 1970s reached about 10−7). 129I differs from 36Cl in that its halflife is longer (15.7 vs. 0.301 million years), it is highly biophilic, and occurs in multiple ionic forms (commonly, I− and IO3−) which have different chemical behaviors. This makes it fairly easy for 129I to enter the biosphere as it becomes incorporated into vegetation, soil, milk, animal tissue, etc. Excesses of stable 129Xe in meteorites have been shown to result from decay of "primordial" iodine-129 produced newly by the supernovas which created the dust and gas from which the solar system formed. 129I was the first extinct radionuclide to be identified as present in the early solar system. Its decay is the basis of the I-Xe Iodine-xenon radiometric dating scheme, which covers the first 85 million years of solar system evolution. Effects of various radioiodine isotopes in biology are discussed below. History Iodine was discovered by Bernard Courtois in 1811. In French, seaweed that had been washed onto the shore was called "varec", "varech", or "vareck", whence the English word "wrack". Later, "varec" also referred to the ashes of such seaweed: the ashes were used as a source of iodine and salts of sodium and potassium. He was born to a manufacturer of saltpeter (a vital part of gunpowder). At the time of the Napoleonic Wars, France was at war and saltpeter was in great demand. Saltpeter produced from French niter beds required sodium carbonate, which could be isolated from seaweed washed up on the coasts of Normandy and Brittany. To isolate the sodium carbonate, seaweed was burned and the ash then washed with water. The remaining waste was destroyed by adding sulfuric acid. One day Courtois added too much sulfuric acid and a cloud of purple vapor rose. Courtois noted that the vapor crystallized on cold surfaces making dark crystals. Courtois suspected that this was a new element but lacked the money to pursue his observations. However he gave samples to his friends, Charles Bernard Desormes (1777–1862) and Nicolas Clément (1779–1841), to continue research. He also gave some of the substance to Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850), a well-known chemist at that time, and to physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836). On 29 November 1813, Dersormes and Clément made public Courtois’s discovery. They described the substance to a meeting of the Imperial Institute of France. On December 6, Gay-Lussac announced that the new substance was either an element or a compound of oxygen. Ampère had given some of his sample to Humphry Davy (1778–1829). Davy did some experiments on the substance and noted its similarity to chlorine. Davy sent a letter dated December 10 to the Royal Society of London stating that he had identified a new element. A large argument erupted between Davy and Gay-Lussac over who identified iodine first but both scientists acknowledged Courtois as the first to isolate the chemical element. Applications Disinfectant Elemental iodine is used as a disinfectant in various forms. The iodine exists as the element, or as the water soluble triiodide anion generated in situ by adding iodide to poorly-soluble iodine. Alternatively, iodine may come from iodophors, which contain iodine complexed with a solubilizing agent. Examples of such preparations include: Tincture of iodine (iodine in ethanol, or iodine and sodium iodide in a mixture of ethanol and water) Lugol's iodine (iodine and iodide in water) Povidone iodine (an iodophor) Staining Testing a seed for starch with a solution of iodine Iodine is a common general stain used in thin-layer chromatography. It is also used in the Gram stain as a mordant, after the sample is treated with crystal violet. In particular, iodine forms an intense blue complex with starch. Several applications rely on this property: Iodometry. The concentration of an oxidant can be determined by adding it to an excess of iodide, to give elemental iodine/triiodide. Starch is used as an indicator. close to the end-point to increase the visual contrast (dark blue/colorless instead of yellow of dilute triiodide/colorless). Iodine clock reaction is an extension of the techniques in iodometry. Iodine may be used to test a sample substance for the presence of starch. Iodine solutions are used in counterfeit banknote detection pens; the premise being that counterfeit banknotes made using commercially available paper contain starch. Starch-iodide paper are used to test for the presence of oxidants such as peroxides. The oxidants convert iodide to iodine, which shows up as blue. A solution of starch and iodide can perform the same function. Radiocontrast agent thumb|Diatrizoic acid, a radiocontrast Iodine, as a heavy element, is quite radio-opaque. Organic compounds of a certain type (typically iodine-substituted benzene derivatives) are thus used in medicine as X-ray radiocontrast agents for intravenous injection. This is often in conjunction with advanced X-ray techniques such as angiography and CT scanning Radioiodine Some radioactive iodine isotopes can be used to treat thyroid cancer. The body accumulates iodine in the thyroid, thus radioactive iodine can selectively damage growing thyroid cancer cells while the radioactive dose to the rest of the body remains small. Iodine compounds Iodine forms many compounds. Potassium iodide is the most commercially significant iodine compound. It is a convenient source of the iodide anion; it is easier to handle than sodium iodide because it is not hygroscopic. Sodium iodide is especially useful in the Finkelstein reaction, because it is soluble in acetone, while potassium iodide is poorly so. In this reaction, an alkyl chloride is converted to an alkyl iodide. This relies on the insolubility of sodium chloride in acetone to drive the reaction: R-Cl (acetone) + NaI (acetone) → R-I (acetone) + NaCl (s) Iodic acid (HIO3) and its salts are strong oxidizers. Periodic acid (HIO4) cleaves vicinal diols along the C-C bond to give aldehyde fragments. 2-Iodoxybenzoic acid and Dess-Martin periodinane are hypervalent iodine oxidants used to specifically oxidize alcohols to ketones or aldehydes. Iodine pentoxide is a strong oxidant as well. Interhalogen compounds are well known; examples include iodine monochloride and trichloride; iodine pentafluoride and heptafluoride. Organic compounds Many organoiodine compounds exist, the simplest is iodomethane, approved as a soil fumigant. Iodinated organics are used as synthetic reagents, and also radiocontrast agents. Biologically active substances like the thyroid hormones are naturally occurring organoiodine compounds. Chemistry Elemental iodine is poorly soluble in water, with one gram dissolving in 3450 ml at 20 °C and 1280 ml at 50 °C. By contrast with chlorine, the formation of the hypohalite ion (IO–) in neutral aqueous solutions of iodine is negligible. I2+ H2O is in equilibrium with H+ + I− + HIO (K = 2.0×10−13) Advanced Inorganic Chemistry by Cotton and Wilkinson, 2nd ed. Solubility in water is greatly improved if the solution contains dissolved iodides such as hydroiodic acid, potassium iodide, or sodium iodide; this extra solubility results from the high solubility of the I3− ion. Dissolved bromides also improve water solubility of iodine. Iodine is soluble in a number of organic solvents, including ethanol (20.5 g/100 ml at 15 °C, 21.43 g/100 ml at 25 °C), diethyl ether (20.6 g/100 ml at 17 °C, 25.20 g/100 ml at 25 °C), chloroform, acetic acid, glycerol, benzene (14.09 g/100 ml at 25 °C), carbon tetrachloride (2.603 g/100 ml at 35 °C), and carbon disulfide (16.47 g/100 ml at 25 °C). Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, 9th ed. Aqueous and ethanol solutions are brown. Solutions in chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and carbon disulfide are violet. Elemental iodine can be prepared by oxidizing iodides with chlorine: 2I− + Cl2 → I2 + 2Cl− or with manganese dioxide in acid solution: 2I− + 4H+ + MnO2 → I2 + 2H2O + Mn2+ Iodine is reduced to hydroiodic acid by hydrogen sulfide: General Chemistry (volume 2) by N.L. Glinka, Mir Publishing 1981 I2 + H2S → 2HI + S↓ or by hydrazine: 2I2 + N2H4 → 4HI + N2 Iodine is oxidized to iodate by nitric acid: General Chemistry by Linus Pauling, 1947 ed. I2 + 10HNO3 → 2HIO3 + 10NO2 + 4H2O or by chlorates: I2 + 2ClO3− → 2IO3− + Cl2 Iodine is converted in a two stage reaction to iodide and iodate in solutions of alkali hydroxides (such as sodium hydroxide): {| |I2 + 2OH− → I− + IO− + H2O | | (K = 30) |- |3IO− → 2I− + IO3− | | (K = 1020) |} Despite having the lowest electronegativity of the common halogens, iodine reacts violently with some metals, such as aluminum: 3I2 + 2Al → 2AlI3 This reaction produces 314kj per mole of aluminum, comparable to thermite's 425kj. Yet the reaction initiates spontaneously, and if unconfined, causes a cloud of gaseous iodine due to the high heat. Organic synthesis With phosphorus, iodine is able to replace hydroxyl groups on alcohols with iodide. For example, the synthesis of methyl iodide from methanol, red phosphorus, and iodine. The iodinating reagent is phosphorus triiodide that is formed in situ: 3 CH3OH + PI3 → 3 CH3I + H3PO3 The iodoform test uses an alkaline solution of iodine to react with methyl ketones to give the labile triiodomethide leaving group, forming iodoform which precipitates. Iodine is sometimess used to activate magnesium when preparing Grignard reagents; aryl and alkyl iodides both form Grignard reagents. Alkyl iodides such as iodomethane are good alkylating agents. Some drawbacks to use of iodo-organics in chemical synthesis are: iodine compounds tend to be more expensive than the corresponding bromides and chlorides, in that order iodides tend to be much stronger alkylating agents, and so are more toxic (e.g. methyl iodide is very toxic (T+) low molecular weight iodides tend to have a much higher equivalent weight, compared with other alkylating agents (e.g. methyl iodide versus dimethyl carbonate), due to the atomic mass of iodine. Clandestine synthetic chemical use In the United States, the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) regards iodine and compounds containing iodine (ionic iodides, iodoform, ethyl iodide, and so on) as reagents useful for the clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine. Persons who attempt to purchase significant quantities of such chemicals without establishing a legitimate use are likely to find themselves the target of a DEA investigation. Persons selling such compounds without doing due diligence to establish that the materials are not being diverted to clandestine use may be subject to stiff penalties, such as expensive fines or even imprisonment. 21 USC Sec. 872 01/22/02 Chemical Supplier Convicted of Diversion of Iodine Biological role Iodine is an essential trace element for life, the heaviest element commonly needed by living organisms, and the second-heaviest known to be used by any form of life (only tungsten, a component of a few bacterial enzymes, has a higher atomic number and atomic weight). Iodine's main role in animal biology is as constituents of the thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These are made from addition condensation products of the amino acid tyrosine, and are stored prior to release in an iodine-containing protein called thyroglobulin. T4 and T3 contain four and three atoms of iodine per molecule, respectively. The thyroid gland actively absorbs iodide from the blood to make and release these hormones into the blood, actions which are regulated by a second hormone TSH from the pituitary. Thyroid hormones are phylogenetically very old molecules which are synthesized by most multicellular organisms, and which even have some effect on unicellular organisms. Thyroid hormones play a basic role in biology, acting on gene transcription to regulate the basal metabolic rate. The total deficiency of thyroid hormones can reduce basal metabolic rate up to 50%, while in excessive production of thyroid hormones the basal metabolic rate can be increased by 100%. T4 acts largely as a precursor to T3, which is (with minor exceptions) the biologically active hormone. Iodine accounts for 65% of the molecular weight of T4 and 59% of the T3. 15-20 mg of iodine is concentrated in thyroid tissue and hormones, but 70% of the body's iodine is distributed in other tissues, including mammary glands, eyes, gastric mucosa, the cervix, and salivary glands. In the cells of these tissues iodide enters direcly by sodium-iodide symporter (NIS). Its role in mammary tissue is related to fetal and neonatal development, but its role in the other tissues is unknown. It has been shown to act as an antioxidant in these tissues. Iodine may have a relationship with selenium, and iodine supplementation in selenium-deficient populations may pose risks for thyroid function. Iodine and breast cancer It is known that a diet lacking in iodine is connected with adverse health effects collectively referred as iodine deficiency diseases or disorders. Studies also indicate that iodine deficiency, either dietary or pharmacologic, can lead to breast atypia and increased incidence of malignancy in animal models, while iodine treatment can reverse dysplasia. Laboratory evidences demonstrate that the effect of iodine on breast cancer is in part independent of thyroid function and that iodine inhibit cancer promotion through modulation of the estrogen pathway. Gene array profiling of estrogen responsive breast cancer cell line shows that the combination of iodine and iodide alters gene expression and inhibits the estrogen response through up-regulating proteins involved in estrogen metabolism. This suggests that iodine/iodide may be useful as an important adjuvant therapy in the pharmacologic manipulation of the estrogen pathway in women with breast cancer. Iodine and immunity Iodine has an important action on the immune system. The high iodide-concentration of thymus gives the anatomical rationale for this role of iodine in immune system. Human dietary intake The United States Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) is 150 micrograms per day (μg/day) for both men and women, with a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults is 1,100 μg/day (1.1 mg/day). National Research Council. (2000). Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc, pp. 258-259. National Academies Press. Free full-text available online. The tolerable upper limit was assessed by analyzing the effect of supplementation on thyroid-stimulating hormone. Natural sources of iodine include sea life, such as kelp and certain seafood, as well as plants grown on iodine-rich soil. International Council for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders Sources of iodine Iodized salt is fortified with iodine. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Iodine in diet As of 2000, the median intake of iodine from food in the United States was 240 to 300 μg/day for men and 190 to 210 μg/day for women. In Japan, consumption is much higher due to the frequent consumption of seaweed or kombu kelp. Although some Chinese data associate excess iodine with autoimmune thyroiditis and hypothyroidism, these effects have not been observed in Japanese populations, and a protective effect on breast cancer has been hypothesized. After iodine fortification programs (e.g. iodized salt) have been implemented, iodine-induced hyperthyroidism has been observed. The condition mainly seems to occur in people over forty, and the risk appears higher when iodine deficiency is severe and the initial rise in iodine intake is high. Deficiency In areas where there is little iodine in the diet, typically remote inland areas and semi-arid equatorial climates where no marine foods are eaten, iodine deficiency gives rise to hypothyroidism, symptoms of which are extreme fatigue, goitre, mental slowing, depression, weight gain, and low basal body temperatures. Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of preventable mental retardation, a result which occurs primarily when babies or small children are rendered hypothyroidic by a lack of the element. The addition of iodine to table salt has largely eliminated this problem in the wealthier nations, but as of March 2006, iodine deficiency remained a serious public health problem in the developing world. Iodine deficiency is also a problem in certain areas of Europe. In Germany it has been estimated to cause a billion dollars in healthcare costs per year. Radioiodine in biology Radioiodine and the thyroid Human exposure to radioactive iodine will cause thyroid uptake, as with all iodine, leading to elevated chances of thyroid cancer. Isotopes with shorter half-lives such as I131 present a greater risk than those with longer half-lives since they generate more radiation per unit of time. Taking large amounts of regular iodine will saturate the thyroid and prevent uptake. Iodine pills are sometimes distributed to persons living close to nuclear establishments, for use in case of accidents that could lead to releases of radioactive iodine. Iodine-123 and iodine-125 are used in medicine as tracers for imaging and evaluating the function of the thyroid. Noncombined (elemental) iodine is mildly toxic to all living things. The artificial radioisotope 131I (a beta emitter), has a half-life of 8.0207 days. Also known as radioiodine, 131I has been used in treating cancer and other pathologies of the thyroid glands. 123I is the radioisotope most often used in nuclear imaging of the kidney and thyroid as well as thyroid uptake scans (used for the evaluation of Graves' Disease). The most common compounds of iodine are the iodides of sodium (NaI) and potassium (KI) and the iodates (KIO3). Potassium iodide (KI tablets, or "SSKI" = "Saturated Solution of KI" liquid drops) can be given to people in a nuclear disaster area when fission has taken place, to block the uptake of iodine-131 by the thyroid. The protective effect of KI lasts approximately 24 hours, so it should be dosed daily until a risk of significant exposure to radioiodines no longer exists. Frequently Asked Questions on Potassium Iodide (KI) Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid Blocking Agent in Radiation Emergencies The exposure can be reduced by evacuation, sheltering, and by control of the food supply. Iodine-131 also decays rapidly, with a half-life of 8 days, so that 99.95% of the original radioiodine is gone after three months. Iodine-129 (129I; half-life 15.7 million years) is a product of cosmic ray spallation on various isotopes of xenon in the atmosphere, in cosmic ray muon interaction with tellurium-130, and also uranium and plutonium fission, both in subsurface rocks and nuclear reactors. Nuclear processes, in particular nuclear fuel reprocessing and atmospheric nuclear weapons tests have now swamped the natural signal for this isotope. 129I was used in rainwater studies following the Chernobyl accident. It also has been used as a groundwater tracer and as an indicator of nuclear waste dispersion into the natural environment. Radioiodine and the kidney In the 1970s imaging techniques were developed in California to utilize radioiodine in diagnostics for renal hypertension. Precautions and toxicity of elemental iodine Elemental iodine is an oxidizing irritant and direct contact with skin can cause lesions, so iodine crystals should be handled with care. Solutions with high elemental iodine concentration such as tincture of iodine are capable of causing tissue damage if use for cleaning and antisepsis is prolonged. Elemental iodine (I2) is a poisonous if taken orally in larger amounts; 2–3 grams of it are a lethal dose for an adult human. Iodine vapor is very irritating to the eye, to mucous membranes, andin the respiratory tract. Concentration of iodine in the air should not exceed 1 mg/m³ (eight-hour time-weighted average). When mixed with ammonia and water, elemental iodine forms nitrogen triiodide which is extremely shock sensitive and can explode unexpectedly. Toxicity of iodide ion Excess iodine has symptoms similar to those of iodine deficiency. Commonly encountered symptoms are abnormal growth of the thyroid gland and disorders in functioning and growth of the organism as a whole. Iodides are similar in toxicity to bromides. See also Iodide as an antioxidant Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser Nutrition facts label Starch indicator References External links "Micronutrient Research for Optimum Health", Linus Pauling Institute, OSU Oregon State University ATSDR - CSEM: Radiation Exposure from Iodine 131 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (public domain) ChemicalElements.com - Iodine who.int, WHO Global Database on Iodine Deficiency Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency Oxidizing Agents > Iodine Los Alamos National Laboratory: Iodine WebElements.com – Iodine | Iodine |@lemmatized iodine:165 chemistry:6 violet:5 chemical:9 element:22 symbol:1 atomic:4 number:3 naturally:3 occur:8 single:1 isotope:7 neutron:1 chemically:1 second:4 least:1 reactive:3 halogen:8 electropositive:1 trail:1 behind:1 astatine:1 category:1 however:2 free:3 state:8 nature:3 member:2 group:5 xvii:1 periodic:2 table:2 freed:1 compound:17 form:15 diatomic:1 molecule:4 primarily:2 use:37 medicine:3 photography:1 dye:1 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5,079 | Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab | Muhammad ibn 'Abd Al-Wahhab Al-Tamimi (1703–1792) () was an Islamic scholar born in Najd, in present-day Saudi Arabia. Despite never specifically calling for a separate school of Islamic thought, it is from ibn Abd-al Wahhab that the western world derived the term Wahhabism. Biography Sources There are two contemporary histories of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and his religious movement from the point of view of his supporters: Ibn Ghannam's Rawdhat al-Afkar wal-Afham (commonly known as Tarikh Najd) and Ibn Bishr's 'Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd. Ibn Ghannam, a native of al-Hasa who died in 1811, was the only historian to have observed the beginnings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement first-hand. His chronicle ends at the year 1797. http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_COM-0323 Abu-Hakima, A.M. "Ibn G̲H̲annām , S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Ḥusayn b. G̲h̲annām al-Iḥsāʾī ." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online. 8 December 2007 Alexei Vassiliev, The History of Saudi Arabia, Saqi Books, London 1998, p. 13 Ibn Bishr's chronicle, which stops at the year 1854, was written a generation later than Ibn Ghannam's, but is considered valuable partly because Ibn Bishr was a native of Najd and because Ibn Bishr adds many details to Ibn Ghannam's account. Vassiliev, p. 13 A third account, dating from around 1817 is Lam' al-Shihab, written by an anonymous Sunni author who respectfully disapproved of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's movement, regarding it as a bid'a (innovation). It is also commonly cited because it is considered to be a relatively objective contemporary treatment of the subject. However, unlike Ibn Ghannam and Ibn Bishr, its author did not live in Najd and his work is believed to contain some apocryphal and legendary material with respect to the details of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's life. http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-3033 Laoust, H. "Ibn ʿAbd al- Wahhāb , Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online. CDL. 7 December 2007 Vassiliev, p. 14 Childhood and Early Life Some details have been pieced together via the work of numerous historians. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab is generally acknowledged to have been born in 'Uyayna First Encyclopedia of Islam 1913-1936, Vol. 8, Pg. 1086 (1987) Arabia, by J.B. Philby, Ernest Benn Limited, Pg. 8 (1930) Dictionary of Islam, by Thomas Patrick Hughes, Premier Book House, Pg. 659 (Anarkali, Lahore, 1964) "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab" in The Encyclopedia of Islam, by Henry Laoust, E.J. Brill, Leiden, Vol. 3, Pg. 677 (1979) in 1703 Arabia, by J.B. Philby, Pg. 8 "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab" in The Encyclopedia of Islam, by Henry Laoust, E.J. Brill, Leiden, Vol. 3, Pg. 677 and to have been a member of the Arab tribe of Banu Tamim. He was thought to have started studying Islam at an early age, primarily with his father ('Abd al-Wahhab) early on Tarikh Najd, by 'Husain ibn Ghannam, Vol. 1, Pg. 75-76 'Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd, by 'Uthman ibn Bishr an-Najdi, Vol. 1, Pg. 6-7 Shaikh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, by Judge Ahmad ibn 'Hajar al-Butami, Pg. 17 , Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab: His Da'wah and Life Story, by Shaikh ibn Baaz, Pg. 21 The Arabian Peninsula Society and Politics, by George Rentz, Pg. 55 as he was from a line of scholars of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence. "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab" in The Encyclopedia of Islam, by Henry Laoust, E.J. Brill, Leiden, Vol. 3, Pg. 677-678 (1979) While there is some consensus over these details, there is not a unanimous agreement over the specifics and some minority opinions do exist in regard to his place and date of birth. Reforms Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab spent some time studying with Muslim scholars in Basra (in southern Iraq), Tarikh Najd by 'Husain ibn Ghannam, Vol. 1, Pg. 76-77 'Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd, by 'Uthman ibn Bishr an-Najdi, Vol. 1, Pg. 7-8 and it is reported that he traveled to the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina to perform Hajj and study with the scholars there, Shaikh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, by Judge Ahmad ibn 'Hajar al-Butami, Pg. 17-19 Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab: His Da'wah and Life Story, by Shaikh ibn Baaz, Pg. 21 before returning to his home town of Uyayna in 1740. Official sources on ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's life put his visits to these cities in different chronological order, and the full extent of such travels remains disputed among historians. Almost all sources agree that his reformist ideas were formulated while living in Basra, where he became somewhat famous for his debates with the Islamic scholars there. Dates are missing in a great many cases, thus it is difficult to reconstruct a chronology of his life up until his return to 'Uyayna. Like most scholars in Najd at the time, Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab was a follower of Ibn Hanbal's school of jurisprudence but "was opposed to any of the schools (Madh'hab) being taken as an absolute and unquestioned authority," and condemned taqlid. Mortimer, Edward, Faith and Power: The Politics of Islam, Vintage Books, 1982, p.61 After his return to 'Uyayna, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab began to attract followers there, including the ruler of the town, Uthman ibn Mu'ammar. With Ibn Mu'ammar's support, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab began to implement some of his ideas for reform. First, he persuaded ibn Mu'ammar to level the grave of Zayd ibn al-Khattab, a companion of the Muslim prophet Muhammad whose grave was revered by locals, citing Islamic teachings that forbid grave worship. Secondly, he ordered that an adulteress be stoned to death, a practice that had become uncommon in the area despite having Islamic textual basis. These actions gained the attention of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of Bani Khalid, the chief of Al-Hasa and Qatif, who held substantial influence in Najd. Ibn Ghurayr threatened Ibn Mu'ammar that he would not allow him to collect a land tax for some properties that he owned in al-Hasa if he did not kill ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. Ibn Mu'ammar declined to do this, but ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was forced to leave. Shaikh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, by Judge Ahmad ibn 'Hajar al-Butami, Pg. 28 Alliance with the House of Saud Upon his expulsion from 'Uyayna, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring Dir'iyya by its ruler Muhammad ibn Saud in 1740 (1157 AH). Two of Ibn Saud's brothers had been students of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in Uyayna, and are said to have played a role in convincing Ibn Saud to take him in. Ibn Saud's wife is also reported to have been a convert to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's cause. Upon arriving in Diriyya, a pact was made between Ibn Saud and Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, by which Ibn Saud pledged to implement Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's teachings and enforce them on neighboring towns. Beginning in the last years of the 18th century Ibn Saud and his heirs would spend the next 140 years mounting various military campaigns to seize control of Arabia and its outlying regions, finally taking control of the whole of modern day Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1922. This provided the movement with a state. Vast wealth from oil discovered in the following decades, coupled with Saudi control of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, have since provided a base and funding for Salafi missionary activity. Criticisms The Egyptian Islamic scholar 'Abd al-Wahhab ibn Ahamd Barakat al-Shafe'i al-Azhari al-Tantawi wrote an early criticism of Ibn Abd Al-Wahhab's reforms in the book, Kitab Rad` al-Dalala wa Qam` al-Jahala ("The Book of the Prevention of Error and the Suppression of Ignorance.") Tantawi did not specifically name ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab in the text, but referred to him as 'Sheikh an-Nas' ("the populist scholar"). This may be seen as either an effort to not humiliate ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab or to simply not draw unwanted attention to his call. Tantawi wrote that he received word of ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's teachings through word-of-mouth and letters from local "authorities." The content of Tantawi's arguments also suggest this, as they do not appear to be based on any writings of ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's, instead disputing his general ideas, quoting a considerable number of Qur'anic verses. Another critic of ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab at the time was a major Sufi theologian, 'Ali al-Shafe'i al-Basri aka al-Qabbani. A historian at the time, ibn Turki, considered Qabbani to be among the four most prolific detractors of ibn Abd-al-Wahhab particularly because - unlike Tantawi - he had actually read ibn 'Abd l-Wahhab's writings. Qabbani wrote two texts criticizing ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, the Fasl al-Khitab fi Rad Dalalat Ibn Abd al-Wahhab ("the unmistakable judgement in the refutation of the delusions of Ibn Abd Al-Wahhab,") and the Kashf al-Hijab an Wajh Dalalat Ibn al-Wahhab ("lifting the veil from the face of the delusions of Ibn al-Wahhab,"). Qabbani later wrote a formal, anti-Wahhabi tract, citing both sources. Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s brother Sulaiman and his father, 'Abd al-Wahhab, had initially repudiated him for his ideas. Later in life, however, the views of both his brother and father changed significantly, with both of them eventually accepting and agreeing with those of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's. The History of the Wahhabis from Their Origin Until the End of 1809, by Louis Alexandre Olivier de Corancez, Pg. 25-26 Amongst his modern supporters were the late Shaikh bin Baz and Shaikh Uthaymeen of Saudi Arabia, Shaikh Muqbil of Yemen, and Shaikh Albani of Albania. Legacy Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab considered his movement an effort to purify Islam by returning Muslims to what he believed were the original principles of Islam, as typified by the Salaf and rejecting what he regarded as corruptions introduced by Bid'ah and Shirk. During his life he denounced some practices of various sects of Sufism as being heretical, such as their veneration of saints. Although all Muslims pray to one God, ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was keen on emphasizing that no intercession with God was possible without His permission, which He only grants to whom He wills and only to benefit those whom He wills, certainly not the ones who invoke anything or anyone except Him, as these would never be forgiven, Kashfu sh-Shubuhaat (Removal of the Doubts) an idea supported by the majority of Muslims. Specific practices, such as celebrating the birth of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, were also deemed as innovations. He is hence considered by his followers to be a great revivalist of Islam, and by his opponents as an innovator and heretic. In either case, ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's impact on Islam has been considerable and significant. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also revived interest in the works of the Islamic scholar Ibn Taymiya. The followers of this revival (see Salafism) are often called Wahhabis, though most reject the usage of this term on the grounds that ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's teachings were the teachings of Muhammad, not his own. Thus, most generally refer to themselves as Salafis, while during his lifetime they often referred to themselves muwahhidin ("monotheists"). Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's descendents are known today as "Al al-Shaykh" ("House of the Shaykh"). The family of Al al-Shaykh has included several religious scholars, including the former grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, Muhammad ibn Ibrahm Al al-Shaykh, who issued the fatwa calling for the abdication of King Saud in 1964. Both the current Saudi minister of justice and the current grand mufti of Saudi Arabia are also descendents of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab. Commentary Perceptions of ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab are varied. To many Muslims of the Salafi persuasion, ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab is a significant luminary in the proud tradition of Islamic scholarship. A great number of lay Sunni Muslims regard him as a pious scholar whose interpretations of the Qur'an and Hadith were nevertheless out of step with the mainstream of Islamic thought, and thus discredited. See Samer Traboulsi, “An Early Refutation of Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb,” Die Welt des Islams, New Series, vol. 42, Issue 3 (2002): 373-415. Some scholars regard him as a pious scholar who called people back to worship of Allah according to the Qur'an and Sunnah. Others, often Sufis, regard him as a one who stopped at nothing to gain power and manipulate others. Natana DeLong-Bas, meanwhile, has recently published a self-described "controversial" book that complicates the idea that ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab contributed to the "militant stance of contemporary jihadism." DeLong-Bas, Wahhabi Islam, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006 Works Usuulu Thalaatha (The Three Fundamental Principles)Al Qawaaid Al ‘Arbaa’ (The Four Fundamental Principles) The Six Fundamental PrinciplesAdab al-Mashy Ila as-Salaa (Manners of Walking to the Prayer)Usul al-Iman (Foundations of Faith)Fada`il al-Islam (Excellent Virtues of Islam)Fada`il al-Qur’an (Excellent Virtues of the Qur’an)Kitab at-Tauhid (The Book of the Unity of God)Kitab Kashf as-Shubuhat (The Book of Clarification of Uncertainties)Majmu’a al-Hadith ‘Ala Abwab al-Fiqh {Compendium of the Hadith on the Main Topics of the Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence)}Mukhtasar al-Iman (Literally Abridgement of the Faith, means the summarized version of a work on Faith)Mukhtasar al-Insaf wa`l-Sharh al-Kabir (Abridgement of the Equity and the Great Explanation)Mukhtasar Seerat ar-Rasul (Summarized Biography of the Prophet)Mukhtasar al-Sawa`iq (Literally Summary of the Lightning bolt, it is a summary of a criticism of Shi’as written in Palestine by Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani).Mukhtasar Fath al-Bari (Fath al-Bari is a commentary on the Sahih al-Bukhari by Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani).Mukhtasar al-Minhaj (Summary of the Path, most likely referring to Minhaj al-Sunna by Ibn Taymiyya)Kitaabu l-Kabaair (The Book of Great Sins)Kitabu l-Imaan (The Book of Trust/Belief) References Further reading Abualrub, Jalal. Biography and Mission of Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab. Madina Publishers and Distributors, Orlando, FL. 2003. Algar, Hamid, ' Wahhabism: a Critical Essay'. Islamic Publications International, Oneonta, New York, 2002 DeLong-Bas, Natana, Wahhabi Islam From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. Oxford University Press, Oxford and NewYork, 2004. ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, Sulaymān. Fitnā al-Wahhābiyya. Istanbul: Maktabat al-Haqīqa, 2004. Qadhi, Yasir. A Critical Study of Shirk: Being a Translation and Commentary of Muhammad b. Abd al-Wahhab's Kashf al-Shubuhat, al-Hidaayah Publications, Birmingham, UK, 2002. Qadhi, Yasir. The Four Principles of Shirk of Muhammad b. Abd al-Wahhab, al-Hidaayah Publications, Birmingham, UK, 2001. Rentz, George S. The Birth of the Islamic Reform Movement in Saudi Arabia. London: King Abdulaziz Public Library, 2004. Traboulsi, Samer. “An Early Refutation of Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb,” Die Welt des Islams, New Series, vol. 42, Issue 3 (2002): 373-415. Saint-Prot, Charles. Islam. L'avenir de la tradition entre révolution et occidentalisation'' (Islam. The Future of Tradition between Revolution and Westernization). Paris: Le Rocher, 2008. See also Islam Islamist Salafism Wahhabism Wahhab (name) Muhammad (name) External links Refutation of Sheikh of Najd key concepts in Arabic written in 1851 Who First Used the Term "Wahhabi"? Does Saudi Arabia Preach Intolerance and Hatred in the UK and US? Full Text of Kitab Al Tawhid by Ibn Abdul Wahhab Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahab by the Liberal Islam Network Ibn Abdul Wahhab, his life and mission by Abdul Aziz Ibn Baz Relationship between Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Abdul Wahhab – from an Islamic website The Wahhabi Myth Responding to Stereotypes About Muhammad ibn 'AbdulWahhaab | Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab |@lemmatized muhammad:20 ibn:108 abd:56 al:117 wahhab:62 tamimi:1 islamic:14 scholar:13 bear:2 najd:12 present:1 day:2 saudi:10 arabia:11 despite:2 never:2 specifically:2 call:5 separate:1 school:4 thought:2 western:1 world:1 derive:1 term:3 wahhabism:3 biography:3 source:4 two:3 contemporary:3 history:3 religious:2 movement:6 point:1 view:2 supporter:2 ghannam:7 rawdhat:1 afkar:1 wal:1 afham:1 commonly:2 know:2 tarikh:6 bishr:7 unwan:3 majd:3 fi:4 native:2 hasa:3 die:3 historian:4 observe:1 beginning:1 first:4 hand:1 chronicle:2 end:2 year:4 http:2 www:2 brillonline:2 nl:2 subscriber:2 entry:4 abu:1 hakima:1 g:2 h:5 annām:2 ayk:1 ḥusayn:1 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5,080 | ECHELON | A radome at RAF Menwith Hill, a site with satellite downlink capabilities believed to be used by ECHELON. RAF Menwith Hill ECHELON is a name used in global media and in popular culture to describe a signals intelligence (SIGINT) collection and analysis network operated on behalf of the five signatory states to the UK-USA Security Agreement (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States, known as AUSCANZUKUS). It has also been described as the only software system which controls the download and dissemination of the intercept of commercial satellite trunk communications. Bamford, James; Body of Secrets, Anchor, ISBN 0-385-49908-6; 2002 The system has been reported in a number of public sources. One of the earliest was a New Statesman article entitled Someone's Listening in 1988 Its capabilities and political implications were investigated by a committee of the European Parliament during 2000 and 2001 with a report published in 2001, and by author James Bamford in his books on the National Security Agency of the United States. In its report, the European Parliament states that the term ECHELON is used in a number of contexts, but that the evidence presented indicates that it was the name for a signals intelligence collection system. The report concludes that, on the basis of information presented, ECHELON was capable of interception and content inspection of telephone calls, fax, e-mail and other data traffic globally through the interception of communication bearers including satellite transmission, public switched telephone networks (which carries most Internet traffic) and microwave links. Bamford describes the system as the software controlling the collection and distribution of civilian telecommunications traffic conveyed using communication satellites, with the collection being undertaken by groundstations located in the footprint of the downlink leg. Organization The UKUSA intelligence community is assessed by the European Parliament to include the signals intelligence agencies of each of the member states - the National Security Agency of the United States, the Government Communications Headquarters of Britain, the Communications Security Establishment of Canada, the Defence Signals Directorate of Australia, and the Government Communications Security Bureau of New Zealand. The EP report concludes that it seems likely that ECHELON is a method of sorting captured signal traffic, rather than a comprehensive analysis tool. Capabilities The ability to intercept communications depends on the medium used, be it radio, satellite, microwave, cellular or fiber-optic. During World War II and through the 1950s, high frequency ("short wave") radio was widely used for military and diplomatic communication, The Codebreakers, Ch. 10, 11 and could be intercepted at great distances. The rise of geostationary communications satellites in the 1960s presented new possibilities for intercepting international communications. The report to the European Parliament of 2001 states: "If UKUSA states operate listening stations in the relevant regions of the earth, in principle they can intercept all telephone, fax and data traffic transmitted via such satellites." The role of satellites in point-to-point voice and data communications has largely been supplanted by fiber optics. As of 2006, 99 percent of the world's long-distance voice and data traffic is carried over optical-fiber. The proportion of international communications accounted for by satellite links is said to have decreased substantially over the past few years in Central Europe to amount to between 0.4 and 5%. Even in less developed parts of the world, communications satellites are used largely for point-to-multipoint applications, such as video. Thus the majority of communications cannot be intercepted by earth stations, but only by tapping cables and intercepting line of sight microwave signals, which is possible only to a limited extent. One approach is to place intercept equipment at locations where fiber optic communications are switched. For the Internet, much of the switching occurs at a relatively small number of sites. There have been reports of one such intercept site, Room 641A, in the United States. In the past, much Internet traffic was routed through the U.S. and the UK; this is less true today, with, for example, 95 percent of intra-German Internet communications being routed via the DE-CIX Internet exchange point in Frankfurt in 2000. Thus for a worldwide surveillance network to be comprehensive, either illegal intercept sites would be required on the territory of friendly nations or cooperation of local authorities would be needed. The report to the European Parliament points out that interception of private communications by foreign intelligence services is not necessarily limited to the American or British foreign intelligence services. Most reports on ECHELON focus on satellite interception, with no credible evidence for other capabilities. For example: Controversy Reportedly created to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies during the Cold War in the early sixties, today ECHELON is believed to search also for hints of terrorist plots, drug dealers' plans, and political and diplomatic intelligence. Some critics claim the system is also being used for large-scale commercial theft, international economic espionage and invasion of privacy. British journalist Duncan Campbell and New Zealand journalist Nicky Hager asserted in the 1990s that the United States was exploiting ECHELON traffic for industrial espionage, rather than military and diplomatic purposes. Examples alleged by the journalists include the gear-less wind turbine technology designed by the German firm Enercon Die Zeit: 40/1999 "Verrat unter Freunden" ("Treachery among friends", German), available at archiv.zeit.de Report A5-0264/2001 of the European Parliament (English), available at European Parliament website and the speech technology developed by the Belgian firm Lernout & Hauspie. (Google's translation of the article into English). An article in the US newspaper Baltimore Sun reported in 1995 that European aerospace company Airbus lost a $6 billion contract with Saudi Arabia in 1994 after the US National Security Agency reported that Airbus officials had been bribing Saudi officials to secure the contract. In 2001, the Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System recommended to the European Parliament that citizens of member states routinely use cryptography in their communications to protect their privacy. Bamford provides an alternate view, highlighting that legislation prohibits the use of intercepted communications for commercial purposes, although does elaborate on how intercepted communications are used as part of an all-source intelligence process. Hardware According to its website, the USA's National Security Agency is "a high technology organization... on the frontiers of communications and data processing". In 1999 the Australian Senate Joint Standing Committee on Treaties was told by Professor Desmond Ball that the Pine Gap facility was used as a ground station for a satellite based interception network. The satellites are claimed to be large radio dishes between 20 and 100 meters across, parked in geostationary orbits. The original purpose of the network was to monitor the telemetry from 1970s Soviet weapons, air defense radar, communications satellites and ground based microwave communications. Commonwealth of Australia, Official Committee Hansard (9 August 1999). JOINT STANDING COMMITTEE ON TREATIES, Reference: Pine Gap. Name The European Parliament's Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System stated: "It seems likely, in view of the evidence and the consistent pattern of statements from a very wide range of individuals and organisations, including American sources, that its name is in fact ECHELON, although this is a relatively minor detail." The U.S. intelligence community uses many code names (see, for example, CIA cryptonym). Margaret Newsham claims that she worked on the configuration and installation of some of the software that makes up the ECHELON system while employed at Lockheed Martin, for whom she worked from 1974 to 1984 in Sunnyvale, California, USA and in Menwith Hill, England, UK. “Unfortunately, I can’t tell you all my duties. I am still bound by professional secrecy, and I would hate to go to prison or get involved in any trouble, if you know what I mean. In general, I can tell you that I was responsible for compiling the various systems and programs, configuring the whole thing and making it operational on main frames"; "Margaret Newsham worked for the NSA through her employment at Ford and Lockheed from 1974 to 1984. In 1977 and 1978, Newsham was stationed at the largest listening post in the world at Menwith Hill, England...Ekstra Bladet has Margaret Newsham’s stationing orders from the US Department of Defense. She possessed the high security classification TOP SECRET CRYPTO." At that time, according to Newsham, the code name ECHELON was NSA's term for the computer network itself. Lockheed called it P415. The software programs were called SILKWORTH and SIRE. A satellite named VORTEX would intercept communications. An image available on the internet of a fragment apparently torn from a job description shows Echelon listed along with several other code names. in Ground stations The 2001 European Parliamentary (EP) report lists several ground stations as possibly belonging to or participating in the ECHELON network. These include: Likely satellite intercept stations The following stations are listed in the EP report (p.54 ff) as likely to have a role in intercepting transmissions from telecommunications satellites: Hong Kong (since closed) Australian Defence Satellite Communications Station (Geraldton, Western Australia) Menwith Hill (Yorkshire, UK) Map Misawa Air Base (Japan) GCHQ Bude, formerly known as GCHQ CSO Morwenstow, (Cornwall, UK) Map Pine Gap (Northern Territory, Australia - close to Alice Springs) Map Sugar Grove (West Virginia, US) Map Yakima Training Center (Washington, US) Map GCSB Waihopai (New Zealand) Other potentially related stations The following stations are listed in the EP report (p.57 ff) as ones whose roles "cannot be clearly established": Ayios Nikolaos (Cyprus - UK) Bad Aibling Station (Bad Aibling, Germany - US) - moved to Griesheim in 2004 According to a statement by Terence Dudlee, the speaker of the US Navy in London in an interview to the German HRUS-Armee lauscht von Darmstadt aus (German), hr online, 1 Oct 2004 Buckley Air Force Base (Denver, Colorado, US) Fort Gordon (Georgia, US) Guam (Pacific Ocean, US) Kunia (Hawaii, US) Leitrim (south of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) Lackland Air Force Base, Medina Annex (San Antonio, Texas, US) See also ANCHORY SIGINT intercept database Frenchelon Onyx (interception system), the Swiss "Echelon" equivalent Mass surveillance Further reading Bamford, James; The Puzzle Palace, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-006748-5; 1983 Hager, Nicky; Secret Power, New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network; Craig Potton Publishing, Nelson, NZ; ISBN 0-908802-35-8; 1996 Bamford, James; Body of Secrets: Anatomy of the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency , Anchor, ISBN 0385499086; 2002 Keefe, Patrick Radden Chatter: dispatches from the secret world of global eavesdropping; Random House Publishing, New York, NY; ISBN 1-4000-6034-6; 2005 Bamford, James; The Shadow Factory: The Ultra-Secret NSA from 9/11 to the Eavesdropping on America, Doubleday, ISBN 0385521324; 2008 Notes | ECHELON |@lemmatized radome:1 raf:2 menwith:5 hill:5 site:4 satellite:18 downlink:2 capability:3 believe:2 use:13 echelon:16 name:8 global:2 medium:2 popular:1 culture:1 describe:3 signal:6 intelligence:9 sigint:2 collection:4 analysis:2 network:8 operate:2 behalf:1 five:1 signatory:1 state:12 uk:6 usa:3 security:9 agreement:1 australia:5 canada:3 new:8 zealand:5 united:6 kingdom:1 know:3 auscanzukus:1 also:4 software:4 system:10 control:2 download:1 dissemination:1 intercept:14 commercial:3 trunk:1 communication:25 bamford:7 james:5 body:2 secret:7 anchor:2 isbn:6 report:15 number:3 public:2 source:3 one:4 early:2 statesman:1 article:3 entitle:1 someone:1 listening:1 political:2 implication:1 investigate:1 committee:6 european:11 parliament:9 publish:1 author:1 book:1 national:5 agency:6 term:2 context:1 evidence:3 present:3 indicate:1 conclude:2 basis:1 information:1 capable:1 interception:8 content:1 inspection:1 telephone:3 call:3 fax:2 e:1 mail:1 data:5 traffic:8 globally:1 bearer:1 include:5 transmission:2 switch:2 carry:2 internet:6 microwave:4 link:2 distribution:1 civilian:1 telecommunication:2 convey:1 undertake:1 groundstations:1 locate:1 footprint:1 leg:1 organization:2 ukusa:2 community:2 assess:1 member:2 government:2 communications:1 headquarters:1 britain:1 establishment:1 defence:2 directorate:1 bureau:1 ep:4 seem:2 likely:4 method:1 sort:1 captured:1 rather:2 comprehensive:2 tool:1 capabilities:1 ability:1 depend:1 radio:3 cellular:1 fiber:4 optic:3 world:5 war:2 ii:1 high:3 frequency:1 short:1 wave:1 widely:1 military:3 diplomatic:4 codebreakers:1 ch:1 could:1 great:1 distance:2 rise:1 geostationary:2 possibility:1 international:4 listen:2 station:13 relevant:1 region:1 earth:2 principle:1 transmit:1 via:2 role:4 point:5 voice:2 largely:2 supplant:1 percent:2 long:1 optical:1 proportion:1 account:1 say:1 decrease:1 substantially:1 past:2 year:1 central:1 europe:1 amount:1 even:1 less:3 developed:1 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speaker:1 navy:1 london:1 interview:1 hrus:1 armee:1 lauscht:1 von:1 darmstadt:1 au:1 hr:1 online:1 oct:1 buckley:1 force:2 denver:1 colorado:1 fort:1 gordon:1 georgia:1 guam:1 pacific:1 ocean:1 kunia:1 hawaii:1 leitrim:1 south:1 ottawa:1 ontario:1 lackland:1 medina:1 annex:1 san:1 antonio:1 texas:1 anchory:1 database:1 frenchelon:1 onyx:1 swiss:1 equivalent:1 mass:1 far:1 reading:1 puzzle:1 palace:1 penguin:1 power:1 spy:1 craig:1 potton:1 publishing:2 nelson:1 nz:1 anatomy:1 ultra:2 keefe:1 patrick:1 radden:1 chatter:1 dispatch:1 eavesdropping:2 random:1 house:1 york:1 ny:1 shadow:1 factory:1 america:1 doubleday:1 note:1 |@bigram menwith_hill:5 bamford_james:4 james_bamford:1 fiber_optic:3 optical_fiber:1 soviet_union:1 eastern_bloc:1 wind_turbine:1 die_zeit:1 saudi_arabia:1 geostationary_orbit:1 lockheed_martin:1 hong_kong:1 denver_colorado:1 pacific_ocean:1 san_antonio:1 |
5,081 | Bulletin_board_system | Monochrome, a modern BBS still running today. A Bulletin Board System, or BBS, is a computer system running software that allows users to connect and login to the system using a terminal program. Originally BBSes were accessed only over a phone line using a modem, but by the early 1990s some BBSes allowed access via a Telnet, packet switched network, or packet radio connection. Once logged in, a user could perform functions such as downloading or uploading software and data, reading news, and exchanging messages with other users, either through electronic mail or in public message boards. Many BBSes also offered on-line games, in which users could compete with each other, and BBSes with multiple phone lines often offered chat rooms, allowing users to interact with each other. The term "Bulletin Board System" itself is a reference to the traditional cork-and-pin bulletin board often found in entrances of supermarkets, schools, libraries or other public areas where people can post messages, advertisements, or community news. During their heyday from the late 1970s to the mid 1990s, most BBSes were run as a hobby free of charge by the system operator (or "SysOp"), while other BBSes charged their users a subscription fee for access, or were operated by a business as a means of supporting their customers. Bulletin Board Systems were in many ways a precursor to the modern form of the World Wide Web and other aspects of the Internet. Early BBSes were often a local phenomenon, as one had to dial into a BBS with a phone line and would have to pay additional long distance charges for a BBS out of the local calling area. Thus, many users of a given BBS usually lived in the same area, and activities such as BBS Meets or Get Togethers, where everyone from the board would gather and meet face to face, were common. As the use of the Internet became more widespread in the mid to late 1990s, traditional BBSes rapidly faded in popularity. Today, Internet forums occupy much of the same social and technological space as BBSes did, and the term BBS is often used to refer to any online forum or message board. Ward Christensen and the computer that ran the first public Bulletin Board Systems, CBBS Although BBSing survives only as a niche hobby in most parts of the world, it is still an extremely popular form of communication for Taiwanese youth (see PTT Bulletin Board System). Most BBSes are now accessible over telnet and typically offer free email accounts, FTP services, IRC chat and all of the protocols commonly used on the Internet. History A notable precursor to the public Bulletin Board System was Community Memory, started in 1972 in Berkeley, California, using hardwired terminals located in neighborhoods. The first public dial-up Bulletin Board System was developed by Ward Christensen. According to an early interview, while he was snowed in during the Great Blizzard of 1978 in Chicago, Christensen along with fellow hobbyist Randy Suess, began preliminary work on the Computerized Bulletin Board System, or CBBS. CBBS went online on February 16, 1978 in Chicago, Illinois. Collection of Memories of writing and running the first BBS by Ward Christensen (Circa 1992), BBSDocumentary.com, retrieved June 30, 2007 With the original 110 and 300 baud modems of the late 1970s, BBSes were particularly slow, but speed improved with the introduction of 1200 bit/s modems in the early 1980s, and this led to a substantial increase in popularity. Most of the information was presented using ordinary ASCII text or ANSI art, though some BBSes experimented with higher resolution visual formats such as the innovative but obscure Remote Imaging Protocol. Such use of graphics taxed available channel capacity, which in turn propelled demand for faster modems. Towards the early 1990s, the BBS industry became so popular that it spawned three monthly magazines, Boardwatch, BBS Magazine, and in Asia and Australia, Chips 'n Bits Magazine which devoted extensive coverage of the software and technology innovations and people behind them, and listings to US and worldwide BBSes. Chips 'n' Bits : the Northern Territory Computer Users' newsletter, catalogue.nla.gov.au, retrieved March 15, 2009 In addition, in the USA, a major monthly magazine, Computer Shopper, carried a list of BBSes along with a brief abstract of each of their offerings. According to the FidoNet Nodelist, BBSes reached their peak usage around 1996, which was the same period that the World Wide Web suddenly became mainstream. BBSes rapidly declined in popularity thereafter, and were replaced by systems using the Internet for connectivity. Some of the larger commercial BBSes, such as ExecPC BBS, followed the logical convergence of technologies and became true Internet Service Providers. The website textfiles.com serves as a collection point of historical data involving the history of the BBS. The owner of this site produced BBS: The Documentary, a program on DVD that features interviews with well-known people (mostly from the United States) from the "hey-day BBS" era. The historical BBS list on textfiles.com contains over 105,000 BBSes that have existed over a span of 20 years in North America alone. Software and hardware Unlike modern websites and online services that are typically hosted by third-party companies in commercial server installations, BBS computers (especially for smaller boards) were typically operated from the SysOp's home. As such, access could be unreliable, and in many cases only one user could be on the system at a time. Only larger BBSes with multiple phone lines using specialized hardware, multitasking software, or a LAN connecting multiple computers, could host multiple simultaneous users. The first BBSes used simple homebrew software, quite often written or customized by the SysOps themselves, running on early CP/M microcomputer systems such as the Altair 8800 and IMSAI 8080. Soon after, BBS software was being written for all of the major home computer systems of the era, the Apple II, Atari, and TRS-80 being some of the most popular. A few years later in 1981, IBM introduced the PC-DOS (MS-DOS) based IBM PC, and BBS software for PCs (and later, PC clones) soon began appearing. However, early PC hardware was expensive and targeted primarily at professional and corporate users. With the introduction of the inexpensive and wildly popular Commodore 64 in 1982, many aspiring SyOps who could not afford an early IBM PC or clone, turned to the C64 as a BBS platform. As such, it spawned countless BBS software packages, many of which were based on forks of other packages. Popular commercial Commodore 64 BBS programs included Blue Board, Ivory BBS, Color64 and CNet 64. By the late 1980s, prices began dropping on PC compatible systems, and low cost systems running MS-DOS became commodity items and began dominating the personal computer market. After Commodore International's bankruptcy in 1994, PC clones running MS-DOS became the platform on which the majority of BBS programs operated. Fido BBS was the first notable MS-DOS BBS program, created by Tom Jennings, who later founded FidoNet. There were several successful commercial BBS programs developed for MS-DOS, such as PCBoard BBS, RemoteAccess BBS, and Wildcat! BBS. Some popular freeware BBS programs for MS-DOS included Telegard BBS and Renegade BBS, both of which had early origins from, and were forks of, leaked WWIV BBS source code. There were several dozen other BBS programs developed over the MS-DOS era, and many were released under the shareware concept, while some were released as freeware. In the early 1990s a small number of BBSes were running on the Commodore Amiga models 500 (using external hard drives), 1200, 2000, and 3000, and Amiga 4000 (which had built-in hard drives). Popular BBS software for the Amiga were ABBS, Amicon, CNet Amiga, Amiexpress, Infinity, StormForce BBS, TransAmiga BBS and Tempest. MS-DOS continued to be the most popular operating system for BBS use up until the mid-1990s. During this time, some SysOps began expanding their BBSes to allow multiple users to access the system simultaneously. Most multi-node BBSes ran under a DOS-based multitasker such as DesqView, or were composed of multiple computers connected via a LAN. However, a handful of BBS packages implemented multitasking communications routines which, although ran under MS-DOS, allowed multiple phone lines and multiple users to connect to the same physical BBS computer. These included Galacticomm's MajorBBS (later WorldGroup), eSoft TBBS, Falken, Oracomm and DLX. A noteworthy precursor of the multi-line BBS appeared a decade earlier as the Diversi-Dial (DDial) system, which allowed up to seven internal modems to be installed in one Apple IIe computer. The software also allowed the clustering of multiple computers to expand beyond the seven-line limit. DDials became popular for their chat room functionality, and multiple remote DDial "stations" could also be linked via dialup connections, creating a networked chat room where users on all the linked DDials could talk to each other. By 1995 many of the MS-DOS based BBSes had switched over to 32-bit operating systems such as Windows 95, Windows NT, OS/2 and Linux. These operating systems provided more efficient use of system resources and allowed multi-user BBSes to be more easily deployed. DOSEMU running on Linux could even run legacy MS-DOS BBS software in a virtualized MS-DOS environment. By the late 1990s the most of the remaining BBSes evolved to include Internet hosting capabilities. By using modern BBS software such as Synchronet, WorldGroup, EleBBS or Wildcat! BBS, or by using legacy MS-DOS based BBS software with a FOSSIL-to-Telnet redirector such as NetFoss, users could connect to the BBS via Telnet instead of (or in addition to) a dial-up connection. Presentation BBSes were generally text-based, rather than GUI-based, and early BBSes conversed using the simple ASCII character set. However, some home computer manufacturers extended the ASCII character set to take advantage of the advanced color and graphics capabilities of their systems. BBS software authors included these extended character sets in their software, and terminal emulator software authors included the ability to display them when a compatible system was called. Atari's native character set was known as ATASCII, while most Commodore BBSes supported PETSCII. PETSCII was also supported by the nationwide online service Quantum Link, later known as America Online (AOL). The use of these custom character sets was generally incompatible between manufacturers. Unless a caller was using terminal emulation software written for, and running on, the same type of system as the BBS, the session would simply fall back to simple ASCII output. For example, a Commodore 64 user calling an Atari BBS would use ASCII rather than the machine's native character set. As time progressed, most terminal programs began using the ANSI standard, but could use their native character set if it was available. A BBS GUI called Remote Imaging Protocol (RIP) was promoted by Telegrafix in the early to mid 1990s but it never became widespread. A similar technology called NAPLPS was also considered, and although it became the underlying graphics technology behind the Prodigy service, it never gained popularity in the BBS market. There were several GUI-based BBS's on the Apple Macintosh platform, including TeleFinder and FirstClass, but these remained widely used only in the Mac market. In the UK, the BBC Micro based OBBS software, available from Pace for use with their modems, optionally allowed for colour and graphics using the Teletext based graphics mode available on that platform. Other systems used the Viewdata protocols made popular in the UK by British Telecom's Prestel service, and the on-line magazine Micronet 800 whom were busy giving away modems with their subscriptions. The most popular form of online graphics was ANSI art, which allowed replacing letters with IBM Extended ASCII blocks and symbols, allowed changing colors on demand, provided cursor control and screen formatting, and could even include sound. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, most BBSes used ANSI to make elaborate welcome screens, and colorized menus, and thus, ANSI support was a sought-after feature in client programs. The development of ANSI art became so popular that it spawned an entire BBS "artscene" subculture devoted to it. Today, most BBS software that is still actively supported, such as WorldGroup, WildCat! BBS and Citadel/UX, is Web-enabled, and the traditional text interface has been replaced with (or operates concurrently) with a Web-based user interface. For those more nostalgic for the true BBS experience, one can use NetSerial (Windows) or DOSBox (Windows/*nix) to redirect DOS COM port software to telnet, allowing them to connect to Telnet BBSes using 1980s and 1990s era modem terminal emulation software, like Telix, Terminate, Qmodem and Procomm Plus. Modern 32-bit terminal emulators such as mTelnet and SyncTerm include native telnet support Content and access Since early BBSes were frequently run by computer hobbyists, they were typically technical in nature with user communities revolving around hardware and software discussions. Many SysOps were transplants of the amateur radio community and thus amateur and packet radio were often popular topics. As the BBS phenomenon grew, so did the popularity of special interest boards. Bulletin Board Systems could be found for almost every hobby and interest. Popular interests included politics, religion, music, dating, and alternative lifestyles. Many SysOps also adopted a theme in which they customized their entire BBS (welcome screens, prompts, menus, etc) to reflect that theme. Common themes were based on fantasy, or were intended to give the user the illusion of being somewhere else, such as in a sanatorium, wizard's castle, or on a pirate ship. Some BBSes, called "elite boards" or "warez boards", were exclusively used for distributing pirated software, phreaking, and other questionable or unlawful content. These BBSes often had multiple modems and phone lines, allowing several users to upload and download files at once. Most elite BBSes used some form of new user verification, where new users would have to apply for membership and attempt to prove that they were not a law enforcement officer or a lamer. The largest elite boards accepted users by invitation only. Elite boards also spawned their own subculture and gave rise to the slang known today as leetspeak. Another common type of board was the "support BBS" run by a manufacturer of computer products or software. These boards were dedicated to supporting users of the company's products with question and answer forums, news and updates, and downloads. Most of them were not a free call. Today, these services have moved to the web. Some general purpose Bulletin Board Systems had special levels of access that were given to those who paid extra money, uploaded useful files or knew the sysop personally. These specialty and pay BBSes usually had something special to offer their users such as large file libraries, warez, pornography, chat rooms or Internet access. Pay BBSes such as The WELL and Echo NYC (now Internet forums rather than dial-up), ExecPC, and MindVox (which folded in 1996) were admired for their tightly-knit communities and quality discussion forums. However, many "free" BBSes also maintained close knit communities, and some even had annual or bi-annual events where users would travel great distances to meet face-to-face with their on-line friends. These events were especially popular with BBSes that offered chat rooms. Some of the BBSes that provided access to illegal content did wind up in trouble. On July 12, 1985, in conjunction with a credit card fraud investigation, the Middlesex County, NJ Sheriff's department raided and seized The Private Sector BBS, which was the official BBS for grey hat hacker quarterly 2600 Magazine at the time. This Day in Geek History: July12, thegreatgeekmanual.com, retrieved March 26, 2009 The notorious Rusty n Edie's BBS, in Boardman, Ohio, was raided by the FBI in January 1993 for software piracy, and later sued in November 1997 by Playboy for copyright infringement. In Flint, Michigan, a 21 year old man was charged with distributing child pornography through his BBS in March 1996. Networks Most early BBSes operated as stand-alone islands. Information contained on that BBS never left the system, and users would only interact with the information and user community on that BBS alone. However, as BBSes became more widespread, there evolved a desire to connect systems together to share messages and files with distant systems and users. The largest such network was FidoNet. As is it was prohibitively expensive for the hobbyist SysOp to have a dedicated connection to another system, FidoNet was developed as a store and forward network. Private electronic mail (Netmail), public message boards (Echomail) and eventually even file attachments on a FidoNet-capable BBS would be bundled into one or more archive files over a set time interval. These archive files were then compressed with ARC or ZIP and forwarded to another nearby node or hub via a dialup Xmodem session. Messages would be relayed around various FidoNet hubs until they were eventually delivered to their destination. The hierarchy of FidoNet BBS nodes, hubs, and zones was maintained in a routing table called a Nodelist. Some larger BBSes and FidoNet hubs would make several transfers per day, some even to multiple nodes or hubs, and as such, transfers usually occurred at night or early morning when toll rates were lowest. In Fido's heyday, sending a Netmail message to a user on a distant FidoNet node, or participating in an Echomail discussion could take days, especially if any FidoNet nodes or hubs in the message's route only made one outgoing transfer call per day. FidoNet was platform-independent and would work with any BBS that was written to use it. BBSes that did not have integrated FidoNet capability could usually add it using an external FidoNet front-end mailer such as FrontDoor, BinkleyTerm, InterMail or D'Bridge, and a scanner/packer/tosser program such as FastEcho or Squish. The front-end mailer would conduct the periodic FidoNet transfers, while the scanner/packer/tosser program would usually run just before and just after the mailer ran. This program would scan for and pack up new outgoing messages, and then unpack, sort and "toss" the incoming messages into a BBS user's local electronic mailbox or into the BBS's local message bases reserved for Echomail. Many other BBS networks followed the example of FidoNet, using the same standards and the same software. These were called FidoNet Technology Networks (FTNs). They were usually smaller and targeted at selected audiences. Some networks used QWK doors, and others such as RelayNet (RIME) and WWIVnet used non-Fido software and standards. Before commercial Internet access became common, these networks of BBSes provided regional and international e-mail and message bases. Some even provided gateways, such as UFGATE, by which members could send/receive e-mail to/from the Internet via UUCP, and many FidoNet discussion groups were shared via Usenet. Elaborate schemes allowed users to download binary files, search gopherspace, and interact with distant programs, all using plain text e-mail. FidoNet is still in use today, though in a much smaller form, and many Echomail groups are still shared with Usenet via FidoNet to Usenet gateways. Widespread abuse of Usenet with spam and pornography has led to many of these FidoNet gateways to cease operation completely. Shareware Much of the "Shareware" movement was started via user distribution of software through BBSes. A notable example was Phil Katz's PKARC (and later PKZIP, using the same ".zip" algorithm that WinZip and other popular archivers now use); also other concepts of software distribution like freeware, postcardware like JPEGview and donationware like Red Ryder (software) for the Macintosh first appeared on BBS sites. Doom from id Software and many Apogee games were distributed as shareware. The Internet has largely erased the distinction of shareware - most users now download the software directly from the developer's web site rather than receiving it from another BBS user 'sharing' it. Today shareware is commonly used to mean electronically-distributed software from a small developer. Many commercial BBS software companies that continue to support their old BBS software products switched to the shareware model or made it entirely free. Some companies were able to make the move to the Internet and provide commercial products with BBS capabilities. Features A classic BBS had: A computer One or more modems One or more phone lines A BBS software package A sysop - system operator A user community The BBS software usually provides: Menu Systems One or more message bases File areas Voting Booths Statistics on Message Posters, Top Uploaders / Downloaders Online games (usually single player or only a single active player at a given time) A doorway to third-party online games Usage auditing capabilities Multi-user chat (only possible on multi-line BBSes) Internet email (more common in later Internet-connected BBSes) Networked message boards setup by the SysOp Most modern BBSes allow telnet access over the Internet using a telnet server and a virtual FOSSIL driver. A "yell for sysop" feature that would make the BBS computer emit an audible noise so that if the SysOp was near the computer and chose to respond, he or she could join a remote user in text-to-text chat. See also List of BBS software List of bulletin board systems BBS: The Documentary Terminal emulator Minitel ANSI art Warez FidoNet Internet forum Usenet Notes References External links The BBS Archives The BBS Corner Telnet Guide The BBS Documentary - (Video Collection) The BBS History Library The TEXTFILES.COM Historical BBS List Frappr.com: Flash map of current BBSes | Bulletin_board_system |@lemmatized monochrome:1 modern:6 bb:78 still:5 run:15 today:7 bulletin:12 board:26 system:36 computer:18 software:39 allow:15 user:39 connect:8 login:1 use:42 terminal:8 program:14 originally:1 bbs:57 access:11 phone:7 line:13 modem:10 early:16 via:9 telnet:10 packet:3 switch:3 network:9 radio:3 connection:4 log:1 could:17 perform:1 function:1 download:4 uploading:1 data:2 read:1 news:3 exchange:1 message:16 either:1 electronic:3 mail:5 public:6 many:17 also:10 offer:5 game:4 compete:1 multiple:12 often:7 chat:8 room:5 interact:3 term:2 reference:2 traditional:3 cork:1 pin:1 find:2 entrance:1 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5,082 | Eusebius_of_Angers | Eusebius (Bruno) of Angers (died September 1, 1081) was bishop of Angers, France. He first appears in the historical record as bishop of Angers at the synod of Rheims in 1049, and for a long time had been an adherent of Berengar's doctrine of the Lord's Supper. As such he was regarded by Berengar himself and by his opponents Dietwin of Liege (Theodwin), Durand of Troarne, and Humbert of Mourmoutiers. But when he recognized the strength of the opposition, he favored a compromise; at any rate he advised Berengar is 1054 to swear to the formula presented to him. Nevertheless Berengar considered him his friend many years later and requested him to silence a certain Galfrid Martini or to arrange a disputation. In his reply Eusebius not only regretted the whole controversy, but also stated that he would abide by the words of the Bible, according to which the bread and wine after the consecration become the body and blood of the Lord (see transubstantiation); if one asks how this can take place, the answer must be that it is not according to the order of nature but in accordance with the divine omnipotence; at any rate one must be careful not to give offense to the plain Christian. The epistle is a downright renunciation of Berengar in case he should still maintain his view. In favor of the supposition that Eusebius changed his opinion from deference to the Count of Anjou, the decided opponent of Berengar and his doctrine, it can be adduced that he did not defend Berengar against the hostilities of the court, and that for a long time he sided with this violent prince. It is also possible that the fact impressed itself upon Eusebius that the religious consciousness of the time more and more opposed Berengar. Our knowledge, however, is too fragmentary to pass a very accurate sentence. References | Eusebius_of_Angers |@lemmatized eusebius:4 bruno:1 anger:3 die:1 september:1 bishop:2 france:1 first:1 appear:1 historical:1 record:1 synod:1 rheims:1 long:2 time:3 adherent:1 berengar:8 doctrine:2 lord:2 supper:1 regard:1 opponent:2 dietwin:1 liege:1 theodwin:1 durand:1 troarne:1 humbert:1 mourmoutiers:1 recognize:1 strength:1 opposition:1 favor:2 compromise:1 rate:2 advise:1 swear:1 formula:1 present:1 nevertheless:1 consider:1 friend:1 many:1 year:1 later:1 request:1 silence:1 certain:1 galfrid:1 martini:1 arrange:1 disputation:1 reply:1 regret:1 whole:1 controversy:1 also:2 state:1 would:1 abide:1 word:1 bible:1 accord:2 bread:1 wine:1 consecration:1 become:1 body:1 blood:1 see:1 transubstantiation:1 one:2 ask:1 take:1 place:1 answer:1 must:2 order:1 nature:1 accordance:1 divine:1 omnipotence:1 careful:1 give:1 offense:1 plain:1 christian:1 epistle:1 downright:1 renunciation:1 case:1 still:1 maintain:1 view:1 supposition:1 change:1 opinion:1 deference:1 count:1 anjou:1 decided:1 adduce:1 defend:1 hostility:1 court:1 side:1 violent:1 prince:1 possible:1 fact:1 impress:1 upon:1 religious:1 consciousness:1 opposed:1 knowledge:1 however:1 fragmentary:1 pass:1 accurate:1 sentence:1 reference:1 |@bigram lord_supper:1 bread_wine:1 |
5,083 | Playing_card | Some typical Anglo-American playing cards from the Bicycle brand A playing card is a piece of specially prepared heavy paper, thin card, or thin plastic, figured with distinguishing motifs and used as one of a set for playing card games. Playing cards are typically palm-sized for convenient handling and since the mid 20th century have sometimes been manufactured from plastic. A complete set of cards is called a pack or deck, and the set of cards held at one time by a player during a game is commonly called their hand. A deck of cards may be used for playing a great variety of card games, some of which may also incorporate gambling. Because playing cards are both standardized and commonly available, they are often adapted for other uses, such as magic tricks, cartomancy, encryption, boardgames, or building a house of cards. The first ever printed cards were developed and crafted in Dresden, Germany. The front (or "face") of each card carries markings that distinguish it from the other cards in the deck and determine its use under the rules of the game being played. The back of each card is identical for all cards in any particular deck, and usually of a single color or formalized design. The back of playing cards is sometimes used for advertising. For most games, the cards are assembled into a deck, and their order is randomized by shuffling. History Early history A Chinese playing card dated c. 1400 AD, Ming Dynasty, found near Turfan, measuring 9.5 by 3.5 cm Playing cards were found in China as early as the 9th century during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), when relatives of a princess played a "leaf game". "it is also now rather well-established that dominoes and playing-cards were originally Chinese developments from dice." "Numbered dice, anciently widespread, were on a related line of development which gave rise to dominoes and playing-cards (+9th-century China)." The Tang writer Su E (obtained a jinshi degree in 885) stated that Princess Tongchang (?–870), daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang (r. 860–874), played the leaf game with members of the Wei clan to pass the time. The Song Dynasty (960–1279) scholar Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) asserted that card games existed since the mid Tang Dynasty and associated their invention with the simultaneous development of using sheets or pages instead of paper rolls as a writing medium. Lo (2000), p. 390. A book called Yezi Gexi was allegedly written by a Tang era woman, and was commented on by Chinese writers of subsequent dynasties. Ancient Chinese "money cards" have four "suits": coins (or cash), strings of coins (which may have been misinterpreted as sticks from crude drawings), myriads of strings, and tens of myriads. These were represented by ideograms, with numerals of 2–9 in the first three suits and numerals 1–9 in the "tens of myriads". Wilkinson suggests that the first cards may have been actual paper currency which were both the tools of gaming and the stakes being played for. The designs on modern Mahjong tiles likely evolved from those earliest playing cards. However, it may be that the first deck of cards ever printed was a Chinese domino deck, in whose cards we can see all the 21 combinations of a pair of dice. In Kuei-t'ien-lu, a Chinese text redacted in the 11th century, we find that dominoes cards were printed during the Tang Dynasty, contemporary to the first printed books. The Chinese word pái (牌) is used to describe both paper cards and gaming tiles. An Indian origin for playing cards has been suggested by the resemblance of symbols on some early European decks (traditional Sicilian cards, for example) to the ring, sword, cup, and baton classically depicted in the four hands of Indian statues. The time and manner of the introduction of cards into Europe are matters of dispute. The 38th canon of the council of Worcester (1240) Singer, p. 4 is often quoted as evidence of cards having been known in England in the middle of the 13th century, but the games de rege et regina (on the king and the queen) there mentioned are now thought to more likely have been chess. If cards were generally known in Europe as early as 1278 , it is very remarkable that Petrarch, in his work De remediis utriusque fortunae (On the remedies of good/bad fortunes) that treats gaming, never once mentions them. Boccaccio, Chaucer and other writers of that time specifically refer to various games, but there is not a single passage in their works that can be fairly construed to refer to cards. Passages have been quoted from various works, of or relative to this period, but modern research leads to the supposition that the word rendered cards has often been mistranslated or interpolated. A miniature of courtiers playing cards with the king can be found in the Roman du Roy Meliadus de Leonnoys (c. 1352), produced for King Louis II of Naples. It is likely that the precursor of modern cards arrived in Europe from the Mamelukes of Egypt in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to that in use today. In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising four "suits": polo sticks, coins, swords, and cups. Each suit contained ten "spot" cards (cards identified by the number of suit symbols or "pips" they show) and three "court" cards named malik (King), nā'ib malik (Viceroy or Deputy King), and thānī nā'ib (Second or Under-Deputy). The Mameluke court cards showed abstract designs not depicting persons (at least not in any surviving specimens) though they did bear the names of military officers. A complete pack of Mameluke playing cards was discovered by Leo Mayer in the Topkapi Palace, Istanbul, in 1939 ; this particular complete pack was not made before 1400, but the complete deck allowed matching to a private fragment dated to the twelfth or thirteenth century. In effect it's not a complete deck, but there are cards of three different packs of the same style. International Playing Cards Society Journal, 30-3, page 139 There is some evidence to suggest that this deck may have evolved from an earlier 48-card deck that had only two court cards per suit, and some further evidence to suggest that earlier Chinese cards brought to Europe may have travelled to Persia, which then influenced the Mameluke and other Egyptian cards of the time before their reappearance. It is not known whether these cards influenced the design of the Indian cards used for the game of Ganjifa, or whether the Indian cards may have influenced these. Regardless, the Indian cards have many distinctive features: they are round, generally hand painted with intricate designs, and comprise more than four suits (often as many as thirty two, like a deck in the Deutsches Spielkarten-Museum, painted in the Mewar, a city in Rajasthan, between the 18th and 19th century. Decks used to play have from eight up to twenty different suits). Spread across Europe and early design changes Italians playing cards, Sancai-type bowl, Northern Italy, mid-15th century. In the late 14th century, the use of playing cards spread rapidly throughout Europe. Documents mentioning cards date from 1371 in Spain, 1377 in Switzerland, and 1380 in many locations including Florence and Paris. A 1369 Paris ordinance [on gaming?] does not mention cards, but its 1377 update does. In the account books of Johanna, duchess of Brabant and Wenceslaus of Luxemburg, an entry dated May 14, 1379, reads: "Given to Monsieur and Madame four peters, two forms, value eight and a half moutons, wherewith to buy a pack of cards". In his book of accounts for 1392 or 1393, Charles or Charbot Poupart, treasurer of the household of Charles VI of France, records payment for the painting of three sets of cards. Olmert, Michael (1996). Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in History, p.135. Simon & Schuster, New York. ISBN 0684801647. The earliest cards were made by hand, like those designed for Charles VI; this was expensive. Printed woodcut decks appeared in the 15th century. The technique of printing woodcuts to decorate fabric was transferred to printing on paper around 1400 in Christian Europe, very shortly after the first recorded manufacture of paper there, while in Islamic Spain it was much older. The earliest dated European woodcut is 1418. No examples of printed cards from before 1423 survive. But from about 1418 to 1450 Early Card painters and Printers in Germany, Austria and Flandern (14th and 15th century) professional card makers in Ulm, Nuremberg, and Augsburg created printed decks. Playing cards even competed with devotional images as the most common uses for woodcut in this period. Most early woodcuts of all types were coloured after printing, either by hand or, from about 1450 onwards, stencils. These 15th century playing cards were probably painted. The Master of the Playing Cards worked in Germany from the 1430s with the newly invented printmaking technique of engraving. Several other important engravers also made cards, including Master ES and Martin Schongauer. Engraving was much more expensive than woodcut, and engraved cards must have been relatively unusual. In the 15th century in Europe, the suits of playing cards varied; typically a deck had four suits, although five suits were common and other structures are also known. In Germany, hearts, bells, leaves, and acorns became the standard suits and are still used in Eastern and Southeastern German decks today for Skat, Schafkopf, and other games. Italian and Spanish cards of the 15th century used swords, batons (or wands), cups, and coins (or rings). The Tarot, which included extra trump cards, was invented in Italy in the 15th century. The four suits now used in most of the world — spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs — originated in France in approximately 1480. The trèfle (club) was probably copied from the acorn and the pique (spade) from the leaf of the German suits. The names "pique" and "spade", however, may have derived from the sword of the Italian suits. In England, the French suits were eventually used, although the earliest decks had the Italian suits[Chatto, link not provided]. Also in the 15th century, Europeans changed the court cards to represent European royalty and attendants, originally "king", "chevalier" (knight), and "knave" (or "servant"). In a German pack from the 1440s, Queens replace Kings in two of the suits as the highest card. Fifty-six-card decks containing a King, Queen, Knight, and Valet (from the French tarot court) were common. Court cards designed in the 16th century in the manufacturing centre of Rouen became the standard design in England, while a Parisian design became standard in France. Both the Parisian and Rouennais court cards were named after historical and mythological heroes and heroines. The Parisian names have become more common in modern use, even with cards of Rouennais design. +Paris court card namesModernTraditionalKing of SpadesDavidKing of HeartsCharles (possibly Charlemagne, or Charles VII, where Rachel would then be the pseudonym of his mistress, Agnès Sorel)King of DiamondsJulius CaesarKing of ClubsAlexander the GreatQueen of SpadesPallasQueen of HeartsJudithQueen of DiamondsRachel (either biblical, historical (see Charles above), or mythical as a corruption of the Celtic Ragnel, relating to Lancelot below)Queen of ClubsArgine (possibly an anagram of regina, which is Latin for queen, or perhaps Argea, wife of Polybus and mother of Argus)Knave of SpadesOgier the Dane/Holger Danske (a knight of Charlemagne)Knave of HeartsLa Hire (comrade-in-arms to Joan of Arc, and member of Charles VII's court)Knave of DiamondsHectorKnave of ClubsJudas Maccabeus, or Lancelot Later design changes A transformation playing card from the 1895 Vanity Fair deck Playing cards have been used as vehicles for political statements. Here, a playing card of the French Revolution symbolising freedom of cult and brotherhood. In early games the kings were always the highest card in their suit. However, as early as the late 14th century special significance began to be placed on the nominally lowest card, now called the , so that it sometimes became the highest card and the Two, or Deuce, the lowest. This concept may have been hastened in the late 18th century by the French Revolution, where games began being played "ace high" as a symbol of lower classes rising in power above the royalty. The term "Ace" itself comes from a dicing term in Anglo-Norman language, which is itself derived from the Latin as (the smallest unit of coinage). Another dicing term, trey (3), sometimes shows up in playing card games. Corner and edge indices enabled people to hold their cards close together in a fan with one hand (instead of the two hands previously used). For cards with Latin suits the first pack known is a deck printed by Infirerra and dated 1693 (International Playing Cards Society Journal 30-1 page 34), but were commonly used only at the end of 18th century. Indices in the Anglo-American deck were used from 1875, when the New York Consolidated Card Company patented the Squeezers, the first cards with indices that had a large diffusion. However, the first deck with this innovation was the Saladee's Patent, printed by Samuel Hart in 1864. Before this time, the lowest court card in an English deck was officially termed the Knave, but its abbreviation ("Kn") was too similar to the King ("K") and thus this term did not translate well to indices. However, from the 1600s on the Knave had often been termed the Jack, a term borrowed from the game All Fours where the Knave of trumps has this name. All Fours was considered a game of the lower classes, so the use of the term Jack at one time was considered vulgar. The use of indices, however, encouraged a formal change from Knave to Jack in English decks. In decks for non-English languages, this conflict does not exist; the French tarot deck for instance labels its lowest court card the "Valet", which is the "squire" to the Knight card (not seen in 52-card decks) as the Queen is paired with the King. This was followed by the innovation of reversible court cards. This invention is attributed to a French card maker of Agen, main city in the Lot-et-Garonne department, that in 1745 had this idea. But the French government, which controlled the design of playing cards, prohibited the printing of cards with this innovation. In central Europe (trappola cards), Italy (tarocchino bolognese) and in Spain the innovation was adopted during the second half of 18th century. In Great Britain the deck with reversible court cards was patented in 1799 by Edmund Ludlow and Ann Wilcox. The Anglo-American pack with this design was printed around 1802 by Thomas Wheeler. International Playing Cards Society Journal XXVII-5 p. 186 and International Playing Cards Society Journal 31-1 p. 22 Reversible court cards meant that players would not be tempted to turn upside-down court cards right side up. Before this, other players could often get a hint of what other players' hands contained by watching them reverse their cards. This innovation required abandoning some of the design elements of the earlier full-length courts. During the French Revolution, the traditional design of Kings, Queens, and Jacks became Liberties, Equalities, and Fraternities. The radical French government of 1793 and 1794 saw themselves as toppling the old regime and a good revolutionary would not play with Kings or Queens, but with the ideals of the revolution at hand. This would ultimately be reversed in 1805 with the rise of Napoleon. In the 19th century, a type of card known as a transformation playing card became popular in Europe and America. In these cards, an artist incorporated the pips of the non-face cards into an artistic design. Symbolism Popular legend holds that the composition of a deck of cards has religious, metaphysical, or astronomical significance. The context for these stories is sometimes given to suggest that the interpretation is a joke, generally being the purported explanation given by someone caught with a deck of cards in order to suggest that their intended purpose was not gambling. Urban Legends Reference Pages article Today Anglo-American The primary deck of fifty-two playing cards in use today, called French deck in most languages but Anglo-American playing cards in English, includes thirteen ranks of each of the four French suits, diamonds (), spades (), hearts () and clubs (), with reversible Rouennais "court" or face cards (some modern face card designs, however, have done away with the traditional reversible figures). Each suit includes an , depicting a single symbol of its suit; a king, queen, and jack, each depicted with a symbol of its suit; and ranks two through ten, with each card depicting that many symbols (pips) of its suit. Two (sometimes one or four) Jokers, often distinguishable with one being more colorful than the other but not belonging to any of the suits, are included in commercial decks but many games require one or both to be removed before play. Modern playing cards carry index labels on opposite corners (rarely, all four corners) to facilitate identifying the cards when they overlap and so that they appear identical for players on opposite sides. Set of 52 French style playing cards with two jokers The fanciful design and manufacturer's logo commonly displayed on the Ace of Spades began under the reign of James I of England, who passed a law requiring an insignia on that card as proof of payment of a tax on local manufacture of cards. Until August 4, 1960, decks of playing cards printed and sold in the United Kingdom were liable for taxable duty and the Ace of Spades carried an indication of the name of the printer and the fact that taxation had been paid on the cards. Stamp Act 1765 imposed a tax on playing cards. The packs were also sealed with a government duty wrapper. Though specific design elements of the court cards are rarely used in game play and many differ between designs, a few are notable. The Jack of Spades, Jack of Hearts, and King of Diamonds are drawn in profile, while the rest of the courts are shown in full face; these cards are commonly called "one-eyed". When deciding which cards are to be made wild in some games, the phrase "acey, deucey, one-eyed jack" (or "deuces, aces, one-eyed faces") is sometimes used, which means that s, twos, and the one-eyed jacks are all wild. The King of Hearts is the only King with no mustache, and is also typically shown with a sword behind his head, making him appear to be stabbing himself. The axe held by the King of Diamonds is behind his head with the blade facing toward him. This leads to the nickname "suicide kings". The Jack of Diamonds is sometimes known as "laughing boy" Games « A cache of random trivia . The King of Diamonds is traditionally armed with an axe while the other three kings are armed with swords, and thus the King of Diamonds is sometimes referred to as "the man with the axe" because of this. This is the basis of the trump "one-eyed jacks and the man with the axe". The Ace of Spades, unique in its large, ornate spade, is sometimes said to be the death card, and in some games is used as a trump card. The Queen of Spades usually holds a scepter and is sometimes known as "the bedpost queen", though more often she is called "Black Lady". In many decks, the Queen of Clubs holds a flower. She is thus known as the "flower Queen", though this design element is among the most variable; the standard Bicycle Poker deck depicts all Queens with a flower styled according to their suit. Card games (solitaire, especially) are frequently standard features on computers (seen here a GNOME version of solitaire). There are theories about who the court cards represent. For example, the Queen of Hearts is believed by some to be a representation of Elizabeth of York—the Queen consort of King Henry VII of England, or it is sometimes believed to be a representation of Anne Boleyn, the second wife of Henry VIII. The United States Playing Card Company suggests that in the past, the King of Hearts was Charlemagne, the King of Diamonds was Julius Caesar, the King of Clubs was Alexander the Great, and the King of Spades was the Biblical King David (see King (playing card)). However the Kings, Queens and Jacks of standard Anglo-American cards today do not represent anyone in particular. They stem from designs produced in Rouen before 1516, and by 1540–67 these Rouen designs show well executed pictures in the court cards with the typical court costumes of the time. In these early cards the Jack of Spades, Jack of Hearts, and King of Diamonds are shown from the rear, with their heads turned back over the shoulder so that they are seen in profile; however, the Rouen cards were so badly copied in England that the current designs are gross distortions of the originals. Other oddities such as the lack of a moustache on the King of Hearts also have little significance. The King of Hearts did originally have a moustache but it was lost by poor copying of the original design. Similarly the objects carried by the court cards have no significance. They merely differentiate one court card from another and have also become distorted over time. The most common sizes for playing cards are poker size (2½in × 3½in; 63 mm × 88 mm, or B8 size according to ISO 216) and bridge size (2¼in × 3½in, approx. 56 mm × 88 mm), the latter being narrower, and thus more suitable for games such as bridge in which a large number of cards must be held concealed in a player's hand. Interestingly, in most casino poker games, the bridge-sized card is used; the use of less material means that a bridge deck is slightly cheaper to make, and a casino may use many thousands of decks per day so the minute per-deck savings add up. Other sizes are also available, such as a smaller size (usually 1¾in × 2⅝in, approx. 44 mm × 66 mm) for solitaire, tall narrow designs (usually 1¼in × 3in) for travel and larger ones for card tricks. The weight of an average B8-sized playing card is 0.063 oz (1.8g), a deck 3.3 oz (94g). Some decks include additional design elements. Casino blackjack decks may include markings intended for a machine to check the ranks of cards, or shifts in rank location to allow a manual check via inlaid mirror. Many casino decks and solitaire decks have four indices instead of the usual two. Many decks have large indices, largely for use in stud poker games, where being able to read cards from a distance is a benefit and hand sizes are small. Some decks use four colors for the suits in order to make it easier to tell them apart: the most common set of colors is black (spades ), red (hearts ), blue (diamonds ) and green (clubs ). Another common color set is borrowed from the German suits and uses green Spades and yellow Diamonds (as the comparable German suits are Leaves and Bells respectively; see below) with red Hearts and black Clubs. When giving the full written name of a specific card, the rank is given first followed by the suit, e.g., "Ace of Spades". Shorthand notation may list the rank first "A♠" (as is typical when discussing poker) or list the suit first (as is typical in listing several cards in bridge) "♠AKQ". Tens may be either abbreviated to T or written as 10. + Example set of 52 playing cards; 13 of each suit clubs, diamonds, hearts, and spades 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Jack Queen King Clubs: Diamonds: Hearts: Spades: Piquet The piquet deck is a subset of the French-suited 52-card deck, with all values from 2 through 6 in each suit removed. The resulting 32-card deck is notable for its use in a variety of games; a trick-taking game from the 1300s, Piquet, gave the deck its most common name, and the game of Belote, currently the most popular card game in France, also uses this deck. West German players adopted the deck for the game of Skat (the traditional Skat deck uses German suits; see below). Pinochle/Doppelkopf The game of Pinochle, which evolved from the French game Bezique, uses a deck composed of two copies of each Anglo-American card with values from 9 through King and Ace. A deck with the same composition, but different card art, is available in Europe for the very popular German game of Doppelkopf, which derived from the game Sheepshead and is related to Skat. Tarot Modern French-style 78-card Tarot. The 78-card Tarot deck, and subsets of it, are used for a variety of European trick-taking games. The Tarot is distinguished from most other decks by the use of a separate trump suit of 21 cards, and one Fool, whose role varies according to the specific game. Additionally, it differs from the 52-card deck in the use of one additional court card in each suit, the Cavalier or Knight. In Europe, the deck is known primarily as a playing card deck; in the Americas, the deck is primarily known for its use in cartomancy; the trumps and fool comprising the Major Arcana while the 56 suited cards make up the Minor Arcana. The origins of the tarot deck are thought to be Italian, with the oldest surviving examples dating from the mid 1400s in Milan, and using the traditional Latin suits of Swords, Cups, Coins and Staves (representing the four main classes of feudal society; military, clergy, mercantile trade, and agriculture). It is generally thought that the tarot was invented between 1411 and 1425 by adding trump cards to a deck format that was already popular in Italy as of this period, having been introduced from North Africa in the mid 1300's. The deck spread from Italy to Germanic countries, where the Latin suits evolved into the suits of Leaves (or Shields), Hearts (or Roses), Bells, and Acorns, and a combination of Latin and Germanic suit pictures and names resulted in the internationally-recognized French suits of Spades, Hearts, Diamonds and Clubs. It was a simplification of this French-suited tarot deck by removing the trumps that resulted in the English deck, popularized by British colonization and the gentleman's game Brag. The English deck would eventually become the internationally-recognized 52-card deck. The trumps originally represented characters and ideals of increasing power, from the Magician and High Priestess of the 1 and 2 of trumps to the Sun, Judgement and the World at the high end. Allegorical meanings for each card existed as of the earliest days of the deck, but it wasn't until the late 1700s's that the works of Antoine Court de Gebelin made decks based on the Tarot de Marseille popular for divinatory purposes. From this point, the evolution of decks for cartomancy and for gaming diverged; the "reading tarots" based on the symbolic designs of the Tarot de Marseille (which were modified slightly to produce the widely-known Rider-Waite deck) kept the older style of full-length character art, specific character meanings for the 21 trumps, and the use of the Latin suits (although most of the reading tarots in use today derive from the French Tarot de Marseille). On the other hand, "playing tarots", especially those of France and the Germanic regions, had by the end of the 1800s evolved into a form more resembling the modern playing card deck, with corner indices and easily-identifiable number and court cards. The use of the traditional characters cards for the trumps was largely discarded in favor of more whimsical scenes. The Tarot Nouveau is an example of the current style of playing tarot, though the artwork and design of this deck can be traced back to the 1890s. The Italian and Spanish Tarocchi decks, however, have largely kept the traditional character identifications of each trump, as well as the Latin suits, though these decks are used almost exclusively for gaming. Tarocco Bolognese and Tarocco Piedmontese are examples of Italian-suited playing tarot decks. German Set of 32 Hungarian playing cards in German suits for Skat; a related 36-card deck would also include the VI. German suits may have different appearances. Many Eastern and Southern Germans prefer decks with Hearts, Bells, Leaves, and Acorns (for Hearts, Diamonds, Spades, and Clubs), as mentioned above. In the game Skat, East German players used the German deck, while players in Western Germany mainly used the French deck. After the reunification a compromise deck was created for official Skat tournaments, with French symbols but German colors (green Spades and yellow Diamonds). Andy's Playing Cards - Shapes, Sizes and Colors Central European The cards of Hungary, Austria, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Slovakia, Western Romania, Transcarpathia in Ukraine, Vojvodina in Serbia and South Tyrol use the same suits (Hearts, Bells, Leaves and Acorns) as the cards of Southern and Eastern Germany. They usually have a deck of 32 or 36 cards. The numbering includes VII, VIII, IX, X, Under, Over, King and Ace. Some variations with 36 cards have also the number VI. The VI in bells also has the function like a joker in some games and it's named Welli or Weli. Modern Austrian-style 40-card or 54-card Tarock. These cards are illustrated with a special picture series that was born in the times before the 1848-49 revolutions in Hungary, when revolutionary movements were awakening all over in Europe. The Aces show the four seasons: the Ace of Hearts is Spring, the Ace of Bells is Summer, the Ace of Leaves is Autumn and the Ace of Acorns is Winter. The characters of the Under and Over cards were taken from the drama William Tell, the legendary Swiss freedom fighter, written by Friedrich Schiller in 1804, which was shown at Kolozsvár in 1827. It was long believed that the card was invented in Vienna at the Card Painting Workshop of Ferdinand Piatnik, however in 1974 the very first deck was found in an English private collection, and it has shown the name of the inventor and creator of deck as József Schneider, a Master Card Painter at Pest, and the date of its creation as 1837. Had he not chosen the Swiss characters of Schiller's play, had he chosen Hungarian heroes or freedom fighters, his deck of cards would never have made it into distribution, due to the heavy censorship of the government at the time. Interestingly, although the characters on the cards are Swiss, these cards are unknown in Switzerland. Games that are played with this deck in Hungary include Skat, Ulti, Snapszer (or 66), Zsír (or Víg a hetes), Fire, Preferansz, Makaó, Lórum, Piros pacsi and Piros papucs. This set of cards is also used very often in the game of Preferans. In Croatia and Slovenia these cards are also commonly used for a game called Belot (also popular in Bulgaria and Armenia). Explanations of these games can be found at The Card Games Website. The most common game played in Western Rumania (Transylvania and Banat) is Cruce, a variation of Snapszer, most commonly played in 2 pairs, with team members facing each other, hence the name (Cruce = Romanian for Cross). Switzerland In Switzerland, the national game is Jass. It is played with decks of 36 cards. West of the Brünig-Napf-Reuss line, a French-style 36-card deck is used, with numbers from 6 to 10, Jacks, Queens, Kings and Aces. The same kind of deck is used in Graubünden and in parts of Thurgau. In Central Switzerland, Zürich, Schaffhausen and Eastern Switzerland, the prevalent deck consists of 36 playing cards with the following suits: Roses, Bells, Acorns and Shields (in German: Rosen, Schellen, Eichel und Schilten). The ranks of the alternate deck, from low to high, are: 6, 7, 8, 9, Banner (10), "Under", "Over", King and Ace. Italian A set of Carte Bergamasche Example of a knight of money, cavallo di denari (horse of coins). From the Carte Piacentine. Italian playing cards most commonly consist of a deck of 40 cards (4 suits going 1 to 7 plus 3 face cards), and are used for playing Italian regional games such as Scopa or Briscola. 52 (or more rarely 36) card sets are also found in the north. Since these cards first appeared in the late 14th century when each region in Italy was a separately ruled province, there is no official Italian pattern. There are sixteen official regional patterns in use in different parts of the country (about one per region). These sixteen patterns are split amongst four regions: Northern Italian Suits - Triestine, Trevigiane, Trentine, Primiera Bolognese, Bergamasche, Bresciane Spanish-like Suits - Napoletane, Sarde, Romagnole, Siciliane, Piacentine. French Suits - Genovesi, Lombarde or Milanesi, Toscane, Piemontesi. German Suits - Salisburghesi used in Alto Adige/Südtirol The suits are coins (sometimes suns or sunbursts) (Denari in Italian), swords (Spade), cups (Coppe) and clubs (sometimes batons Bastoni), and each suit contains an ace (or one), numbers two through seven, and three face cards. The face cards are: Re (king), the highest valued — a man standing, wearing a crown Cavallo (lit. horse) [italo-Spanish suits] - a man sitting on a horse / or Donna (lit. woman from Latin domina = mistress) [french suits] - a standing woman with a crown Fante (lit. infantry soldier) - a younger figure standing, without a crown The Spanish-like-suit knave (fante - the lowest face card) is depicted as a woman, and is sometimes referred to as donna like the next higher face card of the French-suit deck; this, when coupled with the French usage, which puts a queen, also called donna (woman) in Italian and not regina (queen), as the mid-valued face card, can very occasionally lead to a swap of the value of the French-suit donna (or more rarely of the international-card Queen) and the knave (or jack). Unlike Anglo-American cards, some Italian cards do not have any numbers (or letters) identifying their value. The cards' value is determined by identifying the face card or counting the number of suit characters. Spanish The four aces present in the baraja, from the deck made by Heraclio Fournier. Left to right, top to bottom: oros, copas, espadas, and bastos. The traditional Spanish deck (referred to as baraja española in Spanish) uses Latin suit symbols. Being a Latin-suited deck (like the Italian deck), it is organized into four palos (suits) that closely match those of the Italian-suited Tarot deck: oros ("golds" or coins), copas (beakers or cups), espadas (swords) and bastos (batons or clubs). Certain decks include two "comodines" (jokers) as well. The cards (cartas in Spanish) are all numbered, but unlike in the standard Anglo-French deck, the card numbered 10 is the first of the court cards (instead of a card depicting ten coins/cups/swords/batons); so each suit has only twelve cards. The three court or face cards in each suit are as follows: la sota ("the knave" or jack, numbered 10 and equivalent to the Anglo-French card J), el caballo ("the horse", horseman, knight or cavalier, numbered 11 and used instead of the Anglo-French card Q; note the Tarot decks have both a queen and a knight of each suit, while the Anglo-French deck uses the former, and the Spanish deck uses the latter), and finally el rey ("the king", numbered 12 and equivalent to the Anglo-French card K). However, most Spanish games involve forty-card decks, with the 8s and 9s removed, similar to the standard Italian deck. The box that goes around the figure has a mark to distinguish the suit without showing all of your cards: The cups have one interruption, the swords two, the clubs three, and the gold none. This mark is called "la pinta" and gave rise to the expression: "le conocí por la pinta" (I knew him by his markings). The Baraja have been widely considered to be part of the occult in many Latin-American countries, yet they continue to be used widely for card games and gambling, especially in Spain, which does not use the Anglo-French deck. Among other places, the Baraja have appeared in One Hundred Years of Solitude and other Hispanic and Latin American literature. The Spanish deck is used not only in Spain, but also in other countries where Spain maintained an influence (e.g., Mexico, Argentina and most of Hispanic America, the Philippines and Puerto Rico) 1. Among the games played with this deck are: el mus (a very popular and highly regarded vying game of Basque origin), la brisca, la pocha, el tute (with many variations), el guiñote, la escoba del quince (a trick-taking game), el julepe, el cinquillo, las siete y media, la mona, el truc (or truco), el cuajo (a matching game from the Philippines), el jamón, el tonto, el hijoputa, el mentiroso, el cuco and las parejas. East Asia The standard 52-card deck is commonly known as a "poker" deck in Taiwan, Japan, China, and South Korea. Alternatively, a more common name in Japan and Korea for the same deck is trump (トランプ torampu, 트럼프 teureompeu repectively ) which comes from the term trump card. These cards are most often used for baccarat and blackjack in casinos, or deciding the order of play or challenge in games of billiards. Poker itself and other western games are relatively unknown. Home and online card games in east Asia such as Koi-Koi and Go-Stop use a Karuta, such as hanafuda, uta-garuta or kabufuda deck in Japan, and the equivalent hwatu deck in Korea. Accessible playing cards Playing cards have been adapted for use by the visually impaired by the inclusion of large-print and/or braille characters as part of the card. Both standard card decks and decks for specific games such as UNO are commonly adapted. Large-print cards are also commonly used by the elderly. In addition to increasing the size of the suit symbol and the denomination text, large-print cards commonly reduce the visual complexity of the images for simpler identification. They may also omit the patterns of pips in favor of one large pip to identify suit. Oversize cards are sometimes used but are uncommon. These can assist with ease of handling and to allow for larger text. No universal standards for braille playing cards exist. There are many national and producer variations. In most cases each card is marked with two braille characters in the same location as the normal corner markings. The two characters can appear in either vertical (one character below another) or horizontal (two characters side by side). In either case one character identifies the card suit and the other the card denomination. 1 for ace, 2 through 9 for the numbered cards, X or the letter O for ten, J for jack, Q for queen, K for king. The suits are variously marked using D for diamond, S for spade, C or X for club and H or K for heart. Playing card symbols in Unicode The Unicode standard defines 8 characters for card suits in the Miscellaneous Symbols block, from U+2660 to U+2667: U+2660 dec: 9824U+2661 dec: 9825U+2662 dec: 9826U+2663 dec: 9827BLACK SPADE SUITWHITE HEART SUITWHITE DIAMOND SUITBLACK CLUB SUIT♠♠♠♡♡♢♢♣♣♣U+2664 dec: 9828U+2665 dec: 9829U+2666 dec: 9830U+2667 dec: 9831WHITE SPADE SUITBLACK HEART SUITBLACK DIAMOND SUITWHITE CLUB SUIT♤♤♥♥♥♦♦♦♧♧ There is also a proposal by Michael Everson, dated 2004-05-18 to encode the 52 cards of the Anglo-American-French deck together with a character for "Playing Card Back" and another for a joker. Production techniques The typical production process for a new deck starts with the choice between the most suitable material: cardboard or plastic. Cards are printed on unique sheets that undergo a varnishing procedure in order to enhance the brightness and glow of the colors printed on the cards, as well as to increase their durability. In today’s market, some high-quality products are available. There are some specific treatments on card surfaces, such as calendering and linen finishing, that guarantee performance for either professional or domestic use. The cards are printed on sheets, which are cut and arranged in bands (vertical stripes) before undergoing a cutting operation that cuts out the individual cards. After assembling the new decks, they pass through the corner-rounding process that will confer the final outline: the typical rectangular playing-card shape. Finally, each deck is wrapped in cellophane, inserted in its case and is ready for the final distribution. See also Card game List of poker hand nicknames Card manipulation Shuffling Sleight of hand House of cards Tarocchi Tarot French suited tarot Baraja (playing cards) Playing card manufacturers Card throwing Hanafuda Dealer shoe Ganjifa Tien len (VC) Notes References Paul Cézanne - The Card Players, 1895 Lo, Andrew. "The Game of Leaves: An Inquiry into the Origin of Chinese Playing Cards," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 63, No. 3 (2000): 389-406. Roman du Roy Meliadus de Leonnoys (British Library MS Add. 12228, fol. 313v), c. 1352 An Introduction to a History of Woodcut, Arthur M. Hind, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1935 (in USA), reprinted Dover Publications, 1963 ISBN 0-486-20952-0 Prints and Printmaking, Antony Griffiths, British Museum Press (in UK),2nd edn, 1996 ISBN 0-7141-2608-X External links History of the design of the court cards Online database of playing cards and card games Courts on playing cards Deck of playing cards in SVG Deck of playing cards in .fla and .png The History of Playing Cards discussed in 1987 by Roger Somerville World Web Playing Cards Museum | Playing_card |@lemmatized typical:6 anglo:16 american:11 playing:34 card:261 bicycle:2 brand:1 piece:1 specially:1 prepared:1 heavy:2 paper:6 thin:2 plastic:3 figure:4 distinguish:4 motif:1 use:67 one:23 set:12 play:49 game:66 typically:3 palm:1 size:11 convenient:1 handling:1 since:3 mid:6 century:23 sometimes:16 manufacture:3 complete:5 call:10 pack:9 deck:125 hold:7 time:12 player:10 commonly:12 hand:14 may:17 great:3 variety:3 also:24 incorporate:2 gambling:2 standardized:1 available:4 often:10 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5,084 | Filtration | diagram of a simple filtration Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by interposing a medium through which the fluid can pass, but the solids (or at least part of the solids) in the fluid are retained. It has to be emphasized that the separation is not complete, and it will depend on the pore size and the thickness of the medium as well as the mechanisms that occur during filtration. Filtration is used for the purification of fluids: for instance separating dust from the atmosphere to clean ambient air. Filtration, as a physical operation is very important in chemistry for the separation of materials of different chemical composition in solution (or solids which can be dissolved) by first using a reagent to precipitate one of the materials and then use a filter to separate the solid from the other material(s). Filtration is also important and widely used as one of the unit operations of chemical engineering. It is important not to confuse filtration with sieving. In sieving there is only a single layer of medium where size separation occurs purely by the fact that the fraction of the particulate solid matter which is too large to be able to pass through the holes of the sieve, scientifically called oversize (See particle size distribution) are retained. In filtration a multilayer medium is involved, where other mechanisms are included as well, for instance direct interception, diffusion and centrifugal action, where in this latter those particles, which are unable to follow the tortuous channels of the filter will also adhere to the structure of the medium and are retained. Lecture notes, Postgraduate course on Filtration and Size separation at the Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Lougborough, England Depending on the application, either one or both of the components may be isolated. Examples of filtration include A) a coffee filter to keep the coffee separate from the grounds and B) the use of HEPA filters in air conditioning to remove particles from air. The filtration process separates particles and fluid from a suspension, and the fluid can be either a liquid or a gas (or a supercritical fluid). To separate a mixture of chemical compounds, a solvent is chosen which dissolves one component, while not dissolving the other. By dissolving the mixture in the chosen solvent, one component will go into the solution and pass through the filter, while the other will be retained. This is one of the most important techniques used by chemists to purify compounds. Filtration also cleans up air streams or other gas streams. Furnaces use filtration to prevent the furnace elements from fouling with particulates. Pneumatic conveying systems often employ filtration to stop or slow the flow of material that is transported, through the use of a baghouse. The remainder of this article focuses primarily on liquid filtration. Methods There are many different methods of filtration; all aim to attain the separation of substances. This is achieved by some form of interaction between the substance or objects to be removed and the filter. In addition the substance that is to pass through the filter must be a fluid, i.e. a liquid or gas. The simplest method of filtration is to pass a solution of a solid and fluid through a porous interface so that the solid is trapped, while the fluid passes through. This principle relies upon the size difference between the particles making up the fluid, and the particles making up the solid. In the laboratory, a Büchner funnel is often used, with a filter paper serving as the porous barrier. For example an experiment to prove the existence of microscopic organisms involves the comparison of water passed through unglazed porcelain and unfiltered water. When left in sealed containers the filtered water takes longer to go foul, showing that very small items (such as bacteria) can be removed from fluids by filtration. Filtration is a process of separating mixtures (2 or more) which are different in their solubility or even size. Filtration is also used to separate a liquid from a suspended or settled solid by soil from water. Flowing Liquids usually flow through the filter by gravity. This is the simplest method, and can be seen in the coffeemaker example. For chemical plants, this is usually the most economical method as well. In the laboratory, pressure in the form of compressed air may be applied to make the filtration process faster, though this may lead to clogging or the passage of fine particles. Alternatively, the liquid may flow through the filter by the force exerted by a pump. In this case, the filter need not be mounted vertically. Filter media There are two main types of filter media — a solid sieve which traps the solid particles, with or without the aid of filter paper, and a bed of granular material which retains the solid particles as it passes. The first type allows the solid particles, i.e. the residue, to be collected intact; the second type does not permit this. However, the second type is less prone to clogging due to the greater surface area where the particles can be trapped. Also, when the solid particles are very fine, it is often cheaper and easier to discard the contaminated granules than to clean the solid sieve. Filter media can be cleaned by rinsing with solvents or detergents. Alternatively, in engineering applications, such as swimming pool water treatment plants, they may be cleaned by backwashing. Filter aid Certain filter aids may be used to aid filtration. These are often incompressible diatomaceous earth or kieselguhr, which is composed primarily of silica. Also used are wood cellulose and other inert porous solids. These filter aids can be used in two different ways. They can be used as a precoat before the slurry is filtered. This will prevent gelatinous-type solids from plugging the filter medium and also give a clearer filtrate. They can also be added to the slurry before filtration. This increases the porosity of the cake and reduces resistance of the cake during filtration. In a rotary filter, the filter aid may be applied as a precoat; subsequently, thin slices of this layer are sliced off with the cake. The use of filter aids is usually limited to cases where the cake is discarded or where the precipitate can be separated chemically from the filter. Alternatives Filtration is a more efficient method for the separation of mixtures than decantation, but is much more time consuming. If very small amounts of solution are involved, most of the solution may be soaked up by the filter medium. An alternative to filtration is centrifugation — instead of filtering the mixture of solid and liquid particles, the mixture is centrifuged to force the (usually) denser solid to the bottom, where it often forms a firm cake. The liquid above can then be decanted. This method is especially useful for separating solids which do not filter well, such as gelatinous or fine particles. These solids can clog or pass through the filter, respectively. Filter types Gravity filter (open system that operates with water column pressure only) Pressure filter (closed system that operates under pressure from a pump) Side stream filter (filter in a closed loop, that filters part of the media per cycle only) Surface filtration (single pass system that operates under pressure) Depth filter Continuous rotary filters In kidney The kidney works by filtration of blood in the glomerulus, followed by selectively reabsorbing many substances essential for the body. Footnotes References Air filter Engineering (M) Sdn. Bhd. Apureda International (group) Co.,ltd Further reading fil-tec.de - filtration information site www.filtsep.com filtration equipment expert system and data analysis filter-finder.de - huge online filter finder with vendor list www.vsep.com EP Minerals, LLC worldwide producer of Perlite and Diatomaceous Earth Filter Aids On the permeability of homogeneous anisotropic soils assumed by prof.phd.mircea t.orasanu and shih te.yang See also :Category:Filters Separation of mixtures Microfiltration Ultrafiltration Nanofiltration Reverse osmosis Filter (water) </blockquote> | Filtration |@lemmatized diagram:1 simple:3 filtration:30 mechanical:1 physical:2 operation:3 use:16 separation:8 solid:22 fluid:12 liquid:9 gas:4 interpose:1 medium:11 pass:8 least:1 part:2 retain:5 emphasize:1 complete:1 depend:2 pore:1 size:6 thickness:1 well:4 mechanism:2 occur:2 purification:1 instance:2 separate:9 dust:1 atmosphere:1 clean:5 ambient:1 air:6 important:4 chemistry:1 material:5 different:4 chemical:5 composition:1 solution:5 dissolve:4 first:2 reagent:1 precipitate:2 one:6 filter:42 also:9 widely:1 unit:1 engineering:4 confuse:1 sieve:5 single:2 layer:2 purely:1 fact:1 fraction:1 particulate:2 matter:1 large:1 able:1 hole:1 scientifically:1 call:1 oversize:1 see:3 particle:14 distribution:1 multilayer:1 involve:3 include:2 direct:1 interception:1 diffusion:1 centrifugal:1 action:1 latter:1 unable:1 follow:2 tortuous:1 channel:1 adhere:1 structure:1 lecture:1 note:1 postgraduate:1 course:1 department:1 university:1 lougborough:1 england:1 application:2 either:2 component:3 may:8 isolate:1 example:3 coffee:2 keep:1 ground:1 b:1 hepa:1 conditioning:1 remove:3 process:3 suspension:1 supercritical:1 mixture:7 compound:2 solvent:3 choose:1 chosen:1 go:2 pas:2 technique:1 chemist:1 purify:1 stream:3 furnace:2 prevent:2 element:1 foul:2 pneumatic:1 convey:1 system:5 often:5 employ:1 stop:1 slow:1 flow:4 transport:1 baghouse:1 remainder:1 article:1 focus:1 primarily:2 method:7 many:2 aim:1 attain:1 substance:4 achieve:1 form:3 interaction:1 object:1 addition:1 must:1 e:2 porous:3 interface:1 trap:3 principle:1 rely:1 upon:1 difference:1 make:3 laboratory:2 büchner:1 funnel:1 paper:2 serving:1 barrier:1 experiment:1 prove:1 existence:1 microscopic:1 organism:1 comparison:1 water:7 unglazed:1 porcelain:1 unfiltered:1 leave:1 sealed:1 container:1 filtered:1 take:1 long:1 show:1 small:2 item:1 bacteria:1 solubility:1 even:1 suspended:1 settle:1 soil:2 usually:4 gravity:2 coffeemaker:1 plant:2 economical:1 pressure:5 compressed:1 apply:2 faster:1 though:1 lead:1 clog:3 passage:1 fine:3 alternatively:2 force:2 exert:1 pump:2 case:2 need:1 mount:1 vertically:1 two:2 main:1 type:6 without:1 aid:8 bed:1 granular:1 allow:1 residue:1 collect:1 intact:1 second:2 permit:1 however:1 less:1 prone:1 due:1 great:1 surface:2 area:1 cheap:1 easy:1 discard:2 contaminated:1 granule:1 rinse:1 detergent:1 swim:1 pool:1 treatment:1 backwashing:1 certain:1 incompressible:1 diatomaceous:2 earth:2 kieselguhr:1 compose:1 silica:1 wood:1 cellulose:1 inert:1 way:1 precoat:2 slurry:2 gelatinous:2 plug:1 give:1 clearer:1 filtrate:1 add:1 increase:1 porosity:1 cake:5 reduces:1 resistance:1 rotary:2 subsequently:1 thin:1 slice:2 limit:1 chemically:1 alternative:2 efficient:1 decantation:1 much:1 time:1 consuming:1 amount:1 soak:1 centrifugation:1 instead:1 centrifuge:1 denser:1 bottom:1 firm:1 decant:1 especially:1 useful:1 respectively:1 open:1 operate:3 column:1 closed:2 side:1 loop:1 per:1 cycle:1 depth:1 continuous:1 kidney:2 work:1 blood:1 glomerulus:1 selectively:1 reabsorb:1 essential:1 body:1 footnote:1 reference:1 sdn:1 bhd:1 apureda:1 international:1 group:1 co:1 ltd:1 far:1 reading:1 fil:1 tec:1 de:2 information:1 site:1 www:2 filtsep:1 com:2 equipment:1 expert:1 data:1 analysis:1 finder:2 huge:1 online:1 vendor:1 list:1 vsep:1 ep:1 mineral:1 llc:1 worldwide:1 producer:1 perlite:1 permeability:1 homogeneous:1 anisotropic:1 assume:1 prof:1 phd:1 mircea:1 orasanu:1 shih:1 te:1 yang:1 category:1 microfiltration:1 ultrafiltration:1 nanofiltration:1 reverse:1 osmosis:1 blockquote:1 |@bigram air_conditioning:1 supercritical_fluid:1 swim_pool:1 diatomaceous_earth:2 thin_slice:1 closed_loop:1 sdn_bhd:1 |
5,085 | Poland_Is_Not_Yet_Lost | Mazurek Dąbrowskiego (pronounced , "Dąbrowski's Mazurka") is the national anthem of Poland. It is also known by its original title, Pieśń Legionów Polskich we Włoszech (pronounced , "Song of the Polish Legions in Italy"), or by its incipit, Jeszcze Polska nie zginęła (pronounced , "Poland Is Not Yet Lost" or "Poland Has Not Yet Perished"). The song is a lively mazurka with lyrics penned by Józef Wybicki in Reggio nell'Emilia, Cisalpine Republic (now in Italy), around 16 July 1797, two years after the Third Partition of Poland erased the once vast country from the map. It was originally meant to boost the morale of Polish soldiers serving under General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski in the Polish Legions, which were part of the French Revolutionary Army led by General Napoléon Bonaparte in its conquest of Italy. The mazurka, expressing the idea that the nation of Poland, despite lack of political independence, had not perished as long as the Polish people were still alive and fighting in its name, soon became one of the most popular patriotic songs in Poland. The song's popularity led to a plethora of variations, sung by Polish patriots on different occasions. It also inspired other peoples struggling for independence during the 19th century. One of the songs strongly influenced by Poland Is Not Yet Lost is Hey Slavs, a former national anthem of Yugoslavia. When Poland re-emerged as an independent state in 1918, Mazurek Dąbrowskiego became its de facto anthem. It was officially adopted as the national anthem of the Republic of Poland in 1926. Lyrics Facsimile of Wybicki's manuscript of the Song of the Polish Legions in Italy The original lyrics authored by Wybicki was a poem consisting of six stanzas and a chorus repeated after all but last stanzas, all following an ABAB rhyme scheme. The official lyrics, based on a variant from 1806, Russocki, Kuczyński, Willaume (1978) show a certain departure from the original text. It misses two of the original stanzas and reverses the order of other two. Notably, the initial verse, "Poland has not yet died" was replaced with "Poland has not yet perished", suggesting a more violent cause of the nation's possible death. Davies (2005) Wybicki's original manuscript was in the hands of his descendants until February 1944, when it was lost in Wybicki's great-great-grandson, Johann von Roznowski's home in Charlottenburg during the Allied bombing of Berlin. The manuscript is known today only from facsimile copies, twenty four of which were made in 1886 by Edward Rożnowski, Wybicki's grandson, who donated them to Polish libraries. The main theme of the poem is the idea that was novel in the times of early nationalisms based on centralized nation-states that the lack of political sovereignty does not preclude the existence of a nation. As Adam Mickiewicz explained in 1842 to students of Slavic Literature in Paris, the song "begins with verses which are the emblem of recent history: 'Poland has not yet perished, so long as we still live'. These words mean that people who have in them what indeed constitutes nationality are able to extend the existence of their nation regardless of the political circumstances of that existence, and may even pursue its re-creation." Polish: "(Sławna pieśń legionów polskich) poczyna się od wierszy, które są godłem historii nowej: Jeszcze Polska nie zginęła, kiedy my żyjemy. Słowa te mówią, że ludzie mający w sobie to, co istotnie stanowi narodowość, zdolni są przedłużać byt swojego kraju niezależnie od warunków politycznych tego bytu, i mogą nawet dążyć do urzeczywistnienia go na nowo." Source: MKiDN The song also includes a call to arms and expresses the hope that, under General Dąbrowski's command, the legionaries would rejoin their nation and retrieve "what the alien force has seized" through armed struggle. Bonaparte has shown us ways to victory. The chorus and subsequent stanzas include heart-lifting examples of military heroes, set as role models for Polish soldiers: Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, Napoléon Bonaparte, Stefan Czarniecki and Tadeusz Kościuszko. Dąbrowski, for whom the anthem is named, was a commander in the failed 1794 Kościuszko Uprising against Russia. After the Third Partition in 1795, he came to Paris to seek French aid in re-establishing Polish independence and, in 1796, he started the formation of the Polish Legions, a Polish unit of the French Revolutionary Army. Bonaparte was, at the time when the song was written, a commander of the Italian campaign of French Revolutionary Wars and Dąbrowski's superior. Having already proven his skills as a military leader, he is described in the lyrics as the one "who has shown us ways to victory." Bonaparte is the only non-Polish person mentioned by name in the Polish anthem. Like Czarniecki to Poznań... Stefan Czarniecki was a 17th-century hetman (military commander), famous for his role in driving the Swedish army out of Poland after an occupation that had left the country in ruins and is remembered by Poles as the Deluge. With the outbreak of a Dano-Swedish war, he continued his fight against Sweden in Denmark, from where he "returned across the sea" to fight the invaders alongside the king who was then at the Royal Castle in Poznań. In the same castle, Józef Wybicki, started his career as a lawyer (in 1765). Kościuszko, mentioned in a stanza now missing from the anthem, became a hero of the American Revolutionary War before coming back to Poland to defend his native country from Russia in the war of 1792 and a national uprising he led in 1794. One of his major victories during the uprising was the Battle of Racławice where the result was partly due to Polish peasants armed with scythes. Alongside the scythes, the song mentioned other types of weapon, traditionally used by the Polish szlachta, or nobility: the sabre, known in Polish as szabla, and the backsword. Basia (a female name, diminutive of Barbara) and her father are fictional characters supposed to evoke a sentimental image of women and elderly men waiting for Polish soldiers to return home and liberate their fatherland. The route that Dąbrowski and his legions hoped to follow upon leaving Italy is hinted at by the words "cross the Vistula (Polish: Wisła), cross the Warta", two major rivers flowing through the parts of Poland that were in Austrian and Prussian hands at the time. Current official lyrics Ustawa z dnia 31 stycznia 1980 r. o godle, barwach i hymnie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej oraz o pieczęciach państwowych – Dziennik Ustaw z 2005 r. Nr 235, poz. 2000 Jeszcze Polska nie zginęła, Kiedy my żyjemy. Co nam obca przemoc wzięła, Szablą odbierzemy. Marsz, marsz, Dąbrowski, Z ziemi włoskiej do Polski. Za twoim przewodem Złączym się z narodem. Przejdziem Wisłę, przejdziem Wartę, Będziem Polakami. Dał nam przykład Bonaparte, Jak zwyciężać mamy. Marsz, marsz... Jak Czarniecki do Poznania Po szwedzkim zaborze, Dla ojczyzny ratowania Wrócim się przez morze. Marsz, marsz... Już tam ojciec do swej Basi Mówi zapłakany Słuchaj jeno, pono nasi Biją w tarabany. Marsz, marsz... English translation Based on translations from Davies (2005) and Kendall Poland has not perished yet So long as we still live That which alien force has seized We at sabrepoint shall retrieve March, march, Dąbrowski From Italy to Poland Let us now rejoin the nation Under thy command Cross the Vistula and Warta And Poles we shall be We've been shown by Bonaparte Ways to victory March, march... Like Czarniecki Poznań regains Fighting with the Swede, To free our fatherland from chains We shall return by sea March, march... Father, in tears Says to his Basia Just listen, it seems that our people Are beating the drums March, march... Original lyrics (modern spelling) Jeszcze Polska nie umarła, Kiedy my żyjemy Co nam obca moc wydarła, Szablą odbijemy. Marsz, marsz, Dąbrowski Do Polski z ziemi włoskiej Za twoim przewodem Złączym się z narodem Jak Czarniecki do Poznania Wracał się przez morze Dla ojczyzny ratowania Po szwedzkim rozbiorze. Marsz, masz... Przejdziem Wisłę, przejdziem Wartę Będziem Polakami Dał nam przykład Bonaparte Jak zwyciężać mamy Marsz, masz... Niemiec, Moskal nie osiędzie, Gdy jąwszy pałasza, Hasłem wszystkich zgoda będzie I ojczyzna nasza Marsz, masz... Już tam ojciec do swej Basi Mówi zapłakany Słuchaj jeno, pono nasi Biją w tarabany Marsz, masz... Na to wszystkich jedne głosy Dosyć tej niewoli Mamy racławickie kosy Kościuszkę Bóg pozwoli. English translation Poland has not died yet So long as we still live That which alien force has seized We at sabrepoint shall retrieve March, march, Dąbrowski To Poland from Italy Let us now rejoin the nation Under thy command Like Czarniecki to Poznań Returned across the sea To free our fatherland from chains Fighting with the Swede March, march... Cross the Vistula and Warta And Poles we shall be We've been shown by Bonaparte Ways to victory March, march... Germans, Muscovites will not rest When, backsword in hand "Concord" will be our watchword And the fatherland will be ours March, march... Father, in tears Says to his Basia Just listen, it seems that our people Are beating the drums March, march... All exclaim in unison Enough of this bondage We've got scythes from Racławice God will give us Kościuszko Music + Official sheet music Instrumental Vocal The melody of the Polish anthem is a lively and rhythmical mazurka. Mazurka as a musical form derives from the stylization of traditional melodies for the folk dances of Masovia, a region in central Poland. It is characterized by a triple meter and strong accents placed irregularly on the second or third beat. Considered one of Poland's national dances in pre-partition times, it owes its popularity in 19th-century West European ballrooms to the mazurkas of Frédéric Chopin. Trochimczyk The composer of Mazurek Dąbrowskiego is unknown. The melody is most probably Wybicki's adaptation of a folk tune that had already been popular during the second half of the 18th century. The composition used to be erroneously attributed to Michał Kleofas Ogiński who was known to have written a march for Dąbrowski's legions. Several historians confused Ogiński's Marche pour les Légions polonaises ("March for the Polish Legions") with Wybicki's mazurka, possibly due to the mazurka's chorus "March, march, Dąbrowski", until Ogiński's sheet music for the march was discovered in 1938 and proven to be a different piece of music than Poland's national anthem. Wojciech Sowiński was the first to arrange Mazurek Dąbrowskiego for the piano. The arrangement, accompanied by the lyrics in Polish and French, was published 1829 in Paris. The current official musical score of the national anthem was arranged by Kazimierz Sikorski and published by the Polish Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. Sikorski's harmonization allows for each vocal version to be performed either a cappella or together with any of the instrumental versions. Some orchestra parts, marked in the score as ad libitum, may be left out or replaced by other instruments of equivalent musical scale. MKiDN Regulations The national anthem is, along with the national coat of arms and the national colors, one of three national symbols defined by the Polish constitution. Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej [ Constitution of the Republic of Poland], Dz.U. 1997 nr 78 poz. 483 As such, it is protected by law which declares that treating the national symbols "with reverence and respect" is the "right and obligation" of every Polish citizen and all state organs, institutions and organizations. Ustawa o godle, barwach i hymnie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej oraz o pieczęciach państwowych [Coat of Arms, Colors and Anthem of the Republic of Poland, and State Seals Act], Dz.U. 1980 nr 7 poz. 18 The anthem should be performed or reproduced especially at celebrations of national holidays and anniversaries. Civilians should pay respect to the anthem by standing in a dignified manner; additionally, men should uncover they heads. Members of uniformed services should stand at attention; if their uniform includes headgear and they are not standing in an organized group, they should also perform the two-finger salute. Color guards pay respect to the anthem by dipping their banners. History Origin Jan Henryk Dąbrowski (1755-1818) In 1795, after a prolonged decline and despite last-minute attempts at constitutional reforms and armed resistance, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was ultimately partitioned by its three neighbors: Russia, Prussia and Austria. A once vast and powerful empire was effectively erased from the map while monarchs of the partitioning powers pledged never to use the name "Poland" in their official titles. For many, including even leading representatives of the Polish Enlightenment, this new political situation meant an end of the Polish nation. Czapliński (1985) In the words of Hugo Kołłątaj, a notable Polish political thinker of the time, "Poland no longer belonged to currently extant nations," Polish: "(Polska) przestała należeć do narodów aktualnie będących." Source: Czapliński (1985) while historian Tadeusz Czacki declared that Poland "was now effaced from the number of nations." Polish: "Już Polska wymazana jest z liczby narodów." Source: Czapliński (1985) Józef Wybicki (1747–1822) Meanwhile, Polish patriots and revolutionaries turned for help to France, Poland's traditional ally, which was at war with Austria (member of the First Coalition) at the time. Józef Wybicki was among the leading moderate émigré politicians seeking French aid in re-establishing Polish independence. In 1796, he came up with the idea of creating Polish Legions within the French Revolutionary Army. To this end, he convinced General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, a hero of the Greater Poland campaign of the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising, to come to Paris and present the plan to the French Directory. Dąbrowski was sent by the Directory to General Napoléon Bonaparte who was then spreading the French Revolution in northern Italy. In January 1797, the newly-created French-controlled Cisalpine Republic accepted Dąbrowski's offer and a Polish legion was formed. Dąbrowski and his soldiers hoped to fight against Austria under Napoleon and, subsequently, march across the Austrian territory, "from Italy to Poland," where they would ignite a national uprising. A commemorative plaque in Reggio Emilia In early July 1797, Wybicki arrived in Reggio Emilia where the Polish Legions were then quartered and where he wrote the Song of the Polish Legions soon afterwards. He first sung it at a private meeting of Polish officers in the Legions' headquarters at the episcopal palace in Reggio. The first public performance most probably took place on 16 July 1797 during a military parade in Reggio's Piazza del Duomo (Cathedral Square). On 20 July, it was played again as the Legions were marching off from Reggio to Milan, the Cisalpine capital. With its heart-lifting lyrics and folk melody, the song soon became a popular tune among Polish legionaries. On 29 August 1797, Dąbrowski already wrote to Wybicki from Bologna: "soldiers gain more and more taste for your song." Polish: "Żołnierze do Twojej pieśni coraz więcej gustu nabierają." Source: Russocki, Kuczyński, Willaume (1978) It appealed to both officers, usually émigré noblemen, and simple soldiers, most of whom were Galician peasants who had been drafted into the Austrian army and captured as POWs by the French. The last stanza, referring to Kościuszko, who famously fought for freedom of the entire nation rather than the nobility alone, and the "scythes of Racławice", seems to be directed particularly at the latter. Wybicki may have even hoped for Kościuszko to arrive in Italy and personally lead the Legions which might explain why the chorus "March, march, Dąbrowski" is not repeated after the last stanza. At that time Wybicki was not yet aware that Kościuszko had already returned to Philadelphia. Rising popularity The song became popular in Poland as soon as late 1797 and quickly became an object of variations and modifications. A variant from 1798 introduced some stylistic changes, which have since become standard, such as replacing "nie umarła" ("not dead") with "nie zginęła" ("not perished") or "do Polski z ziemi włoski" ("to Poland from the Italian land") with "z ziemi włoskiej do Polski" ("from the Italian land to Poland"). It also added four new stanzas, now forgotten, written from the viewpoint of Polish patriots waiting for General Dąbrowski to bring freedom and human rights to Poland. Father, in tears, says to his Basia... The ultimate fate of the Polish Legions in Italy was different from that promised by Wybicki's song. Rather than coming back to Poland, they were exploited by the French government to quell uprisings in Italy, Germany and, later, in Haiti where they were decimated by war and disease. Polish national hopes were revived with the outbreak of a Franco-Prussian war (part of the War of the Fourth Coalition) in 1806. Napoleon called Dąbrowski and Wybicki to come back from Italy and help gather support for the French army in Polish-populated parts of Prussia. On 6 November 1806, both generals arrived in Poznań, enthusiastically greeted by locals singing Poland Is Not Yet Lost. The ensuing Greater Poland Uprising and Napoleon's victory over Russian forces at Friedland led to the creation of a French-controlled Polish puppet state known as the Duchy of Warsaw. Poland Is Not Yet Lost was one of the most popular patriotic songs in the duchy, stopping short of becoming that entity's national anthem. Among other occasions, it was sung in Warsaw on 16 June 1807 to celebrate the battle of Friedland, in Kraków as it was liberated by Prince Józef Poniatowski on 19 July 1809, and at a ball in Warsaw on 23 December 1809, the birthday of Frederick Augustus, King of Saxony and Duke of Warsaw. On the occasion of Dąbrowski's name day on 25 December 1810 in Poznań, Dąbrowski and Wybicki led the mazurka to the tune of Poland Is Not Yet Lost. Although the melody of Wybicki's song remained unchanged and widely known, the lyrics kept changing. With the signing of a Franco-Russian alliance at Tilsit in 1807, the fourth stanza, specifically mentioning Russians as Poland's enemies, was removed. The last stanza, referring to Kościuszko, who had grown suspicious of Napoleon and refused to lend his support to the emperor's war in Poland, met the same fate. The blow struck with such skill, with such force unsurpassed, That the strings rang out boldly, like trumpets of brass, And from them to the heavens that song wafted, cherished, That triumphal march: Poland has never yet perished! ...March Dąbrowski to Poland! The audience entire Clapped, and all "March Dąbrowski!" cried out as a choir. Adam Mickiewicz, Pan Tadeusz Translated by Marcel Weyland The anthem is mentioned twice in Pan Tadeusz, the Polish national epic written by Adam Mickiewicz in 1834, but set in the years 1811-1812. The author makes the first reference to the song when Tadeusz, the main protagonist, returns home and, recalling childhood memories, pulls the string of a chiming clock to hear the "old Dąbrowski's Mazurka" once again. Musical boxes and musical clocks playing the melody of Poland Is Not Yet Lost belonged to popular patriotic paraphernalia of that time. The song appears in the epic poem again when Jankiel, a Jewish dulcimerist and ardent Polish patriot, plays the mazurka in the presence of General Dąbrowski himself. Charles Michel Guilbert d'Anelle, Expiring Soldier of Liberty (1849). The painting shows a dying freedom fighter scrawling "Poland is not yet lost" in his blood. With Napoleon's defeat and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 came a century of foreign domination over Poland interspersed with occasional bursts of armed rebellion. Poland Is Not Yet Lost continued to be sung throughout that period, especially during national uprisings. During the November Uprising against Russia in 1830-1831, the song was chanted in the battlefields of Stoczek, Olszynka Grochowska and Iganie. In peacetime, Polish patriots performed it at homes, official functions and political demonstrations. New variants of the song, of various artistic value and length of life, abounded. At least 16 alternative versions were penned during the November Uprising alone. At times, Dąbrowski's name was replaced by other national heroes: from Józef Chłopicki during the November Uprising to Józef Piłsudski during the First World War to Władysław Sikorski during the Second World War. New lyrics were also written in regional dialects of Polish, from Silesia to Ermland and Masuria. A variant known as Marsz Polonii ("March Polonia") spread among Polish immigrants in the Americas. Mass political emigration following the defeat of the November Uprising, known as the Great Emigration, brought Poland Is Not Yet Lost to Western Europe. It soon found favor from Britain to France to Germany where it was performed as a token of sympathy with the Polish cause. It was also highly esteemed in Central Europe where various, mostly Slavic, peoples struggling for their own independence, looked to the Polish anthem for inspiration. Back in Poland, however, especially in the parts under Russian and Prussian rule, it was becoming increasingly risky to sing the anthem in public. Polish patriotic songs were banned in Prussia in 1850 and from 1873 to 1911, German courts passed 44 sentences for singing such songs, 20 of which were specifically for singing Poland Is Not Yet Lost. In Russian Poland, public performance of the song often ended with a police intervention. Choice of national anthem When Poland re-emerged as an independent nation after the First World War in 1918, it had to make a decision about its national symbols. While the the coat of arms and the flag were officially adopted as soon as 1919, the question of a national anthem had to wait. Apart from Poland Is Not Yet Lost, there were other popular patriotic songs which could compete for the status of an official national anthem. Sheet music for Bogurodzica from 1407 In the Middle Ages, the role of a national anthem was played by religious hymns. Among them were Bogurodzica ("Mother of God"), one of the oldest (11th-12th century) known literary texts in Polish, and the Latin Gaude Mater Polonia ("Rejoice, Mother Poland"), written in the 13th century to celebrate the canonization of Bishop Stanislaus of Szczepanów, the patron saint of Poland. Both were chanted on special occasions and on battlefields. The latter is sung nowadays at university ceremonies. During the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, several songs, both religious and secular, were written with the specific purpose of creating a new national anthem. Examples include the 16th century Latin prayer Oratio pro Republica et Rege ("Prayer for the Commonwealth and the King") by a Calvinist poet, Andrzej Trzeciński, and Hymn do miłości Ojczyzny ("Hymn to the Love of the Fatherland") written in 1744 by Prince-Bishop Ignacy Krasicki. They failed, however, to win substantial favor with the populace. The official anthem of the Russian-controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland was Pieśń narodowa na pomyślność Króla ("National Song to the King's Well-being") written in 1816 by Alojzy Feliński and Jan Kaszewski. Initially unpopular, it evolved in the early 1860s into an important religious and patriotic hymn. The final verse, which originally begged "Save, Oh Lord, our King", was substituted with "Return us, Oh Lord, our free Fatherland" while the melody was replaced with that of a Marian hymn. The result, known today as Boże, coś Polskę ("God Save Poland"), has been sung in Polish churches ever since, with the final verse alternating between "Return..." and "Bless, Oh Lord, our free Fatherland", depending on Poland's political situation. A national song that was particularly popular during the November Uprising was Warszawianka, originally written in French as La Varsovienne by Casimir Delavigne, with melody by Karol Kurpiński. The song praised Polish insurgents taking their ideals from the French July Revolution of 1830. A peasant rebellion against Polish nobles, which took place in western Galicia in 1846 and was encouraged by Austrian authorities who wished to thwart a new uprising attempt, moved Kornel Ujejski to write a mournful chorale entitled Z dymem pożarów ("With the Smoke of Fires"). With the music composed by Józef Nikorowicz, it became one of the most popular national songs of the time, although it declined into obscurity during the 20th century. In 1908, Maria Konopnicka and Feliks Nowowiejski created Rota ("The Oath"), a song protesting against the oppression of the Polish population of the German Empire, who were subject to eviction from their land and forced assimilation. First publicly performed in 1910, during a quincentennial celebration of the Polish-Lithuanian victory over the Teutonic Knights at Grunwald, it too became one of the most treasured national Polish songs. Influence During the European Revolutions of 1848, Poland Is Not Yet Lost won favor throughout Europe as a revolutionary anthem. This led the Slovak poet Samo Tomášik to write the anthem, "Hey Slavs", based on the melody of the Polish anthem. This was later adopted by the First Congress of the Pan-Slavic Movement in Prague as the Pan-Slavic Anthem. During the Second World War, a translation of this anthem became the national anthem of Yugoslavia, and later, Serbia and Montenegro. The similarity of the anthems sometimes caused confusion during these countries' football or volleyball matches. However, after the 2006 split between the two, neither Serbia nor Montenegro kept the song as its national anthem, instead choosing "Bože pravde" and "Oj, svijetla majska zoro" respectively. Footnotes References Books Websites External links Muzeum Hymnu Narodowego w Będominie, National Anthem Museum at Będomin Media , instrumental , instrumental and vocal sung by Ignacy Dygas in 1926, the oldest known recording of the Polish anthem be-x-old:Гімн Польшчы | Poland_Is_Not_Yet_Lost |@lemmatized mazurek:4 dąbrowskiego:4 pronounce:3 dąbrowski:29 mazurka:11 national:33 anthem:35 poland:59 also:7 know:10 original:6 title:2 pieśń:3 legionów:2 polskich:2 włoszech:1 song:34 polish:62 legion:15 italy:13 incipit:1 jeszcze:4 polska:6 nie:7 zginęła:4 yet:20 lose:13 perish:7 lively:2 lyric:11 pen:2 józef:8 wybicki:19 reggio:6 nell:1 emilia:3 cisalpine:3 republic:5 around:1 july:6 two:6 year:2 third:3 partition:5 erase:2 vast:2 country:4 map:2 originally:3 mean:3 boost:1 morale:1 soldier:7 serve:1 general:8 jan:5 henryk:4 part:6 french:16 revolutionary:7 army:6 lead:9 napoléon:3 bonaparte:10 conquest:1 express:2 idea:3 nation:13 despite:2 lack:2 political:8 independence:5 long:4 people:6 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5,086 | Historicism | Historicism refers to philosophical theories that include one or both of two claims: that there is an organic succession of developments, a notion also known as historism (in German historismus), and/or; that local conditions and peculiarities influence the results in a decisive way. It can be contrasted with reductionist theories, which suppose that all developments can be explained by fundamental principles (such as in economic determinism). The theological use of the word denotes the interpretation of biblical prophecy as being related to church history. The term has developed different and divergent, though loosely related, meanings. Elements of historicism appear in the writings of the philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, influential in 19th-century Europe, as well as in those of Karl Marx, whom he influenced. The term is also associated with the empirical social sciences and the work of Franz Boas. The Austrian-English philosopher Karl Popper attacked historicism along with the determinism and holism which he argued were at its root. Post-structuralism uses the term New Historicism, which has some connections to both anthropology and Hegelianism. Variants of historicism Hegelian historicism The historicist position by Hegel suggests that any human society and all human activities such as science, art, or philosophy, are defined by their history, so that their essence can be sought only through understanding that. The history of any such human endeavor, moreover, not only builds upon but also reacts against what has gone before; this is the source of Hegel's famous dialectic teaching usually summed up by the slogan "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis." (Hegel did not use these terms, although Fichte did.) Hegel's famous aphorism, "Philosophy is the history of philosophy," describes it bluntly. Hegel's position is perhaps best illuminated when contrasted against the atomistic and reductionist view of human societies and social activities self-defining on an ad hoc basis through the sum of dozens of interactions. Yet another contrasting model is the persistent metaphor of a social contract. Hegel sees the relationship between individuals and societies as organic, not atomic: even their social discourse is mediated by language, and language is rooted in etymology and unique character. It thus preserves the culture of the past in thousands of half-forgotten frozen metaphors. To understand why a person is the way he is, you must put that person in a society: and to understand that society, you must understand its history, and the forces that shaped it. The Zeitgeist, the "Spirit of the Age," is the concrete embodiment of the most important factors that are acting in human history at any given time. This contrasts with teleological theories of activity, which suppose that the end is the determining factor of activity, as well as those who believe in a tabula rasa, or blank slate, view, where individuals are defined by their interactions. These ideas can be taken in several directions. The Right Hegelians, working from Hegel's opinions about the organicism and historically determined nature of human societies, took Hegel's historicism as a justification of the unique destiny of national groups and the importance of stability and institutions. Hegel's conception of human societies as entities greater than the individuals who constitute them influenced nineteenth century romantic nationalism and its twentieth century excesses. The Young Hegelians, by contrast, took Hegel's thoughts on societies shaped by the forces of social conflict for a doctrine of progress, and attempted to chart a course that would manipulate these forces to lead to various improved outcomes. Karl Marx's doctrine of "historical inevitabilities" and historical materialism is one of the more influential reactions to this side of Hegel's thought. Significantly, Karl Marx's theory of alienation comes full circle to the thought of the Hegelian right, arguing among other things that capitalism disrupts the rooted nature of traditional relationships between workers and their work. Hegelian historicism is related to his ideas on the means by which human societies progress, specifically the dialectic and his conception of logic as reflecting the inner essential nature of reality. Hegel attributes the change to the "modern" need to interact with the world, whereas ancient philosophers were self-contained, and medieval philosophers were monks. In his History of Philosophy Hegel writes: In modern times things are very different; now we no longer see philosophic individuals who constitute a class by themselves. With the present day all difference has disappeared; philosophers are not monks, for we find them generally in connection with the world, participating with others in some common work or calling. They live, not independently, but in the relation of citizens, or they occupy public offices and take part in the life of the state. Certainly they may be private persons, but if so, their position as such does not in any way isolate them from their other relationship. They are involved in present conditions, in the world and its work and progress. Thus their philosophy is only by the way, a sort of luxury and superfluity. This difference is really to be found in the manner in which outward conditions have taken shape after the building up of the inward world of religion. In modern times, namely, on account of the reconciliation of the worldly principle with itself, the external world is at rest, is brought into order — worldly relationships, conditions, modes of life, have become constituted and organized in a manner which is conformable to nature and rational. We see a universal, comprehensible connection, and with that individuality likewise attains another character and nature, for it is no longer the plastic individuality of the ancients. This connection is of such power that every individuality is under its dominion, and yet at the same time can construct for itself an inward world. This view that entanglement in society creates an indissoluble bond with expression, would be an influential question in philosophy going forward, namely, the requirements for individuality. It would be taken up by Nietzsche, John Dewey and Michel Foucault directly, as well as in the work of numerous artists and authors. There have been various responses to Hegel's challenge. The Romantic period focused on the ability of individual genius to transcend time and place, and use the materials from their heritage to fashion works which were beyond determination. The modern would advance versions of John Locke's infinite malleability of the human animal. Post-structuralism would argue that since history is not present, but only the image of history, that while an individual era or power structure might focus on a particular history, that the contradictions within the story would hinder the very purposes that the history was constructed to advance. Anthropological Historicism Within anthropology and other sciences which study the past, historicism has a different meaning. It is associated with the work of Franz Boas. His theory took the diffusionist concept that there were a few "cradles of civilization" which grew outwards in circles, and merged it with the idea that societies would adapt to their circumstances, which is called historical particularism. The school of historicism grew up in response to unilinear theories that social development reflected adaptive fitness, and therefore existed on a spectrum. While these theories were espoused by Charles Darwin and many of his students, historicism was neither anti-selection, nor anti-evolution. However, it attacked the notion that there was one normative spectrum of development, instead focusing on how local conditions would create adaptations to the local environment. What was adaptive for one region might not be so for another. This conclusion has likewise been adopted by modern forms of biological evolutionary theory. The primary method of historicism was empirical, namely that there were so many requisite inputs into a society or event, that only by focusing on the data available could a theory of the source be determined. In this view, grand theories are unprovable, and instead intensive field work would determine the most likely explanation and history of a culture, and hence it is named Historicism. Boas would later teach at Columbia University and this would produce a school of thought based on his ideas. This view would produce a wide range of definition of what, exactly, constituted culture and history, but in each case the only means of explaining it was in terms of the historical particulars of the culture itself. New Historicism Since the 1950s, when Lacan and Foucault argued that each epoch has its own knowledge system, which individuals are inexorably entangled with, many post-structuralists have used historicism to describe the view that all questions must be settled within the cultural and social context in which they are raised, answers cannot be found by appeal to an external truth, but only within the confines of the norms and forms that phrase the question. This version of historicism holds that there are only the raw texts, markings and artifacts that exist in the present, and the conventions used to decode them. This school of thought sometimes goes by the name of New Historicism. The same label, new historicism is also employed for a school of literary scholarship which interprets a poem, drama, etc. as an expression of or reaction to the power-structures of the surrounding society. Stephen Greenblatt is an example of this school. Modern historicism Within the context of 20th century philosophy, the conflict over whether ahistorical and immanent methodologies were sufficient to understand meaning — that is to say, "what you see is what you get" positivism — or whether context, background and culture are important beyond the mere need to decode words, phrases and references. While post-structural historicism is relativist in its orientation, that is, it sees each culture as its own frame of reference, a large number of thinkers have embraced the need for historical context, not because culture is self-referential, but because there is no more compressed means of conveying all of the relevant information except through history. This view is often seen as being rooted in the work of Benedetto Croce. Recent historians in this tradition include Thomas Kuhn. Christian historicism Eschatological historicism In Christianity, the term historicism refers to the confessional Protestant form of prophetical interpretation which holds that the fulfillment of biblical prophecy has taken place throughout history and continues to take place today; as opposed to other methods which limit the time-frame of prophecy-fulfillment to the past or to the future. The historicist method is what led reformers throughout Europe to declare that the Pope was the man of sin sitting on the seven hills of Rome. Examples of famous Christians and Protestant denominations declaring the pope to be the antichrist include the Waldensians, Albigenses, Lollards, Lutherans, Calvinists, Hussians, and a host of individuals, including the father of the modern English Bible William Tyndale and even articles of faith such as the Westminster Confession of Faith. See #External links below. Dogmatic and Ecclesiastic Historicism There is also a particular view in Ecclesiastical history and in the history of dogmas which has been described as historicist by Pope Pius XII in the encyclical Humani Generis. "They add that the history of dogmas consists in the reporting of the various forms in which revealed truth has been clothed, forms that have succeeded one another in accordance with the different teachings and opinions that have arisen over the course of the centuries." Humani Generis, 15 Critics Karl Marx The social theory of Karl Marx, with respect to modern scholarship, stands in a deeply ambiguous relation to historicism. Critics of Marx have leveled the charge of historicism against his theory since its very genesis. However, the issue of historicism also finds itself at the center stage of many debates within Marxism itself; the charge of historicism has been leveled against various theoretical strains of Marxism, typically disparaged by Marxists as "vulgar" Marxism. The development of such historicist Marxisms led famously to Marx's assertion that "I am not a Marxist." Marx himself expresses a deep critical concerns with this historicist tendency in his much celebrated Theses on Feuerbach: Karl Popper Karl Popper used the term historicism in his influential books The Poverty of Historicism and The Open Society and Its Enemies, to mean: "an approach to the social sciences which assumes that historical prediction is their primary aim, and which assumes that this aim is attainable by discovering the 'rhythms' or the 'patterns', the 'laws' or the 'trends' that underlie the evolution of history". POPPER, Karl, p. 3 of The Poverty of Historicism, italics in original Karl Popper wrote with reference to Hegel's theory of history, which he criticized extensively. However, there is wide dispute whether Popper's description of "historicism" is an accurate description of Hegel, or more a reflection of his own philosophical antagonists, including Marxist-Leninist thought, then widely held as posing a challenge to the philosophical basis of the West, as well as theories such as Spengler's which drew predictions about the future course of events from the past. In The Open Society and Its Enemies, Popper attacks "historicism" and its proponents, among whom (as well as Hegel) he identifies and singles out Plato and Marx — calling them all "enemies of the open society". The objection he makes is that historicist positions, by claiming that there is an inevitable and deterministic pattern to history, abrogate the democratic responsibility of each one of us to make our own free contributions to the evolution of society, and hence lead to totalitarianism. Another of his targets is what he calls "moral historicism", the attempt to infer moral values from the course of history. This may take the form of conservatism (former might is right), positivism (might is right) or futurism (coming might is right). Futurism must be distinguished from prophecies that the right will prevail: these attempt to infer history from ethics, rather than ethics from history, and are therefore historicism in the normal sense rather than moral historicism. He also attacks what he calls "Historism", which he regards as distinct from historicism. By historism, he means the tendency to regard every argument or idea as completely accounted for by its historical context, as opposed to assessing it by its merits. In Popperian terms, the "New Historicism" is an example of historism rather than of historicism proper. Leo Strauss Leo Strauss used the term "historicism" and reportedly called it the single greatest threat to intellectual freedom. According to Strauss, historicism "rejects political philosophy" and is rooted in the belief that "all human thought, including scientific thought, rests on premises which cannot be validated by human reason and which came from historical epoch to historical epoch." He also identified Collingwood as the most coherent advocate of historicism in the English language. In his books, Natural Right and History and On Tyranny, Strauss offers a complete critique of historicism as it emerges in the works of Hegel, Marx, and Heidegger. Many believe that Strauss also found historicism in Burke, Tocqueville, Augustine, and Mill. Although it is largely disputed whether Strauss himself was a historicist, he often indicated that it grew out of Christianity and was a threat to civic participation, a belief in human agency, religious pluralism, and, most controversially, an accurate understanding of the classical philosophers and religious prophets themselves. Throughout his work, he warns that historicism, and the understanding of Progress that results from it, can lead to tyranny, totalitarianism, and democratic extremism. In On Tyranny, in his exchange with Alexander Kojeve, he seems to blame historicism for Nazism and Soviet Communism. In a collection of his works by Kenneth Hart entitled Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, he argues that both Islam, traditional Judaism, and ancient Greece, share mechanisms that make these traditions more resistant to historicism, and therefore to tyranny. His work relies largely on Nietzsche's critique of progress and historicism in western intellectual history. The implicit criticism of Christianity and especially secularized Christianity, has contributed to Strauss' status as a pariah in US academic establishments. See also Parametric determinism Path dependence Sociocultural evolution References Franz Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man. Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method. G. W. F. Hegel, 1911. Philosophy of History. Ludwig von Mises, 1957. Theory and History, chapter 10: "Historicism" Ronald J. Pestritto, 2005. Woodrow Wilson and the roots of modern liberalism. Karl Popper, 1945. The Open Society and Its Enemies, in 2 volumes. Routledge. ISBN 0-691-01968-1. Karl Popper, 1993. The Poverty of Historicism. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06569-0. External links Hegel The Hegel Society of America Site Hegel Hegel in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy gwfhegel.org Hegel page in 'The History Guide' Anthropology Historicism in Anthropology Popper Extracts from The Poverty of Historicism New Historicism New Historicism Explained Defining Historicism by Claes G. Ryn M. D. Murphy, Historicism Leo Strauss "Natural Right and History" "On Tyranny" "Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity" Biblical Prophecy historicism.net historicism.com historicism.org rev14.info historicist.com (broken link) ianpaisley.org truthleftbehind.com be-x-old:Гістарыцызм | Historicism |@lemmatized historicism:60 refers:2 philosophical:3 theory:15 include:6 one:6 two:1 claim:2 organic:2 succession:1 development:5 notion:2 also:10 know:1 historism:4 german:1 historismus:1 local:3 condition:5 peculiarity:1 influence:2 result:2 decisive:1 way:4 contrast:4 reductionist:2 suppose:2 explain:3 fundamental:1 principle:2 economic:1 determinism:3 theological:1 use:8 word:2 denote:1 interpretation:2 biblical:3 prophecy:5 relate:3 church:1 history:30 term:9 develop:1 different:4 divergent:1 though:1 loosely:1 meaning:2 element:1 appear:1 writing:1 philosopher:6 g:3 w:2 f:2 hegel:25 influential:4 century:5 europe:2 well:5 karl:12 marx:10 associate:2 empirical:2 social:9 science:4 work:14 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5,087 | Kenilworth_Castle | Kenilworth Castle is a castle located in Kenilworth, Warwickshire, England (). Historically the Castle was contained within the Forest of Arden. History A fortification has existed on the site from Saxon times, but the current ruin is of Norman origin; a great square stone tower built by Geoffrey de Clinton, Treasurer and Chief Justice of England to Henry I, in about 1125. Henry II took control of the castle during the Revolt of 1173-1174, giving the Clintons another castle in Buckinghamshire by way of compensation. Work then began to improve the defensive qualities of the castle, continuing during the reign of Henry III and transforming the castle into one of the strongest in the Midlands. The strategic advantages of water defences had long been known, and at Kenilworth a great man made lake was created to defend three sides of the castle. Covering over 100 acres (0.4 km²) it was an expensive endeavour, but the value in keeping siege engines at a distance and as a barrier to assault or mining was immense. However, after all the work to improve the castle, Henry III granted it in 1244 to Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester. Simon de Montfort became a leader in the Second Barons' War (1263-1267) against Henry III, using Kenilworth as the centre of his operations. Prince Edward, Henry's heir, was once briefly imprisoned at Kenilworth before escaping. De Montfort was killed in battle near Evesham on August 13 1265 facing Edward. In 1266, the rebels under the leadership of Henry de Hastings, used the castle as a refuge when Lord Edward surrounded Kenilworth. The Siege of Kenilworth Castle in 1266 is the longest in English history. The extensive water defences provided their intended protection, despite Edward targeting the weaker north wall, defended by only a double moat, employing huge siege towers and even attempting a night attack by barge. The siege was ended on easy terms for the defenders with the Dictum of Kenilworth. The experience gained in water defences at Kenilworth was put to good effect at later castles built in Wales, notably Caerphilly. Henry III bestowed the castle upon his youngest son Edmund Crouchback. The castle was inherited by Edmund's grandson Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster, and then passed to the Duke's son-in-law John of Gaunt. From 1364 John of Gaunt began the castle's conversion from a pure fortress into something more liveable, work that continued with his grandson, Henry V. The castle remained in royal hands until it was given to John Dudley in 1553. Following his execution Elizabeth I gave it to her favourite Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester in 1563. Thomas Underhill was named Keeper of the Wardrobe at this time. Dudley further transformed the castle by making the north entrance the main entrance to suit the tastes of Elizabeth, adding the Leicester building, a large apartment and a residential block overlooking the lake. Elizabeth visited Dudley at Kenilworth Castle several times in 1566, 1572, and 1575. The last visit is especially remembered when Elizabeth brought an entourage of several hundred. No expense was spared for the July visit that lasted 19 days and is reputed to have cost Dudley £1000 per day, an amount that almost bankrupted him. Dudley entertained the Queen with pageants, bear baiting and lavish banquets that surpassed anything ever before seen in England. Information about Elizabethan masques Information about Elizabeth's visit to Kenilworth The festivities are said to have been the inspiration for Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. William Shakespeare was just 11 years old at the time and from nearby Stratford-upon-Avon. He could well have been among the crowd of locals that would have gathered to witness the occasion with its expensive and lavish arrangements. Information about Kenilworth Castle Sir Walter Scott wrote an 1821 novel describing the royal visit, and Sir Arthur Sullivan wrote a choral work in 1864 about it. The great Kenilworth booze-up: how to party like it's 1575 Andy McSmith The Independent 17 December 2007. Accessed 27 March 2008 Elizabeth is said, according to local legend, to have tasted the first potato brought into the country at Kenilworth Castle. Unfortunately she ate it raw, disliked it and threw it out the window where it grew in an area now known as Little Virginia. The castle returned to the Crown on Dudley's death. In the English Civil War, the castle was stormed and looted by Parliamentarian troops. In common with many English castles, Kenilworth was slighted (rendered indefensible) after the Civil War. One wall of the keep was blown up, and battlements and the great water defences were destroyed, in 1656. In 1660 Charles II gave the castle to Sir Edward Hyde, whom he created Baron Hyde of Hindon and Earl of Clarendon. The castle remained the property of the Clarendons until 1937 before passing into the possession of John Davenport Siddeley, 1st Baron Kenilworth. The family presented the castle to Kenilworth in 1958 and English Heritage has looked after it since 1984. In 2005 English Heritage announced that after archaeological investigations revealed more details of the original garden, it will be restoring the garden more closely to its Elizabethan form. A fountain and aviary will be reconstructed. The project is scheduled for completion in 2008 In December 2008 plans were put forward to re-fill the original mere around the castle. As well as re-creating the look of the castle it is hoped that the mere will be part of the ongoing flood alleviation plan for the area and the lake could be used for boating and other waterside recreations. Float Your Boat in Kenilworth Moat Warwick District Council 5 December 2008. Accessed 08 December 2008 Notable constables Kenilworth Castle's keep from the south The constables of Kenilworth Castle include: Henry de Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings (1265-1266) Philip Marmion (appointed 1267) Hugh de Quilly (c. 1310-1320) John Deyncourt (c. 1382) Ralph Boteler, 1st Baron Sudeley (appointed 1433) Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset (1529-1530) John Huband (Constable of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester) Robert Dudley, styled Earl of Warwick (1611-1649) See also Siege of Kenilworth Footnotes References Christopher Candy, For the Sake of a Keep: The Siege of Kenilworth, 1267 External links English Heritage - visitor information English Heritage - information for teachers - includes plans, reconstructions and bibliography Photos of Kenilworth Castle today on geograph.org.uk | Kenilworth_Castle |@lemmatized kenilworth:23 castle:31 locate:1 warwickshire:1 england:3 historically:1 contain:1 within:1 forest:1 arden:1 history:2 fortification:1 exist:1 site:1 saxon:1 time:4 current:1 ruin:1 norman:1 origin:1 great:4 square:1 stone:1 tower:2 build:2 geoffrey:1 de:7 clinton:2 treasurer:1 chief:1 justice:1 henry:11 ii:2 take:1 control:1 revolt:1 give:4 another:1 buckinghamshire:1 way:1 compensation:1 work:4 begin:2 improve:2 defensive:1 quality:1 continue:2 reign:1 iii:4 transform:2 one:2 strong:1 midland:1 strategic:1 advantage:1 water:4 defence:4 long:2 know:2 man:1 make:2 lake:3 create:3 defend:2 three:1 side:1 cover:1 acre:1 expensive:2 endeavour:1 value:1 keep:4 siege:6 engine:1 distance:1 barrier:1 assault:1 mining:1 immense:1 however:1 grant:1 simon:2 montfort:3 earl:5 leicester:4 become:1 leader:1 second:1 baron:5 war:3 use:3 centre:1 operation:1 prince:1 edward:5 heir:1 briefly:1 imprison:1 escape:1 kill:1 battle:1 near:1 evesham:1 august:1 face:1 rebel:1 leadership:1 hastings:3 refuge:1 lord:1 surround:1 english:7 extensive:1 provide:1 intended:1 protection:1 despite:1 target:1 weak:1 north:2 wall:2 double:1 moat:2 employ:1 huge:1 even:1 attempt:1 night:2 attack:1 barge:1 end:1 easy:1 term:1 defender:1 dictum:1 experience:1 gain:1 put:2 good:1 effect:1 later:1 wale:1 notably:1 caerphilly:1 bestow:1 upon:2 young:1 son:2 edmund:2 crouchback:1 inherit:1 grandson:2 grosmont:1 duke:2 lancaster:1 pass:2 law:1 john:6 gaunt:2 conversion:1 pure:1 fortress:1 something:1 liveable:1 v:1 remain:2 royal:2 hand:1 dudley:9 follow:1 execution:1 elizabeth:6 favourite:1 robert:3 thomas:2 underhill:1 name:1 keeper:1 wardrobe:1 far:1 entrance:2 main:1 suit:1 taste:2 add:1 building:1 large:1 apartment:1 residential:1 block:1 overlook:1 visit:5 several:2 last:2 especially:1 remember:1 bring:2 entourage:1 hundred:1 expense:1 spar:1 july:1 day:2 repute:1 cost:1 per:1 amount:1 almost:1 bankrupt:1 entertain:1 queen:1 pageant:1 bear:1 baiting:1 lavish:2 banquet:1 surpass:1 anything:1 ever:1 see:2 information:5 elizabethan:2 masque:1 festivity:1 say:2 inspiration:1 shakespeare:2 midsummer:1 dream:1 william:1 year:1 old:1 nearby:1 stratford:1 avon:1 could:2 well:2 among:1 crowd:1 local:2 would:1 gather:1 witness:1 occasion:1 arrangement:1 sir:3 walter:1 scott:1 write:2 novel:1 describe:1 arthur:1 sullivan:1 choral:1 booze:1 party:1 like:1 andy:1 mcsmith:1 independent:1 december:4 access:2 march:1 accord:1 legend:1 first:1 potato:1 country:1 unfortunately:1 eat:1 raw:1 dislike:1 throw:1 window:1 grow:1 area:2 little:1 virginia:1 return:1 crown:1 death:1 civil:2 storm:1 loot:1 parliamentarian:1 troop:1 common:1 many:1 slight:1 render:1 indefensible:1 blow:1 battlement:1 destroy:1 charles:1 hyde:2 hindon:1 clarendon:1 property:1 clarendons:1 possession:1 davenport:1 siddeley:1 family:1 present:1 heritage:4 look:2 since:1 announce:1 archaeological:1 investigation:1 reveal:1 detail:1 original:2 garden:2 restore:1 closely:1 form:1 fountain:1 aviary:1 reconstruct:1 project:1 schedule:1 completion:1 plan:3 forward:1 fill:1 mere:2 around:1 hop:1 part:1 ongoing:1 flood:1 alleviation:1 boating:1 waterside:1 recreation:1 float:1 boat:1 warwick:2 district:1 council:1 notable:1 constable:3 south:1 include:2 philip:1 marmion:1 appointed:2 hugh:1 quilly:1 c:2 deyncourt:1 ralph:1 boteler:1 sudeley:1 grey:1 marquess:1 dorset:1 huband:1 style:1 also:1 footnote:1 reference:1 christopher:1 candy:1 sake:1 external:1 link:1 visitor:1 teacher:1 reconstruction:1 bibliography:1 photo:1 today:1 geograph:1 org:1 uk:1 |@bigram kenilworth_castle:8 de_montfort:3 earl_leicester:3 dudley_earl:2 shakespeare_midsummer:1 midsummer_night:1 upon_avon:1 earl_clarendon:1 earl_warwick:1 external_link:1 |
5,088 | Military_of_Monaco | A member of the armed forces of Monaco on guard duty at the Prince's Palace. The Principality of Monaco, which is the world's second smallest nation (after the Vatican City State), has a very limited military capability, and would depend entirely upon its larger neighbour, France, for defence in the face of an aggressive world power. Department of the Interior This Government Department is responsible for both policing and military activity within Monaco. Border Patrol & Patrol Boats Some quasi-military roles are assigned to the civil police, such as border patrol, and border defence, which are the responsibility of a special police unit officially named "The Maritime and Heliport Police Division", and which operates on land and at sea, using patrol boats and high-speed surveillance boats. See Public Safety Pages of the Monaco Government's official website. Patrol boats are also operated by both the Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers and the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince (see below). Military and Civil Defence Two full time militarized armed forces exist under the control of the Department of the Interior. One is the Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers de Monaco, and the other is the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince. Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers Describing itself as a "military force", See the official website of the Corps des Sapeaurs-Pompiers title pages. the Corps consists of 9 officers, 25 non-commissioned officers, and 96 other ranks - a total force of 130 military personnel (there are also civilian employees). See these pages for personnel strength and rank structure. The officers' ranks (in descending order of seniority) are: Colonel, Lieutenant Colonel, Commandant, Captain, Lieutenant, Sub-Lieutenant. There are a further nine ranks of non-commissioned officer and enlisted personnel. Officers have generally served in the French military or fire service. Based at two barracks (one in La Condamine and one in Fontvieille) the Corps is equipped with fire engines, rescue vehicles, and a range of specialist vehicles including a fire boat, and sealed tracked vehicles for entering Monaco's railway tunnels during an emergency. Beyond fire-fighting duties, the Corps has an extensive Civil Defence brief. Its personnel are trained in the use of firearms, and the Corps has a central armoury; personnel are also trained to handle chemical incidents, and have specialist chemical incident vehicles and equipment. They are also equipped with front-line ambulances, and personnel have first-aid and paramedic training. An enlisted soldier (left) and a commissioned officer (right) of the Prince's Carabiniers. Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince Of a similar size to the Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers, the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince has a total force of 112, consisting of 3 officers, 15 non-commissioned officers, and 94 enlisted men. The officers have usually trained and served with the French military. Its primary duty is the defence of the Prince, and the Prince's Palace in the Monaco-Ville (old town) quartier of Monaco. By extension, it also has a role in guarding members of the judiciary, who administer justice in the name of the Prince. There are a number of specialist units within the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince, which include a motorcycle section (for rapid-response and motorcycle outriding); a diving unit with military, rescue, and scientific capabilities; a military first-aid unit which provides first-aid and ambulance cover at public and sporting events; and a military band, which includes state trumpeters, a brass ensemble, and a small orchestra, as well as being a marching band for ceremonial purposes. A list of specialist units may be found on the official website of the Government in the Dept of the Interior section. The ceremonial "changing of the guard" at 11.55am each day, attracts large numbers of tourists. The ceremony is more than just tourist spectacle, as this small military force is the front line of defence of the Monegasque royal family. Rank and Insignia The rank structure of the armed forces of Monaco is based largely upon the rank structure of the French army. Enlisted soldiers and non-commissioned officers rise through a series of nine ranks, namely (in English translation): Private 2nd class, Private 1st class, Corporal, Chief Corporal, Sergeant, Chief Sergeant, Adjutant, Chief Adjutant, Major. For those used to the British/Commonwealth/American system of ranks, it is important to realise that "Major" is the senior non-commissioned rank in the French/Monegasque system, equivalent to "Sergeant-Major". Commissioned officers rise through a series of six ranks, namely (in English translation): Sub-Lieutenant, Lieutenant, Captain, Commandant, Lieutenant Colonel, Colonel. As can be seen, in the French/Monegasque system the title 'Commandant' replaces the title 'Major' as used in the British/Commonwealth/American system. Also, there is no rank higher than 'Colonel' in either branch of the Monegasque military. References | Military_of_Monaco |@lemmatized member:2 armed:3 force:7 monaco:9 guard:3 duty:3 prince:10 palace:2 principality:1 world:2 second:1 small:3 nation:1 vatican:1 city:1 state:2 limited:1 military:13 capability:2 would:1 depend:1 entirely:1 upon:2 large:2 neighbour:1 france:1 defence:6 face:1 aggressive:1 power:1 department:3 interior:3 government:3 responsible:1 policing:1 activity:1 within:2 border:3 patrol:5 boat:5 quasi:1 role:2 assign:1 civil:3 police:3 responsibility:1 special:1 unit:5 officially:1 name:2 maritime:1 heliport:1 division:1 operate:2 land:1 sea:1 use:4 high:2 speed:1 surveillance:1 see:5 public:2 safety:1 page:3 official:3 website:3 also:6 corp:9 des:10 sapeurs:4 pompiers:5 compagnie:5 carabinier:6 du:5 two:2 full:1 time:1 militarize:1 exist:1 control:1 one:3 de:1 describe:1 sapeaurs:1 title:3 consist:2 officer:11 non:5 commissioned:4 rank:12 total:2 personnel:6 civilian:1 employee:1 strength:1 structure:3 descend:1 order:1 seniority:1 colonel:5 lieutenant:6 commandant:3 captain:2 sub:2 nine:2 enlist:4 generally:1 serve:2 french:5 fire:4 service:1 base:2 barrack:1 la:1 condamine:1 fontvieille:1 equip:2 engine:1 rescue:2 vehicle:4 range:1 specialist:4 include:3 seal:1 tracked:1 enter:1 railway:1 tunnel:1 emergency:1 beyond:1 fighting:1 extensive:1 brief:1 train:3 firearm:1 central:1 armoury:1 handle:1 chemical:2 incident:2 equipment:1 front:2 line:2 ambulance:2 first:3 aid:3 paramedic:1 training:1 soldier:2 leave:1 right:1 similar:1 size:1 men:1 usually:1 primary:1 ville:1 old:1 town:1 quartier:1 extension:1 judiciary:1 administer:1 justice:1 number:2 motorcycle:2 section:2 rapid:1 response:1 outride:1 diving:1 scientific:1 provide:1 cover:1 sporting:1 event:1 band:2 trumpeter:1 brass:1 ensemble:1 orchestra:1 well:1 marching:1 ceremonial:2 purpose:1 list:1 may:1 find:1 dept:1 changing:1 day:1 attract:1 tourist:2 ceremony:1 spectacle:1 monegasque:4 royal:1 family:1 insignia:1 largely:1 army:1 commission:3 rise:2 series:2 namely:2 english:2 translation:2 private:2 class:2 corporal:2 chief:3 sergeant:3 adjutant:2 major:4 british:2 commonwealth:2 american:2 system:4 important:1 realise:1 senior:1 equivalent:1 six:1 replace:1 either:1 branch:1 reference:1 |@bigram principality_monaco:1 patrol_boat:3 compagnie_des:5 des_carabinier:5 carabinier_du:5 commissioned_officer:4 lieutenant_colonel:2 la_condamine:1 tracked_vehicle:1 monaco_ville:1 sporting_event:1 rank_insignia:1 |
5,089 | Alcidamas | Alcidamas, of Elaea, in Aeolis, Greek sophist and rhetorician, flourished in the 4th century BC. He was the pupil and successor of Gorgias and taught at Athens at the same time as Isocrates, whose rival and opponent he was. We possess two declamations under his name: On Sophists, directed against Isocrates and setting forth the superiority of extempore over written speeches (a more recently discovered fragment of another speech against Isocrates is probably of later date); Odysseus, in which Odysseus accuses Palamedes of treachery during the siege of Troy (this is generally considered spurious). According to Alcidamas, the highest aim of the orator was the power of speaking extempore on every conceivable subject. Aristotle (Rhet. iii. 3) criticizes his writings as characterized by pomposity of style and an extravagant use of poetical epithets and compounds and far-fetched metaphors. Of other works only fragments and the titles have survived: Messeniakos, advocating the freedom of the Messenians and containing the sentiment that "all are by nature free"; a Eulogy of Death, in consideration of the wide extent of human sufferings; a Techne or instruction-book in the art of rhetoric; and a Phusikos logos. Lastly, his Mouseion (a word invoking the Muses) seems to have contained the narrative of the Contest of Homer and Hesiod, of which the version that has survived is the work of a grammarian in the time of Hadrian, based on Alcidamas. This hypothesis of the contents of the Mouseion, originally suggested by Nietzsche (Rheinisches Museum 25 (1870) & 28 (1873)), appears to have been confirmed by three papyrus finds - one 3rd century BC (Flinders Petrie Papyri, ed. Mahaffy, 1891, pl. xxv.), one 2nd century BC (B. Mandilaras, 'A new papyrus fragment of the Certamen Homeri et Hesiodi''' Platon 42 (1990) 45-51) and one 2nd or 3rd century AD (University of Michigan pap. 2754: Winter, J. G., 'A New Fragment on the Life of Homer' TAPA 56 (1925) 120-129 ). References Further reading Alcidamas' surviving works Guido Avezzù (ed.), Alcidamante. Orazioni e frammenti (now the standard text, with Italian translation, 1982) J.V. Muir (ed.), Alcidamas. The works and fragments (text with English translation, 2001) - reviewed in BMCR Ruth Mariss, Alkidamas: Über diejenigen, die schriftliche Reden schreiben, oder über die Sophisten: eine Sophistenrede aus dem 4. Jh. v. Chr., eingeleitet und kommentiert (Orbis Antiquus, 36), 2002 Friedrich Blass, Teubner edition of the Greek text (1908) [online] Alcidamas, "Against the Sophists," trans. Van Hook (1919) About Alcidamas Aristotle, Rhetoric III.3 J. Vahlen, "Der Rhetor Alkidamas", Sitzungsberichte der wiener Akademie, Phil.-Hist. Cl., 43 (1863) 491-528 [online](=Gesammelte philologische Schriften (Leipzig & Berlin 1911) 1.117-155) Friedrich Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit'', part 2 (1892) [online], pp. 345-363 M.L. West (1967) for Alcidamas' invention of the contest of Homer and Hesiod, N.J. Richardson (1981) against Various articles on Alcidamas (1856-1919, with links to further online material) Additional bibliography is available online at Christopher Skiebe: Alcidamas. In: Friedrich-Wilhelm Trautz / Traugott Bautz (Hrsg.): Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon, Band XXIII (2004). | Alcidamas |@lemmatized alcidamas:10 elaea:1 aeolis:1 greek:2 sophist:3 rhetorician:1 flourish:1 century:4 bc:3 pupil:1 successor:1 gorgias:1 taught:1 athens:1 time:2 isocrates:3 whose:1 rival:1 opponent:1 possess:1 two:1 declamation:1 name:1 direct:1 set:1 forth:1 superiority:1 extempore:2 write:1 speech:2 recently:1 discover:1 fragment:5 another:1 probably:1 later:1 date:1 odysseus:2 accuse:1 palamedes:1 treachery:1 siege:1 troy:1 generally:1 consider:1 spurious:1 accord:1 high:1 aim:1 orator:1 power:1 speak:1 every:1 conceivable:1 subject:1 aristotle:2 rhet:1 iii:2 criticize:1 writing:1 characterize:1 pomposity:1 style:1 extravagant:1 use:1 poetical:1 epithet:1 compound:1 far:2 fetched:1 metaphor:1 work:4 title:1 survive:3 messeniakos:1 advocate:1 freedom:1 messenians:1 contain:2 sentiment:1 nature:1 free:1 eulogy:1 death:1 consideration:1 wide:1 extent:1 human:1 suffering:1 techne:1 instruction:1 book:1 art:1 rhetoric:2 phusikos:1 logo:1 lastly:1 mouseion:2 word:1 invoke:1 mus:1 seem:1 narrative:1 contest:2 homer:3 hesiod:2 version:1 grammarian:1 hadrian:1 base:1 hypothesis:1 content:1 originally:1 suggest:1 nietzsche:1 rheinisches:1 museum:1 appear:1 confirm:1 three:1 papyrus:3 find:1 one:3 flinders:1 petrie:1 ed:3 mahaffy:1 pl:1 xxv:1 b:1 mandilaras:1 new:2 certamen:1 homeri:1 et:1 hesiodi:1 platon:1 ad:1 university:1 michigan:1 pap:1 winter:1 j:4 g:1 life:1 tapa:1 reference:1 read:1 guido:1 avezzù:1 alcidamante:1 orazioni:1 e:1 frammenti:1 standard:1 text:3 italian:1 translation:2 v:2 muir:1 english:1 review:1 bmcr:1 ruth:1 mari:1 alkidamas:2 über:2 diejenigen:1 die:3 schriftliche:1 reden:1 schreiben:1 oder:1 sophisten:1 eine:1 sophistenrede:1 au:1 dem:1 jh:1 chr:1 eingeleitet:1 und:1 kommentiert:1 orbis:1 antiquus:1 friedrich:3 blass:2 teubner:1 edition:1 online:5 trans:1 van:1 hook:1 vahlen:1 der:2 rhetor:1 sitzungsberichte:1 wiener:1 akademie:1 phil:1 hist:1 cl:1 gesammelte:1 philologische:1 schriften:1 leipzig:1 berlin:1 attische:1 beredsamkeit:1 part:1 pp:1 l:1 west:1 invention:1 n:1 richardson:1 various:1 article:1 link:1 material:1 additional:1 bibliography:1 available:1 christopher:1 skiebe:1 wilhelm:1 trautz:1 traugott:1 bautz:1 hrsg:1 biographisch:1 bibliographisches:1 kirchenlexikon:1 band:1 xxiii:1 |@bigram homer_hesiod:2 flinders_petrie:1 papyrus_fragment:1 über_die:1 au_dem:1 friedrich_wilhelm:1 |
5,090 | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FL_-_N | symbols - B -- C - D -- E - H -- I - K -- L - N -- O - Q -- R - S -- T - W -- X - Z -- FOLDOC Status Page L0 l10n L1 cache L2 cache L2TP L6 la label edge router label switched path label switching Label Switching Router Lab for Computer Science Laboratory INstrument Computer Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench LaborNet Labtech Notebook LabVIEW Lace lace card LADY lag Lakota LALR lalr.ss Lambada-Calculus LAMBDA lambda abstraction lambda-calculus DONE - merged into lambda calculus lambda expression lambda lifting LambdaMOO Lambda-Prolog lamer LAMINA lamp-post error LAN LANCE language language-based editor Language for Communicating Systems Language H language lawyer Language Of Temporal Ordering Specification Language Sensitive Editor language-sensitive editor languages of choice Laning and Zierler LANL Lan Manager LANtastic LAP LAP4 LAPB LAPD LAPM LAPSE laptop computer LaQuey Larch Larch/C++ LARCH/CLU Large Installation Systems Administration Larry Wall LART larval stage lase laser printer Lasherism last call optimisation last-in first-out LAT latch latency LaTeX Latin 1 lattice LAU laundromat LAURE LAVA law LAWN Lawrence Livermore Labs Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory LAX layer Layer Two Tunneling Protocol laziness lazy evaluation lazy list Lazy SML lazy sml2c Lazy Standard ML lb LBA LBE LBL lc LCC lcc LCD LCF LCL lclint LCP LCS ld LDAP REDIRECT Lightweight Directory Access Protocol LDB LDL LDL1 LDP LDT LE/1 leading LEAF leaf Leaf Distribution Limited leaf site League for Programming Freedom leak leaky heap Lean LEAP leapfrog attack learning curve leased line least fixed point least recently used least significant bit least upper bound leaves LEC LECOM LED LEDA Leda LED page printer LED printer leet left arrow left brace left bracket left outer join left parenthesis LeFun legacy code legacy software legacy system -- DONE legal legalese LEGOL Le-Lisp lemma Lempel-Ziv compression Lempel-Ziv Welch compression Lenat, Doug lenient evaluation LEO Leo LER LERP less than LessTif let floating letterbomb level 1 cache level 2 cache LEVEL5 OBJECT level one cache level-sensitive scan design level two cache Lex lexeme lexer lexical analyser lexical analysis lexical scope lexical scoping lexiphage LF LG LGDF LGEN LGN lha LHARC lhs lhz li Liana Liar liar paradox libg++ library Library of Efficient Data types and Algorithms librery LIDO LiE LIF LIFE Life life life-cycle Life is hard LIFIA LIFO lifted domain LIGHT light client light-emitting diode light-emitting resistor light pipe light-weight Lightweight Directory Access Protocol DONE light-weight process like kicking dead whales down the beach like nailing jelly to a tree like this Lila Lilith LILLIAC IV lilo Lily LIMDEP LIM EMS LIMP Linc (Laboratory Instrument Computer) Lincoln Reckoner LINCtape Linda LindaLISP line line 666 linear address space linear argument linear assignment linear function Linear Graph Notation linear logic linear map linear programming linear space linear sweep linear transformation linear type line conditioning line eater line editor line feed line noise line printer line probing lines of code lines per minute line starve Lingo LINGOL link Link Access Procedure on the D channel Link Access Protocol Balanced Link Access Protocol for Modems Link Control Protocol link-dead linked list linker NO IMPORT link farm link rot links Link State Routing Protocol LINPACK lint Linux Linux Documentation Project Linux Network Administrators' Guide lion food Lions Book LIPL liquid crystal display LIS LISA Liskov substitution principle Lisp LISP LISP 1 LISP 1.5 LISP 2 LISP70 LISP A LISP Extended Algebraic Facility Lispkit Lispkit Lisp Lisp-Linda Lisp Machine LISP Machine LISP Lisp Object-Oriented Programming System LISP, Objects, and Symbolic Programming Lisptalk LispView list list comprehension List Enhanced listless Listproc lists Listserv Liszt lite literal literate programming literature LITHE lithium lick LitProg LITTLE little-endian Little Smalltalk live data Live Free Or Die! livelock LiveScript liveware lk LL LLC LLGen LLM3 LLNL LLP LM3 LMAO LML LM-Prolog LMTP LNF LO L&O load balancing lobotomy LOC local area network Local Area Transport local bus locale local echo localisation localised locality local loop local loopback addresses locals LocalTalk location locked and loaded locked up lock-in Locus Loebner Prize {log} logarithmus dualis LogC logic logical logical address Logical Block Addressing logical complement Logical Link Control -- DONE logical relation logical shift logical shift left logical shift right Logical Unit Logical Unit 6.2 Logical Unit Number logic bomb Logic Design Language logic emulator Logic for Computable Functions logic gate logic programming Logic Replacement Technology logic variable LOGIN login LOGISCOPE Loglan Loglan'82 Loglan-88 LOGLISP LOGO LOGOL logon Lojban LOL LOLITA Lolli LOM longitudinal parity Longitudinal Redundancy Check LOOK look and feel Looking Glass LOOKS loop loop combination loop fusion LOOPN LOOPS loop through loose bytes LOP lord high fixer Lore Lorem ipsum Lorenz attractor lose loser losing loss lossage lossless lossy lost in the noise lost in the underflow LOTIS LOTOS lots of MIPS but no I/O Lotus 1-2-3 Lotus Development Corporation DONE (Lotus Software) Lotus Notes Lout love low-bandwidth low earth orbit Lower Layer Protocol lower set Low Insertion Force LOWL low-level language low pass filter Low Voltage Differential LPAC LPC LPF LPG LPI LPL lpm LP MUD lpr LPS lp spooler LPT lr LRC LRLTRAN LRU ls LSA LSB LSE LSL LSML L-Soft LSP LSR LSSD LSYD lt LT-2 LTL LTR LTR3 lu LU6.2 lub Lubarsky's Law of Cybernetic Entomology Lucent Technologies LUCID Lucid Emacs Lucinda Lucy LUG luminance lump uncurrying LUN lunatic fringe Lund Simula Lund Software House AB lurk lurker lurking luser Luser Attitude Re-adjustment Tool LUSTRE lv lvalue LVD LWP ly LYaPAS Lycos lynix LYNX Lynx LynxOS Lynx Real-Time Systems LYRIC LZ77 compression LZ78 compression LZ compression lzexe LZH compression LZW compression M m2 M2toM3 M3 m4 M5 ma MAC Mac Mac-1 MAC-360 MAC address MACAnalyst Macaulay MacBinary MACDesigner macdink MACE Mach DONE as Mach kernel Machiavelli machinable machine machine code machine cycle machine language machine learning Mach Interface Generator machoflops Mac II Mac IIcx Macintosh Macintosh Common Lisp Macintosh file system Macintosh II Macintosh IIcx Macintosh Operating System Macintosh user interface Macintoy Macintrash MACL MacLisp MacMinix Mac OS Mac Playmate MacPPP MACRO macro macro- macrology Macromedia Macro SAP macrotape MACSYMA MacTCP MacX MAD Mad/1 Madaline MADCAP MADTRAN maggotbox MAGIC magic magic bullet magic cookie magic number Magic Paper magic smoke Magic Switch Story Magma Magma2 MagmaLISP magnetic disk Magnetic Ink Character Recognition magnetic tape magnetic tape drive magneto-optical disk MAGNUM Magritte mail Mail Application Programming Interface mail bomb mailbox mail bridge Mail Exchange Record mail exploder mail filter mail gateway mail hub mailing list mail merge mail path .mailrc mail server mail user agent Mail Users' Shell MAINBOL Main Distribution Frame mainframe main loop main memory MAINSAIL maintainer maintainer script maintenance Maisie major delivery Majordomo major release Make Makedoc makefile Maker Interchange Format MAL Malamud MALI mall malloc MAN man management Management Information Base Management Information System Manchester Autocode Manchester encoding Mandala Mandelbrot, Benoit Mandelbrot set mandelbug manged mangle mangler mango man page mantissa manual testing Manufacturer Resource Planning Manufacturers Automation Protocol Manufacturing Automation Protocol manularity MAO MAP map MAPI Maple computer algebra system mapping marbles Marc Andreessen marginal Marginal Hacks Maril Mark 1 marketroid Markov Markov chain Markov model Markov process Markowitz mark-sweep garbage collection markup Marlais Mars Marseille Prolog marshaling marshalling MARSYAS Martian Martin Marietta Laboratories Moorestown MARVIN Mary Programming Language MAS MASCOT Mask Read-Only Memory MASM MasPar Unity masquerading Massachusetts Institute of Technology massage Massey Hope master Matchmaker Material Resource Planning Mathcad Mathematica Mathematical Analysis without Programming Mathematics in Recognizable Form Automatically Compiled MATH-MATIC or MATHMATIC math-out MathWorks MATLAB Matrix Matrix Compiler MATRIX MATH Matrix Math eXtensions MAU mawk maximal free expression maximin MAXIMOP maximum Maytag mode maximum seek time maximum segment size Maximum Transmission Unit Maxis Software MB MBASIC Mbogo, Dr. Fred MBONE mbps MBS MC mc MC68000 MC6809 MCA -- DONE (redirected to Micro Channel Architecture) MCC McCulloch-Pitts neuron McG360 MCI MCL M-Code MCP MCP-1600 MCS MCSD MCSE mcvax mcvert MD md MD5 MDF MDI MDL Mean Time Between Failures Mean Time Between Faults Mean Time To Recovery measure measurement meatspace meatware Media Access Control Media Access Unit Media Converter Media Gateway Control Protocol Medium Access Control meeces Meet meg mega- megabits per second megabyte megaflop megaflops megahertz megapenny MEGO Mei Mel MELD MELDC Melinda Mellor meltdown member function membership function meme meme plague memetic algorithm memetics Memex memo function memoisation memoised function memoization memoized function memory memory address space memory farts memory leak memory location memory management Memory Management Unit memory mapped I/O DONE memory protection memory smash Memory Type Range Registers MEMS Mentat MENTOR menu menu bar menuitis MENYMA/S Mercury Autocode mercury delay line MERISE Merlin MEROON Mesa mesh MESI protocol message Message Digest 5 message digest function Message Handling System message passing Message Passing Interface message switching Message Transfer Agent Messaging Application Programming Interface Messaging Applications Programming Interface mess-dos META meta META 5 meta bit MetaCard Meta-CASE tool Metaclass Meta-Crystal Metadata meta-data Metadata Information Partners META element metafile METAFONT metaheuristic Meta-II metainformation Meta-IV METAL metalanguage Metal Oxide Semiconductor Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor metaphone metaprogram metasyntactic variable metasyntax META tag Meta-Vlisp Met-English METEOR meter method methodology Methods me too metre metric Metropolitan Area Network M-expression LISP MFC MFE MFLOPS MFM DONE MFTL mg MGCP mh MHDL MHEG MHS MHz MIB MIB Variable Mic-1 Mic-2 MICE mice Michigan Algorithm Decoder mickey mickey mouse program MICR micro micro- Micro Assembly Language microcentury Micro Channel Architecture -- DONE microcode Microcom Networking Protocol microcomputer microcontroller MicroDroid microelectromechanical system Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation MicroEmacs microfloppies microfortnight MicroGnuEmacs Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems Micro Interpreter for Knowledge Engineering microkernel microLenat micrometre Micro ML Micron micron Micron Electronics, Inc. Micronetics Standard MUMPS Micro$oft microPLANNER microprocesor microprocessor Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages microprogramming microReid MICRO SAINT microsecond Microserf Microslop Microsloth Windows Microsoft Microsoft Access Microsoft Basic Microsoft Certified Solution Developer Microsoft Certified System Engineer Microsoft Certified Systems Developer Microsoft Corporation Microsoft Excel Microsoft Exchange Microsoft Extended Microsoft Foundation Classes Microsoft IIS Microsoft IntelliMouse Explorer Microsoft Internet Information Server Microsoft Mail Microsoft Mail Application Program Interface Microsoft Network Microsoft Networking Microsoft Office Microsoft Point to Point Encryption Microsoft SQL Server Microsoft Windows Microsoft Word MicroStation microtape Microware Corporation Microwave Hardware Description Language MIDAS Midas Midas-WWW middle-endian middleware MIDI mid-level network MIF MIG MIGRAINES MII MIIS MIKE mil Milarepa MILITRAN mill millennium bug millennium meltdown milli- milliLampson millisecond MILNET MIMD MIME mimencode MIMER MIME type MIMIC MIMOLA mind mouse mind uploading Minerva software minicomputer Mini Disc minifloppy minimal automaton minimax DONE Mini-ML minimum seek time Mini PL/I MINITAB II MINIX Minnesota Internet Users Essential Tool MINT MiNT Mint Is Not TRAC Minuet MINUIT minus minus infinity MIPS MIPS project MIPS R2000 MIPS R2010 MIPS R3000 MIPS R4000 MIPS Technologies, Inc. Miracula Miranda MIRFAC mirror mirroring MIS misbug misfeature MISHAP Missed'em-five missile address miswart MIT MIT AI Lab MITI MITILAC MIT Lisp Machine MITRE Corporation MIT Research Laboratory for Electronics MITS MIT Scheme MIX MIXAL MIX Communications M-JPEG MJS mk ML ml ML-2000 MLAB ML/I MLISP ML Kit MLL ML-lex ML-Linda ML Threads ML-Twig mm Mma mmap MMCD MMDF MMI MML MMU MMX MMX technology mn mnemonic MNP mo Mobile Triton mobo MOBSSL-UAF moby mockingbird Mockingboard Mock Lisp mod MOD modal modal logic MODCAL Mode mode mode bit MODEF MODEL model model checking modeling modelling Model View Controller modem MODEM7 moderator Modified Frequency Modulation DONE modifier M O drive MODSIM MODSIM II Modula Modula-2 Modula-2* Modula-2+ Modula-3 Modula-3* Modula-3pi Modula-P Modula-Prolog Modula/R Modular C MODUlar LAnguage Modular Prolog Modular SB-Prolog module Modulex modulo modulo arithmetic modulo operator molly-guard monad monadic Mongolian Hordes technique moniter monitor monkey, scratch monkey up monochrome monoid monotonic MONSTR Montage Monte Carlo monty MOO Moof Moore bound Moore graph Moore's Law moose call MooZ Mops MORAL moria morphing Morse code MORTRAN MOS DONE (MOS Technology) Mosaic Mosaic Communications Corporation Moscow ML MOSFET Mosiac MOS Technologies most general unifier most significant bit motd mother motherboard Motif DONE Motion JPEG Motion Picture Experts Group Motorola Motorola 14500B Motorola 6800 Motorola 68000 Motorola 6801 Motorola 68010 Motorola 68020 Motorola 68030 Motorola 68040 Motorola 68050 Motorola 68060 Motorola 6809 Motorola 680x0 Motorola 68HC11 Motorola 68LC040 Motorola 88000 Motorola, Inc. mount Mouse mouse mouse ahead mouse around mouse arrest mouse belt mouse droppings mouse elbow mouse mat mouse pad mouse trails mouso Moving JPEG Moving Picture Expert Group Moving Picture Experts Group Moving Pictures Experts Group Moxie Mozilla Mozilla Public License mp MP1 MP-1 MP2 MP3 MPC MPC Level 1 Specification MPC Level 2 Specification MPEG MPEG-1 MPEG-1 audio layer 3 MPEG-1 layer 3 MPEG-2 MPEG-3 MPEG-4 MPG mpg MPI MPL MPL II MPLS MPLS domain MP/M MPP MPPE MPPL MPR II M-Prolog MPS III MPSX MPV MPX mq MQG mr MRDS MRI MROC MROM MRP MRP II MRS ms MS Access MSAU MSB MS-BASIC MS-DOG MS-DOS MSG.84 msgGUI MSIE MSM MS Mail MSN MSS MS-Windows MswLogo MS Word MSX MSX-DOS mt MTA MTBF mtc M Technology Association MTOS MTS MTTR MTU Mu mu MUA MUCAL MUD muddie Muddle mudhead MUD Object Oriented muFP mu-law Mule Mul-T Multi-BinProlog multiC MultiCal System multicast addressing multicast backbone Multi-channel Memorandum Distribution Facility multician Multics Multics Relational Data Store Multiflow Computer Multi-Garnet multihomed host multilayer perceptron MultiLisp Done multimedia Multimedia and Hypermedia information coding Expert Group MultiMedia Compact Disc MultiMedia Extension Multimedia Integrated Conferencing for European Researchers Multimedia Internet Mail Extensions Multimedia Personal Computer multi-part key Multi-Pascal multiple access Multiple Document Interface multiple inheritance Multiple Instruction Multiple Data Multiple Instruction/Multiple Data Multiple Master multiple perspective software development multiple value Multiple Virtual Storage multiplexer multiplexing multiplexor Multiplexor Channel multiplex printer Multipop-68 multiprocessing multiprocessor multiprogramming Multiprotocol Label Switching Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions multiscan MultiScheme Multistation Access Unit multisync Multisystem eXtension Interface Bus multitasking Multi-tasking Program for Microcomputers multithreaded multithreading MultiTOS Multi-User Dimension Multi-User Dungeon Multi-User Shared Hallucination Multi-Version Concurrency Control multi-way branch MuMath mumblage mumble mumble mode MUMPS munch munching munching squares munchkin mundane mung munge MUP MU-Prolog Murphy's Law Muse museum MUSH Music Musical Instrument Digital Interface MuSimp MUSL mutant Mutation Testing MuTeX mutex mutter mutual exclusion mutually recursive mutual recursion mux mv MVC MVCC MVS MVS/ESA MVS/OE MVS/Open Edition MVS/SP MVS/XA mw MX mx MXI MXIbus MX Record my My Favourite Toy Language MYOB MYSTIC mz N N10 na nadger NAG Nagling Coalescence nagware nailed to the wall nailing jelly naive naive user NAK name capture named named pipe name resolution name service switching namespace NaN NAND nano- nanoacre nanobot nanocomputer nanofortnight nanosecond nanotechnology Napier NAPLPS DONE NAPSS narrowing NAS nasal demons NASI nastistical NASTRAN nastygram NAT Nathan Hale National Bureau of Standards National Center for Supercomputing Applications national characters National Database Language National Information Infrastructure National Information Services and Systems National Institute of Standards and Technology National Research and Education Network National Science Foundation National Science Foundation Network National Software Reuse Directory National Spatial Data Infrastructure National Television Standards Committee native compiler Native Language System NATURAL natural deduction Natural English natural language Natural Language Information Analysis Method natural language processing natural number nature NAU navigating Navigator Nawk NB NBFCP NBS NBT NC nc NCD NCP NCR Corporation NCS NCSA ND NDIS NDL NDS ne neat hack neats vs. scruffies Nebula NEC neep-neep negation by failure negative acknowledge NELIAC Neon neophilia Neptune Nerd pride NERECO NESL net net.- netaddress NetBEUI NetBIOS NetBIOS Frames Control Protocol NetBios over TCP/IP NetBOLLIX netbui netburp netCDF DONE Netcom On-line Communication Services, Inc. netdead Netfind net.god NetHack netiquette -- DONE NETL netlag netload Netmarq Limited netmask NetNanny netnews net.personality netpipes net.police netquette Netrek netrock Netscape Netscape Communications Corporation Netscape Navigator Netscape Public License netsplit netstat netter NetWare NetWare Core Protocol Netware Directory Services Netware Input/Output Subsystem NetWare Link State Protocol network network address Network Addressable Unit Network Address Translation Network Address Translator network byte order network card network closet Network Computing Devices network database Network Definition Language Network Device Interface Specification Network extensible Window System Network File System Network Filing System Network Information Center Network Information Service DONE Network Information System DONE networking network interface card network interface controller network layer network management network meltdown Network News Transfer Protocol Network Node Interface network number network operating system Network Operations Center network redirector network segment Network Solutions, Inc. Network Termination network, the Network Time Protocol network transparency NetX Net:X neural nets neural network neuron Neutral Interconnect neutrosophic neutrosophic logic neutrosophic probability neutrosophic set neutrosophic statistics Neutrosophy Never Offline newbie New Flavors newgroup wars New Jersey newline NEWP NEW Programming language NeWS DONE news NewsClip newsfroup newsgroup newsletter Newspeak Newsqueak .newsrc news reader New Storage System new talk New Testament Newton DONE, renamed Apple Newton Newton-Raphson NewWave NewYacc New York State Educational Reasearch ETwork New York University NEXOR Nexpert Object NeXT, Inc. Next Program Counter NEXTSTEP nf NFA NFQL NFS NFT ng NGL NHOH ni NIAL NIAL Systems Ltd. NIAM nibble Nibble Mode DRAM NIC NIC.DDN.MIL NICE nick nickle NICOL I NIFOC = Nude In Front Of The Computer Nightmare File System night mode NIH NIHCL NII NIKL Niklaus Wirth NIL niladic Ninety-Ninety Rule NIOS nipple NIS NISO NISS NIST NJCL nl NLM NLP NLS NLSP NLX NMI nML NMU NN nn NNI NNTP no NOC NODAL Nodal Switching System noddy node NOL NOMAD NOMEX underwear Nominal Semidestructor non-algorithmic procedure nondeterminism nondeterministic nondeterministic automaton nondeterministic polynomial time Nondeterministic Turing Machine non-impact printer non-interlaced nonintrusive testing nonlinear Non-Maintainer Upload Non-Maskable Interrupt non-optimal solution Nonpareil non parity non-polynomial Non Return to Zero Inverted nontrivial Non-Uniform Memory Access non-uniform quantising logarithmic compression Non-Uniform Rational B Spline non-volatile non-volatile memory Non-Volatile Random Access Memory non-volatile storage no-op NOR NORC COMPILER NorCroft NORD PL NORDUnet norm normal distribution normal form normalisation normalised normal order reduction normed space northbridge NorthWestNet NOS NOT Not-a-Number notebook NoteCards Notepad Notes Nother not ready for prime time notwork Nova - is this Data General Nova? Novell Data Systems Novell DOS Novell, Inc. Novell NetWare NOWEB no-write allocation DONE NP np NPC NP-complete NP-hard NPL NPPL N-Prolog NP time NQS Nqthm nr NREN nroff NRZ NRZI ns NSA line eater NSAPI NSDI NSE NSF NSFIP NSFNET NSI nslookup NSRD NSS NT NT1 NT5 ntalk NTAS NT File System NTFS n-tier NTIS NTMBS NTP NTSC NTU nu NuBus nu-calculus NUCLEOL nude nuke null nullary null modem null-terminated multibyte string NUMA number crunching numbers number sign Numeris Nuprl NU-Prolog nurbs -- DONE Nu Thena NUXI problem NVRAM NVS NWNET NYAP nybble nyetwork nym nym server Nyquist frequency -- DONE Nyquist Theorem-- DONE NYSERNET NYU OMNIFAX nz See also : Free On-line Dictionary of Computing | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FL_-_N |@lemmatized symbol:1 b:2 c:3 e:1 h:2 k:1 l:4 n:4 q:1 r:2 w:1 x:2 z:1 foldoc:1 status:1 page:3 cache:6 la:1 label:5 edge:1 router:2 switch:8 path:2 lab:2 computer:9 science:3 laboratory:6 instrument:4 virtual:2 engineering:2 workbench:1 labornet:1 labtech:1 notebook:2 labview:1 lace:2 card:3 lady:1 lag:1 lakota:1 lalr:2 lambada:1 calculus:4 lambda:7 abstraction:1 merge:2 expression:3 lift:2 lambdamoo:1 prolog:10 lame:1 lamina:1 lamp:1 post:1 error:1 lan:2 lance:1 language:24 base:2 editor:4 communicate:1 system:28 lawyer:1 temporal:1 order:3 specification:4 sensitive:3 choice:1 laning:1 zierler:1 lanl:1 manager:1 lantastic:1 lap:1 lapb:1 lapd:1 lapm:1 lapse:1 laptop:1 laquey:1 larch:3 clu:1 large:1 installation:1 administration:1 larry:1 wall:2 lart:1 larval:1 stage:2 lase:1 laser:1 printer:6 lasherism:1 last:2 call:2 optimisation:1 first:1 lat:1 latch:1 latency:1 latex:1 latin:1 lattice:1 lau:1 laundromat:1 laure:1 lava:1 law:5 lawn:1 lawrence:2 livermore:2 labs:1 national:14 lax:1 layer:6 two:2 tunnel:1 protocol:18 laziness:1 lazy:5 evaluation:2 list:7 sml:1 standard:5 ml:13 lb:1 lba:1 lbe:1 lbl:1 lc:1 lcc:2 lcd:1 lcf:1 lcl:1 lclint:1 lcp:1 lcs:1 ld:1 ldap:1 redirect:2 lightweight:2 directory:4 access:14 ldb:1 ldl:1 ldp:1 ldt:1 le:2 lead:4 leaf:4 distribution:4 limit:2 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5,091 | Bilinear_transform | The bilinear transform (also known as Tustin's method) is used in digital signal processing and discrete-time control theory to transform continuous-time system representations to discrete-time and vice versa. The bilinear transform is a conformal mapping, often used to convert a transfer function of a linear, time-invariant (LTI) filter in the continuous-time domain (often called an analog filter) to a transfer function of a linear, shift-invariant filter in the discrete-time domain (often called a digital filter although there are analog filters constructed with charge-coupled devices that are discrete-time filters). It maps positions on the axis, , in the s-plane to the unit circle, , in the z-plane. Other bilinear transforms can be used to warp the frequency response of any discrete-time linear system (e.g., to approximate the human auditory's non-linear frequency resolution) and are implementable in the discrete domain by replacing a system's unit delays with first order all-pass filters. The transform preserves stability and maps every point of the frequency response of the continuous-time filter, to a corresponding point in the frequency response of the discrete-time filter, although to a somewhat different frequency, as shown in the Frequency Warping section below. This means that for every feature that one sees in the frequency response of the analog filter, there is a corresponding feature, with identical gain and phase shift, in the frequency response of the digital filter but, perhaps, at a somewhat different frequency. This is barely noticeable at low frequencies but is quite evident at frequencies close to the Nyquist frequency. The bilinear transform is a first-order approximation of the natural logarithm function that is an exact mapping of the z-plane to the s-plane. When the Laplace transform is performed on a discrete-time signal (with each element of the discrete-time sequence attached to a correspondingly delayed unit impulse), the result is precisely the Z transform of the discrete-time sequence with the substitution of where is the sample time (the reciprocal of the sampling frequency) of the discrete-time filter. The above bilinear approximation can be solved for or a similar approximation for can be performed. The inverse of this mapping (and its first-order bilinear approximation) is The bilinear transform essentially uses this first order approximation and substitutes into the continuous-time transfer function, That is The bilinear transform is a special case of a conformal mapping, namely, the Möbius transformation defined as Stability and minimum-phase property preserved A continuous-time causal filter is stable if the poles of its transfer function fall in the left half of the complex s-plane. A discrete-time causal filter is stable if the poles of its transfer function fall inside the unit circle in the complex z-plane. The bilinear transform maps the left half of the complex s-plane to the interior of the unit circle in the z-plane. Thus filters designed in the continuous-time domain that are stable are converted to filters the discrete-time domain that preserve that stability. Likewise, a continuous-time filter is minimum-phase if the zeros of its transfer function fall in the left half of the complex s-plane. A discrete-time filter is minimum-phase if the zeros of its transfer function fall inside the unit circle in the complex z-plane. Then the same mapping property assures that continuous-time filters that are minimum-phase are converted to discrete-time filters that preserve that property of being minimum-phase. Example As an example take a simple low-pass RC filter. This continuous-time filter has a transfer function If we wish to implement this filter as a digital filter, we can apply the bilinear transform by substituting for the formula above; after some reworking, we get the following filter representation: {| |- | | |- | | |- | | |- | | |} Frequency warping To determine the frequency response of a continuous-time filter, the transfer function is evaluated at which is on the axis. Likewise, to determine the frequency response of a discrete-time filter, the transfer function is evaluated at which is on the unit circle, . When the actual frequency of is input to the discrete-time filter designed by use of the bilinear transform, it is desired to know at what frequency, , for the continuous-time filter that this is mapped to. {| |- | | |- | | |- | | |- | | |- | | |- | | |- | | |} This shows that every point on the unit circle in the discrete-time filter z-plane, is mapped to a point on the axis on the continuous-time filter s-plane, . That is, the discrete-time to continuous-time frequency mapping of the bilinear transform is and the inverse mapping is The discrete-time filter behaves at frequency the same way that the continuous-time filter behaves at frequency . Specifically, the gain and phase shift that the discrete-time filter has at frequency is the same gain and phase shift that the continuous-time filter has at frequency . This means that every feature, every "bump" that is visible in the frequency response of the continuous-time filter is also visible in the discrete-time filter, but at a different frequency. For low frequencies (that is, when or ), . One can see that the entire continuous frequency range is mapped onto the fundamental frequency interval The continuous-time filter frequency corresponds to the discrete-time filter frequency and the continuous-time filter frequency correspond to the discrete-time filter frequency One can also see that there is a nonlinear relationship between and This effect of the bilinear transform is called frequency warping. The continuous-time filter can be designed to compensate for this frequency warping by setting for every frequency specification that the designer has control over (such as corner frequency or center frequency). This is called pre-warping the filter design. The main advantage of the warping phenomenon is the absence of aliasing distortion of the frequency response characteristic, such as observed with Impulse invariance. It is necessary, however, to compensate for the frequency warping by pre-warping the given frequency specifications of the continuous-time system. These pre-warped specifications may then be used in the bilinear transform to obtain the desired discrete-time system. | Bilinear_transform |@lemmatized bilinear:14 transform:15 also:3 know:2 tustin:1 method:1 use:6 digital:4 signal:2 processing:1 discrete:25 time:46 control:2 theory:1 continuous:21 system:5 representation:2 vice:1 versa:1 conformal:2 mapping:7 often:3 convert:3 transfer:10 function:11 linear:4 invariant:2 lti:1 filter:43 domain:5 call:4 analog:3 shift:4 although:2 construct:1 charge:1 coupled:1 device:1 map:6 position:1 axis:3 plane:12 unit:8 circle:6 z:7 transforms:1 warp:6 frequency:40 response:9 e:1 g:1 approximate:1 human:1 auditory:1 non:1 resolution:1 implementable:1 replace:1 delay:2 first:4 order:4 pas:2 preserve:4 stability:3 every:6 point:4 corresponding:2 somewhat:2 different:3 show:2 section:1 mean:2 feature:3 one:3 see:3 identical:1 gain:3 phase:8 perhaps:1 barely:1 noticeable:1 low:3 quite:1 evident:1 close:1 nyquist:1 approximation:5 natural:1 logarithm:1 exact:1 laplace:1 perform:2 element:1 sequence:2 attach:1 correspondingly:1 impulse:2 result:1 precisely:1 substitution:1 sample:1 reciprocal:1 sampling:1 solve:1 similar:1 inverse:2 essentially:1 substitute:2 special:1 case:1 namely:1 möbius:1 transformation:1 define:1 minimum:5 property:3 causal:2 stable:3 pole:2 fall:4 left:3 half:3 complex:5 inside:2 interior:1 thus:1 design:4 likewise:2 zero:2 assures:1 example:2 take:1 simple:1 rc:1 wish:1 implement:1 apply:1 formula:1 reworking:1 get:1 following:1 determine:2 evaluate:2 actual:1 input:1 desire:1 behaves:2 way:1 specifically:1 bump:1 visible:2 entire:1 range:1 onto:1 fundamental:1 interval:1 corresponds:1 correspond:1 nonlinear:1 relationship:1 effect:1 warping:3 compensate:2 set:1 specification:3 designer:1 corner:1 center:1 pre:3 main:1 advantage:1 phenomenon:1 absence:1 aliasing:1 distortion:1 characteristic:1 observed:1 invariance:1 necessary:1 however:1 give:1 warped:1 may:1 obtain:1 desired:1 |@bigram bilinear_transform:11 signal_processing:1 vice_versa:1 charge_coupled:1 coupled_device:1 laplace_transform:1 causal_filter:2 |
5,092 | Joseph_Severn | Joseph Severn (7 December 1793 – 3 August 1879) was an English portrait and subject painter and a personal friend of the famous English poet John Keats. He exhibited portraits, Italian genre, literary and biblical subjects and a selection of his paintings can today be found in some of the most important and renowned museums in London including the National Portrait Gallery, the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Tate Britain. Joseph Severn (self-portrait) Background Severn was born in London and later apprenticed to an engraver. During his earlier years he practised portraiture as a miniaturist. Early years in London 1815-1820 John Keats by Severn 1819 In 1815 he was admitted to the Royal Academy Schools in London and exhibited his first work in oil, Hermia and Helena, a subject from A Midsummer Night's Dream, in the Royal Academy Exhibition of 1819. He first met the poet John Keats in 1816. In 1819, Severn was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Academy for his painting Una and the Red Cross Knight in the Cave of Despair which was inspired by the epic poem The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser. It was the first time the prize had been awarded in eight years and the painting was exhibited at the Academy in 1820. This award also allowed Severn to apply for a three years' traveling studentship, paid for by the Royal Academy. According to a biography of Severn, published by Grant F Scott in 2005, Severn fathered an illegitimate child shortly before leaving England for Italy. Journey to Italy with John Keats 1820-1821 Severn by his friend Seymour Kirkup1822 On 17 September 1820, Severn sailed on board the ship Maria Crowther from England to Italy with the famous English poet John Keats. Keats and Severn had already known one another in England, but they were only passing acquaintances, yet it was Severn who agreed to accompany him to Rome when all others could, or would, not. They arrived in Rome on 15 November 1820. The trip was supposed to cure Keats's lingering illness, which he suspected was tuberculosis, however his friends and several doctors disagreed and urged him to spend some time in a warm climate. In Rome they both lived in an apartment at number 26 Piazza di Spagna, just on the right side of the world famous Spanish Steps. Severn had left England against his father's wishes and without much money. While in Rome during the winter of 1820-21, Severn wrote numerous letters about Keats to their mutual friends in England. Severn's letters are the considered the definitive account of the poet's final months and are used as the primary historical source for scholars of Keats final months of life. Selections from them are often present in biographies of Keats. Edward John Trelawny by Joseph Severn Severn nursed Keats in Italy until his death in February 1821, 3 months after having both arrived there. Keat's close friend Charles Armitage Brown joined Severn in 1822. Severn's troubles were noted and understood by Keats himself, and he was later thanked for his devotion to Keats by the poet Percy Shelley in the preface to his pastoral elegy named Adonais which was written for Keats in 1821. It was also at this time that Severn met Edward John Trelawny. Severn made a sketch of Trelawny in 1838. Life and work after the death of Keats In 1861 he was appointed British consul in Rome, a post which he held till 1872, and during a great part of the time he also acted as Italian consul. He was often at odds with the UK government at home and only narrowly escaped being sacked. He eventually retired as consul in 1872. Death Keats and Severn graves at the Protestant Cemetery in Rome. Severn's tombstone is on the right. Notice the stone engraving of a painter's palette on Severn's grave. Severn died in August 1879 at the age of 85 and a half, and was buried in the Protestant Cemetery adjacent to John Keats. Both graves are still standing today. Shelley and Trelawny are also buried side by side in the same Cemetery. Paintings His most remarkable work is the Spectre Ship from the Ancient Mariner. He painted Cordelia Watching by the Bed of Lear, The Roman Beggar, Ariel, The Fountain, and Rienzi, executed a large altarpiece for the church of St Paul at Rome, and produced many portraits, including one of Baron Bunsen and several of Keats. Links to images and descriptions of Severn's drawings and paintings Drawing of the dying Keats kept at the Keats-Shelley house in Rome Painting of Ophelia Severn's Portrait of Keats painted in 1819 kept in the The Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge Severn's portrait paintings of himself, Keats, Edward John Trelawny and John Hamilton Reynolds kept in the National Portrait Gallery in London "Ariel" kept at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London Ariel - Where the Bee Sucks... kept at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London Ariel riding on a Bat kept by the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford The Infant of the Apocalypse Saved from the Dragon kept by the Tate Britain museum in London Portrait of Keats kept at The New Art Gallery in Walsall (on the website, chose from the dropdown menu to see the image) View of a bay through trees from the Courtauld Institute of Art Gallery, London Sketch of a mountain landscape from the Courtauld Institute of Art Gallery, London Portrait of John Crossley of Scaitcliffe kept at the Christchurch Art gallery in Christchurch, New Zealand (use searchbar on website to look for the image) Publication of Severn's letters regarding Keats The first significant collection of Severn's papers was published by William Sharp in 1892 in the book "The Life and Letters of Joseph Severn". Subsequent biographers have put doubt on the accuracy of Sharp's transcriptions and wondered about omissions. In 2005 Grant F Scott published "Joseph Severn: Letters and Memoirs" in which he redited the original material, added hundreds of "new" letters, added a largely unknown memoir and combined all this material with a critical commentary. Joseph Severn (from a drawing by his daughter Mary, 1849) References The Life and Letters of Joseph Severn by William Sharp, 1892 London Joseph Severn: Letters and Memoirs edited by Grant F Scott, 2005 Against Oblivion, The Life of Joseph Severn by Sheila Birkenhead, 1944 New York External links Website of the Keats Shelley house museum in Rome, Italy where Severn lived 1820-1821 Transcripts of some of Severn's letters about Keats Detailed history about Severn and Keats in the years 1819-1821 Guardian newspaper article on Grant F Scott's new book about Severn "'Once More the Poet': Keats, Severn and the Grecian Lyre". Article by John Curtis Franklin about Severn's role in the design of Keats' tombstone, Protestant Cemetery, Rome | Joseph_Severn |@lemmatized joseph:9 severn:42 december:1 august:2 english:3 portrait:10 subject:3 painter:2 personal:1 friend:5 famous:3 poet:6 john:12 keats:29 exhibit:3 italian:2 genre:1 literary:1 biblical:1 selection:2 painting:6 today:2 find:1 important:1 renowned:1 museum:8 london:11 include:2 national:2 gallery:6 victoria:3 albert:3 tate:2 britain:2 self:1 background:1 bear:1 later:2 apprentice:1 engraver:1 early:2 year:5 practise:1 portraiture:1 miniaturist:1 admit:1 royal:4 academy:5 school:1 first:4 work:3 oil:1 hermia:1 helena:1 midsummer:1 night:1 dream:1 exhibition:1 meet:2 award:3 gold:1 medal:1 una:1 red:1 cross:1 knight:1 cave:1 despair:1 inspire:1 epic:1 poem:1 faerie:1 queene:1 edmund:1 spenser:1 time:4 prize:1 eight:1 also:4 allow:1 apply:1 three:1 travel:1 studentship:1 pay:1 accord:1 biography:2 publish:3 grant:4 f:4 scott:4 father:2 illegitimate:1 child:1 shortly:1 leave:2 england:5 italy:5 journey:1 seymour:1 september:1 sail:1 board:1 ship:2 maria:1 crowther:1 already:1 know:1 one:2 another:1 pass:1 acquaintance:1 yet:1 agree:1 accompany:1 rome:10 others:1 could:1 would:1 arrive:2 november:1 trip:1 suppose:1 cure:1 linger:1 illness:1 suspect:1 tuberculosis:1 however:1 several:2 doctor:1 disagree:1 urge:1 spend:1 warm:1 climate:1 live:2 apartment:1 number:1 piazza:1 di:1 spagna:1 right:2 side:3 world:1 spanish:1 step:1 wish:1 without:1 much:1 money:1 winter:1 write:2 numerous:1 letter:9 mutual:1 consider:1 definitive:1 account:1 final:2 month:3 use:2 primary:1 historical:1 source:1 scholar:1 life:5 often:2 present:1 edward:3 trelawny:5 nurse:1 death:3 february:1 keat:1 close:1 charles:1 armitage:1 brown:1 joined:1 trouble:1 note:1 understand:1 thank:1 devotion:1 percy:1 shelley:4 preface:1 pastoral:1 elegy:1 name:1 adonais:1 make:1 sketch:2 appoint:1 british:1 consul:3 post:1 hold:1 till:1 great:1 part:1 act:1 odds:1 uk:1 government:1 home:1 narrowly:1 escape:1 sack:1 eventually:1 retire:1 graf:2 protestant:3 cemetery:4 tombstone:2 notice:1 stone:1 engraving:1 palette:1 grave:1 die:2 age:1 half:1 bury:2 adjacent:1 still:1 stand:1 paint:3 remarkable:1 spectre:1 ancient:1 mariner:1 cordelia:1 watching:1 bed:1 lear:1 roman:1 beggar:1 ariel:4 fountain:1 rienzi:1 execute:1 large:1 altarpiece:1 church:1 st:1 paul:1 produce:1 many:1 baron:1 bunsen:1 link:2 image:3 description:1 drawing:2 draw:1 keep:6 house:2 ophelia:1 kept:3 fitzwilliam:1 cambridge:1 hamilton:1 reynolds:1 bee:1 suck:1 rid:1 bat:1 ashmolean:1 oxford:1 infant:1 apocalypse:1 save:1 dragon:1 new:5 art:4 walsall:1 website:3 choose:1 dropdown:1 menu:1 see:1 view:1 bay:1 tree:1 courtauld:2 institute:2 mountain:1 landscape:1 crossley:1 scaitcliffe:1 christchurch:2 zealand:1 searchbar:1 look:1 publication:1 regard:1 significant:1 collection:1 paper:1 william:2 sharp:3 book:2 subsequent:1 biographer:1 put:1 doubt:1 accuracy:1 transcription:1 wonder:1 omission:1 memoir:3 redited:1 original:1 material:2 add:2 hundred:1 largely:1 unknown:1 combine:1 critical:1 commentary:1 daughter:1 mary:1 reference:1 edit:1 oblivion:1 sheila:1 birkenhead:1 york:1 external:1 transcript:1 detailed:1 history:1 guardian:1 newspaper:1 article:2 grecian:1 lyre:1 curtis:1 franklin:1 role:1 design:1 |@bigram joseph_severn:9 keats_severn:6 midsummer_night:1 gold_medal:1 faerie_queene:1 edmund_spenser:1 piazza_di:1 di_spagna:1 percy_shelley:1 narrowly_escape:1 keats_shelley:2 ashmolean_museum:1 external_link:1 |
5,093 | Emancipation_Proclamation | Henry Louis Stephens, untitled watercolor ( 1863) of a man reading a newspaper with headline "Presidential Proclamation / Slavery". The Emancipation Proclamation consists of two executive orders issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War. The first one, issued September 22, 1862, declared the freedom of all slaves in any state of the Confederate States of America that did not return to Union control by January 1, 1863. The second order, issued January 1, 1863, named ten specific states where it would apply. Lincoln issued the Executive Order by his authority as "Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy" under Article II, section 2 of the United States Constitution. The Emancipation Proclamation was criticized at the time as freeing only the slaves over which the Union had no power. Although most slaves were not freed immediately, the Proclamation brought freedom to thousands of slaves the day it went into effect in parts of nine of the ten states to which it applied (Texas being the exception). William C. Harris, "After the Emancipation Proclamation: Lincoln's Role in the Ending of Slavery", North & South vol. 5 no. 1 (December 2001), map on p. 49 Additionally, the Proclamation provided a legal framework for the emancipation of nearly all four million slaves as the Union armies advanced, and committed the Union to ending slavery, which was a controversial decision even in the North. The proclamation did not name the border states of Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, or Delaware, which had never declared a secession, and so it did not free any slaves there. The state of Tennessee had already mostly returned to Union control, so it also was not named and was exempted. Virginia was named, but exemptions were specified for the 48 counties that were in the process of forming West Virginia, as well as seven other named counties and two cities. Also specifically exempted were New Orleans and thirteen named parishes of Louisiana, all of which were also already mostly under Federal control at the time of the Proclamation. However, in other Union-occupied areas of CSA states besides Tennessee, the Proclamation went into immediate effect and at least 20,000 slaves were freed at once on January 1, 1863. Hearing of the Proclamation, more slaves quickly escaped to Union lines as the Army units moved South. As the Union armies conquered the Confederacy, thousands of slaves were freed each day until nearly all (approximately 4 million, according to the 1860 census http://www.sonofthesouth.net/slavery/slave-maps/slave-census.htm 1860 Census, Son of the South ) were freed by July 1865. Near the end of the war, abolitionists were concerned that since the Proclamation was a war measure, it had not permanently ended slavery. Several former slave states had already passed legislation prohibiting slavery; however, some slavery continued to be legal, and to exist, until the institution was ended by the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment on December 18, 1865. Background The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 required individuals to return fugitive slaves to their owners. During the war, some Union generals declared that slaves in occupied areas were contraband of war and accordingly refused to return them. This decision was controversial because it implied recognition of the Confederacy as a separate nation under international law, a notion that Lincoln steadfastly denied. As a result, he did not promote the contraband designation. Some generals also declared the slaves under their jurisdiction to be free and were replaced when they refused to rescind such declarations. Lincoln moved gradually to grapple with the issue of freeing the slaves. On March 13, 1862, Lincoln forbade Union Army officers from returning fugitive slaves. On April 10, 1862, Congress declared that the federal government would compensate slave owners who freed their slaves. Slaves in the District of Columbia were freed on April 16, 1862 and their owners compensated. On June 19, 1862, Congress prohibited slavery in United States territories. By this act, they opposed the 1857 ruling of the Supreme Court of the United States in the Dred Scott Case that Congress was powerless to regulate slavery in U.S. territories. In January 1862, Thaddeus Stevens, the Republican leader in the House, called for total war against the rebellion to include emancipation of slaves, arguing that emancipation, by forcing the loss of enslaved labor, would ruin the rebel economy. In July 1862, Congress passed and Lincoln signed the "Second Confiscation Act." It liberated slaves held by "rebels". Original Text It provided: Abolitionists had long been urging Lincoln to free all slaves. A mass rally in Chicago on September 7, 1862, demanded an immediate and universal emancipation of slaves. A delegation headed by William W. Patton met the President at the White House on September 13. Lincoln had declared in peacetime that he had no constitutional authority to free the slaves. Even used as a war power, emancipation was a risky political act. Public opinion as a whole was against it. Guelzo, Allen C. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, 2004, pg. 18 There would be strong opposition among Copperhead Democrats and an uncertain reaction from loyal border states. Delaware and Maryland already had a high percentage of free Negroes: 91.2% and 49.7%, respectively, in 1860. Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619-1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1994, p.82 Lincoln first discussed the proclamation with his cabinet in July 1862. He believed he needed a Union victory on the battlefield so his decision would appear positive and strong. The Battle of Antietam, in which Union troops turned back a Confederate invasion of Maryland, gave him the opportunity to issue a preliminary proclamation on September 22, 1862. Lincoln had first shown an early draft of the proclamation to his Vice president Hannibal Hamlin Bangor In Focus: Hannibal Hamlin who was more often kept in the dark on presidential decisions. The final proclamation was issued in January 1863. Although implicitly granted authority by Congress, Lincoln used his powers as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, "as a necessary war measure" as the basis of the proclamation, rather than the equivalent of a statute enacted by Congress or a constitutional amendment. Reproduction of the Emancipation Proclamation at the National Underground Railroad Freedom Center in Cincinnati, Ohio The Emancipation Proclamation initially freed only a small percentage of the slaves, most of them being behind Confederate lines or in exempted Union-occupied areas. Secretary of State William H. Seward commented, "We show our sympathy with slavery by emancipating slaves where we cannot reach them and holding them in bondage where we can set them free." Had any seceding state rejoined the Union before January 1, 1863, it could have kept slavery, at least temporarily. The Proclamation only gave Lincoln the legal basis to free the slaves in the areas of the South that were still in rebellion. Thus, it initially freed only some slaves already behind Union lines. However, it also took effect as the Union armies advanced into the Confederacy. The Emancipation Proclamation also allowed for the enrollment of freed slaves into the United States military. During the war nearly 200,000 blacks, most of them ex-slaves, joined the Union Army. Their contributions gave the North additional manpower that was significant in winning the war. The Confederacy did not allow slaves in their army as soldiers until the final months before its defeat. Though the counties of Virginia that were soon to form West Virginia were specifically exempted from the Proclamation (Jefferson County being the only exception), a condition of the state's admittance to the Union was that its constitution provide for the gradual abolition of slavery. Slaves in the border states of Maryland and Missouri were also emancipated by separate state action before the Civil War ended. In early 1865, Tennessee adopted an amendment to its constitution prohibiting slavery. Freedmen and Southern Society Project: Chronology of Emancipation TSLA::This Honorable Body: African American Legislators in 19th Century Tennessee Slaves in Kentucky and Delaware were not emancipated until the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified. Implementation Areas covered by the Emancipation Proclamation are in red. Slave holding areas not covered are in blue. The Proclamation was issued in two parts. The first part, issued on September 22, 1862, was a preliminary announcement outlining the intent of the second part, which officially went into effect 100 days later on January 1, 1863, during the second year of the Civil War. It was Abraham Lincoln's declaration that all slaves would be permanently freed in all areas of the Confederacy that had not already returned to federal control by January 1863. The ten affected states were individually named in the second part. Not included were the Union slave states of Maryland, Delaware, Missouri and Kentucky. Also not named was the state of Tennessee, which was at the time more or less evenly split between Union and Confederacy. Specific exemptions were stated for areas also under Union control on January 1, 1863, namely 48 counties that would soon become West Virginia, seven other named counties of Virginia including Berkeley and Hampshire counties which were soon added to West Virginia, New Orleans and 13 named parishes nearby. Union-occupied areas of the Confederate states where the proclamation was put into immediate effect by local commanders included Winchester, Virginia Richard Duncan, Beleaguered Winchester: A Virginia Community at War (Baton Rouge, LA: LSU Press, 2007), pp. 139-40 , Corinth, Mississippi Ira Berlin et al., eds, Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation 1861-1867, Vol. 1: The Destruction of Slavery (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 260 , the Sea Islands along the coasts of the Carolinas and Georgia William Klingaman, Abraham Lincoln and the Road to Emancipation, 1861-1865 (NY: Viking Press, 2001), p. 234 , Key West, Florida "Important From Key West", New York Times February 4, 1863, p. 1 , and Port Royal, South Carolina "Interesting from Port Royal", New York Times January 9, 1863, p. 2 . Immediate impact It is common to encounter the claim that the Emancipation Proclamation did not immediately free a single slave. This statement may be found at such government and media websites as a National Park Service page Freedom at Antietam - The Emancipation Proclamation , and a user-generated wiki run by the BBC The Life of Abraham Lincoln - 16th President of the United States . However, the claim directly conflicts with multiple eyewitness accounts of celebrations where thousands of blacks were informed of their new legal status of freedom, for example at Hilton Head, South Carolina "News from South Carolina: Negro Jubilee at Hilton Head", New York Herald, January 7, 1863, p.5 and Port Royal, South Carolina "Interesting from Port Royal", New York Times January 9, 1863, p. 2 . Estimates of the number of slaves freed immediately by the Emancipation Proclamation are uncertain. But "a contemporary estimate put the 'contraband' population of Union-occupied North Carolina at 10,000, and the Sea Islands of South Carolina also had a substantial population. It seems likely therefore that at least 20,000 slaves were freed immediately by the Emancipation Proclamation." Keith Poulter, "Slaves Immediately Freed by the Emancipation Proclamation" North & South vol. 5 no. 1 (December 2001), p. 48 This Union-occupied zone where freedom began at once included "areas in eastern North Carolina, the Mississippi Valley . . . the Tennessee Valley of northern Alabama, the Shenandoah Valley, a large region of Arkansas, and the Sea Islands of Georgia and South Carolina" Harris, "After the Emancipation Proclamation", p. 45 Although some counties of Union-occupied Virginia were exempted from the Proclamation, "the lower Shenandoah Valley, and the area around Alexandria" were not. Booker T. Washington, as a boy of 9, remembered the day in early 1865: [Up from Slavery (1901) pp19-21] The Emancipation took place without violence by masters or ex-slaves. The proclamation represented a shift in the war objectives of the North—reuniting the nation was no longer the only goal. It represented a major step toward the ultimate abolition of Slavery in the United States and a "new birth of freedom". Runaway slaves who had escaped to Union lines had previously been held by the Union Army as "contraband of war" under the Confiscation Acts; when the proclamation took effect, they were told at midnight that they were free to leave. The Sea Islands off the coast of Georgia were occupied by the Union Navy earlier in the war. The whites had fled to the mainland while the blacks stayed. An early program of Reconstruction was set up for the former slaves, including schools and training. Naval officers read the proclamation and told them they were free. In the military, reaction to the proclamation varied widely, with some units nearly ready to mutiny in protest. Some desertions were attributed to it. Other units were inspired by the adoption of a cause that ennobled their efforts, such that at least one unit took up the motto "For Union and Liberty". Slaves had been part of the "engine of war" for the Confederacy. They produced and prepared food; sewed uniforms; repaired railways; worked on farms and in factories, shipping yards, and mines; built fortifications; and served as hospital workers and common laborers. News of the Proclamation spread rapidly by word of mouth, arousing hopes of freedom, creating general confusion, and encouraging thousands to escape to Union lines. Political impact Lincoln plays the trump card—an 1862 cartoon by the Englishman John Tenniel often reprinted in the Copperhead press, note the horns. The Proclamation was immediately denounced by Copperhead Democrats who opposed the war and tolerated both secession and slavery. It became a campaign issue in the 1862 elections, in which the Democrats gained 28 seats in the House as well as the governorship of New York. Many War Democrats who had supported Lincoln's goal of saving the Union, balked at supporting emancipation. Lincoln's Gettysburg Address in November 1863 made indirect reference to the Proclamation and the ending of slavery as a war goal with the phrase "new birth of freedom". The Proclamation solidified Lincoln's support among the rapidly growing abolitionist element of the Republican Party and ensured they would not block his re-nomination in 1864. Allan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union: vol 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862-1863 (1960) International impact As Lincoln hoped, the Proclamation turned foreign popular opinion in favor of the Union for its new commitment to end slavery. That shift ended the Confederacy's hopes of gaining official recognition, particularly from the United Kingdom. If Britain or France, both of which had already abolished slavery, were to support the Confederacy, they would be supporting slavery. Prior to Lincoln's decree, Britain's actions had favored the Confederacy, especially in its construction of warships such as the CSS Alabama and CSS Florida. As Henry Adams noted, "The Emancipation Proclamation has done more for us than all our former victories and all our diplomacy." Giuseppe Garibaldi hailed Lincoln as "the heir of the aspirations of John Brown". Alan Van Dyke, a representative for workers from Manchester, England, wrote to Lincoln saying, "We joyfully honor you for many decisive steps toward practically exemplifying your belief in the words of your great founders: 'All men are created free and equal.'" The Emancipation Proclamation served to ease tensions with Europe over the North's determination to defeat the South at all costs. The Trent Affair particularly had caused severe tensions with Great Britain. Postbellum Emancipation from Freedmen's viewpoint; illustration from Harper's Weekly 1865 Near the end of the war, abolitionists were concerned that the Emancipation Proclamation would be construed solely as a war act and no longer apply once fighting ended. They were also increasingly anxious to secure the freedom of all slaves, not just those freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Thus pressed, Lincoln staked a large part of his 1864 presidential campaign on a constitutional amendment to abolish slavery uniformly throughout the United States. Lincoln's campaign was bolstered by separate votes in both Maryland and Missouri to abolish slavery in those states. Maryland's new constitution abolishing slavery took effect in November 1864. Slavery in Missouri was ended by executive proclamation of its governor, Thomas C. Fletcher, on January 11, 1865. Winning re-election, Lincoln pressed the lame duck 38th Congress to pass the proposed amendment immediately rather than wait for the incoming 39th Congress to convene. In January 1865, Congress sent to the state legislatures for ratification what became the Thirteenth Amendment, banning slavery in all U.S. states and territories. The amendment was ratified by the legislatures of enough states by December 6, 1865 and proclaimed 12 days later. There were about 40,000 slaves in Kentucky and 1,000 in Delaware who were liberated then. In the years after Lincoln's death, his action in the proclamation was lauded. The anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation was celebrated as a black holiday for more than 50 years; the holiday of Juneteenth was created in some states to honor it. Guelzo, p. 244. In 1913, the fiftieth anniversary of the Proclamation, there were particularly large celebrations. As the years went on and American life continued to be deeply unfair towards blacks, cynicism towards Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation increased. Some 20th century black intellectuals, including W. E. B. Du Bois, James Baldwin and Julius Lester, described the proclamation as essentially worthless. Perhaps the strongest attack was Lerone Bennett's Forced into Glory: Abraham Lincoln's White Dream (2000), which claimed that Lincoln was a white supremacist who issued the Emancipation Proclamation in lieu of the real racial reforms for which radical abolitionists pushed. In his Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, Allen C. Guelzo noted the professional historians' lack of substantial respect for the document, since it has been the subject of few major scholarly studies. He argued that Lincoln was America's "last Enlightenment politician" Guelzo, p. 3. and as such was dedicated to removing slavery strictly within the bounds of law. Other historians have given more credit to Lincoln for what he accomplished within the tensions of his cabinet and a society at war, for his own growth in political and moral stature, and for the promise he held out to the slaves. Doris Kearns Goodwin, A Team of Rivals, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005 More might have been accomplished if he had not been assassinated. As Eric Foner wrote: Lincoln was not an abolitionist or Radical Republican, a point Bennett reiterates innumerable times. He did not favor immediate abolition before the war, and held racist views typical of his time. But he was also a man of deep convictions when it came to slavery, and during the Civil War displayed a remarkable capacity for moral and political growth. The Emancipation Proclamation was on display at the William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park in Little Rock, Arkansas, from September 22-25, 2007, as part of the Little Rock Central High School's 50th anniversary of integration. See also Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution Timeline of the African-American Civil Rights Movement Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves - 1863 statute Slavery Abolition Act - an act passed by the British parliament abolishing slavery in British colonies with compensation to the owners Juneteenth - an African American holiday commemorating the freeing of slaves War Governors' Conference - gave Lincoln the much needed political support to issue the Proclamation History of slavery in Kentucky History of slavery in Missouri Notes References Herman Belz, Emancipation and Equal Rights: Politics and Constitutionalism in the Civil War Era (1978) Christopher Ewan, "The Emancipation Proclamation and British Public Opinion" The Historian, Vol. 67, 2005 John Hope Franklin, The Emancipation Proclamation (1963) Guelzo, Allen C. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America (2004) Guelzo, Allen C. "How Abe Lincoln Lost the Black Vote: Lincoln and Emancipation in the African American Mind," Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association (2004) 25#1online edition Harold Holzer, Edna Greene Medford, and Frank J. Williams. The Emancipation Proclamation: Three Views (2006) Howard Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War (1999) Mitch Kachun, Festivals of Freedom: Memory and Meaning in African American Emancipation Celebrations, 1808-1915 (2003) McPherson, James M. Ordeal by Fire: the Civil War and Reconstruction (2001 [3rd ed.]), esp. pp. 316–321. Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union: vol 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862-1863 (1960) C. Peter Ripley, Roy E. Finkenbine, Michael F. Hembree, Donald Yacovone, Witness for Freedom: African American Voices on Race, Slavery, and Emancipation (1993) Silvana R. Siddali, From Property To Person: Slavery And The Confiscation Acts, 1861-1862 (2005) John Syrett. Civil War Confiscation Acts: Failing to Reconstruct the South (2005) Michael Vorenberg, Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment (2001) External links Lesson plan on Emancipation Proclamation from EDSITEment NEH Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice Teaching resources about Slavery and Abolition on blackhistory4schools.com Text and images of the Emancipation Proclamation from the National Archives Online Lincoln Coloring Book for Teachers and Students Emancipation Proclamation and related resources at the Library of Congress Scholarly article on rhetoric and the Emancipation Proclamation Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Emancipation Proclamation First Edition Emancipation Proclamationin 1862 Harper's Weekly Chronology of Emancipation during the Civil War "Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation" Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation at the New York State Library - Images and transcript of Lincoln's original manuscript 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5,094 | Albanians | </blockquote> The Albanian people (), from southeast Europe, live in Albania and neighbouring countries and speak the Albanian language. About half of Albanians live in Albania, with other large groups residing in Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, and Montenegro. There are also Albanian minorities and immigrant communities in a number of other countries (Turkey, Greece and Italy). History of the term Albanians are the descendants of a Paleo-Balkans people, perhaps the ancient Illyrians or the Thracians and Dacians. Scholarly opinion is divided on specifics. Names similar to the ones used to describe the Albanians, albeit much later, were used in the 2nd century BCE by Polybius (Arbanios, Arbanitai with their city Arbon), the 1st century CE by Pliny (Olbonensis), and the 2nd century CE by geographer and astronomer Ptolemy (Albanoi), to describe an Illyrian tribe situated in what is now Central Albania with Albanopolis as their main city. The ethnonym applied to the people now known as Albanians is first attested from the 11th century (e.g. Anna Komnene, Alexiad 4.8.4), although such a nominal connection does not prove an actual link to the Illyrian tribe. The first reference to a dates to the later 13th century. Due to the high rate of migration of various ethnic groups throughout the Balkans in the last two decades, exact figures are difficult to obtain. A tenuous breakdown of Albanians by location is as follows: Distribution Europe Approximately 6 million Albanians are to be found within the Balkan peninsula with only about half this number residing in Albania and the other divided between Kosovo, Montenegro, the Republic of Macedonia, Greece and to a much smaller extent Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia. Approximately 1,5 million are dispersed throughout the rest of Europe, most of these in the United Kingdom, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Austria and France. Also to include Italy has a historical Albanian minority known as the Arbëreshë are scattered across Southern Italy, but the majority of Italo-Albanians have arrived since 1991 to surpass that of the older populations of Arbëreshë. Kosovo and Republic of Macedonia Distribution of ethnic-Albanians in Albania and neighboring countries Both the Kosovo and the western regions of the Republic of Macedonia have in recent years seen armed movements (Kosovo Liberation Army, UCPMB, Macedonian NLA) aiming either for independence, greater autonomy, or increased political rights. Further clashes were also reported in the Preševo Valley during the period between 2000 to 2001 (in the lead-up to the Macedonian conflict). In February 2008, the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government, an assembly under UNMIK, declared Kosovo's independence as the Republic of Kosovo (Albanian: Republika e Kosovës). Its independence is recognized by some countries and opposed by others, including the Republic of Serbia, which continues to claim sovereignty over it as the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. The conflict in the Republic of Macedonia seems to have calmed down. It was resolved by the Macedonian government giving the Albanian minority a greater role in the government and the right to use the Albanian language in areas where the Albanians form a majority. It is worth mentioning here that rights to use the Albanian language in education and government were given and guaranteed by the Constitution of SFRY and were widely utilized in Serbia, Macedonia, and in Montenegro long before Dissolution of Yugoslavia. The only thing that changed in that matter is that before NATO intervention in 1999, there were information services and news ("Dnevnik") broadcaster in Albanian language on the Serbian National Radio and Television, RTS. Turkey According to a 2008 report prepared for the National Security Council of Turkey by academics of three Turkish universities in eastern Anatolia, there were approximately 1,300,000 Albanians living in Turkey. Milliyet, Türkiyedeki Kürtlerin Sayısı. 2008-06-06. Most of these people are assimilated into Turkish nation, and consider themselves Turkish rather than Albanian. Around 500,000 Albanians remain unassimilated. Greece Albani (Albanoi), tribe in ancient Illyria, from Alexander G. Findlay's Classical Atlas to Illustrate Ancient Geography, New York, 1849 Tosk Albanians wearing traditional costumes from southern Albania. Albanians in Greece are divided into different groupings, due to distinct historical waves of migration. The first comprises the Chams, a group of ethnic Albanians who originally resided in areas of Greek Epirus but today live mainly in Albania, Turkey and United States. Chams speak the Albanian language and are predominantly Muslim. The designation of the Orthodox Christian Albanophone minority of Epirus as Chams is controversial, as most prefer to identify as Arvanites. The Arvanites are descendants of Albanian immigrants from the 11th to the 15th century that have been largely assimilated by the dominant Greek-speaking population and generally self-identify as Greeks. They reside mainly in Attica, Euboea and Morea. Finally, Albanian nationals who entered Greece during the 1990s, mainly as illegal immigrants, comprise the largest single expatriate group in the country. According to the 2001 census, there were 481,663 holders of Albanian citizenship in Greece. The Watson Institute raised this number to 600,000 Albanians in Greece in 2008. Barjarba, Kosra. "Migration and Ethnicity in Albania". Waston Institute for International Studies, 2004. Retrieved on 29 January 2007. At the end of World War II, nearly all Muslim Chams in Greece were expelled to Albania. They were accused by EDES for having collaborated with occupation forces. Indeed, several hundred Chams had collaborated with the Axis Powers, as part of the Balli Kombëtar. However, approximately the same amount of Muslim Chams provided military support to the Greek resistance forces of the ELAS (Greek People's Liberation Army), while the rest were civilians uninvolved in the war. Mazower, Mark. After The War Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation and State in Greece, 1943-1960. Princeton University Press, 2000, ISBN 0691058423, p. 25. "The war saw communal relations worsen quickly. In October 1940, the Greek authorities disarmed 1,800 Cham conscripts and put them to work on local roads; the following month they seized all Albanian males not called up and deported them to camps or to island exile. Not surprisingly, when the Italians finally took control of mainland Greece in 1941, they found Cham activists willing to call for unification of the region with Albania. Several hundred were conscripted into the anti-communist Bal Komitare to act as local gendarmes. From the autumn of 1943, these armed bands took part alongside the Wehrmacht in burning Greek villages. Such actions, it seems, were not supported by many of the local beys, nor by the Mufti. By the summer of 1944 it was obvious that a German withdrawal from Epiros was imminent. After the Cham bands turned down a demand from EDES to join it against the left-wing ELAS, EDES's leader Napoleon Zervas ordered a general attack on the Cham villages. Two attacks took place, in July and August, with the participation of the EDES Tenth Division and local Greek peasants, eager to gain revenge for the burning of their homes: many of the Cham villages were burned, and the remaining inhabitants–some 18,000–fled across the border into Albania." Mazower, Mark. After The War Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation and State in Greece, 1943-1960. Princeton University Press, 2000, ISBN 0691058423, p. 26. "Unlike EDES and the local Greek peasantry in Thesprotia, ELAS was opposed to the idea of collective punishment of the Cham community. Several hundred Chams had enlisted in its ranks, and it had fairly good relations with the communist-led resistance in Albania itself." Since the war, no criminal of Cham origin was ever brought to trial. Vickers, Miranda. The Cham Issue - Where to Now? Paper prepared for the British MoD, Defence Academy, 2002. According to Miranda Vickers, Greek Orthodox Chams remained in Greece, but have suffered from assimilation and public suppression of their Albanian heritage and language. Vickers, Miranda. The Cham Issue - Albanian National & Property Claims in Greece. Paper prepared for the British MoD, Defence Academy, 2002. "Today there are approximately 250,000 Chams in Albania and an estimated 400,000 in the wider diaspora, mostly in the USA and Turkey." Rest of the world Americas In the United States the number reaches 500,000 according to the latest 2006 US Census, while in Canada approximately 15,000 as of the 2001 census. Albanians also live in Latin America, they concentrate in Argentina, Brazil and Mexico, although in smaller numbers than in the USA. Asia and Oceania In Australia and New Zealand 12,000 in total. Albanians are also known to reside in China, India, Iran, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan and Singapore, but the numbers are generally small. Albanians have been present in Arab countries such as Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria for about 5 centuries as a legacy of Ottoman Turkish rule. Africa In Egypt there are 18,000 Albanians, mostly Tosk speakers. Many are descendants of the soldiers of Mehmet Ali. A large part of the former nobility of Egypt was Albanian in origin. A small community also resides in South Africa. Religion Development of Modern Albanian Religious Affiliation The original culture continued until the Roman and Byzantine Empires crowned Christianity- as official religion of the regime, thus suffusing Paganism. Both were later overshadowed by Islam, which kept the scepter of the major religion during the period of Ottoman Turkish rule from the 15th century until year 1912. Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Roman Catholicism and Paganism were continued practiced with less frequency. During the 20th century the monarchy and later the totalitarian state followed a systematic secularization of the nation and the national culture. This policy was chiefly applied within the borders of the current Albanian state. It produced a secular majority in the population. All forms of Christianity, Islam and other religious practices were prohibited except for old non-institutional Pagan practices in the rural areas, which were seen as identifying with the national culture. The current Albanian state has revived some pagan festivals, such as the lunar Spring festival () held yearly on March 14 in the city of Elbasan. It is a national holiday. "Albanian fest" 1856, by Jean-Léon Gérôme. Most of the Muslim Albanians in Albania are nominal Sunni Muslims and Bektashis Albania. The World Factbook. Muslims in Europe: Country guide: Albania. BBC. . It is estimated that 92% of ethnic Albanians in the Republic of Kosovo are nominal Muslims International Religious Freedom Report 2008 - Kosovo . The statistics, however are pre-WWII and with the collapse of communism there has been a revival of religiosity. There are also Orthodox Christians, predominantly in Southern Albania, bordering Greece, and Roman Catholics is the main religion among those Albanians living predominantly in northern Albania, bordering the Republic of Montenegro. After 1992 an influx of foreign missionaries has brought more religious diversity with groups such as Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, Hindus, Bahá'í, Scientologists, a variety of Christian denominations and others. This rich blend of religions has however rarely caused religious strife. People of different religions freely intermarry. For part of its history, Albania has also had a Jewish community. Some of the members of the Jewish community were saved by a group of Albanians during the Nazi occupation. Rescue in Albania: One Hundred Percent of Jews in Albania Rescued from Holocaust". "The Jews of Albania". California: Brunswick Press, 1997. Retrieved on 29 January 2007. Many left for Israel circa 1990-1992 after borders were open due to fall of communist regime in Albania. Other ethnonyms The Albanians are and have been referred to by other terms as well. Some of them are: Arbër, Arbën, Arbëreshë; the old native term denoting ancient and medieval Albanians and sharing the same root with the latter. At the time the country was called Arbër (Gheg: Arbën) and Arbëria (Gheg: Arbënia). This term is still used for the Albanians that migrated to Italy during the Middle Ages. Arnauts; old term used mainly from Turks and by extension by European authors during the Ottoman Empire. A derivate of Arbër, Albanian. Skipetars; the historical rendering of the ethnonym Shqiptar (or Shqyptar by French, Austrian and German authors) in use from the 18th century (but probably earlier) to the present, the literal translation of which is subject of the eagle. The term Šiptari is a derivation used by Yugoslavs which the Albanians consider derogatory. Misnaming Because of confounding nationality with religious affiliation many authors from Byzantine times have also called and registered Albanians with the following names: Latins; term used during the Middle Ages from Venetian and other European authors to denote Albanians of Catholic faith mainly in the Northern regions up to the 19th century. Greeks; old term used generically from Byzantine times up to the 20th century by other European authors to denote Albanians of Orthodox faith in the Southern regions, as also those migrating, during the Ottoman Occupation, from Epirus and Peloponnese to Italy. Toponyms reflecting this historical misnaming began being changed in Fascist Italy during the 1930s (for instance, Piana dei Greci became Piana degli Albanesi). Serbs; old term as above, used by authors to denote Albanians of Orthodox faith in the Northern regions up to the 19th century. Turks; old term used by ecclesiastical writings and embraced by other European authors to denote Albanians of Muslim faith, and generally all Albanian legions of the Ottoman army. Famous Albanians Mother Teresa Spink, Kathryn (1997). Mother Teresa: A Complete Authorized Biography. New York. HarperCollins, pp.16. ISBN 0-06-250825-3. Mother Teresa of Calcutta (1910-1997) - Nobel Peace Prize winner and beatified nun Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani - An important and influential Islamic scholar of the 20th Century Abdul Qader Arnaoot - An important and influential Islamic scholar of the 20th century; he specialised in the fields of hadith and fiqh Muhammad Ali Pasha - was Wāli of Egypt and Sudan, and is regarded as the "founder of modern Egypt" Fan Stilian Noli - Albanian-American writer, scholar, diplomat, politician, and founder of the Albanian Orthodox Church, who served as prime minister and regent of Albania in 1924. Faik Konica- one of the greatest figures of Albanian culture in the early decades of the twentieth century. Alexander Moissi - famous Albanian stage actor. Ismail Kadare - writer, winner of the inaugural Man Booker International Prize Kara DioGuardi - Albanian-American songwriter, judge of American Idol Inva Mula - Opera soprano Regis Philbin - Albanian-American television personality Jim and John Belushi - Albanian-American actors, comedians and musicians Eliza Dushku- Albanian-American Actress Masiela Lusha - Albanian-American Actress Patrick Nuo - Albanian-Swiss Singer Tie Domi - Albanian-Canadian NHL hockey player (retired) Tony Dovolani - Albanian professional dancer from Dancing with the Stars Prominent Albanians have included the defender of Albania during the mid-15th century Skenderbeg, Nobel Prize winner Mother Teresa, the writer Ismail Kadare, the painter Ibrahim Kodra, the composer Simon Gjoni, the Olympic athlete Klodiana Shala, and Pope Clement XI. Other well known individuals include the prime minister of the Ottoman Empire Ferhat Pasha and Mehemet Ali the viceroy of Egypt. John Belushi and his brother Jim Belushi were of Albanian parents who emigrated to the United States after WWII. The American actress Eliza Dushku was born of an Albanian father and a half-Danish mother, while Nobel Prize winner Ferid Murad has an Albanian father and an American mother. See also Notes and references a. Further reading Edith Durham. The Burden of the Balkans (1905) External links Albanians in Turkey Albanian Canadian League Information Service (ACLIS) Albanians in the Balkans U.S. Institute of Peace Report, November 2001 Books about Albania and the Albanian people (scribd.com) Reference of books (and some journal articles) about Albania and the Albanian people; their history, language, origin, culture, literature, etc. Public domain books, fully accessible online. | Albanians |@lemmatized blockquote:1 albanian:77 people:8 southeast:1 europe:4 live:6 albania:27 neighbouring:1 country:8 speak:3 language:7 half:3 large:3 group:6 reside:6 kosovo:10 republic:9 macedonia:6 serbia:4 montenegro:4 also:11 minority:4 immigrant:3 community:5 number:6 turkey:7 greece:14 italy:6 history:3 term:10 descendant:3 paleo:1 balkan:5 perhaps:1 ancient:4 illyrian:3 thracian:1 dacians:1 scholarly:1 opinion:1 divide:3 specific:1 name:2 similar:1 one:3 use:12 describe:2 albeit:1 much:2 later:3 century:17 bce:1 polybius:1 arbanios:1 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5,095 | Ecclesiastes | Ecclesiastes (often abbreviated Ecc) (, Kohelet, variously transliterated as Kohelet, Qoheleth, Koheles, Koheleth, or Coheleth) is a book of the Hebrew Bible. The English name derives from the Greek translation of the Hebrew title. Ecclesiastes The main speaker in the book, identified by the name or title Qohelet, introduces himself as "son of David, and king in Jerusalem." The work consists of personal or autobiographic matter, at times expressed in aphorisms and maxims illuminated in terse paragraphs with reflections on the meaning of life and the best way of life. The work emphatically proclaims all the actions of man to be inherently "vain", "futile", "empty", "meaningless", "temporary", "transitory", or "fleeting," depending on translation, as the lives of both wise and foolish men end in death. While Qohelet clearly endorses wisdom as a means for a well-lived earthly life, he is unable to ascribe eternal meaning to it. In light of this perceived senselessness, he suggests that one should enjoy the simple pleasures of daily life, such as eating, drinking, and taking enjoyment in one's wife and work, which are gifts from the hand of God. According to Talmud however, the point of Qohelet is to state that all is futile under the sun. One should therefore ignore physical pleasures and put all one's efforts towards that which is above the Sun. This is summed up in the second to last verse: "The end of the matter; all has been heard. Fear God, and keep his commandments; for that is the whole duty of everyone." Etymology Title The Hebrew קהלת is a feminine participle related to the root קהל meaning "to gather." Scholars are unsure whether it means the "one who gathers" or the "one among the gathering." Although the form is a feminine participle, virtually no scholars dispute that the author is a man. Except for one dubious example of a third-person feminine singular verb associated with qohelet, the subject always uses masculine nouns and even refers to his wife and women. He says that he has acquired shida we-shidot, an ambiguous phrase that may refer to a harem (,shdh "breasts"); he describes how he could not find a virtuous woman; and he exhorts the reader to enjoy (re'a) life with his wife. English translation The English title of the book, Ecclesiastes, comes from the Septuagint translation of Qohelet, Εκκλησιαστής. It is related to the Greek noun Εκκλησία (originally a secular gathering, although later used primarily of religious gatherings, hence its New Testament meaning of "church"). Greek translators used "ecclesia" to render קהל (qahal) of the same Hebrew root. The word Qohelet has found several translations into English, including The Preacher (following Jerome's suggested Latin title concionator and Martin Luther's Der Prediger). In view of the meaning of the Hebrew root ("gather, assemble, convene") one might opt for the translation "Speaker". Compare to Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan ch. XXXIX ( text). Authorship and historical context Author In the two opening chapters the speaker describes himself as the son of David, and king over Israel in Jerusalem (1:1, 12, 16; 2:7, 9), presenting himself as a philosopher at the center of a brilliant court. This could apply only to king Solomon, for his successors in Jerusalem were kings over Judah only. Consequently, the traditional Rabbinic and early Christian view attributed Ecclesiastes to king Solomon. This view has been abandoned by many modern critical scholars, who now assume that Qoheleth is a work in the pseudepigraphical mode. Most critical scholars suggest that Ecclesiastes was written around 250 BC by a non-Hellenized intellectual in the milieu of the Temple in Jerusalem, though Seow of the Anchor Bible commentary argues that it dates to the Persian period. The latest possible date for it is set by the fact that Ben Sirach (written ca. 180 BC) repeatedly quotes or paraphrases it, as from a canonic rather than a contemporary writing. Many modern conservative scholars today also suggest that Solomon is an unlikely author. Since this work is found within the Ketuvim, there must be some room for poetical treatment. There are two voices in the book, the frame-narrator (1.1–11; 12.9–14) and Qoheleth (1.12–12.8). Scholars are less than unanimous about whether this indicates two authors. The Babylonian Talmud, while claiming that king Solomon composed the book, says that it was only written down much later (Bava Batra page 14 side B). R' Nachman Krochmal suggests that the term "son of David" should be interpreted to mean "descendant of David". He posits that it was written by a powerful lord during the Persian Era (possibly during the missing years of Jewish history). The term "king" would not be difficult; since the Persian Monarch was known as the King of Kings, a lesser lord may have called himself a king. Moreh Nevuchei Ha'Zman—Ch. Chokrei Avot. The New Bible Dictionary writes the following: Although the writer says that he was king over Israel (1:12), and speaks as though he were Solomon, he nowhere says that he is Solomon. The style of the Heb. is later than Solomon’s time. If Solomon was the author, the book underwent a later modernization of language. Otherwise a later writer may have taken up a comment on life that had been made by Solomon, ‘Vanity of vanities, all is vanity,’ and used this as a text to show why even a wise and wealthy king should say such a thing. We cannot tell at what date the book received its present form, since there are no clear historical allusions in it. About 200 bc is commonly suggested. D. R. W. Wood, New Bible Dictionary (InterVarsity Press, 1996, c1982, c1962). 288. Language The Hebrew of Ecclesiastes was not common in the era of Solomon’s reign, and the book contains words borrowed from other languages. For example, the book contains several Aramaic and two Persian words. The influence of Aramaic is characteristic of late Hebrew. Other examples of late Biblical Hebrew include the qetAl pattern form nouns, which would have dated after an Aramaic influence, the frequent use of the relative sh (-ש) alongside asher (אשר), the Ut ending (ות-), the frequent use of the participle for the present (which is later developed in Rabbinic Hebrew), using the prefix conjugation in the future (vs. the older preterite use), and terms that appear to specifically fit a Persian/Hellenistic context (e.g. Shallit). During the time of Solomon and through the eighth century, mater's were not used inside words (except maybe in 'ir (city) in the Lachish letters), and there is no evidence for early orthography. Date of writing Dominic Rudman, Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes (JSOTSup. 316; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001, p. 13) cites the modern commentaries supporting this dating. Dominic Rudman. "A Note on Dating of Ecclesiastes". Catholic Biblical Quarterly vol. 61 no. 1 (1999) pp. 47–53 contains a discussion with C. L. Seow, "Linguistic Evidence and the Dating of Qohelet." in JBL vol. 115 (1996), pp. 653–54—Seow supports a 4th century dating. "Most current commentators e.g., R. N. Whybray, Ecclesiastes [NCB Commentary; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1989] 4–12) argue for a mid-to-late-third-century date. Others, among them N. Lohfink (Kohelet [NEchtB; Wurzburg: Echter Verlag, 1980] 7) and C. E Whitley (Koheleth: His Language and Thought [BZAW 148; Berlin/ New York: de Gruyter, 1979] 132–46), have suggested an early- or mid-second-century background." Placement in canon Name of God The book of Ecclesiastes uses the expression ha-Elohim, "The God", 32 times. But as the Jewish Encyclopedia has it: In other words, the more conventional Tetragrammaton is not used, though almost no modern scholars think that the book was written in Aramaic or Phoenician. Canonicity Bible religious scholars often consider Ecclesiastes to be divinely inspired and it was always accepted as canonical "The book, entitled Koheleth, or Ecclesiastes, has ever been received, both by the Jewish and Christian Church, as written under the inspiration of the Almighty; and was held to be properly a part of the sacred canon." Adam Clarke’s 19th century Methodist Commentary, Volume III, page 799 . The Jewish Encyclopedia states: Citing further from the Jewish Encyclopedia: As this citation points out, the book fails to accord with the last of Maimonides' Thirteen Principles of Faith. (Though these Principles were articulated at a much later date, they evolved over a long period of time, and they are generally considered authoritative.) Orthodoxy of views Ecclesiastes appears in harmony with other Scriptures where they treat exactly the same subjects. It agrees with Genesis that a human is composed of the dust of the ground and a sustaining spirit (Hebrew ruach, life-force, the breath understood as the vital principle) from God (Ecclesiastes 3:20, 21; 12:7; Genesis 2:7; 7:22; Isaiah 42:5). Ecclesiastes also affirms the Toranic teaching that man was created "very good" and upright but willfully chose to disobey God (Ecclesiastes 7:29; Genesis 1:31; 3:17; Deuteronomy 32:4, 5). Ecclesiastes also acknowledges God as the Creator (Ecclesiastes 12:1; Genesis 1:1). Death and afterlife A great portion of the book concerns itself with death. Qohelet emphatically affirms human mortality, going so far as to say that the dead in sheol know nothing. He mentions no resurrection, which, some may argue, is to be expected seeing that it predates this theology. (This view is in dispute, however, as Solomon's father, David, expressed a belief in the afterlife upon the death of Solomon's older brother, claiming with certainty that he would see his deceased son again.) In fact, it is the lack of consequences after death that lead Qohelet to advocate enjoying life while you can. Martin Luther and certain other Christian leaders have quoted these verses in defense of the doctrine that the soul sleeps between death and resurrection . A meaningless life followed by oblivion is consistent with the purport of much (though not all) of the rest of the Tanakh as to the state of the dead (Ecclesiastes 9:5, 10; Genesis 3:19; Psalms 6:5; 115:17). This view that death is oblivion stands in contrast to later descriptions of the afterlife, such as gehenna, the bosom of Abraham, and the resurrection of the dead. Influences on other ancient writings Ecclesiastes evidently influenced the deuterocanonical works, Wisdom of Solomon and Ben Sira, both of which contain vocal rejections of the Ecclesiastical philosophy of futility. As an example of this relationship among the books, consider the following pairs of passages: Ecclesiastes: "For who knoweth what is good for man in this life, all the days of his vain life which he spendeth as a shadow? for who can tell a man what shall be after him under the sun" (). "For that which befalleth the sons of men befalleth beasts; even one thing befalleth them: as the one dieth, so dieth the other; yea, they have all one breath; so that a man hath no preeminence above a beast: for all is vanity. All go unto one place; all are of the dust, and all turn to dust again" (). Wisdom of Solomon: "For the ungodly said, reasoning with themselves, but not aright, Our life is short and tedious, and in the death of a man there is no remedy: neither was there any man known to have returned from the grave" () Ecclesiastes: "And I gave my heart to seek and search out by wisdom concerning all things that are done under heaven: this sore travail hath God given to the sons of man to be exercised therewith" (). "All this have I proved by wisdom: I said, I will be wise; but it was far from me. That which is far off, and exceeding deep, who can find it out?" (). Ben Sirah: "Seek not out the things that are too hard for thee, neither search the things that are above thy strength. But what is commanded thee, think upon with reverence; for it is not needful for thee to see with thine eyes the things that are in secret. Be not curious in unnecessary matters: for more things are shewed unto thee than men understand" (). Traditional Judaism In traditional Judaism, Ecclesiastes is read either on Shemini Atzeret (by Yemenites, Italians, some Sepharadim, and the mediaeval French Jewish rite) or on the Shabbat of the Intermediate Days of Sukkot (by Ashkenazim). If there is no Intermediate Sabbath of Sukkot, even the Ashkenazim read it on Shemini Atzeret (or, for Ashkenazim in the Land of Israel, on the first Shabbat of Sukkot). It is read on Sukkot as a reminder to not get too caught up in the festivities of the holiday. Messianic interpretation in Christianity Nicholas Perrin has suggested that the framing device of Ecclesiastes was used to point to the Messiah. Perrin p. 37 The book is framed by two sets of verses: 1:1, and 12:9-14. Both these sets of verses contain messianic allusions, which makes the entire book a pronouncement of the sage Messiah. Eccles 1:1 reads “The words of the Preacher, the son of David, king in Jerusalem.” This person has often been identified with Solomon, but Perrin finds this inapt. Perrin p. 42 He points out that “son of David” by itself, is never used in the Hebrew Bible to denote Solomon; when Solomon is intended, he is named. And calling him “king in Jerusalem”, without a reference to his kingdom (e.g. Israel or Judah), is more typical in the Old Testament of the Eschatological Jerusalem than of historical Davidic kings. This opens up the possibility of viewing the figure as the Messiah rather than as Solomon. In the period Ecclesiastes was written, references to the Davidic Messiah were often found along with wisdom and Jerusalem. In the non-canonical Psalms of Solomon, the Messiah is associated with wisdom; and Ben Sira associates Wisdom with Jerusalem. So in Eccles 1:1 both the (wise) Preacher and Jerusalem are references to the Messiah. The very opening verse of the book presents to the reader a messianic figure. The closing frame of Ecclesiastes again presents the Preacher, the messianic figure (12:9). The major messianic reference here is the “one Shepherd” of verse 11. Most have interpreted the shepherd as God. Choon-Leong Seow, Ecclesiastes: The Anchor Bible, (New York: Doubleday, 1997), 388. This lends credence to the entire book, which is the aim of the epilogue. The authority of God and his Messiah are borrowed for the book of Ecclesiastes. The shepherd is also identified with the Messiah by Perrin. Perrin p. 53 He shows that in the Hellenistic time of Ecclesiastes the “one Shepherd” was a common messianic trope which is based on the Book of Ezekiel. In chapters 34 and 37, Ezekiel describes the Davidic Messiah as the “one shepherd”: this wording is the same used in Eccles 12:11, and it is unique to these three passages. So the one shepherd is bound up with Nathan’s prophecy of the Davidic covenant of 2 Sam 7. Following the writing of Ezekiel, several works identified Davidic kings as being more than merely kings of Judah (e.g. 1 Chron 28:5) or as shepherd-Messiahs (Zech 11:7, 1 Enoch, Psalms of Solomon). Eccles 12:11 is one part of a messianic tradition spanning from Ezekiel up to Jn 10:16: “And I have other sheep, that are not of this fold; I must bring them also, and they will heed my voice. So there shall be one flock, one shepherd.” Perrin p. 56 Vanity Qoheleth's stated aim is to find out how to ensure one's benefits in life, an aim in accord with the general purposes of wisdom literature. For Qoheleth, however, any possible advantage in life is destroyed by the inevitability of death. As such, Qoheleth concludes that life (and everything) is senseless. In light of this conclusion, Qoheleth advises his audience to make the most of life, to seize the day, for there is no way to secure favorable outcomes in the future. Although this latter conclusion has sometimes been compared to Epicureanism, for Qoheleth it comes about as the inevitable result of his failure to make sense of existence. This conclusion is reflected in the refrain which both opens and closes Qoheleth's words: "Utterly senseless" says Qoheleth, "Utterly senseless, everything is senseless!" The word translated senseless, הבל (hevel), literally means vapor, breath. Qoheleth uses it metaphorically, and its precise meaning is extensively debated. Older English translations often render it vanity. Because in modern usage this word has often come to mean "self-pride," losing its Latinate connotation of emptiness, some translators have abandoned it. Other translations include empty, futile, meaningless, absurd, fleeting, evanescent, or senseless. Some translations use the literal rendering vapor of vapors and so claim to leave the interpretation to the reader. Ultimately, the author of Ecclesiates comes to this conclusion in the second to last verse of the last chapter: "The end of the matter; all has been heard. Fear God, and keep his commandments; for that is the whole duty of everyone." Some argue that these two last verses are an addition to the original script since they stand in contrast to all of the previous statements made. Others argue that it actually completes the message by saying that nothing is of as high importance as the work of God. "Vanity of vanities" is a Hebrew grammatical construction (idiom) denoting the superlative; that is, it attests to an extreme degree of the quality, similar to "the lord of lords", "the king of kings" or "holy of holies" (used of the inner sanctuary of the Jerusalem temple). Other translations of Ecclesiastes 1:2 include: "Vanity of vanities, all is vanity." "Meaningless of meaninglessness! All is meaningless!" "Futility of futilities, all is futile." "Absolutely pointless! Everything is pointless." An American Translation Classic English translation (King James Version) of the second to last verse 12:13: "Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep his commandments: for this [is] the whole [duty] of man." See also Bible Tanakh Turn! Turn! Turn! by The Byrds References Nicholas Perrin, “Messianism in the Narrative Frame of Ecclesiastes?”, Revue biblique 108:1 (2001). External links Jewish translations: Kohelet - Ecclesiastes - Job (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: Ecclesiastes at Wikisource (Authorised King James Version) Ecclesiastes at United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (New American Bible) Ecclesiastes at Bible Gateway (New King James Version) A Metaphrase of the Book Of Ecclesiastes by Gregory Thaumaturgus. Related articles: Jewish Encyclopedia Ecclesiastes (Kohelet) Catholic Encyclopedia Ecclesiastes Ecclesiastes An Overview - William MacDonald Commentary on Ecclesiastes by F.C. Jennings Free audiobook of "Ecclesiastes (ASV) — Book 21 of the Holy Scriptures" from LibriVox Commentaries on Ecclesiastes at Classic Bible Commentaries The Eternal God Is Our Refuge: A Brief Commentary on Ecclesiastes by G. 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5,096 | August | August is the eighth month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar and one of seven Gregorian months with the length of 31 days. "August." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 Sep. 2008 . This month was originally named Sextilis in Latin, because it was the sixth month in the ancient Roman calendar, which started in March about 735 BC under Romulus. It became the eighth month either when January and February were added to the beginning of the year by King Numa Pompilius about 700 BC or when those two months were moved from the end to the beginning of the year by the decemvirs about 450 BC (Roman writers disagree). It was renamed in honor of Augustus in 8 BC because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in this month. Lore claims August originally had 29 days in the Roman Republican calendar. Augustus took two days from February and gave it to August when Sextilis was renamed in his honor. Duncan, David Ewing. Calendar: Humanity's Epic Struggle To Determine a True and Accurate Year. New York: Avon Books, 1998. See Month lengths how this commonly believed lore was proven wrong. August's flower is the gladiolus or poppy, and its birthstone is the peridot. In common years no other month starts on the same day of the week as August, though in leap years February starts on the same day. Other names In Arabic, the month is called أغسطسص ʾUġusṭuṣ or آب ; usage varies from place to place and person to person. In Bulgarian, the month is known as Август In Chinese, the month is known as 八月 In Croatian, the month is called kolovoz In Dhivehi, the month is called Augastu In Dutch the month is called Augustus In Estonian the month is called august In Finnish, the month is called elokuu, meaning "month of reaping" or literally, "month of life". In French, the month is called août (pronounced OOT or just OO) derived from the Latin augustus. In Greek, the month is called Avgoustos (Αύγουστος') In Hungarian, the month is called augusztus In Indonesian, the month is known as Agustus In Irish, August is known as Lúnasa, a modern rendition of Lughnasadh, from the god Lugh. In Japanese, the month is called hachigatsu (八月), meaning, simply, "eighth month." In Latvian, the month is called Augusts In Lithuanian, the month is called rugpjūtis In Malay, the month is known as Ogos In Polish, the month is called sierpień, meaning "month of sickle". In Portuguese, Spanish and Italian, the month is called agosto. In Romanian, the month is called august In Russian, the month is called avgust (авгуcт) In Serbian the month is called avgust (авгуcт) In Swedish, the month is named augusti, literally plural of the Latin augustus - "the venerable". In Thai, the month is called Sing-ha-kom representing the Singha (lion) In Turkish, the month is called Ağustos In Welsh, the month is called Awst Events in August August, from the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry showing a group of travelers for the month of August, and the Duc's Château d'Étampes in the background. In the pagan wheel of the year August begins at or near Lughnasadh in the northern hemisphere and Imbolc in the southern hemisphere. Some of Ireland's most famous battles have been fought in this month. They include: the Second Battle of Athenry (1316); the battle of Knockdoe (1504); the Battle of the Yellow Ford (1596); the First Battle of Curlew Pass (1599); the Battle of Dungans Hill (1647); the Battle of Castlebar (1798), and the Battle of the Bogside (1969). August 1, Swiss National Day, a public holiday in Switzerland August 6, 1825 Bolivia's independence day. August 6 National Salvadoran-American Day in the United States. In 1945 the end of the Second World War was brought about following the August 6 bombing of Hiroshima and August 9 bombing of Nagasaki in the only use of nuclear weapons against people. Emperor Hirohito declared Japan's unconditional surrender on August 15. August 9, 1965 Singapore separated from the Federation of Malaysia and became independent. August 9 is National Women's Day in South Africa. August 10, 1822 Ecuador became an independent country. August 14, 1947 Pakistan became independent (included East Bengal region as a whole). August 15, Catholic, Feast of the Assumption August 15, 1769 Corsica, birth of Napoleon Bonaparte August 15, 1945 Korea became an independent country. August 15, 1947 India became an independent country. August 17, 1945 Indonesia became an independent country. August 19, 1945 Vietnam's August Revolution succeeded. August 20, 1083 Hungary's Saint Stephen canonized (1001 CE), thus becoming the first of the canonized confessor kings. St. Stephen's day is a national holiday in Hungary as well as an observed holiday for many Hungarian-Americans and other Hungarians around the world. August 21, 1959 Hawaii became the 50th state of the United States of America. The third Friday of August was designated Statehood Day, a state holiday. August 25, 1825 Uruguay became independent from Brazil. August 31, 1957 Malaysia became an independent country. Monthlong events in August Edinburgh Festival is an internationally famous arts festival that takes place during August National Immunization Awareness Month National Psoriasis Awareness Month Women's Small Business Month In many European countries, August is the holiday month for most workers The Philippines celebrates August as the Buwan ng Wika ("Language Month") In the United States, August is National Back to School month. Some US School districts and systems return to school in August. In the United States, August is National Goat Cheese Month. Bober, Mike. Celebrate National Goat Cheese Month with Local Favorites. DC Foodies. Weeklong events in August During the first week of August in Wales, the National Eisteddfod of Wales is held, in which many aspects of Welsh art and culture are celebrated. The Sturgis Motorcycle Rally is held the first full week in August each year. The middle week of August is the peak of the Perseid meteor shower. Other August events August is the only month without a major (religious or federal) holiday in the United States. The first full weekend in August each year, Twinsburg, Ohio celebrates Twins Days. Bon festival - Japanese traditional buddhist custom, evolved into a family reunion holiday. Many Japanese manufacturers and firms give their employees 3 to 5 days off around August 15. Daily events in August Last Sunday The Philippines celebrates National Heroes Day in commemoration of the First Cry of the Philippine Revolution on August 23, 1896. August symbols The gladiolus. August's birthstone is the peridot and sardonyx. The meaning is married happiness. Its birth flower is the gladiolus and poppy. http://www.shgresources.com/gems/birthflowers/ References Further reading August, By David Plotz - Slate Magazine be-x-old:Жнівень | August |@lemmatized august:56 eighth:3 month:49 year:9 gregorian:2 calendar:4 one:1 seven:1 length:1 day:14 encyclopedia:1 britannica:2 encyclopædia:1 online:1 sep:1 originally:2 name:3 sextilis:2 latin:3 sixth:1 ancient:1 roman:3 start:3 march:1 bc:4 romulus:1 become:11 either:1 january:1 february:3 add:1 beginning:2 king:2 numa:1 pompilius:1 two:2 move:1 end:2 decemvirs:1 writer:1 disagree:1 rename:2 honor:2 augustus:5 several:1 significant:1 event:6 rise:1 power:1 culminate:1 fall:1 alexandria:1 fell:1 lore:2 claim:1 republican:1 take:2 give:2 duncan:1 david:2 ewing:1 humanity:1 epic:1 struggle:1 determine:1 true:1 accurate:1 new:1 york:1 avon:1 book:1 see:1 lengths:1 commonly:1 believe:1 prove:1 wrong:1 flower:2 gladiolus:3 poppy:2 birthstone:2 peridot:2 common:1 week:4 though:1 leap:1 arabic:1 call:20 أغسطسص:1 ʾuġusṭuṣ:1 آب:1 usage:1 varies:1 place:3 person:2 bulgarian:1 know:5 август:1 chinese:1 八月:2 croatian:1 kolovoz:1 dhivehi:1 augastu:1 dutch:1 estonian:1 finnish:1 elokuu:1 mean:2 reap:1 literally:2 life:1 french:1 août:1 pronounced:1 oot:1 oo:1 derive:1 greek:1 avgoustos:1 αύγουστος:1 hungarian:3 augusztus:1 indonesian:1 agustus:1 irish:1 lúnasa:1 modern:1 rendition:1 lughnasadh:2 god:1 lugh:1 japanese:3 hachigatsu:1 meaning:2 simply:1 latvian:1 lithuanian:1 rugpjūtis:1 malay:1 ogos:1 polish:1 sierpień:1 sickle:1 portuguese:1 spanish:1 italian:1 agosto:1 romanian:1 russian:1 avgust:2 авгуcт:2 serbian:1 swedish:1 augusti:1 plural:1 venerable:1 thai:1 sing:1 ha:1 kom:1 represent:1 singha:1 lion:1 turkish:1 ağustos:1 welsh:2 awst:1 très:1 riches:1 heures:1 du:1 duc:2 de:1 berry:1 show:1 group:1 traveler:1 château:1 étampes:1 background:1 pagan:1 wheel:1 begin:1 near:1 northern:1 hemisphere:2 imbolc:1 southern:1 ireland:1 famous:2 battle:8 fight:1 include:1 second:2 athenry:1 knockdoe:1 yellow:1 ford:1 first:6 curlew:1 pas:1 dungans:1 hill:1 castlebar:1 bogside:1 swiss:1 national:11 public:1 holiday:7 switzerland:1 bolivia:1 independence:1 salvadoran:1 american:2 united:5 state:7 world:2 war:1 bring:1 follow:1 bombing:2 hiroshima:1 nagasaki:1 use:1 nuclear:1 weapon:1 people:1 emperor:1 hirohito:1 declare:1 japan:1 unconditional:1 surrender:1 singapore:1 separate:1 federation:1 malaysia:2 independent:8 woman:2 south:1 africa:1 ecuador:1 country:6 pakistan:1 included:1 east:1 bengal:1 region:1 whole:1 catholic:1 feast:1 assumption:1 corsica:1 birth:2 napoleon:1 bonaparte:1 korea:1 india:1 indonesia:1 vietnam:1 revolution:2 succeed:1 hungary:2 saint:1 stephen:2 canonize:1 ce:1 thus:1 canonized:1 confessor:1 st:1 well:1 observed:1 many:4 around:2 hawaii:1 america:1 third:1 friday:1 designate:1 statehood:1 uruguay:1 brazil:1 monthlong:1 edinburgh:1 festival:3 internationally:1 art:2 immunization:1 awareness:2 psoriasis:1 small:1 business:1 european:1 worker:1 philippine:3 celebrate:4 buwan:1 ng:1 wika:1 language:1 back:1 school:3 u:1 district:1 system:1 return:1 goat:2 cheese:2 bober:1 mike:1 local:1 favorite:1 dc:1 foodie:1 weeklong:1 wale:2 eisteddfod:1 hold:2 aspect:1 culture:1 sturgis:1 motorcycle:1 rally:1 full:2 middle:1 peak:1 perseid:1 meteor:1 shower:1 without:1 major:1 religious:1 federal:1 weekend:1 twinsburg:1 ohio:1 celebrates:1 twin:1 bon:1 traditional:1 buddhist:1 custom:1 evolve:1 family:1 reunion:1 manufacturer:1 firm:1 employee:1 daily:1 last:1 sunday:1 hero:1 commemoration:1 cry:1 symbols:1 sardonyx:1 married:1 happiness:1 http:1 www:1 shgresources:1 com:1 gem:1 birthflowers:1 reference:1 far:1 reading:1 plotz:1 slate:1 magazine:1 x:1 old:1 жнівень:1 |@bigram gregorian_calendar:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 britannica_encyclopædia:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 britannica_online:1 numa_pompilius:1 god_lugh:1 très_riches:1 riches_heures:1 heures_du:1 du_duc:1 northern_hemisphere:1 southern_hemisphere:1 bombing_hiroshima:1 bombing_nagasaki:1 nuclear_weapon:1 emperor_hirohito:1 unconditional_surrender:1 napoleon_bonaparte:1 goat_cheese:2 perseid_meteor:1 meteor_shower:1 http_www:1 |
5,097 | Bugzilla | Bugzilla is a Web-based general-purpose bugtracker and testing tool originally developed and used by the Mozilla project, and licensed under the Mozilla Public License. Released as open source software by Netscape Communications in 1998, it has been adopted by a variety of organizations for use as a defect tracker for both free software and proprietary products. History Bugzilla was originally written by Terry Weissman in 1998 for the nascent Mozilla.org project, as an open source application to replace the in-house system then in use at Netscape Communications for tracking defects in the Netscape Communicator suite. Originally written in Tcl, Terry decided to port Bugzilla to Perl before its release as part of Netscape's early open source code drops, with the hopes that more people would be able to contribute to it as Perl seemed to be a more popular language at the time. Bugzilla 2.0 was the result of that port to Perl, and the first version released to the public via anonymous CVS. In April 2000, Weissman handed off control of the Bugzilla project to Tara Hernandez. Under Tara's leadership, some of the regular contributors were coerced into taking more responsibility, and Bugzilla development became more community-driven. In July 2001, facing distraction from her other responsibilities in Netscape, Tara handed off control to Dave Miller, who is still in charge . Bugzilla 3.0 was released on May 10, 2007 and brought refreshed UI, XML-RPC interface, custom fields and resolutions, mod perl support, shared saved searches, improved UTF-8 support and others. Requirements Bugzilla's system requirements include: A compatible database management system A suitable release of Perl 5 An assortment of Perl modules A compatible web server A suitable mail transfer agent, or any SMTP server Currently supported database systems are MySQL, PostgreSQL, and Oracle. Bugzilla is usually installed on Linux and runs using the Apache HTTP Server, but Microsoft Internet Information Services or any web server that supports CGI can be used. Bugzilla's installation process is command line driven and runs through a series of stages where system requirements and software capabilities are checked. Design The lifecycle of a Bugzilla bug While the potential exists in the code to turn Bugzilla into a technical support ticket system, task management tool, or project management tool, Bugzilla's developers have chosen to focus on the task of designing a system to track software defects. Mandated design requirements include: the ability to run on freely available, open source tools. While Bugzilla development includes work to support commercial databases, tools, and operating systems, this is not intended to come at the expense of open source ones. the maintenance of speed and efficiency at all costs. One of Bugzilla's major attractions to developers is its lightweight implementation and speed, so calls into the database are minimized whenever possible, data fetching is kept as light as possible, and generation of heavy HTML is avoided. tickets. For instance, Mozilla.org and the MediaWiki project use it to track feature requests as well. Bugs can be submitted by anybody, and will be assigned to a particular developer. Various status updates for each bug are allowed, together with user notes and bug examples. In practice, most Bugzilla projects allowing the public to file bugs — such as the Bugzilla bug database for Bugzilla itself — assign all bugs to a gatekeeper, whose job it is to assign responsibility and priority level. Zarro Boogs By design, Bugzilla is programmed to return the string "zarro boogs found" instead of "0 bugs found" when a search for bugs returns no results. "Zarro Boogs" is a facetious metastatement about the state of software in development. Bug tracking systems like Bugzilla readily describe how many bugs are outstanding. The response "zarro boogs" is intended as a buggy statement itself (a misspelling of "zero bugs"), implying that even when no bugs have been identified, software is still likely to contain bugs that haven't been identified yet. See also Deskzilla Buglist References External links Bugzilla home page Bugzilla live demo Mozilla.org's Bugzilla installation Bugzilla Installation List Tops 400 Installing and Configuring Bugzilla Using Oracle on Windows | Bugzilla |@lemmatized bugzilla:25 web:3 base:1 general:1 purpose:1 bugtracker:1 test:1 tool:5 originally:3 develop:1 use:7 mozilla:5 project:6 license:2 public:3 release:5 open:5 source:5 software:6 netscape:5 communication:2 adopt:1 variety:1 organization:1 defect:3 tracker:1 free:1 proprietary:1 product:1 history:1 write:2 terry:2 weissman:2 nascent:1 org:3 application:1 replace:1 house:1 system:9 track:4 communicator:1 suite:1 tcl:1 decide:1 port:2 perl:6 part:1 early:1 code:2 drop:1 hope:1 people:1 would:1 able:1 contribute:1 seem:1 popular:1 language:1 time:1 result:2 first:1 version:1 via:1 anonymous:1 cv:1 april:1 hand:2 control:2 tara:3 hernandez:1 leadership:1 regular:1 contributor:1 coerce:1 take:1 responsibility:3 development:3 become:1 community:1 driven:1 july:1 face:1 distraction:1 dave:1 miller:1 still:2 charge:1 may:1 bring:1 refresh:1 ui:1 xml:1 rpc:1 interface:1 custom:1 field:1 resolution:1 mod:1 support:6 share:1 save:1 search:2 improve:1 utf:1 others:1 requirement:4 include:3 compatible:2 database:5 management:3 suitable:2 assortment:1 module:1 server:4 mail:1 transfer:1 agent:1 smtp:1 currently:1 mysql:1 postgresql:1 oracle:2 usually:1 instal:1 linux:1 run:3 apache:1 http:1 microsoft:1 internet:1 information:1 service:1 cgi:1 installation:3 process:1 command:1 line:1 drive:1 series:1 stage:1 capability:1 check:1 design:4 lifecycle:1 bug:14 potential:1 exists:1 turn:1 technical:1 ticket:2 task:2 developer:3 choose:1 focus:1 mandate:1 ability:1 freely:1 available:1 work:1 commercial:1 operate:1 intend:2 come:1 expense:1 one:2 maintenance:1 speed:2 efficiency:1 cost:1 major:1 attraction:1 lightweight:1 implementation:1 call:1 minimize:1 whenever:1 possible:2 data:1 fetching:1 keep:1 light:1 generation:1 heavy:1 html:1 avoid:1 instance:1 mediawiki:1 feature:1 request:1 well:1 submit:1 anybody:1 assign:3 particular:1 various:1 status:1 update:1 allow:2 together:1 user:1 note:1 example:1 practice:1 file:1 gatekeeper:1 whose:1 job:1 priority:1 level:1 zarro:4 boogs:4 program:1 return:2 string:1 find:2 instead:1 facetious:1 metastatement:1 state:1 like:1 readily:1 describe:1 many:1 outstanding:1 response:1 buggy:1 statement:1 misspelling:1 zero:1 imply:1 even:1 identify:2 likely:1 contain:1 yet:1 see:1 also:1 deskzilla:1 buglist:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 live:1 demo:1 list:1 top:1 installing:1 configure:1 window:1 |@bigram netscape_communicator:1 xml_rpc:1 perl_module:1 external_link:1 |
5,098 | Commodore_64 | The Commodore 64 is an 8-bit home computer released by Commodore International in August, 1982, at a price of 595 USD. Preceded by the Commodore VIC-20 and Commodore MAX Machine, the C64 features 64 kilobytes (65,536 bytes) of RAM with sound and graphics performance that were superior to IBM-compatible computers of that time. It is commonly known as the C64 or C=64 and occasionally referred to as CBM 64 (Commodore Business Machines Model number 64), or VIC-64. VIC 64 Användarmanual. Image of Swedish edition of the VIC 64 user's manual. Retrieved on 2007-03-12. It has also been affectionately nicknamed the "breadbox" and "bullnose" due to the shape and colour of the first version of its casing. During the Commodore 64's lifetime, sales totaled 30 million units, making it the best-selling single personal computer model of all time. For a substantial period of time (1983-1986), the Commodore 64 dominated the market with between 30% and 40% share and 2 million units sold per year, outselling the IBM PC clones, Apple computers, and Atari computers. Sam Tramiel, a former Commodore president said in a 1989 interview "When I was at Commodore we were building 400,000 C64s a month for a couple of years." Part of its success was because it was sold in retail stores instead of electronics stores, and that Commodore produced many of its parts in-house to control supplies and cost. It is sometimes compared to the Ford Model-T for bringing a new technology to middle-class households via creative mass-production. Approximately 10,000 commercial software titles were made for the Commodore 64 including development tools, office applications, and games. The machine is also credited with popularizing the computer demo scene. The Commodore 64 is still used today by some computer hobbyists, and various C64 emulators allow anyone with a modern computer, or a compatible game console, to run these programs. Since 28 March 2008, Commodore 64 games have been available to buy through Nintendo's Virtual Console service in Europe; the first games available were Uridium and International Karate. Later on February 23, 2009, the Commodore 64 section was launched in North America with the first three titles, International Karate, The Last Ninja and Pitstop II. History Commodore BASIC V2.0. In January 1981, MOS Technology, Inc., Commodore's integrated circuit design subsidiary, initiated a project to design the graphic and audio chips for a next generation video game console. Design work for the chips, named MOS Technology VIC-II (graphics) and MOS Technology SID (audio), was completed in November 1981. Perry, Tekla S.; Wallich, Paul. "Design case history: The Commodore 64". IEEE Spectrum, March 1985. A game console project was then initiated by Commodore that would use the new chips—called the Ultimax or alternatively the Commodore MAX Machine, engineered by Yash Terakura from Commodore Japan. This project was eventually canceled after just a few machines were manufactured for the Japanese market. At the same time Robert "Bob" Russell (system programmer and architect on the VIC-20) and Robert "Bob" Yannes (engineer of the SID) were critical of the current product line-up at Commodore, which was a continuation of the Commodore PET line aimed at business users. With the support of Al Charpentier (engineer of the VIC-II) and Charles Winterble (manager of MOS Technology), they proposed to Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel a true low-cost sequel to the VIC-20. Tramiel dictated that the machine should have 64 KB of RAM. Although 64 KB of DRAM cost over USD$100 at the time, he knew that DRAM prices were falling, and would drop to an acceptable level before full production was reached. In November, Tramiel set a deadline for the first weekend of January, to coincide with the 1982 Consumer Electronics Show. The product was codenamed the VIC-40 as the successor to the popular VIC-20. The team that constructed it consisted of Bob Russell, Bob Yannes and David A. Ziembicki. The design, prototypes and some sample software was finished in time for the show, after the team had worked tirelessly over both Thanksgiving and Christmas weekends. Commodore BASIC 2.0 was used instead of the more advanced BASIC 4.0 from the PET series, since the C64 was intended to be a lower end home computer, and its users were not expected to utilize the disk-oriented enhancements of BASIC 4.0. "The choice of BASIC 2.0 instead of 4.0 was made with some soul-searching, not just at random. The typical user of a C64 is not expected to need the direct disk commands as much as other extensions, and the amount of memory to be committed to BASIC was to be limited. We chose to leave expansion space for color and sound extensions instead of the disk features. As a result, you will have to handle the disk in the more cumbersome manner of the 'old days'." C64 basic introduction, Pg. 65, Commodore Magazine, Aug 1982 When the product was to be presented, the VIC-40 product was renamed C64 in order to fit into the current Commodore business products lineup which contained the P128 and the B256, both named by a letter and their respective memory size. The C64 made an impressive debut at the 1982 Winter Consumer Electronics Show, as recalled by Production Engineer David A. Ziembicki: "All we saw at our booth were Atari people with their mouths dropping open, saying, 'How can you do that for $595?'" The answer, as it turned out, was vertical integration; thanks to Commodore's ownership of MOS Technology's semiconductor fabrication facilities, each C64 had an estimated production cost of only $135. Winning the market war The C64 faced a wide range of competing home computers at its introduction in August 1982. With an impressive price coupled with the C64's advanced hardware, it quickly out-classed many of its competitors. In the United States the greatest competitors to the C64 were the Atari 8-bit 400 and 800, and the Apple II. The Atari 400 and 800 were very similar in hardware terms, but used custom chips for graphics and sound, and so were very expensive to build. The Apple IIe, the latest in the aging Apple II line had higher resolution graphics modes than the C64, but due to poor color support they were rarely used, so in practice the C64's 16-color (4-bit) graphics and sound abilities outmatched them at the time of its release. Upgrade capability for the Apple II was granted by internal expansion slots, while C64 had only an external cartridge plug. The C64 had most of the capabilities of the common Apple II expansion cards built-in, however. All four machines had similar standard memory configurations in the years 1982/83: 48K for the Apple II+ (upgraded within months of C64's release to 64K with the Apple IIe) and 48K for the Atari 800. At upwards of US$1,200, Apple II History Chap 6 the Apple II was more than twice as expensive, while the Atari 800 cost $899. One key to the C64's success was Commodore's aggressive marketing tactics, and they were quick to exploit the relative price/performance divisions between its competitors with a series of television commercials after the C64's launch in late 1982. Commodore sold the C64 not only through its network of authorized dealers, but also placed it on the shelves of department stores, discount stores, and toy stores. Like the Apple IIe, the C64 could output composite video and thus could be plugged into a television set instead of a specialized monitor. This allowed it (like its predecessor, the VIC-20) to compete directly against video game consoles such as the Atari 2600. Aggressive pricing of the C64 is considered to be a major catalyst in the North American video game crash of 1983. In January 1983, Commodore offered a $100 rebate in the United States on the purchase of a C64 to anyone trading in another computer or video game console. To take advantage of this rebate, some mail-order dealers and retailers offered a Timex Sinclair 1000 for as little as $10 with purchase of a C64, so the consumer could send the TS1000 to Commodore, collect the rebate, and pocket the difference; Timex Corporation departed the marketplace within a year. This soon led to a price war with the major home computer manufacturers. The success of the VIC-20 and C64 contributed significantly to the exit of Texas Instruments and other smaller competitors from the field. The price war with Texas Instruments (TI) was seen as a personal battle for Commodore president Jack Tramiel; TI's subsequent demise in the home computer industry in October 1983 was seen as revenge for TI's tactics in the electronic calculator market in the mid 1970s, when Commodore was almost bankrupted by TI. In parts of the US in the late 1980s, new C64s could be purchased in retail chains for a little more than $100. In 1984, Commodore released the Commodore Plus/4. The Plus/4 offered a higher-color display, a better implementation of BASIC (V3.5), and built-in software. However, Commodore committed what was perceived by critics and consumers as a major strategic error by making it incompatible with the C64. The Plus/4 lacked hardware sprite capability and had much poorer sound, thus seriously under performing in two of the areas that had made the C64 a star. In Europe, the primary competitors to the C64 were the British-built Sinclair ZX Spectrum, BBC Microcomputer and the Amstrad CPC 464. In the UK, the Spectrum had been released a few months ahead of the C64, and was selling for less than half the price. The Spectrum quickly became the market leader and Commodore had an uphill struggle against the Spectrum as it could not rely on undercutting the competition. The C64 debuted at £399 in early 1983, while the Spectrum cost £175. The C64 would later rival the Spectrum in popularity in the latter half of the 1980s, eventually outliving the Spectrum when the latter was discontinued in December 1990. Despite a few attempts by Commodore to discontinue the C64 in favor of other, higher priced machines, constant demand made its discontinuation a hard task. By 1988, Commodore was selling 1.5 million C64s worldwide. Although demand for the C64 dropped off in the US by 1990, it continued to be popular in the UK and other European countries. In the end, economics, not obsolescence, sealed the C64's fate. In March 1994, at CeBIT in Hanover, Germany, Commodore announced that the C64 would be finally discontinued in 1995. Commodore claimed that the C64's disk drive was more expensive to manufacture than the C64 itself. Although Commodore had planned to discontinue the C64 by 1995, the company filed for bankruptcy a month later, in April 1994. Amiga Format News Special. "Commodore at CeBIT '94". Amiga Format, Issue 59, May 1994. The C64 family The Commodore MAX Machine The Commodore SX-64 The Commodore Games System (C64GS) 1982: Commodore released the Commodore MAX Machine in Japan. It is called the Ultimax in the US, and VC-10 in Germany. The MAX was intended to be a game console with limited computing capability, and was based around a very cut-down version of the hardware family later used in the C64. The MAX was discontinued months after its introduction, because of poor sales in Japan. 1983 saw Commodore attempt to compete with the Apple II's hold on the education market with the Educator 64, essentially a C64 and monochrome monitor in a PET case. Schools preferred the all-in-one metal construction of the PET over the standard C64's separate components, which could be easily damaged, vandalized or stolen. In 1984 Commodore released the SX-64, a portable version of the C64. The SX-64 has the distinction of being the first full-color portable computer. The base unit featured a 5 inch (127 mm) CRT and an integrated 1541 floppy disk drive. The SX-64 did not have a cassette connector. Commodore was determined to avoid the problems of the Plus/4, making sure that the eventual successors to the C64 — the Commodore 128 and 128D computers (1985) — were as good as, and fully compatible with the original, as well as offering a host of improvements (such as a structured BASIC with graphics and sound commands, 80-column display capability, and full CP/M compatibility). Commodore 64C system with 1541-II floppy drive and 1084S displaying an S-video PAL image In 1986, Commodore released the Commodore 64C (C64C) computer, which was functionally identical to the original, but whose exterior design was remodeled in the sleeker style of the Commodore 128 and other contemporary design trends. The modifications to the C64 line were more than skin deep in the C64C with new versions of the SID, VIC and I/O chips being deployed—with the core voltage reduced from 12v to 9v. In the United States, the C64C was often bundled with the third-party GEOS GUI-based operating system. The Commodore 1541 disk drive received a matching face-lift resulting in the 1541c. Later a smaller, sleeker 1541-II model was introduced along with the 800KB 3.5" capable 1581. In 1990, the C64 was re-released in the form of a game console, called the C64 Games System (C64GS). A simple modification to the C64C's motherboard was made to orient the cartridge connector to a vertical position. This allowed cartridges to be inserted from above. A modified ROM replaced the BASIC interpreter with a boot screen to inform the user to insert a cartridge. The C64GS was another commercial failure for Commodore, and it was never released outside of Europe. In 1990, an advanced successor to the C64, the Commodore 65 (also known as the "C64DX"), was prototyped, but the project was canceled by Commodore's chairman Irving Gould in 1991. The C65's specifications were very good for an 8-bit computer. For example, it could display 256 colors on screen, while OCS based Amigas could only display 64 in HalfBrite mode (32 colors and half-bright transformations); the HAM mode on the Amiga allowed all 4096 colors of the 12 bit color system, but it was awkward to use and had restrictions on color combinations between adjacent pixels. Although no specific reason was given for the C65's cancellation, it would have competed in the marketplace with Commodore's lower end Amigas. C64 clones In the middle of 2004, after an absence from the marketplace of more than 10 years, PC manufacturer Tulip Computers BV (owners of the Commodore brand since 1997) announced the C64 Direct-to-TV (C64DTV), a joystick-based TV game based on the C64 with 30 games built into ROM. Designed by Jeri Ellsworth, a self-taught computer designer who had earlier designed the modern C-One C64 implementation, the C64DTV was similar in concept to other mini-consoles based on the Atari 2600 and Intellivision which had gained modest success earlier in the decade. The product was advertised on QVC in the United States for the 2004 holiday season. Some users have installed 1541 floppy disk drives, hard drives, second joysticks and keyboards to these units, which give the DTV devices nearly all of the capabilities of a full Commodore 64. The DTV hardware is also used in the mini-console/game Hummer, sold at RadioShack mid-2005. C64 enthusiasts still develop new hardware, including Ethernet cards, specially adapted hard disks and Flash Card interfaces. Software Screenshot of International Karate+ At the time of its introduction, the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were rivaled only by the Atari 8-bit family. This was at a time when most IBM PCs and compatibles had text-only display adapter cards, monochrome monitors, and sound consisting of squeaks and beeps from the built-in tiny, low-quality speaker. Due to its advanced graphics and sound, the C64 is often credited with starting the computer subculture known as the demoscene (see Commodore 64 demos). The C64 lost its top position among demo coders when the 16-bit Commodore Amiga and Atari ST were released in 1985, however it still remained a very popular platform for demo coding up to the early 90s. It is still being actively used as a demo machine http://www.lyonlabs.org/commodore/c4-2008/c4-2008.html , especially for music (its sound chip even being used in special sound cards for PCs, and the Elektron SidStation synthesizer). Unfortunately, the differences between PAL and NTSC C64s caused compatibility problems between U.S./Canadian C64s and those from most other countries. The vast majority of demos run only on PAL machines. Even though the Commodore 64 was released in 1982, it was still a strong competitor for the range of the number of games released to the Sega Master System and the Nintendo Entertainment System, despite these consoles being released three to four years later than the C64. During the 1980s, the Commodore 64 was also used to run numerous Bulletin Board Systems using highly optimized Blue Board software. Hardware Graphics and sound The C64 uses an 8-bit MOS Technology 6510 microprocessor. This is a close derivative of the 6502, with an added 6-bit internal I/O port that in the C64 is used for two purposes: to bank-switch the machine's ROM in and out of the processor's address space, and to operate the datasette tape recorder. The C64 has 64 kilobytes of RAM, of which 38 KB are available to built-in Commodore BASIC 2.0. The graphics chip, VIC-II, features 16 colors, eight hardware sprites per scanline (enabling up to 112 sprites per PAL screen), scrolling capabilities, and two bitmap graphics modes. The standard text mode features 40 columns, like most Commodore PET models; the built in font is not standard ASCII but PETSCII, an extended form of ASCII-1963. The VIC-II allows the C64 to be a highly-capable platform for playing arcade-style games at home. The sound chip, SID, has three channels, each with its own ADSR envelope generator, ring modulation and filter capabilities. It was designed by Bob Yannes, who would later co-found synthesizer company Ensoniq. Yannes criticized other contemporary computer sound chips as "primitive, obviously... designed by people who knew nothing about music." Often the game music became a hit of its own among C64 users. Well-known composers and programmers of game music on the C64 are Rob Hubbard, David Whittaker, Chris Hülsbeck, Ben Daglish, Martin Galway and David Dunn among many others. Due to the chip's limitation to three channels, chords are played as arpeggios typically, coining the C64's characteristic lively sound. There are two versions of the SID chip. The first version is the MOS Technology 6581, which is to be found in all of the original "breadbox" C64s, and early versions of the C64C and the Commodore 128. It was later replaced with the MOS Technology 8580 in 1987. The sound quality is a little more crisp on the 6581 and many Commodore 64 fans still prefer its sound. The main difference between the 6581 and the 8580 is the voltage supply: the 6581 uses a 12 volt supply, while the 8580 requires only 9 volts. A voltage modification can be made to use a 6581 in a C64C board (which uses 9V). The SID chip has a distinctive sound which retained a following of devotees. In 1999, Swedish company Elektron produced a SidStation synth module, built around the 6581 model SID chip (as opposed to the newer 8580), using remaining stocks of the chip. Several bands use these devices in their music. Also in 1999, a Hungarian company Hard Software produced the HardSID sound cards which are built on both the 6581 and the 8580 SID chips. Hardware revisions Cost reduction was the driving force for hardware revisions to the C64's motherboard. Reducing manufacturing costs was vitally important to Commodore's survival during the price war and leaner years of the 16-bit era. The C64's original (NMOS based) motherboard would go through two major redesigns, (and numerous sub-revisions) exchanging positions of the VIC-II, SID and PLA chips. Initially, a large proportion of the cost was lowered by reducing the number of discrete components used, such as diodes and resistors, which also enabled the use of the now physically smaller board. It is likely that the reduced board size led to further cost savings. An early C64 motherboard (Rev A PAL 1982). A C64C motherboard ("C64E" Rev B PAL 1992). The VIC-II was manufactured with 5 micrometer NMOS technology and was clocked at either 14.31818 MHz (NTSC) or 17.73447 MHz (PAL). Internally, the clock was divided down to generate the pixel clock (about 8 MHz) and the two-phase system clocks (about 1 MHz; the exact pixel and system clock speeds are slightly different between NTSC and PAL machines). At such high clock rates, the chip generated a lot of heat, forcing MOS Technology to use a ceramic DIL package (called a "CERDIP"). The ceramic package was more expensive, but it dissipated heat more effectively than plastic. After a redesign in 1983, the VIC-II was encased in a plastic DIL package, which reduced costs substantially, but it did not totally eliminate the heat problem. Without a ceramic package, the VIC-II required the use of a heat sink. To avoid extra cost, the metal RF shielding doubled as the heat sink for the VIC, although not all units shipped with this type of shielding. Most C64s in Europe shipped with a cardboard RF shield, coated with a layer of metal foil. The effectiveness of the cardboard was highly questionable, and worse still it acted as an insulator, blocking airflow which trapped heat generated by the SID, VIC, and PLA chips. The SID was manufactured using NMOS at 7 and in some areas 6 micrometers. The prototype SID and some very early production models featured a ceramic DIL package, but unlike the VIC-II, these are extremely rare as the SID was encased in plastic when production started in early 1982. In 1986, Commodore released the last revision to the "classic" C64 motherboard. It was otherwise identical to the 1984 design, except that it now used two 64 kilobit ×4 DRAM chips rather than the original eight 64 kilobit ×1. After the release of the C64C, MOS Technology began to reconfigure the C64's chipset to use HMOS technology. The main benefit of using HMOS was that it required less voltage to drive the IC, which consequently generates less heat. This enhanced the overall reliability of the SID and VIC-II. The new chipset was re-numbered to 85xx in order to reflect the change to HMOS. In 1987 Commodore released C64Cs with a totally redesigned motherboard commonly known as a "short board". The new board used the new HMOS chipset, featuring new 64-pin PLA chip. The new "SuperPLA", as it was dubbed, integrated many discrete components and TTL chips. The 2114 color RAM was integrated into the last revision of the PLA. Power supply The C64 used an external power supply. This saved space within the computer's case. The 1541-II and 1581 disk drives, along with various third-party clones, also came with their own external power supply "bricks". Specifications Internal hardware Microprocessor CPU: MOS Technology 6510/8500 (the 6510/8500 being a modified 6502 with an integrated 6-bit I/O port) Clock speed: 1.023 MHz (NTSC) or 0.985 MHz (PAL) Video: MOS Technology VIC-II 6567/8567 (NTSC), 6569/8569 (PAL) 16 colors Text mode: 40×25 characters; 256 user-defined chars (8×8 pixels, or 4×8 in multicolor mode); 4-bit color RAM defines foreground color Bitmap modes: 320×200 (2 unique colors in each 8×8 pixel block), 160×200 (3 unique colors + 1 common color in each 4×8 block) 8 hardware sprites of 24×21 pixels (12×21 in multicolor mode) Smooth scrolling, raster interrupts Sound: MOS Technology 6581/8580 SID 3-channel synthesizer with programmable ADSR envelope 8 octaves 4 waveforms: triangle, sawtooth, variable pulse, noise Oscillator synchronization, ring modulation Programmable filter: high pass, low pass, band pass, notch filter Input/Output: Two 6526 Complex Interface Adapters 16 bit parallel I/O 8 bit serial I/O Time of Day clock 16 bit cascadable timers RAM: 64 KB (65,536 bytes), of which 38 KB minus 1 byte (38,911 bytes) were available for BASIC programs 512 bytes color RAM Expandable to 320 KB with Commodore 1764 256 KB RAM Expansion Unit (REU); although only 64 KB directly accessible; REU mostly intended for GEOS. REUs of 128 KB and 512 KB, originally designed for the C128, were also available, but required the user to buy a stronger power supply from some third party supplier; with the 1764 this was included. Creative Micro Designs also produced a 2 MB REU for the C64 and C128, called the 1750 XL. The technology actually supported up to 16 MB, but 2 MB was the biggest one officially made. Expansions of up to 16 MB were also possible via the CMD SuperCPU. ROM: 20 KB (9 KB BASIC 2.0; 7 KB KERNAL; 4 KB character generator, providing two 2 KB character sets) I/O ports and power supply Commodore 64 ports (Cartridge, RF-adj, RF, A/V, 488, Tape, User + Joy1, Joy2, Power) I/O ports: 090505 computermuseum.li Cartridge expansion slot (slot for edge connector with 6510 CPU address/data bus lines and control signals, as well as GND and voltage pins; used for program modules and memory expansions, among others) Integrated RF modulator antenna output via a RCA connector. The used channel could be adjusted from number 36 with the potentiometer to the left. 8-pin DIN connector containing composite video output, separate Y/C outputs and sound input/output. Beware that this is the 270° (horseshoe) version of the plug, not the 360° circular version. Also note that some early C64 units used a 5-pin DIN connector that only contained CVBS output. Serial bus (serial version of IEEE-488, 6-pin DIN plug) for CBM printers and disk drives PET-type Commodore Datassette 300 baud tape interface (edge connector with digital cassette motor/read/write/sense signals and GND and +5 V pins; the motor pin is powered to directly supply the motor) User port (edge connector with TTL-level RS-232 signals, for modems, etc; and byte-parallel signals which can be used to drive third-party parallel printers, among other things; with 17 logic signals, 7 GND and voltage pins, including 9V AC voltage) 2 × screwless DE9M game controller ports (compatible with Atari 2600 controllers), each supporting five digital inputs and two analog inputs. Available peripherals included digital joysticks, analog paddles, a light pen, the Commodore 1351 mouse, and the unique KoalaPad. Power supply: 5V DC and 9V AC from an external "power brick", attached to a 7-pin female DIN-connector on the computer. 090505 allpinouts.org The 9VAC is used to supply power via an charge pump to the SID sound generator chip, provide 6,8V via an rectifier to the cassette motor, a "0" pulse for every positive half wave to the time-of-day (TOD) on the CIA chips, and 9VAC directly on the user-port. Thus as a minimum a 12V square wave is required. But a 9V sine wave is prefered. 090519 zimmers.net 090519 zimmers.net Notes on C64 software The unintentional "screensaver" mode. On address $FFF6-$FFF9 (65526-9) in the C64 KERNAL, immediately before the hard-coded jump vectors for the processor, is letter sequence "RRBY". These are the initials of Robert Russell and Robert Yannes (Bob Yannes), the two main engineers that created the C64. Due to a quirk in the C64's BASIC operating system, an unintentional Easter egg or "screensaver" of sorts may be activated by pressing the buttons in unison, then entering POKE781,96:SYS58251 on the subsequently cleared screen. There are ways to hide lines of code written in the BASIC Language stored in local memory, using control characters outside delimiting quotes, which the BASIC LIST function displayed as cursor control codes. For example, the reverse "heart" symbol would clear the screen, the reverse [ character would delete characters, and the character shift-L (which looks like an L-shaped border corner) in the program code would cause a syntax error and abort the LISTing). Even though the VIC chip displays borders around the screen, it is possible to disable these vertical or side borders to allow graphics to be displayed by altering the hardware registers at the correct time. Using short commands (usually the first letter, then shift and the second) it was possible to make BASIC lines more than two display rows long. The C64 could not parse more than two display rows when the subsequent code was LISTed, so lines constructed in this fashion could not be edited - to make changes to them, the user would have to re-type them from scratch. Notable historic use The Commodore 64/128 series of computers found a place in early computer graphic design and television presentation. For example, early creation of music using the SID sound chip led to some of which finding its way into modern music. In 2007 Timbaland's extensive use of the SidStation led to the 2007 Timbaland plagiarism controversy around his tracks Block Party and Do It (written for Nelly Furtado). See also Commodore SX-64 - Portable version List of Commodore 64 games Commodore 64 demos Commodore MAX Machine - Commodore 64 predecessor IDE64 - P-ATA interface cartridge for the C64 C-One - Programmable FPGA clone C64 Direct-to-TV - ASIC clone with 30 built in games 1541 Ultimate - System state controller & storage peripheral. Footnotes References Angerhausen, M.; Becker, Dr. A.; Englisch, L.; Gerits, K. (1983, 84). The Anatomy of the Commodore 64. Abacus Software (US ed.) / First Publishing Ltd. (UK ed.). ISBN 0-948015-00-4 (UK ed.). German original edition published by Data Becker GmbH & Co. KG, Düsseldorf. Bagnall, Brian (2005). On the Edge: the Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore. Variant Press. ISBN 0-9738649-0-7. See especially pp. 224−260. Commodore Business Machines, Inc., Computer Systems Division (1982). Commodore 64 Programmer's Reference Guide. Self-published by CBM. ISBN 0-672-22056-3. Tomczyk, Michael (1984). The Home Computer Wars: An Insider's Account of Commodore and Jack Tramiel. COMPUTE! Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-942386-75-2. Jeffries, Ron. "A best buy for '83: Commodore 64". Creative Computing, January 1983. Amiga Format News Special. "Commodore at CeBIT '94". Amiga Format, Issue 59, May 1994. Computer Chronicles; "Commodore 64 - Interview with Commodore president Max Toy", 1988. Datarock song, Computer Camp Love, references the Commodore 64 in the song. External links C64 Preservation Project Preserving original C64 hardware and software Comprehensive Collection of C64 Technical Trivia Chronology of the Commodore 64 Computer The History of the Commodore 64 Commodore 64 history, manuals, and photos A History of Gaming Platforms: The Commodore 64 from October 2007 Images of the C64 prototype from 2003 C64 orchestra - Classical orchestra plays old c64 gamemusic. "Commodore 64 still loved after all these years," CNN "The Commodore 64 at 25: thank you for the music," The Guardian | Commodore_64 |@lemmatized commodore:101 bit:15 home:7 computer:30 release:17 international:4 august:2 price:9 usd:2 precede:1 vic:26 max:8 machine:16 feature:7 kilobyte:2 byte:6 ram:8 sound:23 graphic:14 performance:2 superior:1 ibm:3 compatible:4 time:12 commonly:2 know:7 c:4 occasionally:1 refer:1 cbm:3 business:4 model:7 number:5 användarmanual:1 image:3 swedish:2 edition:2 user:13 manual:2 retrieve:1 also:14 affectionately:1 nickname:1 breadbox:2 bullnose:1 due:5 shape:1 colour:1 first:8 version:11 casing:1 lifetime:1 sale:2 total:1 million:3 unit:7 make:13 best:2 selling:1 single:1 personal:2 substantial:1 period:1 dominate:1 market:6 share:1 sell:6 per:3 year:8 outsell:1 pc:4 clone:5 apple:12 atari:11 sam:1 tramiel:6 former:1 president:3 say:2 interview:2 build:11 month:5 couple:2 part:3 success:4 retail:2 store:6 instead:5 electronics:3 produce:4 many:5 house:1 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5,099 | Bead | Beads Beads at a market stall A bead is a small, decorative object that is pierced for threading or stringing. Beads range in size from under a millimeter to over a centimeter or sometimes several centimeters in diameter. Glass, plastic, and stone are probably the most common materials, but beads are also made from bone, horn, ivory, metal, shell, pearl, coral, gemstones, polymer clay, metal clay, resin, synthetic minerals, wood, ceramic, fiber, paper, and seeds. A pair of beads made from Nassarius sea snail shells, approximately 100,000 years old, are thought to be the earliest known examples of jewellery. Shell beads suggest new roots for culture 82,000-year-old shell beads from North Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior Beadwork is the art or craft of making things with beads. Beads can be woven together with specialized thread, strung onto thread or wire, or adhered to a surface (e.g. fabric, clay). Types of beads Cloisonné beads Dichroic beads () Types of decorative beads include: Bugle beads Chevron beads Cloisonné beads Dichroic beads Ethnic beads Faux natural beads Fire-polished beads Furnace glass beads Fused glass beads Fusible beads Lampwork beads Lead crystal beads Lucite beads Millefiori beads Pressed glass beads Seed beads Trade beads or Slave beads Tagua Beads Vintage Beads Chevron beads Chevron Beads are special glass beads, originally made for trade in the New World and the slave trade in Africa by glassmakers in Italy as far back as the early 15th century. They are composed of many consecutive layers of colored glass. The initial core is formed in a star-shaped mold, and can have anywhere between five and fifteen points. The next layer of glass conforms to that star shape. Several layers of glass can be applied (typically four to seven layers), either star-shaped or smooth. After all layers have been applied, the glass is drawn out to the desired thickness and when cooled, cut into short segments showing the resulting star pattern at their ends. The ends can be ground to display the chevron pattern. Chevron beads are traditionally composed of red, blue, and white layers, but modern chevrons can be found in any color combination. Original beads made for trade to the New World and Africa were typically composed of green, white, blue and red layers. Dichroic glass beads Increasingly, dichroic glass is being used to produce high-end art beads. Dichroic glass has a thin film of metal fused to the surface of the glass, resulting in a surface that has a metallic sheen that changes between two colors when viewed at different angles. Beads can be fused, pressed, or made with traditional lampworking techniques. The metal coating used was originally developed by NASA for the space program. Ethnic beads, including stone beads Carved Cinnabar lacquer beads Other beads considered trade beads are those made in West Africa, by and for Africans, such as Mauritanian Kiffa beads, and Ghanaian and Nigerian powder glass beads. Other ethnic beads include Tibetan Dzi beads and African-made brass beads. Rudraksha beads are seeds that are customary in India for making Buddhist and Hindu rosaries (malas). Magatama are traditional Japanese beads, and cinnabar was often used for beads in China. Wampum are cylindrical white or purple beads made from quahog or North Atlantic channeled whelk shells by northeastern Native American tribes, such as the Wampanoag and Shinnecock. Dubin, Lois Sherr. North American Indian Jewelry and Adornment: From Prehistory to the Present. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1999: 170-171. ISBN 0-8109-3689-5. Faux natural beads Often beads are made to look like a more expensive original material, especially in the case of fake pearls and simulated rocks, minerals, and gemstones. Precious metals and ivory are also imitated. Tagua nuts from South American are used as an ivory substitute since the natural ivory trade has been restricted worldwide. Fire polished beads () with AB coating Fire-polished beads "Fire-polished" beads are faceted glass beads made in the Czech Republic. They are faceted by machine and then drawn through ovens to make the surfaces molten, and thus shiny when the beads cool. This method of "polishing" is faster and cheaper than buffing and results in a reasonably attractive bead, though generally less perfect than buffed beads. Czech fire-polish beads are made in an area called Jablonec nad Nisou. Production of glass beads in the area dates back to the 14th century, though production was depressed under communist rule. They commonly come in sizes from to . Furnace glass beads Furnace glass beads Furnace glass beads are a special type of art bead. They are made using traditional glassworking techniques from Italy that are more often used to make art glass objects. The manufacture of these beads requires a large glass furnace and annealing kiln. Furnace glass beads, also called cane glass beads, are sliced from long glass rods, often decorated with stripes and other color, also known as canes. Lampwork beads Lampwork beads are made by using a torch to heat a rod of glass and spinning the resulting thread around a metal rod covered in bead release. When the base bead has been formed, other colors of glass can be added to the surface to create many designs. Lead crystal beads Swarovski crystal beads (), pendant 3 cm Lead crystal beads (also known as machine cut crystal) are cut crystal beads made with hi-tech precise machinery. Thanks to this state of the art machine cut processing the crystal items achieve outstanding geometry and excellent optical parameters. Many lead crystal beads are enhanced with surface coatings. Aurora Borealis, or AB, is a very common surface coating that diffuses light into a rainbow. Other common surface coatings are vitrail, moonlight, dorado, satin, star shine, heliotrope. Swarovski along with Preciosa branded crystal beads are prized by jewelers and hobbyists. They are a high-lead content crystal although today production of lead-free crystal is common. Lead crystals have an incredible sparkle and clarity, and are often multi-faceted to resemble gemstones. Styles and colors go in and out of production, so vintage cuts and colors are often prized with a similarly associated price tag. Swarovski along with Preciosa bicones are the most popular crystal beads in sizes and . Other Czech companies such as PAS Jablonec make similar styles of crystal beads. Lucite beads Lucite is a term that commonly refers to many plastic beads. However, Lucite is one of the many name brands used to describe Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) or poly(methyl 2-methylpropenoate) the synthetic polymer of methyl methacrylate. Lucite methyl methacrylate polymer was among the first plastics derived from petrochemicals. DuPont chemists discovered Lucite in 1931 while exploring the high-pressure technology developed for ammonia production. The polymer’s crystal-clear appearance and its strength were far superior to nitrocellulose-based plastics. Lucite was in heavy demand during World War II for use in windshields, nose cones, and gunner turrets for bombers and fighter planes. After the war, DuPont marketed it for use in a variety of decorative and functional uses, such as lamps, hairbrushes and jewelry. Millefiori beads The millefiori technique involves the production of glass canes or rods, known as murrine, with multicolored patterns which are viewable only from the cut ends of the cane. Millefiori beads are made of plain wound glass bead cores and thin slices of cut cane (murrine) which are being pressed into the bead surface, forming mosaic-like patterns, while the glass is still hot. Another name for Millefiori bead is mosaic bead. Pressed glass beads Pressed glass beads (matte finish with an AB coating) Pressed glass beads are formed by pressing the hot glass into mold to give the bead its shape. Often pressed beads are made using machines that stamp the shape from the molten glass. The shapes can have holes punched in virtually any direction. The Czech Republic is the primary producer of pressed beads, although India and China also produce significant amounts. Seed beads Seed beads are uniformly shaped spheroidal or tube shaped beads ranging in size from under a millimetre to several millimetres. "Seed Bead" is a generic term for any small bead. Usually rounded in shape, seed beads are most commonly used for loom and off-loom bead weaving. Tagua beads The ivory-nut palm, Phytelephas aequatorialis, is a plant that can be harvested for vegetable ivory. It is often used for beads, buttons, and jewelry, and can be dyed. The beads can take a form of the whole Tagua nut or various slices, beads and shapes carved and cut from raw Tagua nuts. In its natural form Tagua resembles Ivory and hence the name vegetable ivory is sometimes used to describe it. However unlike Elephant ivory Tagua is completely eco-friendly. Trade beads or Slave beads Trade beads are various types of beads made in Europe specifically to be used in the slave trade and other trading in Africa. Chevron beads are a specific, historically important type of trade bead. Africa was not the only outlet for these beads. As far back as Christopher Columbus' expeditions, these beads were traded to Native Americans for goods and slaves. Vintage Beads "Vintage", in the collectibles & antique market, is a term used to refer to an item that is 25 or more years old. This term and its meaning has been widely adopted in the bead industry as well. Vintage beads are available in a variety of materials including lucite, plastic, crystal, metal and glass. Fusible beads Fusible beads in many different solid colors Also known as Perler Beads, sometimes called "melty beads" by young children, these small, plastic and colorful beads are placed on a peg array with a solid plastic backing to form pictures and designs and then melted together with a clothes iron. Fusible beads come in many different opaque colors, transparent colors and with sparkles (flakes inside the plastic) and peg boards come in various shapes (e.g. figures) and squares and rectangles. They also can be strung into necklaces or bracelets, or even woven into keychains. See also Glass beadmaking Beadwork Abacus beads Tagua beads References Beck, Horace (1928) "Classification and Nomenclature of Beads and Pendants." Archaeologia 77. 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