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5,700 | Jacobin_(politics) | This page describes the political term "Jacobin." For discussion of the political organization of the French Revolution era, see Jacobin Club. Jacobinism is unrelated to Jacobitism or the English Jacobean period. Idealized Sans-culotte by Louis-Léopold Boilly (1761-1845). The Motto of the French Republic: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity or Death displayed on a Placard announcing the Sale of National Property. In the context of the French Revolution, a Jacobin originally meant a member of the Jacobin Club (1789-1794), but even at that time, the term Jacobins had been popularly applied to all promulgators of revolutionary opinions. In contemporary France this term refers to the concept of a centralized Republic, with power concentrated in the national government, at the expense of local or regional governments. Similarly, it's thought that Jacobinist educational policy had influenced modern France well into the beginning of 20th Century, sought to stamp out French minority languages that it considered reactionary, such as Breton, Basque, Catalan, Occitan, Franco-Provençal and Dutch (West Flemish) but the essential fact was the influence of anti-clericalism (following the Jules Ferry Laws which made primary education in France free, non-clerical and mandatory) instead of Jacobinism. United Kingdom Canning's paper, The Anti-Jacobin, directed against the English Radicals, of the 18th-19th Century, consecrated its use in England. The English who supported the French Revolution during its early stages (or even throughout), were early known as Jacobins. These included the young Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth, and others prior to their disillusionment with the outbreak of The Terror. Others, such as William Hazlitt and Thomas Paine remained idealistic about the Revolution. Much detail on English Jacobinism can be found in E. P. Thompson's The Making of the English Working Class. The Anti-Jacobin was planned by Canning when he was Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. He secured the collaboration of George Ellis, John Hookham Frere, William Gifford, and some others. William Gifford was appointed working editor. The first number appeared on November 20, 1797, with a notice that "the publication would be continued every Monday during the sitting of Parliament". A volume of the best pieces, entitled The Poetry of the Anti-Jacobin, was published in 1800. It is almost impossible to apportion accurately the various pieces to their respective authors, though more than one attempt has been made to do so. When is finished in 1798, John Gifford began The Anti-Jacobin Review and Magazine, or, Monthly Political and Literary Censor, which ran until 1821. Austria In the correspondence of Metternich and other leaders of the repressive policies that followed the second fall of Napoleon in 1815, Jacobin is the term commonly applied to anyone with liberal tendencies, such as the emperor Alexander I of Russia. United States Early Federalist-leaning American newspapers during the French Revolution referred to the Democratic-Republican party as the "Jacobin Party". The most notable examples are the Gazette of the United States, published in Philadelphia, and the Delaware and Eastern Shore Advertiser, published in Wilmington, during the elections of 1798. Today, the term is used in American politics to describe extremists of any party who demand ideological purity. For example, in an article in The New Republic, commentator Eve Fairbanks described right-wing opponents of moderate Republican Congressman Wayne Gilchrest as "Jacobin conservatives". The author of the book Liberal Fascism: The Secret History of the American Left from Mussolini to the Politics of Meaning, Jonah Goldberg, describes Jacobinists as ones during the French Revolution who sought to nationalize and centralize all aspects of a civilization contrasting with modern Conservatism, right-wing, or Classical Liberalism, but more similar to modern liberalism or progressivism. Occasionally, neoconservatives are derisively referred to as "Neo-Jacobins." Allegorical usage The conventionalized scrawny, French revolutionary sans-culottes Jacobin, was developed from about 1790 by British satirical artists James Gillray, Thomas Rowlandson and George Cruikshank. It was commonly contrasted with the stolid stocky conservative and well-meaning John Bull, dressed like an English country squire. C.L.R. James also used the term to refer to revolutionaries during the Haitian Revolution in his book The Black Jacobins. See also Polish Jacobins (Poland) References | Jacobin_(politics) |@lemmatized page:1 describe:3 political:3 term:6 jacobin:17 discussion:1 organization:1 french:8 revolution:7 era:1 see:2 club:2 jacobinism:3 unrelated:1 jacobitism:1 english:6 jacobean:1 period:1 idealized:1 sans:2 culotte:2 louis:1 léopold:1 boilly:1 motto:1 republic:3 liberty:1 equality:1 fraternity:1 death:1 display:1 placard:1 announce:1 sale:1 national:2 property:1 context:1 originally:1 mean:1 member:1 even:2 time:1 popularly:1 apply:2 promulgator:1 revolutionary:3 opinion:1 contemporary:1 france:3 refer:4 concept:1 centralized:1 power:1 concentrate:1 government:2 expense:1 local:1 regional:1 similarly:1 think:1 jacobinist:1 educational:1 policy:2 influence:2 modern:3 well:2 beginning:1 century:2 seek:2 stamp:1 minority:1 languages:1 consider:1 reactionary:1 breton:1 basque:1 catalan:1 occitan:1 franco:1 provençal:1 dutch:1 west:1 flemish:1 essential:1 fact:1 anti:5 clericalism:1 follow:2 jules:1 ferry:1 law:1 make:2 primary:1 education:1 free:1 non:1 clerical:1 mandatory:1 instead:1 united:3 kingdom:1 paper:1 direct:1 radical:1 consecrate:1 use:3 england:1 support:1 early:3 stage:1 throughout:1 know:1 include:1 young:1 samuel:1 taylor:1 coleridge:1 william:4 wordsworth:1 others:3 prior:1 disillusionment:1 outbreak:1 terror:1 hazlitt:1 thomas:2 paine:1 remain:1 idealistic:1 much:1 detail:1 find:1 e:1 p:1 thompson:1 making:1 working:1 class:1 plan:1 secretary:1 state:3 foreign:1 affair:1 secure:1 collaboration:1 george:2 elli:1 john:3 hookham:1 frere:1 gifford:3 appoint:1 work:1 editor:1 first:1 number:1 appear:1 november:1 notice:1 publication:1 would:1 continue:1 every:1 monday:1 sitting:1 parliament:1 volume:1 best:1 piece:2 entitle:1 poetry:1 publish:3 almost:1 impossible:1 apportion:1 accurately:1 various:1 respective:1 author:2 though:1 one:2 attempt:1 finish:1 begin:1 review:1 magazine:1 monthly:1 literary:1 censor:1 run:1 austria:1 correspondence:1 metternich:1 leader:1 repressive:1 second:1 fall:1 napoleon:1 commonly:2 anyone:1 liberal:2 tendency:1 emperor:1 alexander:1 russia:1 federalist:1 leaning:1 american:3 newspaper:1 democratic:1 republican:2 party:3 notable:1 example:2 gazette:1 philadelphia:1 delaware:1 eastern:1 shore:1 advertiser:1 wilmington:1 election:1 today:1 politics:2 extremist:1 demand:1 ideological:1 purity:1 article:1 new:1 commentator:1 eve:1 fairbanks:1 right:2 wing:2 opponent:1 moderate:1 congressman:1 wayne:1 gilchrest:1 conservative:2 book:2 fascism:1 secret:1 history:1 left:1 mussolini:1 meaning:2 jonah:1 goldberg:1 describes:1 jacobinists:1 nationalize:1 centralize:1 aspect:1 civilization:1 contrast:2 conservatism:1 classical:1 liberalism:2 similar:1 progressivism:1 occasionally:1 neoconservative:1 derisively:1 neo:1 allegorical:1 usage:1 conventionalized:1 scrawny:1 develop:1 british:1 satirical:1 artist:1 james:2 gillray:1 rowlandson:1 cruikshank:1 stolid:1 stocky:1 bull:1 dress:1 like:1 country:1 squire:1 c:1 l:1 r:1 also:2 haitian:1 black:1 polish:1 poland:1 reference:1 |@bigram sans_culotte:2 catalan_occitan:1 franco_provençal:1 anti_clericalism:1 taylor_coleridge:1 william_wordsworth:1 william_hazlitt:1 thomas_paine:1 foreign_affair:1 classical_liberalism:1 |
5,701 | Dilbert | Dilbert (first published April 16, 1989) is an American comic strip written and drawn by Scott Adams. Dilbert is known for its satirical office humor about a white-collar, micromanaged office featuring the engineer Dilbert as the title character. The strip has spawned several books, an animated television series, a computer game, and hundreds of Dilbert-themed merchandise items. Adams has also received the National Cartoonist Society Reuben Award and Newspaper Comic Strip Award in 1997 for his work on the strip. Dilbert appears in 2000 newspapers worldwide in 65 countries and 25 languages. http://www.unitedfeatures.com/ufsapp/viewFeature.do?id=79 Themes The comic strip originally revolved around Dilbert and his "pet" dog Dogbert in their home. Many plots revolved around Dilbert's engineer nature or his bizarre inventions. These alternate with plots based on Dogbert's megalomaniacal ambitions. Later, the location of most of the action moved to Dilbert's workplace at a large technology company, and the strip started to satirize technology, workplace, and company issues. The comic strip's popular success is attributable to its workplace setting and themes, which are familiar to a large and appreciative audience; Adams admitted that switching the setting from Dilbert's home to his office was "when the strip really started to take off." Dilbert portrays corporate culture as a Kafkaesque world of bureaucracy for its own sake and office politics that stand in the way of productivity, where employees' skills and efforts are not rewarded, and busy work is praised. Much of the humor emerges as the audience sees the characters making obviously ridiculous decisions that are natural reactions to mismanagement. Themes explored include: Engineers' personal traits Idiosyncrasy of style Hopelessness in dating (and general lack of social skills) Attraction to tools and technological products Esotericism Announcement of changes in company password policy. From left: the Pointy-Haired Boss, Dilbert, Alice, and Wally (Pub. 10. Sept 2005) Incompetent and sadistic management Scheduling and budgeting without reference to reality Failure to reward success or penalize laziness Penalizing employees for failures caused by bad management Micromanagement Failure to improve others' morale, lowering it instead Failure to communicate objectives Handling of projects doomed to failure or cancellation Sadistic HR policies with flimsy (or purely evil) rationale Corporate bureaucracy ISO audits Budgeting, accounting, payroll and financial advisors Stupidity of the general public Susceptibility to advertising Susceptibility to peer pressure Susceptibility to flattery Gullibility in the face of obvious scams Women’s expectation of preferred treatment and their dominance of men through victimism and sex Fourth World countries and outsourcing (Elbonia) Dilapidation Bizarre cultural habits Lack of understanding of capitalism Characters ... Dilbert in popular culture The popularity of the comic strip within the corporate sector has led to the Dilbert character being used in many business magazines and publications (he has made several appearances on the cover of Fortune). The Toronto Star (in reruns), The Globe and Mail, Montreal’s La Presse,The Gazette, the Florida Times Union, the Indianapolis Star, the Providence Journal, the Washington Post, the Los Angeles Times, the Brisbane Courier Mail, the Windsor Star, and San Francisco Chronicle, among other publications, run the comic in their business section rather than in the regular comics section, similar to the way in which Doonesbury is often carried in the editorial section due to its pointed commentary. Criticism and parody Media analyst Norman Solomon and cartoonist Tom Tomorrow claim http://web.archive.org/web/20040218235653/http://free.freespeech.org/normansolomon/dilbert/book/ that while Adams' caricatures of corporate culture seem to project empathy for white-collar workers, the satire ultimately plays into the hands of corporate upper management itself. Solomon describes the characters of Dilbert, none of whom occupy a position higher than middle management, as dysfunctional time-wasters whose inefficiencies detract from corporate values like 'productivity' and 'growth', a very favorable outlook for managers. Though Dilbert and his office-mates often find themselves baffled or victimized by the whims of managerial behavior, they never seem to question it openly. Solomon cites the Xerox corporation's use of Dilbert strips and characters in internally distributed 'inspirational' pamphlets: "Xerox management had recognized what more gullible Dilbert readers did not: Dilbert is an offbeat sugary substance that helps the corporate medicine go down. The Dilbert phenomenon accepts—and perversely eggs on—many negative aspects of corporate existence as unchangeable facets of human nature...As Xerox managers grasped, Dilbert speaks to some very real work experiences while simultaneously eroding inclinations to fight for better working conditions." In 1997, Tom Vanderbilt wrote in a similar vein in The Baffler Magazine: "Labor unions haven’t adopted Dilbert characters as insignia. But corporations in droves have rushed to link themselves with Dilbert. Why? Dilbert mirrors the mass media’s crocodile tears for working people—and echoes the ambient noises from Wall Street." Bill Griffith, in his daily strip Zippy the Pinhead, used his strip as a forum to criticize Adams' artwork as simplistic. Adams again responded on 5/18/98, this time having Dogbert create a comic strip called Pippy the Ziphead, “cramming as much artwork in as possible so no one will notice there’s only one joke...[and] it’s on the reader.” Dilbert notes that the strip is “nothing but a clown with a small head who says random things” and Dogbert responds that he is “maintaining his artistic integrity by creating a comic that no one will enjoy.” http://www.dilbert.com/strips/comic/1998-05-19/ In the late 1990s, an amateur cartoonist named Karl Hörnell began submitting a comic strip parodying both Dilbert and the Image Comics series The Savage Dragon to Dragon creator Erik Larsen. This soon became a regular feature in the Savage Dragon comic book, titled The Savage Dragonbert and Hitler’s Brainbert (“Hitler’s Brainbert” being both a loose parody of Dogbert as well as the Savage Dragon villain identified as Adolf Hitler’s disembodied, superpowered brain). The strip began as a specific parody of the comic book itself, set loosely within the office structure of 'Dilbert', with Hörnell doing an emulation of Adams' cartooning style. In the episode of Family Guy, Mr. Griffin Goes to Washington, Peter comments on how the business world is funny. It then cuts to a scene where Dilbert and Wally are exchanging a joke: Wally: Hey, Dilbert, what do you call it when a guy in middle management moves all the way to upper management? Dilbert: I don't know. What do you call it? Wally: A promotion. Dilbert: Oh, thanks. Here's a memo. At this point, Peter says "Well, sometimes the business world is funny." A parody by Tristan Farnon, creator of Leisure Town, was entitled “The Dilbert Hole” and was a parody of Dilbert. The Comic Strip Doctor - Recontextualization The parody spread virally; sites had trouble hosting the comic during the height of its popularity, as United Feature Syndicate and its lawyers clamped down on it due to its use of the original Dilbert art. Dilbert Parody A comic strip of Luann depicts Brad DeGroot holding up a Dilbert tie, evident by its signature curve. In April 2008, dilbert.com used Adobe Flash and required Microsoft Windows or Mac OS X to be installed. After heavy protests, " Dilbert Goes Flash, Readers Revolt" at Slashdot a flash-free version was created. Blog at dilbert.com for the announcement; dilbert.com/fast for the actual website Dilbert has occasionally been panned for alleged "insensitivity" and off-color jokes, as documented by Adams in The Joy of Work. One of the most widely-attacked strips involved the Pointy-Haired Boss being saved in an airplane crash due to nuns being onboard ("You were saved by prayer?" "No, padding. They don't do a lot of aerobics at the nunnery."). The comic was published the same week as the death of Mother Teresa, leading to a huge backlash. His depiction of Elbonia has also drawn criticism from a variety of corners. In It's Not Funny If I Have To Explain It, Adams recounts having been attacked for the alleged political content of his work (he is a self-described Libertarian), although in the case of one such strip (where oil drilling kills an endangered species) he excuses himself by saying "I just thought the image was funny". Language Terms invented by Adams in relation to the strip, and sometimes used by fans in describing their own office environments, include “Induhvidual.” This term is based on an American English slang expression “duh!” The conscious misspelling of individual as induhvidual is a pejorative term for people who are not in the DNRC (Dogbert's New Ruling Class). Its coining is explained in Dilbert Newsletter #6. The strip has also popularized the usage of the terms “cow-orker”, “splendsmartful”, and PHB. The word “frooglepoopillion” is occasionally used for an extremely large number, a word coined by the marketing department at the company where Dilbert works, in a strip where it was revealed that the company owed so much money that no word existed to describe the number. Some fans have used “Dilbertian” or “Dilbertesque” to analogize situations in real life to those in the comic strip. The lamentation "You had ones? Lucky you, all we had were zeros!", commonly used in IT industry, also originated in a Dilbert's comic strip. Management In 1997, Scott Adams masqueraded as a management consultant to Logitech executives (as Ray Mebert), with the cooperation of the company’s vice-chairman. He acted in much the way he portrays management consultants in the comic strip, with an arrogant manner and bizarre suggestions, such as comparing mission statements to broccoli soup. He convinced the executives to replace their existing mission statement for their New Ventures Group, “to provide Logitech with profitable growth and related new business areas,” with “to scout profitable growth opportunities in relationships, both internally and externally, in emerging, mission-inclusive markets, and explore new paradigms and then filter and communicate and evangelize the findings.” Dilbert Creator Fools Execs With Soap Story, Associated Press, from the webpage of the Seattle Times, 11/16/97. Dilbert Creator Fools Executives, AP story, in full, preserved on MIT humor bulletin board, 11/15/97. The Dilbert Doctrines: An Interview with Scott Adams, by Virginia Postrel, Reason, February 1999. To demonstrate what can be achieved with the most mundane objects if planned correctly and imaginatively, Adams has worked with companies to develop “dream” products for Dilbert and company. In 2001, he collaborated with design company IDEO to come up with the “perfect cubicle”, a fitting creation since many of the Dilbert strips make fun of the standard cubicle desk and the environment it creates. The result was both whimsical and practical. This project was followed in 2004 with designs for Dilbert’s Ultimate House (abbreviated as DUH). An energy-efficient building was the result, designed to prevent many of the little problems that seem to creep into a normal building. For instance, to save time spent buying and decorating a Christmas tree every year, the house has a large (yet unapparent) closet adjacent to the living room where the tree can be stored from year to year. Awards In addition to the National Cartoonists Society Reuben Awards won by Adams, the Dilbert strip has received a variety of other awards. Adams was named best international comic strip artist of 1995 in the Adamson Awards given by the Swedish Academy of Comic Art. Dilbert was named the best-syndicated strip of 1997 in the Harvey Awards and won the Max & Moritz Prize as best international comic strip for 1998. In the Squiddy Awards, Dilbert was named the best daily strip of 1996 and 1997, and the best comic strip of 1998 and 2000. The strip also won the Zombie Award as the best comics strip of 1996 and 1997, and the 1997 Good Taste Award as the best strip of 1996. Media Comic strip compilations Books in bold indicate special compilations or original strips. Always Postpone Meetings with Time-Wasting Morons — April 16, 1989 (first strip) to October 21, 1989 Build a Better Life By Stealing Office Supplies Dogbert's Clues for the Clueless Shave the Whales — October 22, 1989 to August 4, 1990 Bring Me the Head of Willy the Mailboy! — October 5, 1990 to May 18, 1991 It's Obvious You Won't Survive By Your Wits Alone — May 19, 1991 to December 13, 1992 Still Pumped from Using the Mouse — December 14, 1992 to September 27, 1993 Fugitive From the Cubicle Police — September 28, 1993 to February 11, 1995 Casual Day Has Gone Too Far — February 5, 1995 to November 19, 1995 Seven Years of Highly Defective People — 1997; strips from 1989 to 1995, with handwritten notes by Scott Adams I'm Not Anti-Business, I'm Anti-Idiot — November 20, 1995 to August 31, 1996 Journey to Cubeville — September 1, 1996 to January 18, 1998 Don't Step in the Leadership — January 12, 1998 to October 18, 1998 Dilbert Gives You the Business — Collection of favorites before 1999. Random Acts of Management — October 19, 1998 to July 25, 1999 A Treasury of Sunday Strips: Version 00 — 1999; color version of all Sunday strips from 1995 to 1999 Excuse Me While I Wag — July 26, 1999 to April 30, 2000 When Did Ignorance Become A Point Of View? — May 1, 2000 to February 4, 2001 Another Day In Cubicle Paradise — February 5, 2001 to November 11, 2001 What Do You Call A Sociopath In A Cubicle? Answer: A Coworker When Body Language Goes Bad — November 12, 2001 to August 18, 2002 Words You Don't Want to Hear During Your Annual Performance Review — August 19, 2002 to May 25, 2003 Don't Stand Where the Comet is Assumed to Strike Oil — May 26, 2003 to February 29, 2004 It's Not Funny If I Have To Explain It — 2004; strips from 1997 to 2004, with more of Adams' handwritten notes The Fluorescent Light Glistens Off Your Head — March 1, 2004 to December 5, 2004 Thriving on Vague Objectives — December 6, 2004 to September 11, 2005 What Would Wally Do? — 2006; strips focused on Wally. Try Rebooting Yourself — September 12, 2005 to June 18, 2006 Positive Attitude — June 19, 2006 to March 25, 2007 Cubes and Punishment — 2007; a collection of comic strips on workplace cruelty. This is the Part Where You Pretend to Add Value — March 26, 2007 to January 5, 2008 Freedom's Just Another Word for People Finding Out You're Useless — January 6, 2008 to October 12, 2008 14 Years of Loyal Service in a Fabric-Covered Box - 2009 Business books The Dilbert Principle Dogbert's Top Secret Management Handbook The Dilbert Future The Joy of Work Dilbert and the Way of the Weasel Slapped Together: The Dilbert Business Anothology (The Dilbert Principle, The Dilbert Future, and The Joy of Work, published together in one book) Other books Telling It Like It Isn't — 1996; ISBN 0-8362-1324-6 You Don't Need Experience If You've Got Attitude — 1996; ISBN 0-8362-2196-6 Access Denied: Dilbert's Quest for Love in the Nineties — 1996; ISBN 0-8362-2191-5 Conversations With Dogbert — 1996; ISBN 0-8362-2197-4 Work is a Contact Sport — 1997; ISBN 0-8362-2878-2 The Boss: Nameless, Blameless and Shameless — 1997; ISBN 0-8362-3223-2 The Dilbert Bunch — 1997; ISBN 0-8362-2879-0 No You'd Better Watch Out — 1997 Please Don't Feed The Egos — 1997; ISBN 0-8362-3224-0 Random Acts of Catness — 1998; ISBN 0-8362-5277-2 Dilbert Meeting Book Exceeding Tech Limits — 1998; ISBN 0-7683-2028-3 Dilbert Book Of Days — 1998; ISBN 0-7683-2030-5 Work—The Wally Way — 1999; ISBN 0-8362-7480-6 Alice in Blunderland — 1999; ISBN 0-8362-7479-2 All Dressed Down And Nowhere To Go — 2002; ISBN 0-7407-2931-4 Dilbert's Guide to the Rest of Your Life: Dispatches from Cubicleland — 2007; ISBN 0-7624-2781-7 Dilbert 2.0: 20 Years of Dilbert — 2008; 576 pages, ±4000 strips, and Scott Adams' notes from 1989 to 2008. Merchandise Corporate Shuffle by Richard Garfield — 1997; A Dilbert-branded card game similar to Wizard of the Coast's The Great Dalmuti and the drinking game President The Dilberito, a vegetarian burrito with 100% Daily Value of 23 vitamins and minerals There was a line of Dilbert mints which had names along the lines of Manage-mints, Accomplish-mints, Perform-mints and Improve-mints. Dilbert: the Board Game — 2006; by Hyperion Games; A Dilbert-branded board game that won Games Magazine Top 100 Games. Day-by-Day calendars featuring the comic strip are available every year. Animated series Dilbert was adapted into a UPN animated television series, which ran for two seasons from January 25, 1999, to July 25, 2000. The first season centered on the creation of a new product called the "Gruntmaster 6000," including the idea process and testing by one Bob Bastard. The second season had no connecting story arc; plots varied from Wally finding disciples ("The Shroud of Wally") to Dilbert being accused of mass murder ("The Trial"). The second season two-episode finale included Dilbert getting pregnant with the child of a cow, a hillbilly, Robot DNA, "several dozen engineers", an elderly billionaire, and an alien, eventually ending up in a custody battle with Stone Cold Steve Austin as the Judge. Featured voice actors included Daniel Stern as Dilbert, Chris Elliott as Dogbert,and Kathy Griffin as Alice. New Animation On April 7, 2008, dilbert.com presented its very first Dilbert Animation. The new Dilbert animations are animated versions of original comic strips produced by RingTales and animated by Powerhouse Animation Studios. The animation videos run for around 30 seconds each and are added every weekday. "Drunken Lemurs" case In October 2007, the Catfish Bend Casino in Burlington, Iowa, notified its staff that the casino was closing and they were going to be laid off. An employee of seven years, David Steward then posted on an office bulletin board the October 26, 2007 Dilbert strip that compared management decisions to those of "drunken lemurs". The casino called this "very offensive"; they identified him from a surveillance tape, fired him, and tried to prevent him from receiving unemployment insurance benefits. However, in December 2007 an administrative law judge ruled that he would receive benefits, as his action was not intentional misbehavior. Scott Adams said it might be the first confirmed case of an employee being fired for posting a Dilbert cartoon. On February 21, 2008, the first of a series of Dilbert strips showed Wally being caught posting a comic strip "which compares managers to drunken lemurs". Adams later said that fans should stick to posting Garfield strips, as no one gets fired for that. Dilbert.com's Interactive Cartoons In April 2008, Scott Adams announced that United Media would be instituting an interactive feature on Dilbert.com, allowing fans to write speech bubbles and, in the near future, interact with Adams about the content of the strips. Adams has spoken positively about the change, saying, "This makes cartooning a competitive sport." See also Dilbert's Desktop Games, a PC game The Dilbert Principle Peter Principle, the opposite (and original basis) of the Dilbert Principle Plop: The Hairless Elbonian, another comics series by Scott Adams Superiority, a 1951 short story by Arthur C. Clarke which anticipates some themes of Dilbert References External links Dilbert home page (requires Adobe Flash, version without flash) The Official Dilbert Daily Strip RSS feed The Dilbert Blog Website for Dilbert's Desktop Games, by DreamWorks Interactive Dilbert: The Board Game, by Hyperion Games National Cartoonists' Society awards page | Dilbert |@lemmatized dilbert:93 first:6 publish:3 april:6 american:2 comic:32 strip:55 write:3 draw:2 scott:8 adam:22 know:2 satirical:1 office:9 humor:3 white:2 collar:2 micromanaged:1 feature:5 engineer:4 title:2 character:7 spawn:1 several:3 book:10 animated:4 television:2 series:6 computer:1 game:13 hundred:1 theme:5 merchandise:2 item:1 also:6 receive:4 national:3 cartoonist:5 society:3 reuben:2 award:11 newspaper:2 work:13 appear:1 worldwide:1 country:2 language:3 http:4 www:2 unitedfeatures:1 com:8 ufsapp:1 viewfeature:1 id:1 originally:1 revolve:2 around:3 pet:1 dog:1 dogbert:10 home:3 many:5 plot:3 nature:2 bizarre:3 invention:1 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5,702 | History_of_Guinea | Empires The modern state of Guinea did not come into existence until 1958 but the history of the area stretches back much further. West Africa saw many empires rise and fall in the period before European intervention and Guinea fell within many of them. The Ghana Empire is believed to be the earliest of these which grew on trade but contracted and ultimately fell due to the hostile influence of the Almoravides. It was in this period that Islam first arrived in the region. The Sosso kingdom (12th to 13th centuries) briefly flourished in the void but the Islamic Mandinka Mali Empire came to prominence when Soundiata Kéïta defeated the Sosso ruler, Soumangourou Kanté at the semi-historical Battle of Kirina in c. 1235. The Mali Empire was ruled by Mansa (Emperors), the most famous being Kankou Moussa, who made a famous hajj to Mecca in 1324. Shortly after his reign the Mali Empire began to decline and was ultimately supplanted by its vassal states in the 15th century. The most successful of these was the Songhai Empire, expanding its power from about 1460, and eventually surpassing the Mali Empire in both territory and wealth. It continued to prosper until a civil war over succession followed the death of Askia Daoud in 1582. The weakened empire fell to invaders from Morocco at the Battle of Tondibi just 3 years later. The Moroccans proved unable to rule the kingdom effectively, however, and it split into many small kingdoms. Fulani Muslims migrated to Fouta Djallon in Central Guinea and established an Islamic state from 1735 to 1898 with a written Constitution and alternate rulers. Colonial Era The slave trade came to the coastal region of Guinea with European adventurers in the 16th century. Slavery had always been part of everyday life but the scale increased as slaves were exported to work elsewhere in the triangular trade. Some sources suggest that more than half of the population of Sub-Saharan Africa were removed. Guinea's colonial period began with French military penetration into the area in the mid-19th century. French domination was assured by the defeat in 1898 of the armies of Samory Touré, Mansa (or Emperor) of the Ouassoulou state and leader of Malinké descent, which gave France control of what today is Guinea and adjacent areas. France negotiated Guinea's present boundaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the British for Sierra Leone, the Portuguese for their Guinea colony (now Guinea-Bissau), and Liberia. Under the French, the country formed the Territory of Guinea within French West Africa, administered by a governor general resident in Dakar. Lieutenant governors administered the individual colonies, including Guinea. Independence In 1958 the French Fourth Republic collapsed due to political instability and its failures in dealing with its colonies, especially Indochina and Algeria. The founding of a Fifth Republic was supported by the French people, while France's colonies were given the choice between more autonomy in a new French Community and immediate independence. The other colonies chose the former but Guinea — under the leadership of Ahmed Sékou Touré whose Democratic Party of Guinea (PDG) had won 56 of 60 seats in 1957 territorial elections — voted overwhelmingly for independence. The French withdrew quickly, and on October 2, 1958, Guinea proclaimed itself a sovereign and independent republic, with Sékou Touré as president. De Gaulle withdrew the French administration, with much of the French population following, which took much of the country’s infrastructure and large amounts of capital. Guinea quickly aligned itself with the Soviet Union and adopted socialist policies. This alliance was short lived, however, as Guinea moved towards a Chinese model of socialism. Despite this, however, the country continued to receive aid and investment from capitalist countries such as the U.S.. Even the relationship with France improved after the election of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing as president — trade increased and the two countries exchanged diplomatic visits. Within a few years of independence, Touré led the nation into one-party rule. Advocating a hybrid African Socialism domestically and Pan-Africanism abroad, Touré quickly became a polarising leader, and his government became intolerant of dissent, imprisoning hundreds, and stifling free press. At the same time, the government nationalised land, removed French appointed and traditional chiefs from power, and broke ties with French government and companies. Vacillating between support for the Soviet Union and (by the late 1970s) the United States, Guinea's economic situation became as unpredictable as its diplomatic line. Alleging plots and conspiracies against him at home and abroad, Touré’s regime targeted real and imagined opponents driving thousands of political opponents into exile. In 1970, rebel forces from neighbouring Portuguese Guinea, supported by the Portuguese, invaded Guinea. The Portuguese wanted to get rid of Sekou Toure because he supported the guerrilla movement PAIGC in Portuguese Guinea. "Mr Sekou Touré, who gave the PAIGC unstinted support during its war against the Portuguese,..."Black revolt, The Economist (Nov 22nd 1980) After several days of fierce fighting between Portugal-supported insurgents and the military of Guinea, the anti-Toure attackers disbanded as the goals of the operation, which included the elimination of Toure and the overthrow of his regime, were not achieved. Sékou Touré died on March 26, 1984 after a heart operation in the United States, and was replaced in an interim role by Prime Minister Louis Lansana Beavogui. Beavogui’s rule was brief, however, and a military junta headed by Lansana Conté and Diarra Traoré seized power on April 3, 1984 in a bloodless coup. Conté assumed the role of president with Traoré as his prime minister. Conté immediately denounced the previous regime’s record on human rights, released 250 political prisoners and encouraged approximately 200,000 more to return from exile. He also made explicit the turn away from socialism, but this did little to alleviate poverty and the country showed no immediate signs of moving towards democracy. In 1992, Conté announced a return to civilian rule, with a presidential poll in 1993 followed by elections to parliament in 1995 (in which his party - the Party of Unity and Progress - won 71 of 114 seats.) Despite this, Conté's grip on power remained tight. In September 2001 the opposition leader Alpha Condé was imprisoned for endangering state security, though he was pardoned 8 months later. He subsequently spent a period of exile in France. In 2001 Conté organized and won a referendum to lengthen the presidential term and in 2003 begun his third term after elections were boycotted by the opposition. In January 2005, Conté survived a suspected assassination attempt while making a rare public appearance in the capital Conakry. His opponents claimed that he was a "tired dictator" http://www.guinea-forum.org/Analyses/index.asp?ana=28&Lang=A whose departure was inevitable, whereas his supporters believed that he was winning a battle with dissidents. Guinea still faces very real problems and according to Foreign Policy is in danger of becoming a failed state. In 2000 Guinea became embroiled in the instability which had long blighted the rest of West Africa as rebels crossed the borders with Liberia and Sierra Leone and it seemed for a time that the country was headed for civil war. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/986375.stm Conté blamed neighbouring leaders for coveting Guinea's natural resources, though these claims were strenuously denied. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1102574.stm In 2003 Guinea agreed plans with her neighbours to tackle the insurgents. In 2007 there were big protests against the government, resulting in the appointment of a new prime minister. http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/rp_0307.pdf Lansana Conté died on December 23, 2008, leading to a coup d'état by the military. See also History of Africa History of West Africa References Elizabeth Blunt. Civil war fears in Guinea. BBC News. October 23, 2000. Guinea head blames neighbours. BBC News. January 6, 2001. Stopping Guinea’s slide. International Crisis Group, Africa Report No. 94. June 14, 2005. Adama Sow: Chancen und Risiken von NGOs - Die Gewerkschaften in Guinea während der Unruhen 2007 - EPU Research Papers: Issue 03/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 External links André R. Lewin. Sékou Touré’s “No”. African Geopolitics. 2005. Bad government, bad neighbour. The Economist. July 21, 2005. 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5,703 | Oxycodone | Oxycodone is an opioid analgesic medication synthesized from opium-derived thebaine. It was developed in 1916 in Germany, as one of several new semi-synthetic opioids with several benefits over the older traditional opiates and opioids; morphine, diacetylmorphine (heroin) and codeine. Currently it is best known as the main active ingredient in a number of oral medications commonly prescribed for the relief of moderate to severe pain. Oxycodone can be combined with inert binders (e.g., OxyContin); with paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen (e.g., Percocet, Endocet, Tylox, and Roxicet); with aspirin (e.g., Percodan, Endodan, Roxiprin); and with ibuprofen (Combunox). Of the oral medications containing oxycodone, OxyContin is notable for its sales; for controversies concerning its patent status and marketing; and for its potentials for hazardous use, harmful use, dependence, and diversion. Chemistry and nomenclature Oxycodone's chemical name is derived from codeine. The chemical structures are very similar, differing only in that Oxycodone has a hydroxyl group at carbon-14 (codeine has just a hydrogen in its place), hence oxycodone; Oxycodone has a 7,8-dihydro feature, whereas codeine has a double bond between those two carbons; and Oxycodone has a carbonyl group (as in ketones) in place of the hydroxyl group of codeine, hence the "-one" suffix. It is also similar to hydrocodone, differing only in that it has a hydroxyl group at carbon-14. The synonyms for oxycodone in the academic literature include "dihydrohydroxycodeinone", "Eucodal", "Eukodal", "14-hydroxydihydrocodeinone", and "Nucodan". In a UNESCO convention, the translations of "oxycodone" are oxycodone (French), oxicodona (Spanish), والأوآسيكودون (Arabic), 羟考酮 (Chinese), and оксикодон (Russian). The word "oxycodone" should not be confused with "oxandrolone", "oxazepam", "oxybutynin", "oxytocin", "Roxanol", or "Roxicet". History Freund and Speyer of the University of Frankfurt in Germany first synthesized oxycodone from thebaine in 1916, a few years after the German pharmaceutical company Bayer had stopped the mass production of heroin due to hazardous use, harmful use, and dependence. It was hoped that a thebaine-derived drug would retain the analgesic effects of morphine and heroin with less dependence. To some extent this was achieved, as oxycodone does not have the same immediate effect as heroin or morphine nor does it last as long. The first clinical use of the drug was documented in 1917. It was first introduced to the US market in May 1939. The International Narcotics Control Board estimates that 11.5 tons of oxycodone were manufactured worldwide in 1998, which grew to 75.2 tons in 2007. Of all countries, the United States had the highest total consumption of oxycodone in 2007 (82% of the world total of 51.6 tons). In addition, in 2007 the U.S. had the highest per capita consumption of oxycodone, followed by Canada, Denmark, Australia, and Norway. OxyContin Oxycontin tablets of varying dosage OxyContin is the brand name of a time-release formula of oxycodone produced by the pharmaceutical company Purdue Pharma. It was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1995 and first introduced to the U.S. market in 1996. By 2001, OxyContin was the best-selling non-generic narcotic pain reliever in the U.S.; in 2002, over 7.2 million prescriptions were written for it, for total sales of $1.5 billion. An analysis of data from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration found that retail sales of oxycodone "jumped nearly six-fold between 1997 and 2005." Mundipharma distributes OxyContin in Australia, China, and Europe. OxyContin is available in 5 mg (blue) tablets in Canada and the U.K.; 10 mg (white) in Canada, the U.S., and the U.K.; 15 mg (grey) in the U.S.; 20 mg (pink) in Canada, the U.S., and the U.K.; 30 mg (brown) in the U.S.; 40 mg (yellow) in Canada, the U.S., and the U.K.; 60 mg (red) in the U.S.; and 80 mg (green) in Canada, the U.S., and the U.K. In 2001, Purdue Pharma suspended distribution of 160 mg tablets in the U.S. because of the "possibility of illicit use of tablets of such high strength." Slang terms for OxyContin include "Hillbilly Heroin", "Killers", "OC", "Oxy", and "Oxycotton". The word "OxyContin" should not be confused with "morphine sulfate", "MS Contin", "Oxandrin", "oxybutynin", "oxytocin", or "Roxicodone". Lawsuits concerning generic OxyContin Purdue has multiple patents for OxyContin, but has been involved in a series of ongoing legal battles on the validity of these patents. On June 7, 2005, the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit upheld a decision from the previous year that some of Purdue’s patents for OxyContin could not be enforced. This decision allowed and led to the immediate announcement from Endo Pharmaceuticals that they would begin launching a generic version of all four strengths of OxyContin. Purdue, however, had already made negotiations with another pharmaceutical company (IVAX Pharmaceuticals) to distribute their brand OxyContin in a generic form. This contract was severed, and as of October 2005 Watson Pharmaceuticals became the exclusive U.S. distributor of Purdue-manufactured generic versions of OxyContin tablets in 10-, 20-, 40-, and 80-milligram dosages. On February 1, 2006, the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals issued a decision revising its June 7, 2005, decision. This time the court vacated the lower court's "judgment that the patents-in-suit are unenforceable due to inequitable conduct," and the case was "remanded for further proceedings." Purdue Pharma has since announced resolution of its infringement suits with Endo, Teva, IMPAX, and Mallinckrodt. Endo and Teva each agreed to cease selling generic forms of OxyContin. IMPAX negotiated a temporary, and potentially renewable, license. In 2008, Mallinckrodt Pharmaceuticals reintroduced generic OxyContin in the strengths of 10 mg, 20 mg, 40 mg and 80 mg, which was made possible by a temporary royalties-bearing license with Purdue Pharma that expires in 2009. Marketing and misbranding Critics have accused Purdue Pharma of putting profits ahead of public interest by applying "significant political pressure" to attempt to reverse South Carolina's requiring prior approval before a person with Medicaid can receive the drug; for "fail[ing] to adequately warn consumers of the risks" of OxyContin such as dependence; and for promoting the drug "aggressively" and by means such as "promotional beach hats, pedometers and swing-music CDs." In May 2007 Purdue Pharma "agreed to pay $19.5 million" in fines relating to aggressive off-label marketing practices of OxyContin in 26 states and the District of Columbia. In specific, the company encouraged dosing more frequent than the recommended interval of 12 hours, and did not fully disclose the risk of hazardous or harmful use. Later in May 2007 Purdue Pharma and three of its top executives pleaded guilty in a Virginia federal court to charges that they misbranded OxyContin by representing it to have "less euphoric effect and less abuse potential" than it actually has, and by claiming that people taking the drug at low doses could stop taking it suddenly without symptoms of withdrawal. The FDA had not approved these claims. The company and the executives were to pay $634 million in fines for felony and misdemeanor misbranding. In October 2007, officials in Kentucky filed a lawsuit against Purdue Pharma for misleading health care providers and consumers "regarding the appropriate uses, risks and safety of OxyContin"; as of mid-2008, however, the case had been "consolidated with other lawsuits into a single multi-litigation suit" in a federal court in New York. Other preparations Formulations containing oxycodone and other analgesics. Oxy·IR immediate-release oxycodone tablets from Purdue Pharma in Canada are available in 5, 10, and 20 mg strengths. OxyNorm is available in 5, 10, and 20 mg capsules, and also as a 5 mg/5 ml liquid in 250 ml bottles in Australia, New Zealand, and the U.K. In addition, OxyNorm is available in a 10 mg/ml liquid concentrate for oral use in the U.K., and in a 10 mg/ml solution for injection or infusion in New Zealand and the U.K. Percocet (oxycodone with paracetamol/acetaminophen) tablets are available in the U.S. with 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 mg of oxycodone and varying amounts of acetaminophen. Percodan tablets available in the U.S. contain 4.8355 mg of oxycodone HCl and 325 mg of aspirin. Proladone suppositories, available in Australia, contain 30 mg of oxycodone pectinate. Injectable oxycodone hydrochloride or tartrate is available in ampoules and multi-dose vials in many European countries and to a lesser extent various places in the Pacific Rim. For this purpose, the most common trade names are Eukodol and Eucodol. The German-language package insert for an oxycodone injectable indicates that the preferred route of injection is intramuscular. Roxicodone, a generic oxycodone product designed to have an immediate release effect for rapid pain relief, is available in 5 mg (white), 15 mg (green), and 30 mg (blue) tablets; in a 5 mg per 5 ml oral solution; and in a 20 mg per ml liquid concentrate. On March 31, 2009, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration directed Boehringer Ingelheim Roxane and Xanodyne Pharmaceuticals to cease manufacture and distribution of 5 mg Roxicodone tablets in the U.S. because they lacked proper approval. Targin is a tablet with a prolonged-release oxycodone/naloxone combination produced by Mundipharma that "significantly improv[ed] opioid-induced constipation" in a 2008 study. It was released in 2006 in Germany and will be available in some other European countries beginning in 2009. Clinical use In a 2008 review written by authors who "are members of advisory boards and speaker panels for Mundipharma," prolonged-release oxycodone (i.e., OxyContin) was found to be superior to placebo in randomized controlled trials concerning diabetic neuropathy, postherpetic neuralgia, osteoarthritis, ambulatory laparoscopic tubal ligation surgery, unilateral total knee arthroplasty, and abdominal/gynaecological surgery. In 2001, the European Association for Palliative Care recommended that oral hydromorphone or oxycodone, "if available in both normal release and modified release formulations for oral administration," be second-line alternatives to oral morphine for cancer pain. There is no evidence that any opioids are superior to morphine in relieving the pain of cancer, and no controlled trials have shown oxycodone to be superior to morphine. However, switching to an alternative opioid can be useful if adverse effects are troublesome, although the switch can be in either direction, i.e. some patients have fewer adverse effects on switching from morphine to oxycodone and vice versa. Pharmacology Mechanism of action A group of Australian researchers has proposed (based on a 1997 study in rats) that oxycodone, unlike morphine (the effect of which is mediated by μ-opioid receptors), acts on κ-opioid receptors. Further research by this group indicates the drug appears to be a κ2b-opioid agonist. However, this has been disputed, primarily on the basis that oxycodone produces effects typical of μ-opioid agonists. Research by a Japanese group suggests that the effect of oxycodone is mediated by different receptors in different situations. Specifically, in diabetic mice the κ-opioid receptor appears to be involved in the antinociceptive effects of oxycodone , while in non-diabetic mice the μ1-opioid receptor seems to be primarily responsible for these effects. Absorption After a dose of conventional oral oxycodone, peak plasma levels of the drug are attained in approximately one hour ; in contrast, after a dose of OxyContin, peak plasma levels of oxycodone occur in about three hours. Distribution Oxycodone in the blood is distributed to "skeletal muscle, liver, intestinal tract, lungs, spleen, and brain." Conventional oral preparations of oxycodone start to reduce pain within 10-15 minutes; in contrast, OxyContin starts to reduce pain within 1 hour. Metabolism Oxycodone is metabolized to α and β oxycodol; oxymorphone, then α and β oxymorphol and noroxymorphone; and noroxycodone, then α and β noroxycodol and noroxymorphone. A study using conventional oral oxycodone concluded that oxycodone itself, and not its metabolites, is responsible for the drug's opioid effects on the brain. Unlike morphine and hydromorphone, oxycodone is metabolized by the cytochrome P450 enzyme system in the liver, making it vulnerable to drug interactions. Some people are fast metabolizers resulting in reduced analgesic effect but increased adverse effects, while others are slow metabolisers resulting in increased toxicity without improved analgesia. The dose of OxyContin must be reduced in patients with reduced hepatic function. Elimination Oxycodone and its metabolites are mainly excreted in the urine; therefore, it accumulates in patients with renal impairment. Dosage and administration Oxycodone can be administered orally, intranasally, via intravenous/intramuscular/subcutaneous injection or rectally. The bioavailability of oral administration averages 60–87%, with rectal administration yielding the same results. Oxycodone is approximately 1.5–2 times as potent as morphine when administered orally. http://www.pharma.com/PI/Prescription/Oxycontin.pdf Palliative Care Perspectives. James L. Hallenbeck However, 10–15 mg of oxycodone produces an analgesic effect similar to 10 mg of morphine when administered intramuscularly. Therefore, as a parenteral dose, morphine is approximately up to 50% more potent than oxycodone. There are no comparative trials showing that oxycodone is more effective than any other opioid. In palliative care, morphine remains the gold standard; however, oxycodone can be useful as an alternative opioid if a patient has troublesome adverse effects with morphine. Side effects Red color denotes more serious effects, requiring immediate contact with health provider. dubious – discuss The most commonly reported effects include constipation, fatigue, dizziness, nausea, lightheadedness, headache, dry mouth, anxiety, pruritus, euphoria, and diaphoresis. Oxycodone Side Effects It has also been claimed to cause dimness in vision due to miosis. Some patients have also experienced loss of appetite, nervousness, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dyspnea, and hiccups, although these symptoms appear in less than 5% of patients taking oxycodone. Rarely, the drug can cause impotence, enlarged prostate gland, and decreased testosterone secretion. In high doses, overdoses, or in patients not tolerant to opiates, oxycodone can cause shallow breathing, bradycardia, cold, clammy skin, apnea, hypotension, pupil constriction, circulatory collapse, respiratory arrest, and death. Withdrawal related side effects There is a high risk of experiencing severe withdrawal symptoms if a patient discontinues oxycodone abruptly. Therefore therapy should be gradually discontinued rather than abruptly discontinued. People who use oxycodone in a hazardous or harmful fashion are at even higher risk of severe withdrawal symptoms as they tend to use higher than prescribed doses. The symptoms of oxycodone withdrawal are the same as for other opiate based painkillers and may include "anxiety, nausea, insomnia, muscle pain, fevers, and other flu like symptoms." Withdrawal symptoms have also been reported in a newborn whose mother had been either injecting OxyContin or orally taking percocet during pregnancy. Hazardous use, harmful use, dependence, and diversion Notable individuals Well-known people who have been involved in hazardous use The WHO defines "hazardous use" as "a pattern of substance use that increases the risk of harmful consequences for the user.." or harmful use The WHO defines "harmful use" as "a pattern of psychoactive substance use that is causing damage to health." of oxycodone, or who have exhibited dependence The WHO defines "dependence" on a drug as "a need for repeated doses of the drug to feel good or to avoid feeling bad." on the drug, include: William S. Burroughs, writer, who wrote to Allen Ginsberg in 1954 that he was injecting "Eukodol" (apparently meaning "Eukodal" or oxycodone) every two hours, and in other correspondence and writings comments on speculation about the effect of the drug's chemical structure on its addictiveness and subjective effects comapared with morphine, noting that some experts had believed since the early 1930s that the oxygen bridge on the molecule imparted cocaine-like elements to the side effect profile. Adam Gontier, lead singer for Three Days Grace, who was "taking 10 to 20 80-milligram OxyContin tablets a day" before undergoing rehabilitation in 2005. Patrick J. Kennedy, politician, who said that he was at the Mayo Clinic on Christmas Day 2005 for dependence on OxyContin. Heath Ledger, actor, who died in 2008 as a result of "acute intoxication" from a combination of drugs that included oxycodone; the overdose was ruled an accident "resulting from the abuse of prescription medications." Rush Limbaugh, radio personality, who admitted to dependence on painkillers in 2003; it was reported that these painkillers included OxyContin. Courtney Love, musician, who reportedly "admitted to overdosing on the prescription painkiller OxyContin" in 2003. Andrew "Test" Martin, wrestler/entertainer, whose death in March 2009 was ruled a result of oxycodone intoxication due to accidental overdose. United States Instances of hazardous use, harmful use, and diversion of OxyContin have increased in the U.S. beginning in the late 1990s. The slang term hillbilly heroin for OxyContin refers to the occurrence of the "earliest reported cases of Oxycontin abuse" in the U.S. in rural areas such as Appalachia. Diversion of OxyContin in the U.S. may occur through "fraudulent prescriptions, doctor shopping, over-prescribing, and pharmacy theft." A 2003 study by the Government Accountability Office found four factors that may have contributed to hazardous use, harmful use, and diversion of OxyContin in the U.S.: OxyContin contains a large amount of oxycodone compared with other types of oxycodone-containing pills. OxyContin's warning label said to not crush the controlled-release tablets because of the potential for rapid release of oxycodone, which led to many people crushing the tablets and injecting or snorting the drug. By 2001, sales of OxyContin in the U.S. exceeded $1 billion per year, which made it widely available. People who received prescriptions for OxyContin and lived in poor areas of Appalachia may have perceived a "profit potential" in selling the pills to drug dealers (e.g., 20 mg of OxyContin could be bought for $2 but sold for $25). A study published in 2005 examined the prevalence of hazardous or harmful use of opiate analgesics among "recreational drug users and street addicts" as perceived by "key informants" throughout the U.S.; the authors found that hazardous or harmful use of opiates was increasing in general, but that of the drugs studied hazardous or harmful use of OxyContin "was mentioned most frequently." Purdue Pharma has attempted to reformulate the 10–40 mg strengths of OxyContin to prevent the release of a high percentage of the oxycodone by crushing; however, in 2008 a joint panel convened by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration was "concerned that abusers could find a way to manipulate the new formulation." Other countries The illegal use of OxyContin began in Australia in the early 2000s partly because the government's Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme subsidises the drug. By 2007, 51% of a national sample of injection drug users in Australia had reported ever using oxycodone, and 27% had injected it in the last six months. Hazardous use, harmful use, and diversion of OxyContin in the U.K. commenced in the early- to mid-2000s. The first known death due to OxyContin overdose in the U.K. occurred in 2002. Animal studies Research has shown that the brains of adolescent mice, which were exposed to OxyContin, can sustain lifelong and permanent changes in their reward system. It is notable that the vast majority of OxyContin related deaths are attributed to ingesting substantial quantities of oxycodone in combination with another depressant of the central nervous system such as alcohol, barbiturates and related drugs. Conventions and national laws Oxycodone is subject to international conventions on narcotic drugs. In addition, oxycodone is subject to national laws that differ by country. International The 1931 Convention for Limiting the Manufacture and Regulating the Distribution of Narcotic Drugs of the League of Nations included oxycodone (but incorrectly called it "dihydrohydrooxycodeinone" instead of "dihydrohydroxycodeinone"). The 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of the United Nations, which replaced the 1931 convention, categorized oxycodone in Schedule I. Global restrictions on Schedule I drugs include "limit[ing] exclusively to medical and scientific purposes the production, manufacture, export, import, distribution of, trade in, use and possession of" these drugs; "requir[ing] medical prescriptions for the supply or dispensation of [these] drugs to individuals"; and "prevent[ing] the accumulation" of quantities of these drugs "in excess of those required for the normal conduct of business." Australia Oxycodone is in Schedule I (derived from the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs) of the Commonwealth's Narcotic Drugs Act 1967. In addition, it is in Schedule 8 of the Australian Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons ("Poisons Standard"), meaning that it is a "controlled drug... which should be available for use but require[s] restriction of manufacture, supply, distribution, possession and use to reduce abuse, misuse and physical or psychological dependence." Canada Oxycodone is a controlled substance under Schedule I of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (CDSA). Every person who seeks or obtains from a practitioner either the substance or an authorization to obtain the substance must disclose to that practitioner information on all controlled substances and authorizations for controlled substances obtained from any other practitioner within the preceding 30 days; otherwise, the person may be found "guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years". Anyone possessing the substance for the purpose of trafficking "is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for life". Germany The drug is in Appendix III of the Narcotics Act ("Betäubungsmittelgesetz" or BtMG). The law states that only physicians, dentists and veterinarians ("Ärzten, Zahnärzten und Tierärzten") can prescribe oxycodone, and that the federal government can regulate the prescriptions (e.g., by requiring reporting). Hong Kong Oxycodone is regulated under Part I of Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance. The penalty for trafficking (Section 4) or manufacturing (Section 6) the substance is a $5,000,000 HKD fine and/or life imprisonment. In Section 8 of the Ordinance, possession of the substance for consumption without licence from the Department of Health is illegal and subject to a $1,000,000 HKD fine and/or 7 years of imprisonment. Per Sections 22-23, only specific health professionals and others (e.g., "a person in charge of a laboratory used for the purposes of research") may possess and supply the substance. Anyone who supplies the substance without a valid prescription can be fined $10,000 HKD according to Section 31. United Kingdom Oxycodone is a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act. For Class A drugs, which are "considered to be the most likely to cause harm," possession without a prescription is punishable by up to seven years in prison, an unlimited fine, or both. Dealing of the drug illegally is punishable by up to life imprisonment, an unlimited fine, or both. In addition, oxycodone is a Schedule 2 drug per the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001 which "provide certain exemptions from the provisions of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971." United States Under the Controlled Substances Act, oxycodone is a Schedule II drug because it "has a high potential for abuse," because it "has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States or a currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions," and because use of the drug "may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence." According to Section 829 of the Act, Schedule II drugs must be dispensed only with the written prescription of a practitioner except in certain situations (e.g., "dispensed directly by a practitioner, other than a pharmacist," or "dispensed upon oral prescription (i.e. telephone)" in "emergency situations"). Furthermore, Section 829 specifies that prescriptions for Schedule II drugs cannot be refilled. See also Illegal drug trade List of drug-related deaths Psychoactive drug Recreational drug use Notes This article uses the terms "hazardous use," "harmful use," and "dependence" in accordance with Lexicon of alcohol and drug terms published by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1994. In WHO usage, the first two terms replace the term "abuse" and the third term replaces the term "addiction." References Further reading External links Coluzzi F, Mattia C. Oxycodone. Pharmacological profile and clinical data in chronic pain management. Minerva Anestesiol 2005 Jul-Aug;71(7-8):451-60. Rosenberg T. When is a pain doctor a drug pusher? New York Times 2007 Jun 17. Deadly combinations. 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5,704 | Institute_of_National_Remembrance | IPN Logo Institute of National Remembrance — Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation (; IPN) is a Polish government-affiliated research institute with lustration prerogatives and prosecution powers founded by specific legislation. It specialises in the legal and historical sciences and in particular the recent history of Poland. Nauka polska: Instytucje naukowe - identyfikator rekordu: i6575 IPN investigates both Nazi and Communist crimes committed in Poland, documents its findings and disseminates the results of its investigations to the public. According to a law passed on March 15, 2007, IPN was to be mandated to carry out lustration procedures prescribed by Polish law. Nowelizacja ustawy z dnia 18 grudnia 1998 r. o Instytucie Pamięci Narodowej – Komisji Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu oraz ustawy z dnia 18 października 2006 r. o ujawnianiu informacji o dokumentach organów bezpieczeństwa państwa z lat 1944–1990 oraz treści tych dokumentów. Last accessed on 24 April 2006 However, key articles of that law were judged unconstitutional by Poland's constitutional court on May 11, 2007 so the role of IPN in the lustration process is at present unclear. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6648435.stm BBC News Purpose IPN's main areas of activity and mission statement About the Institute From IPN English website. Last accessed on 20 April 2007 include: researching and documenting losses which were suffered by the Polish Nation as the result of World War II and during the post-war period patriotic traditions of resistance against occupation Polish citizens' efforts to fight for an independent Polish State, in defence of freedom and human dignity crimes committed on Polish citizens, Polish people of other citizenships and citizens of other countries if wronged on Polish territories which are not affected by statute of limitations according to Polish law, such as: crimes of the Soviet and Polish communist regimes related to Poland and committed from 17 September 1939 until fall of communism in December 31, 1989 deportations to the Soviet Union of Polish soldiers of Armia Krajowa and other Polish resistance organizations as well as Polish inhabitants of the former Polish eastern territories pacification of Polish communities between Vistula and Bug rivers in the years 1944 to 1947 by NKVD crimes committed by the law enforcement agencies of the Polish People's Republic, particularly Ministry of Public Security of Poland and Main Directorate of Information of the Polish Army crimes under the category of war crimes and crimes against humanity the duty to prosecute crimes against peace, humanity and war crimes the need to compensate for damages which were suffered by the repressed and harmed people in the times when human rights were disobeyed by the state educating the public about recent history of Poland IPN collects, archives and organises documents about the Polish communist security apparatus (22 July 1944 to 31 December 1989). Organisation Warsaw, Institute of National Remembrance, Towarowa Street (note the IPN logo at the top of the building). IPN was created by special legislation on 18 December 1998. IPN is governed by the Chairman. This chairman is chosen by a supermajority (60%) of the Polish Parliament (Sejm) with the approval of the Senate of Poland on a request by a Collegium of IPN. The chairman has a 5-year term of office. The first chairman of the IPN was Leon Kieres, elected by the Sejm for five years in 8 June 2000 (term 30 June 2000–29 December 2005). The current chairman is Janusz Kurtyka, elected on 9 December 2005 with a term that started 29 December 2005. The IPN is divided into: About the Institute From IPN Polish website. Last accessed on 24 April 2007 Main Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation (Główna Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni Przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu) Bureau of Provision and Archivization of Documents (Biuro Udostępniania i Archiwizacji Dokumentów) Bureau of Public Education (or Public Edudation Office, Biuro Edukacji Publicznej) Lustration Bureau (Biuro Lustracyjne) (new bureau, since October 2006) Local chapters Activities Research The research conducted by IPN from December 2000 falls into four main topical areas: Security Apparatus and Civil Resistance (with separate sub-projects devoted to Political Processes and Prisoners 1944-1956, Soviet Repressions and Crimes committed against Polish Citizens and Martial Law: a Glance after Twenty Years); Public Education Office IPN website. Last accessed on 24 April 2007 Functioning of the repression apparatus (state security and justice organs) - its organizational structure, cadres and relations with other state authority and party organs Security Apparatus and Civil Resistance Central Programme. IPN pages, last accessed on 25 April 2007 Activities of the repression apparatus directed against particular selected social groups and organizations Structure and methods of functioning of the People's Poland security apparatus Security apparatus in the combat with political and military underground 1944-1956 Activities of the security apparatus against political emigreés Security apparatus in combat with the Church and freedom of belief Authorities vis-a-vis social crises and democratic opposition in the years 1956-1989 f) List of those repressed and sentenced to death Bibliography of the conspiracy, resistance and repression 1944-1989 War, Occupation and the Polish Underground; War, Occupation and the Polish Underground State Programme. IPN pages, last accessed on 25 April 2007 deepening of knowledge about the structures and activities of the Polish Underground State examination of the human fates in the territories occupied by the Soviet regime and of Poles displaced into the Soviet Union assessment of sources on the life conditions under the Soviet and German Nazi occupations evaluation of the state of research concerning the victims of the war activities and extermination policy of the Soviet and German Nazi occupiers examining the Holocaust (Extermination of Jews) conducted by Nazis in the Polish territories Extermination of Jews by German Nazis in the Polish Territories Programme. IPN pages, last accessed on 25 April 2007 Response of the Polish Underground State to the extermination of Jewish population The Polish Underground press and the Jewish question during the German Nazi occupation Poles and Other Nations in the Years 1939-1989 (with a part on Poles and Ukrainians); Poles and Other Nations in the Years 1939-1989 Programme. IPN pages, last accessed on 25 April 2007 Poles and Ukrainians Poles and Lithuanians Poles and Germans Communist authorities - Belarusians - Underground Fate of Jewish people in the People's Republic of Poland Gypsies in Poland Peasants vis-a-vis People's Authority 1944-1989 (on the situation of peasants and the rural policy in the years 1944-1989) Peasants vis-a-vis People's Authority 1944-1989 Programme. IPN pages, last accessed on 25 April 2007 inhabitants of the rural areas vis-a-vis the creation of the totalitarian regime in Poland; peasants vis-a-vis the Sovietisation of Poland in the years 1948-1956; attitudes of the inhabitants of rural areas towards the state-Church conflict in the years 1956-1970; the role of peasants in the anti-Communist opposition of the 1970s and 1980s. Among the most widely reported case investigated by the IPN thus far is the Jedwabne Pogrom, an infamous pogrom of Polish Jews "committed directly by Poles, but inspired by the Germans" in 1941. A selection of other cases include: Bloody Sunday (1939), an alleged massacre of ethnic Germans by Poles after the German invasion of Poland German camps in occupied Poland during World War II, the system of extermination, concentration, labor and POW camps operated by the German Nazis in occupied Poland Holocaust in Poland, persecution of the Jews by the German Nazi occupation government in Poland Katzmann Report, a detailed German report on extermination of Polish Jews Kielce pogrom, a post-war pogrom of Polish Jews Prokurator IPN: prawda o pogromie kieleckim czeka na wyjaśnienie, Virtual Poland, July 1, 2006 by Poles Koniuchy massacre, a massacre carried out by Jewish and Soviet partisan Kraków pogrom. Tomasz Konopka, "Śmierć na ulicach Krakowa w latach 1945-1947 w materiale archiwalnym krakowskiego Zakładu Medycyny Sądowej", Pamięć i Sprawiedliwość (IPN), nr 2 (8)/2005 Massacre of Lwów professors, the mass execution of approximately 45 Polish professors of the University of Lwów Massacres of Poles in Volhynia, an ethnic cleansing conducted by Ukrainians in Volhynia during World War II Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles, war crimes and crimes against humanity committed against ethnic Poles by Nazi Germany during World War II NKVD prisoner massacres, a series of mass executions committed by Soviet NKVD against Polish prisoners Occupation of Poland (1939-1945) and treatment of Polish citizens by the occupants in that period Operation Wisła, the 1947 deportation of southeastern Poland's Ukrainian, Boyko and Lemko populations by the post-war Soviet installed communist government of Poland in cooperation with Czechoslovakia and Soviet Union to the Western territories attached to Poland from Germany after WWII, the so called "Recovered Territories" Robert Witalec, Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej nr 11 ""Kos" kontra UPA", . Tomasz Kalbarczyk, Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej nr 1-2 "Powrót Łemków", Pawłokoma massacre, a massacre in 1945 of Ukrainian civilians by Polish partisans Ponary massacre, the mass-murder of about 100,000 people performed by Germans and Lithuanians on Poles and Jews Poznań 1956 protests, the first of several massive protests of the Polish people against the communist government of the People's Republic of Poland Przyszowice massacre committed by Red Army on Polish villagers of Poland and other Red Army atrocities in Poland Salomon Morel, a case of a Polish Jew running post-war camp were political prisoners were persecuted Special Courts, the underground courts organized by the Polish Government in Exile Wąsosz pogrom, a pogrom of Jews in Nazi-occupied Poland Żegota, Polish underground organization with the purpose of aiding persecuted Jews in German occupied Poland. Education IPN is involved in dissemination of its research results in the form of publications (particularly the "IPN Bulletin" and "Remembrance and Justice" periodicals), exhibitions, seminars, panel discussions, film reviews, workshops and school lessons. Since December 2000 IPN has organized over 30 academic conferences (particularly the Warsaw Congress of Science organized every year in September); 22 exhibitions in various museums and educational competitions involving thousands of students. "IPN Bulletin" is of an informative and popular-scientific character and contains articles pertaining to the history of Poland in the years 1939-1990 as well as describes the current IPN activities. "Remembrance and Justice" appears every half a year and is a scientific historical magazine. IPN also publishes books which are usually edited as collections of documents, reports and memories, but also scientific elaborations (78 of such publications have appeared till April 2007). The Public Education Office co-operates on a permanent basis with the Ministry of National Education and Sport, having signed a Co-operation Agreement in 2001. IPN gives opinions of curricula and textbooks on history that are used in Polish schools and is involved in teacher training activities. The IPN also co-organizes postgraduate diploma studies on history at the Jagiellonian University and the University of Maria Curie-Skłodowska. Lustration On 18 December 2006 Polish law regulating IPN was changed and came into effect on 15 March 2007. This change gave IPN new lustration powers. Najważniejsze wiadomości - Informacje i materiały pomocnicze dla organów realizujących postanowienia ustawy lustracyjnej IPN News. Last accessed on 24 April 2007 However, key articles of that law were judged unconstitutional by Poland's Constitutional Court on May 11, 2007, making the role of IPN in lustration unclear and putting the whole process into question. Criticism Wildstein list Wildstein list refers to the partial list of names of people who allegedly worked for the communist era Polish intelligence service, which was copied from IPN archives in 2004 by journalist Bronisław Wildstein and published in the Internet in 2005. The list gained much attention in Polish media and politics, and during that time IPN security procedures and handling of the matter were criticized. Wojciech Czuchnowski, Bronisław Wildstein: człowiek z listą, Gazeta Wyborcza, last accessed on 12 May 2006 IPN presidential election The election of a new IPN president in December 2005 was also criticised. Janusz Kurtyka, the incumbent IPN president, was challenged by Andrzej Przewoźnik, a historian from the Jagiellonian University. Przewoźnik's candidature received a severe setback after documents were found which suggested his possible co-operation with Służba Bezpieczeństwa, the Communist Poland's internal intelligence agency and secret police. Przewoźnik was eventually cleared of the accusations, but not before he lost the election. Olejniczak: Kurtyka powinien zrezygnować, Polish Press Agency, 13 December 2005, last accessed on 28 April 2007 Government abuse One of the most controversial aspects of IPN is a by-product of their role in collecting and publishing previously secret archives from the Polish security apparatus: revealing secret agents and collaborators (a process called lustration) In 2006 and 2007 the use of IPN by the Polish government - primarily by the ruling Prawo i Sprawiedliwość party (PiS) - came under criticism by some journalists and politicians. One of the major policy changes of PiS was to raise the issue of unresolved crimes from the times of the communist People's Republic of Poland. Critics of the government noted that the abandonment of the thick line policy would oblige all politicians, civil servants and others in positions of public trust to undergo a background check by the IPN. Tom Hundley, Poland looks back in anger, 1 December 2006, Chicago Tribune Since the results of these background checks are public, it is alleged that the motive of the PiS government is not justice but a smear campaign on their opposition. Further, IPN itself has been criticized for reliance on possibly falsified documents from the Polish communist secret police (Służba Bezpieczeństwa). In addition to pro-opposition media in Poland, this issue has also been highlighted by some media outlets outside Poland, such as The Guardian, Chicago Tribune and Newsday. The Guardian drew a parallel to McCarthyism in the United States Daniel McLaughlin, Fear of McCarthy-style purge as Poles face sack for secret police links, Wednesday July 26, 2006, The Guardian and journalist Matthew McAllester of Newsday described the events as a political witch hunt. Matthew McAllester, Poland's dirty laundry, 12 February 2007, Newsday Wielgus affair Stanisław Wielgus, former Roman Catholic archbishop of Warsaw, was a communist secret police informer. Archbishop Wielgus is the highest-ranking Church leader to admit that he agreed to spy for an East European communist state. Archbishop's prompt resignation prompts Vatican embarrassment, relief Catholic News Service, 2007-01-08 Similar documents, catalogued and made public by IPN research, surfaced several in Polish politics, with varying accusations as to what faction of Polish politicians is trying to use them to damage another faction. Kuroń prowadził negocjacje z SB, Życie Warszawy, 29 August 2006, last accessed on 20 April 2007. Dudek: dokumenty o negocjacjach Kuronia z SB nie są przełomem, Polish Press Agency, 29 August 2006, last accessed on 20 April 2007. Such discussions were common in Polish politics even before IPN centralized the communist archives: Jan Olszewski's government in 1992 after the Interior Minister, Antoni Macierewicz, was accused of using such documents for political gain. Later Vice-Premier Janusz Tomaszewski was forced to resign merely because he was called before the lustration court in 2000. Such documents also were mentioned during Polish presidential election, 2000, when it was alleged two recent Polish presidents and candidates to the elections, Aleksander Kwaśniewski, and Lech Wałęsa, might have had contacts with communist secret police. "Poland's controversial lustration trials", Central Europe Review, Vol 2, No 30 dated 11 September 2000, last accessed on 20 April 2007 Criticism of IPN by Russian sources IPN has been criticized by Russian sources, for investigating crimes committed by the Soviets on Polish people. Albert Akopyan "Selective national memory", 16 March 2007, GlobalRus analytical journal Victor Polyakov "Farewell to Poland?", April 24th, 2007, Agency of Political news Russian magazine Ogonyok accused IPN of "rewriting history" and called it a "Ministry of Truth". MagazineOgonyok editorial "With scribe and sword" №7, 12-18 February, 2007 Praise IPN actions have also attracted support. In 2006 an open letter was published, declaring that List w "obronie historyków z IPN", Polish Press Agency article reprinted on Wirtualna Polska. Last accessed on 20 April 2007. : "History of Solidarity and anti-communist resistance in Poland cannot be damaged by scientific studies and resulting increase in our knowledge of the past. History of opposition to totalitarianism belongs to millions of Poles and not to one social or political group which usurps the right to decide which parts of national history should be discussed and which forgotten." This letter was signed by a former Prime Minister of Poland, Jan Olszewski; the Mayor of Zakopane, Piotr Bąk; Polish-American Professor and member of the United States Holocaust Memorial Council Marek Jan Chodakiewicz; Professors Maria Dzielska, Piotr Franaszek and Tomasz Gąsowski of the Jagiellonian University; Professor Marek Czachor of Gdańsk University of Technology, journalist and writer Marcin Wolski; Solidarity co-founder Anna Walentynowicz and dozens of others. Copy of a letter, Tezusz, Last accessed on 20 April 2007 References External links IPN Home Page (English) old Act of 18 December 1998 on the Institute of National Remembrance - Commission for Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation (Ustawa z dnia 18 grudnia 1998 r. o Instytucie Pamięci Narodowej - Komisji Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu) old Act of 18 December 1998 on the Institute of National Remembrance - Commission for Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation | Institute_of_National_Remembrance |@lemmatized ipn:54 logo:2 institute:7 national:7 remembrance:6 commission:4 prosecution:5 crime:19 polish:61 nation:7 government:10 affiliate:1 research:6 lustration:10 prerogative:1 power:2 found:1 specific:1 legislation:2 specialise:1 legal:1 historical:2 science:2 particular:2 recent:3 history:9 poland:39 nauka:1 polska:2 instytucje:1 naukowe:1 identyfikator:1 rekordu:1 investigate:3 nazi:11 communist:16 commit:10 document:9 finding:1 disseminate:1 result:5 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5,705 | Hollywood-style_Lindy_Hop | Hollywood-style Lindy Hop is a variety of Lindy Hop, an American vernacular dance. It is also sometimes referred to as Dean Collins or Smooth-style, but these terms also sometimes refer to different styles of Lindy Hop. Hollywood is the style seen in 1930s and 1940s movies. It was danced by Dean Collins, Jewel McGowan, Hal Takier, Jean Veloz and others. The style was essentially lost in the post-war era, but briefly used in 1950's teen & rock n' roll movies. It was reconstructed from these movies in the late 1990s by Erik Robison and Sylvia Skylar. They were the first to call it "Hollywood Style". The swingout (the basic step of Lindy) is danced in a position often described as someone about to sit on a stool, thereby bringing their center point of balance closer to the ground. This piked position is the classic look of Hollywood with the back straight and a slight forward tilt. The Hollywood style is also a slotted dance, meaning the follower travels in a straight line instead of the more elliptical or circular Savoy-style Lindy Hop. A popular variation of Hollywood-Style Lindy Hop called LA-style Lindy Hop has a few technical changes in the footwork and fewer steps. The steps are shortened or "cheated" to create this look. The style is geared towards performance and is heavily based on short choreographies. Originating in Los Angeles, California, LA-style is a favorite on the West Coast of the United States. References | Hollywood-style_Lindy_Hop |@lemmatized hollywood:6 style:12 lindy:7 hop:6 variety:1 american:1 vernacular:1 dance:4 also:3 sometimes:2 refer:2 dean:2 collins:2 smooth:1 term:1 different:1 see:1 movie:3 jewel:1 mcgowan:1 hal:1 takier:1 jean:1 veloz:1 others:1 essentially:1 lose:1 post:1 war:1 era:1 briefly:1 use:1 teen:1 rock:1 n:1 roll:1 reconstruct:1 late:1 erik:1 robison:1 sylvia:1 skylar:1 first:1 call:2 swingout:1 basic:1 step:3 position:2 often:1 describe:1 someone:1 sit:1 stool:1 thereby:1 bring:1 center:1 point:1 balance:1 closer:1 ground:1 piked:1 classic:1 look:2 back:1 straight:2 slight:1 forward:1 tilt:1 slotted:1 mean:1 follower:1 travel:1 line:1 instead:1 elliptical:1 circular:1 savoy:1 popular:1 variation:1 la:2 technical:1 change:1 footwork:1 shorten:1 cheat:1 create:1 gear:1 towards:1 performance:1 heavily:1 base:1 short:1 choreography:1 originate:1 los:1 angeles:1 california:1 favorite:1 west:1 coast:1 united:1 state:1 reference:1 |@bigram lindy_hop:6 sit_stool:1 los_angeles:1 |
5,706 | Mick_Doohan | Michael "Mick" Sydney Doohan AM born in Brisbane, Australia, is a former Grand Prix motorcycle road racing World Champion, who won five consecutive 500 cc World Championships, second only to Giacomo Agostini. Doohan's feat has since been equalled by Valentino Rossi, who won 5 consecutive 500cc/MotoGP world championships from 2001-2005, and a 6th MotoGP World Championship in 2008. Doohan is considered to be one of the best motorcycle racers in the history of the sport, and remains an inspiration to those involved in the sport. Biography Originally from the Gold Coast, near Brisbane, Doohan raced in Australian Superbikes in the late 80s, and also won both races as Superbike World Championship visited Oran Park in . He is one of the few 500 cc or MotoGP World Champions to have won a Superbike World Championship race. He made his Grand Prix debut for Honda on a 500cc two-stroke motorcycle in 1989. In 1991, he was paired with Wayne Gardner on a Honda RVF750 superbike and won the Suzuka 8 Hours endurance race. Doohan competed successfully throughout the early 1990s and appeared to be on his way to winning his first world championship when he was seriously injured in a practice crash before the 1992 Dutch TT. He suffered permanent serious damage to his right leg due to medical complications and, at one stage, risked amputation of the leg. At the time, Doohan was 65 points in the lead of the championship, but could not compete for eight weeks after the crash. After an arduous recovery, Doohan returned to racing for the final two races but could not prevent Yamaha rider Wayne Rainey from winning his third consecutive title. Throughout 1993 he struggled to regain fitness and the ability to race the Honda at elite level. However, in 1994 he won his first 500 cc World Championship. From then until 1998 he dominated the class, winning five consecutive 500 cc World Championships. In 1997, his most successful year, Doohan won 12 out of 15 races, finished second in another two, and crashed out of the final race of the season at his home GP while leading by more than six seconds. In June 1996 Doohan was inducted as a Member of the Order of Australia for his contribution to the sport of motor racing. Despite up to eight rivals on almost identical Honda motorcycles Doohan's margin of superiority over them was such that in many races Doohan would build a comfortable lead and then ride well within his limits to cruise to victory. Although pure riding skill clearly played a large part in his success, his ability to perfect the suspension and geometry of a racing motorcycle gave him an enormous advantage over his rivals, even though other Honda riders (particularly Doohan's teammates) benefited somewhat from his ability to perfect the bike's handling. It is generally accepted that his development of the Honda throughout the 1990s helped the company to dominate racing for many years. At the time of Doohan's retirement, the Honda had developed into a much better handling machine than it had ever been previously. One notable trait of Doohan's post-crash riding style was the use of a hand-operated rear brake developed during 1993. This was operated by a "nudge" bar similar to a personal water craft throttle, but mounted on the left handlebar. Some commentators have argued that this technique offered Doohan an additional advantage in rear brake control, though there was nothing to stop other riders from trying it (and some did, most notably Troy Corser and Miguel DuHamel, neither of whom had restricted use of their right foot). In 1999 Doohan had another accident, this time in qualifying. He again broke his leg in several places and subsequently announced his retirement. He was somewhat unlucky, as his accident rate was far lower than many competitors. For all his time in 500 cc class his chief engineer was Jeremy Burgess, who after his retirement became Valentino Rossi's chief engineer. After his retirement, he worked as a roving adviser to Honda's Grand Prix race effort. At the conclusion of the 2004 season, Doohan and Honda parted company. Mick married his long term partner Selina Sines of 11 years on Friday 21 March 2006, on Hamilton Island. Mick and Selina have two children, Allexis and Jack. Many current generation MotoGP riders consider Mick as an inspiration, including 2007 MotoGP world champion, Casey Stoner. Formula One After his success in Grand Prix motorcycle racing he got a chance to test a Formula One racecar, the Williams FW19, at Circuit de Catalunya, Spain, in April 1998. Despite posting lap times similar to his 500 cc Grand Prix bike, he found the car difficult to drive and subsequently bent the car against a guard rail. He also crashed and totalled a Mercedes Benz AMG in Targa Tasmania. Rollercoaster Michael Doohan helped design, and was gifted his own rollercoaster at Dreamworld on the Gold Coast, Australia. This is the only known Intamin AG Motorbike Coaster, since others are made by Vekoma and Zamperla. Grand Prix career statistics SeasonClassMotorcycleTeamRaceWinPodiumPoleFLapPtsPlcd 1989 500cc Honda NSR500 Honda-HRC 12 0 1 0 0 81 9th 1990 500cc Honda NSR500 Honda-HRC 15 1 5 3 2 179 3rd 1991 500cc Honda NSR500 Honda-HRC 15 3 14 2 1 224 2nd 1992 500cc Honda NSR500 Honda-HRC 9 5 7 6 5 136 2nd 1993 500cc Honda NSR500 Honda-HRC 13 1 6 4 4 156 4th 1994 500cc Honda NSR500 Honda-HRC 14 9 14 6 7 317 1st 1995 500cc Honda NSR500 Honda-HRC 13 7 10 9 7 248 1st 1996 500cc Honda NSR500 Honda-HRC 15 8 12 8 4 309 1st 1997 500cc Honda NSR500 Honda-HRC 15 12 14 12 11 340 1st 1998 500cc Honda NSR500 Honda-HRC 14 8 11 8 3 260 1st 1999 500cc Honda NSR500 Honda-HRC 2 0 1 0 2 33 17th Total 137 54 95 58 46 2283 References External links MickDoohan.com.au - Official site | Mick_Doohan |@lemmatized michael:2 mick:4 sydney:1 doohan:18 bear:1 brisbane:2 australia:3 former:1 grand:6 prix:6 motorcycle:6 road:1 race:14 world:11 champion:3 win:10 five:2 consecutive:4 cc:6 championship:9 second:3 giacomo:1 agostini:1 feat:1 since:2 equal:1 valentino:2 rossi:2 motogp:5 consider:2 one:6 best:1 racer:1 history:1 sport:3 remain:1 inspiration:2 involve:1 biography:1 originally:1 gold:2 coast:2 near:1 australian:1 superbikes:1 late:1 also:2 superbike:3 visit:1 oran:1 park:1 make:2 debut:1 honda:31 two:4 stroke:1 pair:1 wayne:2 gardner:1 suzuka:1 hour:1 endurance:1 compete:2 successfully:1 throughout:3 early:1 appear:1 way:1 first:2 seriously:1 injure:1 practice:1 crash:5 dutch:1 tt:1 suffer:1 permanent:1 serious:1 damage:1 right:2 leg:3 due:1 medical:1 complication:1 stage:1 risk:1 amputation:1 time:5 point:1 lead:3 could:2 eight:2 week:1 arduous:1 recovery:1 return:1 final:2 prevent:1 yamaha:1 rider:4 rainey:1 third:1 title:1 struggle:1 regain:1 fitness:1 ability:3 elite:1 level:1 however:1 dominate:2 class:2 successful:1 year:3 finish:1 another:2 season:2 home:1 gp:1 six:1 june:1 induct:1 member:1 order:1 contribution:1 motor:1 racing:2 despite:2 rival:2 almost:1 identical:1 margin:1 superiority:1 many:4 would:1 build:1 comfortable:1 ride:1 well:2 within:1 limit:1 cruise:1 victory:1 although:1 pure:1 rid:2 skill:1 clearly:1 play:1 large:1 part:2 success:2 perfect:2 suspension:1 geometry:1 give:1 enormous:1 advantage:2 even:1 though:2 particularly:1 teammate:1 benefit:1 somewhat:2 bike:2 handling:1 generally:1 accept:1 development:1 help:2 company:2 retirement:4 develop:2 much:1 handle:1 machine:1 ever:1 previously:1 notable:1 trait:1 post:2 style:1 use:2 hand:1 operate:2 rear:2 brake:2 nudge:1 bar:1 similar:2 personal:1 water:1 craft:1 throttle:1 mount:1 left:1 handlebar:1 commentator:1 argue:1 technique:1 offer:1 additional:1 control:1 nothing:1 stop:1 try:1 notably:1 troy:1 corser:1 miguel:1 duhamel:1 neither:1 restrict:1 foot:1 accident:2 qualify:1 break:1 several:1 place:1 subsequently:2 announce:1 unlucky:1 rate:1 far:1 low:1 competitor:1 chief:2 engineer:2 jeremy:1 burgess:1 become:1 work:1 rove:1 adviser:1 effort:1 conclusion:1 marry:1 long:1 term:1 partner:1 selina:2 sine:1 friday:1 march:1 hamilton:1 island:1 child:1 allexis:1 jack:1 current:1 generation:1 include:1 casey:1 stoner:1 formula:2 get:1 chance:1 test:1 racecar:1 williams:1 circuit:1 de:1 catalunya:1 spain:1 april:1 lap:1 find:1 car:2 difficult:1 drive:1 bend:1 guard:1 rail:1 total:2 mercedes:1 benz:1 amg:1 targa:1 tasmania:1 rollercoaster:2 design:1 gift:1 dreamworld:1 known:1 intamin:1 ag:1 motorbike:1 coaster:1 others:1 vekoma:1 zamperla:1 career:1 statistic:1 seasonclassmotorcycleteamracewinpodiumpoleflapptsplcd:1 hrc:11 reference:1 external:1 link:1 mickdoohan:1 com:1 au:1 official:1 site:1 |@bigram grand_prix:6 seriously_injure:1 casey_stoner:1 de_catalunya:1 mercedes_benz:1 honda_honda:11 honda_hrc:11 hrc_honda:10 external_link:1 |
5,707 | Propaganda_film | The Why We Fight Series depicts the Nazi propaganda machine. A propaganda film is a film, either a documentary-style production or a fictional screenplay, that is produced to convince the viewer of a certain political point or influence the opinions or behavior of people, often by providing deliberately misleading, propagandistic content. Bennett, Todd. "The celluloid war: state and studio in Anglo-American propaganda film-making, 1939-1941." The International History Review 24.1 (March 2002): 64(34). History The earliest known propaganda film was a series of short silent films made during the Spanish American War in 1898 created by Vitagraph Studios. One of the early fictional films to be used for propaganda was The Birth of a Nation, although it was not produced for the purposes of indoctrination. In 1918, Charlie Chaplin made, at his own expense, The Bond, a comedic propaganda film for World War I. In the years following the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviet government sponsored the Russian film industry with the purpose of making propaganda films. The development of Russian cinema in the 1920s by such filmmakers as Dziga Vertov and Sergei Eisenstein saw considerable progress in the use of the motion picture as a propaganda tool, yet it also served to develop the art of moviemaking. Eisenstein's films, in particular The Battleship Potemkin, are seen as masterworks of the cinema, even as they glorify Eisenstein's Communist ideals. The 1930s and 1940s, which saw the rise of totalitarian states and the Second World War, are arguably the "Golden Age of Propaganda". During this time Leni Riefenstahl, a filmmaker working in Nazi Germany, created what is arguably the greatest propaganda movie of all time: Triumph of the Will, a film commissioned by Hitler to chronicle the 1934 Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg. Despite its controversial subject, the film is still recognized today for its influential revolutionary approaches to using music and cinematography. In the United States during World War II, filmmaker Frank Capra created a seven-part series of films to support the war effort entitled Why We Fight. This series is considered a highlight of the propaganda film genre. Other propaganda movies, such as Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo and Casablanca, have become so well-loved by film viewers that they can stand on their own as dramatic films, apart from their original role as propaganda vehicles. Many of the dramatic war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create a patriotic mindset and convince viewers that sacrifices needed to be made to defeat "the enemy." One of the conventions of the genre was to depict a racial and socioeconomic cross-section of the United States, either a platoon on the front lines or soldiers training on a base, which come together to fight for the good of the country. In Italy, at the same time, film directors like Roberto Rossellini produced propaganda films for similar purposes. During the 1960s, the United States produced propaganda films that cheerily instructed civilians how to build homemade fallout shelters, to protect themselves in the event of nuclear war. For more discussion of propaganda and some examples of it in short films from the United States, see the 10-volume CD-ROM collection Our Secret Century. For a satirical subversion of the United States military's 1960s propaganda regarding the safety of radioactive materials, see The Atomic Cafe. See also List of films made in the Third Reich List of Allied propaganda films of World War II List of Holocaust films List of World War II films References External links Prelinger Archives: from the Internet Archive, collection of World War II and Cold War-era American sponsored films of the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s (many of which can be classified as propaganda) Duck and Cover (link) Don't Be a Sucker! (link) My Japan (link) Perversion for Profit (link) Red Chinese Battle Plan Propaganda Filmmaker: Make Your Own Propaganda Film Propagandacritic Video Gallery | Propaganda_film |@lemmatized fight:3 series:4 depict:2 nazi:3 propaganda:21 machine:1 film:27 either:2 documentary:1 style:1 production:1 fictional:2 screenplay:1 produce:4 convince:2 viewer:3 certain:1 political:1 point:1 influence:1 opinion:1 behavior:1 people:1 often:1 provide:1 deliberately:1 mislead:1 propagandistic:1 content:1 bennett:1 todd:1 celluloid:1 war:12 state:8 studio:2 anglo:1 american:3 making:1 international:1 history:2 review:1 march:1 early:3 known:1 short:2 silent:1 make:6 spanish:1 create:4 vitagraph:1 one:2 use:3 birth:1 nation:1 although:1 purpose:3 indoctrination:1 charlie:1 chaplin:1 expense:1 bond:1 comedic:1 world:6 year:1 follow:1 october:1 revolution:1 soviet:1 government:1 sponsor:2 russian:2 industry:1 development:1 cinema:2 filmmaker:4 dziga:1 vertov:1 sergei:1 eisenstein:3 saw:2 considerable:1 progress:1 motion:1 picture:1 tool:1 yet:1 also:2 serve:1 develop:1 art:1 moviemaking:1 particular:1 battleship:1 potemkin:1 see:4 masterworks:1 even:1 glorify:1 communist:1 ideal:1 rise:1 totalitarian:1 second:2 arguably:2 golden:1 age:1 time:3 leni:1 riefenstahl:1 work:1 germany:1 great:1 movie:2 triumph:1 commission:1 hitler:1 chronicle:1 party:1 rally:1 nuremberg:1 despite:1 controversial:1 subject:1 still:1 recognize:1 today:1 influential:1 revolutionary:1 approach:1 music:1 cinematography:1 united:6 ii:4 frank:1 capra:1 seven:1 part:1 support:1 effort:1 entitle:1 consider:1 highlight:1 genre:2 thirty:1 tokyo:1 casablanca:1 become:1 well:1 love:1 stand:1 dramatic:2 apart:1 original:1 role:1 vehicle:1 many:2 design:1 patriotic:1 mindset:1 sacrifice:1 need:1 defeat:1 enemy:1 convention:1 racial:1 socioeconomic:1 cross:1 section:1 platoon:1 front:1 line:1 soldier:1 train:1 base:1 come:1 together:1 good:1 country:1 italy:1 director:1 like:1 roberto:1 rossellini:1 similar:1 cheerily:1 instruct:1 civilian:1 build:1 homemade:1 fallout:1 shelter:1 protect:1 event:1 nuclear:1 discussion:1 example:1 volume:1 cd:1 rom:1 collection:2 secret:1 century:1 satirical:1 subversion:1 military:1 regard:1 safety:1 radioactive:1 material:1 atomic:1 cafe:1 list:4 third:1 reich:1 allied:1 holocaust:1 reference:1 external:1 link:5 prelinger:1 archive:2 internet:1 cold:1 era:1 classify:1 duck:1 cover:1 sucker:1 japan:1 perversion:1 profit:1 red:1 chinese:1 battle:1 plan:1 propagandacritic:1 video:1 gallery:1 |@bigram charlie_chaplin:1 dziga_vertov:1 sergei_eisenstein:1 motion_picture:1 battleship_potemkin:1 leni_riefenstahl:1 frank_capra:1 roberto_rossellini:1 fallout_shelter:1 cd_rom:1 third_reich:1 external_link:1 |
5,708 | Göktürks | The Göktürks (Old Turkic: Göktürkler or Köktürkler, «Original Turks» Often translated as Sky-blue Turks: Gök and kök are understood as sky-blue in Modern Turkish, but their etymology is primarily «root», «original» (kök), while gök means «sky», «celestial» etc. and türk «Turc», «Turkish», but also «turquoise», referring to the Sky-blue notion — see gök, kök and türk on the TDK (Turkish Linguistic Society)'s website for the precise meaning of these words. (Turkish) ) were a powerful nomadic confederation of medieval Inner Asia. Known in Chinese sources as 突厥 (Tūjué), the Göktürks under the leadership of Bumin Khan (土門可汗, Tǔmen Kěhàn) (d. 552) and his sons succeeded the Rouran as the main power in the region and took hold of the lucrative Silk Road trade. The Göktürk rulers originated from the Ashina clan, a tribe of obscure origins who lived in the northern corner of Inner Asia. Under their leadership, the Göktürk Empire rapidly expanded to rule huge territories in Central Asia. The state's most famous personalities other than its founder Bumin were princes Kül Tigin (闕特勒, Quētèlè) and Bilge Khan (毗伽可汗, Píqié Kěhàn) and the chancellor Tonyukuk (暾欲谷, Tūnyùgǔ), whose life stories were recorded in the Orkhon inscriptions. Etymology Petroglyphs from Zavkhan Province, Mongolia, depicting Göktürks (6th-8th century). The name Tūjué (like that of Ashina) appeared in Chinese sources relatively late, the first record being dated 542 meaning "strong" or "powerful". Xue 39-85 Göktürk is said to mean "Celestial Turks". This is consistent with "the cult of heavenly ordained rule" which was a pivotal element of the Altaic political culture before being imported to China. Wink 64. Similarly, the name of the ruling Ashina clan probably derives from the Khotanese Sakā term for "deep blue", āššɪna. Findley 39. . The name might also derive from a Tungusic tribe related to Aisin. Zhu 68-91. But this is contested, as the Göktürk etymology gives Original Turks (see note 1). According to the ancient East Asian cosmology outlined in the theory of the Five Elements (五行 Wǔ-xíng), to which the Turks have also ascribed since ancient times, the color blue is a symbol representing the eastern direction, and it is associated with good omens. The Guardian Deity of the Eastern Direction is the Azure Dragon. Thus, it would not be surprising if the Göktürks had chosen to call themselves "Blue Turks" in the primary sense of "East Turks", with all the associated connotations of "first," "rising," "dawning," "auspicious," and so forth. Göktürk is . Origins Four hundred years after the collapse of northern Xiongnu power in Inner Asia, leadership of the Turks was taken over by the Göktürks after rebelling against the Rouran. Formerly an element of the Xiongnu nomadic confederation, the Göktürks inherited their traditions and administrative experience. From 552 to 745, Göktürk leadership bound together the nomadic Turkic tribes into an empire, which eventually collapsed due to a series of dynastic conflicts. The great difference between the Göktürk Khanate and its Xiongnu predecessor was that the Göktürks' temporary khans from the Ashina clan were subordinate to a sovereign authority that was left in the hands of a council of tribal chiefs. The Khanate received missionaries from the Buddhists, Manicheans, and Nestorian Christians, but retained their original shamanistic religion, Tengriism. The Göktürks were the first Turkic people known to write their language in a runic script. First unified empire The Turks' rise to power began in 546 when Bumin Khan made a pre-emptive strike against the Uyghur and Tiele tribes who were planning a revolt against their overlords, the Rouran. For this service he expected to be rewarded with a Rouran princess, i.e. marry into the royal family. Disappointed in his hopes, Bumin allied with the Wei state against Rouran, their common enemy. In 552, Bumin defeated the last Rouran Khan, Yujiulü Anagui. He also subdued the Yenisei Kyrgyz and the Khitans of Western Manchuria, was formally recognized by China, and married the Wei princess Changle. Having excelled both in battle and diplomacy Bumin declared himself Il-Qaghan ("great king of kings") of the new Göktürk empire at Otukan, the old Xiongnu capital, but died a year later. It was his son Mukhan who consolidated his conquests into an empire of global reach. Bumin's brother Istämi (d. 576) was titled yabghu of the west and collaborated with the Persian Sassanids to defeat and destroy the White Huns, who were allies of the Rouran. This war tightened the Ashina's grip of the Silk Road and drove the Avars into Europe. Istämi's policy of western expansion brought the Turks into Eastern Europe. In 576 the Göktürks crossed the Cimmerian Bosporus into the Crimea. Five years later they laid siege to Tauric Chersonesus; their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590. Grousset 81. As for the southern borders, they were drawn south of the Oxus River, bringing the Ashina into conflict with their former allies, the Sassanids of Persia. Much of Bactria (including Balkh) remained a dependency of the Ashina until the end of the century.. In 588 they were under the walls of Herat but Bahram Chobin ably countered the invasion during the First Perso-Turkic War. In the eastern part of their extensive dominions, the Göktürk Empire maintained close political ties with the Goguryeo Empire of Korea which controlled southern Manchuria and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Giving gifts, providing military support, and free trade were some of the benefits of this close mutual alliance. Both rival states in north China paid large tributes to the Göktürks from 581. Civil war Extent of the Göktürks, c. 600. This first Göktürk Empire split in two after the death of the fourth Qaghan, Taspar Khan (ca. 584). He had willed the title Qaghan to Mukhan's son Talopien, but the high council appointed Ishbara in his stead. Factions formed around both leaders. Before long four rival khans claimed the title of Qaghan. They were successfully played off against each other by the Sui and Tang dynasties of China. The most serious contender was the Western Khan, Istämi's son Tardu, a violent and ambitious man who had already declared himself independent from the Qaghan after his father's death. He now titled himself as Qaghan, and led an army to the east to claim the seat of imperial power, Otukan. In order to buttress his position, Ishbara of the Eastern Khanate applied to the Chinese Emperor Yangdi for protection. Tardu attacked Changan, the Sui capital, around 600, demanding from Emperor Yangdi to end his interference in the civil war. In retaliation, Chinese diplomacy successfully incited a revolt of Tardu's Tiele vassal tribes, which led to the end of Tardu's reign in 603. Among the dissident tribes were the Uyghur and Syr-Tardush. Dual empires The civil war left the empire divided into the eastern and western parts. The eastern part, still ruled from Ötüken, remained in the orbit of the Sui Empire and retained the name Göktürk. The khans Shipi (609-19) and Khieli (620-30) of the East attacked China at its weakest moment during the transition between the Sui and Tang dynasties. All in all, 67 incursions on Chinese territories were recorded. Khieli was brought down by a revolt of his Tiele vassal tribes (626-630), allied with Emperor Taizong of Tang. This tribal alliance figures in Chinese records as the Huihe (Uyghur). After the Khan was taken prisoner, the Tang dynasty had his empire divided into protectorates. The Western khans Shekuei and Tung Yabğu constructed an alliance with the Byzantine Empire against the Persian Sassanids and succeeded in restoring the southern borders along the Tarim and Oxus rivers. Their capital was Suyab in the Chui River valley, about 60 km east of modern Tokmok. In 627 Tung Yabğu, assisted by the Khazars and Emperor Heraclius, launched a massive invasion of Transcaucasia which culminated in the taking of Derbent and Tbilisi (see the Third Perso-Turkic War for details). In April 630 Tung's deputy Buri-sad sent the Göktürk cavalry to invade Armenia, where his general Chorpan Tarkhan succeeded in routing a large Persian force. Tung Yabğu's murder in 630 forced the Göktürks to evacuate Transcaucasia. The Western Turkic Khaganate was modernized through an administrative reform of Ishbara-Qağan (reigned 634-639) and came to be known as the Onoq. Gumilev 238. The name refers to "ten arrows" that were granted by the khagan to five leaders (shads) of its two constituent tribal confederations, Tulu and Nushipi, whose lands were divided by the Chui River. The division fostered the growth of separatist tendencies, and soon the Bulgarian tribes under the Dulo chieftain Kubrat seceded from the khaganate. In 657, the eastern part of the khaganate was overrun by the Tang general Su Ding Fang, while the central part had emerged as the independent khaganate of Khazaria, led by a branch of the Ashina dynasty. Emperor Taizong of Tang was proclaimed Khagan of the turks. In 659 the Tang Emperor of China could claim to rule the entire Silk Road as far as Po-sse (Persia). The Turks now carried Chinese titles and fought by their side in their wars. The era spanning from 659-681 was characterized by numerous independent rulers - weak, divided, and engaged in constant petty wars. In the east, the Uyghurs defeated their one-time allies the Syr-Tardush, while in the west the Turgesh emerged as successors to the Onoq. Second empire Asia in 700 AD, showing the Eastern or 2nd Göktürk Empire. Sculpted marble head of the Göktürk general Kul Tigin (8th century AD). Discovered in the Orkhon Valley. Despite all the setbacks, Ilteriş Şad (Idat) and his brother Bäkçor Qapağan Khan (Mo-ch'o) succeeded in reestablishing the Khanate. In 681 they revolted against Tang Dynasty Chinese domination and, over the following decades, steadily gained control of the steppes beyond the Great Wall of China. By 705, they had expanded as far south as Samarkand and threatened the Arab control of Transoxiana. The Göktürks clashed with the Umayyad Califate in a series of battles (712-713) but, again, the Arabs emerged as victors. Following the Ashina tradition, the power of the Second Empire was centered on Ötükän (the upper reaches of the Orkhon River). This polity was described by historians as "the joint enterprise of the Ashina clan and the Soghdians, with large numbers of Chinese bureaucrats being involved as well". Wink 66. The son of Ilteriş, Bilge, was also a strong leader, the one whose deeds were recorded in the Orkhon inscriptions. After his death in 734 the empire declined. The Göktürks ultimately fell victim to a series of internal crises and renewed Chinese campaigns. When Kutluk Khan of the Uyghurs allied himself with the Karluks and Basmyls, the power of the Göktürks was very much on the wane. In 744 Kutluk seized Ötükän and beheaded the last Göktürk khagan Özmish Khan, whose head was sent to the Tang Dynasty Chinese court. Grousset 114. In a space of few years, the Uyghurs gained mastery of Inner Asia and established the Uyghur Khaganate. Rulers First Göktürk Empire Ashina Tuwu Yili Qaghan / Ashina Tumen 552 - 553 elder son of Tuwu Yixiji Qaghan / Ashina Keluo 553 - 554 son of Tumen Taspar Khan 572 - 581 son of Bumin Khan Shabolue Qaghan / Ashina Shetu 581 - 587 son of Kelou Xiegashiduona Dulan / Ashina Chuluohou 588 - 599 son of Shetu Tuli Qaghan or Qimin Qaghan / Ashina Rangan 599 - 609 son of Chuluohou Shibi Qaghan / Ashina Duoji 611 - 619 son of Rangan Chuluo Qaghan / Ashina Qilifu 619 - 621 younger brother of Duoji Jiali Qaghan / Ashina Duobi 621 - 630 third son of Rangan Yehu Qaghan or Mohe Qaghan / Ashina Yongyulu 587 - 588 brother of Shetu Mugan Qaghan / Ashina Qijin 554 - 572 younger brother of Kelou Tuobo Qaghan / Unknown name 572 - 581 younger brother of Qijin Unknown title / Ashina Anluo 581 son of Tuobo Qaghan Rival Qağans of Ishbara Rudan Buli Khan 580s Talopien Apa Khan 580s Tardu Datou Khan (also known as Bujia Khan) 599 - 603 Western Qaghans Ashina Tuwu Istämi Yabghu 553 - 573 (defacto qağan in west) second son of Tuwu Tardu Datou Khan 599 - 603 Nili Khan 603 and Chulo Khan 603 - 611 Shekuei 611 - 618 Tung Yabğu 618 - 630 Yiwu Khan 630 Interim claimants of Eastern Turkic throne Qilibi Khan 639 - 644 (Tang vassal) Chebi Khan ~646 - 649 Ashina Nishoufu 679-680 Ashina Funian 681 Second Göktürk Kaganate Ilteris Sad (Idat) 682-694 Qapagan Khaghan (Chinese Mo-ch'o) 694 - 716 Inäl Khan 716 Bilgä Kagan Khan 716 - 734 (murdered) Kul Tigin Khan 716 - 731 (co-ruler with Bilge) Yollug Khan 735 - Icen Khan - 744 Etimis Khan 744-747 (in exile) Eletmish Kagan 747-759 Yu. Zuev, p. 233 Bügü Kagan 759-779 Yu. Zuev, p. 233 See also Turkic peoples Orkhon script Ethnic groups in Chinese history Khazars Kangju Kangly Khosho Tsaidam Monuments Horses in East Asian warfare Notes and References Findley, Carter Vaughin. The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0195177266. Great Soviet Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed. Article "Turkic Khaganate" (online). Grousset, René. The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press, 1970. ISBN 0813513049. Gumilev, Lev (2007) The Gokturks (Древние тюрки ;Drevnie ti︠u︡rki) . Moscow: AST, 2007. ISBN 5170247931. Yu. Zuev (I︠U︡. A. Zuev) (2002) , "Early Türks: Essays on history and ideology" (Rannie ti︠u︡rki: ocherki istorii i ideologii), Almaty, Daik-Press, , p. 233, ISBN 9985441529 Wink, André. Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Brill Academic Publishers, 2002. ISBN 0391041738. Zhu, Xueyuan (朱学渊)(2004) The Origins of Northern China's Ethnicity (中国北方诸族的源流). Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju (中华书局) ISBN 7-101-03336-9 Xue, Zongzheng (薛宗正)(1992) A History of Turks (突厥史). Beijing: Chinese Social Sciences Press (中国社会科学出版社) ISBN 7-5004-0432-8 External links The Gok-Turks Khans Gokturkish Keyboard by Isa SARI A German-language site | Göktürks |@lemmatized göktürks:15 old:2 turkic:9 göktürkler:1 köktürkler:1 original:4 turk:15 often:1 translate:1 sky:4 blue:6 gök:3 kök:3 understood:1 modern:2 turkish:4 etymology:3 primarily:1 root:1 mean:3 celestial:2 etc:1 türk:2 turc:1 also:7 turquoise:1 refer:1 notion:1 see:4 tdk:1 linguistic:1 society:1 website:1 precise:1 meaning:1 word:1 powerful:2 nomadic:3 confederation:3 medieval:1 inner:4 asia:6 know:4 chinese:14 source:2 突厥:1 tūjué:2 leadership:4 bumin:8 khan:33 土門可汗:1 tǔmen:1 kěhàn:2 son:15 succeed:4 rouran:7 main:1 power:6 region:1 take:3 hold:1 lucrative:1 silk:3 road:3 trade:2 göktürk:17 ruler:4 originate:1 ashina:25 clan:4 tribe:8 obscure:1 origin:3 live:1 northern:4 corner:1 empire:18 rapidly:1 expand:2 rule:4 huge:1 territory:2 central:2 state:3 famous:1 personality:1 founder:1 prince:1 kül:1 tigin:3 闕特勒:1 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5,709 | Forth_(programming_language) | Forth is a structured, imperative, stack-based, computer programming language and programming environment. Forth is sometimes spelled in all capital letters following the customary usage during its earlier years, although the name is not an acronym. A procedural, stack-oriented and reflective programming language without type checking, Forth features both interactive execution of commands (making it suitable as a shell for systems that lack a more formal operating system) and the ability to compile sequences of commands for later execution. Some Forth implementations (usually early versions or those written to be extremely portable) compile threaded code, but many implementations today generate optimized machine code like other language compilers. Although not as popular as other programming systems, Forth has enough support to keep several language vendors and contractors in business. Forth is currently used in boot loaders such as Open Firmware, space applications, NASA applications of Forth and other embedded systems. An implementation of Forth by the GNU Project is actively maintained, the last release in November 2008. The 1994 standard is currently undergoing revision, provisionally titled Forth 200x. Forth 200x standards effort Overview A Forth environment combines the compiler with an interactive shell. The user interactively defines and runs subroutines, or "words," in a virtual machine similar to the runtime environment. Words can be tested, redefined, and debugged as the source is entered without recompiling or restarting the whole program. All syntactic elements, including variables and basic operators, appear as such procedures. Even if a particular word is optimized so as not to require a subroutine call, it is also still available as a subroutine. On the other hand, the shell may compile interactively typed commands into machine code before running them. (This behavior is common, but not required.) Forth environments vary in how the resulting program is stored, but ideally running the program has the same effect as manually re-entering the source. This contrasts with the combination of C with Unix shells, wherein compiled functions are a special class of program objects and interactive commands are strictly interpreted. Most of Forth's unique properties result from this principle. By including interaction, scripting, and compilation, Forth was popular on computers with limited resources, such as the BBC Micro and Apple II series, and remains so in applications such as firmware and small microcontrollers. Where C compilers may now generate code with more compactness and performance, Forth retains the advantage of interactivity. The stacks Every programming environment with subroutines implements a stack for control flow. This structure typically also stores local variables, including subroutine parameters (in a call by value system such as C). Forth often does not have local variables, however, nor is it call-by-value. Instead, intermediate values are kept in a second stack. Words operate directly on the topmost values in this stack. It may therefore be called the "parameter" or "data" stack, but most often simply "the" stack. The function-call stack is then called the "linkage" or "return" stack, abbreviated rstack. Special rstack manipulation functions provided by the kernel allow it to be used for temporary storage within a word, but otherwise it cannot be used to pass parameters or manipulate data. Most words are specified in terms of their effect on the stack. Typically, parameters are placed on the top of the stack before the word executes. After execution, the parameters have been erased and replaced with any return values. For arithmetic operators, this follows the rule of reverse Polish notation. See below for examples illustrating stack usage. Maintenance Forth is a simple yet extensible language; its modularity and extensibility permit the writing of high-level programs such as CAD systems. However, extensibility also helps poor programmers to write incomprehensible code, which has given Forth a reputation as a "write-only language". Forth has been used successfully in large, complex projects, while applications developed by competent, disciplined professionals have proven to be easily maintained on evolving hardware platforms over decades of use. Forth has a niche both in astronomical and space applications. Forth is still used today in many embedded systems (small computerized devices) because of its portability, efficient memory use, short development time, and fast execution speed. It has been implemented efficiently on modern RISC processors, and processors that use Forth as machine language have been produced. Other uses of Forth include the Open Firmware boot ROMs used by Apple, IBM, Sun, and OLPC XO-1; and the FICL-based first stage boot controller of the FreeBSD operating system. History Forth evolved from Charles H. Moore's personal programming system, which had been in continuous development since 1958. Forth was first exposed to other programmers in the early 1970s, starting with Elizabeth Rather at the US National Radio Astronomy Observatory. After their work at NRAO, Charles Moore and Elizabeth Rather formed FORTH, Inc. in 1973, refining and porting Forth systems to dozens of other platforms in the next decade. Forth is so named because in 1968 "[t]he file holding the interpreter was labeled FOURTH, for 4th (next) generation software — but the IBM 1130 operating system restricted file names to 5 characters." Moore saw Forth as a successor to compile-link-go third-generation programming languages, or software for "fourth generation" hardware, not a fourth-generation programming language as the term has come to be used. Because Charles Moore had frequently moved from job to job over his career, an early pressure on the developing language was ease of porting to different computer architectures. A Forth system has often been used to bring up new hardware. For example, Forth was the first resident software on the new Intel 8086 chip in 1978 and MacFORTH was the first resident development system for the first Apple Macintosh in 1984. FORTH, Inc's microFORTH was developed for the Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, and Zilog Z80 microprocessors starting in 1976. MicroFORTH was later used by hobbyists to generate Forth systems for other architectures, such as the 6502 in 1978. Wide dissemination finally led to standardization of the language. Common practice was codified in the de facto standards FORTH-79 and FORTH-83 in the years 1979 and 1983, respectively. These standards were unified by ANSI in 1994, commonly referred to as ANS Forth. Forth became very popular in the 1980s because it was well suited to the small microcomputers of that time, as it is compact and portable. At least one home computer, the British Jupiter ACE, had Forth in its ROM-resident operating system. The Canon Cat also used Forth for its system programming. Rockwell also produced single-chip microcomputers with resident Forth kernels, the R65F11 and R65F12. Programmer's perspective Forth relies heavily on explicit use of a data stack and reverse Polish notation (RPN or postfix notation), commonly used in calculators from Hewlett-Packard. In RPN, the operator is placed after its operands, as opposed to the more common infix notation where the operator is placed between its operands. Postfix notation makes the language easier to parse and extend; Forth does not use a BNF grammar, and does not have a monolithic compiler. Extending the compiler only requires writing a new word, instead of modifying a grammar and changing the underlying implementation. Using RPN, one could get the result of the mathematical expression (25 * 10 + 50) this way: 25 10 * 50 + . 300 ok This command line first puts the numbers 25 and 10 on the implied stack. The word * multiplies the two numbers on the top of the stack and replaces them with their product. Then the number 50 is placed on the stack. The word + adds it to the previous product. Finally, the . command prints the result to the user's terminal. Even Forth's structural features are stack-based. For example: : FLOOR5 ( n -- n' ) DUP 6 < IF DROP 5 ELSE 1 - THEN ; This code defines a new word (again, 'word' is the term used for a subroutine) called FLOOR5 using the following commands: DUP duplicates the number on the stack; < compares 6 with the top number on the stack and replaces it with a true-or-false value; IF takes a true-or-false value and chooses to execute commands immediately after it or to skip to the ELSE; DROP discards the value on the stack; and THEN ends the conditional. The text in parentheses is a comment, advising that this word expects a number on the stack and will return a possibly changed number. The FLOOR5 word is equivalent to this function written in the C programming language: int floor5(int v) { return v < 6 ? 5 : v - 1; } This function is written more succinctly as: : FLOOR5 ( n -- n' ) 1- 5 MAX ; You would run this word as follows: 1 FLOOR5 . 5 ok 8 FLOOR5 . 7 ok First the interpreter pushes a number (1 or 8) onto the stack, then it calls FLOOR5, which pops off this number again and pushes the result. Finally, a call to "." pops the result and prints it to the user's terminal. Facilities Forth parsing is simple, as it has no explicit grammar. The interpreter reads a line of input from the user input device, which is then parsed for a word using spaces as a delimiter; some systems recognise additional whitespace characters. When the interpreter finds a word, it tries to look the word up in the dictionary. If the word is found, the interpreter executes the code associated with the word, and then returns to parse the rest of the input stream. If the word isn't found, the word is assumed to be a number, and an attempt is made to convert it into a number and push it on the stack; if successful, the interpreter continues parsing the input stream. Otherwise, if both the lookup and number conversion fails, the interpreter prints the word followed by an error message indicating the word is not recognised, flushes the input stream, and waits for new user input. The definition of a new word is started with the word : (colon) and ends with the word ; (semi-colon). For example : X DUP 1+ . . ; will compile the word X, and makes the name findable in the dictionary. When executed by typing 10 X at the console this will print 11 10. Most Forth systems include a specialized assembler that produces executable words. The assembler is a special dialect of the compiler. Forth assemblers often use a reverse-polish syntax in which the parameters of an instruction precede the instruction. The usual design of a Forth assembler is to construct the instruction on the stack, then copy it into memory as the last step. Registers may be referenced by the name used by the manufacturer, numbered (0..n, as used in the actual operation code) or named for their purpose in the Forth system: e.g. "S" for the register used as a stack pointer. Operating system, files and multitasking Classic Forth systems traditionally use neither operating system nor file system. Instead of storing code in files, source-code is stored in disk blocks written to physical disk addresses. The word BLOCK is employed to translate the number of a 1K-sized block of disk space into the address of a buffer containing the data, which is managed automatically by the Forth system. Some implement contiguous disk files using the system's disk access, where the files are located at fixed disk block ranges. Usually these are implemented as fixed-length binary records, with an integer number of records per disk block. Quick searching is achieved by hashed access on key data. Multitasking, most commonly cooperative round-robin scheduling, is normally available (although multitasking words and support are not covered by the ANSI Forth Standard). The word PAUSE is used to save the current task's execution context, to locate the next task, and restore its execution context. Each task has its own stacks, private copies of some control variables and a scratch area. Swapping tasks is simple and efficient; as a result, Forth multitaskers are available even on very simple microcontrollers such as the Intel 8051, Atmel AVR, and TI MSP430. By contrast, some Forth systems run under a host operating system such as Microsoft Windows, Linux or a version of Unix and use the host operating system's file system for source and data files; the ANSI Forth Standard describes the words used for I/O. Other non-standard facilities include a mechanism for issuing calls to the host OS or windowing systems, and many provide extensions that employ the scheduling provided by the operating system. Typically they have a larger and different set of words from the stand-alone Forth's PAUSE word for task creation, suspension, destruction and modification of priority. Self-compilation and cross compilation A fully featured Forth system with all source code will compile itself, a technique commonly called meta-compilation by Forth programmers (although the term doesn't exactly match meta-compilation as it is normally defined). The usual method is to redefine the handful of words that place compiled bits into memory. The compiler's words use specially-named versions of fetch and store that can be redirected to a buffer area in memory. The buffer area simulates or accesses a memory area beginning at a different address than the code buffer. Such compilers define words to access both the target computer's memory, and the host (compiling) computer's memory. After the fetch and store operations are redefined for the code space, the compiler, assembler, etc. are recompiled using the new definitions of fetch and store. This effectively reuses all the code of the compiler and interpreter. Then, the Forth system's code is compiled, but this version is stored in the buffer. The buffer in memory is written to disk, and ways are provided to load it temporarily into memory for testing. When the new version appears to work, it is written over the previous version. There are numerous variations of such compilers for different environments. For embedded systems, the code may instead be written to another computer, a technique known as cross compilation, over a serial port or even a single TTL bit, while keeping the word names and other non-executing parts of the dictionary in the original compiling computer. The minimum definitions for such a forth compiler are the words that fetch and store a byte, and the word that commands a Forth word to be executed. Often the most time-consuming part of writing a remote port is constructing the initial program to implement fetch, store and execute, but many modern microprocessors have integrated debugging features (such as the Motorola CPU32) that eliminate this task. Structure of the language The basic data structure of Forth is the "dictionary" which maps "words" to executable code or named data structures. The dictionary is laid out in memory as a tree of linked list with the links proceeding from the latest (most recently) defined word to oldest, until a sentinel, usually a NULL pointer, is found. A context switch causes a list search to start at a different leaf and a linked list search continues as the branch merges into the main trunk leading eventually back to the sentinel, the root. (in rare cases such as meta-compilation the dictionary might be isolated, there are several) The effect is a sophisticated use of namespaces and critically can have the effect of overloading keywords, the meaning is contextual. A defined word generally consists of head and body with the head consisting of the name field (NF) and the link field (LF) and body consisting of the code field (CF) and the parameter field (PF). Head and body of a dictionary entry are treated separately because they may not be contiguous. For example, when a Forth program is recompiled for a new platform, the head may remain on the compiling computer, while the body goes to the new platform. In some environments (such as embedded systems) the heads occupy memory unnecessarily. However, some cross-compilers may put heads in the target if the target itself is expected to support an interactive Forth. Dictionary entry The exact format of a dictionary entry is not prescribed, and implementations vary. However, certain components are almost always present, though the exact size and order may vary. Described as a structure, a dictionary entry might look this way: structure byte: flag \ 3bit flags + length of word's name char-array: name \ name's runtime length isn't known at compile time address: previous \ link field, backward ptr to previous word address: codeword \ ptr to the code to execute this word any-array: parameterfield \ unknown length of data, words, or opcodes end-structure forthword The name field starts with a prefix giving the length of the word's name (typically up to 32 bytes), and several bits for flags. The character representation of the word's name then follows the prefix. Depending on the particular implementation of Forth, there may be one or more NUL ('\0') bytes for alignment. The link field contains a pointer to the previously defined word. The pointer may be a relative displacement or an absolute address that points to the next oldest sibling. The code field pointer will be either the address of the word which will execute the code or data in the parameter field or the beginning of machine code that the processor will execute directly. For colon defined words, the code field pointer points to the word that will save the current Forth instruction pointer (IP) on the return stack, and load the IP with the new address from which to continue execution of words. This is the same as what a processor's call/return instructions does. Structure of the compiler The compiler itself consists of Forth words visible to the system, not a monolithic program. This allows a programmer to change the compiler's words for special purposes. The "compile time" flag in the name field is set for words with "compile time" behavior. Most simple words execute the same code whether they are typed on a command line, or embedded in code. When compiling these, the compiler simply places code or a threaded pointer to the word. The classic examples of compile-time words are the control structures such as IF and WHILE. All of Forth's control structures, and almost all of its compiler are implemented as compile-time words. All of Forth's control flow words are executed during compilation to compile various combinations of the primitive words BRANCH and ?BRANCH (branch if false). During compilation, the data stack is used to support control structure balancing, nesting, and backpatching of branch addresses. The snippet: ... DUP 6 < IF DROP 5 ELSE 1 - THEN ... would be compiled to the following sequence inside of a definition: ... DUP LIT 6 < ?BRANCH 5 DROP LIT 5 BRANCH 3 LIT 1 - ... The numbers after BRANCH represent relative jump addresses. LIT is the primitive word for pushing a "literal" number onto the data stack. Compilation state and interpretation state The word : (colon) parses a name as a parameter, creates a dictionary entry (a colon definition) and enters compilation state. The interpreter continues to read space-delimited words from the user input device. If a word is found, the interpreter executes the compilation semantics associated with the word, instead of the interpretation semantics. The default compilation semantics of a word are to append its interpretation semantics to the current definition. The word ; (semi-colon) finishes the current definition and returns to interpretation state. It is an example of a word whose compilation semantics differ from the default. The interpretation semantics of ; (semi-colon), most control flow words, and several other words are undefined in ANS Forth, meaning that they must only be used inside of definitions and not on the interactive command line. The interpreter state can be changed manually with the words [ (left-bracket) and ] (right-bracket) which enter interpretation state or compilation state, respectively. These words can be used with the word LITERAL to calculate a value during a compilation and to insert the calculated value into the current colon definition. LITERAL has the compilation semantics to take an object from the data stack and to append semantics to the current colon definition to place that object on the data stack. In ANS Forth, the current state of the interpreter can be read from the flag STATE which contains the value true when in compilation state and false otherwise. This allows the implementation of so-called state-smart words with behavior that changes according to the current state of the interpreter. Immediate words The word IMMEDIATE marks the most recent colon definition as an immediate word, effectively replacing its compilation semantics with its interpretation semantics. Immediate words are normally executed during compilation, not compiled but this can be overridden by the programmer, in either state. ; is an example of an immediate word. In ANS Forth, the word POSTPONE takes a name as a parameter and appends the compilation semantics of the named word to the current definition even if the word was marked immediate. Forth-83 defined separate words COMPILE and [COMPILE] to force the compilation of non-immediate and immediate words, respectively. Unnamed words and execution tokens In ANS Forth, unnamed words can be defined with the word :NONAME which compiles the following words up to the next ; (semi-colon) and leaves an execution token on the data stack. The execution token provides an opaque handle for the compiled semantics, similar to the function pointers of the C programming language. Execution tokens can be stored in variables. The word EXECUTE takes an execution token from the data stack and performs the associated semantics. The word COMPILE, (compile-comma) takes an execution token from the data stack and appends the associated semantics to the current definition. The word ' (tick) takes the name of a word as a parameter and returns the execution token associated with that word on the data stack. In interpretation state, ' RANDOM-WORD EXECUTE is equivalent to RANDOM-WORD. Parsing words and comments The words : (colon), POSTPONE, ' (tick) and :NONAME are examples of parsing words that take their arguments from the user input device instead of the data stack. Another example is the word ( (paren) which reads and ignores the following words up to and including the next right parenthesis and is used to place comments in a colon definition. Similarly, the word \ (backslash) is used for comments that continue to the end of the current line. To be parsed correctly, ( (paren) and \ (backslash) must be separated by whitespace from the following comment text. Structure of code In most Forth systems, the body of a code definition consists of either machine language, or some form of threaded code. The original Forth which follows the informal FIG standard (Forth Interest Group), is a TIL (Threaded Interpretive Language). This is also called indirect-threaded code, but direct-threaded and subroutine threaded Forths have also become popular in modern times. The fastest modern Forths use subroutine threading, insert simple words as macros, and perform peephole optimization or other optimizing strategies to make the code smaller and faster. Data objects When a word is a variable or other data object, the CF points to the runtime code associated with the defining word that created it. A defining word has a characteristic "defining behavior" (creating a dictionary entry plus possibly allocating and initializing data space) and also specifies the behavior of an instance of the class of words constructed by this defining word. Examples include: VARIABLE Names an uninitialized, one-cell memory location. Instance behavior of a VARIABLE returns its address on the stack. CONSTANT Names a value (specified as an argument to CONSTANT). Instance behavior returns the value. CREATE Names a location; space may be allocated at this location, or it can be set to contain a string or other initialized value. Instance behavior returns the address of the beginning of this space. Forth also provides a facility by which a programmer can define new application-specific defining words, specifying both a custom defining behavior and instance behavior. Some examples include circular buffers, named bits on an I/O port, and automatically-indexed arrays. Data objects defined by these and similar words are global in scope. The function provided by local variables in other languages is provided by the data stack in Forth (although Forth also has real local variables). Forth programming style uses very few named data objects compared with other languages; typically such data objects are used to contain data which is used by a number of words or tasks (in a multitasked implementation). Forth does not enforce consistency of data type usage; it is the programmer's responsibility to use appropriate operators to fetch and store values or perform other operations on data. Programming Words written in Forth are compiled into an executable form. The classical "indirect threaded" implementations compile lists of addresses of words to be executed in turn; many modern systems generate actual machine code (including calls to some external words and code for others expanded in place). Some systems have optimizing compilers. Generally speaking, a Forth program is saved as the memory image of the compiled program with a single command (e.g., RUN) that is executed when the compiled version is loaded. During development, the programmer uses the interpreter to execute and test each little piece as it is developed. Most Forth programmers therefore advocate a loose top-down design, and bottom-up development with continuous testing and integration. The top-down design is usually separation of the program into "vocabularies" that are then used as high-level sets of tools to write the final program. A well-designed Forth program reads like natural language, and implements not just a single solution, but also sets of tools to attack related problems. The classic washing machine example describes the process of creating a vocabulary to naturally represent the problem domain in a readable way. Code examples Hello world For an explanation of the tradition of programming "Hello World", see Hello world program. One possible implementation: : HELLO ( -- ) CR ." Hello, world!" ; HELLO The word CR (Carriage Return) causes the following output to be displayed on a new line. The parsing word ." (dot-quote) reads a double-quote delimited string and appends code to the current definition so that the parsed string will be displayed on execution. The space character separating the word ." from the string Hello, world! is not included as part of the string. It is needed so that the parser recognizes ." as a Forth word. A standard Forth system is also an interpreter, and the same output can be obtained by typing the following code fragment into the Forth console: CR .( Hello, world!) .( (dot-paren) is an immediate word that parses a parenthesis-delimited string and displays it. As with the word ." the space character separating .( from Hello, world! is not part of the string. The word CR comes before the text to print. By convention, the Forth interpreter does not start output on a new line. Also by convention, the interpreter waits for input at the end of the previous line, after an ok prompt. There is no implied 'flush-buffer' action in Forth's CR, as sometimes is in other programming languages. Mixing compilation state and interpretation state Here is the definition of a word EMIT-Q which when executed emits the single character Q: : EMIT-Q 81 ( the ASCII value for the character 'Q' ) EMIT ; This definition was written to use the ASCII value of the Q character (81) directly. The text between the parentheses is a comment and is ignored by the compiler. The word EMIT takes a value from the data stack and displays the corresponding character. The following redefinition of EMIT-Q uses the words [ (left-bracket), ] (right-bracket), CHAR and LITERAL to temporarily switch to interpreter state, calculate the ASCII value of the Q character, return to compilation state and append the calculated value to the current colon definition: : EMIT-Q [ CHAR Q ] LITERAL EMIT ; The parsing word CHAR takes a space-delimited word as parameter and places the value of its first character on the data stack. The word [CHAR] is an immediate version of CHAR. Using [CHAR], the example definition for EMIT-Q could be rewritten like this: : EMIT-Q [CHAR] Q EMIT ; \ Emit the single character 'Q' This definition used \ (backslash) for the describing comment. Both CHAR and [CHAR] are predefined in ANS Forth. Using IMMEDIATE and POSTPONE, [CHAR] could have been defined like this: : [CHAR] CHAR POSTPONE LITERAL ; IMMEDIATE Implementations Because the Forth virtual machine is simple to implement and has no standard reference implementation, there are a plethora of implementations of the language. In addition to supporting the standard varieties of desktop computer systems (POSIX, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X), many of these Forth systems also target a variety of embedded systems. Listed here are the some of the more prominent systems which conform to the 1994 ANS Forth standard. GNU Forth - a portable ANS Forth implementation from the GNU Project Forth Inc. - founded by the originators of Forth, sells desktop (SwiftForth) and embedded (SwiftX) ANS Forth solutions MPE Ltd. - sells highly-optimized desktop (VFX) and embedded ANS Forth compilers Open Firmware - a bootloader and BIOS standard based on ANS Forth Freely available implementations Commercial implementations A more up-to-date index of Forth systems, organized by platform See also colorForth Factor Joy STOIC References Further reading External links comp.lang.forth - Usenet newsgroup with active Forth discussion Forth Chips Page — Forth in hardware A Beginner's Guide to Forth by J.V. 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5,710 | Miranda_warning | A Miranda warning is a warning given by police to criminal suspects in police custody, or in a custodial situation, before they are interrogated. A custodial situation is one in which the suspect's freedom of movement is restrained although he or she is not under arrest. An incriminating statement by a suspect will not constitute admissible evidence unless the suspect was advised of his or her "Miranda rights" and made a knowing, intelligent, and voluntary waiver of those rights (the term "Miranda rights" is somewhat misleading, as the mandated Miranda warning simply clarifies preexisting Constitutional rights). However, a 2004 Supreme Court ruling upheld state "stop-and-identify" laws, allowing police to require biographical information such as name, date of birth, and address, without arresting suspects or providing them Miranda warnings. The Miranda warnings were mandated by the 1966 United States Supreme Court decision in the case of Miranda v. Arizona as a means of protecting a criminal suspect's Fifth Amendment right to avoid coercive self-incrimination (see right to silence). Miranda rights A CBP officer reading the Miranda rights to a suspect. The Supreme Court did not specify the exact wording to be used when informing a suspect of his or her rights. However, the Court did create a set of guidelines which must be followed. The ruling states: As a result, American English developed the verb Mirandize, meaning "to read to a suspect his or her Miranda rights" (when the suspect is arrested). Notably, the Miranda rights do not have to be read in any particular order, and they do not have to precisely match the language of the Miranda decision, as long as they are adequately and fully conveyed. California v. Prysock, . Typical usage Every U.S. jurisdiction has its own regulations regarding what, precisely, must be said to a person when he is arrested or placed in a custodial situation, the typical warning is as follows: The courts have since ruled that the warning must be "meaningful", so it is usually required that the suspect be asked if he understands his rights. Sometimes, firm answers of "yes" are required. Some departments and jurisdictions require that an officer ask "do you understand?" after every sentence in the warning. An arrestee's silence is not a waiver. Evidence has been ruled inadmissible because of an arrestee's poor knowledge of English and the failure of arresting officers to provide the warning in the arrestee's language. Also because of various education levels, officers must make sure the suspect understands what the officer is saying. It may be necessary to "translate" to the suspect's level of understanding. Courts have ruled this admissible as long as the original waiver is said and the "translation" is recorded either on paper or on tape. The right of a juvenile to remain silent without his or her parent or guardian present is provided in some jurisdictions. Some departments in New Jersey, Nevada, Oklahoma, and Alaska modify the "providing an attorney" clause as follows: Even though this sentence may be somewhat ambiguous to some laypersons, the U.S. Supreme Court has approved of it as an accurate description of the procedure in those states. Duckworth v. Eagan, (upholding use of sentence by Hammond, Indiana police). In international border states, including Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, suspects who are not United States citizens are given an additional warning : Some states including Virginia require the following sentence, ensuring that the suspect knows that waiving Miranda rights is not a one-time absolute occurrence: California, Texas, New York, Florida, Illinois, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Washington and Pennsylvania also add the following questions to comply with the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations: An affirmative answer to both of the above questions waives the rights. If the suspect responds "no" to the first question, the officer is required to re-read the Miranda warning, while saying "no" to the second question invokes the right at that moment; in either case the interviewing officer or officers cannot question the suspect until the rights are waived. Generally, when defendants invoke their Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination and refuse to testify or submit to cross-examination at trial, the prosecutor cannot punish them by commenting on their silence and insinuating that it is an implicit admission of guilt. Griffin v. California, . Since Miranda rights are simply an extension of the Fifth Amendment which protects against coercive interrogations, the same rule also prevents prosecutors from commenting about the postarrest silence of suspects who invoke their Miranda rights immediately after arrest. Wainwright v. Greenfield, . However, neither the Fifth Amendment nor Miranda extend to prearrest silence, so if a defendant takes the stand at trial (thereby waiving his Fifth Amendment rights), the prosecutor can attack his credibility with his prearrest silence (where he failed to turn himself in and confess immediately). Jenkins v. Anderson, . Under the Uniform Code of Military Justice, Article 31 provides for the right against self-incrimination. Interrogation subjects under Army jurisdiction must first be given Department of the Army Form 3881(PDF), which informs them of the charges and their rights, and sign it. The United States Navy and United States Marine Corps require that all arrested personnel be read the "rights of the accused" and must sign a form waiving those rights if they so desire, a verbal waiver is not sufficient. It has been discussed if a Miranda warning — if spoken or in writing — could be appropriately given to disabled persons. For example, "the right to remain silent" means little to a deaf individual and the word "constitutional" may not be understood by people with only an elementary education. The content of a Miranda warning can be understood by a 6th- to 8th-grade pupil while only 10 to 15 percent of prelingually deaf people have been found to be that competent, due to the linguistic and cultural differences between the Deaf and Hearing communities. In one case, a deaf murderer was kept at a therapy station until he was able to understand the meaning of the Miranda warning and other judicial proceedings. "Deaf Murderers: Clinical and Forensic Issues", Behavioural Sciences and the Law 17: 495-516 (1999). Confusion regarding use Billboard for handsfree mobile phone equipment based on the Miranda warning Due to the prevalence of American television programs and motion pictures in which the police characters frequently read suspects their rights, it has become an expected element of arrest procedure. In the 2000 Dickerson decision, Chief Justice William Rehnquist wrote that Miranda warnings had "become embedded in routine police practice to the point where the warnings have become part of our national culture." Dickerson v. United States . However, police are only required to warn an individual whom they intend to subject to custodial interrogation at the police station, in a police vehicle, or when detained. Arrests can occur without questioning and without the Miranda warning—although if the police do change their mind and decide to interrogate the suspect, the warning must then be given. In some jurisdictions, a detention differs at law from an arrest, and police are not required to give the Miranda warning until the person is arrested for a crime. In those situations, a person's statements made to police are generally admissible even though the person was not advised of his or her rights. Similarly, statements made while an arrest is in progress before the Miranda warning was given or completed are also generally admissible. Because Miranda applies only to custodial interrogations, it does not protect detainees from standard booking questions: name, date of birth, address, and the like. Because it is a protective measure intended to safeguard the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination, it does not prevent the police from taking blood without a warrant from persons suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol. (Such inspections may be incriminatory but not self-incriminatory for a suspect). If an inmate is in jail and invoked Miranda on one case, it is unclear whether this extends to any other cases that he or she may be charged with while in custody. Many police departments give special training to interrogators with regard to the Miranda warning; specifically, how to influence a suspect's decision to waive the right. For instance, the officer may be required to specifically ask if the rights are understood and if the suspect wishes to talk. The officer is allowed, before asking the suspect a question, to speak at length about evidence collected, witness statements, etc. The officer will THEN ask if the suspect wishes to talk, and the suspect is then more likely to talk in an attempt to refute the evidence presented. Another tactic commonly taught is never to ask a question; the officer may simply sit the suspect down in an interrogation room, sit across from him and do paperwork, and wait for the suspect to begin talking. http://www.regent.edu/admin/media/schlaw/LawPreview/ Prof. James Duane and Officer George Bruch - Fifth Amendment Lecture at Regent University. These tactics are intended to mitigate the restrictions placed on law officers against compelling a suspect to give evidence, and have stood up in court as valid lawful tactics. Nevertheless, such tactics are condemned by legal rights groups as deceptive. The Miranda rule applies to the use of testimonial evidence in criminal proceedings that is the product of custodial police interrogation. Miranda right to counsel and right to remain silent are derived from the self-incrimination clause of the Fifth Amendment. At the time the Supreme Court decided Miranda the Fifth Amendment had already been applied to the states in Malloy v. Hogan, 378 U.S. 1 (1964). Therefore, for Miranda to apply six factors must be present: evidence must have been gathered the evidence must be testimonial Pennsylvania v. Muniz, 496 U.S. 582 (1990). the evidence must have been obtained while the suspect was in custody Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966); California v. Hodari D., 499 U.S. 621, 626 (1991). the evidence must have been the product of interrogation Rhode Island v. Innis, 446 U.S. 291 (1980). the interrogation must have been conducted by state-agents Escobedo v. Illinois, 378 U.S. 478 (1964); See also Latzer, State Constitutions and Criminal Justice, (Greenwood Press 1991) citing Walter v. United States, 447 U.S. 649 (1980). and the evidence must be offered by the state during a criminal prosecution. The Fifth Amendment applies only to compelled statements used in criminal proceedings. The first requirement is obvious. If the suspect did not make a statement during the interrogation the fact that he was not advised of his Miranda rights is of no import. Second, Miranda applies only to “testimonial” evidence as that term is defined under the Fifth Amendment. For purposes of the Fifth Amendment, testimonial statements mean communications that explicitly or implicitly relate a factual assertion [an assertion of fact or belief] or disclose information. Doe v. United States, 487 U.S. 201 (1988). See also United States v. Wade, 388 U.S. 218 (1967). The Miranda rule does not prohibit compelling a person to engage in conduct that is incriminating or may produce incriminating evidence. Thus, requiring a suspect to participate in identification procedures such as give handwriting See Adams and Blinka, Pretrial Motions in Criminal Prosecutions, 2d ed. (Lexis)331 n. 203 citing United States v. Daughenbaugh, 49 F.3d 171, 173 (5th Cir. 1995). or voice exemplars, fingerprints, DNA samples, hair samples, and dental impressions is not within the Miranda rule. Such physical or real evidence is non-testimonial and not protected by the Fifth Amendment self-incrimination clause. On the other hand, certain non-verbal conduct may be testimonial. For example, if the suspect nodded his head up and down in response to the question "did you commit the crime" the conduct is testimonial, it is the same as saying "yes I did" and Miranda would apply. See Schmerber v. California 384 U.S. 757, 761 n. 5 (1966). Third, the evidence must have been obtained while the suspect was in custody. Custody means either that the suspect was under arrest or that his freedom of movement was restrained to an extent "associated with a formal arrest." New York v. Quarles, 467 U.S. 649, 655 (1984). A formal arrest occurs when an officer, with the intent to make an arrest, takes a person into custody by the use of physical force or the person submits to the control of an officer who has indicated his intention to arrest the person. In the absence of a formal arrest, the issue is whether a reasonable person in the suspect’s position would have believed that he was under arrest. Applying this objective test, the Court has held Miranda does not apply to roadside questioning of a stopped motorist or to questioning of a person briefly detained on the street. Latzer, State Constitutions and Criminal Justice (Greewood Press 1991) 95. Even though neither the motorist nor the pedestrian is free to leave, this interference with the freedom of action is not considered custody for purposes of the Fifth Amendment. Berkemer v. McCarty, 468 U.S. 420 (1984). The court has similarly held that a person who voluntarily comes to the police station for purposes of questioning is not in custody and thus not entitled to Miranda warnings particularly when the police advise the suspect that he is not under arrest and free to leave. Oregon v. Mathiason, 429 U.S. 492 (1972)An initial non-custodial interrogation may become custodial as the circumstances change. Generally, incarceration or imprisonment constitutes custody. However, Miranda is not offense-specific. Therefore, a person who is incarcerated could not be interrogated about any offense regardless of whether the questioning related to the offense for which she is incarcerated or any other offense absent a valid Miranda waiver. Fourth, the evidence must have been the product of interrogation. A volunteered statement by a person in custody does not implicate Miranda. In Rhode Island v. Innis the Supreme Court defined interrogation as express questioning and "any words or actions on the part of the police (other than those normally attendant to arrest and custody) that the police should know are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response from the suspect." Thus, a practice that the police "should know is reasonably likely to evoke an incriminating response from a suspect... amounts to interrogation." For example, confronting the suspect with incriminating evidence may be sufficiently evocative to amount to interrogation because the police are essentially "saying", "how do you explain this?" See Edwards v. Arizona, 451 U.S. 477 (1981). On the other hand, "unforeseeable results of [police] words or actions" do not constitute interrogation. Under this definition, routine statements made during the administration of sobriety tests would not implicate Miranda. For example, a police officer arrests a person for impaired driving and takes him to the police station to administer an intoxilyzer test. While at the station the officer also asks the defendant to perform certain psycho-physical tests such as the walk and turn, one leg stand or finger to nose test. It is standard practice to instruct the arrestee on how to perform the test and to demonstrate the test. An incriminating statement made by arrestee during the instruction, "I couldn't do that even if I was sober", would not be the product of interrogation. Similarly, incriminating statements made in response to requests for consent to search a vehicle or other property are not considered to be the product of interrogation. See Adams and Blinka, Pretrial Motions in Criminal Prosecutions, 2d ed. (Lexis 1998)331 n. 204 citing United States v. Smith, 3 F.3d. 1088 (7th Cir. 1993). Fifth, the interrogation must have been conducted by state-agents. In order to establish a violation of the defendant’s Fifth Amendment rights, the defendant must show state action. In the Miranda context, this means that the interrogation must have been conducted by a known state-agent. See Latzer, State Constitutions and Criminal Justice, 97 n. 86 (Goodwood Press 1991) quoting Kamisar, LaFave & Isreal, Basic Criminal Procedure 598 (6th ed. 1986)"whatever may lurk in the heart or mind of the fellow prisoner ..., if it is not 'custodial police intrrogation' in the eye of the beholder, then it is not ... interrogation within the meaning of Miranda." If the interrogation was conducted by a person known by the suspect to be a law enforcement officer the state action requirement is unquestionably met. On the other hand, where a private citizen obtains a statement there is no state action regardless of the custodial circumstances surrounding the statement. A confession obtained through the interrogation by an undercover police officer or a paid informant does not violate Miranda because there is no coercion, no police dominated atmosphere if the suspect does not know that she is being questioned by the police. Private security guards and "private" police present special problems. They are generally not regarded as state-agents, unless they are deputized. However, an interrogation conducted by a police officer moonlighting as a security guard may well trigger Miranda’s safeguards since an officer is considered to be “on duty” at all times. See Commonwealth v. Leone, 386 Mass. 329 (1982). Sixth, the evidence is being offered during a criminal proceeding. Under the exclusionary rule, a Miranda-defective statement cannot be used by the prosecution as substantive evidence of guilt. However, the Fifth Amendment exclusionary rule applies only to criminal proceedings. In determining whether a particular proceeding is criminal, the courts look at the punitive nature of the sanctions that could be imposed. Labels are irrelevant. The question is whether the consequences of an outcome adverse to the defendant could be characterized as punishment. Clearly a criminal trial is a criminal proceeding since if convicted the defendant could be fined or imprisoned. However, the possibility of loss of liberty does not make the proceeding criminal in nature. For example, commitment proceedings are not criminal proceedings even though they can result in long confinement because the confinement is considered rehabilitative in nature and not punishment. Similarly, Miranda does not apply directly to probation revocation proceedings because the evidence is not being used as a basis for imposing additional punishment. If all six factors are present, then Miranda applies and any testimonial evidence that was the product of custodial interrogation is subject to suppression under the Fifth Amendment exclusionary rule unless the interrogation was preceded by a valid Miranda waiver or an exception to the Miranda rule of exclusionary rules applies. A valid Miranda waiver consists of properly advising the suspect of her Miranda rights and obtaining a waiver of those rights. (The rights, the waiver, and typical phrasings are explained above this section.) The Fifth Amendment right to counsel which is a component of the Miranda Rule is to be distinguished from the Sixth Amendment right to counsel. In the context of the law of confessions the Sixth Amendment right to counsel is defined by the Massiah Doctrine. United States v. Massiah, 377 U.S. 201 (1964). Miranda warnings do not need to be administered when there is an imminent threat to public safety. For example, if an arrestee hid a handgun in a supermarket just before being arrested, it is not necessary that the police Mirandize the suspect before asking where the gun is. New York v. Quarles, 467 U.S. 649 (1984). This is consistent with the point that Miranda rights only apply to criminal trials (not to police intervention; anything a person says, self-incriminating or not, can be used by the police to prevent or interrupt further crimes or violations of the law where it is within the authority of the police to intervene, whether or not this violates the interest of the person from whom the police obtained the information necessary for them to intervene.) Equivalent rights in other countries Australia Within Australia, the right to silence derives from common law. The uniform position amongst the states is that neither the judge nor the jury is permitted to draw any adverse inference about the defendant's culpability, where he/she does not answer police questions. While this is the common law position, it is buttressed by various legislative provisions within the states. For instance s.464J of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) and s.89 of the Evidence Act 1995 (NSW). It has also been upheld by the High Court in the case of Petty v R (1991) 173 CLR 95. However, where a defendant answers some police questions, but not others, an inference may sometimes be drawn about the questions he refused to answer. (See Coldrey, below.) The current caution used in New South Wales is: Where a defendant refuses to speak to the police, but then speaks to an undercover member of the police, that evidence is likely to be excluded so as to ensure that the police do not avoid their limitations. However, if a defendant speaks to a person who is not a member of the police and who is fitted with a listening device, that evidence would be admitted. Australian research indicates that very few suspects actually refuse to speak. Stevenson's research (see below for citation) indicates that only 4% of suspects who are subsequently charged and tried in the District Court of New South Wales in Sydney remain silent during interviews. The Victorian DPP found that 7-9% of suspects refused to answer police questions. A number of states have conducted Enquiries into the adoption of the English changes set out in the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994. See here, here or here All states have rejected such change. As the NSW Report said: It is also important to note that anything said to an Australian police member should be corroborated, especially by way of video or audio tape. If it is not so corroborated it will be admitted only under exceptional circumstances, S.464H (2)(a) of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic), and where the circumstances, on the balance of probabilities, justify the reception of the evidence, S.464H (2)(b) of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic). While initially the police were insulted by this ruling most have now come to find it useful as a way of proving that they did not invent a false, verbal confession, never made by an accused (a practice called "verballing" an accused). Canada In Canada, equivalent rights exist pursuant to the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Under the Charter, an arrested person has the right: - to be informed promptly of the reasons therefor; - to retain and instruct counsel without delay and be informed of that right; - to have the validity of the detention determined by way of habeas corpus and to be released if the detention is not lawful. The Canadian Charter warning reads (varies by police service): "You are under arrest for _________ (charge), do you understand? You have the right to retain and instruct counsel without delay. We will provide you with a toll-free telephone lawyer referral service, if you do not have your own lawyer. Anything you say can be used in court as evidence. Do you understand? Would you like to speak to a lawyer?" (See: R. v. Hebert [1990] 2 S.C.R. 151) Section 11 of the Charter further provides that a person cannot be compelled to be a witness in a proceeding against them (s. 11(c) - Protection against Self-incrimination) and is presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law in a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal (s. 11(d)). Section 14 of the Charter further provides that a translator must be made available so that the person can understand the proceedings against them. This right to a translator extends to the deaf. While Section 7 of the Charter guarantees the right to remain silent, Canadian law does not entitle the criminal suspect to have counsel present during the course of an interrogation. Once a suspect has asserted their right to counsel, the police are obliged to hold off in attempting to obtain evidence until the suspect has had a reasonable opportunity to contact legal counsel, however suspects do not have the right to have counsel present during the questioning. While American law requires the police to stop questioning a detained suspect as soon as he invokes his right to silence (Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 445), in Canada even if the suspect emphatically asserts his decision to remain silent, the police may continue to interrogate him. Although this may give the suspect the impression that his claim of the right to silence is meaningless or that he has no such right, it is perfectly legal. In R. v. Singh (163 C.R.R. (2d) 280), the suspect invoked his right to remain silent 18 times and the police nevertheless continued to browbeat him with questioning after each assertion of his right, but the Supreme Court found this consistent with Canada's extremely weak Charter rights protections. England and Wales Warnings regarding the right against self-incrimination may have originated in England and Wales. In 1912, the judges of the Kings Bench issued the Judges Rules. These provided that, when a police member had admissible evidence to suspect a person of an offence and wished to question that suspect about an offence, the officer should first caution the person that he was entitled to remain silent. The pre-trial operation of the privilege against self-incrimination was further buttressed by the decision in Ibrahim v R [1914] AC 599 that an admission or confession made by the accused to the police would only be admissible in evidence if the prosecution could establish that it had been voluntary. An admission or confession is only voluntary if made in the exercise of a free choice about whether to speak or remain silent: In R v Leckey (1943) CAR 128 the Court of Criminal Appeal said: Therefore a caution of the form You have the right to remain silent, but anything you do say will be taken down and may be used in evidence against you. was used. The Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 amended the right to silence by allowing adverse inferences to be drawn by the jury in cases where a suspect refuses to explain something, and then later produces an explanation (see right to silence in England and Wales). In other words the jury is entitled to infer that the accused fabricated the explanation at a later date, as he refused to provide the explanation during police questioning. The jury is also free to make no such inference. The new caution is: You do not have to say anything, but it may harm your defence if you do not mention, when questioned, something which you later rely on in court. Anything you do say may be given in evidence. (or in cases in which the suspect has clearly nothing to gain by failing to remain silent) Anything you do say may, and will, be given in evidence or You do not have to say anything unless you wish to do so, but I must warn you that if you fail to mention any fact which you rely on in your defence in court, your failure to take this opportunity to mention it may be treated in court as supporting any relevant evidence against you. If you do wish to say anything, what you say may be given in evidence. or even (in circumstances where no adverse inference can be drawn from silence) You do not have to say anything, but anything you do say may be given in evidence. The caution in England and Wales does not explicitly require that a suspect affirms that he or she understands the caution.. In addition the caution need not be explicitly stated if it is obvious that the suspect is already aware of his rights, for example if he is a police officer, as long as the suspect is definitely aware that he is under caution. Furthermore the invoking of that right does not prohibit officers from asking further questions.. France In France, any person brought in police custody (garde à vue) must be informed of the maximal duration of the custody, and a number of rights, in a language that this person understands. Among these rights are: the possibility of warning a relative or employer of the custody, that of asking to be examined by a physician, that of discussing the case with an attorney. Witnesses against whom there exist indictments (or who are cited as suspects) cannot be heard under oath, and thus do not risk prosecution for perjury. Such witnesses must be assisted by an attorney, and must be informed of these rights when heard by the judiciary. Suspects (any person against whom exist plausible causes of suspicion) must be informed of their right to remain silent, to make statements, or to answer questions. In all cases, an attorney can be designated by the head of the bar if necessary. Germany According to § 136 StPO (Strafprozessordnung, or "Criminal Procedure Code"): Before any interrogation begins a suspect, arrested or not, must be informed: of the crime for which he is charged about his right to remain silent about his right to consult an attorney before the interview about his right to name any evidence in his favour Though the courts may not draw inference from the complete silence of the accused in any stage of criminal proceedings, inference may be drawn if the accused is selectively silent. Foreign suspects have the following additional rights: translation assistance consular assistance European Union Within the European Union, a gradual process of harmonising the laws of individual countries has resulted in calls for a common letter of rights which would apply to all EU citizens. The proposed common standard would protect: access to legal advice; translation assistance as needed; protection for those unable to follow the proceedings; and consular assistance for foreign detainees These would be contained in a "letter of rights" which would be a printed document to be given to suspects after they are detained and before interrogation. The right to silence does not fall under the proposed common standard. This has been criticised on the grounds that the "letter of rights" would be one from which what some people consider to be the most important right is missing, and that this would be confusing for the accused rather than helpful. On the other hand, obstacles to its enactment include the anti-terrorism laws of certain EU members which conflict with these proposed rights. Switzerland Article 158 of the unified Swiss code of criminal procedure, which is to enter into force by 2011, Medienmitteilung EJDP, 10.09.2008. establishes that the results of an interrogation may not be used unless the accused has been informed that he/she is the subject of a criminal investigation for some specific infractions, he/she has the right to remain silent and to not cooperate with police, he/she has the right to legal representation by a private or state-funded attorney, and he/she has the right to request the services of an interpreter. The cantonal codes of procedure, which remain in force until 2011, generally contain similar provisions. Israel In Israel, according to article 28 to the Criminal Procedure Law (Enforcement Authority - Arrests) - 1996, an officer interrogating a suspect must duly warn him first that he does not have to say any thing that may incriminate him, and that any thing he will say may be used against him. According to Israeli law, the exercise of the right to remain silent may be considered as supplemental evidence in most cases, and this fact also needs to be explained to the suspect. Israeli law has not adopted the "Fruits of the Poisoned Tree" doctrine, according to which ill-gotten evidence are inadmissible, and flaws in the process of collecting them affect only the weight of tainted evidence. However, in Criminal Appeal 5121/98, Issaharov vs. The Military Prosecutor, a court of nine ruled that the defendant's confession, given without proper warning regarding the right of representation, shall be not considered as given with consent and free will, and will not be accepted by the court. Spain In Spain, according to the Ley de Enjuiciamiento Criminal (Penal procedure code), the detainee has to be informed about the charges that lead to his detention, as well as the motives for the deprivation of liberty. She/he hast also to be informed about the following rights: right to remain silent, to answer only some questions asked or to express their wish to declare only in front of a judge. right to not give evidence against themselves, as well as not to confess their guilt. right to legal representation by a private or state-funded attorney, that will assist them during the hearings and procedures. right to inform a member of their family or the person they wish about the fact of the detention itself as well as their location at every moment of the proceedings. Foreigners have the right to contact their consular mission in Spain. right to request the services of an interpreter for free if the foreigner doesn't speak spanish. right to undergo a medical examination by the forensic doctor. Philippines In the Philippines, according to the PNP - Philippine National Police rules of arresting any person they are obliged to say the Miranda Warnings translated from English.May karapatan kang manatiling tahimik. Kahit ano ka maaari at sabihin ay gagamitin laban sa inyo sa isang hukuman ng batas. Ikaw ay may karapatan sa isang abugado sa panahon ng kasalukuyang pagtatanong. Kung hindi mo kayang isang abogado, ang isa ay itinalaga para sa inyo. Naiintindihan ba ninyo ang mga karapatan? (You have the right to remain silent. Anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law. You have the right to an attorney present during questioning. If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you. Do you understand these rights?) References General Coldrey, J. (1990) "The Right to Silence Reassessed" 74 Victorian Bar News 25. Coldrey, J. (1991) "The Right to Silence: Should it be curtailed or abolished?"` 20 Anglo-American Law Review 51. "Rehnquist's legacy" The Economist. July 2nd-8th, 2005. p. 28. Stevenson, N. (1982) "Criminal Cases in the NSW District Court: A Pilot Study" In J. Basten, M. Richardson, C. Ronalds and G. Zdenkowski (eds), The Criminal Injustice System Sydney: Australian Legal Workers Group (NSW) and Legal Service Bulletin. Specific External links Don't Talk to the Police - Professor James Duane of the Regent University School of Law Don't Talk to the Police - Officer George Bruch from the Virginia Beach police department See also Arrest Civil rights Criminal justice Right to silence | Miranda_warning |@lemmatized miranda:60 warning:22 warn:10 give:19 police:59 criminal:33 suspect:70 custody:14 custodial:11 situation:4 interrogate:5 one:7 freedom:4 movement:2 restrain:2 although:3 arrest:29 incriminating:5 statement:15 constitute:2 admissible:6 evidence:40 unless:5 advise:5 right:99 make:16 knowing:1 intelligent:1 voluntary:3 waiver:9 term:2 somewhat:2 misleading:1 mandated:1 simply:3 clarifies:1 preexist:1 constitutional:2 however:12 supreme:7 court:26 rule:18 upheld:1 state:35 stop:2 identify:1 law:20 allow:3 require:13 biographical:1 information:3 name:3 date:3 birth:2 address:2 without:8 provide:10 mandate:1 united:11 decision:6 case:12 v:34 arizona:5 mean:6 protect:5 fifth:19 amendment:20 avoid:2 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5,711 | Maya_Lin | Maya Ying Lin (; born October 5, 1959) is an American artist and architect who is known for her work in sculpture and landscape art. Her best-known work is the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C. Personal life Maya Lin, a Chinese American, was born in Athens, Ohio. Her parents emigrated to the United States from People's Republic of China in 1949 and settled in Ohio in 1958, one year before Maya Lin was born. Her father, Henry Huan Lin, was a ceramist and former dean of the Ohio University College of Fine Arts, and her mother, Julia Ming Lin, was a Professor of Literature at Ohio University. She is the niece of Lin Huiyin, who is said to be the first female architect in China. Lin studied at Yale University, where she received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1981 and a Master of Architecture degree in 1986. She has also been awarded honorary doctorate degrees from Yale, Harvard University, Williams College, and Smith College. She is married to Daniel Wolf, a New York photography dealer. They have two daughters, India and Rachel. Lin, having grown up surrounded by white people, has said that she "didn't even realize" she was Chinese until later in life, and that it wasn't until her 30s that she had a desire to understand her cultural background. Commenting on her design of a new home for the Museum of Chinese in America near New York City's Chinatown, Lin attached a personal significance to the project being a Chinese-related project because she wanted her two daughters to "know that part of their heritage." Vietnam Veterans Memorial Vietnam War Memorial original design submission by Maya Lin In 1981, at age 21 and while still an undergraduate, Lin won a public design competition for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, beating out 1,420 other competition submissions. The black cut-stone masonry wall, with the names of 58,253 fallen soldiers carved into its face, was completed in late October 1982 and dedicated on November 13, 1982. The wall is granite and V-shaped, with one side pointing to the Lincoln Memorial and the other to the Washington Monument. Lin's conception was to create an opening or a wound in the earth to symbolize the gravity of the loss of the soldiers. The design was initially controversial for what was an unconventional and non-traditional design for a war memorial. Opponents of the design also voiced objection because of Lin's Asian heritage. However, the memorial has since become an important pilgrimage site for relatives and friends of the American military casualties in Vietnam, and personal tokens and mementos are left at the wall daily in their memory. Gale - Free Resources - Women's History - Biographies - Maya Lin Maya Lin - Great Buildings Online Lin believes that if the competition had not been "blind", with designs submitted by number instead of name, she "never would have won." She received harassment after her ethnicity was revealed - prominent businessman and later 3rd party presidential candidate Ross Perot was known to have called her an "egg roll" after it was revealed that she was an Asian American. Lin defended her design in front of the United States Congress, and eventually a compromise was reached. A bronze statue of a group of soldiers and an American flag was placed off to one side of the monument as a result. Work after the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Lin, who now owns and operates Maya Lin Studio in New York City, went on to design other structures, including the Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery, Alabama (1989) and the Wave Field at the University of Michigan (1995). Art:21 . Maya Lin's "Wave Field" PBS In 1994, she was the subject of the Academy Award-winning documentary Maya Lin: A Strong Clear Vision. The title comes from an address she gave at Yale where she speaks of the monument design process. In 2000, Lin re-emerged in the public life with a book Boundaries. Maya Lin emerges from the shadows Also in 2000, she agreed to act as the artist and architect for the Confluence Project, a series of outdoor installations at historical points along the Columbia River and Snake River in the state of Washington. This is the largest and longest project that she has undertaken so far. In 2002, Lin was elected Alumni Fellow of the Yale Corporation, the governing body of Yale University (Upon whose campus sits another of Lin's designs: the Women's Table - designed to commemorate the role of women at Yale University.), in an unusually public contest. Her opponent was W. David Lee, a local New Haven minister and graduate of the Yale Divinity School who was running on a platform to build ties to the community with the support of Yale's unionized employees. Lin was supported by Yale's President Richard Levin, other members of the Yale Corporation, and was the officially endorsed candidate of the Association of Yale Alumni. In 2003, Lin served on the selection jury of the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition. A trend toward minimalism and abstraction was noted among the entrants, finalists, and current World Trade Center Memorial. In 2005, Lin was elected to The American Academy of Arts and Letters, as well as the National Women's Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York. Lin was commissioned by Ohio University to design what is known as punch card park, a landscape literally designed to resemble a punch card, supposedly based on Lin's memories of their early use in universities. The park is a large open space with rectangular mounds and voids on the ground.photo At first the park was criticized for being relatively uninviting (with punchcard pits promoting mosquito infestation and preventing safe active recreation) and lacked trees or structures to shade students from the sun. In addition, from the ground level, it is difficult to tell what the park is supposed to look like, though from an aerial view it does resemble a punch card. Although the university since planted trees around the park's perimeter in an attempt to make it a more popular place for students to gather, this has been unsuccessful. The Athens NEWS | Money spent on new OU park could have been better spent Maya Lin's Bicentennial Park at Ohio University in Athens Ohio - IBM Punch Card Art is no Vietnam Veterans Memorial In 2008, Lin completed a 30-ton sculpture called "2 x 4 Landscape," which is on exhibit at the M.H. de Young Memorial Museum in San Francisco, California. Maya Lin looks at nature - from the inside Her current projects include an installation at the Storm King Art Center. Bibliography Maya Lin: Topologies (Artist and the community) (1998) ISBN 1888826053 Maya Lin: [American Academy in Rome, 10 dicembre 1998-21 febbraio 1999] (1998) ISBN 8843568329 Timetable: Maya Lin (2000) ASIN B000PT331Y (2002, ISBN 0937031194) Boundaries (2000) ISBN 0684834170 (2006, ISBN 0743299590) References External links Mayalin.com, Main site for Maya Lin Studio. Biography, interviews, essays, artwork images and video clips from PBS series Art:21 -- Art in the Twenty-First Century Season 1 (2001). Peace Chapel at Juniata College in Huntingdon, PA Maya Lin's Earth Day Message of Hope on Earth Day 2006 at The Nature Conservancy Confluence Project located at sites in both Washington and Oregon Thompson Gale Publishers, Review of her work. Maya Lin's public artwork at Penn Station, commissioned by MTA Arts for Transit. Maya Lin on Universal Loss and Vietnam Veterans Memorial on Fora.tv Maya Lin video profile in the New York Times | Maya_Lin |@lemmatized maya:20 ying:1 lin:41 bear:3 october:2 american:7 artist:3 architect:3 know:5 work:4 sculpture:2 landscape:3 art:10 best:1 vietnam:8 veteran:6 memorial:14 washington:4 c:1 personal:3 life:3 chinese:4 athens:3 ohio:7 parent:1 emigrate:1 united:2 state:3 people:2 republic:1 china:2 settle:1 one:3 year:1 father:1 henry:1 huan:1 ceramist:1 former:1 dean:1 university:11 college:4 fine:1 mother:1 julia:1 ming:1 professor:1 literature:1 niece:1 huiyin:1 say:2 first:3 female:1 study:1 yale:11 receive:2 bachelor:1 degree:3 master:1 architecture:1 also:3 award:2 honorary:1 doctorate:1 harvard:1 williams:1 smith:1 married:1 daniel:1 wolf:1 new:8 york:5 photography:1 dealer:1 two:2 daughter:2 india:1 rachel:1 grow:1 surround:1 white:1 even:1 realize:1 later:2 desire:1 understand:1 cultural:1 background:1 comment:1 design:14 home:1 museum:2 america:1 near:1 city:2 chinatown:1 attach:1 significance:1 project:6 relate:1 want:1 part:1 heritage:2 war:2 original:1 submission:2 age:1 still:1 undergraduate:1 win:3 public:4 competition:4 beat:1 black:1 cut:1 stone:1 masonry:1 wall:3 name:2 fall:2 soldier:3 carve:1 face:1 complete:2 late:1 dedicate:1 november:1 granite:1 v:1 shape:1 side:2 point:2 lincoln:1 monument:3 conception:1 create:1 opening:1 wound:1 earth:3 symbolize:1 gravity:1 loss:2 initially:1 controversial:1 unconventional:1 non:1 traditional:1 opponent:2 voice:1 objection:1 asian:2 however:1 since:2 become:1 important:1 pilgrimage:1 site:4 relative:1 friend:1 military:1 casualty:1 token:1 memento:1 leave:1 daily:1 memory:2 gale:2 free:1 resource:1 woman:4 history:1 biography:2 great:1 building:1 online:1 believe:1 blind:1 submit:1 number:1 instead:1 never:1 would:1 harassment:1 ethnicity:1 reveal:2 prominent:1 businessman:1 party:1 presidential:1 candidate:2 ross:1 perot:1 call:2 egg:1 roll:1 defend:1 front:1 congress:1 eventually:1 compromise:1 reach:1 bronze:1 statue:1 group:1 flag:1 place:2 result:1 operate:1 studio:2 go:1 structure:2 include:2 civil:1 right:1 montgomery:1 alabama:1 wave:2 field:2 michigan:1 pb:1 subject:1 academy:3 documentary:1 strong:1 clear:1 vision:1 title:1 come:1 address:1 give:1 speak:1 process:1 emerge:2 book:1 boundary:2 shadow:1 agree:1 act:1 confluence:2 series:2 outdoor:1 installation:2 historical:1 along:1 columbia:1 river:2 snake:1 large:2 long:1 undertake:1 far:1 elect:2 alumni:1 fellow:1 corporation:2 govern:1 body:1 upon:1 whose:1 campus:1 sit:1 another:1 table:1 commemorate:1 role:1 unusually:1 contest:1 w:1 david:1 lee:1 local:1 minister:1 graduate:1 divinity:1 school:1 run:1 platform:1 build:1 tie:1 community:2 support:2 unionized:1 employee:1 president:1 richard:1 levin:1 member:1 officially:1 endorsed:1 association:1 alumnus:1 serve:1 selection:1 jury:1 world:2 trade:2 center:3 trend:1 toward:1 minimalism:1 abstraction:1 note:1 among:1 entrant:1 finalist:1 current:2 letter:1 well:2 national:1 hall:1 fame:1 seneca:1 commission:2 punch:4 card:4 park:7 literally:1 resemble:2 supposedly:1 base:1 early:1 use:1 open:1 space:1 rectangular:1 mound:1 void:1 ground:2 photo:1 criticize:1 relatively:1 uninviting:1 punchcard:1 pit:1 promote:1 mosquito:1 infestation:1 prevent:1 safe:1 active:1 recreation:1 lacked:1 tree:2 shade:1 student:2 sun:1 addition:1 level:1 difficult:1 tell:1 suppose:1 look:2 like:1 though:1 aerial:1 view:1 although:1 plant:1 around:1 perimeter:1 attempt:1 make:1 popular:1 gather:1 unsuccessful:1 news:1 money:1 spend:1 ou:1 could:1 spent:1 bicentennial:1 ibm:1 ton:1 x:1 exhibit:1 h:1 de:1 young:1 san:1 francisco:1 california:1 nature:2 inside:1 storm:1 king:1 bibliography:1 topology:1 isbn:5 rome:1 dicembre:1 febbraio:1 timetable:1 asin:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 mayalin:1 com:1 main:1 interview:1 essay:1 artwork:2 image:1 video:2 clip:1 pbs:1 twenty:1 century:1 season:1 peace:1 chapel:1 juniata:1 huntingdon:1 pa:1 day:2 message:1 hope:1 conservancy:1 locate:1 oregon:1 thompson:1 publisher:1 review:1 penn:1 station:1 mta:1 transit:1 universal:1 forum:1 tv:1 profile:1 time:1 |@bigram maya_lin:19 honorary_doctorate:1 presidential_candidate:1 ross_perot:1 bronze_statue:1 montgomery_alabama:1 hall_fame:1 san_francisco:1 external_link:1 video_clip:1 nature_conservancy:1 |
5,712 | Nepeta | Nepeta is a genus of about 250 species of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae. The members of this group are known as catnip or catmint because of their famous effect on cats—nepeta pleasantly stimulates cats' pheromonic receptors, typically resulting in temporary euphoria. It can also induce mild euphoria in humans. The genus is native to Europe, Asia and Africa. It is now also common in North America. Most of the species are herbaceous perennial plants, but some are annuals. They have sturdy stems with opposite heart-shaped, green to grayish-green leaves. The flowers are white, blue, pink or lilac and occur in several clusters toward the tip of the stems. The flowers are tubular and spotted with tiny purple dots. Uses Oil isolated from catnip by steam distillation is a repellent against insects, in particular mosquitoes, cockroaches and termites. Research suggests that in a test tube, distilled nepetalactone, the active ingredient in catnip, repels mosquitoes ten times more effectively than DEET, the active ingredient in most insect repellents, but that it is not as effective a repellent when used on the skin. Additionally, catnip and catnip-laced products designed for use with domesticated cats are available to consumers. Effects on cats Catnip and catmints are mainly known for the behavioral effects they have on cats, particularly domestics. When cats sense the bruised leaves or stems of catnip, they may roll over it, paw at it, chew it, lick it, leap about and purr, or heavily salivate. Some will growl, meow, scratch or bite the hand holding it. A domestic cat demonstrating the effects of catnip such as rolling, pawing, and frisking Two thirds of cats are susceptible to catnip. The phenomenon is hereditary; for example, most Australian cats do not react to it. There is some disagreement about the susceptibility of lions and tigers to catnip. Catnip has nepetalactone, a terpene. Nepetalactone can be extracted from catnip by steam distillation. Cats detect it through their olfactory epithelium, not through their vomeronasal organ. At the olfactory epithelium, the nepetalactone binds to one or more olfactory receptors where it probably mimics a cat pheromone, such as the hypothetical feline facial pheromone or the cat urine odorant MMB. Other plants that also have this effect on cats include valerian (Valeriana officinalis) and plants that contain actinidine or dihydroactinidiolide (Smith, 2005). Species Nepeta curviflora flowers Nepeta cataria (Catnip, True Catnip, Catmint or Field Balm) is a 50–100 cm tall herb resembling mint in appearance, with greyish-green leaves; the flowers are white, finely spotted with purple. It has been introduced to many countries, including the United States. A lemon-scented cultivar, N. cataria 'Citriodora', looks exactly like true catnip but has the scent of lemons and can be used like Lemon balm. Nepeta grandiflora (Giant Catmint or Caucasus Catmint) is lusher than true catnip and has dark green leaves and dark blue, almost purple flowers. Nepeta × faassenii (N. racemosa × N. nepetella; Faassen's Nepeta or Faassen's Catnip) is mostly grown as an ornamental plant. This hybrid is far smaller than either of above and is almost a ground cover. It has greyish-green leaves and light purple flowers. Some Dracocephalum, Glechoma and Calamintha species were formerly classified in Nepeta. Nepeta species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including Coleophora albitarsella. Selected species Nepeta agrestis Nepeta annua Nepeta apuleii Nepeta beltranii Nepeta camphorata Nepeta cataria Nepeta ciliaris Nepeta coerulescens Nepeta curviflora Nepeta densiflora Nepeta dentata Nepeta dirphya Nepeta discolor Nepeta elliptica Nepeta everardi Nepeta floccosa Nepeta foliosa Nepeta fordii Nepeta glutinosa Nepeta govaniana Nepeta granatensis Nepeta grandiflora Nepeta heldreichii Nepeta hemsleyana Nepeta hindost Nepeta hispanicaNepeta italica Nepeta jomdaensis Nepeta kokamirica Nepeta kokanica Nepeta laevigata Nepeta lamiopsis Nepeta latifolia Nepeta leucolaena Nepeta leucophylla Nepeta longibracteata Nepeta manchuriensis Nepeta melissifolia Nepeta membranifolia Nepeta micrantha Nepeta multibracteata Nepeta multifida Nepeta mussinii Nepeta nepalensis Nepeta nepetella Nepeta nervosa Nepeta nuda Nepeta parnassica Nepeta parviflora Nepeta phyllochlamys Nepeta prattii Nepeta pungensNepeta racemosa Nepeta raphanorhiza Nepeta scordotis Nepeta sessilis Nepeta sibirica Nepeta sibthorpii Nepeta souliei Nepeta spruneri Nepeta staintonii Nepeta stewartiana Nepeta sungpanensis Nepeta supina Nepeta taxkorganica Nepeta tenuiflora Nepeta tenuifolia Nepeta tuberosa Nepeta ucranica Nepeta veitchii Nepeta virgata Nepeta wilsonii Nepeta yanthina Nepeta zandaensis Natural hybrids Nepeta × faassenii References Further reading External links Flora Europaea Flora of China Flora of Nepal Catnip Repels Mosquitoes More Effectively Than DEET - reported at the 222nd national meeting of the American Chemical Society What is in catnip anyway? Nepetalactone How does catnip work? HowStuffWorks, Inc. 1998–2005. Smith, L. Catnip. Penmarrie Cornish Rex. 1996–2005. Catnip Plants | Nepeta |@lemmatized nepeta:82 genus:2 specie:6 flower:7 plant:7 family:1 lamiaceae:1 member:1 group:1 know:2 catnip:22 catmint:5 famous:1 effect:5 cat:13 pleasantly:1 stimulate:1 pheromonic:1 receptor:2 typically:1 result:1 temporary:1 euphoria:2 also:3 induce:1 mild:1 human:1 native:1 europe:1 asia:1 africa:1 common:1 north:1 america:1 herbaceous:1 perennial:1 annual:1 sturdy:1 stem:3 opposite:1 heart:1 shape:1 green:5 grayish:1 leaf:5 white:2 blue:2 pink:1 lilac:1 occur:1 several:1 cluster:1 toward:1 tip:1 tubular:1 spot:2 tiny:1 purple:4 dot:1 use:5 oil:1 isolate:1 steam:2 distillation:2 repellent:3 insect:2 particular:1 mosquito:2 cockroach:1 termite:1 research:1 suggest:1 test:1 tube:1 distil:1 nepetalactone:5 active:2 ingredient:2 repels:2 ten:1 time:1 effectively:2 deet:2 effective:1 skin:1 additionally:1 laced:1 product:1 design:1 domesticated:1 available:1 consumer:1 mainly:1 behavioral:1 particularly:1 domestic:2 sense:1 bruised:1 may:1 roll:1 paw:1 chew:1 lick:1 leap:1 purr:1 heavily:1 salivate:1 growl:1 meow:1 scratch:1 bite:1 hand:1 hold:1 demonstrate:1 rolling:1 pawing:1 frisk:1 two:1 third:1 susceptible:1 phenomenon:1 hereditary:1 example:1 australian:1 react:1 disagreement:1 susceptibility:1 lion:1 tiger:1 terpene:1 extract:1 detect:1 olfactory:3 epithelium:2 vomeronasal:1 organ:1 bind:1 one:1 probably:1 mimic:1 pheromone:2 hypothetical:1 feline:1 facial:1 urine:1 odorant:1 mmb:1 include:3 valerian:1 valeriana:1 officinalis:1 contain:1 actinidine:1 dihydroactinidiolide:1 smith:2 curviflora:2 cataria:3 true:3 field:1 balm:2 cm:1 tall:1 herb:1 resemble:1 mint:1 appearance:1 greyish:2 finely:1 introduce:1 many:1 country:1 united:1 state:1 lemon:3 scent:2 cultivar:1 n:3 citriodora:1 look:1 exactly:1 like:2 grandiflora:2 giant:1 caucasus:1 lush:1 dark:2 almost:2 faassenii:2 racemosa:2 nepetella:2 faassen:2 mostly:1 grow:1 ornamental:1 hybrid:2 far:2 small:1 either:1 ground:1 cover:1 light:1 dracocephalum:1 glechoma:1 calamintha:1 formerly:1 classify:1 food:1 larva:1 lepidoptera:1 butterfly:1 moth:1 species:1 coleophora:1 albitarsella:1 select:1 agrestis:1 annua:1 apuleii:1 beltranii:1 camphorata:1 ciliaris:1 coerulescens:1 densiflora:1 dentata:1 dirphya:1 discolor:1 elliptica:1 everardi:1 floccosa:1 foliosa:1 fordii:1 glutinosa:1 govaniana:1 granatensis:1 heldreichii:1 hemsleyana:1 hindost:1 hispanicanepeta:1 italica:1 jomdaensis:1 kokamirica:1 kokanica:1 laevigata:1 lamiopsis:1 latifolia:1 leucolaena:1 leucophylla:1 longibracteata:1 manchuriensis:1 melissifolia:1 membranifolia:1 micrantha:1 multibracteata:1 multifida:1 mussinii:1 nepalensis:1 nervosa:1 nuda:1 parnassica:1 parviflora:1 phyllochlamys:1 prattii:1 pungensnepeta:1 raphanorhiza:1 scordotis:1 sessilis:1 sibirica:1 sibthorpii:1 souliei:1 spruneri:1 staintonii:1 stewartiana:1 sungpanensis:1 supina:1 taxkorganica:1 tenuiflora:1 tenuifolia:1 tuberosa:1 ucranica:1 veitchii:1 virgata:1 wilsonii:1 yanthina:1 zandaensis:1 natural:1 reference:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 flora:3 europaea:1 china:1 nepal:1 mosquitoes:1 report:1 national:1 meeting:1 american:1 chemical:1 society:1 anyway:1 work:1 howstuffworks:1 inc:1 l:1 penmarrie:1 cornish:1 rex:1 |@bigram family_lamiaceae:1 herbaceous_perennial:1 steam_distillation:2 insect_repellent:1 domesticated_cat:1 cm_tall:1 lemon_balm:1 lepidoptera_butterfly:1 butterfly_moth:1 external_link:1 |
5,713 | Meiosis | Events involving meiosis, showing chromosomal crossover In biology, meiosis (pronounced IPA:[maɪˈəʊsɪs]) is a process of reductional division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is halved. In animals, meiosis always results in the formation of gametes, while in other organisms it can give rise to spores. As with mitosis, before meiosis begins, the DNA in the original cell is replicated during S-phase of the cell cycle. Two cell divisions separate the replicated chromosomes into four haploid gametes or spores. Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in all eukaryotes (including single-celled organisms) that reproduce sexually. A few eukaryotes, notably the Bdelloid rotifers, have lost the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis. Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which reproduce via asexual processes such as binary fission. During meiosis, the genome of a diploid germ cell, which is composed of long segments of DNA packaged into chromosomes, undergoes DNA replication followed by two rounds of division, resulting in four haploid cells. Each of these cells contain one complete set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic content of the original cell. If meiosis produces gametes, these cells must fuse during fertilization to create a new diploid cell, or zygote before any new growth can occur. Thus, the division mechanism of meiosis is a reciprocal process to the joining of two genomes that occurs at fertilization. Because the chromosomes of each parent undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, each gamete, and thus each zygote, will have a unique genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA. Together, meiosis and fertilization constitute sexuality in the eukaryotes, and generate genetically distinct individuals in populations. In all plants, and in many protists, meiosis results in the formation of haploid cells that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertilization, referred to as spores. In these groups, gametes are produced by mitosis. Meiosis uses many of the same biochemical mechanisms employed during mitosis to accomplish the redistribution of chromosomes. There are several features unique to meiosis, most importantly the pairing and genetic recombination between homologous chromosomes. Meiosis comes from the root -meio, meaning less. History Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876, by noted German biologist Oscar Hertwig (1849-1922). It was described again in 1883, at the level of chromosomes, by Belgian zoologist Edouard Van Beneden (1846-1910), in Ascaris worms' eggs. The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance, however, was described only in 1890 by German biologist August Weismann (1834-1914), who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained. In 1911 the American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945) observed crossover in Drosophila melanogaster meiosis and provided the first genetic evidence that genes are transmitted on chromosomes. Evolution Meiosis is thought to have appeared 1.4 billion years ago. The only supergroup of eukaryotes which does not have meiosis in all organisms is excavata. The other five major supergroups, opisthokonts, amoebozoa, rhizaria, archaeplastida and chromalveolates all seem to have genes for meiosis universally present, even if not always functional. Some excavata species do have meiosis which is consistent with the hypothesis that this group is an ancient, paraphyletic grade. An example of eukaryotic organism in which meiosis does not exist is euglenoid. Occurrence of meiosis in eukaryotic life cycles Gametic life cycle. Zygotic life cycle. Sporic life cycle. Meiosis occur in eukaryotic life cycles involving sexual reproduction, comprising of the constant cyclical process of meiosis and fertilization. This takes place alongside normal mitotic cell division. In multicellular organisms, there is an intermediary step between the diploid and haploid transition where the organism grows. The organism will then produce the germ cells that continue in the life cycle. The rest of the cells, called somatic cells, function within the organism and will die with it. Cycling meiosis and fertilization events produces a series of transitions back and forth between alternating haploid and diploid states. The organism phase of the life cycle can occur either during the diploid state (gametic or diploid life cycle), during the haploid state (zygotic or haploid life cycle), or both (sporic or haplodiploid life cycle, in which there two distinct organism phases, one during the haploid state and the other during the diploid state). In this sense, there are three types of life cycles that utilize sexual reproduction, differentiated by the location of the organisms phase(s). In the gametic life cycle, of which humans are a part, the species is diploid, grown from a diploid cell called the zygote. The organism's diploid germ-line stem cells undergo meiosis to create haploid gametes (the spermatozoa for males and ova for females), which fertilize to form the zygote. The diploid zygote undergoes repeated cellular division by mitosis to grow into the organism. Mitosis is a related process to meiosis that creates two cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. The general principle is that mitosis creates somatic cells and meiosis creates germ cells. In the zygotic life cycle the species is haploid instead, spawned by the proliferation and differentiation of a single haploid cell called the gamete. Two organisms of opposing gender contribute their haploid germ cells to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis immediately, creating four haploid cells. These cells undergo mitosis to create the organism. Many fungi and many protozoa are members of the zygotic life cycle. Finally, in the sporic life cycle, the living organism alternates between haploid and diploid states. Consequently, this cycle is also known as the alternation of generations. The diploid organism's germ-line cells undergo meiosis to produce gametes. The gametes proliferate by mitosis, growing into a haploid organism. The haploid organism's germ cells then combine with another haploid organism's cells, creating the zygote. The zygote undergoes repeated mitosis and differentiation to become the diploid organism again. The sporic life cycle can be considered a fusion of the gametic and zygotic life cycles. Process Because meiosis is a "one-way" process, it cannot be said to engage in a cell cycle as mitosis does. However, the preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to the interphase of the mitotic cell cycle. Interphase is divided into three phases: Growth 1 (G1) phase: This is a very active period, where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes consists of a single (very long) molecule of DNA. In humans, at this point cells are 46 chromosomes, 2N, identical to somatic cells. Synthesis (S) phase: The genetic material is replicated: each of its chromosomes duplicates, producing 46 chromosomes each made up of two sister chromatids. The cell is still considered diploid because it still contains the same number of centromeres. The identical sister chromatids have not yet condensed into the densely packaged chromosomes visible with the light microscope. This will take place during prophase I in meiosis. Growth 2 (G2) phase: G2 phase is absent in Meiosis Interphase is followed by meiosis I and then meiosis II. Meiosis I consists of separating the pairs of homologous chromosome, each made up of two sister chromatids, into two cells. One entire haploid content of chromosomes is contained in each of the resulting daughter cells; the first meiotic division therefore reduces the ploidy of the original cell by a factor of 2. Meiosis II consists of decoupling each chromosome's sister strands (chromatids), and segregating the individual chromatids into haploid daughter cells. The two cells resulting from meiosis I divide during meiosis II, creating 4 haploid daughter cells. Meiosis I and II are each divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase stages, similar in purpose to their analogous subphases in the mitotic cell cycle. Therefore, meiosis includes the stages of meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I), and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II). Meiosis generates genetic diversity in two ways: (1) independent alignment and subsequent separation of homologous chromosome pairs during the first meiotic division allows a random and independent selection of each chromosome segregates into each gamete; and (2) physical exchange of homologous chromosomal regions by recombination during prophase I results in new genetic combinations within chromosomes. A diagram of the meiotic phases. Meiosis-phases Meiosis I Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, producing two haploid cells (23 chromosomes, N in humans), so meiosis I is referred to as a reductional division. A regular diploid human cell contains 46 chromosomes and is considered 2N because it contains 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes. However, after meiosis I, although the cell contains 46 chromatids it is only considered as being N, with 23 chromosomes, because later in anaphase I the sister chromatids will remain together as the spindle pulls the pair toward the pole of the new cell. In meiosis II, an equational division similar to mitosis will occur whereby the sister chromatids are finally split, creating a total of 4 haploid cells (23 chromosomes, N) per daughter cell from the first division. Prophase I Homologous chromosomes pair (or synapse) and crossing over (or recombination) occurs - a step unique to meiosis. The paired and replicated chromosomes are called bivalents or tetrads, which have two chromosomes and four chromatids, with one chromosome coming from each parent. At this stage, non-sister chromatids may cross-over at points called chiasmata (plural; singular chiasma). Leptotene The first stage of prophase I is the leptotene stage, also known as leptonema, from Greek words meaning "thin threads". Principles of Genetics, Fourth Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2006. During this stage, individual chromosomes begin to condense into long strands within the nucleus. However the two sister chromatids are still so tightly bound that they are indistinguishable from one another. Zygotene The zygotene stage, also known as zygonema, from Greek words meaning "paired threads", occurs as the chromosomes approximately line up with each other into homologous chromosomes. This is called the bouquet stage because of the way the telomeres cluster at one end of the nucleus. Pachytene The pachytene stage, also known as pachynema, from Greek words meaning "thick threads", contains the following chromosomal crossover. Nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes randomly exchange segments of genetic information over regions of homology. (Sex chromosomes, however, are not wholly identical, and only exchange information over a small region of homology.) Exchange takes place at sites where recombination nodules (the aforementioned chiasmata) have formed. The exchange of information between the non-sister chromatids results in a recombination of information; each chromosome has the complete set of information it had before, and there are no gaps formed as a result of the process. Because the chromosomes cannot be distinguished in the synaptonemal complex, the actual act of crossing over is not perceivable through the microscope. Diplotene During the diplotene stage, also known as diplonema, from Greek words meaning "two threads", the synaptonemal complex degrades and homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little. The chromosomes themselves uncoil a bit, allowing some transcription of DNA. However, the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent remain tightly bound at chiasmata, the regions where crossing-over occurred. The chiasmata remain on the chromosomes until they are severed in Anaphase I. In human fetal oogenesis all developing oocytes develop to this stage and stop before birth. This suspended state is referred to as the dictyotene stage and remains so until puberty. In males, only spermatogonia(Spermatogenesis) exist until meiosis begins at puberty. Diakinesis Chromosomes condense further during the diakinesis stage, from Greek words meaning "moving through". This is the first point in meiosis where the four parts of the tetrads are actually visible. Sites of crossing over entangle together, effectively overlapping, making chiasmata clearly visible. Other than this observation, the rest of the stage closely resembles prometaphase of mitosis; the nucleoli disappear, the nuclear membrane disintegrates into vesicles, and the meiotic spindle begins to form. Synchronous processes During these stages, two centrosomes, containing a pair of centrioles in animal cells, migrate to the two poles of the cell. These centrosomes, which were duplicated during S-phase, function as microtubule organizing centers nucleating microtubules, which are essentially cellular ropes and poles. The microtubules invade the nuclear region after the nuclear envelope disintegrates, attaching to the chromosomes at the kinetochore. The kinetochore functions as a motor, pulling the chromosome along the attached microtubule toward the originating centriole, like a train on a track. There are four kinetochores on each tetrad, but the pair of kinetochores on each sister chromatid fuses and functions as a unit during meiosis I. Raven, Peter H.; Johnson, George B.; Mason, Kenneth A.; Losos, Jonathan & Singer, Susan. Biology, Eighth Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2007. Petronczki, Mark; Siomos, Maria F. & Nasmyth, Kim (2003-02-21). "Un Ménage à Quatre The Molecular Biology of Chromosome Segregation in Meiosis", Cell 112 (4): 423-40. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00083-7. Microtubules that attach to the kinetochores are known as kinetochore microtubules. Other microtubules will interact with microtubules from the opposite centriole: these are called nonkinetochore microtubules or polar microtubules. A third type of microtubules, the aster microtubules, radiates from the centrosome into the cytoplasm or contacts components of the membrane skeleton. Metaphase I Homologous pairs move together along the metaphase plate: As kinetochore microtubules from both centrioles attach to their respective kinetochores, the homologous chromosomes align along an equatorial plane that bisects the spindle, due to continuous counterbalancing forces exerted on the bivalents by the microtubules emanating from the two kinetochores of homologous chromosomes. The physical basis of the independent assortment of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent along the metaphase plate, with respect to the orientation of the other bivalents along the same equatorial line. Anaphase I Kinetochore microtubules shorten, severing the recombination nodules and pulling homologous chromosomes apart. Since each chromosome has only one functional unit of a pair of kinetochores, whole chromosomes are pulled toward opposing poles, forming two haploid sets. Each chromosome still contains a pair of sister chromatids. Nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen, pushing the centrioles farther apart. The cell elongates in preparation for division down the center. Telophase I The last meiotic division effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids. The microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear, and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each haploid set. The chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin. Cytokinesis, the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell wall in plant cells, occurs, completing the creation of two daughter cells. Sister chromatids remain attached during telophase I. Cells may enter a period of rest known as interkinesis or interphase II. No DNA replication occurs during this stage. Meiosis II Meiosis II is the second part of the meiotic process. Much of the process is similar to mitosis. The end result is production of four haploid cells (23 chromosomes, 1N in humans) from the two haploid cells (23 chromosomes, 1N * each of the chromosomes consisting of two sister chromatids) produced in meiosis I. The four main steps of Meiosis II are: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, and Telophase II. Prophase II takes an inversely proportional time compared to telophase I. In this prophase we see the disappearance of the nucleoli and the nuclear envelope again as well as the shortening and thickening of the chromatids. Centrioles move to the polar regions and arrange spindle fibers for the second meiotic division. In metaphase II, the centromeres contain two kinetochores that attach to spindle fibers from the centrosomes (centrioles) at each pole. The new equatorial metaphase plate is rotated by 90 degrees when compared to meiosis I, perpendicular to the previous plate. This is followed by anaphase II, where the centromeres are cleaved, allowing microtubules attached to the kinetochores to pull the sister chromatids apart. The sister chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles. The process ends with telophase II, which is similar to telophase I, and is marked by uncoiling and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disappearance of the spindle. Nuclear envelopes reform and cleavage or cell wall formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes. Meiosis is now complete and ends up with four new daughter cells. The Significance of Meiosis Meiosis facilitates stable sexual reproduction. Without the halving of ploidy, or chromosome count, fertilization would result in zygotes that have twice the number of chromosomes as the zygotes from the previous generation. Successive generations would have an exponential increase in chromosome count. In organisms that are normally diploid, polyploidy, the state of having three or more sets of chromosomes, results in extreme developmental abnormalities or lethality BIL 104 - Lecture 15 . Polyploidy is poorly tolerated in most animal species. Plants, however, regularly produce fertile, viable polyploids. Polyploidy has been implicated as an important mechanism in plant speciation. Most importantly, recombination and independent assortment of homologous chromosomes allow for a greater diversity of genotypes in the population. This produces genetic variation in gametes that promote genetic and phenotypic variation in a population of offspring. Nondisjunction The normal separation of chromosomes in meiosis I or sister chromatids in meiosis II is termed disjunction. When the separation is not normal, it is called nondisjunction. This results in the production of gametes which have either too many of too few of a particular chromosome, and is a common mechanism for trisomy or monosomy. Nondisjunction can occur in the meiosis I or meiosis II, phases of cellular reproduction, or during mitosis. This is a cause of several medical conditions in humans (such as): Down Syndrome - trisomy of chromosome 21 Patau Syndrome - trisomy of chromosome 13 Edward Syndrome - trisomy of chromosome 18 Klinefelter Syndrome - extra X chromosomes in males - ie XXY, XXXY, XXXXY Turner Syndrome - lacking of one X chromosome in females - ie XO Triple X syndrome - an extra X chromosome in females XYY Syndrome - an extra Y chromosome in males Meiosis in humans In females, meiosis occurs in cells known as oogonia (singular: oogonium). Each oogonium that initiates meiosis will divide twice to form a single oocyte and two polar bodies. However, before these divisions occur, these cells stop at the diplotene stage of meiosis I and lay dormant within a protective shell of somatic cells called the follicle. Follicles begin growth at a steady pace in a process known as folliculogenesis, and a small number enter the menstrual cycle. Menstruated oocytes continue meiosis I and arrest at meiosis II until fertilization. The process of meiosis in females occurs during oogenesis, and differs from the typical meiosis in that it features a long period of meiotic arrest known as the Dictyate stage and lacks the assistance of centrosomes. In males, meiosis occurs in precursor cells known as spermatogonia that divide twice to become sperm. These cells continuously divide without arrest in the seminiferous tubules of the testicles. Sperm is produced at a steady pace. The process of meiosis in males occurs during spermatogenesis. References See also Mitosis Ploidy Spermatogenesis Oogenesis Multigene family Allele External links Meiosis Flash Animation Animations from the U. of Arizona Biology Dept. Meiosis at Kimball's Biology Pages CCO The Cell-Cycle Ontology Mitosis vs Meiosis - The differences | Meiosis |@lemmatized event:2 involve:2 meiosis:84 show:1 chromosomal:3 crossover:3 biology:5 pronounced:1 ipa:1 maɪˈəʊsɪs:1 process:15 reductional:2 division:16 number:6 chromosome:77 per:2 cell:72 halve:1 animal:4 always:2 result:12 formation:4 gamete:12 organism:21 give:1 rise:1 spore:3 mitosis:16 begin:5 dna:7 original:3 replicate:3 phase:13 cycle:25 two:25 separate:4 replicated:1 four:11 haploid:28 essential:1 sexual:4 reproduction:6 therefore:3 occurs:7 eukaryote:4 include:3 single:4 celled:1 reproduce:3 sexually:1 notably:1 bdelloid:1 rotifer:1 lose:1 ability:2 carry:1 acquire:1 parthenogenesis:1 occur:11 archaea:1 bacteria:1 via:1 asexual:1 binary:1 fission:1 genome:2 diploid:19 germ:7 compose:1 long:4 segment:2 package:2 undergoes:4 replication:2 follow:4 round:1 contain:10 one:11 complete:4 set:6 half:2 genetic:11 content:2 produce:12 must:1 fuse:2 fertilization:8 create:9 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5,714 | Baruch_Spinoza | Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (, , ) (November 24, 1632 – February 21, 1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Jewish origin. Revealing considerable scientific aptitude, the breadth and importance of Spinoza's work was not fully realized until years after his death. Today, he is considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy, laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism. By virtue of his magnum opus, the posthumous Ethics, in which he opposed Descartes' mind–body dualism, Spinoza is considered to be one of Western philosophy's most important philosophers. Philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said of all modern philosophers, "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all." Hegel's History of Philosophy All of Spinoza's works were listed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books) by the Roman Catholic Church. Spinoza lived quietly as a lens grinder, turning down rewards and honors throughout his life, including prestigious teaching positions, and gave his family inheritance to his sister. Spinoza's moral character and philosophical accomplishments prompted 20th century philosopher Gilles Deleuze to name him "the 'prince' of philosophers." quoted in the translator's preface of Deleuze Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza (1990). Spinoza died at the age of 44 of a lung illness, perhaps tuberculosis or silicosis exacerbated by fine glass dust inhaled while tending to his trade. Spinoza is buried in the churchyard of the Nieuwe Kerk on Spui in The Hague. Biography Family origins Spinoza's ancestors were of Sephardic Jewish descent, and were a part of the community of Portuguese Jews that grew in the city of Amsterdam after the Alhambra Decree in Spain (1492) and the Portuguese Inquisition (1536) had led to forced conversions and expulsions from the Iberian peninsula. Magnusson, M (ed.), Spinoza, Baruch, Chambers Biographical Dictionary, Chambers 1990, ISBN 0550160418. Some historians argue the Spinoza family ("Espinosa" in Portuguese) had its origins in Espinosa de los Monteros, near Burgos, Spain. Javier Muguerza in his Desde la perplejidad Others claim they were Portuguese Jews who had moved to Spain and then returned to their home country in 1492, only to be forcibly converted to Catholicism in 1498. Spinoza's father was born roughly a century after this forced conversion in the small Portuguese city of Vidigueira, near Beja in Alentejo. When Spinoza's father was still a child, Spinoza's grandfather, Isaac de Spinoza (who was from Lisbon), took his family to Nantes in France. They were expelled in 1615 and moved to Rotterdam, where Isaac died in 1627. Spinoza's father, Miguel, and his uncle, Manuel, then moved to Amsterdam where they reassumed their Judaism. Manuel changed his name to Abraão de Spinoza, though his "commercial" name was still the same. Early life and career Baruch Spinoza was born in Amsterdam, in the Netherlands. His mother Ana Débora, Miguel's second wife, died when Baruch was only six years old. Miguel was a successful importer/merchant and Baruch had a traditional Jewish upbringing; however, his critical, curious nature would soon come into conflict with the Jewish community. Wars with England and France took the life of his father and decimated his family's fortune but he was eventually able to relinquish responsibility for the business and its debts to his brother, Gabriel, and devote himself to philosophy and optics. Controversial ideas and Jewish reaction Spinoza became known in the Jewish community for positions contrary to normative Jewish belief, with critical positions towards the Talmud and other religious texts. In the summer of 1656, the Jewish community issued to him the writ of cherem (Hebrew: חרם, a kind of excommunication), perhaps for the apostasy of how he conceived God. Righteous indignation on the part of the synagogue elders at Spinoza's heresies was probably not the sole cause for the excommunication; there was also the practical concern that his ideas, which disagree equally well with the orthodoxies of other religions as with Judaism, would not sit well with the Christian leaders of Amsterdam and would reflect badly on the whole Jewish community, endangering the limited freedoms that the Jews had achieved in that city. The terms of his cherem were severe. Tel Aviv University: "Why Was Baruch De Spinoza Excommunicated?", by Asa Kasher and Shlomo Biderman He was, in Bertrand Russell's words, "cursed with all the curses in Deuteronomy and with the curse that Elisha pronounced on the children who, in consequence, were torn to pieces by the she-bears." Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy Allen & Unwin (1946) New Ed.1961 p.552 The cherem was, atypically, never revoked. Following his excommunication, he adopted the first name Benedictus, the Latin equivalent of his given name, Baruch; they both mean "blessed". In his native Amsterdam he was also known as Bento (Portuguese for Benedict or blessed) de Spinoza, which was the informal form of his name. After his cherem, it is reported that Spinoza lived and worked in the school of Franciscus van den Enden, who taught him Latin in his youth and may have introduced him to modern philosophy, although Spinoza never mentions Van den Enden anywhere in his books or letters. Van den Enden was a Cartesian and atheist who was forbidden by the city government to propagate his doctrines publicly. During this period Spinoza also became acquainted with several Collegiants, members of an eclectic sect with tendencies towards rationalism. Spinoza also corresponded with Peter Serrarius, a radical Protestant and millennarian merchant. Serrarius is believed to have been a patron of Spinoza at some point. By the beginning of the 1660s, Spinoza's name became more widely known, and eventually Gottfried Leibniz and Henry Oldenburg paid him visits, as stated in Matthew Stewart's The Courtier and the Heretic. Spinoza corresponded with Oldenburg for the rest of his short life. Spinoza's first publication was his geometric exposition of Descartes, Parts I and II of Descartes' Principles of Philosophy (1663). From December 1664 to June 1665, Spinoza engaged in correspondence with Blyenbergh, an amateur Calvinist theologian, who questioned Spinoza on the definition of evil. Later in 1665, Spinoza notified Oldenburg that he had started to work on a new book, the Theologico-Political Treatise, published in 1670. Leibniz disagreed harshly with Spinoza in Leibniz's own published Refutation of Spinoza, but he is also known to have met with Spinoza on at least one occasion, and his own work bears certain striking resemblances to certain key parts of Spinoza's philosophy (see: Monadology). When the public reactions to the anonymously published Theologico-Political Treatise were extremely unfavourable to his brand of Cartesianism, Spinoza was compelled to abstain from publishing more of his works. Wary and independent, he wore a signet ring engraved with his initials, a rose, and the word "caute" (Latin for "cautiously"). The Ethics and all other works, apart from the Descartes' Principles of Philosophy and the Theologico-Political Treatise, were published after his death, in the Opera Posthuma edited by his friends in secrecy to avoid confiscation and destruction of manuscripts. Later life and career Spinoza's house in Rijnsburg from 1661-3, now a museum Study room of Spinoza Spinoza relocated from Amsterdam to Rijnsburg (near Leiden) around 1661 and later lived in Voorburg and The Hague respectively. He earned a comfortable living from lens-grinding. While the lens-grinding aspect of Spinoza's work is uncontested, the type of lenses he made is in question. Many have said he produced excellent magnifying glasses, and some historians credit him with being an optician (in the sense of making lenses for eyeglasses). He was also supported by small, but regular, donations from close friends. He died in 1677 while still working on a political thesis. His premature death was due to lung illness, possibly the result of breathing in glass dust from the lenses he ground. Or also possibly due to a syndrome, known as Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF) which is a hereditary inflammatory disorder that affects groups of people originating from around the Mediterranean Sea (hence its name). It is prominently present in the Armenian people, Sephardi Jews (and, to a much lesser extent, Ashkenazi Jews), people from Turkey, and the Arab countries. Only a year earlier, Spinoza had met with Leibniz at The Hague for a discussion of his principal philosophical work, Ethics, which had been completed in 1676. This meeting was described in Matthew Stewart's The Courtier and the Heretic. Lucas, 1960. Spinoza never married, nor did he father any children. When he died, he was considered a heathen anti-religionist by the general population, and when Boerhaave wrote his dissertation in 1688 he attacked the doctrines of Spinoza. He claimed later that defense of Spinoza's lifestyle cost him his reputation in Leiden and a post as minister. Dutch Port cities as sites of free thought Amsterdam and Rotterdam were important cosmopolitan centers where merchant ships from many parts of the world brought people of various customs and beliefs. It is this hustle and bustle which ensured, as in the Mediterranean region during the Renaissance, some possibility of free thought and shelter from the crushing hand of ecclesiastical authority. Thus, Spinoza no doubt had access to a circle of friends who were basically heretics in the eyes of tradition. One of the people he must have known was Niels Stensen, a brilliant Danish student in Leiden; others were Coenraad van Beuningen and his cousin Albert Burgh, with whom Spinoza is known to have corresponded. Philosophy The opening page of Spinoza's magnum opus, Ethics Substance, Attributes and Modes Spinoza's system imparted order and unity to the tradition of radical thought, offering powerful weapons for prevailing against "received authority." As a youth he first subscribed to Descartes's dualistic belief that body and mind are two separate substances, but later changed his view and asserted that they were not separate, being a single identity. He contended that everything that exists in Nature (i.e., everything in the Universe) is one Reality (substance) and there is only one set of rules governing the whole of the reality which surrounds us and of which we are part. Spinoza viewed God and Nature as two names for the same reality, namely the single substance (meaning "that which stands beneath" rather than "matter") that is the basis of the universe and of which all lesser "entities" are actually modes or modifications, that all things are determined by Nature to exist and cause effects, and that the complex chain of cause and effect is only understood in part. That humans presume themselves to have free will, he argues, is a result of their awareness of appetites while being unable to understand the reasons why they want and act as they do. Spinoza contends that "Deus sive Natura" ("God or Nature") is a being of infinitely many attributes, of which thought and extension are two. His account of the nature of reality, then, seems to treat the physical and mental worlds as one and the same. The universal substance consists of both body and mind, there being no difference between these aspects. This formulation is a historically significant solution to the mind-body problem known as neutral monism. The consequences of Spinoza's system also envisage a God that does not rule over the universe by providence, but a God which itself is the deterministic system of which everything in nature is a part. Thus, God is the natural world and has no personality. In addition to substance, the other two fundamental concepts Spinoza presents, and develops in the Ethics are attribute – that which the intellect perceives as constituting the essence of substance, and mode – the modifications of substance, or that which exists in, and is conceived through, something other than itself. Spinoza was a thoroughgoing determinist who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of necessity. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, with freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand why we act as we do. So freedom is not the possibility to say "no" to what happens to us but the possibility to say "yes" and fully understand why things should necessarily happen that way. By forming more "adequate" ideas about what we do and our emotions or affections, we become the adequate cause of our effects (internal or external), which entails an increase in activity (versus passivity). This means that we become both more free and more like God, as Spinoza argues in the Scholium to Prop. 49, Part II. However, Spinoza also held that everything must necessarily happen the way that it does. Therefore, humans have no free will. They believe, however, that their will is free. In his letter to G. H. Schaller (Letter 62), he wrote: "men are conscious of their own desire, but are ignorant of the causes whereby that desire has been determined." Ethics, Pt. I, Prop. XXXVI, Appendix: "[M]en think themselves free inasmuch as they are conscious of their volitions and desires, and never even dream, in their ignorance, of the causes which have disposed them so to wish and desire." Spinoza's philosophy has much in common with Stoicism in as much as both philosophies sought to fulfill a therapeutic role by instructing people how to attain happiness (or eudaimonia, for the Stoics). However, Spinoza differed sharply from the Stoics in one important respect: he utterly rejected their contention that reason could defeat emotion. On the contrary, he contended, an emotion can only be displaced or overcome by a stronger emotion. For him, the crucial distinction was between active and passive emotions, the former being those that are rationally understood and the latter those that are not. He also held that knowledge of true causes of passive emotion can transform it to an active emotion, thus anticipating one of the key ideas of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis. Roger Scruton, Spinoza, A very Short Introduction, p.86 Some of Spinoza's philosophical positions are: The natural world is infinite. Good and evil are related to human pleasure and pain. Everything done by humans and other animals is excellent and divine. All rights are derived from the State. Animals can be used in any way by people for the benefit of the human race, according to a rational consideration of the benefit as well as the animal's status in nature. Ethics, Pt. IV, Prop. XXXVII, Note I.: "Still I do not deny that beasts feel: what I deny is, that we may not consult our own advantage and use them as we please, treating them in a way which best suits us; for their nature is not like ours...." (Emphasis added to quotation.) Schopenhauer criticized Spinoza's attitude toward animals: "His contempt for animals, who, as mere things for our use, are declared by him to be without rights,...in conjunction with Pantheism, is at the same time absurd and abominable." The World as Will and Representation, tr.E.F.J. Payne (1958) Dover. New York 1966 Vol. 2, Chapter 50, p.645. = Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (hrsg.Arthur Hübscher), Reclam Stuttgart, 1987 Band 2, p.837 Ethical philosophy Encapsulated at the start in his Treatise on the Improvement of the Understanding (Tractatus de intellectus emendatione) is the core of Spinoza's ethical philosophy, what he held to be the true and final good. Spinoza held good and evil to be relative concepts, claiming that nothing is intrinsically good or bad except relative to a particular individual. Things that had classically been seen as good or evil, Spinoza argued, were simply good or bad for humans. Spinoza believes in a deterministic universe in which "All things in nature proceed from certain necessity and with the utmost perfection." Nothing happens by chance in Spinoza's world, and nothing is contingent. In the universe anything that happens comes from the essential nature of objects, or of God/Nature. According to Spinoza, reality is perfection. If circumstances are seen as unfortunate it is only because of our inadequate conception of reality. While elements of the chain of cause and effect are not beyond the understanding of human reason, human grasp of the infinitely complex whole is limited because of the limits of science to empirically take account of the whole sequence. Spinoza also asserted that sense perception, though practical and useful for rhetoric, is inadequate for discovering universal truth; Spinoza's mathematical and logical approach to metaphysics, and therefore ethics, concluded that emotion is formed from inadequate understanding. His concept of "conatus" states that human beings' natural inclination is to strive toward preserving an essential being and an assertion that virtue/human power is defined by success in this preservation of being by the guidance of reason as one's central ethical doctrine. According to Spinoza, the highest virtue is the intellectual love or knowledge of God/Nature/Universe. In the final part of the "Ethics" his concern with the meaning of "true blessedness" and his unique approach to and explanation of how emotions must be detached from external cause in order to master them presages 20th-century psychological techniques. His concept of three types of knowledge - opinion, reason, intuition - and assertion that intuitive knowledge provides the greatest satisfaction of mind, leads to his proposition that the more we are conscious of ourselves and Nature/Universe, the more perfect and blessed we are (in reality) and that only intuitive knowledge is eternal. His unique contribution to understanding the workings of mind is extraordinary, even during this time of radical philosophical developments, in that his views provide a bridge between religions' mystical past and psychology of the present day. Given Spinoza's insistence on a completely ordered world where "necessity" reigns, Good and Evil have no absolute meaning. Human catastrophes, social injustices, etc. are merely apparent. The world as it exists looks imperfect only because of our limited perception. Pantheism controversy In 1785, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi published a condemnation of Spinoza's pantheism, after Lessing was thought to have confessed on his deathbed to being a "Spinozist", which was the equivalent in his time of being called an atheist. Jacobi claimed that Spinoza's doctrine was pure materialism, because all Nature and God are said to be nothing but extended substance. This, for Jacobi, was the result of Enlightenment rationalism and it would finally end in absolute atheism. Moses Mendelssohn disagreed with Jacobi, saying that there is no actual difference between theism and pantheism. The entire issue became a major intellectual and religious concern for European civilization at the time, which Immanuel Kant rejected, as he thought that attempts to conceive of transcendent reality would lead to antinomies (statements that could be proven both right and wrong) in thought. The attraction of Spinoza's philosophy to late eighteenth-century Europeans was that it provided an alternative to materialism, atheism, and deism. Three of Spinoza's ideas strongly appealed to them: the unity of all that exists; the regularity of all that happens; and the identity of spirit and nature. Spinoza's "God or Nature" provided a living, natural God, in contrast to the Newtonian mechanical "First Cause" or the dead mechanism of the French "Man Machine." Modern relevance Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, a name Wittgenstein later paid homage to in his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Late 20th century Europe demonstrated a greater philosophical interest in Spinoza, often from a left-wing or Marxist perspective. Notable philosophers Louis Althusser, Gilles Deleuze, Antonio Negri, Étienne Balibar and Marilena Chauí have each written books which draw upon Spinoza's philosophy. Deleuze's doctoral thesis, published in 1968, refers to him as "the prince of philosophers." Deleuze, 1968. Other philosophers heavily influenced by Spinoza include Constantin Brunner and John David Garcia. Stuart Hampshire wrote a major English language study of Spinoza, though H. H. Joachim's work is equally valuable. Unlike most philosophers, Spinoza and his work were highly regarded by Nietzsche. Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein evoked Spinoza with the title (suggested to him by G. E. Moore) of the English translation of his first definitive philosophical work, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, an allusion to Spinoza's Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. Elsewhere, Wittgenstein deliberately borrowed the expression sub specie aeternitatis from Spinoza (Notebooks, 1914-16, p. 83). The structure of his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus does have certain structural affinities with Spinoza's Ethics (though, admittedly, not with the latter's own Tractatus) in erecting complex philosophical arguments upon basic logical assertions and principles. Furthermore, in propositions 6.4311 and 6.45 he alludes to a Spinozian understanding of eternity and interpretation of the religious concept of eternal life, stating that "If by eternity is understood not eternal temporal duration, but timelessness, then he lives eternally who lives in the present." (6.4311) "The contemplation of the world sub specie aeterni is its contemplation as a limited whole." (6.45) Furthermore, Wittgenstein's interpretation of religious language, in both his early and later career, may be said to bear a family resemblance to Spinoza's pantheism. Spinoza has had influence beyond the confines of philosophy. The nineteenth century novelist, George Eliot, produced her own translation of the Ethics, the first known English translation thereof. The twentieth century novelist, W. Somerset Maugham, alluded to one of Spinoza's central concepts with the title of his novel, Of Human Bondage. Albert Einstein named Spinoza as the philosopher who exerted the most influence on his world view (Weltanschauung). Spinoza equated God (infinite substance) with Nature, consistent with Einstein's belief in an impersonal deity. In 1929, Einstein was asked in a telegram by Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein whether he believed in God. Einstein responded by telegram: "I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with the fates and actions of human beings." Einstein's Third Paradise, by Gerald Holton Spinoza's pantheism has also influenced environmental theory. Arne Næss, the father of the deep ecology movement, acknowledged Spinoza as an important inspiration. Moreover, the Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges was greatly influenced by Spinoza's world view. In many of his poems and short stories, Borges makes allusions to the philosopher's work. Spinoza is an important historical figure in the Netherlands, where his portrait was featured prominently on the Dutch 1000-guilder banknote, legal tender until the euro was introduced in 2002. The highest and most prestigious scientific award of the Netherlands is named the Spinoza prijs (Spinoza prize). Spinoza's work is also mentioned as the favourite reading material for Bertie Wooster's valet Jeeves in the P. G. Wodehouse novels. See also Plane of immanence Bibliography By Spinoza ca. 1660. Korte Verhandeling van God, de mensch en deszelvs welstand (Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being). http://nl.wikisource.org/wiki/Korte_Verhandeling_van_God,_de_mensch_en_deszelvs_welstand . 1662. Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione (On the Improvement of the Understanding). Project Gutenberg; Pdf Version 1663. Principia philosophiae cartesianae (Principles of Cartesian Philosophy, translated by Samuel Shirley, with an Introduction and Notes by Steven Barbone and Lee Rice, Indianapolis, 1998). Gallica. 1670. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (A Theologico-Political Treatise). Spinoza's A Theologico-Political Treatise - Part 1: Project Gutenberg: Part 1;Part 2;Part 3;Part 4; Pdf Version 1675/76 Tractatus Politicus (Unfinished) Pdf Version 1677. Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata (The Ethics) Project Gutenberg. Another translation, by Jonathan Bennett. ; Pdf version. 1677. Hebrew Grammar. About Spinoza Albiac, Gabriel, 1987. La sinagoga vacía: un estudio de las fuentes marranas del espinosismo. Madrid: Hiperión D.L. ISBN 84-7517-214-8 Balibar, Étienne, 1985. Spinoza et la politique ("Spinoza and politics") Paris: PUF. Boucher, Wayne I., 1999. Spinoza in English: A Bibliography from the Seventeenth Century to the Present. 2nd edn. Thoemmes Press. Boucher, Wayne I., ed., 1999. Spinoza: Eighteenth and Nineteenth-Century Discussions. 6 vols. Thoemmes Press. Damásio, António, 2003. Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain, Harvest Books,ISBN 978-0156028714 Deleuze, Gilles, 1968. Spinoza et le problème de l'expression. Trans. "Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza" Martin Joughin (New York: Zone Books). ———, 1970. Spinoza - Philosophie pratique. Transl. "Spinoza: Practical Philosophy". ———, 1990. Negotiations trans. Martin Joughin (New York: Columbia University Press). Della Rocca, Michael. 1996. Representation and the Mind-Body Problem in Spinoza. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509562-6 Garrett, Don, ed., 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza. Cambridge Uni. Press. Gatens, Moira, and Lloyd, Genevieve, 1999. Collective imaginings : Spinoza, past and present. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16570-9, ISBN 0-415-16571-7 Gullan-Whur, Margaret, 1998. Within Reason: A Life of Spinoza. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-05046-X Hampshire, Stuart, 1951. Spinoza and Spinozism , OUP, 2005 ISBN 978-0199279548 Hardt, Michael, trans., University of Minnesota Press. Preface, in French, by Gilles Deleuze, available here. Israel, Jonathan, 2001. The Radical Enlightenment, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ———, 2006. Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670-1752, (ISBN 0-19-927922-5 hardback) Kasher, Asa, and Shlomo Biderman. "Why Was Baruch de Spinoza Excommunicated?" Kayser, Rudolf, 1946, with an introduction by Albert Einstein. Spinoza: Portrait of a Spiritual Hero. New York: The Philosophical Library. Lloyd, Genevieve, 1996. Spinoza and the Ethics. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10781-4, ISBN 0-415-10782-2 Lucas, P. G., 1960. "Some Speculative and Critical Philosophers", in I. Levine (ed.), Philosophy (London: Odhams) Lovejoy, Arthur O., 1936. "Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza" in his The Great Chain of Being. Harvard University Press: 144-82 (ISBN 0-674-36153-9). Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays. Anchor Books. Macherey, Pierre, 1977. Hegel ou Spinoza, Maspéro (2nd ed. La Découverte, 2004). ———, 1994-98. Introduction à l'Ethique de Spinoza. Paris: PUF. Matheron, Alexandre, 1969. Individu et communauté chez Spinoza, Paris: Minuit. Morgan, Michael L. (ed.), 2002. "Spinoza: Complete Works", (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company). ISBN 0-87220-620-3 Moreau, Pierre-François, 2003, Spinoza et le spinozisme, PUF (Presses Universitaires de France) Nadler, Steven, 1999. Spinoza: A Life. Cambridge Uni. Press. ISBN 0-521-55210-9 Negri, Antonio, 1991. The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics. ———, 2004. Subversive Spinoza: (Un)Contemporary Variations). Popkin, R. H., 2004. Spinoza (Oxford: One World Publications) Ratner, Joseph, 1927. The Philosophy of Spinoza (The Modern Library: Random House) Stoltze, Ted and Warren Montag (eds.), The New Spinoza (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. Strauss, Leo. Persecution and the Art of Writing. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1952. Reprint. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. ———ch. 5, "How to Study Spinoza's Tractus Theologico-Politicus;" reprinted in Strauss, Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, ed. Kenneth Hart Green (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1997), 181-233. ———Spinoza's Critique of Religion. New York: Schocken Books, 1965. Reprint. University of Chicago Press, 1996. ———, "Preface to the English Translation" reprinted as "Preface to Spinoza's Critique of Religion," in Strauss, Liberalism Ancient and Modern (New York: Basic Books, 1968, 224-59; also in Strauss, Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, 137-77. Smilevski, Goce. Conversation with SPINOZA. Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 2006. Yovel, Yirmiyahu, "Spinoza and Other Heretics", Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1989. Notes External links Susan James on Spinoza on the Passions Philosophy Bites podcast Spinoza and Spinozism - BDSweb Reading Spinoza - Reading Spinoza Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Spinoza Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Spinoza Spinoza's Psychological Theory Immortality in Spinoza BBC Radio 4 In Our Time programme on Spinoza Spinoza: Mind of the Modern - audio from Radio Opensource Infography about Baruch Spinoza Spinoza Museum in Rijnsburg Spinoza Csack's Webite (with pdf files of Spinoza's works) Spinoza's grave in The Hague Works: Refutation of Spinoza by Leibniz In full at Google Books More easily readable versions of Ethics Demonstrated in Geometrical Order and Treatise on Theology and Politics A Theologico-Political Treatise - English Translation Political Treatise - English Translation A letter from Spinoza to Albert Burgh Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata et in quinque partes distincta, in quibus agetur | Baruch_Spinoza |@lemmatized baruch:9 benedict:2 de:14 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5,715 | Gnutella | Gnutella ( with a silent g, or alternatively ) is a file sharing network. In late 2007, it was the most popular file sharing network on the Internet with an estimated market share of more than 40% Ars Technica Report on P2P File Sharing Client Market Share In June 2005, Gnutella's population was 1.81 million computers. Slyck News - eDonkey2000 Nearly Double the Size of FastTrack History The first client was developed by Justin Frankel and Tom Pepper of Nullsoft in early 2000, soon after the company's acquisition by AOL. On March 14, the program was made available for download on Nullsoft's servers. The event was prematurely announced on Slashdot, and thousands downloaded the program that day. The source code was to be released later, under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The next day, AOL stopped the availability of the program over legal concerns and restrained Nullsoft from doing any further work on the project. This did not stop Gnutella; after a few days, the protocol had been reverse engineered, and compatible free and open source clones began to appear. This parallel development of different clients by different groups remains the modus operandi of Gnutella development today. The Gnutella network is a fully distributed alternative to such semi-centralized systems as FastTrack (KaZaA) and the original Napster. Initial popularity of the network was spurred on by Napster's threatened legal demise in early 2001. This growing surge in popularity revealed the limits of the initial protocol's scalability. In early 2001, variations on the protocol (first implemented in proprietary and closed source clients) allowed somewhat of an improvement in scalability. Instead of treating every user as client and server, some users were now treated as "ultrapeers", routing search requests and responses for users connected to them. This allowed the network to grow in popularity. In late 2001, the Gnutella client LimeWire became free and open source. In February 2002, Morpheus, a commercial file sharing group, abandoned its FastTrack-based peer-to-peer software and released a new client based on the free and open source Gnutella client Gnucleus. The word "Gnutella" today refers not to any one project or piece of software, but to the open protocol used by the various clients. The name is a portmanteau of GNU and Nutella: supposedly, Frankel and Pepper ate a lot of Nutella working on the original project, and intended to license their finished program under the GNU General Public License. Gnutella is not associated with the GNU project; Regarding Gnutella (www.gnu.org) see GNUnet for the GNU project's equivalent. Design To envision how Gnutella originally worked, imagine a large circle of users (called nodes), who each have Gnutella client software. On initial startup, the client software must bootstrap and find at least one other node. Different methods have been used for this, including a pre-existing address list of possibly working nodes shipped with the software, using updated web caches of known nodes (called Gnutella Web Caches (GWC)), UDP host caches and, rarely, even IRC. Once connected, the client will request a list of working addresses. The client will try to connect to the nodes it was shipped, as well as nodes it receives from other clients, until it reaches a certain quota. It will only connect to that many nodes, locally cache the addresses it has not yet tried, and discard the addresses it tried that were invalid. When the user wants to do a search, the client sends the request to each actively connected node. Historically (version 0.4 of the protocol), the number of actively connected nodes for a client was quite small (around 5), so each node then forwarded the request to all its actively connected nodes, and they in turn forwarded the request, and so on, until the packet reached a predetermined number of "hops" from the sender (maximum 7). With the advent of version 0.6, Gnutella is a composite network made of leaf nodes and ultra nodes (also called ultrapeers). The leaf nodes are connected to a small number of ultrapeers (typically 3) whilst each ultrapeer is connected to more than 32 other ultrapeers. With this higher outdegree, the maximum number of "hops" a query can travel was lowered to 4. Leaves and ultrapeers use the Query Routing Protocol to exchange a Query Routing Table (QRT), a table of 64 Ki-slots and up to 2 Mi-slots consisting of hashed keywords. A leaf node sends its QRT to each of the ultrapeers it is connected to, and ultrapeers merge the QRT of all their leaves (downsized to 128 Ki-slots) plus their own QRT (if they share files) and exchange that with their own neighbours. Query routing is then done by hashing the words of the query and seeing whether all of them match in the QRT. Ultrapeers do that check before forwarding a query to a leaf node, and also before forwarding the query to a peer ultra node provided this is the last hop the query can travel. If a search request turns up a result, the node that has the result contacts the searcher. In the classic Gnutella protocol, response messages were sent back along the route the query came through, as the query itself did not contain identifying information of the node. This scheme was later revised, so that search results now are delivered over User Datagram Protocol (UDP) directly to the node that initiated the search, usually an ultrapeer of the node. In the current protocol, therefore, the queries carry the IP address and port number of either node. This lowers the amount of traffic routed through the Gnutella network, making it significantly more scalable. If the user decides to download the file, they negotiate the file transfer. If the node which has the requested file is not firewalled, the querying node can connect to it directly. However, if the node is firewalled, stopping the source node from receiving incoming connections, the client wanting to download a file will send it a so called "push request" to the server for the remote client to initiate the connection instead (to "push" the file). At first, these push requests were routed along the original chain it used to send the query. This was however rather unreliable because routes would often break and routed packets are always subject to flow control. Therefore so called "push proxies" were introduced. These are usually the ultrapeers of a leaf node and they are announced in search results. The client connects to one of these "push proxies" using a HTTP request and the proxy sends a "push request" to leaf on behalf of the client. Normally, it is also possible to send a push request over UDP to the push proxy which is more efficient than using TCP. Push proxies have two advantages: First, ultrapeer-leaf connections are more stable than routes which makes push requests much more reliable. Second, it reduces the amount of traffic routed through the Gnutella network. Finally, when a user disconnects, the client software saves the list of nodes that it was actively connected to and those collected from pong packets for use the next time it attempts to connect so that it becomes independent from any kind of bootstrap services. In practice, this method of searching on the Gnutella network was often unreliable. Each node is a regular computer user; as such, they are constantly connecting and disconnecting, so the network is never completely stable. Also, the bandwidth cost of searching on Gnutella would grow exponentially to the number of connected users http://www.darkridge.com/~jpr5/doc/gnutella.html , often saturating connections rendering slower nodes useless. Therefore, search requests would often be dropped, and most queries reached only a very small percentage of the network. This observation identified the Gnutella network as an unscalable distributed system, and inspired the development of distributed hash tables, which are much more scalable but support only exact-match, rather than keyword, search. To address the problems of bottlenecks, Gnutella developers implemented a tiered system of ultrapeers and leaves. Instead of all nodes being considered equal, nodes entering into the network were kept at the 'edge' of the network as a leaf, not responsible for any routing, and nodes which were capable of routing messages were promoted to ultrapeers, which would accept leaf connections and route searches and network maintenance messages. This allowed searches to propagate further through the network, and allowed for numerous alterations in the topology which have improved the efficiency and scalability greatly. Additionally the Gnutella adopted a number of other techniques to reduce traffic overhead and make searches more efficient. Most notable are QRP (Query Routing Protocol) and DQ (Dynamic Querying). With QRP a search reaches only those clients which are likely to have the files, so rare files searches grow vastly more efficient, and with DQ the search stops as soon as the program has acquired enough search results, which vastly reduces the amount of traffic caused by popular searches. Gnutella For Users has a vast amount of information about these and other improvements to Gnutella in user-friendly style. One of the benefits of having Gnutella so decentralized is to make it very difficult to shut the network down and to make it a network in which the users are the only ones who can decide which content will be available. Unlike Napster, where the entire network relied on the central server, Gnutella cannot be shut down by shutting down any one node and it is impossible for any one company to control the contents of the network, which is also due to the many free software Gnutella clients which share the network. Protocol features and extensions Gnutella did once operate on a purely query flooding-based protocol. The outdated Gnutella version 0.4 network protocol employs five different packet types, namely ping: discover hosts on network pong: reply to ping query: search for a file query hit: reply to query push: download request for firewalled servents These are mainly concerned with searching the Gnutella network. File transfers are handled using HTTP. The development of the Gnutella protocol is currently led by the Gnutella Developers Forum. Many protocol extensions have been and are being developed by the software vendors and free Gnutella developers of the GDF. These extensions include intelligent query routing, SHA-1 checksums, query hit transmission via UDP, querying via UDP, dynamic queries via TCP, file transfers via UDP, XML meta data, source exchange (also known as "the download mesh") and parallel downloading in slices (swarming). There are efforts to finalize these protocol extensions in the Gnutella 0.6 specification at the Gnutella protocol development website. The Gnutella 0.4 standard, although being still the latest protocol specification since all extensions only exist as proposals so far, is outdated. In fact, it is hard or impossible to connect today with the 0.4 handshake and according to developers in the GDF, version 0.6 is what new developers should pursue using the work-in-progress specifications. The Gnutella protocol remains under development and in spite of attempts to make a clean break with the complexity inherited from the old Gnutella 0.4 and to design a clean new message architecture, it is still one of the most successful file-sharing protocols to date. Software The following tables compare general and technical information for a number of applications supporting the Gnutella network. The tables do not attempt to give a complete list of Gnutella clients. The tables are limited to clients that can participate in the current Gnutella network. General specifications Name Platform License Latest Release Heritage Acquisition Mac OS X Proprietary LimeWire BearFlix Microsoft Windows BearShare BearShare (Before Version 6) Microsoft Windows Proprietary 5.2.5.3 Original work Cabos Java GNU GPL LimeWire FilesWire (P2P) Java Proprietary Beta 1.1 (2007) Original Work FrostWire Java GNU GPL LimeWire giFT Cross-platform GNU GPL Original Work Gnucleus/GnucDNA Microsoft Windows GNU GPL, GNU LGPL Original Work Gtk-gnutella Unix-like, Mac OS X GNU GPL Original Work iMesh Microsoft Windows Unknown GnucDNA KCeasy Microsoft Windows GNU GPL giFT Kiwi Alpha Microsoft Windows Unknown GnucDNA LimeWire Java GNU GPL Original Work Morpheus Microsoft Windows GnucDNA MP3 Rocket Java GNU GPL LimeWire Phex Java GNU GPL Original Work Poisoned Mac OS X GNU GPL giFT Shareaza Microsoft Windows GNU GPL Original Work Symella Symbian OS GNU GPL Original Work XFactor Mac OS X GNU GPL 0.93 giFT Gnutella features Client Hash search Buddy list Handles large files (> 4 GiB) Unicode-compatible Query Routing NAT traversal NAT port mapping TCP Push proxy UDP Push proxy Ultrapeer UDP Host Cache THEX TLS Other BearShare - giFT - GnucDNA - gtk-gnutella (Dropped) IPv6, DHT LimeWire (GMail) DHT Phex Shareaza IRC support Notes Morpheus differs significantly and may have completely independent code from the GnucDNA engine. Morpheus can function as a modern ultrapeer whereas other GnucDNA clients can not. Gnucleus, and Kiwi Alpha use the GnucDNA engine. BearFlix should be similar to BearShare. giFTcurs, Apollon, FilePipe, giFToxic, giFTui, giFTwin32, KCeasy, Poisoned, and Xfactor are GUI front-ends for the GiFT engine. etomi is the Shareaza package. MP3 Rocket, 360Share, LemonWire, MP3Torpedo, and DexterWire are the LimeWire package. FrostWire is near identical to LimeWire; Acquisition and Cabos have custom front-ends but use LimeWire as an engine. Gnutella2 Gnutella2 is not a successor protocol of Gnutella, Slyck interviews Greg Blidson of LimeWire on Gnutella2 but rather a fork of the Gnutella protocol which has both advantages and disadvantages compared to Gnutella. Gnutella and Gnutella2 search methods compared A sore point with many Gnutella supporters is that the "Gnutella2" name conveys an upgrade or superiority. Comments on Gnutella2 disruption of Gnutella WORD DOC Slyck interview with Vincent Falco, creator of BearShare on Gnutella2 See also Bitzi Gnutella crawler Gnutella Web Cache References External links Gnutella Protocol Development Wiki Gnutelliums - A list of Gnutella clients for Windows, Linux/Unix, and Macintosh Gnutella Forums GnuFU, "Gnutella For Users: A description of the inner workings of the Gnutella network in User-Friendly Style" Why Gnutella Scales quite well - A text which corrects some of the myths around Gnutella Gnutella Client Feature Comparision - Client comparison of LimeWire, Phex, BearShare, gtk-gnutella, Gnucleus, Shareaza. Gnutella announcement on Slashdot Regarding Gnutella by GNU Gnutella web cache (GWC) responses and engines "A Measurement Study of Peer-to-Peer File Sharing Systems", by Stefan Saroiu, P. Krishna Gummadi, Steven D. Gribble. Proceedings of Multimedia Computing and Networking 2002 (MMCN'02), San Jose, CA, January 2002. Mapping the Gnutella Network: Properties of Large-Scale Peer-to-Peer Systems and Implications for System Design. M. Ripeanu; I. Foster and A. Iamnitchi, IEEE Internet Computing, 6(1), February 2002. The 5th annual Passive & Active Measurement Workshop Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. Ghosemajumder, Shuman. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers?. Silverthorne, Sean. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004. Free riding on Gnutella revisited: the bell tolls?. D. Hughes, G. Coulson, and J. Walkerdine. IEEE Distributed Systems Online, 6(6), June 2005. | Gnutella |@lemmatized gnutella:67 silent:1 g:2 alternatively:1 file:18 share:9 network:28 late:4 popular:2 internet:2 estimate:1 market:2 ar:1 technica:1 report:1 client:30 june:2 population:1 million:1 computer:2 slyck:3 news:1 nearly:1 double:1 size:1 fasttrack:3 history:1 first:4 develop:2 justin:1 frankel:2 tom:1 pepper:2 nullsoft:3 early:3 soon:2 company:2 acquisition:3 aol:2 march:1 program:5 make:8 available:2 download:6 server:4 event:1 prematurely:1 announce:2 slashdot:2 thousand:1 day:3 source:7 code:2 release:3 later:2 gnu:21 general:4 public:2 license:4 gpl:14 next:2 stop:4 availability:1 legal:2 concern:2 restrain:1 work:16 project:5 protocol:23 reverse:1 engineer:1 compatible:2 free:6 open:4 clone:1 begin:1 appear:1 parallel:2 development:7 different:4 group:2 remain:2 modus:1 operandi:1 today:3 fully:1 distribute:2 alternative:1 semi:1 centralized:1 system:7 kazaa:1 original:12 napster:3 initial:3 popularity:3 spur:1 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5,716 | Gallon | A gallon is a measure of volume of approximately four litres. Historically it has had many different definitions, but there are three definitions in current use. These are the U.S. liquid gallon (≈ 3.8 litres) and the U.S. dry gallon (≈ 4.4 L) which are in use in the United States, and the Imperial (UK) gallon (≈ 4.5 L) which is in unofficial use within the United Kingdom. One or other version is sometimes found in other English-speaking countries. Definitions A one U.S. gallon gas can purchased near the U.S.-Canada border. It shows equivalences in Imperial gallons and litres. The U.S. liquid gallon is legally defined as 231 cubic inches, Authorized tables, U.S. Code, Title 15, ch. 6, subchapter I, sec. 205, accessed 19 July 2008. and is equal to exactly (1 L = 10−3 m3) or . This is the most common definition of a gallon in the United States. The U.S. fluid ounce is defined as 1/128 of a U.S. gallon. The U.S. dry gallon is one-eighth of a U.S. Winchester bushel of 2150.42 cubic inches, thus it is equal to exactly 268.8025 cubic inches or . The U.S. dry gallon is less commonly used, and is not listed in the relevant statute, which jumps from the dry quart to the peck. The Imperial (UK) gallon was legally defined as . This definition is used in some Commonwealth countries and Ireland, and is based on the volume of 10 pounds of water at 62 °F. (A U.S. liquid gallon of water weighs about 8.33 pounds at the same temperature.) The Imperial fluid ounce is defined as 1/160 of an Imperial gallon. As from 1st January 2000 it ceased to be legal within the United Kingdom for economic, health, safety or administrative purposes . Worldwide usage of gallons As of 2005 the U.S. liquid gallon continued to be used as a unit of measure for fuel in Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, and the United States. The Imperial gallon is used colloquially (and in advertising) in the United Kingdom for the fuel economy figures, in miles per gallon (elsewhere in Europe, the effective fuel consumption is often advertised in litres per 100 km, or km per litre). It continues to be used as a unit of measure for fuel in Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Burma (Myanmar), Cayman Islands, Grenada, Guyana, Sierra Leone, and the United Arab Emirates. The word has also been used as translation for several foreign units of the same magnitude. Subdivisions The gallons in current use are subdivided into eight pints or four quarts. Pints are further subdivided into fluid ounces and liquid gallons are also subdivided into 32 gills, i.e. a quarter of a pint. The sub-units of pint and fluid ounce, despite having the same name in both Imperial and U.S. units, differ in volume and are therefore not interchangeable. The principal difference is that the Imperial pint contains 20 Imperial fluid ounces, whereas the U.S. pint contains 16 U.S. fluid ounces. A U.S. fluid ounce is approximately 4% bigger than an Imperial fluid ounce and therefore they are often used interchangeably, whereas U.S. and Imperial pints and gallons are sufficiently different that they should not be used interchangeably, although they often are. History At one time, the volume of a gallon depended on what was being measured, and where it was being measured. But, by the end of the 18th century, three definitions were in common use: The corn gallon, or “Winchester gallon”, of about 268.8 cubic inches (≈ 4.405 L), the wine gallon, or “Queen Anne’s gallon”, which was 231 cubic inches (≈ 3.79 L), and the ale gallon of 282 cubic inches (≈ 4.62 L). The corn or dry gallon was used in the United States until recently for grain and other dry commodities. It is one eighth of the (Winchester) bushel, originally a cylindrical measure of 18½ inches in diameter and 8 inches depth. That made the dry gallon 9¼²· in³ ≈ 268.80252 cubic inches. The bushel, which like dry quart and pint still sees some use, was later defined to be 2150.42 cubic inches exactly, making its gallon 268.8025 cubic inches exactly (4.40488377086 L). In previous centuries there had been a corn gallon of around 271 to 272 cubic inches. The wine, fluid, or liquid gallon is the standard U.S. gallon since the early 19th century. The wine gallon, which some sources relate to the volume occupied by eight medieval merchant pounds of wine, was at one time defined as the volume of a cylinder six inches deep and seven inches in diameter, i.e. 6·3½²·π ≈ 230.90706 cubic inches. It had been redefined during the reign of Queen Anne, in 1706, as 231 cubic inches exactly (3 × 7 × 11 in), which is the result of the earlier definition with π approximated to 22⁄7. Although the wine gallon had been used for centuries for import duty purposes there was no legal standard of it in the Exchequer and a smaller gallon (224 cu in) was actually in use, so this statute became necessary. It remains the U.S. definition today. The original ratio between corn and wine gallon is 9¼²:6·3½² = 1369:1176, but 268.8:231 is exactly 64:55 or ca. 13:11. This approximation is still applicable, although the ratio of 1.164115646 slightly changed to 1.163647186 with current definitions (268.8025:231 = 107521:92400 ≈ 1351:1161). In some contexts it is or was necessary to disambiguate between those two U.S. gallons, so “liquid” or “fluid” and “dry” respectively are then added to the name. In 1824, Britain adopted a close approximation to the ale gallon known as the Imperial gallon and abolished all other gallons in favour of it. Inspired by the kilogram-litre relationship, the Imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 pounds of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 inches of mercury and at a temperature of 62 °F. In 1963, this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 pounds of distilled water of density 0.998859 grams per millilitre weighed in air of density 0.001217 g/mL against weights of density 8.136 g/mL. This works out at approximately 4.5460903 L (277.4416 cu in). The metric definition of exactly 4.54609 cubic decimetres (also 4.54609 L after the litre was redefined in 1964, ca. 277.419433 cu in) was adopted shortly afterwards in Canada; for several years, the conventional value of 4.546092 L was used in the United Kingdom, until the Canadian convention was adopted in 1985. Before and into the 19th century there were also several other gallons in use, with varying definitions. These are summarized in the table below. During some eras, the gallon was based on an exact conversion with a linear measure cubed. Other eras, the gallon was based on a rational approximation to the volume of a cylinder that could be used as a standard container, such as a basket, barrel, or jar. Other definitions were based on the density of a commodity, occasionally water, but more often a more marketable good such as wine or oats. Given these options and the variety of cultures that have used the gallon, it is not surprising that the exact value has drifted over the centuries. Examples of gallons Volume Definition Inverted volume(gallons per cubic foot) Approx.mass ofwater (poundsper gallon@ 62°F) Cylindrical approximation (cu. in.) (L or dm3) Diameter(in.) Height(in.) Relativeerror (%) 216 3.5396 (ca.) Roman congius 8 7.8 5 11 0.01 224 3.6707 (ca.) preserved at the Guildhall, London (old UK wine gallon) 7.71 8.09 9 3.5 0.6 231 3.785411784 statute of 5th of Queen Anne (US wine gallon, standard US gallon) 7.48 8.33 7 6 0.04 264.8 4.3393 (ca.) ancient Rumford quart (1228) 6.53 9.57 7.5 6 0.1 265.5 4.3508 (ca.) Exchequer (Henry VII, 1091, with rim) 6.51 9.59 13 2 0.01 266.25 4.3631 (ca.) ancient Rumford (1228) 268.8025 4.40488377086 Winchester, statute 13 + 14 by William III (corn gallon, old US dry gallon) 6.43 9.71 18.5 1 0.00001 271 4.4409 (ca.) Exchequer (1601, E.) (old corn gallon) 6.38 9.79 4.5 17 0.23 272 4.4573 (ca.) corn gallon (1688) 277.18 4.5422 (ca.) statute 12 of Anne (coal gallon) 6.23 10 277.419433 (ca.) 4.54609 standard Imperial gallon (metric) (1964 Canada gallon, 1985 UK gallon) 277.419555 (ca.) 4.546092 Imperial gallon (1824) (traditional UK ale gallon) 6.23 10 278 4.5556 (ca.) Exchequer (Henry VII, with copper rim) 6.21 10.04 278.4 4.5622 (ca.) Exchequer (1601 and 1602 pints) 6.21 10.06 280 4.5884 (ca.) Exchequer (1601 quart) 6.17 10.1 282 4.6212 (ca.) Treasury (beer and ale gallon) 6.13 10.2 References See also Comparison of the imperial and US customary measurement systems External links Oil Measurements and Conversions be-x-old:Галён | Gallon |@lemmatized gallon:63 measure:7 volume:10 approximately:3 four:2 litre:7 historically:1 many:1 different:2 definition:14 three:2 current:3 use:21 u:25 liquid:7 dry:10 l:11 united:9 state:4 imperial:16 uk:5 unofficial:1 within:2 kingdom:4 one:6 version:1 sometimes:1 find:1 english:1 speaking:1 country:2 gas:1 purchase:1 near:1 canada:3 border:1 show:1 equivalence:1 legally:2 define:6 cubic:14 inch:17 authorized:1 table:2 code:1 title:1 ch:1 subchapter:1 sec:1 access:1 july:1 equal:2 exactly:7 common:2 fluid:10 ounce:8 eighth:2 winchester:4 bushel:3 thus:1 less:1 commonly:1 list:1 relevant:1 statute:5 jump:1 quart:5 peck:1 commonwealth:1 ireland:1 base:5 pound:5 water:5 f:3 weighs:1 temperature:2 january:1 cease:1 legal:2 economic:1 health:1 safety:1 administrative:1 purpose:2 worldwide:1 usage:1 continue:2 unit:5 fuel:4 colombia:1 dominican:1 republic:1 ecuador:1 el:1 salvador:1 guatemala:1 haiti:1 honduras:1 liberia:1 nicaragua:1 panama:1 peru:1 colloquially:1 advertising:1 economy:1 figure:1 mile:1 per:5 elsewhere:1 europe:1 effective:1 consumption:1 often:4 advertise:1 km:2 antigua:1 barbuda:1 belize:1 burma:1 myanmar:1 cayman:1 island:1 grenada:1 guyana:1 sierra:1 leone:1 arab:1 emirate:1 word:1 also:5 translation:1 several:3 foreign:1 magnitude:1 subdivision:1 subdivide:3 eight:2 pint:9 far:1 gill:1 e:3 quarter:1 sub:1 despite:1 name:2 differ:1 therefore:2 interchangeable:1 principal:1 difference:1 contain:2 whereas:2 big:1 interchangeably:2 sufficiently:1 although:3 history:1 time:2 depend:1 end:1 century:6 corn:7 wine:9 queen:3 anne:4 ale:4 recently:1 grain:1 commodity:2 originally:1 cylindrical:2 diameter:3 depth:1 make:2 like:1 still:2 see:2 later:1 previous:1 around:1 standard:5 since:1 early:2 source:1 relate:1 occupy:2 medieval:1 merchant:1 cylinder:2 six:1 deep:1 seven:1 π:2 redefine:2 reign:1 result:1 approximate:1 import:1 duty:1 exchequer:6 small:1 cu:4 actually:1 become:1 necessary:2 remain:1 today:1 original:1 ratio:2 ca:16 approximation:4 applicable:1 slightly:1 change:1 context:1 disambiguate:1 two:1 respectively:1 add:1 britain:1 adopt:3 close:1 know:1 abolish:1 favour:1 inspire:1 kilogram:1 relationship:1 distilled:2 weigh:2 air:2 brass:1 weight:2 barometer:1 stand:1 mercury:1 refine:1 space:1 density:4 gram:1 millilitre:1 g:2 ml:2 work:1 metric:2 decimetre:1 shortly:1 afterwards:1 year:1 conventional:1 value:2 canadian:1 convention:1 vary:1 summarize:1 era:2 exact:2 conversion:2 linear:1 cub:1 rational:1 could:1 container:1 basket:1 barrel:1 jar:1 occasionally:1 marketable:1 good:1 oat:1 give:1 option:1 variety:1 culture:1 surprising:1 drift:1 example:1 invert:1 foot:1 approx:1 mass:1 ofwater:1 poundsper:1 height:1 relativeerror:1 roman:1 congius:1 preserve:1 guildhall:1 london:1 old:4 ancient:2 rumford:2 henry:2 vii:2 rim:2 william:1 iii:1 coal:1 traditional:1 copper:1 treasury:1 beer:1 reference:1 comparison:1 customary:1 measurement:2 system:1 external:1 link:1 oil:1 x:1 галён:1 |@bigram gallon_litre:2 imperial_gallon:7 cubic_inch:12 fluid_ounce:8 dominican_republic:1 el_salvador:1 salvador_guatemala:1 nicaragua_panama:1 panama_peru:1 antigua_barbuda:1 burma_myanmar:1 sierra_leone:1 arab_emirate:1 imperial_pint:2 corn_gallon:5 gallon_cubic:5 ale_gallon:4 distilled_water:2 cubic_decimetre:1 shortly_afterwards:1 ca_exchequer:5 beer_ale:1 external_link:1 |
5,717 | Emperor_Junnin | Emperor Junnin (淳仁天皇 Junnin-tennō) (733-765) was the 47th imperial ruler of Japan according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 758 to 764. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon, pp. 75-78; ; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, p. 275; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki. p. 143-144. Genealogy Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) Brown, pp. 264. [Up until the time of Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their iminia) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.] was Ōi-shinnō (Ōi-no-ō). Brown, p. 275, Varley, p. 143. He was the seventh son of Prince Toneri, a son of Emperor Temmu. Brown, p. 275. His father died when he was at the age of three, and he was given no rank nor office of the court. In the older Japanese documents, he was usually referred as Haitei (廃帝), the unthroned emperor. The posthumous name of Emperor Junnin was given by Emperor Meiji. Events of Junnin's life His fate was changed in 757 when Empress Kōken, his first cousin twice removed, appointed him to her crown prince instead of Prince Funado who had been appointed to this position by the will of the Emperor Shōmu. Tenpyō-shōhō 2, on the 1st day of the 8th month (758): In the 10th year of Kōken-tennōs reign (称徳天皇10年), the empress abdicated; and succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by her adopted son. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Jimmu is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Titsingh, p. 75; Brown, p. 275; Varley, p. 44, 144. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] Tenpyō-hōji 4''' (760): Additional coins were put into circulation -- each copper coin bearing the words Mannen Ten-hō, each silver coin bearing the words Teihei Genhō, and each gold coin bearing the words Kaiki Shōhō. Appert, Georges et al. (1888). Ancien japon, pp. 29-30. Six years later she forced him to abdicate and reclaimed the throne. Though he technically reigned, he did not feature on the official List of Japanese Emperors until the late nineteenth century; he had very little power and was a mere figurehead. He died (or was assassinated) in Awaji Province while in exile. In some older Japanese documents, he was usually referred as Haitei (廃帝), the unthroned emperor. In 1870, Emperor Meiji gave him the posthumous name and title by which he is now known. His place in the traditional order of succession was confirmed at the same time for Emperor Kōbun and Emperor Chukyo. KugyōKugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Junnin's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included: Taishi, Fujiwara Oshikatsu, also known as Emi no Oshikatsu (恵美押勝) (formerly Fujiwara no Nakamaro) (藤原仲麻呂). Taihō, Fujiwara Oshikatsu. Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara Oshikatsu. Sadaijin, Fujiwara no Toyonari (藤原豊成). Udaijin, Fujiwara no Toyonari (藤原豊成). [see above] Naidaijin (not appointed) DainagonEra of Junnin's reign The years of Junnin's reign are more specifically encompassed within a single era name or nengō. Titsingh, p. 75. Tenpyō-hōji (758-765) Consorts and Children Awata no Morone (粟田諸姉), widow of Fujiwara no Mayori (the first son of Fujiwara no Nakamaro) Unknoun woman Princess Yamao (山於女王), Saiō in Ise Shrine 758-765 Notes References Appert, Georges and Hiroji Kinoshita. (1888). Ancien japon. Tokyo: Kokubunsha. Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley).'' New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Japanese empresses | Emperor_Junnin |@lemmatized emperor:18 junnin:7 淳仁天皇:1 tennō:1 imperial:3 ruler:1 japan:6 accord:1 traditional:2 order:2 succession:3 reign:8 span:1 year:5 titsingh:4 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:4 pp:3 brown:6 delmer:2 et:2 al:2 gukanshō:3 p:9 varley:5 h:3 paul:3 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 genealogy:1 ascension:1 chrysanthemum:1 throne:3 personal:2 name:6 imina:1 time:3 jomei:2 iminia:1 long:1 people:1 generally:1 use:1 number:1 character:1 diminish:1 ōi:2 shinnō:1 ō:1 seventh:1 son:4 prince:3 toneri:1 temmu:1 father:1 die:2 age:1 three:2 give:3 rank:1 office:1 court:2 old:2 japanese:4 document:2 usually:2 refer:2 haitei:2 廃帝:2 unthroned:2 posthumous:2 meiji:3 event:1 life:2 fate:1 change:1 empress:3 kōken:2 first:2 cousin:1 twice:1 remove:1 appoint:3 crown:1 instead:1 funado:1 position:1 shōmu:1 tenpyō:3 shōhō:2 day:1 month:1 tennōs:1 abdicate:2 senso:3 receive:1 adopted:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 jimmu:1 say:1 accede:1 sokui:2 distinct:1 act:1 unrecognized:1 prior:1 tenji:1 sovereign:2 except:1 jitō:1 yōzei:1 go:2 toba:1 fushimi:1 murakami:1 hōji:2 additional:1 coin:4 put:1 circulation:1 copper:1 bear:3 word:3 mannen:1 ten:1 hō:1 silver:1 teihei:1 genhō:1 gold:1 kaiki:1 appert:2 george:2 ancien:2 six:1 later:1 force:1 reclaim:1 though:1 technically:1 feature:1 official:1 list:2 late:1 nineteenth:1 century:1 little:1 power:1 mere:1 figurehead:1 assassinate:1 awaji:1 province:1 exile:1 title:1 know:2 place:1 confirm:1 kōbun:1 chukyo:1 kugyōkugyō:1 公卿:1 collective:1 term:1 powerful:1 men:2 attach:1 pre:1 era:2 general:1 elite:1 group:1 include:2 four:1 hereditary:1 courtier:1 whose:1 experience:1 background:1 would:1 bring:1 pinnacle:1 career:1 apex:1 daijō:2 kan:1 taishi:1 fujiwara:8 oshikatsu:4 also:2 emi:1 恵美押勝:1 formerly:1 nakamaro:2 藤原仲麻呂:1 taihō:1 daijin:1 sadaijin:1 toyonari:2 藤原豊成:2 udaijin:1 see:2 naidaijin:1 dainagonera:1 specifically:1 encompass:1 within:1 single:1 nengō:1 consort:1 child:1 awata:1 morone:1 粟田諸姉:1 widow:1 mayori:1 unknoun:1 woman:1 princess:1 yamao:1 山於女王:1 saiō:1 ise:1 shrine:1 note:1 reference:1 hiroji:1 kinoshita:1 tokyo:1 kokubunsha:1 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 jien:1 c:1 future:1 past:1 translation:2 study:1 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 isbn:2 ponsonby:2 fane:1 richard:1 arthur:1 brabazon:1 house:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 society:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 chronicle:1 god:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 cult:1 |@bigram titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:2 brown_delmer:2 delmer_et:1 et_al:2 varley_h:2 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 genealogy_ascension:1 ascension_chrysanthemum:1 chrysanthemum_throne:1 imina_brown:1 emperor_jomei:1 jomei_personal:1 diminish_jomei:1 jomei_reign:1 emperor_temmu:1 abdicate_succession:1 succession_senso:1 adopted_son:1 shortly_thereafter:1 accede_throne:1 throne_sokui:1 sokui_titsingh:1 senso_unrecognized:1 unrecognized_prior:1 emperor_tenji:1 tenji_sovereign:1 except_jitō:1 jitō_yōzei:1 yōzei_go:1 toba_fushimi:1 fushimi_senso:1 senso_sokui:1 go_murakami:1 nineteenth_century:1 emperor_kōbun:1 公卿_collective:1 pre_meiji:1 hereditary_courtier:1 apex_daijō:1 daijō_kan:1 daijō_daijin:1 daijin_fujiwara:1 sadaijin_fujiwara:1 udaijin_fujiwara:1 naidaijin_appoint:1 nengō_titsingh:1 saiō_ise:1 ise_shrine:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 ponsonby_fane:1 fane_richard:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
5,718 | Killer_whale | Size comparison against an average human The killer whale or orca (Orcinus orca), less commonly, blackfish or seawolf, is the largest species of the dolphin family. It is found in all the world's oceans, from the frigid Arctic and Antarctic regions to warm, tropical seas. Killer whales are versatile and opportunistic marine apex predators. Some populations feed mostly on fish while others hunt marine mammals, including sea lions, seals, walruses and even large whales. There are up to five distinct killer whale types distinguished by geographical range, preferred prey items and physical appearance. Some of these may be separate races, subspecies or even species. Killer whales are highly social; some populations are composed of matrilineal family groups, which are the most stable of any animal species. The sophisticated social behavior, hunting techniques, and vocal behavior of killer whales have been described as manifestations of culture. Although the killer whale population as a whole is not considered to be an endangered species, some local populations are considered threatened or endangered due to depletion of prey species and habitat loss, pollution by PCBs, captures for marine mammal parks, and conflicts with vessels. In late 2007, the killer whales known as the "southern resident killer whales," were placed on the Endangered Species list. Washington Officials Say Orcas Threatened Recovery Plan Outlined for Puget Sound’s killer whales Killer whales threatened by salmon shortage Wild killer whales are usually not considered a threat to humans. Carwardine, Mark (2001) "Killer Whales" London: BBC Worldwide Ltd., ISBN 0-7894-8266-5 There have, however, been isolated reports of captive killer whales attacking and, in at least one instance, killing their handlers at marine theme parks. Frontline: A Whale of a Business There is also a level of confusion surrounding the term "whale". While killer whales are members of the dolphin family, they, and all other members of the dolphin family, are members of the sub-order Odontoceti and the order Cetacea, meaning "toothed whale" and "whale", respectively. Taxonomy and evolution Orcinus orca is the sole species in the genus Orcinus, one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in 1758 in Systema Naturae. It is one of thirty-five species in the dolphin family. Like the Sperm Whale genus Physeter, Orcinus is a genus with a single, abundant species. Thus, paleontologists believe that the killer whale is a prime candidate to have an anagenetic evolutionary history, forming descendant species from ancestral species without splitting of the lineage. If true, this would make the killer whale one of the oldest dolphin species. However, it is unlikely to be as old as the family itself, which is believed to date back at least five million years. However, there are at least three to five types of killer whales that are distinct enough to be considered different races, subspecies, or possibly even species. In the 1970s and 1980s, research off the west coast of Canada and the United States identified the following three types: Resident: These are the most commonly sighted of the three populations in the coastal waters of the northeast Pacific, including Puget Sound. The resident killer whales' diet consists primarily of fish and sometimes squid, and they live in complex and cohesive family groups. Pods possess lifelong family bonds, often living in large matrilineal groups and vocalizing in highly variable and complex dialects. "The basic unit of resident Orca society is a mother, all of her dependent offspring (approximately ten years or younger), and her adult offspring as well, including her sons. Females will eventually spend less time with their mothers, as they begin producing calves of their own, but resident males appear to remain with their mothers for their entire lives. They leave for short periods to mate outside of their maternal group, but return to their mother afterwards." Female residents characteristically have a rounded dorsal fin tip that terminates in a sharp corner. They are known to visit the same areas consistently. The resident populations of British Columbia and Washington are amongst the most intensely studied marine mammals ever. Researchers have identified and named over 300 killer whales over the past 30 years. Transient: The diet of these killer whales consists almost exclusively of marine mammals; they do not eat fish. Transients in southern Alaska generally travel in small groups, usually of two to six animals. Unlike residents, transients may not always stay together as a family unit. Pods consist of smaller groups with less persistent family bonds and vocalizing in less variable and less complex dialects. Female transients are characterized by dorsal fins that are more triangular and pointed than those of residents. The gray or white area around the dorsal fin, known as the "saddle patch", often contains some black coloring in residents. However, the saddle patches of transients are solid and uniformly gray. Transients roam widely along the coast—some individuals have been sighted in Southern Alaska and later in California. Offshore: These killer whales were discovered in 1988 when humpback whale researcher Jim Darling signaled to killer whale researchers Michael Bigg and Graeme Ellis that he saw killer whales in open water. These killer whales cruise the open oceans and are believed to feed primarily on schooling fish. However, because of the large presence of scarred and nicked dorsal fins resembling that of the mammal-hunting transients, the possibility that they eat mammals and sharks cannot be ruled out. They have mostly been encountered off the west coast of Vancouver Island and near the Queen Charlotte Islands. They have been seen traveling in groups of up to 60 animals. Currently, there is little known about the habits of this population, but they can be distinguished genetically from the residents and transients. Offshores appear to be shorter than the residents and the transients and females are characterized by dorsal fin tips that are continuously rounded. Type C Orcas in the Ross Sea. The eye patch slants forward. killer whale populations in other parts of the world have not been as well studied. However, there appears to be a correlation between a population's diet and its social behaviour. Fish-eating killer whales in Alaska and Norway have also been observed to have resident-like social structures. Mammal-eating killer whales in Argentina and the Crozet Islands have been observed to behave more like transients. Transient and resident killer whales live in the same areas, but avoid each other. The name transient originated from the belief that these killer whales were outcasts from larger resident pods. Researchers later discovered that transients are not born into resident pods or vice-versa. The evolutionary split between the two groups is believed to have begun two million years ago. Recent genetic research has found that the types have not interbred for up to 10,000 years. Chadwick, Douglas H. "Investigating A Killer." National Geographic (April 2005) Three killer whale types have recently been documented in the Antarctic. Type A looks like a "typical" killer whale, living in open water and feeding mostly on minke whales. Type B is smaller than Type A. It has a large white eyepatch and a patch of grey colouring on its back, called a "dorsal cape". It feeds mostly on seals. Type C is the smallest type and lives in larger groups than any other type of killer whale. Its eyepatch is distinctively slanted forwards, rather than parallel to the body axis. Like Type B, it has a dorsal cape. Its only prey observed so far is the Antarctic Cod. Type B and C killer whales live close to the Antarctic ice pack, and diatoms in these waters may be responsible for the yellowish colouring of both types. Research is ongoing whether Type B and C killer whales are different species. Newsletter of the Puget Sound Chapter of the American Cetacean Society Spring 2004 Pitman, Robert L. and Ensor, Paul. "Three forms of killer whales (Orcinus orca) in Antarctic waters" Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 5(2):131–139, 2003 Common names The name Orca (plural Orcas) was originally given to these animals by the ancient Romans, possibly borrowed from the Greek word , which (among other things) referred to a species of whale. The term orc (or its variant ork) has been used to describe a large fish, whale or sea-monster. It is now considered an obsolete equivalent for Orca. The name killer whale is widely used in common English. However, since the 1960s, Orca has steadily grown in popularity as the common name to identify the species, and both names are now used. This change was encouraged to avoid the negative connotations of "killer". Orcas on the Edge - Killer: It’s a Name, Not an Accusation The species is called Orca in most other European languages, and, as there has been a steady increase in the amount of international research on the species, there has been a convergence in naming. Supporters of the original name point out that the naming heritage is not limited to Spanish sailors. Indeed, the genus name Orcinus means "from hell" (see Orcus), and although the name Orca (in use since antiquity) is probably not etymologically related, the assonance might have given some people the idea that it meant "whale that brings death" or "demon from hell". The name is also similar to Orcus, the Roman god of the underworld. The name of this species is similarly intimidating in many other languages, including Haida, Japanese and Chinese. In Afrikaans Dutch, German, Swedish and Finnish the orca is called "sword whale" due to the shape of its dorsal fin. They are sometimes referred to as blackfish, a name also used to refer to pilot whales, pygmy and false killer whales, and melon-headed whales. A former name for the species is grampus. This is now seldom used and should not be confused with the Grampus genus, whose only member is Risso's Dolphin. Description The dorsal fin and saddle patch of a resident Orca in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. It may be either an adult female, or a juvenile of either gender. Killer whales are distinctively marked with a black back, white chest and sides, and a white patch above and behind the eye. Calves are born with a yellowish or orange tint, which fades to white. Killer whales have a heavy and stocky body and a large dorsal fin with a dark grey "saddle patch" at the fin's rear. Antarctic killer whales may have pale grey to nearly white backs. Males typically range from 6-8 m long (19-26 ft) and weigh in excess of 6 tonnes. Females are smaller, generally ranging from 5-7 m (16-23 ft) and weighing about 3 to 4 tons. The largest killer whale ever recorded was a male off the coast of Japan, measuring 9.8 m (32 ft) and weighing over 8 tonnes (17,636 lb). Calves at birth weigh about 180 kg (350-500 lb) and are about 2.4 m long (6-8 ft). Olsen, K., National Wildlife, vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 22-30, October/November, 2006 Stewart, D., National Wildlife, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 54-59, December/January, 2001 The killer whale's large size and strength make it among the fastest marine mammals, often reaching speeds in excess of 56 km/h (35 mph). Unlike most dolphins, the pectoral fin of a killer whale is large and rounded—more of a paddle than other dolphin species. Males have significantly larger pectoral fins than females. At about 1.8 m (6 ft), the male's dorsal fin is more than twice the size of the female's and is more of a triangular shape—a tall, elongated isosceles triangle—whereas the dorsal fin of the female is shorter and generally more curved. Adult male killer whales are very distinctive and are unlikely to be confused with any other sea creature. When seen from a distance in temperate waters, adult females and juveniles can be confused with various other species, for example, the false killer whale or Risso's dolphin. An Orca skull Individual killer whales can be identified from a good photograph of the animal's dorsal fin and saddle patch, taken when it surfaces. Variations such as nicks, scratches, and tears on the dorsal fin and the pattern of white or grey in the saddle patch are sufficient to distinguish killer whales from each other. For the well-studied killer whales of the northeast Pacific, catalogues have been published with the photograph and name of each killer whale. Photo identification has enabled the local population of killer whales to be counted each year rather than estimated and has enabled great insight into killer whale lifecycles and social structures. Lifecycle Females become mature at around 15 years of age. Then they have periods of polyestrous cycling with non-cycling periods of between three and sixteen months. The gestation period varies from fifteen to 18 months. Mothers calve, with a single offspring, about once every five years. In analysed resident pods, birth occurs at any time of year, with the most popular months being those in winter. Newborn mortality is very high—one survey suggested that nearly half of all calves fail to reach one year old. Calves nurse for up to two years but will start to take solid food at about twelve months. All resident killer whale pod members, including males of all ages, participate in the care of the young. Cows breed until the age of 40, meaning that on average they raise five offspring. Typically, females' life spans average 50 but may survive well into their 70-80s in exceptional cases. Males become sexually mature at the age of 15 but do not typically reproduce until age 21. Male killer whales generally do not live as long as females. In the wild, males average 30 years, with a maximum of 50–60 years in exceptional cases. However, one male, known as Old Tom, was reportedly spotted every winter between 1843 and 1932 off New South Wales, Australia. This would have made him at least 89 years old. The lifespans of captive killer whales have been known to be significantly shorter, usually less than 25 years, however there are numerous individuals in their thirties, and a couple in their 40s. In many instances, the lifespans of orcas often depend on the will of the animal. Captive Orcas 'Dying to Entertain You' White killer whales have been spotted in the northern Bering Sea and around St. Lawrence Island. Also, there have been sightings along the Russian coast. In February 2008, a white killer whale was photographed two miles (3 km) off Kanaga Volcano. The whale was a healthy, adult male about 25 to long and weighing upward of 10,000 pounds. Scientists spot white killer whale off Alaska - CNN.com Distribution To travel quickly, Orcas leap out of the water when swimming—a behavior known as porpoising. Killer whales are found in all oceans and most seas, including (unusually for cetaceans) the Mediterranean and Arabian Seas. However, they prefer cooler temperate and polar regions. Although sometimes spotted in deep water, coastal areas are generally preferred to pelagic environments. The killer whale is particularly highly concentrated in the northeast Pacific Basin, where Canada curves into Alaska as well as the Johnstone Strait area and Washington state. They are making a bigger presence in California too. California here we come, say Washington's (hungry) orcas There are also large populations off the coast of Iceland and off the coast of northern Norway. They are regularly sighted in Argentina and the Antarctic waters right up to the ice pack and are believed to venture under the pack and survive breathing in air pockets like the beluga does. In the Arctic, however, the species is rarely seen in winter, as it does not approach the ice pack. It does visit these waters during summer. Information for off-shore regions and tropical waters is more scarce, but widespread, if not frequent, sightings indicate that the killer whale can survive in most water temperatures. Sightings are rare in Indonesian and Philippine waters. No estimate for the total worldwide population exists. Local estimates include 70,000–80,000 in the Antarctic, 8,000 in the tropical Pacific (although tropical waters are not the killer whale's preferred environment, the sheer size of this area—19 million square kilometres—means there are thousands of killer whales), up to 2,000 off Japan, 1,500 off the cooler northeast Pacific and 1,500 off Norway. Adding very rough estimates for unsurveyed areas, the total population could be around 100,000. With the rapid decline of Arctic sea ice in the Hudson Strait, the range of killer whales has now extended into the far northern waters of Canada. Through the 1990s, killer whales were sighted in western Hudson Bay at a rate of 6 per decade; sightings rose to more than 30 between 2001–2006. Canada Finds Killer Whales Drawn to Warmer Arctic, Reuters, January 22, 2007 The migration patterns of killer whales are poorly understood. Each summer, the same resident killer whales appear off the coasts of British Columbia and Washington State. After decades of research, it is still unknown where these animals go for the rest of the year. Transient pods have been sighted from southern Alaska to central California. Scientists spotted a white killer whale off Alaska on February 23, 2008. On some occasions, killer whales will swim into freshwater rivers. They have been documented 100 miles (160 km) up the Columbia River in the United States. They have also been found in the Fraser River in Canada and the Horikawa River in Japan. Diet Resident (fish-eating) Orcas. The curved dorsal fins are typical of resident females. The killer whale is an apex predator. They are sometimes called the wolves of the sea, because they hunt in pods like packs of wolves. On average, a killer whale eats 227 kg (500 lb) of food each day. Killer whales prey on a diverse array of species. However, specific populations show a high degree of specialization on particular prey species. For example, some populations in the Norwegian and Greenland sea specialise in herring and follow that fish's migratory path to the Norwegian coast each autumn. Other populations in the area prey on seals. In field observations of the resident killer whales of the northeast Pacific, salmon accounted for 96% of animals' diet, with 65% of the salmon being the large, fatty Chinook. They have been observed to swim through schools of the smaller salmon species without attacking any of them. Depletion of specific prey species in an area is therefore cause for concern for the local killer whale population, despite the high overall diversity of potential killer whale prey. Although, unlike transient killer whales, resident killer whales have never been observed to eat other marine mammals, they are known to occasionally harass and kill porpoises and seals for no apparent reason. Fish and other cold-blooded prey Fish-eating killer whales prey on 30 species of fish, particularly salmon (including Chinook and Coho), herring, and tuna, as well as basking sharks, whale sharks, oceanic whitetip sharks and smooth hammerheads. In one incident off the Farallon Islands, a great white shark was killed by a killer whale, which then ate the shark's nutrient-rich liver. Killer Whale Attacks a Shark http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8GaDuCvYbE&feature=related In New Zealand, killer whales have been observed hunting mako sharks as well as stingrays, which seem to be their favorite treat as they will go to nearly any length to get them. Cephalopods, such as octopuses and a wide range of squids, and reptiles, such as sea turtles, are also targets. While salmon are usually hunted by a single killer whale or a small group of individuals, herring are often caught using carousel feeding: the killer whales force the herring into a tight ball by releasing bursts of bubbles or flashing their white undersides. The killer whales then slap the ball with their tail flukes, either stunning or killing up to 10–15 herring with a successful slap. The herring are then eaten one at a time. Carousel feeding has only been documented in the Norwegian killer whale population and with some oceanic dolphin species. Mammal prey California sea lions are common prey for killer whales on the west coast of North America. Twenty-two cetacean species have been recorded as preyed on by killer whales, either through an examination of stomach contents, from examining scarring on the prey's body, or from observing the killer whales' feeding activity. Groups of killer whales attack even larger cetaceans such as Minke whales, Gray whales, and, very occasionally, Sperm Whales or Blue whales. Killer whales generally choose to attack whales which are young or weak. However, a group of five or more killer whales may attack healthy adult whales. Bull Sperm Whales are avoided, as they are large, powerful, and aggressive enough to kill killer whales. Bottlenose Dolphins are occasionally hunted by certain types of killer whales but they are generally avoided or in the case of some killer whales even befriended by them. When hunting a young whale, a group chases it and its mother until they are worn out. Eventually the killer whales manage to separate the pair and surround the young whale, preventing it from returning to the surface to breathe. Whales are typically drowned in this manner. Pods of female Sperm Whales can sometimes protect themselves against a group of killer whales by forming a protective circle around their calves with their flukes facing outwards. This formation allows them to use their powerful flukes to repel the killer whales. Hunting large whales, however, takes a lot of time, usually several hours. Killer whale cannibalism has also been reported. Other marine mammal prey species include most species of seal, sea lion and fur seal. Walruses and Sea otters are taken less frequently. Killer whales often use complex hunting strategies to find and subdue their prey. Sea lions are killed by head-butting or by being slapped and stunned by a tail fluke. They occasionally throw seals through the air in order to stun and kill them. Often, to avoid injury, they disable their prey before killing and eating it. This may involve throwing it in the air, slapping it with their tails, ramming it, or breaching and landing on it. In the Aleutian Islands off Alaska, Sea otters became more frequent prey for killer whales during the 1990s. This is due to the decline in population of the killer whale's preferred prey in the area; Harbor seals and Steller sea lions. Killer Whales Develop a Taste For Sea Otters Ned Rozell, Article #1418, Alaska Science Forum, December 10, 1998 Some highly specialized hunting techniques have been observed. Off Península Valdés, Argentina, and the Crozet Islands, killer whales feed on South American sea lions and Southern elephant seals in shallow water, even beaching themselves temporarily. Beaching, usually fatal to whales, is not an instinctive behaviour. Adult killer whales have been observed to teach the younger ones the skills of hunting in shallow water. Off Península Valdés, adults pull seals off the shoreline for younger killer whales to recapture. Off the Crozet Islands, mothers have been seen pushing their calves onto the beach, waiting to pull the youngster back if needed. Orcas swim by an iceberg with Adélie penguins in the Ross Sea, Antarctica. The Drygalski ice tongue is in the background. Another technique for capturing seals is known as wave-hunting: killer whales spy-hop to locate Weddell seals, Ross seals, Crabeater seals and Leopard seals resting on ice floes and then create waves by swimming together in groups to wash over the floe. This causes the seal to be thrown into the water where another killer whale waits to kill it. Orca Attack Seal with Waves Video on YouTube Killer whales have also been observed preying on terrestrial mammals, such as deer and moose swimming between islands off the northwest coast of North America. Birds Several species of birds are preyed upon, including penguins, cormorants and sea gulls. A captive killer whale in Friendship Cove discovered that it could regurgitate fish onto the surface, attracting sea gulls, and then eat them. Other killer whales then learned the behavior by example. Behavior Orcas often raise their bodies out of the water in a behaviour called spyhopping. There are at least two types of general killer whale behavior: resident and transient. Each type also has different food sources. The day-to-day behavior of killer whales is generally divided into four activities: foraging, traveling, resting and socializing. Killer whales are generally enthusiastic in their socializing, engaging in behaviors such as breaching, spyhopping, and tail-slapping. Killer whales often spy-hop. This behavior is when the killer whale propels itself half-way out of the water. A killer whale may do this for one of two reasons.The first, and most common, reason is that they are looking for food. The other reason is a lot less common. They might spy-hop to see where they are, or more to see how close they are to shore. Galvin, C, Proceedings of the American Geophysical Union 2006 Fall Meeting. [np]. 2006. Type-C and Type-B killer whales may engage in a certain behavior to get seals on a lone, small iceberg. This behavior is where they nose the ice berg back and forth until they slide the seal off the iceberg into one of the killer whale's mouths. Another eating behavior is where they gain speed in the water and aim themselves at the shore. On this shore there are many seals. The killer whale will almost beach itself, scaring the seals off the shore, and into the waiting mouths of the other members of its group. Resident killer whales can also be seen swimming with porpoises, other dolphins, seals, and sea lions, which are common prey for transient killer whales. Resident killer whales are continually on the move, sometimes traveling as much as 160 km (100 miles) in a day, but may be seen in a general area for a month or more. Range for resident killer whale pods may be as much as 1300 km (800 miles) or as little as 320 km (200 miles). Social structure of resident killer whale communities Fish-eating killer whales in the North Pacific have a complex but extremely stable system of social grouping. Unlike any other mammal species whose social structure is known, resident killer whales of both genders live with their mothers for their entire lives. Therefore, killer whale societies are based around matrilines consisting of a single female (the matriarch) and her descendants. The sons and daughters of the matriarch form part of the line, as do the sons and daughters of those daughters. The average size of a matriline is nine animals. Because females can live for up to ninety years, it is not uncommon for four or even five generations to travel together. These matrilineal groups are highly stable. Individuals split off from their matrilineal group only for up to a few hours at a time, in order to mate or forage. No permanent casting-out of an individual from a matriline has ever been recorded. Closely related matrilines form loose aggregations called pods, consisting on average of about 18 animals. All members of a pod use a similar set of calls, known as a dialect. Unlike matrilines, pods may split apart for days or weeks at a time in order to forage. Killer whales within a pod do not interbreed; mating occurs only between members of different pods. Orcas, like this one spotted near Alaska, commonly breach, often lifting their entire body out of the water. Resident pods have up to 50 or more members, with an average of 15 in the Northern resident community in the Pacific Northwest. Occasionally, several pods join to form superpods, sometimes with more than 150 animals. Resident pods often include subpods, which comprises one daughter or cousin that sometimes travels only with her offspring and sometimes joins the rest of the pod. The next level of grouping is the clan. A clan consists of pods which have a similar dialect. Again, the relationship between pods appears to be genealogical, consisting of fragments of families with a common heritage on the maternal side. Different clans can occupy the same geographical area; pods from different clans are often observed traveling together. When Resident pods come together to travel as a clan, they greet each other by forming two parallel lines akin to a face-off before mingling with each other. The final layer of association, perhaps more arbitrary and devised by humans rather than the other very natural divisions, is called the community and is loosely defined as a set of clans that are regularly seen mixing with each other. Communities do not follow discernible familial or vocal patterns. In the northeast Pacific, three communities of fish-eating Orcas have been identified: the southern community (1 clan, 3 pods, 90 Orcas as of 2006), the northern community (3 clans, 16 pods, 214 Orcas as of 2000), and the south Alaskan community (2 clans, 11 pods, 211 Orcas as of 2000) Transient groups are generally smaller because, although they too are based on matrilines, some male and female offspring eventually disperse from the maternal group. However, transient groups still have a loose connection defined by their dialect. Vocalizations Multimedia relating to the Orca Like other dolphins, killer whales are highly vocal. They produce a variety of clicks and whistles used for communication and echolocation. The vocalization types vary with activity. While resting they are much quieter, emitting an occasional call that is distinct from those used when engaging in more active behavior. Fish-eating resident groups of killer whales in the northeast Pacific tend to be much more vocal than transient groups in the same waters. Resident killer whales feed primarily on salmon, whose hearing is too poor to detect killer whale calls at any significant distance. Residents make sounds to identify themselves when they are approaching another marine mammal. Transient killer whales, on the other hand, feed mainly on marine mammals. Because all marine mammals have excellent underwater hearing, the usual silence of transients is probably necessary to avoid detection by their acoustically sensitive prey. They sometimes use a single click (called a cryptic click) rather than the long train of clicks observed in other populations. Resident pods have group-specific dialects. Each pod has its own vocal repertoire, or set of particular stereotyped underwater calls (call types). Every member of the pod seems to know all the call types of the pod, so it is not possible to identify a single animal using voice alone. A particular call type might be used by only one group or shared among several. The number of call types shared by two groups appears to be a function of their genealogical relatedness rather than their geographical distance. Two groups that share a common set of ancestors but have grown apart in distance are likely to have a similar set of call types, indicating that calls are a learned behavior. Killer whale mothers have been observed training their young in the pod's dialect. The mother uses a simplified version of the pod's dialect, a sort of baby-talk, when training a calf. This suggests that killer whale vocalization has a learned basis in addition to an instinctual one. Intelligence The killer whale's use of dialects and the passing of other learned behaviors from generation to generation has been described as a form of culture. The paper Culture in Whales and Dolphins BBS goes as far as to say, "The complex and stable vocal and behavioral cultures of sympatric groups of killer whales (Orcinus orca) appear to have no parallel outside humans and represent an independent evolution of cultural faculties." From 1968 to 1971, the US Navy attempted to train two male killer whales (Ahab and Ishmael) captured in Washington State and kept at NUC Hawaii in fenced sea pens. The killer whales were trained for "open ocean reliability", but on February 17, 1971, Ishmael did not return when called and was never seen again. Ahab died in 1974. Captivity studies -PROJECT DEEP OPS: Deep Object Recovery with Pilot and Killer Whales. NUC TP 3 Conservation An adult female and her calf Environmental degradation, depletion of prey species, conflicts with fishing activities, and habitat degradation are currently the most significant threats to killer whales worldwide. Like other animals at the highest trophic levels of the food chain, the killer whale is particularly susceptible to poisoning via accumulation of Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the body. A survey of animals off the Washington coast found that PCB levels in killer whales were higher than those in harbour seals in Europe that have been sickened by the chemical. Samples from the blubber of killer whales in the Norwegian Arctic show higher levels of PCBs, pesticides and brominated flame-retardants than in polar bears. Stocks of most species of salmon, a main food source for resident killer whales in the northeast Pacific, have declined dramatically in recent years. On the west coast of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, populations of seals and sea lions have also undergone a major decline. If food is scarce, killer whales must draw from their blubber for energy, which further magnifies the effects of pollutants. In 2005, the United States government listed the southern resident community of killer whales as an endangered population under the Endangered Species Act. The southern resident community comprises three pods which spend most of the year in the Georgia and Haro Straits and Puget Sound in British Columbia and Washington. These killer whales do not breed outside of their community, which was previously estimated at around 200 animals and had shrunk to around 90. M.L. Lyke, "Granny's Struggle: When Granny is gone, will her story be the last chapter?" Seattle Post Intelligencer 14 October 2006 In October 2008, the annual survey of resident killer whales revealed that seven killer whales were missing and presumed dead, reducing the known number to 83. Researchers: 7 orcas missing from Puget Sound As recently as October 2008, in Seattle WA, seven Puget Sound killer whales went missing and are being presumed dead in what is potentially the largest decline in the population in the past ten years. Ken Balcomb, a senior scientist at the Center for Whale Research on the San Juan Islands, has proclaimed this incident as a "disaster". Balcomb has said that the population drop in killer whales is worse than the stock market. This is devastating to the Pacific Northwest Region as the current southern resident count now stands at 83. These deaths can be attributed to declines in chinook salmon. Le Phuong. "Researchers: 7 Orcas Missing from Puget Sound" Associated Press. 25, October 2008. http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20081025/ap_on_re_us/killer_whales Noise from shipping, drilling, and other human activities can interfere with the acoustic communication and echolocation of killer whales. In the mid-1990s, loud underwater noises from salmon farms were used to deter seals. Killer whales subsequently avoided the surrounding waters. Raincoast Research Society: Research on Orcas In addition, high intensity navy sonar has become a new source of distress for killer whales. Killer whales are popular with whale watchers, which may change killer whale behaviour and stress killer whales, particularly if boats approach killer whales too closely or block their line of travel. The Exxon Valdez oil spill had an adverse effect on killer whales in Prince William Sound and the Kenai Fjords region of Alaska. One Resident pod was caught in the spill; though the pod successfully swam to clear water, eleven members (about half) of the pod disappeared in the following year. The spill had a long-term effect by reducing the amount of available prey, such as salmon, and has thus been responsible for a local population decline. In December 2004, scientists at the North Gulf Oceanic Society said that the AT1 transient population of killer whales (currently considered part of a larger population of 346 transients), now only numbering 7 individuals, has failed to reproduce at all since the spill. This population is expected to become extinct. http://www.wildwhales.org/newsletter/nov_dec_2004.htm Sightings Newsletter report on AT1 pod Killer whales and humans Although only scientifically identified as a species in 1758, the killer whale has been known to humans since prehistoric times. The first written description of a killer whale is given in Pliny the Elder's Natural History (written circa AD 70). The aura of invincibility around the all-consuming killer whale was well established by this time. Having observed the public slaughter of a killer whale stranded at a harbour near Rome, Pliny writes, "Orcas (the appearance of which no image can express, other than an enormous mass of savage flesh with teeth) are the enemy of [other whales]... they charge and pierce them like warships ramming." Historia Naturalis 9.5.12 Whaling An adult male Orca with its characteristic tall dorsal fin swims in the waters near Tysfjord, Norway. Killer whales were targeted in commercial whaling for the middle part of the twentieth century, once stocks of larger species had been depleted. Commercial hunting of killer whales came to an abrupt halt in 1981 with the introduction of a moratorium on all whaling (although from a taxonomic point of view, a killer whale is a dolphin rather than a whale, it is sufficiently large to come under the purview of the International Whaling Commission). The greatest hunter of killer whales was Norway, which took an average of 56 animals per year from 1938 to 1981. Japan took an average of 43 animals from 1946 to 1981 (war year figures are not available but are likely to be fewer). The Soviet Union took a few animals each year in the Antarctic, with the extraordinary exception of the 1980 season when it took 916. Today, no country carries out a substantial hunt. A small level of subsistence whaling is carried out by Indonesia and Greenland. As well as being hunted for their meat, killer whales have also been killed because of competition with fishermen. In the 1950s, the United States Air Force, at the request of the Government of Iceland, used bombers and riflemen to slaughter killer whales in Icelandic waters because they competed with humans for fish. The operation was considered a great success at the time by fishermen and the Icelandic government. However, many were unconvinced that killer whales were responsible for the drop in fish stocks, blaming overfishing by humans instead. This debate has led to repeated studies of North Atlantic fish stocks, with neither side in the whaling debate giving ground since that time. Killer whales have been known to co-operate with humans in the hunting of whales. One well-known example occurred near the port of Eden in southeastern Australia between 1840 and 1930. A pod of killer whales, which included amongst its members a distinctive male called Old Tom, would assist whalers in hunting baleen whales. The killer whales would find the target whales, shepherd them into Twofold Bay, and then alert the whalers to their presence and often help to kill the whales. Old Tom's role was commonly to alert the human whalers to the presence of a baleen whale in the bay by breaching or tailslapping at the mouth of the Kiah River, where the Davidson family had their tiny cottages. This role endeared him to the whalers and led to the idea that he was "leader of the pack", although such a role was more likely taken by a female as is more typical in killer whale cultures. After the harpooning, some of the killer whales would even grab the ropes in their teeth and aid the whalers in hauling. The skeleton of Old Tom is on display at the Eden Killer Whale Museum, and significant wear marks still exist on his teeth from repeatedly grabbing fast-moving ropes. In return for their help, the whalers allowed the killer whales to eat the tongue and lips of the whale before hauling it ashore. The killer whales would then also feed on the many fish and birds that would show up to pick at the smaller scraps and runoff from the fishing. The behaviour was recorded in detail in the 1840s by whaling overseer Sir Oswald Brierly and recorded in his extensive diaries. It was recorded in numerous publications over the period, and witnesses included Australian members of Parliament. The behaviour was recorded on movie film in 1910 by C.B. Jenkins and C.E. Wellings and publicly projected in Sydney, although the film is now missing. In 2005, the Australia Broadcasting Corporation produced a documentary, Killers in Eden, on the subject. The documentary featured numerous period photographs taken by C.E. Wellings and W.T. Hall of the phenomenon and also featured interviews with elderly eyewitnesses. Fear of killer whales has dissipated in recent years due to better education about the species, including the appearance of killer whales in aquariums. Shamu (played by Orkid) posing at Seaworld, San Diego Captivity The killer whale's intelligence, trainability, striking appearance, playfulness in captivity and sheer size have made it a popular exhibit at aquariums and aquatic theme parks. The first killer whale capture and display occurred in Vancouver in 1964. Over the next 15 years, around 60 or 70 killer whales were taken from Pacific waters for this purpose. The Southern Resident community of the northeast Pacific lost 48 of its members to captivity; by 1976, only 80 killer whales were left in the community, which remains endangered. Heimlich, Sara and Boran, James. Killer Whales (2001) Voyageur Press, Stillwater, MN. In the late 1970s and the first half of the 1980s, killer whales were generally taken from Icelandic waters (50 in the five years to 1985). Since then, killer whales have been successfully bred in captivity and wild specimens are considerably rarer. The practice of keeping killer whales in captivity is controversial, and organizations such as the World Society for the Protection of Animals and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society campaign against the captivity of killer whales. Killer whales in captivity may develop physical pathologies, such as the dorsal fin collapse seen in 60–90% of captive males. Captive killer whales have vastly reduced life expectancies, on average only living into their 20s; however, there are examples of killer whales living longer, including many who are over 30 years old, and two killer whales (Corky II and Lolita/Tokitae of the Miami SeaQuarium) are around 40 years of age. In the wild, female killer whales can live to be 80 years old (though these individuals are indeed rare occurrences, 60 years of age is a more accurate estimate), while males can live to be 60 years old (while 30 years is the average). The captive environment usually bears little resemblance to their wild habitat, and the social groups that the killer whales are put into are foreign to those found in the wild. Critics claim that captive life is stressful due to small tanks, false social groupings and chemically altered water. Captive killer whales have occasionally acted aggressively towards themselves, other killer whales, or humans, which critics say is a result of stress. There are few confirmed attacks on humans by wild killer whales. Two recorded instances include a boy charged while swimming in Alaska and killer whales trying to tip ice floes on which a dog team and photographer of the Terra Nova Expedition was standing. In the case of the boy in Ketchikan, Alaska, the boy was splashing in a region frequented by harbour seals, leading to speculation that the killer whales misidentified him as prey and aborted their attack. In the case of the Terra Nova expedition, there is speculation that the seal-like barking of the sled dogs may have triggered the Killer Whale's hunting curiosity. An internet distributed video with millions of views shows an orca appearing to jump on a group of kayakers. Regularly presented on TV news as a real attack and discussed by zoologists, it is really an advertisement by Wieden Kennedy advertising agency for a sports drink using computer compositing. Much more common than wild killer whales attacking people are captive killer whales attacking people, either their handlers or intruders. ABC News has reported that killer whales have attacked nearly two dozen people since the 1970s. a killer is one of the bigest animals Cultural significance The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast have featured the killer whale prominently in their culture through history, art, spirituality and religion. In the tales and beliefs of the Siberian Yupik people, the wolf and the killer whale were thought to be identical: killer whales were said to appear as wolves in winter, and wolves as killer whales in summer. Rubcova 1954:156 (see tale The orphan boy with his sister) Menovshchikov 1962:439,441 Духовная культура (Spiritual culture), subsection of Support for Siberian Indigenous Peoples Rights (Поддержка прав коренных народов Сибири) — see the section on Eskimos Killer whales were believed to help people in hunting on the sea: they were thought to assist the sea hunter in driving walrus. A radio interview with Russian scientists about man and animal, examples taken especially from Asian Eskimos. Thus, reverence was expressed in several forms: the boat represented the image of this animal, and a wooden representation of a killer whale also hung from the hunter's belt. Духовная культура (Spirit culture), subsection of Support for Siberian Indigenous Peoples Rights (Поддержка прав коренных народов Сибири) — see the section on Eskimos Small sacrifices could also be given to killer whales: tobacco was strewn into the sea for them. It was believed that the killer whale was a help to the hunters even if it was in the guise of a wolf: this wolf was thought to force the reindeer to allow itself to be killed by the hunters. See also Captive orcas Killer Whales in popular culture Famous Orcas References General references Orca: The Whale Called Killer, Erich Hoyt, Camden House Publishing, ISBN 0-920656-25-0 "Killer Whale", John K.B. Ford, pp. 669–675 in the Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals, Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-551340-2 National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World, Reeves, Stewart, Clapham and Powell, Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 0-375-41141-0 "Kharakter vzaimootnoshenii kasatok i drugikh kitoobraznykh'" in Morskie mlekopitayushchie (in Russian, transliterations vary). "The nature of interrelationships between Killer Whales and Other Cetaceans", I.V.Shevchenko, 1975, pp. 173–175. (The author describes his discovery of Orca cannibalism.) Menovshchikov, G. A.: Grammar of the language of Asian Eskimos. Vol. I. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow • Leningrad, 1962. Original data: Г.А. Меновщиков: Грамматиκа языка азиатских эскимосов. Часть первая. Академия Наук СССР. Москва • Ленинград, 1962. Menoščikov, G. A.: "Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes". Published in Diószegi, Vilmos and Hoppál, Mihály: Folk Beliefs and Shamanistic Traditions in Siberia. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1968, 1996. Rubcova, E. S.: Materials on the Language and Folklore of the Eskimoes, Vol. I, Chaplino Dialect. Academy of Sciences of the USSR * Leningrad, 1954. Original data: Е.С. Рубцова: Материалы по языку и фольклору эскимосов (чаплинский диалект). Академия Наук СССР. Москва * Ленинград, 1954. Baird, Robin W.: Killer Whales of the WorldVoyageur Press, Stillwater, MN, 2002. External links Pictures and videos Orca Guardians - short documentary on the Northern Residents of San Juan Islands Orca-Live - Orcas in Johnstone Strait, British Columbia Killer whale images, Tysfjord, Norway Orcafilm from Lofoten Islands Monterey Bay Whale Watch Photos: Killer Whales Attacking Gray Whales Video:Orca Attack Seal with Waves (YouTube) Video:Faked attack on Kayaker (YouTube) Regions Strait of Gibraltar: Killer Whale diet in the Strait of Gibraltar Northeast Pacific: Southern Residents (research by undergraduates at Beam Reach) Residents of the Pacific Northwest (general info from The Whale Museum) Residents of Southern Alaska (research) Southern Residents (Human-Orca Interaction) North Atlantic and Arctic: Research project studying Killer whales in the Norwegian Arctic Southern Oceans: New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and Antarctic Orca research General Killers of Eden Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society Punta Norte Orca Research | Killer_whale |@lemmatized size:6 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5,719 | Infanticide | Infanticide is the practice of someone intentionally causing the death of an infant. Often it is the mother who commits the act, but criminology recognizes various forms of non-maternal child murder. In many past societies, certain forms of infanticide were considered permissible. Female infanticide is more common than the killing of male offspring due to sex-selective infanticide. In the United Kingdom, the Infanticide Act defines "infanticide" as a specific crime equivalent to manslaughter that can only be committed by the mother intentionally killing her own baby during the first twelve months of its life; in other cultures, the concept of infanticide includes the intentional killing of children older than twelve months. This article addresses the practice of infanticide within multiple cultural and historical contexts. Infanticide throughout history and pre-history The practice of infanticide has taken many forms. Child sacrifice to supernatural figures or forces, such as the one practiced in ancient Carthage, may be only the most notorious example in the ancient world. Regardless of the cause, throughout history infanticide has been common. Anthropologist Laila Williamson notes that "Infanticide has been practiced on every continent and by people on every level of cultural complexity, from hunter gatherers to high civilizations, including our own ancestors. Rather than being an exception, then, it has been the rule. A frequent method of infanticide in ancient Europe and Asia was simply to abandon the infant, leaving it to die by exposure (i.e. hypothermia, hunger, thirst, or indeed animal attack). Justin Martyr, First Apology. Infant abandonment still occurs in modern societies. Abandonment places infants at risk of becoming the indirect victims of infanticide. In at least one island in Oceania, infanticide was carried out until the 20th century by suffocating the infant, Diamond, Jared (2005). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. ISBN 0-14-303655-6. while in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and in the Inca Empire it was carried out by sacrifice (see below). Paleolithic and Neolithic Decapitated skeletons of hominid children have been found with evidence of cannibalism. Joseph Birdsell believes in infanticide rates of 15-50% of the total number of births in prehistoric times. Williamson estimated a lower rate ranging from 15-20%. Both believe that high rates of infanticide persisted until the development of agriculture. Comparative anthropologists have calculated that 50% of female newborn babies were killed by their parents in the Paleolithic. In ancient history Child sacrifice, the ritualistic killing of children in order to please supernatural beings, was far more common in ancient history than in present times. In the New World Archaeologists have uncovered physical evidence of child sacrifice at several locations. Some of the best attested examples are the diverse rites which were part of the religious practices in Mesoamerica and the Inca Empire. Discovery Channel: The mystery of Inca child sacrifice In the Old World Three thousand bones of young children, with evidence of sacrificial rituals, have been found in Sardinia. Infants were offered to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar. Pelasgians offered a sacrifice of every tenth child during difficult times (as in the verb "to decimate" the population). Syrians sacrificed children to Jupiter and Juno. Many remains of children have been found in Gezer excavations with signs of sacrifice. Child skeletons with the marks of sacrifice have been found also in Egypt dating 950-720 BCE. In Carthage "[child] sacrifice in the ancient world reached its infamous zenith." Besides the Carthaginians, other Phoenicians, and the Canaanites, Moabites and Sepharvites offered their first-born as a sacrifice to their gods. Ancient Egypt In Egyptian households at all social levels children of both sexes were valued and there is no evidence of infanticide. "Egypt and the Egyptians", Emily Teeter, p. 97, Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 052144984 The religion of the Ancient Egyptians forbade infanticide. During the Greco-Roman period they rescued abandoned babies from manure heaps, a not uncommon method of infanticide by Greeks or Romans, and were allowed to either adopt them as foundlings or raise them as slaves, often giving them names such as "copro -" to memorialise their rescue. "Eroticism and Infanticide at Ashkelon", Lawrence E. Stager, Biblical Archaeology Review, July/Aug 1991 Carthage Carthaginians, descendants of the Phoenicians, sacrificed infants to their gods. Charred bones of thousands of infants have been found in Carthaginian archaeological sites. One such area harbored as many as 20,000 burial urns. It is estimated that child sacrifice was practiced for centuries in the region. Plutarch (ca. 46–120 CE) mentions the practice, as do Tertullian, Orosius, Diodorus Siculus and Philo. The Hebrew Bible also mentions what appears to be child sacrifice practiced at a place called the Tophet (from the Hebrew taph or toph, to burn) by the Canaanites. Writing in the 3rd century BCE, Kleitarchos, one of the historians of Alexander the Great, described that the infants rolled into the flaming pit. Diodorus Siculus wrote that babies were roasted to death inside the burning pit of the god Baal Hamon, a bronze statue. Greece and Rome Medea killing her sons, by Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix (1862). The historical Greeks considered barbarous the practice of adult and child sacrifice. However, exposure of newborns was widely practiced in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Philo was the first philosopher to speak out against it. A letter from a Roman citizen to his wife, dating from 1 BCE, demonstrates the casual nature with which infanticide was often viewed: "Know that I am still in Alexandria. [...] I ask and beg you to take good care of our baby son, and as soon as I received payment I shall send it up to you. If you are delivered [before I come home], if it is a boy, keep it, if a girl, discard it." In some periods of Roman history it was traditional for a newborn to be brought to the pater familias, the family patriarch, who would then decide whether the child was to be kept and raised, or left to death by exposure. The Twelve Tables of Roman law obliged him to put to death a child that was visibly deformed. Infanticide became a capital offense in Roman law in 374 CE, but offenders were rarely if ever prosecuted. According to mythological legend, Romulus and Remus, twin infant sons of the war god, Mars, survived near-infanticide after being tossed into the Tiber River. According to the mythology, they were raised by wolves and later founded the city of Rome. Among the Greeks, in Sophocles's play, Oedipus Rex, Oedipus is abandoned as a baby in the fields, leaving his fate to the gods. Judaism Although there are several instances in the Bible of ancient Hebrews sacrificing their children to heathen gods, against explicit prohibitions in the Torah. (e.g., Deuteronomy 12:30-31, 18:10; 2 Kings 16:3 & 17:17, 30-31 & 21:6 & 23:4, 10; Jeremiah 7:31-32 & 19:5 & 32:35; Ezekiel 16: 20-21, 36; Judges 11:31), Judaism prohibits infanticide. Roman historians wrote about the ideas and customs of other peoples, which often diverged from their own. Tacitus recorded that the Jews "regard it as a crime to kill any late-born children." Josephus, whose works give an important insight into first-century Judaism, wrote that God "forbids women to cause abortion of what is begotten, or to destroy it afterward." The Mosaic laws expressly forbade the Jews to offer sacrifices to Moloch. "You shall not give any of your children to devote them by fire to Moloch, and so profane the name of your God" (Lev. 18:21). . Years later, the practice existed among the Jews as reported by the prophet, Jeremiah, whose writings date to the period around 629 - 585 B.C. : And they built the high places of the Ba‘al, which are in the valley of Ben-hinnom, to cause their sons and their daughters to pass through the fire to Molech; which I did not command them, nor did it come into my mind that they should do this abomination, to cause Judah to sin. Pagan European tribes In his book Germania, Tacitus wrote that the ancient Germanic tribes enforced a similar prohibition. He found such mores remarkable and commented: "[The Germani] hold it shameful to kill any unwanted child." Modern scholarship differs. John Boswell believed that in ancient Germanic tribes unwanted children were exposed, usually in the forest. "It was the custom of the [Teutonic] pagans, that if they wanted to kill a son or daughter, they would be killed before they had been given any food." Usually children born out of wedlock were disposed that way. In his highly influential Pre-historic Times, John Lubbock described burnt bones indicating the practice of child sacrifice in pagan Britain. The last canto, Marjatan poika (Son of Marjatta), of Finnish national epic Kalevala describes an assumed infanticide. Väinämöinen orders the infant bastard son of Marjatta to be drowned in marsh. Christianity Christianity rejected infanticide. The Teachings of the Apostles or Didache said "You shall not kill that which is born." The Epistle of Barnabas stated an identical command. Ibid., Epistle of Barnabas, xix.5d. So widely accepted was this teaching in Christendom that apologists Tertullian, Athenagoras, Minucius Felix, Justin Martyr and Lactantius also maintained that exposing a baby to death was a wicked act. In 318 CE Constantine I considered infanticide a crime, and in 374 CE Valentinian I mandated to rear all children (exposing babies, especially girls, was still common). The Council of Constantinople declared that infanticide was homicide, and in 589 CE the Third Council of Toledo took measures against the Spanish custom of killing their own children. Middle Ages Whereas theologians and clerics preached sparing their lives, newborn abandonment continued as registered in both the literature record and in legal documents. According to William L. Langer, exposure in the Middle Ages "was practiced on gigantic scale with absolute impunity, noticed by writers with most frigid indifference". At the end of the 12th century, notes Richard Trexler, Roman women threw their newborns into the Tiber river even in day light. Child sacrifice was practiced by the Gauls, Celts and the Irish. "They would kill their piteous wretched offspring with much wailing and peril, to pour their blood around Crom Cruaich", a deity of pre-Christian Ireland. Unlike other European regions, in the Middle Ages the German mother had the right to expose the newborn. In Gotland, Sweden, children were also sacrificed. Infant exposure, and the eating of horsemeat, were two concessions made when the pagan Norse Icelanders eventually adopted Christianity in the year 1000. In the High Middle Ages, abandoning unwanted children finally eclipsed infanticide. Unwanted children were left at the door of church or abbey, and the clergy was assumed to take care of their upbringing. This practise also saw the birth of the first orphanages. Arabia The pre-Islamic Arabian society practiced infanticide as a form of "post-partum birth control". Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Children Regarding the prevalence of this practice, we know it was "common enough among the pre-Islamic Arabs to be assigned a specific term, waʾd". Donna Lee Bowen, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Infanticide Infanticide was practiced either out of destitution (thus practiced on males and females alike), or as sacrifices to gods, or as "disappointment and fear of social disgrace felt by a father upon the birth of a daughter". Some authors believe that there is little evidence that infanticide was prevalent in pre-Islamic Arabia or early Muslim history, except for the case of the Tamim tribe, who practiced it during severe famine. Others state that "female infanticide was common all over Arabia during this period of time" (pre-Islamic Arabia), especially by burying alive a female newborn. Islam Infanticide is explicitly prohibited by the Qur'an. "And do not kill your children for fear of poverty; We give them sustenance and yourselves too; surely to kill them is a great wrong." Qur'an, XVII:31. Other passages condemning infanticide in the Qur'an appear in LXXXI:8-9, XVI:60-62, XVII:42 and XLII:48. The Qur'an rejected the practice of infanticide. Together with polytheism and homicide, infanticide was regarded as a grave sin (see and ). Infanticide is also implicitly denounced in the story of Pharaoh's slaughter of the male children of Israelites (see ; ; ; ; ;). The Qur'an also mentions the story, not intended as an example to be followed, of the killing of an unbelieving young man by khidr. This was done in order to preserve the young man's faithful parents from disobedience and ingratitude which the young man was destined to bring to their life (see ; ). Russia In Russia, peasants sacrificed their sons and daughters to the pagan god Perun. Although Church law forbid infanticide, it used to be practiced. Some rural people threw children to the swine. In Medieval Russia secular laws did not deal with what, for the church, was a crime. The Svans killed the newborn females by filling their mouths with hot ashes. In Kamchatka, babies were killed and thrown to the dogs. American explorer George Kennan noted that among the Koryaks, a Mongoloid people of north-eastern Siberia, infanticide was still common in the 19th century. One of the twins was always sacrificed. Asia China Marco Polo, the famed explorer, saw newborns exposed in Manzi. China's society promoted gendercide. Philosopher Han Fei Tzu, a member of the ruling aristocracy of the 3rd century BCE, who developed a school of law, wrote: "As to children, a father and mother when they produce a boy congratulate one another, but when they produce a girl they put it to death." Among the Hakka people, and in Yunnan, Anhwei, Szechwan, Jiangxi and Fukien a method of killing the baby was to put her into a bucket of cold water, which was called "baby water". Japan Since feudal Japan the common slang for infanticide was "mabiki" which means to pull plants from an overcrowded garden. It has been estimated that 40% of newborn babies were killed in Kyūshū. A typical method in Japan was smothering through wet paper on the baby's mouth and nose. Mabiki persisted in the 19th and early 20th centuries. South Asia Female infanticide of newborn girls was systematic in feudatory Rajputs in South Asia for illegitimate female children during the Middle Ages. According to Firishta, as soon as the illegitimate female child was born she was hold "in one hand, and a knife in the other, that any person who wanted a wife might take her now, otherwise she was immediately put to death". The practice of female infanticide was also common among the Kutch, Kehtri, Nagar, Gujarat, Miazed, Kalowries in India inhabitants, and also among the Sind in Pakistan. It was not uncommon that parents threw a child to the sharks in the Ganges River as a sacrificial offering. The British colonists were unable to outlaw the custom until the beginnings of the 19th century. Africa In Africa some children were killed because of fear that they were an evil omen or because they were considered unlucky. Twins were usually put to death in Arebo; as well as by the Nama Hottentots of South West Africa; in the Lake Victoria Nyanza region; by the Tswana in Portuguese East Africa; among the Ilso and Igbo people of Nigeria; and by the !Kung Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert. The Kikuyu, Kenya's most populous ethnic group, practiced ritual killing of twins. Lucien Lévy-Brühl noted that, because of fear of a drought, if a baby was born feet first in British East Africa, she or he was smothered. The Tswana people did the same since they feared the newborn would bring ill fortune to the parents. Similarly, William Sumner noted that the Vadshagga killed children whose upper incisors came first. If a mother died in childbirth among the Ibo people of Nigeria, the newborn was buried alive. It suffered a similar fate if the father died. In The Child in Primitive Society, Nathan Miller wrote in the 1920s that among the Kuni tribe every mother had killed at least one of her children. Child sacrifice was practiced as late as 1929 in Zimbabwe, where a daughter of the tribal chief used to be sacrificed as a petition of rain. Oceania Infanticide among the autochthone people in the Oceania islands is widespread. In some areas of the Fiji islands up to 50% of newborn infants were killed. In the 19th century Ugi, in the Solomon islands almost 75% of the indigenous children had been brought from adjoining tribes due to the high incidence rate of infanticide, a unique feature of these tribal societies. In another Solomon island, San Cristóbal, the firstborn was considered "ahubweu" and often buried alive. As a rationale for their behavior, some parents in British New Guinea complained: "Girls [...] don't become warriors, and they don't stay to look for us in our old age." Australia According to the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski's book on indigenous Australians, "infanticide is practiced among all Australian natives." Brough Smyth, a 19th century researcher, estimated that in Victoria about 30% of the births resulted in infanticide. Mildred Dickeman concurs that that figure is accurate in other Australia tribes as a result of a surplus of the birthrate. In Queensland a tribal woman could have children after the age of thirty. In other places, babies would be killed. The Aranda in the Northern Territory used the method of choking the newborn with coal, sand or kill her with a stick. Twins were always killed by the Arrernte in central Australia. Aram Yengoyan calculated that, in Western Australia, the Pitjandjara people killed 19% of their newborns. Polynesia In ancient Polynesian societies infanticide was common. Families were supposed to rear no more than two children. Writing about the natives, Raymond Firth noted: "If another child is born, it is buried in the earth and covered with stones". Hawaii In Hawaii infanticide was a socially sanctioned practice before the Christian missions. Infanticidal methods included strangling the children or, more frequently, burying them alive. Tahiti Infanticide was quite intense in Tahiti. Methods included suffocation, neck breaking and strangulation. North America Infanticide and child sacrifice was practiced in the New World at times when in Western Europe it was largely abandoned. Inuit There is no agreement about the actual estimates of the frequency of newborn female infanticide in the Eskimo population. Carmel Schrire mentions diverse studies ranging from 15-50% to 80%. Polar Eskimos killed the child by throwing him or her into the sea. There is even a legend in Eskimo folklore, "The Unwanted Child", where a mother throws her child into the fjord. The Yukon and the Mahlemuit tribes of Alaska exposed the female newborns by first stuffing their mouths with grass before leaving them to die. In Arctic Canada the Eskimos exposed their babies on the ice and left to die. Female Eskimo infanticide disappeared in the 1930s and 1940s after contact with the Western cultures from the South. Canada The Handbook of North American Indians reports infanticide and cannibalism among the Dene Indians and those of the Mackenzie Mountains. Native Americans In the Eastern Shoshone there was a scarcity of Indian women as a result of female infanticide. For the Maidu native Americans twins were so dangerous that they not only killed them, but the mother as well. In the region known today as southern Texas, the Mariame Indians practiced infanticide of females on a large scale. Wives had to be obtained from neighboring groups. Mexico Bernal Díaz recounted that, after landing on the Veracruz coast, they came across a temple dedicated to Tezcatlipoca. "That day they had sacrificed two boys, cutting open their chests and offering their blood and hearts to that accursed idol". In The Conquest of New Spain Díaz describes more child sacrifices in the towns before the Spaniards reached the large Aztec city Tenochtitlan. South America Although academic data of infanticides among the indigenous people in South America is not as abundant as the one of North America, the estimates seem to be similar. Brazil The Tapirapé indigenous people of Brazil allowed no more than three children per woman. Furthermore, no more than two had to be of the same sex. If the rule was broken infanticide was practiced. The people in the Bororo tribe killed all the newborns that did not appear healthy enough. Infanticide is also documented in the case of the Korubo people in the Amazon. Peru, Paraguay and Bolivia While Capacocha was practiced in the Peruvian large cities, child sacrifice in the pre-Columbian tribes of the region is less documented. However, even today studies on the Aymara Indians reveal high incidences of mortality among the newborn, especially female deaths, suggesting infanticide. The Abipones, a small tribe of Guaycuran stock, of about 5,000 by the end of the 18th century in Paraguay, practiced systematic infanticide; with never more than two children being reared in one family. The machigenga killed their disabled children.Infanticide among the Chaco in Paraguay was estimated as high as 50% of all newborns in that tribe, who were usually buried. The infanticidal custom had such roots among the Ayoreo in Bolivia and Paraguay that it persisted until the late 20th century. Present day In November 2008 it was reported that in Agibu and Amosa villages of Gimi region of Eastern Highlands province of Papua New Guinea where tribal fighting in the region of Gimi has been going on since 1986 (many of the clashes arising over claims of sorcery) women had agreed that if they stopped producing males, allowing only female babies to survive, their tribe's stock of boys would go down and there would be no men in the future to fight. They agreed to have all new-born male babies killed. It is not known how many male babies were killed by being smothered, but it had reportedly happened to all males over a 10 year period and probably was still happening. The villages mothers killed EVERY baby born boy A drawing by Eufrosinia Kersnovskaya illustrating a scene she witnessed in a Soviet Gulag: a prisoner trying to kill her baby by choking him with her own milk. Kersnovskaya managed to stop the killing. However, the practice has become less common in the Western world, but continues today in areas of extremely high poverty and overpopulation, such as parts of China and India. Gendercide Watch: Female Infanticide Female infants, then and even now, are particularly vulnerable, a factor in gendercide. In Africa In spite of the fact that it is illegal, in Benin, West Africa, parents secretly continue with infanticidal customs. In India The practice has continued in some rural areas of India. . Grim motives behind infant killings, CNN.com, July 7, 2003 Infanticide is illegal in India (though never prosecuted). For India's daughters, a dark birth day, csmonitor.com, February 9, 2005 According to a recent report by the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) up to 50 million girls and women are missing in India's population as a result of systematic gender discrimination. The UNICEF study has been criticized by the Indian Medical Association for utilizing outdated data and for deliberately demonizing Indians for the purposes of politics News on Lancet Report Abortion, Female Infanticide, Foeticide, Son preference in India Hinduism Although it is practiced by some segments of the Hindu society, infanticide stands condemned by Hindu religious leaders in India and is not sanctioned in scripture, despite claims to the contrary by anti-Hindus. Hindu authorities condemn infanticide that has occurred in parts of India. The historic and religious origins of female infanticide. The situation in China There have been some accusations that infanticide occurs in the People's Republic of China due to the one-child policy. NBC: China begins to face sex-ratio imbalance, msnbc.com, September 14, 2004 In the 1990s, a certain stretch of the Yangtze River was known to be a common site of infanticide by drowning, until government projects made access to it more difficult. Others assert that China has twenty-five million fewer girl children than expected, but sex selective abortion can partially be to blame. The illegal use of ultrasound is widespread in China, and itinerant sonographers with plain vans in parking lots offer inexpensive sonographs to determine the sex of a fetus. Recent studies suggest that over 40 million girls and women are 'missing' in China (Klasen and Wink 2003). Estimation of the Number of Missing Females in China: 1900-2000 In North America The United States ranked eleventh for infants under 1 year killed, and fourth for those killed from 1 through 14 years (the latter case not necessarily involving filicide). In the U.S. over six hundred children were killed by their parents in 1983. In Canada 114 cases of child-murder by a parent were reported during 1964-1968. Some of the cases that made news were those of Amy Grossberg and Brian Peterson, Genene Jones, Marybeth Tinning, Melissa Drexler, Waneta Hoyt (and in the UK Amelia Dyer). Child euthanasia Child euthanasia is a controversial form of euthanasia which is applied to children that are gravely ill or that suffer from important birth defects. Some critics have compared child euthanasia to infanticide. Explanations for the practice Diverse and often contradictory explanations have been proposed to account for infanticide. Economic Many historians believe the reason to be primarily economic, with more children born than the family is prepared to support. In societies that are patrilineal and patrilocal, the family may choose to allow more sons to live and kill some daughters, as the former will support their birth family until they die, whereas the latter will leave economically and geographically to join their husband's family, possibly only after the payment of a burdensome dowry price. Thus the decision to bring up a boy is more economically rewarding to the parents. However, this does not explain why infanticide would occur equally among rich and poor, nor why it would be as frequent during decadent periods of the Roman Empire as during earlier, less affluent, periods. Population control Marvin Harris estimated that among Paleolithic hunters 23-50% of newborn children were killed. He argued that the goal was to preserve the 0.001% population growth of that time. He also wrote that female infanticide may be a form of population control. Population control is achieved not only by limiting the number of potential mothers; increased fighting among men for access to relatively scarce wives would also lead to a decline in population. For example, on the Melanesian island of Tikopia infanticide was used to keep a stable population in line with its resource base. Although additional research by Marvin Harris and William Divale supports this argument, it has been criticized as an example of environmental determinism. Customs and taboos In 1888, Lieut. F. Elton reported that Ugi beach people in the Solomon Islands killed their infants at birth by burying them, and women were also said to practice abortion. They reported that it was too much trouble to raise a child, and instead preferred to buy one from the bush people. Larry S. Milner, author of Hardness of Heart/Hardness of Life, a treatise on infanticide, believes that superstition has always reigned supreme in tribal religion. In chapters 9 through 21 Milner explores diverse customs and taboos as possible causes of infanticide, from punishment and shame to poverty, famine, revenge, depression and insanity and superstitious omens. Psychological A minority of academics subscribe to an alternate school of thought, considering the practice as "early infanticidal childrearing". They attribute parental infanticidal wishes to massive projection or displacement of the parents' unconscious onto the child, because of intergenerational, ancestral abuse by their own parents. Wider effects In addition to debates over the morality of infanticide itself, there is some debate over the effects of infanticide on surviving children, and the effects of childrearing in societies that also sanction infanticide. Some argue that the practice of infanticide in any widespread form causes enormous psychological damage in children. Conversely, studying societies that practice infanticide Géza Róheim reported that even infanticidal mothers in New Guinea, who ate a child, did not affect the personality development of the surviving children; that "these are good mothers who eat their own children". Harris and Divale's work on the relationship between female infanticide and warfare suggests that there are, however, extensive negative effects. Psychiatric Postpartum psychosis has also been signaled as a causative factor of infanticide. Stanley Hopwood wrote that childbirth and lactation entail severe stress on the female sex, and that under certain circumstances attempts at infanticide and suicide are common. A study published in the American Journal of Psychiatry revealed that 44% of filicidal fathers had a diagnosis of psychosis. Genetic Larry Milner writes in the concluding chapter of his study of infanticide: So with this strata of support, I have concluded that it is a normal — a "natural"— trait for a human being to be willing to kill his or her own child, especially during the first year of life, and that there are genetic factors which are determinative of this compulsion. However, Milner's treatise includes at the same time cultural hypotheses for the practice, and his approach to the subject has been criticized as both scholarly and an idealized view of infanticide. Sex selection Sex selection may be one of the contributing factors of infanticide. In the absence of sex-selective abortion, sex-selective infanticide can be deduced from very skewed birth statistics. The biologically normal sex ratio for humans is approximately 105 males per 100 females; normal ratios hardly ranging beyond 102-108. When a society has an infant male to female ratio which is significantly higher than the biological norm, sex selection can usually be inferred. "100 million missing women" The idea of there being "100 million missing women", largely in Asia, originated with or was popularised by an influential 1990 essay by Amartya Sen. Amartya Sen, New York Review of Books Volume 37, Number 20 • December 20, 1990 "More Than 100 Million Women Are Missing" In other animals Infanticide occurs in other animals, such as in Hanuman Langurs. Although human infanticide has been widely studied, the practice has been observed in many other species of the animal kingdom since it was first seriously studied by Yukimaru Sugiyama. Sugiyama, Y. (1965) On the social change of Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus) in their natural conditions. Primates 6:381-417. These include from microscopic rotifers and insects, to fish, amphibians, birds and mammals. Hoogland, J. L. (1985) Infanticide in Prairie Dogs: Lactating Females Kill Offspring of Close Kin Science 230:1037-1040. Infanticide can be practiced by both males and females. Notes See also Abortion Baby-farming Child sacrifice Female perversion Filicide La Llorona (Mexican legend) Margaret Garner Medea (Euripides' play) Miyuki Ishikawa Religious abuse The Cruel Mother External links General history of infanticide worldwide Journal of Population Research: Shortage of girls in China today Catholic Encyclopedia on Infanticide | Infanticide |@lemmatized infanticide:97 practice:42 someone:1 intentionally:2 cause:7 death:9 infant:18 often:6 mother:13 commit:2 act:3 criminology:1 recognize:1 various:1 form:7 non:1 maternal:1 child:80 murder:2 many:8 past:1 society:13 certain:3 consider:6 permissible:1 female:30 common:13 killing:7 male:10 offspring:3 due:3 sex:13 selective:4 united:3 kingdom:2 define:1 specific:2 crime:4 equivalent:1 manslaughter:1 kill:40 baby:22 first:11 twelve:3 month:2 life:5 culture:2 concept:1 include:6 intentional:1 old:3 article:1 address:1 within:1 multiple:1 cultural:3 historical:2 context:1 throughout:2 history:8 pre:9 take:5 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5,720 | Learning_music_by_ear | Learning music by ear is done by repeatedly listening to other musicians and then attempting to recreate what one hears. This is how people learn music in any musical tradition in which there is no complete musical notation. Many people in cultures which do have notation still learn by ear, and ear training, often through a musicianship course at a music conservatory or college, is common practice among those who use notation extensively. Audiation involves hearing sounds mentally, although on a different level to just "hearing a song in your head". In addition to mentally hearing rhythms and pitches the skill of reproducing those sounds involves melody, harmony (chords) and bass line. In the West, learning by ear is associated with traditional and folk music, but many classical music forms throughout the world lack notation, and have therefore been passed from generation to generation by ear. The Suzuki method of teaching music has a highly developed focus on playing by ear from a very young age. In his book "Teaching from the Balance Point," Edward Kreitman, a US based Suzuki Teacher, clearly distinguishes "learning by ear" as a separate, completely different process from "learning by rote". References http://www.giml.org/audiation.php | Learning_music_by_ear |@lemmatized learn:6 music:6 ear:7 repeatedly:1 listen:1 musician:1 attempt:1 recreate:1 one:1 hear:4 people:2 musical:2 tradition:1 complete:1 notation:4 many:2 culture:1 still:1 training:1 often:1 musicianship:1 course:1 conservatory:1 college:1 common:1 practice:1 among:1 use:1 extensively:1 audiation:2 involve:2 sound:2 mentally:2 although:1 different:2 level:1 song:1 head:1 addition:1 rhythm:1 pitch:1 skill:1 reproduce:1 melody:1 harmony:1 chord:1 bass:1 line:1 west:1 associate:1 traditional:1 folk:1 classical:1 form:1 throughout:1 world:1 lack:1 therefore:1 pass:1 generation:2 suzuki:2 method:1 teach:2 highly:1 developed:1 focus:1 playing:1 young:1 age:1 book:1 balance:1 point:1 edward:1 kreitman:1 u:1 base:1 teacher:1 clearly:1 distinguish:1 separate:1 completely:1 process:1 rote:1 reference:1 http:1 www:1 giml:1 org:1 php:1 |@bigram melody_harmony:1 http_www:1 |
5,721 | Maremma | The Maremma Coast, seen from the Old Town of Castiglione della Pescaia The Maremma is a vast area in Italy bordering the Tyrrhenian Sea, consisting of part of south-western Tuscany - Maremma Livornese and Maremma Grossetana (the later coincident with the province of Grosseto), and part of northern Lazio - Maremma Laziale (in the provinces of Viterbo and Rome on the border of the region). The poet Dante Alighieri in his Divina Commedia places the Maremma between Cecina and Corneto, the former name of Tarquinia. Non han sì aspri sterpi nè sì folti quelle fiere selvagge che 'n odio hanno tra Cecina e Corneto i luoghi colti. It was traditionally populated by the Butteri, cattle-breeders who until recently used horses with a distinctive style of saddle. Once unhealthy because of its many marshes, the Maremma was drained during the fascist regime and re-populated with people coming from other Italian regions, notably from Veneto. Endowed with significant natural and environmental resources, the Maremma is today one of the best tourist destinations in Italy, a region where ancient traditions have survived and Tuscan culture is preserved. It is being promoted as a destination for agritourism. In the Maremma region various popular wines are produced, some of which gained DOCG status. The Maremma Grossetana can be divided into 5 main areas, each with its own characteristics and attractions. Alta Maremma (Upper Maremma) is the northern part of the Maremma region, right on the border with the Province Siena. This interesting area is characterised by the many picturesque hilltop villages (Pitigliano, Roccastrada, Roccatederighi, Sassofortino, Monte Massi, Massa Marittima, Cinigiano, Campagnatico, Pari), which remind of the hilltop towns of the Siena area. The heart of the Maremma . Grosseto can be considered the capital of the Maremma. The area around Grosseto and the coast, with Marina di Grosseto, Castiglione della Pescaia and the small villages that lie in the plain between the city and the coast, represents the heart of the Tuscan Maremma. The hills of the Upper Maremma . The hills the Maremma can be divided into three areas: the area del Tufo (literally, "the tuff area"), the Colline Metallifere (literally, "the hills that produce metals") and the internal hills on the border with the Siena region. This is the heart of the Etruscan Empire -(many would debate that the heart of the Etruscan Empire was actually in the Maremma Laziale, in an area also know as the Tuscia, where Tarquinia was "the chief of the twelve cities of Etruria". On the shoreline of the Maremma sandy beaches aternate with rocky coastline. The long stretches of pine tree forests which border the beaches of the Maremma are a naturalistic treasure as well as the few areas where the lagoon and swamp ecosystems have survived urbanization, reclamation or simple draining, such as the nature reserve of the Diaccia Botrona near Castiglione della Pescaia. The metalliferous hills : The Colline Metallifere (literally, the metalliferous hills or the hills which produce metals) have always been the industrious heart of the Maremma and some places still point to times when the life on these hills was much harder. As their name says, the soil of these hills, which spread from the border with the province of Siena to the Gulf of Follonica, are rich in minerals and mines have been excavated for centuries in search of iron, copper, lead, zinc, pyrites and silver. The main town is Massa Marittima. External links An Insider Travel Guide to Maremma Useful guide of Maremma Tuscany Maremma: a comprehensive guide to itineraries and things to do in the Tuscan Maremma Useful guide to sights of the Upper Maremma | Maremma |@lemmatized maremma:27 coast:3 see:1 old:1 town:3 castiglione:3 della:3 pescaia:3 vast:1 area:10 italy:2 border:6 tyrrhenian:1 sea:1 consist:1 part:3 south:1 western:1 tuscany:2 livornese:1 grossetana:2 later:1 coincident:1 province:4 grosseto:4 northern:2 lazio:1 laziale:2 viterbo:1 rome:1 region:6 poet:1 dante:1 alighieri:1 divina:1 commedia:1 place:2 cecina:2 corneto:2 former:1 name:2 tarquinia:2 non:1 han:1 sì:2 aspri:1 sterpi:1 nè:1 folti:1 quelle:1 fiere:1 selvagge:1 che:1 n:1 odio:1 hanno:1 tra:1 e:1 luoghi:1 colti:1 traditionally:1 populate:2 butteri:1 cattle:1 breeder:1 recently:1 use:1 horse:1 distinctive:1 style:1 saddle:1 unhealthy:1 many:3 marsh:1 drain:1 fascist:1 regime:1 people:1 come:1 italian:1 notably:1 veneto:1 endow:1 significant:1 natural:1 environmental:1 resource:1 today:1 one:1 best:1 tourist:1 destination:2 ancient:1 tradition:1 survive:2 tuscan:3 culture:1 preserve:1 promote:1 agritourism:1 various:1 popular:1 wine:1 produce:3 gain:1 docg:1 status:1 divide:2 main:2 characteristic:1 attraction:1 alta:1 upper:3 right:1 siena:4 interesting:1 characterise:1 picturesque:1 hilltop:2 village:2 pitigliano:1 roccastrada:1 roccatederighi:1 sassofortino:1 monte:1 massi:1 massa:2 marittima:2 cinigiano:1 campagnatico:1 pari:1 remind:1 heart:5 consider:1 capital:1 around:1 marina:1 di:1 small:1 lie:1 plain:1 city:2 represent:1 hill:9 three:1 del:1 tufo:1 literally:3 tuff:1 colline:2 metallifere:2 metal:2 internal:1 etruscan:2 empire:2 would:1 debate:1 actually:1 also:1 know:1 tuscia:1 chief:1 twelve:1 etruria:1 shoreline:1 sandy:1 beach:2 aternate:1 rocky:1 coastline:1 long:1 stretch:1 pine:1 tree:1 forest:1 naturalistic:1 treasure:1 well:1 lagoon:1 swamp:1 ecosystem:1 urbanization:1 reclamation:1 simple:1 draining:1 nature:1 reserve:1 diaccia:1 botrona:1 near:1 metalliferous:2 always:1 industrious:1 still:1 point:1 time:1 life:1 much:1 hard:1 say:1 soil:1 spread:1 gulf:1 follonica:1 rich:1 mineral:1 mine:1 excavate:1 century:1 search:1 iron:1 copper:1 lead:1 zinc:1 pyrite:1 silver:1 external:1 link:1 insider:1 travel:1 guide:4 useful:2 comprehensive:1 itinerary:1 thing:1 sight:1 |@bigram tyrrhenian_sea:1 dante_alighieri:1 tourist_destination:1 marina_di:1 sandy_beach:1 external_link:1 |
5,722 | Economic_calculation_problem | The economic calculation problem is a criticism of socialist economics, or more precisely economic planning. It was first proposed by Ludwig von Mises in 1920 and later expounded by Friedrich Hayek. F. A. Hayek, (1935), "The Nature and History of the Problem" and "The Present State of the Debate," om in F. A. Hayek, ed. Collectivist Economic Planning, pp. 1-40, 201-43. The problem referred to is that of how to distribute resources rationally in an economy. The free market solution is the price mechanism; Mises and Hayek argued that this is the only possible solution, and without the information provided by market prices socialism lacks a method to rationally allocate resources. Those who agree with this criticism argue it is a refutation of socialism and that it shows that a socialist planned economy could never work. The debate raged in the 1920s and 1930s, and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by economic historians as the The Socialist Calculation Debate. Ludwig von Mises argued in a famous 1920 article "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if government owned the means of production, then no prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods in a socialist system and not "objects of exchange," unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily inefficient since the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently. This led him to declare "...that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth.". Mises developed his critique of socialism more completely in his 1922 book Socialism, an Economic and Sociological Analysis. The problem Comparing heterogeneous goods Since capital goods and labour are highly heterogeneous (i.e. they have different characteristics that pertain to physical productivity) economic calculation requires a common basis for comparison for all forms of capital and labour. Money, as a means of exchange, allows many different goods to be analysed in terms of their cost in a very easy way; the cheaper good is a more desirable one to use. This is the signalling function of prices, and the rationing function prevents over-use of any resource. Without money to facilitate easy comparisons, socialism lacks any way to compare different goods and services. Decisions made will therefore be largely arbitrary and without sufficient knowledge, often on the whim of bureaucrats. Relating utility to capital and consumption goods The common basis for comparison for capital goods must also be connected to consumer welfare. It must also be able to compare the desired trade-off between present consumption and delayed consumption (for greater returns later on), via investment in capital goods. The use of money as a medium of exchange and unit of account is necessary to solve the first two problems of economic calculation. Mises (1912) applied the marginal utility theory developed by Carl Menger to money. Marginal consumer expenditures represent the marginal utility or additional consumer satisfaction expected by consumers as they spend money. This is similar to the equi-marginal principle developed by Alfred Marshall. Consumers equalize the marginal utility (amount of satisfaction) of the last dollar spent on each good. So the exchange of consumer goods establishes prices that represent the marginal utility of consumers, and money therefore is representative of consumer satisfaction. If money is also spent on capital goods and labor, then it is possible to make comparisons between capital goods and consumer goods. The exchange of consumer and capital/labor goods does not imply that capital goods are valued accurately, only that it is possible for the valuations of capital goods to be made. These first elements of the Calculation Critique of Socialism are the most basic element: economic calculation requires the use of money across all goods. This is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for successful economic calculation. Without a price mechanism, socialism lacks the means to relate consumer satisfaction to economic activity, it is argued. The incentive function of prices allows diffuse interests, like the interests of every household in cheap, high quality, shoes, to compete with the concentrated interests of the cobblers in expensive, poor quality shoes. Without it, a panel of experts set up to ‘rationalise production’, likely closely linked to the cobblers for expertise, would tend to support the cobblers interests in a ‘conspiracy against the public’. If this happens to all industries however, everyone would be worse off than if they had been subject to the rigours of competition (economics) The von Mises theory of money and calculation conflicts directly with Marxist labour theory of value. Marxist theory allows for the possibility that Labour content can serve as a common means of valuing capital goods, a position now out of favour with economists following the success of the theory of marginal utility. Entrepreneurship The third condition for economic calculation is the existence of genuine entrepreneurship and market rivalry. According to Kirzner (1973) and Lavoie (1985) entrepreneurs reap profits by supplying unfulfilled needs in markets. Entrepreneurship therefore brings prices closer to marginal costs. The adjustment of prices in markets towards ‘equilibrium’ (where supply and demand equal) gives them greater utilitarian significance. The activities of entrepreneurs make prices more accurate in terms of how they represent the marginal utility of consumers. Prices act as guides to the planning of production. Those who plan production use prices to decide which lines of production should be expanded or curtailed. Entrepreneurs lack the profit motive to take risks under socialism, and so are far less likely to attempt to supply consumers demands. Without the price system to match consumer utility to incentives for production, or even indicate those utilities "without providing incentives", state planners are much less likely to invest in new ideas to satisfy consumer’s desires. Coherent planning The fourth condition for successful economic calculation is plan coordination among those who plan production. The problem of planning production is the knowledge problem explained by Hayek (1937, 1945) The planning could either be done in a decentralised fashion, requiring some mechanism to make the individual plans coherent, or centrally, requiring a lot of information. Within capitalism, the overall plan for production is composed of individual plans from capitalists in large and small enterprises. Since capitalists purchase labour and capital out of the same common pool of available but scarce labor and capital, it is essential that their plans fit together in at least a semi-coherent fashion. Hayek (1937) defined an efficient planning process as one where all decision makers form plans that contain relevant data from the plans from others. Entrepreneurs acquire data on the plans from others through the price system. The price system is an indispensable communications network for plan coordination among entrepreneurs. Increases and decreases in prices inform entrepreneurs about the general economic situation, to which they must adjust their own plans. As for socialism, Mises (1944) and Hayek (1937) insisted that bureaucrats in individual ministries could never coordinate their plans, not without a price system. If decentralized socialism cannot work, central authorities must plan production. But central planners face the knowledge problem in forming a comprehensive plan for production. Mises and Hayek saw centralization as inevitable in socialism. Opponents argued that in principle an economy can be seen as a set of equations. Thus, there should be no need for prices. Using information about available resources and the preferences of people, it should be possible to calculate an optimal solution for resource allocation. Friedrich von Hayek responded that the system of equations required too much information that would not be easily available and the ensuing calculations would be too difficult. This is partly due to the fact that individuals possess useful knowledge but do not realise its importance, or may have no incentive to transmit the information. He contended that the only rational solution is to utilize all the dispersed knowledge in the market place through the use of price signals. The early debates were made before the much greater calculating powers of modern computers became available but also before research on chaos theory. In the 1980s, Alex Nove argued that even with the best computers, the calculations would take millions of years Alex Nove. (1983). The Economics of Feasible Socialism. George Allen and Unwin, London. It may be impossible to make long-term predictions for a highly complex system such as an economy. Hayek (1935, 1937, 1940, 1945) stressed the knowledge problem of central planning, partly because decentralized socialism seemed indefensible. Part of the reason that Hayek stressed the knowledge problem was also because he was mainly concerned with debating the proposal for Market Socialism and the Lange Model by Oskar R. Lange (1938) and Hayek's student Abba Lerner (1934, 1937, 1938), which was developed in response to the calculation argument. Lange and Lerner conceded that prices were necessary in socialism. Lange and Lerner thought that socialist officials could simulate some markets (mainly spot markets) and the simulation of spot markets was enough to make socialism reasonably efficient. Oskar Lange argued that prices can be seen merely as an accounting practice. In principle, claim market socialists, socialist managers of state enterprises could use a price system, as an accounting system, in order to minimize costs and convey information to other managers. However, while this can deal with existing stocks of goods, providing a basis for values can be ascertained, it does not deal with the investment in new capital stocks. Hayek responded by arguing that the simulation of markets in socialism would fail due to a lack of genuine competition and entrepreneurship. Central planners would still have to plan production without the aid of economically meaningful prices. Lange and Lerner also admitted that socialism would lack any simulation of financial markets, and that this would cause problems in planning capital investment. Hayek's argumentation is not only regarding computational complexity for the central planners, however. He further argues that much of the information individuals have cannot be collected or used by others. First, individuals may have no or little incentive to share their information with central or even local planners. Second, the individual may not be aware that he has valuable information, and when he becomes aware, it is only useful for a limited time, too short for it to be communicated to the central or local planners. Third, the information is useless to other individuals if it is not in a form that allows for meaningful comparisons of value (i.e. money prices as a common basis for comparison). Therefore, Hayek argues, individuals must acquire data through prices in real markets. Financial Markets The fifth condition for successful economic calculation is the existence of well functioning financial markets. Economic efficiency depends heavily upon avoiding errors in capital investment. The costs of reversing errors in capital investment are potentially large. This is not just a matter of rearranging or converting capital goods that are found to be of little use. The time spent reconfiguring the structure of production is time lost in the production of consumer goods. Those who plan capital investment must anticipate future trends in consumer demand if they are to avoid investing too much in some lines of production and too little in other lines of production. Capitalists plan production for profit. Capitalists use prices to form expectations that determine the composition of capital accumulation, the pattern of investment across industry. Those who invest in accordance with consumers desires are rewarded with profits, those who do not are forced to become more efficient or go out of business. Prices in futures markets play a special role in economic calculation. Futures markets develop prices for commodities in future time periods. It is in futures markets that entrepreneurs sort out plans for production based on their expectations. Futures markets are a link between entrepreneurial investment decisions and household consumer decisions. Since most goods are not explicitly traded in futures markets, substitute markets are needed. The stock market serves as a ‘continuous futures market’ that evaluates entrepreneurial plans for production (Lachmann 1978). Generally speaking the problem of economic calculation is solved in financial markets. The problem of economic calculation arises in an economy which is perpetually subject to change ... In order to solve such problems it is above all necessary that capital be withdrawn from particular undertakings and applied in other lines of production ... [This] is essentially a matter of the capitalists who buy and sell stocks and shares, who make loans and recover them, who speculate in all kinds of commodities” Mises 1922 [1936] p121 Mises The existence of financial markets is a necessary condition for economic calculation. The existence of financial markets itself does not automatically imply that entrepreneurial speculation will tend towards efficiency. Mises claimed that speculation in financial markets tends towards efficiency because of a “trial and error” process. Entrepreneurs who commit relatively large errors in investment waste their funds over expanding some lines of production at the cost of other more profitable ventures where consumer demand is higher. The entrepreneurs who commit the worst errors by forming the least accurate expectations of future consumer demands incur financial losses. Financial losses remove these inept entrepreneurs from positions of authority in industry. Entrepreneurs who commit smaller errors by anticipating consumer demand more correctly attain greater financial success. The entrepreneurs who form the most accurate opinions regarding the future state of markets (i.e. new trends in consumer demands) earn the highest profits and gain greater control of industry. Those entrepreneurs who anticipate future market trends therefore waste the least amount of real capital and find the most favorable terms for finance on markets for financial capital. Minimal waste of real capital goods implies the minimization of the opportunity costs of capital- economic calculation. The value of capital goods is brought into line with the value of future consumer goods through competition in financial markets, because competition for profits among capitalists financiers rewards entrepreneurs who value capital more correctly (i.e. anticipating future prices more correctly) and eliminates capitalists who value capital least correctly. To sum things up, the use of money in trading all goods (capital/labor and consumer) in all markets (spot and financial) combined with profit driven entrepreneurship and Darwinian natural selection in financial markets all combine to make rational economic calculation and allocation the outcome of the capitalist process. Mises insisted that socialist calculation is impossible because socialism precludes the exchange of capital goods in terms of a generally accepted medium of exchange, or money. Investment in financial markets determines the capital structure of modern industry with some degree of efficiency. The egalitarian nature of socialism prohibits speculation in financial markets. Mises therefore concluded that socialism lacks any clear tendency towards improvement in the capital structure of industry. Example Von Mises gave the example of choosing between producing wine or oil: Such intermediate products would include land, warehouse storage, bottles, barrels, oil, transport, etc. Not only would these things have to be assembled, but they would have to compete with the attainment of other economic goals. Without pricing for capital goods, essentially, Mises is arguing, it is impossible to know what their rational/most efficient use is. Investment is particularly impossible, as the potential future outputs, which cannot be measured by any current standard, let alone a monetary one required for economic calculation. The value consumers have for current consumption over future consumption cannot be expressed, quantified or implemented, as investment is independent from savings. Implementation of central planning decisions Hayek, in The Road to Serfdom, also argues that the central administrative resource allocation, which often must take away resources and power from subordinate leader and groups, necessarily requires and therefore selects ruthless leaders and the continued strong threat of coercion and punishment in order for the plans to be somewhat effectively implemented. This, in combination of the failures of the central planning, slowly leads socialism down the road to an oppressive dictatorship. John Jewkes, at the same time, made a similar analysis in Ordeal by planning. Criticisms Scale of Problem One criticism, though, has been that proponents of the problem overstate the strength of their case, in describing socialism as impossible, rather than inefficient. Bryan Caplan is a mainstream economist and wrote a piece explaining why he 'is not an Austrian economist'. In it, he discusses the economic calculation debate, and, while admitting that it is a problem for socialism, denies that Mises has shown it to be fatal, or that it is this particular problem that lead to the collapse of the socialist states. An Austrian response to this claim is that most national attempts at socialism have relied upon capitalist markets, foreign and domestic, to determine the socialist system's accounting prices, observe successful innovations, and even import and export goods. Domestic black markets and gift-systems such as the Soviet's blat would expose socialism to market calculations. Global socialism, completely reliant upon central planning, would not have such methods to make socialism in tune with capitalist successes. The End of Socialism and the Calculation Debate Revisited - Murray N. Rothbard - Mises Institute Efficiency of Markets Another counter-argument is to dispute the claim that a free market is efficient at resource allocation. Alec Nove argues that in "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" von Mises "tends to spoil his case by the implicit assumption that capitalism and optimum resource allocation go together", and Mainstream economists, such as Paul Samuelson have argued however that markets are, on the whole, allocatively efficient. Joan Robinson claims many prices in modern capitalism are effectively "administered prices" created by "quasi monopolies", thus challenging the connection between capital markets and rational resource allocation. Milton Friedman agreed that markets with monopolistic competition are not efficient. However, in countries with free trade the pressure from foreign competition makes monopolies behave in a competitive manner. Free to Choose, Milton Friedman, 1979, Secker and Warburg In countries with protectionist policies foreign competition cannot fulfill this role, but the threat of potential competition- that, were companies to abuse their position, new rivals could emerge and gain customers dissatisfied with the old companies, can still reduce the inefficiencies. It is argued, however, that monopolies and big business are not generally the result of a free market, but government privileges, otherwise known as state capitalism or mercantalism, which Mises and other Austrians argued adamantly against. State capitalism incorporates central planning into a national economy, which removes power from individual calculation and moves it towards bureaucrats and politicians, similarly to socialism. Alternatively, Joseph Schumpeter argued that it is large firms that drive economic advance though innovation and investment, and so their proliferation shouldn't be seen as a bad thing: they are the Unternehmergeist that drive advance. Socialists retort that natural monopolies and strict oligopolies even in a free market disprove the Austrian argument. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=247490 Other responses It has also been claimed that the contention that finding a true economic equilibrium is not just hard but impossible for a central planner applies equally well to a market system; As any Universal Turing Machine can do what any other Turing machine can, a system of dispersed calculators (i.e. a market) has no in principle advantage over one central calculator. > Some writers have gone on to suggest that with detailed use of real unit accounting and demand surveys a planned economy could operate without a capital market, in a situation of abundance, The purpose of the price mechanism is to allow individuals to recognise the opportunity cost of decisions: in a state of abundance, there is no such cost. Steady state Robinson also noted that in a non-growth economy (what Marxists would call a situation of simple reproduction) there would be an effective abundance of means of production, and so markets would not be needed. Von Mises acknowledged such a theoretical possibility in his original tract: He contended, however, that stationary conditions never prevail in the real world. Changes in economic conditions are inevitable; and even if it were, the transition to socialism would be so chaotic as to preclude the existence of such a steady state from the start. Project Cybersyn Project Cybersyn is an example of attempting to plan the Chilean Economy through computer-aided calculation. It consisted of Telex machines located in workplaces communicating information in real time to a central control system. Its overall impact is difficult to assess, as it was destroyed in 1973. Bibliography Boettke, Peter 1990 The Political Economy of Soviet Socialism Caldwell, B: 1997. Hayek and Socialism The Journal of Economic Literature V35 1856-1890 Cottrell, Allin and Cockshott WP "Calculation, Complexity and Planning: The socialist calculation debate once again" Review of Political Economy Dickinson HD 1933 Price Formation in a Socialist Community in The Economic Journal Dickinson, HD 1939 The Economics of Socialism Hayek, FA 1935 Collectvist Economic Planning Hayek FA 1937 Economics and Knowledge Economica V4 N13 33-54. Hayek FA 1940 The Competitive "Solution" Economica V7 N26 pp 125-149 Hayek, FA The Road to Serfdom Hayek, FA 1945 The Use of Knowledge in Society The American Economic Review Hayek, FA 1952 The Counter Revolution of Science Hayek, FA 1967 The New Confusion about Planning Kirzner, Israel 1973 Competition and Entrepreneurship Lavoie, Don 1985 Rivalry and Central Planning Oscar Lange On the Economic Theory of Socialism I, 1936, Review of Economic Studies. V4 N1 53-71 Oscar Lange 1937 "On the Economic Theory of Socialism II, . Review of Economic Studies. V4 N 123-142 Oscar Lange On the Economic Theory of Socialism, 1938. Oscar Lange 1942 The Economic Operation of a Socialist Society I+II Contributions to Political Economy V6 p3-12, 13-24 Oscar Lange 1957a Political Economy of Socialism Oscar Lange 1957b. Role of Planning in a socialist economy Oscar Lange 1967 The Computer and the Market in Socialism, Capitalism, and Economic Growth Feinstein Ed. Lachmann, L: 1978 Capital and Its Structure. Sheed, Andrews, and McMeel, Kansas City Lavoie, D: 1981. A Critique of the Standard Account of the Socialist Calculation Debate Journal ofLibertarian Studies N5 V1 41-87 Lavoie, Don 1985 Rivalry and Central Planning Lerner, AP 1934 Economic Theory and Socialist Economy The Review of Economic Studies V2 N1 51-61 Lerner, AP 1936 A note on Socialist Economics The Review of Economic Studies V4 N1 72-76 Lerner, AP 1937 Statics and Dynamics in Socialist Economics The Economic Journal V47 N186 253-270 Lerner, AP 1938 Theory and Practice in Socialist Economics The Review of Economic Studies V6 N1 71-5 Lerner, AP 1944 The Economics of Control MacKenzie, DW 2008 "Social Dividends, Bureacratic Rules, and Entrepreneurial Discretion" Eastern Economic Journal MacKenzie, DW 2006 "Oscar Lange and the Impossibility of Economic Calculation", Studia Economicze Mises LE 1912 The Theory of Money and Credit Mises LE 1920 Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth, reprinted in Hayek (1935) Mises LE 1922[1936] Socialism, and Economic and Sociological Analysis Mises 1933 Planned Economy and Socialism; reprinted in Selected Writings of Ludwig von Mises, The Liberty Fund (2002) Richard M Ebeling ed. Mises LE 1944 Bureacracy Mises LE 1944 Omnipotent Government Mises LE 1949 Human Action Mises LE 1957 Theory and History Roemer, John (1994). A Future for Socialism, Verso Press. Stiglitz, J: 1994. Whither Socialism? MIT Press Vaughn, Karen. 1980. Economic Calculation under Socialism: The Austrian Contribution. Economic Inquiry 18:535–54 Yunker, James A. Post-Lange Market Socialism" 1995, Journal of Economic Issues References See also Enrico Barone Ludwig von Mises Friedrich Hayek Otto Neurath Austrian School Socialism Post scarcity External links The Socialist Calculation Debate and the Austrian Critique of Central Economic Planning by Andrew Chamberlain The Impossibility of Economic Calculation Under Socialism by Ludwig von Mises The Use of Knowledge in Society by Friedrich Hayek Oskar Lange and the Impossibility of Economic Calculation by D.W. MacKenzie Socialism: Still Impossible After All These Years by Peter J. Boettke and Peter T. Leeson The “Economic Calculation” controversy: unravelling of a myth by Robin Cox Must Economies Be Rational? by David Gordon The economics of information, market socialism and Hayek's legacy Information and Economics: A Critique of Hayek by Allin F. Cottrell and W. Paul Cockshott Review Essay to Towards a New Socialism? by Allin F. Cottrell and W. Paul Cockshott by Len Brewster Real Socialism Wouldn't Work Either Calculation, Complexity and Planning: The Socialist Calculation Debate Once Again The End of Socialism and the Calculation Debate Revisited by Murray Rothbard Socialism: A Property or Knowledge Problem? by Hans-Hermann Hoppe | Economic_calculation_problem |@lemmatized economic:57 calculation:42 problem:19 criticism:4 socialist:27 economics:11 precisely:1 planning:15 first:4 propose:1 ludwig:5 von:10 mi:24 later:2 expound:1 friedrich:4 hayek:29 f:4 nature:2 history:2 present:2 state:10 debate:13 om:1 ed:3 collectivist:1 pp:2 refer:1 distribute:1 resource:11 rationally:2 economy:18 free:6 market:53 solution:5 price:35 mechanism:4 argue:16 possible:4 without:11 information:13 provide:3 socialism:53 lack:7 method:2 allocate:2 agree:2 refutation:1 show:2 planned:2 could:8 never:3 work:3 rag:1 specific:1 period:2 come:1 know:4 historian:1 famous:1 article:1 commonwealth:4 pricing:1 system:16 necessarily:3 deficient:1 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5,723 | K | K is the eleventh letter of the modern Latin alphabet. Its name in English () is spelled kay. "K" Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (1989); Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (1993); "kay," op. cit. History and usage Egyptian hieroglyph D Proto-Semitic K Phoenician K Etruscan K Greek KappadImage:Proto-semiticK-01.pngImage:PhoenicianK-01.pngImage:EtruscanK-01.png The letter K comes from the Greek Κ , which was taken from the Semitic kap, the symbol for an open hand. "K". The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., 1989, online This in turn was likely adapted by Semites who had lived in Egypt from the hieroglyph for "hand" representing D in the Egyptian word for hand, d-r-t. The Semites evidently assigned it the sound value instead, because their word for hand started with that sound. Cyrus H. Gordon: The Accidental Invention of the Phonemic Alphabet In the earliest Latin inscriptions, the letters C, K and Q were all used to represent the sounds /k/ and /g/ (which were not differentiated in writing). Of these, Q was used to represent /k/ or /g/ before a rounded vowel, K before /a/, and C elsewhere. Later, the use of C (and its variant G) replaced most usages of K and Q. K survived only in a few fossilized forms such as Kalendae, "the calends". When Greek words were taken into Latin, the Kappa was converted to C, with a few exceptions such as the praenomen Kaeso. Some words from other alphabets were also transliterated into C. Therefore, the Romance languages have K only in words from still other language groups. The Celtic languages also chose C over K, and this influence carried over into Old English. Today, English is the only Germanic language to productively use hard C in addition to K (although Dutch uses it in learned words of Latin origin and follows the same "hard / soft" distinction in such words as does French and English – but not in native words). Some English linguists prefer to reverse the Latin transliteration process for proper names in Greek, spelling Hecate as "Hekate", for example. And the writing down of languages that don't have their own alphabet with the Latin one has resulted in a standardization of the letter for this sound, as in Kwakiutl. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, [k] is the symbol for the voiceless velar plosive. Several other alphabets also use characters with sharp angles to indicate the sound or syllables that start with a , for example: Arabic ك, Hebrew כ (in some fonts), Korean ㄱ. This kind of phonetic-visual association was studied by Wolfgang Köhler. However, there are also many examples of rounded letters for , like ค in Thai, Ք in Armenian and C in Latin. Codes for computing In Unicode the capital K is codepoint U+004B and the lower case k is U+006B. The ASCII code for capital K is 75 and for lowercase k is 107; or in binary 01001011 and 01101011, correspondingly. The EBCDIC code for capital K is 210, and for lowercase k, 146. The numeric character references in HTML and XML are "K" and "k" for upper and lower case respectively. In British Sign Language (BSL), the letter 'k' is represented as index finger of right hand held extended and bent at first knuckle. Knuckle is then held against extended index of left hand. See also Ƙ (hooked K) К, к - Ka (Cyrillic) Κ, κ or ϰ - Kappa (Greek) k, in physics, is the force constant (or spring constant) or the Boltzmann Constant. K, the chemical symbol for potassium. Notes [[ | K |@lemmatized k:29 eleventh:1 letter:6 modern:1 latin:7 alphabet:6 name:2 english:8 spell:2 kay:2 oxford:2 dictionary:3 edition:1 merriam:1 webster:1 third:1 new:1 international:2 language:7 unabridged:1 op:1 cit:1 history:1 usage:2 egyptian:2 hieroglyph:2 proto:2 semitic:2 phoenician:1 etruscan:1 greek:5 kappadimage:1 semitick:1 pngimage:2 phoeniciank:1 etruscank:1 png:1 come:1 κ:3 take:2 kap:1 symbol:3 open:1 hand:6 ed:1 online:1 turn:1 likely:1 adapt:1 semite:2 live:1 egypt:1 represent:4 word:8 r:1 evidently:1 assign:1 sound:5 value:1 instead:1 start:2 cyrus:1 h:1 gordon:1 accidental:1 invention:1 phonemic:1 early:1 inscription:1 c:8 q:3 use:6 g:3 differentiate:1 write:2 rounded:2 vowel:1 elsewhere:1 later:1 variant:1 replace:1 survive:1 fossilized:1 form:1 kalendae:1 calends:1 kappa:2 convert:1 exception:1 praenomen:1 kaeso:1 also:5 transliterate:1 therefore:1 romance:1 still:1 group:1 celtic:1 choose:1 influence:1 carry:1 old:1 today:1 germanic:1 productively:1 hard:2 addition:1 although:1 dutch:1 learned:1 origin:1 follow:1 soft:1 distinction:1 french:1 native:1 linguist:1 prefer:1 reverse:1 transliteration:1 process:1 proper:1 hecate:1 hekate:1 example:3 one:1 result:1 standardization:1 kwakiutl:1 phonetic:2 voiceless:1 velar:1 plosive:1 several:1 character:2 sharp:1 angle:1 indicate:1 syllable:1 arabic:1 ك:1 hebrew:1 כ:1 font:1 korean:1 ㄱ:1 kind:1 visual:1 association:1 study:1 wolfgang:1 köhler:1 however:1 many:1 like:1 ค:1 thai:1 ք:1 armenian:1 code:3 compute:1 unicode:1 capital:3 codepoint:1 u:2 low:2 case:2 ascii:1 lowercase:2 binary:1 correspondingly:1 ebcdic:1 numeric:1 reference:1 html:1 xml:1 upper:1 respectively:1 british:1 sign:1 bsl:1 index:2 finger:1 right:1 hold:2 extend:1 bent:1 first:1 knuckle:2 extended:1 left:1 see:1 ƙ:1 hooked:1 к:2 ka:1 cyrillic:1 ϰ:1 physic:1 force:1 constant:3 spring:1 boltzmann:1 chemical:1 potassium:1 note:1 |@bigram merriam_webster:1 op_cit:1 egyptian_hieroglyph:1 proto_semitic:1 rounded_vowel:1 phonetic_alphabet:1 voiceless_velar:1 velar_plosive:1 κ_κ:1 boltzmann_constant:1 |
5,724 | Paul_Héroult | Statue of Paul Heroult The French scientist Paul (Louis-Toussaint) Héroult (April 10 1863 – May 9 1914) was the inventor of the aluminium electrolysis and of the electric steel furnace. He lived in Thury-Harcourt, Normandy. Christian Bickert said of him Christian Bickert, US Representative for Pechiney, New Orleans, 1986 Paul Héroult read Henri Sainte-Claire Deville's treatise on aluminium, when he was 15 years old. At that time, aluminium was as expensive as silver. It was used mostly for luxury items and jewellery. Héroult wanted to make it cheaper. He succeeded in doing so when he discovered the electrolytic aluminium process in 1886. The same year, in the United States, Charles Martin Hall (1863–1914) was discovering the same process. Because of this the process was called the Hall-Heroult process. Héroult's second most important invention is the electric arc furnace for steel in 1900. The Héroult furnace gradually replaced the giant smelters for the production of a variety of steels. In 1905, Paul Héroult was invited to the United States as a technical adviser to several companies, and in particular to the United States Steel Corporation. Paul Héroult is renowned for other major inventions among which a self-sustained conduit still used to bring water down from mountain heights and across rivers to hydraulic power plants, avoiding the need to build expensive bridges. Footnotes and references | Paul_Héroult |@lemmatized statue:1 paul:5 heroult:2 french:1 scientist:1 louis:1 toussaint:1 héroult:7 april:1 may:1 inventor:1 aluminium:4 electrolysis:1 electric:2 steel:4 furnace:3 live:1 thury:1 harcourt:1 normandy:1 christian:2 bickert:2 say:1 u:1 representative:1 pechiney:1 new:1 orleans:1 read:1 henri:1 sainte:1 claire:1 deville:1 treatise:1 year:2 old:1 time:1 expensive:2 silver:1 use:2 mostly:1 luxury:1 item:1 jewellery:1 want:1 make:1 cheap:1 succeed:1 discover:2 electrolytic:1 process:4 united:3 state:3 charles:1 martin:1 hall:2 call:1 second:1 important:1 invention:2 arc:1 gradually:1 replace:1 giant:1 smelter:1 production:1 variety:1 invite:1 technical:1 adviser:1 several:1 company:1 particular:1 corporation:1 renowned:1 major:1 among:1 self:1 sustain:1 conduit:1 still:1 bring:1 water:1 mountain:1 height:1 across:1 river:1 hydraulic:1 power:1 plant:1 avoid:1 need:1 build:1 bridge:1 footnote:1 reference:1 |@bigram paul_héroult:3 sainte_claire:1 claire_deville:1 arc_furnace:1 |
5,725 | North_Melbourne_Football_Club | The North Melbourne Football Club, nicknamed The Kangaroos, is the fourth oldest Australian rules football club in the AFL and is one of the oldest sporting clubs in Australia. It is based at the Arden Street Oval in the inner Melbourne suburb of North Melbourne, but plays its home matches at the nearby Docklands Stadium. The club mascot, dating from the middle of the twentieth century (1950s), is a grey or red kangaroo. The club is also unofficially known as the "Shinboners", a term which dates back to its 19th century abattoir-worker origins. The club's motto is victoria amat curam, Latin for "Victory Demands Dedication". Club history {{cquote|<big>""In two aspects North Melbourne stands second to none. One is the loyalty of its supporters. The other is the determination to carry on, despite its disadvantages. In the face of adversity, which might well have broken the spirit of most men, we find that from the earliest days there were always enthusiasts to fight for North Melbourne"" </big>|30px|30px|The Australasian 15 June 1940.}} Formative years The North Melbourne Football Club arose from lowly origins in 1869, purportedly established to satisfy the needs of local cricketers who were keen to keep themselves fit over the winter months. One view is that the club was connected to the St Mary’s Church of England Cricket Club, nonetheless the establishment was nothing official, rather a general gathering to play some competitive sport. Information on the club’s first ever match is sketchy, but it is known that it took place in Royal Park (which served as the clubs home ground until 1882) and that the ball used in the match was purchased by a local resident called Tom Jacks, who sold some roofing iron to pay for it. Today, the founder of the club is regarded as James Henry Gardiner, a pivotal and legendary figure who served the club diligently both on the field and off the field right up until his death in 1921. In 1870, Victoria for the first time saw the introduction of regular premiership matches of Australian Football. North Melbourne was apart of this, but was classed as a “Junior Club” having not yet graduated to senior ranks. The Australasian noted them as being “one of the best of many Junior Clubs” during those early years. The club continued to evolve, graduating to senior ranks in 1874 and acquitted themselves remarkably well, finishing 4th. Along with the promotion, the club adopted its first uniform of blue and white horizontal stripes. By 1876 North had ceased to function due to troubles, but managed to secure an amalgamation with Albert Park to form “North Melbourne Cum Albert Park”. The football world assumed that the amalgamation was the death kneel of the club, but they underestimated the spirit of the “founding fathers” and the local community who dug deep and came up with the funds to re-establish the club under the new name of “Hotham” in early 1877. Association years Football took a giant step forward in 1877, with the formation of the first colonial football league, the VFA. Hotham were prime movers in establishing this league and were afforded a place in light of their previous contributions to Australian Football. The 1880s marked the emergence of the modern identity we now associate with North today. In 1882, the club amalgamated with the Hotham Cricket Club and moved into the North Melbourne Recreation Reserve (Arden St Oval) which has remained as the home of the Club up until this day. The joint venture was aimed at affecting improvements at the Hotham Cricket Ground, which was the name of the Reserve at the time. Four years later the club adopted the traditional uniform of blue and white vertical stripes at the insistence of the VFA, who wanted there to be a visible contrast between Geelong’s and Hotham’s uniforms. The third significant development occurred in 1888 with the club reverting back to its original name as the North Melbourne Football Club. This was done to keep inline with the towns renaming from Hotham to North Melbourne. The 1880’s also saw the club's penchant for inter-colonial travel with trips to Tasmania in 1881 and 1887, and South Australia in 1889. Hotham also found itself well represented at the first ever inter-colonial game in 1879 with 4 players from the Club gaining selection for the "Big V". Disregarded by the VFL The VFA became unwieldy by the 1890s having swelled to 15 Clubs. Led by Geelong, and fuelled by Essendon, the largest clubs of the VFA revolted and formed their own break away league, the Victorian Football League (VFL) in 1896. Despite finishing 6th North was rudely excluded from the competition, a fact not lost on their supporters today. The main reasons for being excluded are as follows: North had not won a premiership yet, and thus was not considered a powerful club The industrialisation of the locality had drained the club’s income streams The club had a strong reputation for hooliganism from their fans There was a lot of bad blood between Collingwood and North following a torrid engagement in the previous season Essendon felt threatened by the close proximity of North Melbourne A court case against the North Melbourne Cricket Club had damaged the Football Club’s status Undaunted, North continued on in the depleted VFA emerging as a powerhouse finishing 2nd in both 1897, 98 and 99. In 1903 the Club’s ultimate aspirations were reached when they were crowned premiers against Richmond. It had taken 34 years of hardship, and adversity, but North finally tasted absolute triumph. The club went back to back premiers in 1904 after Richmond forfeited the final. In 1907 as an amalgamation with fellow football club West Melbourne (which at the time had lost their home ground) saw their chance of promotion and applied for admission to the VFL but missed out as Richmond and University were admitted. The local community re-established the North Melbourne Football Club as a new entity and the VFA re-admitted the new club to the Association for the 1908 season. "The Invincibles" The reformation of the Club necessitated a massive clean out of the team leaving only two players remaining from the previous season. The 1910 season was marked with one of the most sensational transfers in Victorian Football history, when Andy Curran masterminded the clearance of Carlton’s famed “Big Four” of ‘Mallee’ Johnson, Fred Jinks, Charlie Hammond and Frank ‘Silver’ Caine to North Melbourne. These signings secured the Northerners third premiership in 1910. The 1912 finals series was one of the most amazing ever, with the Semi Final having to be replayed 3 times after North and Brunswick drew twice. North were eventually victorious and moved on to the final, but unfortunately without the Big Four they lost the game by a mere four points with the last kick of the day. The next few years were punctuated by “The Invincibles”. In the Northerners most illustrious period ever, the club went undefeated from 1914 to 1919, collecting premierships in 1914, 1915 and 1918. As well as this, the club won the championship in both 1915 and 1918 for finishing on top of the ladder, and accounted for VFL side St Kilda comfortably. During this period the club won 58 consecutive matches including 49 successive premiership matches, a record that has remained unmatched in Association or League History since. Despite being rejected from the VFL in both 1896 and 1907, North still persisted relentlessly to gain admission into what was the premier league of the land. On 30 June 1921, North dropped a bombshell mid-season and told its players it would disband and try to gain entry to the VFL by the ‘back-door’. Essendon League Football Club had lost its playing ground at East Melbourne and had decided to acquire the North Melbourne Recreation Reserve as a new playing ground. North accepted their proposal in the idea that the club’s would amalgamate. All of North’s players were urged to join the Essendon League Club to help facilitate the amalgamation. The amalgamation was foiled when some members of the Essendon Committee launched a successful legal challenge. As a result the Essendon League Club moved instead to the Essendon Oval kicking the original occupants the Essendon Association Club out. North was now without a playing team and Essendon Association was now without a ground, so as a matter of convenience the two clubs amalgamated so they could compete in the 1922 season. With the same resilience it had displayed fifteen years earlier, North had once again rose Phoenix-like from the ashes to avert self-destruction. Entering the VFL After 3 attempts, 29 years of waiting and numerous other applications to enter the VFL, finally North was rewarded for its relentless persistence with admittance to the League in 1925, along with Footscray and Hawthorn. Even then, the opportunity almost slipped out of the club’s grasp as the League delegates debated into the early hours of the morning on which clubs should be invited to join the intake. It was only after much deliberation that North Melbourne’s name was eventually substituted for Prahran's making North “the lucky side” of the invitees that included Footscray and Hawthorn. Two main reasons for North being accepted over Prahran was that North had been the most popular choice in a recent poll conducted in a Melbourne newspaper on who should be promoted. The other reason was that the Club’s committee, in an unprecedented move, had visited every single League Club as well as the VFL Headquarters to make their case for why they should be included in the intake. But two big conditions were attached to North’s entry. One was that the club had to change their uniform and another was that they had to give up their recruiting grounds to the Essendon Football Club. North Melbourne were cellar dwellers for the first twenty-five years of VFL membership, but by the late 1940s had developed a strong list and significant supporter base. In 1949 North secured the VFL Minor Premiership, finishing top of the ladder at the end of the home-and-away season with 14 wins and 5 losses. They failed to make the Grand Final that year (eventually won by Essendon), but in 1950 they did reach the last Saturday in September, gallantly going down to defeat by a more efficient Essendon. It was in this year that the club adopted the "Kangaroos" mascot. Gerard Dowling, "North Melbourne Football Club", in Andrew Brown-May and Shurlee Swain, The Encyclopedia of Melbourne, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 2005, p.511. The 1950s and 1960s were lean years for North Melbourne, though the club did secure two consecutive Night Premierships in 1965 and 1966. Allen Aylett was a brilliant player in the late 1950s and captain between 1961 and 1964, and Noel Teasdale who lost the Brownlow Medal on a countback in 1965 (he was later awarded a retrospective medal when the counting system was amended). Towards the end of the 1960s, and under the dynamic leadership of Dr. Allen Aylett, North Melbourne began its climb to supremacy. As part of a major recruitment drive, Barry Davisfrom Essendon and Doug Wade ,Geelong, John Rantall,(South Melbourne), Barry Cable (WA),and lesser known star John Burns who played a pivotal role in securing the 1975 premiership. In a major coup, the great Ron Barassi was appointed coach in 1973. His ruthless and inspiring coaching methods took North to a Grand Final (defeated by Richmond) in 1974 and brought success in his 1975 and 1977. North made six consecutive Grand Finals (1974-1978), two in 1977 as the first was drawn. Also, in 1973 and 1974, North's wingman Keith Greig won consecutive Brownlow Medals. He was joined in 1978 by the mercurial forward Malcolm Blight, whose victory was known as the "worst kept secret in football". Doug Wade also secured the Coleman medal in 1974 with his 103 goals for the season. Barassi continued as coach into 1980, but only a Night Premiership in that year was to result from his last years at Arden Street. North then entered another period of decline, though Malcolm Blight kicked 103 goals to take out the Coleman medal in 1982, and another Brownlow win came through the talented Ross Glendinning in 1983. In that year, North Melbourne won a third Minor Premiership (the second had come in 1978) with 16 wins and 6 losses for the season, but failed to make the Grand Final. The capable coaching of John Kennedy aside, the 1980s and early 1990s were lean years for the Kangaroos.However, the rebuilding of the club was taking place. The Krakouer brothers (Jim and Phil) brought a spark into the side and lifted many hopes for North supporters and the excitement to the general football public. The innovative idea of night games was intsigated by the club and meeting the challenges, the club survived. One major highlight was the recruitment of the gun forward John Longmire in 1989, who topped the club goalkicking over five consecutive seasons (1990-1994) and won the Coleman medal in 1990 with 98 goals - just two short of the magic ton. At the beginning of the 1993 season, in a dramatic and controversial move, the board of the club sacked coach and long-time playing stalwart Wayne Schimmelbusch and appointed Denis Pagan in his place. Results were immediate, as North reached the finals for the first time in nearly a decade. Pagan was also instrumental in appointing the brilliant Wayne Carey as the club's youngest-ever captain. Carey had been recruited at the same time as Longmire, but taken longer to develop as a player. Carey's leadership over the next nine seasons was inspirational, and he came to be regarded as the standout player in the league, called 'the King' by media commentators and fellow footballers alike. Narrow misses in 1994 and 1995 were finally avenged in 1996 when North defeated the Sydney Swans to take out the gold centenary AFL cup. Glenn Archer won the Norm Smith Medal . Late season injuries in 1997 North lost to St. Kilda in the Preliminary Final (during which key ruckman Corey McKernan dislocated his shoulder). 1998 seemed to all to be North's year, as the club won both the pre-season Ansett Cup and topped the ladder with 16 wins and 6 losses (narrowly tipping out the Western Bulldogs in the final home-and-away game of the season). However, poor kicking and a lack of discipline allowed the Adelaide Crows to win their second premiership in as many years. In 1999, the Kangaroos finished in second position on the ladder, thanks to good form of the key members of the playing group ( Carey, McKernan, Archer, Stevens). Thus, the 1999 Grand Final was won easily by the Kangaroos [the first premiership won without the name 'North Melbourne' attached to the logo], with former Sydney midfielder Shannon Grant taking out the Norm Smith Medal. Since its inception, the club has often had to contend with financial hardship and a fairly modest support base. The club has been subject to several merger attempts, including attempts at takeover by Essendon in the early twentieth century and an almost-completed merger with Fitzroy during the uncertain 1990s. Seeking new markets and greater financial security in an increasingly corporatized AFL environment, the title "North Melbourne" was officially dropped from the logo in 1999, from which time the team played only as the "Kangaroos". During the successful 1999 season, North Melbourne played home games in Sydney with a view of becoming a second team in New South Wales. Perhaps partly because of North's victory over the Sydney Swans in the 1996, the experiment was not successful, with crowds averaging only 12,000. Since the South Melbourne Football Club moved to the city and took many years to become accepted, most Sydney people had become aware and cynical of the concept of relocating Melbourne teams.The club maintains their home ground in Victoria at Arden Street Oval, North Melbourne, which from 2006 underwent the first stages of a $12 million upgrade of training and other facilities. 21st century The twenty-first century did not begin well for the North Melbourne Football Club. Its decade-long onfield potency was in decline, questions were raised about its financial position and long-term sustainability and three of the pillars that had underpinned its 1990s dominance - coach Denis Pagan, captain Wayne Carey and chief executive Greg Miller - left the club under acrimonious circumstances. They went from finishing a reasonable 4th in 2000, before slumping to 13th position at the end of 2001. Revelations that emerged only a few weeks before the beginning of the 2002 season that champion captain Wayne Carey had been having an extramarital affair with the wife of teammate and vice-captain Anthony Stevens shook the club, and the football world in general. Carey resigned in disgrace. However, despite this turmoil on the eve of the season commencing, Denis Pagan against all odds guided the Kangaroos to the 2002 finals series. Unfortunately, Melbourne proved too strong in the elimination final and defeated the club. This was also John Blakey's and Craig Scholl's (Scholl kicking a record equaling 7 goals in a final) last game. The resignation of Pagan at the end of the 2002 season after being poached by Carlton president John Elliot further accelerated the process of decline, though North Melbourne remained competitive, and often a significant threat to the emerging powerhouses of Port Adelaide and Brisbane. Pagan was replaced by 1996 premiership player Dean Laidley. A talented player and wily coach, Laidley had previously been an Assistant Coach at Collingwood from 1999 until the end of season 2002. The 2003 season was mostly uneventful, with one major exception — the emotional return of Jason McCartney from severe burns suffered in the 2002 Bali bombing on June 6 against Richmond. McCartney's statistics were modest, but he set up the winning goal with seconds remaining. He retired immediately after the game. A Kangaroos quarter time team huddle at the MCG {{cquote|<big>""If the world were consumed by a nuclear holocaust tomorrow, the North Melbourne Football Club and cockroaches would be the only two things left scurrying round the earth.For the second week in a row, the Kangaroos showed why they are the hardest team to kill in the AFL.""</big>|30px|30px|The Australian 8 August 2005.}} In the 2005 season, the Kangaroos fought back from a mid-season slump finishing fifth on the ladder and in doing so helped to silence critics who had labelled the club and new coach as 'ineffective' and 'useless'. Unfortunately, these critics returned when in the 1st Elimination Final, the Kangaroos lost by a shattering 87 points to reigning Premiers Port Adelaide. 2006 was anticipated as a major turning point for the Kangaroos. The club was consistent in its policy of swapping early draft picks for experienced players. There was a perception from outsiders that the club was facing an aging squad, with Daniel Wells shaping as the only young prospect for the Kangaroos. However, 2006 saw good performances from many of the other youngsters on North's list, including Daniel Harris, Hamish McIntosh, Corey Jones, Drew Petrie, David Hale and Andrew Swallow. In July 2006, the Kangaroos' training ground, Arden Street suffered minor damage in a fire, which occurred at 4:30am, after a massive 72-point loss to the Adelaide Crows at AAMI Stadium the night before. Arson was believed to be the cause of the fire, and it forced the Kangaroos to train at Etihad Stadium for the remainder of the 2006 AFL Season. Apart from highlights such as the victories over Port Adelaide , Hawthorn ,Carlton and Essendon, as well as Nathan Thompson kicking 54 goals and 13 votes in the Brownlow medal count the 2006 season was largely a disappointment. At the conclusion of the 2006 Premiership Season, the North Melbourne Football Club changed their logo, mainly due to strong supporter pressure. The design includes an image of stream-lined Kangaroo, backed by a blue and white shield, with 'Kangaroos' underneath. Under 'Kangaroos' is the wording 'North Melbourne Football Club', back on the logo, much to the delight of thousands of North Melbourne traditionalists. Early 2007 saw the club in the media spotlight on a number of fronts. With the retirement of personally troubled key defender Jonathan Hay and season ending injuries to the club's top two goal kickers of 2006, Nathan Thompson and Leigh Harding, the club was overwhelmingly tipped to receive the wooden spoon at season's end. Conflict between members of the club's board, and speculation of a relocation of the club to the Gold Coast, also gave the North Melbourne Football Club unwanted media attention. Midseason, inexplicable speculation about whether Dean Laidley would be re-signed as coach of the club despite its impressive performance thus far in 2007 was prominent in the media for a ten day period and then, just as inexplicably, faded away. In spite of negative media attention, the club has had a significant resurgence on field, with its performances being more than respectable. A semi-finals berth in the pre-season competition was a preview of what was to come. Unfortunately the Kangaroos didn't get the start they hoped for, losing their first 3 matches including a heartbreaking Round 1 defeat at the hands of Collingwood by 3 points with losses against Port Adelaide and Hawthorn following. An example of the new running game of the Kangaroos was in Round 4 against the Lions in the Roos first Carrara home game, in which they won by 24 points, 12.15.87 to 8.15.63. Leigh Brown kicked 3 goals for the Roos, while Hamish McIntosh had his best game of his career to that point, with 20 possessions. Daniel Wells, Jess Sinclair, Glenn Archer and Shannon Grant also had stellar performances. The Kangaroos won 6 games in a row from round 4 to round 9, including a shock win over eventual premiers Geelong at Skilled Stadium, before eventually losing to West Coast by a whopping 66 points at Subiaco in Round 10. Following this loss, the Roos bounced back to defeat St. Kilda by a margin of 22 points at Etihad Stadium. However, possibly due to inexperience, the Kangaroos have not always appeared to have the ability to close out a game until late in the fourth quarter, with the notable exception of the Round 9 game against the The club was victorious between Rounds 13 to 17 after the loss to Adelaide in Round 12. One of these victories, perhaps one of the most important to the club this year, was the Round 13 game against the Western Bulldogs where North Melbourne champion and Shinboner of the Century Glenn Archer celebrated his milestone 300th game. Round 15 saw the Kangaroos upset the Fremantle Dockers at Subiaco by 4 points in a nailbaiting contest the whole way through with less than 6 points the difference at each break. Round 16 had the Kangaroos demolish Melbourne by 64 points and another Kangaroos victory followed a week later, this time a comfortable 37 point upset win over a higher placed Hawthorn at Aurora Stadium. This victory lifted North Melbourne to outright second on the AFL ladder by the conclusion of Round 17, with many football observers reluctantly having to revisit their assessments of both the ability of the North Melbourne squad for 2007 and the likelihood of the team playing in the finals. The 2007 campaign hit an obstacle late in the season when, at the beginning of a difficult run to the finals, the club was defeated by the Lions at the Gabba by 37 points in Round 18. While the Kangaroos retained their position of second on the AFL ladder following this defeat, they did so with a lower percentage and with one less game as a buffer. Following the defeat by the Brisbane Lions, the Kangaroos lost against fellow top 2 contenders and reigning premiers West Coast by 17 points at Etihad Stadium in a tight hard fought contest for most of the game. A week later in Round 20 the Kangaroos challenged Geelong who had wrapped up the minor premiership the week before. The Kangaroos being the last team to beat Geelong went in hoping that they could do it again, but unfortunately it wasn't to be as Geelong won by 27 points in a match that could've gone either way half way through the 3rd quarter. This loss pushed the Kangaroos down to 5th with the double chance looking dim but when they demolished a pathetic Carlton by 82 points the following week they sealed their place in the finals and also saw a chance to steal 4th spot had results fallen their way in the final round. In the final round of the 2007 home and away season, the 5th placed Kangaroos played the Western Bulldogs winning by an impressive 64 points. Not only was this loss disappointing for the Western Bulldogs but in the 2nd term they were held to their first scoreless quarter of football since they played West Coast at Subiaco Oval in Round 6 1999. This was also the first time this season that a team has been kept scoreless in a quarter of football. On the same day, the Sydney Swans recorded an upset 72 point win against Hawthorn at the SCG which allowed the Kangaroos to leapfrog the Hawks to claim 4th spot and win the double chance plus a spot against the minor Premiers Geelong in the 1st qualifying final. In the first week of the 2007 AFL finals when the club was beaten by the Geelong Football Club by 106 points, the fifth highest losing margin in finals history. The Roos then defeated Hawthorn Hawks by 33 points in the semi final . They qualified for an preliminary final against the Port Adelaide Power at AAMI Stadium. Power won by 87 points Push to the Gold Coast In 2006 the Kangaroos agreed to play 3 home games at Carrara Stadium in the Gold Coast throughout 2007, which has fuelled speculation of a possible relocation there by 2010. With 10 of the 16 AFL clubs based in and around Melbourne, the AFL has always pushed for more involvement interstate. The Kangaroos, much to the dismay of the very loyal North Melbourne fans, are one team that many suggest may be the next to move, due to their smaller membership and poor existing Melbourne training facilities. In 1996, North Melbourne and the Fitzroy Lions agreed to merge, but their plans were scuttled by Richmond who feared the creation of a 'super club'. Fitzroy was sent to the Brisbane Bears, who in turn became the Brisbane Lions. The Kangaroos then signed an agreement to play some home games at the Sydney Cricket Ground in 1999 until 2001. Following this the Kangaroos played home games at Canberra's Manuka Oval from 2002 until 2006, when the Kangaroos received a better offer to move home games to the Gold Coast. The Kangaroos had full AFL backing for their Gold Coast experiment, and the team had filmed a television commercial shown in South East Queensland promoting their team and the game. The AFL had stated that it wanted one game a week played in Queensland by 2015. The club denied speculation of a permanent move to the Gold Coast, but things could have been re-assessed based on how well the team was accepted there over the next few years. In an after match at AAMI Stadium vs Port, Roos CEO Rick Aylett mentioned that the Kangaroos or the AFL have never mentioned the much despised "R" word (relocation), but it has been the work of the media. He also said that they will begin work on the Arden Street ground soon, and it will begin the roos push to become a 21st century club. Aylett then finished by saying that the Kangaroos would never leave their Victorian faithful, and therefore wanted the name "North Melbourne" to be cemented for the next 100 years despite their almost certain move to the region from 2009 onwards. Despite this, the club has recently engaged consultants to look at the viability of such a move and the online survey sent to members appeared to be skewed so that the idea of relocation to the Gold Coast was more palatable. On 2 December, 2007, media reports from The Age stipulated that the AFL had garnered support from 75% of the Kangaroos Board to move the club to the Gold Coast. With the club having a unique shareholder 'system' which gives members little say in the matter, the fact that the majority of the board would like to see the future of the club lie on the Gold Coast does not bode well for the future. The Kangaroos answered their critics with a 24 point win in their first "home" game at Carrara against the Lions. Hamish McIntosh picked up 20 possessions while Leigh Brown kicked three goals. Jess Sinclair, Glenn Archer and Daniel Wells were the Kangaroos best. During October, supporters started to mobilise in opposition to the proposed relocation. A group called We Are North Melbourne emerged and launched a public campaign, calling for the Club's shareholder structure to be wound-up and for ordinary members to be given the final say on the relocation issue. The group also raised questions about the viability of the AFL's relocation offer which grabbed national media attention. Another group staged a "Roosistence" rock concert, headed by You Am I frontman, Tim Rogers, to raise funds for the club to remain in Melbourne. On 6 December, the North Melbourne board rejected the AFL proposal to relocate to the Gold Coast. On 7 December they announced an intention to return to the name North Melbourne (instead of being known only as "Kangaroos"), underlining their desire to stay based in Melbourne. The club announced a major upgrade to their Arden Street facilities in an attempt to remain competitive off the field. Shortly after, Rick Aylett quit as CEO of the club, citing personal reasons and an inability to work with a board which was split on the issue of relocation to the Gold Coast. Aylett quits as Roo boss Following the announcement, James Brayshaw named a new board, committed to remaining in Melbourne. Chairman James Brayshaw names his North Melbourne board On 8 December news of a new major sponsorship deal broke, suggesting Vodafone will put up to Au$2 million into the club over the next 2 years for primary naming rights. Identity Name and mascot The club was widely known as the 'Shinboners' for much of their early history. The origins of this nickname are unknown but it may have had something to do with the club's reputation for targeting the shinbones of opposition players, or to do with local butchers who showed their support for North by dressing up beef leg-bones in the club colours. By 1926, the club was known as the 'Blue Birds' but this nickname did not last. It was Phonse Tobin, North president from 1953-56, who finally gave the club a proper mascot when he adopted the Kangaroos emblem in 1954. Tobin found the image of a Shinbone unsavoury and wanted the club to have a mascot it could show with pride. In selecting a new name, he wanted something characteristically Australian and got inspiration from a giant Kangaroo he saw on display outside a city store. The official name of the club is North Melbourne, but the club has gone under several other aliases over the years. The club was originally founded as the 'North Melbourne Football Club', but changed to 'North Melbourne cum Albert Park' after merging with Albert park in 1876. Following the reformation of the club in 1877, it was known as the 'Hotham Football Club' but later retook the name 'North Melbourne' in 1888. In 1998 the club proposed changing its name to the 'Northern Kangaroos', but it was rejected by the AFL. Between 1999 and 2007, the club traded without much success as the 'The Kangaroos' in a bid to increase its appeal nationally. At the end of 2007 this decision was officially resindicated, and the club has once again reverted back to the name 'North Melbourne'. Logo Logo NMFC Monogram Monogram logos were popular with cricket and football clubs during the 1800's and early 1900's. This monogram design featured on official club publications prior to the 1960s. NMFC Coat of Arms This is the club's official coat of arms, and was used alongside the monogram design during the early 1900's up to the 1960's. 1977-1982 In 1977, the VFL introduced official logos for the first time. Prior to 1977 logos were generally done by outside companies for sales of merchandise, but were in no way official. All the club's logos were printed on shields and had navy blue top half's to represent the VFL. 1983-1984 In 1983, the Kangaroo was reversed to face forwards instead of backwards, to symbolise the direction the club was heading. 1984-2001 In 1984, the light blue was dropped and the actual club colours of royal blue were adopted on the stripes. This logo lasted till 2001, and was the last of the 'VFL shield' logos to be discontinued by any of the clubs in the AFL.2002-2006 This was the clubs secondary logo during the 90s, and by 2002 had been adopted as the official logo. The shield was dropped, the North Melbourne name was removed and more stripes were added. The change was made to coincide with the 'Kangaroos' re-branding of the club after 1998. In May 2005, the club invited fans to have their say on the current logo with a view to updating it. Three important elements for the fans were the retention of the stripes, kangaroo and North Melbourne name to reaffirm the club's commitment to it's history. The logo was unveiled in 2007, with Chief Executive Geoff Walsh describing it as "exciting and progressive, and keeps in line with the clubs core values and future direction". Home grounds Arden Street Oval has been traditionally associated with the Kangaroos and has been home to the club since 1882 (except for a brief period from 1965-1966 when the club relocated to the Coburg City Oval before moving back to Arden Street). In 1984 the club chose the Melbourne Cricket Ground as a playing venue and later Etihad Stadium. The Arden Street Oval is currently owned by the City of Melbourne and leased by the North Melbourne Football Club for social, administration and training facilities. The ground itself has been subject to rationalisation with the removal of grandstands since VFL/AFL matches are no longer played there. Homegrounds Years Royal Park 1869 – 1875 Albert Park 1876 Royal Park 1877 – 1882 Arden Street Oval 1882 – 1964 Coburg City Oval 1965 Arden Street Oval 1966 – 1985 Melbourne Cricket Ground 1985 – 2002 Docklands Stadium 2002 – present Guernsey North Melbourne's Home and Clash Jumpers North Melbourne is recognised throughout Australian football for its famous vertically striped royal blue and white guernsey. The design first used in 1884, pre-dates any of the other vertically striped jumpers worn by other clubs in the Australian Football League. The design has proven itself popular in Australian Football having been adopted by hundreds of other clubs across the country. Guernsey details Season Manufacturer Guernsey sponsor(s) Short sponsor 1975 – 1978 — Courage — 1979 – 1984 — Budget — 1985 – 1992 — Qantas — 1993 – 1995 — NZI Insurance — 1996 Nike Hypertec PCs NZI Insurance 1997 Hewlett-Packard SmokeFree 1998 1999 Mazda, SmokeFree Wentworth 2000 2001 Russell Athletic iPrimus 2002 Mazda 2003 2004 Bont Mazda, Primus Primus 2005 2006 Reebok 2007 2008 Mazda, Vodafone Blackwoods 2009 Blades Mazda Club song "Join in the Chorus" is the official anthem of the North Melbourne Football Club. It is sung to the tune of a Scottish folk song "A wee Deoch and Doris", from around 1911. Wee deoch-an-doris [Historic American Sheet Music] The famed song is generally sung, in accordance to common football tradition, after a victory. It is also played before every match. "Join in the Chorus" is believed to be the oldest club anthem of any AFL club, and has been associated with North from its early VFA days. The preamble of the song originates from a score of a Theatre Musical called 'Australia: Heart to Heart and Hand to Hand" written by Toso Taylor in the 1890s in pre-federation Australia. It is traditionally sung (or shouted) in great spirit by players and fans alike. The second verse is unknown in origin and was presumably added later by members of the North Melbourne Football Club when the song was chosen as the club theme. The chorus was appropriated from a song written and performed by Scottish musician Harry Lauder. The song has a strong Victorian heritage, and has been traditionally song by the Victorian State Football and Victorian Cricket teams respectively. Lyrics 1st Verse Hearts to hearts and hands to hands Beneath the blue and white we stand We shout God bless our native land North Melbourne, North Melbourne! 2nd Verse Out we come, out we come, out we come, to play Just for recreations sake to pass the time away Lots of fun, heaps of fun, enjoy yourselves today North Melbourne boys are hard to beat when they come out to play! Chorus So join in the chorus, and sing it one and all Join in the chorus, North Melbourne's on the ball Good old North Melbourne, they're champions you'll agree North Melbourne will be premiers, just you wait and see! During the 90s, the last line was sung as North Melbourne will be premiers in 1993, and changed according to what year it was. The last line has also been sung as North Melbourne is the team and place to win for you and me or North Melbourne is the team that plays to win for you and me. The 2nd line in the 2nd verse was originally sung as We train so hard, we play the game, we must win every day. A more gritty opening verse exists that goes as; Shovels to shovels and picks to picks On the North Melbourne ground you stick like shit Get up you dirty mug or we'll hit you with a brick Between 2000 and 2004 the club song was updated to keep it inline with 'Kangaroos' rebranding. The song went as follows; 1st Verse Hearts to hearts and hands to hands The length and breadth of this great land A Club deep in tradition held high in esteem From North Melbourne a national team 2nd Verse Out we come, out we come, out we come to play To take on all those other teams And blow them all away Lots of strain, with heaps to gain Is the way we play The Kangaroos will beat any team On any given day Chorus So join in the chorus, and sing it one and all Join in the chorus, the Roos are on the ball Good old Kangas, they're champions you'll agree The Kangaroos will be premiers Just you wait and see. Shinboner spirit The origin of North Melbourne's 'Shinboner' nickname and the so called 'Shinboner Spirit' remains one of footy's great mysteries. Several theories exist as to how the club came to be known as the Shinboners. The general belief is that it became associated with North because so many of its players worked in the nearby meatworks. The players wore shorts whilst working at the abattoirs and would attend the evening training sessions with blood splashed over their legs, which gave rise to the nickname 'Shinboners'. Likewise, local butchers on Abottsford St, used to proudly hang shinbones decorated in blue and white streamers from their veranda. It all started from the early North sides being so close knit that it reminded the butchers of blowflies on a shin of beef, and so the nickname was born. The hanging of shinbones decorated in blue and white became a tradition of the area, before health inspectors put an end to the practice. Other theories exist that it started as a result of the Irish immigrants who played hurling on the North Melbourne Recreational Reserve during the 1930s who had a tendency to whack their opponents on the shinbones with their sticks. With other more derogatory theories coming from opposing teams that North Melbourne players were used to kicking people in the shins. Whatever the answer, the Shinboner Spirit refers to the camaraderie and gutsy determination that was shown by the club in those early days. Nowadays it is a phrase attributed to the Kangaroos' ability to fight back against overwhelming odds with their backs against the wall. This fighting spirit was forged by the club in its relentless persistence to gain admissions to the VFL. Despite folding 3 times in those early years, the community rallied together to re-establish the club like a phoenix from the ashes. Former player and coach Denis Pagan is arguably responsible for rejuvenating the nickname when he began coaching the club's under 19's squad in 1982. Running the team off the smell of an oily rag, Pagan coached the squad to nine consecutive Grand Finals, before becoming senior coach in 1993 where he lead the poorest club in the league to another 2 Premierships in a decade of dominance. During those years the team gained a legendary reputation for mateship that transcended the football field which is what kept the team so successful. The 1996 season was the epitome of the Shinboner Spirit when it became obvious that the club would not exist beyond the season unless it merged with Fitzroy. Despite all of the turmoil off the field, the club went on to win the 1996 centenary premiership and avert self-destruction. After the drama of the Carey and Pagan walkouts in 2002, when North lost the two biggest faces of the club, the football world forecasted doom for club. Again, the club punched above it’s weight putting in competitive showings year after year, going against the doom and gloom predicted by the pundits. 2004 produced a memorable performance of Shinboner Spirit when the team rallied from a 40 point deficit at three-quarter-time to record a win in favourite son Glenn Archer's 250th game. Other evident performances were seen in the 2005 and 2007 seasons, where the club recorded a number of record comeback wins that earnt them the tag of being the team that can't be killed. In 2005, to celebrate the club's 80th anniversary of senior competition in the VFL and the thirtieth anniversary of the first VFL premiership, the Kangaroos held a massive "Shinboner Spirit" gala event, attended by almost the entire surviving playing list. In the awards ceremony, the key "Shinboners" of the past eighty years were acknowledged, with Glenn Archer being named the "Shinboner of the Century" to almost unanimous acclaim. Evidently what once a derogatory term, is now a badge of honour. Membership base North Melbourne has one of the most passionate and loyal supporter bases in the league. The club enjoys the 2nd highest supporter to member conversion rate, behind only the Fremantle Dockers. Despite this, the club still had the 2nd lowest membership base in 2007, having risen only by 200 people since 2000. In 2007, research conducted by Roy Morgan estimated that 228,000 people Australia-wide followed the club. This is 2nd only to the Melbourne Demons as the smallest supporter base in the league. Decisions to play more games interstate and to change the club's name, have alienated their Melbourne based supporters, and this is reflected in Roy Morgan's research which suggests that North has lost 14% of its supporter base since their golden era ended in 2000. Contrary to popular opinion, North Melbourne hasn't always had a small supporter base. In the early 20th century the club was known for its large supporter base, once setting an all-time league record for memberships in 1937 when the club signed up 2,400 members, but the club's popularity dwindled after spending decades at the bottom of the ladder after promotion to the VFL in 1925. Ever since North Melbourne rejected the AFL's proposal to relocate to the Gold Coast, club membership has soared, exceeding the previous record set in 2006 by almost ten thousand in 2008. Season Members Change from previous season Finishing position Average Attendance Total Attendance 1984 6,374 — 11th 17,675 388,856 1985 6,520 146 (+2.29%) 4th 24,042 577,019 1986 5,318 1202 (-18.44%) 7th 21,592 475,032 1987 3,430 1888 (-35.50%) 5th 21,108 485,491 1988 4,415 985 (+28.72%) 11th 15,662 344,558 1989 3,411 1004 (-22.74%) 9th 17,759 390,693 1990 5,201 1790 (+52.48%) 6th 19,526 429,565 1991 6,683 1482 (+28.49%) 8th 20,574 452,617 1992 6,083 600 (-8.98%) 12th 19,652 432,350 1993 6,851 768 (+12.63%) 5th 27,213 571,481 1994 10,296 3445 (+50.28%) 3rd 33,177 796,254 1995 14,027 3731 (+36.24%) 3rd 35,379 884,477 1996 14,438 411 (+2.93%) 1st 37,827 945,678 1997 19,368 4930 (+34.15%) 4th 36,873 921,829 1998 20,196 828 (+4.26%) 2nd 38,336 958,394 1999 22,080 1884 (+9.33%) 1st 34 814 870,349 2000 22,156 76 (+0.34%) 4th 33,471 836,765 2001 21,409 747 (-3.37%) 13th 30,209 664,601 2002 20,831 578 (-2.70%) 7th 26,879 618,211 2003 21,403 572 (+2.76%) 10th 29,812 655,854 2004 23,420 2017 (+9.42%) 10th 28,300 622,580 2005 24,154 734 (+3.13%) 7th 31,511 724,757 2006 24,700 546 (+2.26%) 14th 28,849 634,686 2007 22,372 2328 (-9.43%) 3rd 33,458 836,445 2008 34,342 11970 (+53.50%) 8th 29,569 680,095 2009 28,762* 5580 (-16.25%)* — — * ongoing figures (as of 4 May 2009) Ownership The North Melbourne Football Club is a non-profit organisation limited by guarantee. Members of the club serve as the guarantees of capital, and have full voting rights at AGMs to elect directors to the club’s board. The club’s board compromises nine directors with each director serving a 3 year term before their position is put up for re-election at an AGM. Only one-third of the board is contested at each AGM due to the rolling structure of the terms of the directors. This structure safeguards the entire board from being ousted at a single AGM, and has made North Melbourne immune to a lot of the in house fighting witnessed at other AFL football clubs. The board governs the club as well as selecting a Chairman to head the club through a majority vote of directors. North Melbourne is unique in its structure, because from 1986 to 2006 the club was privately owned and limited by shares. The club was floated in 1986 through a membership vote lead by then Chairman Bob Ansett. At the meeting, members were encouraged to buy into the club trough purchasing shares. The float ended up raising over $3 million and helped to keep the club solvent through the next decade. In 1991, the John Elliot-led Carlton Football Club attempted a hostile take over North Melbourne by purchasing a large parcel of shares formerly owned by Bob Ansett. The Blues acquired 20 per cent of the capital but that stake was eventually bought back by John Magowan, the former head of Merrill Lynch Australia, in 2001. The resulting melodrama saw the formation of B-Class shareholders who had the effective power of veto over any attempt to merge or relocate the club. Further takeover attempts were made in the 2000s by the Southport Sharks. Then Chairman Allan Aylett knocked back a proposal from the Sharks that would have seen them gain a majority stake in the club in exchange for an injection of capital. In early 2006, another proposal from Sharks to underwrite Kangaroos games on the Gold Coast, in exchange for a slice of the shareholder structure at the club was knocked back after AFL intervention. Due to an Australian Tax Office ruling in 2006, the club proposed a shareholder restructure that would have seen the B Class shareholders power reduced significantly and some voting rights returned to members. This was done to avoid extraordinary taxes being placed on the club, but the move was blocked in December by Bob Ansett and his proxies who feared that the restructure would make the club vulnerable to further takeover bids. On the 28th of February 2007, another meeting was called to resolve the shareholder issue, and a motion was passed that would return see some voting rights return to members and stop any future tax increments. In April 2007 it was revealed the AFL was attempting to buy out the shareholders of the club in a bid to gain full ownership, and force a relocation of the club to the Gold Coast. During October 2007, a group called We Are North Melbourne emerged and launched a public campaign, calling for ordinary members to be given the final say on the relocation issue. While the group became synonymous with the push to keep the Club in Melbourne, its first priority was to see the Club's shareholder structure wound-up and control returned to ordinary members. North Melbourne reverted back to public company in November 2008. A moratorium was passed at an Extraordinary General Meeting that will allow James Brayshaw’s board to serve unopposed until 2010, so as to allow his ticket the maximum time to enact their policies to make the North Melbourne Football Club financially viable. Reputation Football pioneers Many of the traditions and initiatives that have become entrenched in the fabric and psyche of Australian Football were thought up by North Melbourne. North has a proud history of footy firsts that has given them the reputation of being the footy pioneers. Apart from co-founding the first ever football league in Victoria - the VFA, and being the first club to install seats at their home ground, they were also the first club to introduce: Club memberships Jumper sponsorships League fixtures Club songs Separate pre-season jumpers Clash jumpers Corporate Entertainment Pre-match entertainment Coterie Memberships Social Clubs Mid-week discos Grand Final Breakfasts Doubleheader Football Friday Night Football Footy flags Cheersquads All of these ideas were quickly copied by other footy clubs across the country. North has never been afraid to try out new ideas. In the early 1970s North were the first club to try and convert an athlete from from another country and sport, when they recruited 'Wee Willie' Anderson, who was a professional African American basketballer. He never played a senior game. In 1977, North became the first team to be telvised in colour, live across Australia, in the 1977 Grand Final. Eight years later, North became the first club of the modern era to move away from their local suburban suburban ground, in favour of better facilities at the centrally located MCG. The resulting move kicked off ground rationalisation in the VFL and saw clubs abandon their home grounds for larger stadiums at the MCG, Waverly and Etihad Stadium. In 1986, North became the first privatised club in the league, which was followed by Sydney and Fitzroy. Other minor achievements are that they were the first club to play games interstate when in 1998 they trialled a home game in Canberra, which has now been copied by Carlton, Hawthorn, Melbourne, Richmond, St Kilda and the Western Bulldogs. North also were the first club to introduce headbands which became popular in the 90s, with the inspired "Operation Kangaroo" headbands in 1990. Even today North continues to innovate, with the Orange sponsored Kangaroo jumper in 2001, and the introduction of an Argentine inspired soccer jumper in 2009. Night and wet weather specialists North Melbourne has the special reputation of being the night and wet weather specialists of the AFL. In 1985, North Melbourne introduced the world first concept of playing football on a Friday Night. Since then, North Melbourne has played the most Friday Night games of any AFL club. North Melbourne's Friday Night dominance peaked during the 90s when they were almost invincible on the night stage. Their exploits in Friday and Saturday Night games became the stuff of legend. Lead by superstars like Wayne Carey, John Longmire and Wayne Schwass, North swept aside almost all opposition it faced. Their strong performances under lights have continued to this day. Similarly, North has the same reputation of dominance in wet weather games. The history of North and wet weather football extends back to the days when the team played at the water logged Arden St. Their strength in wet weather football culminated in the 1997 Qualifying Final where an injury depleted, 7th placed North Melbourne side defeated 2nd placed Geelong in torrential rain at the MCG. Together, these efforts have earnt North the tag of being the Night and Wet Weather Specialists respectively. Rivalries MainEssendon - North and Essendon have a chequered history that dates back to the late 1800s. Firstly in 1896, Essendon had North excluded from the VFL, because both clubs drew supporters from the same area. Later on in 1922, Essendon stole the cream of North's squad after the two clubs went through a failed merger. To add insult to the rivalry, when North was accepted to the VFL in 1925, North were forced to cede all of their neighbouring recruiting territory to Essendon. North supporters have long been bitter with Essendon for excluding them from the VFL, and have blamed that for their small supporter base in comparison to Essendon's. North's first VFL Grand Final was against Essendon in 1950. Although Essnendon were the victors, North won the casualty count in a torrid enagement. The rivalry was reignited in the 90s, and in 1998 some North fans decided to inform Essendon of their softness by throwing marshmallows at coach Kevin Sheedy. North Melbourne's Grand Final victories in 96 and 1999 have both came against opponents that had defeated Essendon by a point in the preliminary final. For a while, Essendon saw defeating North as the flags they should have had. Hawthorn - North and Hawthorn have a fierce rivalry that dates back to the 1970s when they played off against each other in 3 Grand Finals in the space of 4 years. From 1974 to 1978 the two clubs played against each other in 10 finals, and took each other on for the Australian Championship in Adelaide in 1976. During the 80s Hawthorn dominated North, and during the 90s the results were reversed with North dominating Hawthorn. The rivalry with the Hawks has been getting more fierce in the past few years, due to some questionable trading between the two clubs. MinorCarlton - North Melbourne was once listed on the stock market and Carlton tried to buy out North and take their top players. Later there was talk of a merger, or more specifically, Carlton increasing its shareholdings. North fans didn't think kindly of either option which made defeating Carlton in the 1999 Grand Final that much more special. Current squad October 19, 2008 North Melbourne Team of the Century At a special function in August 2001 the North Melbourne Team of the Century was announced. There was no minimum number of games set for selection. Wayne Carey was named as captain and Denis Pagan as coach. The selection panel was Geoff Poulter (journalist), Father Gerald Dowling (club historian), Keith McKenzie (former coach), Lloyd Holyoak (former president), Max Ritchie (former player and chairman of selectors) and Greg Miller (chief executive). David King, John Blakey, Wayne Schwass and Gary Dempsey were selected as emergencies. Shinboner of the Century On the 18th of March 2005, the North Melbourne football club held a special gala dinner entitled the "North Story" to celebrate the 80th anniversary of North's admission to the VFL, and the 30th anniversary of the club's first VFL premiership. Over 3500 people attended the historic event held at the prestigious Royal Exhibition Building, including almost all surviving North Melbourne players. Glenn Archer was voted the Shinboner of the Century by his peers as the player who most represents the 'Shinboner Spirit'. The following players were voted 'Shinboners' of their era: Les Foote - Shinboner of the 40's Allen Aylett - Shinboner of the 50's Noel Teasdale - Shinboner of the 60's Malcolm Blight - Shinboner of the 70's Wayne Schimmelbusch - Shinboner of the 80's Wayne Carey - Shinboner of the 90's Honours Club VFAChampions (undefeated premiers) 1915, 1918Premiers 1903, 1904, 19061, 1910, 19112, 19122, 1914Grand Finalists 1905, 19071, 1913, 1919Minor Premiers 1905, 1910, 1914, 1915, 1918, 1919 VFLVFL Premiers 1975, 1977VFL Grand Finalists 1950, 1974, 1976, 1977, 1978VFL Minor Premiers 1949, 1978, 1983VFL Reserves Premiers 1947, 1957, 1967, 1978, 1979VFL Reserves Grand Finalists 1950, 1976, 1988VFL Under 19s Premiers 1946, 1976, 1984, 1987, 1988VFL Under 19s Grand Finalists 1947, 1972, 1983, 1985, 1989 AFLAFL Premiers 1996, 1999AFL Grand Finalists 1998AFL Minor Premiers 1998AFL Reserves Premiers 1995, 1996AFL Reserves Grand Finalists 1993, 1994AFL Under 19s Premiers 1990, 1991 OtherChampions of Australia 1975NFL Championship Grand Finalists 1976Dr. Wm. C.McClelland Trophy 1976, 1978, 1983, 1998Night Series Premiers 1965, 1966, 1980Night Series Grand Finalists 1961, 1968, 1978, 1982Pre-season Premiers 1995, 1998Pre-season Grand Finalists 1990, 1991, 2000VFL Affiliate Premiers North Ballarat, 2008VFL Affiliate Grand Finalists''' Port Melbourne, 2004 1 Won by West Melbourne before merger 2 Won by Essendon Association before merger Individual honours Premiership Results Best and Fairest Honour Roll Year W: D: L PositionChairmanCEO Treasurer CoachCaptainVice-CaptainBest and FairestLeading Goalkicker200015:0:10 4th R. P. Casey/A. Carter G. Miller ? D. Pagan W. Carey A. Stevens P. Bell W. Carey 6920019:0:13 13th A. Carter/A. Aylett G. Miller/M. Easy ? D. Pagan W. Carey A. Stevens S. Grant S. Rocca 48200212:0:11 7th A. Aylett M. Easy/G. Walsh ? D. Pagan A. Stevens G. Archer A. Simpson S. Rocca 50200311:1:10 10th A. Aylett G. Walsh ? D. Laidley A. Stevens G. Archer B. Harvey L. Harding 33200410:0:12 10th A. Aylett G. Walsh ? D. Laidley A. Simpson B. Harvey B. Rawlings S. Rocca 49200513:0:10 7th A. Aylett/G. Duff G. Walsh Rob Ewart D. Laidley A. Simpson B. Harvey B. Harvey N. Thompson 5220067:0:15 14th G. Duff G. Walsh/R. Aylett Rob Ewart D. Laidley A. Simpson ? B. Rawlings N. Thompson 54200715:0:10 3rd G. Duff/J. Magowan/J. Brayshaw R. Aylett Rob Ewart D. Laidley A. Simpson ? B. Harvey C. Jones 43200812:1:10 7th J. Brayshaw E. Arocca Rob Ewart/Cameron Vale D. Laidley A. Simpson B. Harvey B. Harvey D. Hale 37 Records Games record Glenn Archer 311 (1992-2007) Wayne Schimmelbusch 306 (1973-1987) Keith Greig 294 (1971-85) Anthony Stevens 292 (1989-2004) Michael Martyn 287 (1988-2002) David Dench 275 (1969-84) Adam Simpson 288 (1995-present) Brent Harvey 264 (1996-present) John Dugdale 248 (1955-70) Wayne Carey 244 (1989-2001) Leading goalkickers 671 Wayne Carey (1989-2001) 511 John Longmire (1988-95; 1997-99) 475 Jock Spencer (1948-57) 444 Malcolm Blight (1974-82) 411 Sel Murray (1937-44; 1948) 358 John Dugdale (1955-70) 354 Wayne Schimmelbusch (1973-87) 352 Bill Findlay (1935-45) 321 Sid Dyer (1937-47) 311 Allen Aylett (1952-64) References External links Official Website of the Kangaroos "Around the Grounds" - Web Documentary - Arden Street Club Footy Jumpers LocalHero: History of North Melbourne FC We Are North Melbourne (Anti-Relocation supporters) website | North_Melbourne_Football_Club |@lemmatized north:161 melbourne:117 football:56 club:212 nickname:7 kangaroo:59 fourth:2 old:5 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5,726 | Edvard_Munch | Edvard Munch (, 12 December 1863 – 23 January 1944) Biography from Munch Museum was a Norwegian Symbolist painter, printmaker and an important forerunner of expressionistic art. His best-known composition, The Scream is part of a series The Frieze of Life, in which Munch explored the themes of life, love, fear, death, and melancholy. Biography Youth Edvard Munch was born in a rustic farmhouse in the village of Ådalsbruk in Løten, Norway to Christian Munch, the son of a prominent priest. Christian was a doctor and medical officer who married Laura Cathrine Bjølstad, a woman half his age, in 1861. Edvard had an older sister, Johanne Sophie (born 1862), and three younger siblings: Peter Andreas (born 1865), Laura Cathrine (born 1867), and Inger Marie (born 1868). Both Sophie and Edvard appear to have inherited their artistic talent from their mother. Edvard Munch was related to painter Jacob Munch (1776–1839) and historian Peter Andreas Munch (1810–1863). Eggum, 1984, p. 15 The family moved to Kristiania (now Oslo) in 1864 when Christian Munch was appointed medical officer at Akershus Fortress. Edvard’s mother died of tuberculosis in 1868, as did Munch's favorite sister Johanne Sophie in 1877. Eggum, 1984, p. 16 After their mother's death, the Munch siblings were raised by their father and by their aunt Karen. Often ill for much of the winters and kept out of school, Edvard would draw to keep himself occupied, and received tutoring from his school mates and his aunt. Christian Munch also instructed his son in history and literature, and entertained the children with vivid ghost stories and tales of Edgar Allan Poe. Sue Prideaux, Edvard Munch: Behind the Scream, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2005, p. 17, ISBN0-300-11024-3 Christian’s positive behavior toward his children, however, was overshadowed by his morbid pietism. Munch wrote, “My father was temperamentally nervous and obsessively religious—to the point of psychoneurosis. From him I inherited the seeds of madness. The angels of fear, sorrow, and death stood by my side since the day I was born.” Prideaux, 2005, p. 2 Christian reprimanded his children by telling them that their mother was looking down from heaven and grieving over their misbehavior. The oppressive religious milieu, plus Edvard’s poor health and the vivid ghost stories, helped inspire macabre visions and nightmares in Edvard, who felt death constantly advancing on him. Prideaux, 2005, p. 19 One of Munch's younger sisters was diagnosed with mental illness at an early age. Of the five siblings only Andreas married, but he died a few months after the wedding. Munch would later write, "I inherited two of mankind's most frightful enemies—the heritage of consumption and insanity." Eggum, 1984, p. 137 Christian Munch’s military pay was very low, and his attempts at developing a private side practice failed, keeping his family in perennial poverty. Eggum, 1984, p. 16 They moved frequently from one sordid flat to another. Munch’s early drawings and watercolors depicted these interiors, and the individual objects such as medicine bottles and drawing implements, plus some landscapes. By his teens, art dominated Munch’s interests. Eggum, 1984, p. 22 At thirteen, Munch had his first exposure to other artists at the newly formed Art Association, where he admired the work of the Norwegian landscape school. He returned to copy the paintings, and soon he began to paint in oils. Prideaux, 2005, pp. 22-3 Studies and influences In 1879 Munch enrolled in a technical college to study engineering, where he excelled in physics, chemistry, and math. He learned scaled and perspective drawing, but frequent illnesses interrupted his studies. Prideaux, 2005, p. 35 The following year, much to his father’s disappointment, Munch left the college determined to become a painter. His father viewed art as an “unholy trade”, and his neighbors reacted bitterly and sent him anonymous letters. Prideaux, 2005, p. 40 In contrast to his father’s rabid pietism, Munch adopted an undogmatic stance toward art, writing in his diary his simple goal: “in my art I attempt to explain life and its meaning to myself.” Prideaux, 2005, p. 35 In 1881, Munch enrolled at the Royal School of Art and Design of Kristiania, founded by his forefather Jacob Munch. His teachers were sculptor Julius Middelthun and naturalistic painter Christian Krohg. Prideaux, 2005, p. 41 That year Munch demonstrated his quick absorption of his figure training at the Academy in his first portraits, including one of his father and his first self-portrait. In 1883, Munch took part in his first public exhibition and shared a studio with other students. Eggum, 1984, p. 34 His full-length portrait of Karl Jensen-Hjell, a notorious bohemian-about-town, earned a critic’s dismissive response: “It is impressionism carried to the extreme. It is a travesty of art.” Prideaux, 2005, p. 34 Munch’s nude paintings from this period survive only in sketches, except for Standing Nude (1887), perhaps confiscated by his father. Eggum, 1984, p. 41 During these early years in his career, Munch experimented with many styles, including Naturalism and Impressionism. Some early works are reminiscent of Manet. Many of these attempts brought him unfavorable criticism from the press and garnered him constant rebukes by his father, who nonetheless provided him with small sums for living expenses. Prideaux, 2005, p. 34 At one point, however, Munch’s father, perhaps swayed by the negative opinion of Munch’s cousin Edvard Diriks (an established, traditional painter), destroyed at least one painting (likely a nude) and refused to advance any more money for art supplies. Eggum, 1984, p. 43 Munch also received his father’s ire for his relationship with Hans Jæger, the local nihilist who lived by the code “a passion to destroy is also a creative passion” and who advocated suicide as the ultimate way to freedom. Prideaux, 2005, p. 71, 74 Munch came under his malevolent, anti-establishment spell. “My ideas developed under the influence of the bohemians or rather under Hans Jaeger. Many people have mistakenly claimed that my ideas were formed under the influence of Strindberg and the Germans…but that is wrong. They had already been formed by then.” Prideaux, 2005, p. 71 At that time, contrary to many of the other bohemians, Munch was still respectful of women, as well as reserved and well-mannered, but he began to give in to the binge drinking and brawling of his circle. He was unsettled by the sexual revolution going on at the time and by the independent women around him. He later turned cynical concerning sexual matters, expressed not only in his behavior and his art, but in his writings as well, an example being a long poem called The City of Free Love. Prideaux, 2005, p. 72 Still dependent on his family for many of his meals, Munch’s relationship with his father remained tense over concerns about his bohemian life. After numerous experiments, Munch concluded that the Impressionist idiom did not allow sufficient expression. He found it superficial and too akin to scientific experimentation. He felt a need to go deeper and explore situations brimming with emotional content and expressive energy. Under Jaeger’s commandment that Munch should “write his life”, meaning that Munch should explore his own emotional and psychological state, Munch began a period of reflection and self-examination, recording his thoughts in his “soul’s diary”. Prideaux, 2005, p. 83 This deeper perspective helped move him to a new view of his art. He wrote that his painting The Sick Child (1886), based on his sister’s death, was his first “soul painting”, his first break from Impressionism. The painting received a negative response from critics and from his family, and caused another “violent outburst of moral indignation” from the community. Prideaux, 2005, p. 88 Only his friend Christian Krohg defended him: “He paints, or rather regards, things in a way that is different from that of other artists. He sees only the essential, and that, naturally, is all he paints. For this reason Munch’s pictures are as a rule ‘not complete’, as people are so delighted to discover for themselves. Oh, yes, they are complete. His complete handiwork. Art is complete once the artist has really said everything that was on his mind, and this is precisely the advantage Munch has over painters of the other generation, that he really knows how to show us what he has felt, and what has gripped him, and to this he subordinates everything else.” Eggum, 1984, pp. 52-3 Munch continued to employ a variety of brushstroke technique and color palettes throughout the 1880s and early 1890s as he struggled to define his style. Eggum, 1984, p. 46 His idiom continued to veer between naturalistic, as seen in Portrait of Hans Jæger, and impressionistic, as in Rue Lafayette. His Inger On the Beach (1889), which caused another storm of confusion and controversy, hints at the simplified forms, heavy outlines, sharp contrasts, and emotional content of his mature style to come. Eggum, 1984, p. 59 He began to carefully calculate his compositions to create tension and emotion. While stylistically influenced by the Post-Impressionists, what evolved was a subject matter which was symbolist in content, depicting a state of mind rather than an external reality. In 1889, Munch presented his first one-man show of nearly all his works to date. The recognition it received led to a two-year state scholarship to study in Paris under French painter Léon Bonnat. Eggum, 1984, p. 55 Paris Munch arrived in Paris during the festivities of the Exposition Universelle (1889) and roomed with two fellow Norwegian artists. His picture Morning (1884) was displayed at the Norwegian pavilion. Prideaux, 2005, p. 49 He spent his mornings at Bonnat’s busy studio (which included live female models) and afternoons at the exhibition, galleries, and museums (where students were to make copies). Eggum, 1984, p. 108 Munch recorded little enthusiasm for Bonnat’s drawing lessons—“It tires and bores me—it’s numbing’’—but enjoyed the master’s commentary during museum trips. Prideaux, 2005, p. 110 Eggum, 1984, p. 61 Munch was enthralled by the vast display of modern European art, including the works of three artists who would prove influential: Paul Gauguin, Vincent Van Gogh, and Henri Toulouse-Lautrec—all notable for how they used color to convey emotion. Eggum, 1984, p. 61 Munch was particularly inspired by Gauguin’s “reaction against realism” and his credo that “art was human work and not an imitation of Nature”, a belief earlier stated by Whistler. Eggum, 1984, p. 9 As one of his Berlin friends stated later about Munch, “he need not make his way to Tahiti to see and experience the primitive in human nature. He carries his own Tahiti within him.” Eggum, 1984, p. 12 That December, his father died, leaving Munch’s family destitute. He returned home and arranged a large loan from a wealthy Norwegian collector when wealthy relatives failed to help, and assumed financial responsibility for his family from then on. Prideaux, 2005, p. 114 Christian’s death depressed him and he was plagued by suicidal thoughts: “I live with the dead—my mother, my sister, my grandfather, my father…Kill yourself and then it’s over. Why live?” Prideaux, 2005, p. 115 Munch’s paintings of the following year included sketchy tavern scenes and a series of bright cityscapes in which he experimented with the pointillist style of Georges Seurat). Eggum, 1984, pp. 64–68 Berlin By 1892, Munch formulated his characteristic, and original, Synthetist aesthetic, as seen in Melancholy, in which color is the symbol-laden element. In 1892, the Union of Berlin Artists invited Munch to exhibit at its November exhibition, the society’s first one-man exhibition. However, his paintings evoked bitter controversy (dubbed “The Munch Affair”) and after one week the exhibition closed. Prideaux, 2005, p. 136 Munch was pleased with the “great commotion”, and wrote in a letter: “Never have I had such an amusing time—it’s incredible that something as innocent as painting should have created such a stir.” Eggum, 1984, p. 91 In Berlin, Munch involved himself in an international circle of writers, artists and critics, including the Swedish dramatist and leading intellectual August Strindberg, whom he painted in 1892. During his four years in Berlin, Munch sketched out most of the ideas that would comprise his major work, The Frieze of Life, first designed for book illustration but later expressed in paintings. Eggum, 1984, p. 77 He sold little, but made some income from charging entrance fees to view his controversial paintings. Prideaux, 2005, p. 153 Already, Munch was showing a reluctance to part with his paintings, which he termed his “children”. His other paintings, including casino scenes, show a simplification of form and detail which marked his early mature style. Eggum, 1984, p. 79 Munch also began to favor a shallow pictorial space and a minimal backdrop for his frontal figures. Since poses were chosen to produce the most convincing images of states of mind and psychological conditions, such as in Ashes, the figures impart a monumental, static quality. Munch's figures appear to play roles on a theatre stage (Death in the Sick-Room), whose pantomime of fixed postures signify various emotions; since each character embodies a single psychological dimension, as in The Scream, Munch's men and women now appear more symbolic than realistic. He wrote, “No longer should interiors be painted, people reading and women knitting: there would be living people, breathing and feeling, suffering and loving.” Eggum, 1984, p. 10 The Scream The Scream (1893) Painted in 1893, The Scream is Munch's most famous work and one of the most recognizable paintings in all art. It has been widely interpreted as representing the universal anxiety of modern man. Eggum, 1984, p. 10 Painted with broad bands of garish color and highly simplified forms, and employing a high viewpoint, the agonized figure is reduced to a garbed skull in the throes of an emotional crisis. With this painting, Munch met his stated goal of “the study of the soul, that is to say the study of my own self”. José María Faerna, Munch, Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1995, p. 16, ISBN 0-8109-4694-7 Munch wrote of how the painting came to be: ”I was walking down the road with two friends when the sun set; suddenly, the sky turned as red as blood. I stopped and leaned against the fence, feeling unspeakably tired. Tongues of fire and blood stretched over the bluish black fjord. My friends went on walking, while I lagged behind, shivering with fear. Then I heard the enormous, infinite scream of nature.” Faerna, 1995, p. 17 He later described the personal anguish behind the painting, “for several years I was almost mad…You know my picture, ‘’The Scream?’’ I was stretched to the limit—nature was screaming in my blood… After that I gave up hope ever of being able to love again.” Prideaux, 2005, p. 152 In summing up the painting’s impact author Martha Tedeschi has stated: Whistler's Mother, Wood's American Gothic, Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa and Edvard Munch's The Scream have all achieved something that most paintings—regardless of their art historical importance, beauty, or monetary value—have not: they communicate a specific meaning almost immediately to almost every viewer. These few works have successfully made the transition from the elite realm of the museum visitor to the enormous venue of popular culture. Margaret F. MacDonald, ed., Whistler’s Mother: An American Icon, Lund Humphries, Burlington, Vt., 2003, p.80, ISBN 0-85331-856-5 Frieze of Life — A Poem about Life, Love and Death In December 1893, Unter den Linden in Berlin held an exhibition of Munch's work, showing, among other pieces, six paintings entitled Study for a Series: Love. This began a cycle he later called the Frieze of Life — A Poem about Life, Love and Death. "Frieze of Life" motifs such as The Storm and Moonlight are steeped in atmosphere. Other motifs illuminate the nocturnal side of love, such as Rose and Amelie and Vampire. In Death in the Sickroom, the subject is the death of his sister Sophie, which he re-did in many future variations. The dramatic focus of the painting, portraying his entire family, is dispersed in a series of separate and disconnected figures of sorrow. In 1894, he enlarged the spectrum of motifs by adding Anxiety, Ashes, Madonna and Women in Three Stages (from innocence to old age). Faerna, 1995, p. 28 Around the turn of the century, Munch worked to finish the "Frieze". He painted a number of pictures, several of them in larger format and to some extent featuring the Art Nouveau aesthetics of the time. He made a wooden frame with carved reliefs for the large painting Metabolism (1898), initially called Adam and Eve. This work reveals Munch's preoccupation with the "fall of man" myth and his pessimistic philosophy of love. Motifs such as The Empty Cross and Golgotha (both c. 1900) reflect a metaphysical orientation, and also echo Munch's pietistic upbringing. The entire Frieze showed for the first time at the secessionist exhibition in Berlin in 1902. Prideaux, 2005, p. 211 "The Frieze of Life" themes recur throughout Munch's work but find their strongest outpouring in the mid1890’s. In sketches, paintings, pastels and prints, he taps the depths of his feelings to examine his major motifs: the stages of life, the femme fatale, the hopelessness of love, anxiety, infidelity, jealousy, sexual humiliation, and separation in life and death. Eggum, 1984, pp. 116-8 These themes find expression in paintings such as The Sick Child (1885), Love and Pain (1893-94), Ashes (1894), and The Bridge. The latter shows limp figures with featureless or hidden faces, over which loom the threatening shapes of heavy trees and brooding houses. Munch portrayed women either as frail, innocent sufferers (see Puberty and Love and Pain) or as the cause of great longing, jealousy and despair (see Separation, Jealousy and Ashes). Munch often uses shadows and rings of color around his figures to emphasize an aura of fear, menace, anxiety, or sexual intensity. Eggum, 1984, p. 122 These paintings have been interpreted as reflections of the artist's sexual anxieties, though it could also be argued that they are a better representation of his turbulent relationship with love itself and his general pessimism regarding human existence. Faerna, 1995, p. 6 Many of these sketches and paintings were done in several versions, such as Madonna, Hands and Puberty, and also transcribed as wood-block prints and lithographs. Munch hated to part with his paintings because he thought of his work as a single body of expression. So to capitalize on his production and make some income, he turned to graphic arts to reproduce many of his most famous paintings, including those in this series. Faerna, 1995, p. 5 Munch admitted to the personal goals of his work but he also offered his art to a wider purpose, “My art is really a voluntary confession and an attempt to explain to myself my relationship with life—it is, therefore, actually a sort of egoism, but I am constantly hoping that through this I can help others achieve clarity.” Eggum, 1984, p. 118 Still attracting strongly negative reactions, in the 1890’s Munch did begin to receive some understanding of his artistic goals, as one critic wrote, “With ruthless contempt for form, clarity, elegance, wholeness, and realism, he paints with intuitive strength of talent the most subtle visions of the soul.” Eggum, 1984, p. 121 One of his great supporters in Berlin was Walter Rathenau, later the German foreign minister, who greatly contributed to his success. Paris and Christiana The Sick Child (1907) In 1896, Munch moved to Paris, where he focused on graphic representations of his “Frieze of Life” themes. He further developed his woodcut and lithographic technique. Munch’s Self-Portrait With Skeleton Arm (1895) is done with an etching needle-and-ink method also used by Paul Klee. Eggum, 1984, p. 141 Munch also produced multi-colored versions of “The Sick Child” which sold well, as well as several nudes and multiple versions of Kiss (1892) Eggum, 1984, p. 141 Many of the Parisian critics still considered Munch’s work “violent and brutal” but his exhibitions received serious attention and good attendance. Eggum, 1984, p. 152 His financial situation improved considerably and in 1897, Munch bought himself a summer house, a small fisherman’s cabin built in the late 1700s, in the small town of Åsgårdstrand in Norway. He dubbed this home the "Happy House" and returned here almost every summer for the next 20 years. Eggum, 1984, p. 153 Munch returned to Christiana in 1897 where he also received grudging acceptance, where one critic wrote, “A fair number of these pictures have been exhibited before. In my opinion these improve on acquaintance.” Eggum, 1984, p. 153 In 1899, at the age of thirty-four, Munch began an intimate relationship with Tulla Larsen, a “liberated” upper-class woman. They traveled to Italy together and upon returning. Munch began another fertile period in his art, which included landscapes and his final painting in the “The Frieze of Life” series, The Dance of Life (1899). Eggum, 1984, p. 168 She was eager for marriage, and Munch begged off. His drinking and poor health reinforced his fears, as he wrote in the third person, “Ever since he was a child he had hated marriage. His sick and nervous home had given him the feeling that he had no right to get married.” Eggum, 1984, p. 174 Munch almost gave in to Tulla, but fled from her in 1900, also turning away from her considerable fortune, and moved to Berlin. Eggum, 1984, p. 174 His Girls on the Jetty, created in eighteen different versions, demonstrated the theme of feminine youth without negative connotations. Faerna, 1995, p. 5 In 1902, he displayed his works thematically at the hall of the Berlin Succession, producing “a symphonic effect—it made a great stir—a lot of antagonism—and a lot of approval.” Eggum, 1984, p. 176 The Berlin critics were beginning to appreciate Munch’s work even though the public still found his work alien and strange. The good press coverage gained Munch the attention of influential patrons Albert Kollman and Max Linde. He described the turn of events in his diary, “After twenty years of struggle and misery forces of good finally come to my aid in Germany—and a bright door opens up for me.” Eggum, 1984, p. 181 However, despite this positive change, Munch’s self-destructive and erratic behavior involved him first with a violent quarrel with another artist, then with an accidental shooting in the presence of Tulla Larsen, who had returned for a brief reconciliation, which injured two of his fingers. She finally left him and married a younger colleague of Munch. Munch took this as a betrayal, and he dwelled on the humiliation for some time to come, channeling some of the bitterness into new paintings. Eggum, 1984, p. 183 His paintings Still Life (The Murderess) and The Death of Marat I, done in 1906-7, clearly reference the shooting incident and the emotional after effects. Eggum, 1984, p. 214 In 1903-4, Munch exhibited in Paris where the coming Fauvists, famous for their boldly false colors, likely saw his works and might have found inspiration in them. When the Fauves held their own exhibit in 1906, Munch was invited and displayed his works with theirs. Eggum, 1984, p. 190 After studying the sculpture of Rodin, Munch may have experimented with plasticine as an aid to design, but he produced little sculpture. Eggum, 1984, p. 195 During this time, Munch received many commissions for portraits and prints which improved his usually precarious financial condition. Eggum, 1984, p. 196, 203 After an earlier period of landscapes, in 1907 he turned his attention again to human figures and situations. Eggum, 1984, p. 228 Breakdown and recovery However, in the autumn of 1908, Munch's anxiety, compounded by excessive drinking and brawling, had become acute. As he wrote later, “My condition was verging on madness—it was touch and go.” Eggum, 1984, p. 236 Subject to hallucinations and feelings of persecution, he entered the clinic of Dr. Daniel Jacobson. The therapy Munch received for the next eight months included diet and "electrification" (a treatment then fashionable for nervous conditions, not to be confused with electroconvulsive therapy). Eggum, 1984, pp. 235-236 Munch's stay in hospital stabilized his personality, and after returning to Norway in 1909, his work became more colorful and less pessimistic. His portrait of Professor Jacobson, done in 1909, is one of Munch’s best. Eggum, 1984, p. 236 Further brightening his mood, the general public of Christiana finally warmed to his work, and museums began to purchase his paintings. He was made a Knight of the Royal Order of St. Olav “for services in art”. Eggum, 1984, p. 239 His first American exhibit was in 1912 in New York. Prideaux, 2005, p. 373 As part of his recovery, Dr. Jacobson advised Munch to only socialize with good friends and avoid public drinking. Munch followed this advice and in the process produced several full-length portraits of high quality of friends and patrons—honest portrayals devoid of flattery. Eggum, 1984, p. 240 He also created landscapes and scenes of people at work and play, using a new optimistic style—broad, loose brushstrokes of vibrant color with frequent use of white space and rare use of black—with only occasional references back to his morbid themes. With more income, Munch was able to buy several properties giving him new vistas for his art and he was finally able to provide for his family. Eggum, 1984, p. 259 The outbreak of World War I, found Munch with divided loyalties, as he stated, “All my friends are German but it is France that I love.” Prideaux, 2005, p. 285 In the 1930s, his German patrons, many Jewish, lost their fortunes and some their lives during the rise of the Nazi movement. Prideaux, 2005, p. 288 Munch found Norwegian printers to substitute for the Germans who had been printing his graphic work. Prideaux, 2005, p. 290 Given his poor health history, during 1917 Munch felt himself lucky to have survived a bout of the “Spanish” flu, the world-wide pandemic of that year. Prideaux, 2005, p. 299 Later years Munch spent most of his last two decades in solitude at his nearly self-sufficient estate in Ekely, at Skøyen, Oslo. Prideaux, 2005, p. 291 Many of his late paintings celebrate farm life, including many where he used his work horse “Rousseau” as a model. Prideaux, 2005, p. 292 Without any effort, Munch had a steady stream of female models, some of which he may have had sexual relations with, and who were the subjects of numerous nude paintings. Prideaux, 2005, p. 297 Munch occasionally left his home to paint murals on commission, including those done for the Freia chocolate factory. Prideaux, 2005, p. 374 To the end of his life, Munch continued to paint unsparing self-portraits, adding to his self-searching cycle of his life and his unflinching series of snapshots of his emotional and physical states. In the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazis labeled Munch's work "degenerate art" (along with Picasso, Paul Klee, Matisse, Gauguin and many other modern artists) and removed his 82 works from German museums. Eggum, 1984, p. 287 Hitler announced in 1937, “For all we care, those prehistoric Stone Age culture barbarians and art-stutterers can return to the caves of their ancestors and there can apply their primitive international scratching.” Prideaux, 2005, p. 313 This deeply hurt Munch, who had come to feel Germany was his second homeland. In 1940, the Germans invaded Norway and the Nazi party took over the government. Munch was seventy-six years old. With nearly an entire collection of his art in the second floor of his house, Munch lived in fear of a Nazi confiscation. Seventy-one of the paintings previously taken by the Nazis had found their way back to Norway through purchase by collectors (the other eleven were never recovered), including The Scream and The Sick Child, and they too were hidden from the Nazis. Prideaux, 2005, p. 319 Munch died at his country home on January 23, 1944, about a month after his 80th birthday. His Nazi orchestrated funeral left the impression with Norwegians that he was a Nazi sympathizer. Prideaux, 2005, p. 328 Quotation Legacy When Munch died, he bequeathed his remaining works to the city of Oslo, which built the Munch Museum at Tøyen (it opened in 1963). The museum hosts a collection of approximately 1,100 paintings, 4,500 drawings, and 18,000 prints, the broadest collection of his works in the world. The Munch Museum currently serves at Munch's official Estate Munch Museum: About the Museum and has been active in responding to copyright infringements, as well as clearing copyright for the work, such the appearance of Munch's The Scream in a 2006 M&M advertisement campaign. Masterfoods USA Press Release: "M&M'S(R) Responds to Consumer Demand and Introduces the Fun Way to Eat Dark Chocolate" The U.S. copyright representative for the Munch Museum and the Estate of Edvard Munch is the Artists Rights Society. Most frequently requested artists list of the Artists Rights Society Munch’s art was highly personalized and he did little teaching. His “private” symbolism was far more personal than that of other Symbolist painters such as Gustave Moreau and James Ensor. Nonetheless, Munch was highly influential, particularly with the German Expressionists, who followed his philosophy, “I do not believe in the art which is not the compulsive result of Man’s urge to open his heart.” Eggum, 1984, p. 10 Many of his paintings, including The Scream, have universal appeal in addition to their highly personal meaning. Munch's works are now represented in numerous major museums and galleries in Norway and abroad. After the Cultural Revolution in the People's Republic of China ended, Munch was the first Western artist to have his pictures exhibited at the National Gallery in Beijing. His cabin “the Happy House” was given to the municipality of Åsgårdstrand in 1944 and is now a small Munch museum. The inventory is still exactly as he left it. One version of The Scream was stolen from the National Gallery in 1994. In 2004 another version of The Scream along with one of Madonna were stolen from the Munch Museum in a daring daylight robbery. All were eventually recovered, but the paintings stolen in the 2004 robbery were extensively damaged. They have been meticulously restored and are on display again. In October 2006, the color woodcut Two people. The lonely (To mennesker. De ensomme) set a new record for his prints when it was sold at an auction in Oslo for 8.1 million NOK (1.27 million USD). It also set a record for the highest price paid in auction in Norway. On November 3, 2008, the painting Vampire set a new record for his paintings when it was sold for 38.162 million USD at Sotheby's New York. Munch appears on the Norwegian 1,000 Kroner note along with pictures inspired by his artwork. List of major works 1892 - Evening on Karl Johan 1893 - The Scream 1894 - Ashes 1894-1895 - Madonna 1895 - Puberty 1895 - Self-Portrait with Burning Cigarette 1895 - Death in the Sickroom 1899-1900 - The Dance of Life 1899-1900 - The Dead Mother 1940-1942 - Self Portrait: Between Clock and Bed Gallery See also Edvard Munch, a 1974 biographical film Munch Museum, the museum dedicated to his life and work List of paintings by Edvard Munch Notes Further reading Peter Black and Magne Bruteig, Edvard Munch: Prints. Catalogue of exhibition at Hunterian, Glasgow and National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin 2009. (Philip Wilson, London 2009) Sue Prideaux, Behind the Scream (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006) Winner of the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for Biography, 2006 Reinhold Heller, Munch. His life and work (London: Murray, 1984). Gustav Schiefler, Verzeichnis des graphischen Werks Edvard Munchs bis 1906 (Berlin: Bruno Cassirer, 1907). Gustav Schiefler, Edvard Munch. Das graphische Werk 1906–1926 (Berlin: Euphorion, 1928). J. Gill Holland The Private Journals of Edvard Munch: We Are Flames Which Pour out of the Earth (University of Wisconsin Press 2005) Edward Dolnick The Rescue Artist: A True Story of Art, Thieves, and the Hunt for a Missing Masterpiece (HarperCollins, 2005) (Recounts the 1994 theft of The Scream from Norway's National Gallery in Oslo, and its eventual recovery.) Gerd Woll, Edvard Munch: Complete Paintings, 2009.(4 Volume catalogue raisonné slipcased: Volume I: 1880-1897, Volume II: 1898-1908, Volume III: 1909-1920, Volume IV: 1921-1944). ISBN 9788204140005, ISBN 0500093458. Catalogue_raisonné published in Norwegian by Cappelen Damm and in English by Thames and Hudson References Chipp, H.B. Theories of Modern Art: A Source Book by Artists and Critics, page 114. University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-05256-0 Eggum, A., & Munch, E. (1984). Edvard Munch: paintings, sketches, and studies. New York: C.N. Potter. ISBN 0517556170 External links The Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery will host a major loan exhibition from the Munch Museum 12 June-5 September 2009 Edvard Munch The Dance of Life Site Edvard Munch Catalogue Raisonné Munch at Olga's Gallery -- large online collection of Munch's works (over 200 paintings) Munch at artcyclopedia Rothenberg A. Bipolar illness, creativity, and treatment. Psychiatr Q. 2001 Summer;72(2):131-47. Fineman, Mia (Nov. 22, 2005). "Existential Superstar". 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5,727 | Geography_of_American_Samoa | +American Samoa American Samoa Continent Oceania Subregion Oceania Geographic coordinates Area - Total - Water Ranked 212th199 km² 0 km² Coastline 116 km Land boundaries 0 km Countries bordered none Maritime claims Highest point Lata Mountain, 964 m Lowest point Pacific Ocean, 0 m Longest river Largest inland body of water Land Use - Arable land - Permanent crops - Other ||10 % 15 % 75 % (2005 est.) Irrigated Land Climate: tropical marine Terrain: volcano, coastal plains, two coral atolls Natural resources pumice, pumicite Natural hazards typhoons Environmental issues limited fresh water See also Swamps of American Samoa | Geography_of_American_Samoa |@lemmatized american:3 samoa:3 continent:1 oceania:2 subregion:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 area:1 total:1 water:3 rank:1 coastline:1 km:2 land:4 boundary:1 country:1 border:1 none:1 maritime:1 claim:1 high:1 point:2 lata:1 mountain:1 low:1 pacific:1 ocean:1 long:1 river:1 large:1 inland:1 body:1 use:1 arable:1 permanent:1 crop:1 est:1 irrigate:1 climate:1 tropical:1 marine:1 terrain:1 volcano:1 coastal:1 plain:1 two:1 coral:1 atoll:1 natural:2 resource:1 pumice:1 pumicite:1 hazard:1 typhoon:1 environmental:1 issue:1 limit:1 fresh:1 see:1 also:1 swamp:1 |@bigram geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 pacific_ocean:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 est_irrigate:1 coastal_plain:1 coral_atoll:1 |
5,728 | Iain_Banks | Iain Menzies Banks (born on 16 February 1954 in Dunfermline, Fife) is a Scottish writer. He writes mainstream fiction under his birth name Iain Banks, and science fiction as Iain M. Banks, including his middle initial to differentiate between the genres. Biography Banks's father was an officer in the Admiralty and his mother was once a professional ice skater. Banks studied English, philosophy, and psychology at the University of Stirling. Personal life After attending the University of Stirling, Banks moved to London and lived in the south of England until 1988 when he returned to Scotland, living in Edinburgh and then Fife. Banks met his wife Annie in London, before the release of his first book. They married in Hawaii in 1992. However, he announced in early 2007 that, after 25 years together, they had separated. He currently lives in North Queensferry, a town on the north side of the Firth of Forth near the Forth Bridge and the Forth Road Bridge. In February 2007, Banks sold his extensive car collection, including a bottle green 3.2 litre Porsche Boxster, a burgundy Porsche 911 Turbo, a 3.8 litre Jaguar Mark II, a 5 litre black BMW M5 and a daily use diesel Land Rover Defender whose power he had boosted by about 50%. Banks traded all of the vehicles for a Lexus RX 400h hybrid - since replaced by a diesel Toyota Yaris - and vowed in the future to fly only in emergencies. While interested in technology, he is also known to be reluctant to use the internet and email, though he likes some PC computer games, including the famous Civilization game, which he noted as having played a lot and as having even provided some minor inspiration to his stories. Excession: A Conversation with Iain Banks (interview originally published in SFX magazine, via 'sandm.co.uk' website. Accessed 2009-01-04.) Politics As with his friend Ken MacLeod (another Scottish writer of technical and social science fiction) a strong awareness of left-wing history shows in his writings. The argument that an economy of abundance renders anarchy and adhocracy viable (or even inevitable) attracts many as an interesting potential experiment, were it ever to become testable. He was a signatory to the Declaration of Calton Hill, which calls for Scottish independence. The Scottish Socialist Party "Rallying for a Republic", 9 October 2004 In late 2004, Banks was a prominent member of a group of British politicians and media figures who campaigned to have Prime Minister Tony Blair impeached following the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In protest he cut up his passport and posted it to 10 Downing Street. In an interview in Socialist Review he claimed he did this after he "abandoned the idea of crashing my Land Rover through the gates of Fife dockyard, after spotting the guys armed with machine guns." Socialist Review "Changing society, imagining the future", February 2008 He relates his concerns about the invasion of Iraq in his book Raw Spirit, and the principal protagonist (Alban McGill) in the novel The Steep Approach to Garbadale confronts another character with arguments in a similar vein. Banks is an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society (see Quotations) and a Distinguished Supporter of the Humanist Society of Scotland. Names Interviewed on Mark Lawson's BBC Four series, first broadcast in the UK on 14 November 2006, Banks explained why his novels are published under two different names. His parents wished to name him Iain Menzies Banks but his father made a mistake when registering the birth and he was officially registered as Iain Banks. Despite this he continued to use his unofficial middle name and it was as Iain M. Banks that he submitted The Wasp Factory for publication. However, his editor asked if he would mind dropping the 'M' as it appeared "too fussy". The editor was also concerned about possible confusion with Rosie M. Banks, a minor character in some of P.G. Wodehouse's Jeeves novels who is a romantic novelist. After his first three mainstream novels his publishers agreed to publish his first SF novel, Consider Phlebas. To distinguish between the mainstream and SF novels, Banks suggested the return of the 'M', although at one stage he considered John B. Macallan as his SF pseudonym, the name deriving from his favourite whiskies: Johnnie Walker Black Label and The Macallan single malt. Bibliography Novels as Iain Banks The Wasp Factory (1984) Walking on Glass (1985) The Bridge (1986) Espedair Street (1987) – adapted for BBC radio in 1998 (directed by Dave Batchelor). Canal Dreams (1989) The Crow Road (1992) – adapted for BBC TV in 1996 (directed by Gavin Millar). Complicity (1993) – filmed in 2000 (directed by Gavin Millar), retitled Retribution for its US DVD/video release. Whit (1995) A Song of Stone (1997) The Business (1999) Dead Air (2002) The Steep Approach to Garbadale (2007) Transition (2009) - to be published in the US as Iain M. Banks Novels as Iain M. Banks Much of Banks's science fiction deals with a vast interstellar civilisation, the Culture, which he has developed in some detail over the course of seven novels and a number of short stories. Consider Phlebas (1987) The Player of Games (1988) Use of Weapons (1990) Excession (1996) Inversions (1998) Look to Windward (2000) Matter (2008) His other, non-Culture, science fiction novels are: Against a Dark Background (1993) Feersum Endjinn (1994) The Algebraist (2004) Short fiction Banks writes less short fiction but has published one collection, as Iain M. Banks: The State of the Art (1989) It contains both science fiction and less categorizable works of fiction. The eponymous novella deals with the Culture, as do two other of the stories contained in this collection. Non-fiction Raw Spirit (2003) (a travelogue of Scotland and its whisky distilleries) Introductions Banks has written a number of introductions for works by other writers including: Viriconium (1988) by M. John Harrison, the Unwin edition, ISBN 0-04-440245-7. The Adventures of Luther Arkwright: Book 3, Götterdämmerung (1989) by Bryan Talbot from Proutt Publishing, ISBN 0-907865-03-8. The Orbit Science Fiction Yearbook Three (1990) edited by David S. Garnett, ISBN 0-07-088833-7. The Human Front (2001) by Ken MacLeod, the PS Publishing edition, ISBN 1-902880-30-7 (hbk) and ISBN 1-902880-31-5 (pbk). Contributions Banks has contributed to a number of publications, including: New Writing Scotland (1983) ISBN 0-9502629-4-3. A poem of Banks's called 041. The title comes from the old subscriber trunk dialling code for Glasgow. The Edinburgh Pub Guide (1989) edited by James Bethell, Polygon Press, ISBN 0-7486-6053-4. A review of The Green Tree. The Culture #4 (2001) contained the words from the photo story Forbidden Love that Banks wrote for Viz, but which they would not publish without a cut that he would not agree to. It was written (and photographed) at the 1989 Eastercon. Critical Wave #26 (1992). After the death of Isaac Asimov, the fanzine contained appreciations of him by many SF authors including Banks. New Scientist #1865, pp38-9 (1993) has an article by Banks called Escape from the Laws of Physics about the science (or lack of it) in science fiction. Banks has also had a number of letters published in the magazine, for example, one on creationism in November 2005 New Scientist letter 19 November 2005 . The Observer (7 February 1999). A review of the Tower Restaurant on the top floor at the Museum of Scotland in the Life magazine section. A Sense of Belonging to Scotland (2002), edited by Andy Hall, The Mercat Press, ISBN 1-84183-036-4. Banks contributed a few paragraphs to this book about the "favourite places of Scottish celebrities". His chosen place was the Forth Road Bridge. The Guardian (2 November 2002). A review of the M. John Harrison novel Light headlined Into the 10th Dimension. Novacon 36 Programme Book (2006). A fictional remembrance of Ken MacLeod (the guest of honour for the convention). He was a semi-regular music reviewer for Marc Riley's Rocket Science radio show on BBC 6 Music. He was the subject of a South Bank Show television programme broadcast on 16 November 1997, subtitled The Strange Worlds of Iain Banks, which concentrated on his mainstream work. The Curse Of Iain Banks, a play written by Maxton Walker, was performed at the Edinburgh Fringe in 1999, with Banks contributing as a voice on tape. He has appeared on the BBC's political discussion television programme Question Time. At the beginning of 2006 Banks captained a team of writers to victory in a special series of University Challenge on BBC2, beating a team of actors 185-105 (1 January 2006), and then the 'news' team 190-45 in the final (2 January 2006). He also won an edition of Celebrity Mastermind, taking "Malt whisky & the distilleries of Scotland" as his specialist subject on BBC1 on 2 January 2006. Quotes "I write because I love it, I enjoy it, I've spent most of my life trying to do it better, and I can make a living from it: beats a day job." Contemporary writers "The Universe says simply, but with every possible complication, 'Existence' and it neither pressures us nor draws us out, except as we allow. It all boils down to nothing, and where we have the means and will to fix our reference within that flux, then there we are. Let me be part of that outrageous chaos… and I am." Secularism.org.uk "In all the human societies we have ever reviewed, in every age and in every state, there has seldom if ever been a shortage of eager young males prepared to kill and die to preserve the security, comfort and prejudices of their elders, and what you call heroism is just an expression of this fact; there is never a scarcity of idiots." (Use of Weapons) (CNN: Would you like to live in the Culture?) IMB: "Good grief yes, heck, yeah, oh it's my secular heaven … Yes, I would, absolutely … I haven't done a study and taken lots of replies across a cross-section of humanity to find out what would be their personal utopia. It's mine, I thought of it, and I'm going home with it – absolutely, it's great." Banks interview at CNN, 15 May 2008 References External links Official site Culture Shock Interviews Interview on drug glands, moon landings and the future of humanity. With CNN at Lincoln Book Festival 2008. With video. 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5,729 | Demographics_of_Guinea-Bissau | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Guinea-Bissau, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The population of Guinea-Bissau is ethnically diverse with distinct languages, customs, and social structures. Most Guineans, 99%, are blacks — mostly Fula and Mandinka-speakers concentrated in the north and northeast, the Balanta and Papel, living in the southern coastal regions, and the Manjaco and Mancanha, occupying the central and northern coastal areas. Most of the rest are mestiços of mixed Portuguese and black descent, including Cape Verdean minority. Due to the exodus of most Portuguese settlers after independence, less than 1% of Guinea-Bissauans are pure Portuguese. The country also has a Chinese minority, including Macanese people of mixed Portuguese and Chinese blood from Macau. Most people are farmers. 50% are Muslims — this makes Guinea-Bissau the only Portuguese-speaking nation with a Muslim majority and most Muslims are Sunnites; 40% are pagans, principally Fula and Mandinka. Less than 10% are Christians, mostly Roman Catholics. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 1,285,715 (July 2000 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 42% (male 271,100; female 272,304) 15-64 years: 55% (male 335,150; female 370,667) 65 years and over: 3% (male 16,574; female 19,920) (2000 est.) Population growth rate: 2.07% (2000 est.) Birth rate: 39.63 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate: 15.62 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.9 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.83 male(s)/female total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate: 112.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 49.04 years male: 46.77 years female: 51.37 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate: 5.27 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality: noun: Guinean (s) adjective: Guinean Ethnic groups: African 99% (Balanta 30%, Fula 20%, Manjaca 14%, Mandinga 13%, Papel 7%), European (entirely Portuguese) and Mulatto less than 1% Religions: Muslim 50%, indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 10% (see Religion in Guinea-Bissau) Languages: Portuguese (official), Crioulo, African languages Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 53.9% male: 67.1% female: 40.7% (1997 est.) | Demographics_of_Guinea-Bissau |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:12 guinea:5 bissau:4 include:3 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 ethnically:1 diverse:1 distinct:1 language:2 custom:1 social:1 structure:2 guinean:3 black:2 mostly:2 fula:3 mandinka:2 speaker:1 concentrate:1 north:1 northeast:1 balanta:2 papel:2 live:2 southern:1 coastal:2 region:1 manjaco:1 mancanha:1 occupy:1 central:1 northern:1 area:1 rest:1 mestiços:1 mixed:2 portuguese:7 descent:1 cape:1 verdean:1 minority:2 due:1 exodus:1 settler:1 independence:1 less:3 bissauans:1 pure:1 country:1 also:1 chinese:2 macanese:1 people:2 blood:1 macau:1 farmer:1 muslims:1 make:1 speak:1 nation:1 muslim:3 majority:1 sunnites:1 pagan:1 principally:1 christian:2 roman:1 catholic:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:11 age:2 year:9 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 african:2 manjaca:1 mandinga:1 european:1 entirely:1 mulatto:1 religion:2 indigenous:1 belief:1 see:1 languages:1 official:1 crioulo:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 |@bigram guinea_bissau:4 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 ethnically_diverse:1 cape_verdean:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 literacy_definition:1 |
5,730 | Domenico_Alberti | Domenico Alberti (c. 1710 – 1740) was an Italian singer, harpsichordist, and composer whose works bridge the Baroque and Classical periods. Alberti was born in Venice and studied music with Antonio Lotti. He wrote operas, songs, and sonatas for keyboard instruments, for which he is best known today. These sonatas frequently employ a particular kind of arpeggiated accompaniment in the left hand that is now known as the Alberti bass. It consists of regular broken chords, with the lowest note sounding first, then the highest, then the middle and then the highest again. This pattern is repeated. Today, Alberti is regarded as a minor composer, and his works are played or recorded only irregularly. The Alberti bass was used by many later composers, and it became an important element in much keyboard music of the Classical music era. In his own lifetime, Alberti was known as a singer. He often used to accompany himself on the harpsichord. Little is known of his life, but he was Venetian ambassador to Spain in 1736, where the famous castrato singer Farinelli heard him sing. Farinelli was said to have been impressed, although Alberti was an amateur. Alberti's best known pieces are his keyboard sonatas, although even they are very rarely performed. It is thought he wrote around 36 sonatas, of which 14 have survived. They all have two movements, each in binary form. It is probable that Mozart's first violin sonatas, written at the age of seven, were modeled on Alberti's work, although Mozart's examples are generally considered superior. Alberti died in 1740 in Rome. External links | Domenico_Alberti |@lemmatized domenico:1 alberti:10 c:1 italian:1 singer:3 harpsichordist:1 composer:3 whose:1 work:3 bridge:1 baroque:1 classical:2 period:1 bear:1 venice:1 study:1 music:3 antonio:1 lotti:1 write:3 operas:1 song:1 sonata:5 keyboard:3 instrument:1 best:2 know:5 today:2 frequently:1 employ:1 particular:1 kind:1 arpeggiated:1 accompaniment:1 left:1 hand:1 bass:2 consist:1 regular:1 broken:1 chord:1 low:1 note:1 sound:1 first:2 high:2 middle:1 pattern:1 repeat:1 regard:1 minor:1 play:1 record:1 irregularly:1 use:2 many:1 late:1 become:1 important:1 element:1 much:1 era:1 lifetime:1 often:1 accompany:1 harpsichord:1 little:1 life:1 venetian:1 ambassador:1 spain:1 famous:1 castrato:1 farinelli:2 hear:1 sing:1 say:1 impress:1 although:3 amateur:1 piece:1 even:1 rarely:1 perform:1 think:1 around:1 survive:1 two:1 movement:1 binary:1 form:1 probable:1 mozart:2 violin:1 age:1 seven:1 model:1 example:1 generally:1 consider:1 superior:1 die:1 rome:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram violin_sonata:1 external_link:1 |
5,731 | Napo_River | Village along west bank of Rio Napo in Peru, a few miles above confluence with Amazon. The land visible beyond the waterway is an island in the river. The Napo River to the east of Coca. The Napo is a tributary to the Amazon River that rises in Ecuador on the flanks of the volcanoes of Antisana, Sincholagua and Cotopaxi. Before it reaches the plains it receives a great number of small streams from impenetrable, saturated and much broken mountainous districts, where the dense and varied vegetation seems to fight for every piece of ground. From the north it is joined by the river Coca, having its sources in the gorges of Cayambe (volcano) on the equator, and also a powerful river, the Aguarico, having its headwaters between Cayambe and the Colombian frontier. From the west it receives a secondary tributary, the Curaray, from the Andean slopes, between Cotopaxi and the volcano of Tungurahua. From its Coca branch to the mouth of the Curaray the Napo is full of snags and shelving sandbanks, and throws out numerous canos among jungle-tangled islands, which in the wet season are flooded, giving the river an immense width. From the Coca to the Amazon it runs through a forested plain where not a hill is visible from the river - its uniformly level banks being only interrupted by swamps and lagoons. From the Amazon the Napo is navigable for river craft up to its Curaray branch, a distance of about 216 miles (350 km), and perhaps a bit further; thence, by painful canoe navigation, its upper waters may be ascended as far as Santa Rosa, the usual point of embarkation for any venturesome traveller who descends from the Quito tableland. The Coca river may be penetrated as far up as its middle course, where it is jammed between two mountain walls, in a deep canyon, along which it dashes over high falls and numerous reefs. This is the stream made famous by the expedition of Gonzalo Pizarro. | Napo_River |@lemmatized village:1 along:2 west:2 bank:2 rio:1 napo:5 peru:1 mile:2 confluence:1 amazon:4 land:1 visible:2 beyond:1 waterway:1 island:2 river:9 east:1 coca:5 tributary:2 rise:1 ecuador:1 flank:1 volcano:3 antisana:1 sincholagua:1 cotopaxi:2 reach:1 plain:2 receive:2 great:1 number:1 small:1 stream:2 impenetrable:1 saturate:1 much:1 break:1 mountainous:1 district:1 dense:1 varied:1 vegetation:1 seem:1 fight:1 every:1 piece:1 ground:1 north:1 join:1 source:1 gorge:1 cayambe:2 equator:1 also:1 powerful:1 aguarico:1 headwater:1 colombian:1 frontier:1 secondary:1 curaray:3 andean:1 slope:1 tungurahua:1 branch:2 mouth:1 full:1 snag:1 shelve:1 sandbank:1 throw:1 numerous:2 canos:1 among:1 jungle:1 tangled:1 wet:1 season:1 flood:1 give:1 immense:1 width:1 run:1 forest:1 hill:1 uniformly:1 level:1 interrupt:1 swamp:1 lagoon:1 navigable:1 craft:1 distance:1 km:1 perhaps:1 bit:1 thence:1 painful:1 canoe:1 navigation:1 upper:1 water:1 may:2 ascend:1 far:2 santa:1 rosa:1 usual:1 point:1 embarkation:1 venturesome:1 traveller:1 descend:1 quito:1 tableland:1 penetrate:1 middle:1 course:1 jam:1 two:1 mountain:1 wall:1 deep:1 canyon:1 dash:1 high:1 fall:1 reef:1 make:1 famous:1 expedition:1 gonzalo:1 pizarro:1 |@bigram mile_km:1 santa_rosa:1 |
5,732 | Telecommunications_in_Belgium | Communications in Belgium are extensive and advanced. Belgium possesses the infrastructure for both mobile and land-based telecom, as well as having significant television, radio and internet infrastructure. The country code for Belgium is "BE". Telephone and internet There were 4.668 million main telephone lines in use in Belgium in 2007, a slight decrease on the 4.769 million in use in 1997. Mobile telephone ownership has increased by nearly one thousand percent in that period, from 974,494 to 10.23 million. The telephone system itself is highly developed and technologically advanced, with full automation in facilities that handle domestic and international Telecom. Domestically speaking, the county has a nationwide cellular telephone system and an extensive network of telephone cables. The microwave relay network is, however, more limited. For international communications, Belgium has 5 submarine cables and a number of satellite earth stations, two of which are Intelsat, and one Eutelsat. There are 61 (2003) internet service providers in Belgium, serving 5.22 million internet users in 2007. Radio and television In 1998, Belgium had 79 FM radio stations, 7 AM stations and 1 shortwave station, serving 8.075 million radios owned in the country. In terms of television, there were 25 broadcast stations in 1997, and a further 10 repeaters. At this time, 4.72 million televisions were owned nationwide. Public radio in Belgium is controlled by the VRT for the Dutch speaking region (Flanders and Brussels) the RTBF for the French speaking region (Wallonia and Brussels) and the BRF for the German community in Belgium. See also List of television channels in Belgium List of radio stations in Belgium References Much of the material in this article is adapted from the CIA World Factbook . | Telecommunications_in_Belgium |@lemmatized communication:2 belgium:11 extensive:2 advanced:2 possess:1 infrastructure:2 mobile:2 land:1 base:1 telecom:2 well:1 significant:1 television:5 radio:6 internet:4 country:2 code:1 telephone:6 million:6 main:1 line:1 use:2 slight:1 decrease:1 ownership:1 increase:1 nearly:1 one:2 thousand:1 percent:1 period:1 system:2 highly:1 developed:1 technologically:1 full:1 automation:1 facility:1 handle:1 domestic:1 international:2 domestically:1 speak:1 county:1 nationwide:2 cellular:1 network:2 cable:2 microwave:1 relay:1 however:1 limited:1 submarine:1 number:1 satellite:1 earth:1 station:6 two:1 intelsat:1 eutelsat:1 service:1 provider:1 serve:2 user:1 fm:1 shortwave:1 term:1 broadcast:1 repeater:1 time:1 public:1 control:1 vrt:1 dutch:1 speaking:2 region:2 flanders:1 brussels:2 rtbf:1 french:1 wallonia:1 brf:1 german:1 community:1 see:1 also:1 list:2 channel:1 reference:1 much:1 material:1 article:1 adapt:1 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 |@bigram technologically_advanced:1 wallonia_brussels:1 |
5,733 | Cartoon | Example of a modern cartoon. The text was excerpted by cartoonist Greg Williams from the Wikipedia article Dr. Seuss. The word cartoon has various meanings, based on several very different forms of visual art and illustration. The term has evolved over time. The original meaning was in fine art, and there cartoon meant a preparatory drawing for a piece of art such as a painting or tapestry. The somewhat more modern meaning was that of humorous illustrations in magazines and newspapers. Even more recently there are now several contemporary meanings, including creative visual work for print media, for electronic media, and even animated films and animated digital media. When the word cartoon is applied to print media, it most often refers to a humorous single-panel drawing or gag cartoon, most of which have captions and do not use speech balloons. The word cartoon is sometimes used to refer to a comic strip. The artists who draw cartoons are known as cartoonists. Art Cartoon for stained glass window of Daniel by Edward Burne-Jones, 1873. A cartoon (from the Italian "cartone" and Dutch word "karton", meaning strong, heavy paper or pasteboard) is a full-size drawing made on sturdy paper as a study or modello for a painting, stained glass, or tapestry. Cartoons were typically used in the production of frescoes, to accurately link the component parts of the composition when painted on damp plaster over a series of days (giornate). Such cartoons often have pinpricks along the outlines of the design; a bag of soot was then patted or "pounced" over the cartoon, held against the wall to leave black dots on the plaster ("pouncing"). Cartoons by painters, such as the Raphael Cartoons in London and examples by Leonardo da Vinci, are highly prized in their own right. Tapestry cartoons, usually coloured, were followed by eye by the weavers on the loom. Print media "Cartoon no.1: Substance and Shadow", an illustration by John Leech that satirizes the preparatory cartoons for frescoes in the new Palace of Westminster (1843), and which created the modern meaning of the word "cartoon" In modern print media, a cartoon is a piece of art, usually humorous in intent. This usage dates from 1843 when Punch magazine applied the term to satirical drawings in its pages, particularly sketches by John Leech. The first of these parodied the preparatory cartoons for grand historical frescoes in the then-new Palace of Westminster. The original title for these drawings was Mr Punch's face is the letter Q and the new title "cartoon" was intended to be ironic, a reference to the self-aggrandising posturing of Westminster politicians. Modern single-panel cartoons or gag cartoons, found in magazines and newspapers, generally consist of a single drawing with a caption immediately beneath or (much less often) a speech balloon. Many consider New Yorker cartoonist Peter Arno the father of the modern gag cartoon (as did Arno himself). Gag cartoonists of note include Charles Addams, Gary Larson, Charles Barsotti, Chon Day and Mel Calman. Editorial cartoons are a type of gag cartoon found almost exclusively in news publications and news websites. Although they also employ humor, they are more serious in tone, commonly using irony or satire. The art usually acts as a visual metaphor to illustrate a point of view on current social and/or political topics. Editorial cartoons often include speech balloons and, sometimes, multiple panels. Editorial cartoonists of note include Herblock, Mike Peters, David Low, Jeff MacNelly and Gerald Scarfe. Comic strips, also known as "cartoon strips" in the United Kingdom, are found daily in newspapers worldwide, and are usually a short series of cartoon illustrations in sequence. In the United States they are not as commonly called "cartoons" themselves, but rather "comics" or "funnies". Nonetheless, the creators of comic strips—as well as comic books and graphic novels—are referred to as "cartoonists". Although humor is the most prevalent subject matter, adventure and drama are also represented in this medium. Noteworthy cartoonists in this sense include Charles Schulz, Bill Watterson, Scott Adams, Mort Walker, Steve Bell. Motion pictures An animated cartoon horse, drawn by rotoscoping from Eadweard Muybridge's 19th century photos. Because of the stylistic similarities between comic strips and early animated movies, "cartoon" came to refer to animation, and this is the sense in which "cartoon" is most commonly used today. These are usually shown on television or in cinemas and are created by showing illustrated images in rapid succession to give the impression of movement. (In this meaning, the word cartoon is sometimes shortened to toon, which was popularized by the movie Who Framed Roger Rabbit). Although the term can be applied to any animated presentation, it is most often used in reference to programs for children, featuring anthropomorphized animals, superheroes, the adventures of child protagonists, and other related genres. See also Caricature Cartoon Research Library Editorial cartoon List of comic strips List of cartoonists List of editorial cartoonists Music cartoon References External links Index of cartoonists in the Fred Waring Collection International Society for Humor Studies | Cartoon |@lemmatized example:2 modern:6 cartoon:37 text:1 excerpt:1 cartoonist:10 greg:1 williams:1 wikipedia:1 article:1 dr:1 seuss:1 word:6 various:1 meaning:7 base:1 several:2 different:1 form:1 visual:3 art:6 illustration:4 term:3 evolve:1 time:1 original:2 fine:1 mean:1 preparatory:3 draw:4 piece:2 painting:2 tapestry:3 somewhat:1 humorous:3 magazine:3 newspaper:3 even:2 recently:1 contemporary:1 include:5 creative:1 work:1 print:4 medium:7 electronic:1 animate:1 film:1 animated:4 digital:1 apply:3 often:5 refer:4 single:3 panel:3 drawing:4 gag:5 caption:2 use:6 speech:3 balloon:3 sometimes:3 comic:7 strip:6 artist:1 know:2 stained:1 glass:2 window:1 daniel:1 edward:1 burne:1 jones:1 italian:1 cartone:1 dutch:1 karton:1 strong:1 heavy:1 paper:2 pasteboard:1 full:1 size:1 make:1 sturdy:1 study:2 modello:1 stain:1 typically:1 production:1 fresco:3 accurately:1 link:2 component:1 part:1 composition:1 paint:1 damp:1 plaster:2 series:2 day:2 giornate:1 pinprick:1 along:1 outline:1 design:1 bag:1 soot:1 pat:1 pounced:1 hold:1 wall:1 leave:1 black:1 dot:1 pounce:1 painter:1 raphael:1 london:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 highly:1 prize:1 right:1 usually:5 colour:1 follow:1 eye:1 weaver:1 loom:1 substance:1 shadow:1 john:2 leech:2 satirize:1 new:4 palace:2 westminster:3 create:2 intent:1 usage:1 date:1 punch:2 satirical:1 page:1 particularly:1 sketch:1 first:1 parody:1 grand:1 historical:1 title:2 mr:1 face:1 letter:1 q:1 intend:1 ironic:1 reference:3 self:1 aggrandise:1 posturing:1 politician:1 find:3 generally:1 consist:1 immediately:1 beneath:1 much:1 less:1 many:1 consider:1 yorker:1 peter:2 arno:2 father:1 note:2 charles:3 addams:1 gary:1 larson:1 barsotti:1 chon:1 mel:1 calman:1 editorial:5 type:1 almost:1 exclusively:1 news:2 publication:1 website:1 although:3 also:4 employ:1 humor:3 serious:1 tone:1 commonly:3 irony:1 satire:1 act:1 metaphor:1 illustrate:1 point:1 view:1 current:1 social:1 political:1 topic:1 multiple:1 herblock:1 mike:1 david:1 low:1 jeff:1 macnelly:1 gerald:1 scarfe:1 united:2 kingdom:1 daily:1 worldwide:1 short:1 sequence:1 state:1 call:1 rather:1 funny:1 nonetheless:1 creator:1 well:1 book:1 graphic:1 novel:1 prevalent:1 subject:1 matter:1 adventure:2 drama:1 represent:1 noteworthy:1 sense:2 schulz:1 bill:1 watterson:1 scott:1 adam:1 mort:1 walker:1 steve:1 bell:1 motion:1 picture:1 horse:1 rotoscoping:1 eadweard:1 muybridge:1 century:1 photo:1 stylistic:1 similarity:1 early:1 movie:2 come:1 animation:1 today:1 show:2 television:1 cinema:1 illustrated:1 image:1 rapid:1 succession:1 give:1 impression:1 movement:1 shorten:1 toon:1 popularize:1 frame:1 roger:1 rabbit:1 presentation:1 program:1 child:2 feature:1 anthropomorphized:1 animal:1 superheroes:1 protagonist:1 related:1 genre:1 see:1 caricature:1 research:1 library:1 list:3 music:1 external:1 index:1 fred:1 waring:1 collection:1 international:1 society:1 |@bigram dr_seuss:1 gag_cartoon:4 comic_strip:5 stained_glass:1 burne_jones:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 palace_westminster:2 humorous_intent:1 gary_larson:1 editorial_cartoon:3 almost_exclusively:1 editorial_cartoonist:2 charles_schulz:1 bill_watterson:1 mort_walker:1 motion_picture:1 animated_cartoon:1 eadweard_muybridge:1 external_link:1 |
5,734 | Geography_of_Guinea-Bissau | Map Of Guinea Bissau Topography of Guinea-Bissau Typical scenery in Guinea-Bissau This article describes the geography of Guinea-Bissau. Climate The climate in Guinea-Bissau is tropical. This means it is generally hot and humid. It has a monsoonal-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds and a dry season (December to May) with northeasterly harmattan winds. Terrain and ecology The terrain of Guinea-Bissau is mostly low coastal plain rising into a savannah in the east. The lowest point on Guinea-Bissau is at sea level at the Atlantic Ocean. The highest point on Guinea-Bissau is 300 metres above sea level at an unnamed location in the northeast corner of the country. Natural resources found in Guinea-Bissau include fish, timber, phosphates, bauxite, clay, granite, limestone and unexploited deposits of petroleum. 8.31% of the land is arable and 250 square kilometres is irrigated. Natural hazards include a hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze that may reduce visibility during the dry season and brush fires. Severe environmental issues include deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing and overfishing. Near the Senegal border there have been historic sightings of the Painted Hunting Dog, Lycaon pictus, but that endangered canid may now be extirpated in that locale. Bissagos Islands Information from the CIA World Factbook Location Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea and Senegal Geographic coordinates Map references Africa Area Total: 36,120 km² Land: 28,000 km² Water: 8,120 km² Area--comparative Slightly less than three times the size of Connecticut Land boundaries Total: 724 km Border countries: Guinea 386 km, Senegal 338 km Coastline 350 km Maritime claims Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm (370.4 km) Territorial sea: 12 nm (22.2 km) Terrain Mostly low coastal plain rising to savanna in east Elevation extremes Lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m Highest point: Unnamed location in the northeast corner of the country 300 m Natural resources Fish, timber, phosphates, bauxite, unexploited deposits of petroleum Land use Arable land: 11% Permanent crops: 1% Permanent pastures: 38% Forests and woodland: 38% Other: 12% (1993 est.) Irrigated land 17 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards Hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season; brush fires Environment--current issues Deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; overfishing Environment--international agreements Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Wetlands Signed, but not ratified: None of the selected agreements References See also Guinea-Bissau | Geography_of_Guinea-Bissau |@lemmatized map:2 guinea:12 bissau:10 topography:1 typical:1 scenery:1 article:1 describe:1 geography:1 climate:3 tropical:1 mean:1 generally:1 hot:3 humid:1 monsoonal:1 type:1 rainy:1 season:4 june:1 november:1 southwesterly:1 wind:2 dry:5 december:1 may:4 northeasterly:1 harmattan:3 terrain:3 ecology:1 mostly:2 low:4 coastal:2 plain:2 rise:2 savannah:1 east:2 point:4 sea:4 level:2 atlantic:3 ocean:3 high:2 metre:1 unnamed:2 location:3 northeast:2 corner:2 country:3 natural:4 resource:2 find:1 include:3 fish:2 timber:2 phosphate:2 bauxite:2 clay:1 granite:1 limestone:1 unexploited:2 deposit:2 petroleum:2 land:6 arable:2 square:1 kilometre:1 irrigate:2 hazard:2 dusty:2 haze:2 reduce:2 visibility:2 brush:2 fire:2 severe:1 environmental:1 issue:2 deforestation:2 soil:2 erosion:2 overgrazing:2 overfishing:2 near:1 senegal:3 border:3 historic:1 sighting:1 painted:1 hunting:1 dog:1 lycaon:1 pictus:1 endanger:2 canid:1 extirpate:1 locale:1 bissagos:1 islands:1 information:1 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 western:1 africa:2 north:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 reference:2 area:2 total:2 water:1 comparative:1 slightly:1 less:1 three:1 time:1 size:1 connecticut:1 boundary:1 km:6 coastline:1 maritime:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:1 nm:2 territorial:1 savanna:1 elevation:1 extremes:1 use:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:2 environment:2 current:1 international:1 agreement:2 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 desertification:1 specie:1 law:1 wetland:1 sign:1 ratified:1 none:1 select:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram guinea_bissau:10 hot_humid:1 rainy_season:1 harmattan_wind:1 coastal_plain:2 atlantic_ocean:3 square_kilometre:1 dry_dusty:2 dusty_harmattan:2 deforestation_soil:2 soil_erosion:2 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 elevation_extremes:1 extremes_low:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigate:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 sign_ratified:1 ratified_none:1 |
5,735 | Macau | For the bird, see macaw. Aomen redirects here. For the island in the Pacific Ocean, see Aomen (Bikini Atoll). For a topic outline on this subject, see List of basic Macau topics. For other uses, see Macau (disambiguation). The Macau Special Administrative Region, (, Cantonese Yale: O Mun Dak Bit Hang Jeng Kui, Portuguese: Região Administrativa Especial de Macau), commonly known as Macau or Macao (, ; Jyutping: ou3 mun4), is one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, the other being Hong Kong. Macau lies on the western side of the Pearl River Delta, bordering Guangdong province in the north and facing the South China Sea in the east and south. Macau Yearbook 2007, 475. The territory has thriving industries such as textiles, electronics and toys, and a notable tourist industry. This makes it one of the richest cities in the world. Chan, 12-13. Macau was both the first and last European colony in China. Fung, 5. Portuguese traders first settled in Macau in the 16th century and subsequently administered the region until the handover on December 20, 1999. The Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration and the Basic Law of Macau stipulate that Macau operates with a high degree of autonomy until at least 2049, fifty years after the transfer. Under the policy of "one country, two systems", the Central People's Government is responsible for the territory's defense and foreign affairs, while Macau maintains its own legal system, police force, monetary system, customs policy, immigration policy, and delegates to international organisations and events. Etymology Before the Portuguese settlement in the early 16th century, Macau was known as Haojing (Oyster Mirror) or Jinghai (Mirror Sea). Macau Yearbook 2007, 517. The name Macau is thought to be derived from the A-Ma Temple, a temple built in 1448 dedicated to Matsu — the goddess of seafarers and fishermen. It is said that when the Portuguese sailors landed at the coast just outside the temple and asked the name of the place, the natives replied "A-Ma-Gao" (Bay of A-Ma). The Portuguese then named the peninsula Macau. Fung, 298. History The recorded history of Macau can be traced back to the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), when the region now called Macau came under the jurisdiction of Panyu county, in the Nanhai prefecture of the province of Guangdong. The first recorded inhabitants of the area were people seeking refuge in Macau from invading Mongols during the Southern Song Dynasty. Under the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD), fishermen migrated to Macau from Guangdong and Fujian provinces. But Macau did not develop as a major settlement until the Portuguese arrived in the 16th century. Chan, 3-4. In 1535, Portuguese traders obtained the rights to anchor ships in Macau's harbours and to carry out trading activities, though not the right to stay onshore. Fung, 5-6. Around 1552–1553, they obtained temporary permission to erect storage sheds onshore, in order to dry out goods drenched by sea water Fung, 7. ; they soon built rudimentary stone houses around the area now called Nam Van. In 1557, the Portuguese established a permanent settlement in Macau, paying an annual rent of 500 taels of silver. Ruins of St. Paul's Cathedral, by George Chinnery (1774–1852). The cathedral was built in 1602 and destroyed by fire in 1835. Only the southern stone façade remains today. Macau, ca. 1870 As more Portuguese settled in Macau to engage in trading, they made demands for self-administration; but this was not achieved until the 1840s. <Historical figures of Macau>, by CCTV In 1576, Pope Gregory XIII established the Roman Catholic Diocese of Macau. In 1583, the Portuguese in Macau were permitted to form a Senate to handle various issues concerning their social and economic affairs under strict supervision of the Chinese authority, <Historical figures of Macau> by CCTV but there was no transfer of sovereignty. Macau prospered as a port but was the target of repeated failed attempts History of the Qing (清史稿) by the Dutch to conquer it in the 17th century. Following the Opium War (1839–42), Portugal occupied Taipa and Coloane in 1851 and 1864 respectively. In 1887, the Qing government was forced to sign the Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Amity and Commerce, under which China ceded to Portugal the right of "perpetual occupation and government of Macau", and Portugal pledged to seek China's approval before transferring Macau to another country; Macau officially became a Portuguese colony. In 1928, after the Qing Dynasty had been overthrown following the Xinhai Revolution, the Kuomintang (KMT) government officially notified Portugal that it was abrogating the Treaty of Amity and Commerce Macau Yearbook 2007, 518. ; the two powers signed a new Sino-Portuguese Friendship and Trade Treaty in place of the abrogated treaty. Making only a few provisions concerning tariff principles and matters relating to business affairs, the new treaty did not alter the sovereignty of Macau and Portuguese government of Macau remained unchanged. Fung, 409-410. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Beijing government declared the Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Amity and Commerce to be invalid as an “unequal treaty” imposed by foreigners on China. However, Beijing was not ready to settle the treaty question, leaving the maintenance of “the status quo” until a more appropriate time. Fung, 410-411. Influenced by the Cultural Revolution in mainland China and by general dissatisfaction with Portuguese government, riots broke out in Macau in 1966. In the most serious, the so-called 12-3 incident, 6 people were killed and more than 200 people were injured. On January 28, 1967, the Portuguese government issued a formal apology. This marked the beginning of equal treatment and recognition of Chinese identity and of de facto Chinese control of the colony, as an official apology implicitly recognized that administration of Macau continued only as tolerated by the Communist government of the Chinese mainland. Shortly after the leftist military coup of 1974 in Lisbon, the new Portuguese government determined to relinquish all its overseas possessions. In 1976, Lisbon redefined Macau as a "Chinese territory under Portuguese administration" and granted it a large measure of administrative, financial, and economic autonomy. Three years later, Portugal and China agreed to regard Macau as "a Chinese territory under (temporary) Portuguese administration". Fung, 418. The Chinese and Portuguese governments commenced negotiations on the question of Macau in June 1986. The two signed a Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration the next year, making Macau a special administrative region (SAR) of China. Fung, 424. The Chinese government assumed formal sovereignty over Macau on December 20, 1999. Macau Yearbook 2007, 519-520 Government and politics Headquarters of the Government of Macau, previously the Governor's House until 1999. Office building of the Legislative Assembly of Macau. The Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration and the Basic Law, Macau's constitution promulgated by China's National People's Congress in 1993, specify that Macau's social and economic system, lifestyle, rights, and freedoms are to remain unchanged for at least 50 years after the transfer of sovereignty to China in 1999. Under the principle of "one country, two systems", Macau enjoys a high degree of autonomy in all areas except in defence and foreign affairs. Macau officials, rather than PRC officials, run Macau through the exercise of separate executive, legislative, and judicial powers, as well as the right to final adjudication. Macau maintains its own separate currency, customs territory, immigration and border controls, and police force. The Macau government is headed by the chief executive, who is appointed by the central government upon the recommendation of an election committee, whose three hundred members are nominated by corporate and community bodies. The recommendation is made by an election within the committee. The chief executive's cabinet comprise five policy secretaries and is advised by the Executive Council that has between seven and eleven members. Edmund Ho Hau Wah, a community leader and former banker, is the first chief executive of the Macau SAR, replacing General Vasco Rocha Vieira at midnight on December 20, 1999. Ho is currently serving his second term of office. The Chief executive and his cabinet have their offices in the Macau Government Headquarters, located in the former area of the St. Lawrence Parish. The legislative organ of the territory is the Legislative Assembly, a 29-member body comprising 12 directly elected members, ten indirectly elected members representing functional constituencies and seven members appointed by the chief executive. Any permanent residents at or over 18 years of age are eligible to vote in direct elections. For indirect election, it is only limited to organisations registered as "corporate voters" and a 300-member election committee drawn from broad regional groupings, municipal organisations, and central governmental bodies. The basic and original framework of the legal system of Macau, based largely on Portuguese law or Portuguese civil law system, is preserved after 1999. The territory has its own independent judicial system, with a high court. Judges are selected by a committee and appointed by the chief executive. Foreign judges may serve on the courts. Macau has a three-tier court system: the Court of the First Instance, the Court of the Second Instance and the Court of Final Appeal. In February 2009 the Legislative Assembly passed a security bill based on the withdrawn security legislation previously introduced in Hong Kong. http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90785/6601685.html Democracy advocates fear that the bill's overly broad drafting could lead to abuses; a concern which has been heightened after a number of prominent supporters of democracy in Hong Kong were denied entry into Macau in the run-up to the bill's passage. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,MAC,4562d8cf2,49a660b913,0.html here Geography The map of Macau, showing Macau Peninsula, Cotai, Taipa and Coloane. Landscape of Penha Hill in Macau. Macau is situated southwest of Hong Kong and from Guangzhou. It consists of the Macau Peninsula itself and the islands of Taipa and Coloane. The peninsula is formed by the Zhujiang (Pearl River) estuary on the east and the Xijiang (West River) on the west. It borders the Zhuhai Special Economic Zone in mainland China. The main border crossing between Macau and China is known as the Portas do Cerco (Barrier Gate) on the Macau side, and the Gongbei checkpoint on the Zhuhai side. Macau Peninsula was originally an island, but a connecting sandbar gradually turned into a narrow isthmus, thus changing Macau into a peninsula. Land reclamation in the 17th century transformed Macau into a peninsula with generally flat terrain, though numerous steep hills still mark the original land mass. Alto de Coloane is the highest point in Macau, with an altitude of . With a dense urban environment, Macau has no arable land, pastures, forest, or woodland. Macau has a humid subtropical climate, with average humidity between 75% and 90%. Seasonal climate is greatly influenced by the monsoons and therefore temperature difference between summer and winter is significant. The average annual temperature of Macau is . July is the warmest month, with average temperature being . The coolest month is January, with average temperature . Located in the coastal region of south of China, Macau has ample rainfall, with average annual precipitation being . However, winter is mostly dry due to the monsoon from mainland China. Autumn in Macau (October to December) is sunny and warm with low humidity. Winter (January to March) is relatively cold but sunny. In spring (April to June), the humidity starts to increase and in summer (July to September) the climate is warm to hot and humid with rain and occasional typhoons. Economy Employed population byoccupation 2007 Occupation no.('000) Senior officials/managers 14.6Professionals 9.9Technicians 28.1Clerks 83.7Service & sale workers 63.2Workers in agriculture/fishery 0.8Craft & similar workers 33.7 Nightview of Macau Tower, a communication and entertainment tower that has various restaurants, theaters, shopping malls and a variety of adventurous activities. The central business district of Macau. The building shown is the BNU tower. Macau's economy is based largely on tourism, much of it geared toward gambling. Other chief economic activities in Macau are export-geared textile and garment manufacturing, banking and other financial services. The clothing industry has provided about three quarters of export earnings, and the gaming, tourism and hospitality industry is estimated to contribute more than 50% of Macau's GDP, and 70% of Macau government revenue. Macau is a founding member of the WTO and has maintained sound economic and trade relations with more than 120 countries and regions, with European Union and Portuguese-speaking countries in particular; Macau is also a member of the IMF. World Bank classifies Macau as a high income economy and the GDP per capita of the region in 2006 was US$28,436. After the Handover in 1999, there has been a rapid rise in the number of mainland visitors due to China's easing of travel restrictions. Together with the liberalization of Macau's gaming industry in 2001 that induces significant investment inflows, the average growth rate of the economy between 2001 and 2006 was approximately 13.1% annually. In a World Tourism Organization report of international tourism statistics for 2006, Macau ranked 21st in terms of tourist arrivals and 24th in terms of tourism receipts. From 9.1 million visitors in 2000, arrivals to Macau has grown to 18.7 million visitors in 2005 and 22 million visitors in 2006, with over 50% of the arrivals coming from mainland China and another 30% from Hong Kong. Macau is expected to receive between 24 and 25 million visitors in 2007. Since the Handover, Triad underworld violence, a deterring factor for tourists, has virtually disappeared, to the benefit of the tourism sector. Starting in 1962, the gambling industry had been operated under a government-issued monopoly license by Stanley Ho's Sociedade de Turismo e Diversões de Macau. The monopoly ended in 2002, and several casino owners from Las Vegas attempted to enter the market. With the opening of the Sands Macau, the largest casino in the world as measured by total number of table games, in 2004 and Wynn Macau in 2006, gambling revenues from Macau's casinos were for the first time greater than those of Las Vegas Strip (each about $6 billion), making Macau the highest-volume gambling centre in the world. In 2007, Venetian Macau, at the time the second (now third) largest building in the world, opened its doors to the public, followed by MGM Grand Macau. Numerous other hotel casinos, including Galaxy Cotai Megaresort and Ponte 16, are also to be opened in the near future. In 2002, the Macau government ended the monopoly system and six casino operating concessions and subconcessions are granted to Sociedade de Turismo e Diversões de Macau, Wynn Resorts, Las Vegas Sands, Galaxy Entertainment Group, the partnership of MGM Mirage and Pansy Ho (daughter of Stanley Ho), and the partnership of Melco and PBL. Today, there are 16 casinos operated by the STDM, and they are still crucial in the casino industry in Macau, but in 2004, the opening of the Sands Macau ushered in the new era. Macau is an offshore financial centre, a tax haven, and a free port with no foreign exchange control regimes. The offshore finance business is regulated and supervised by the Monetary Authority of Macau, while the regulation and supervision of the offshore non-finance business is mainly controlled by the Macau Trade and Investment Promotion Institute. In 2007, Moody's Investors Service upgraded Macau's foreign and local currency government issuer ratings to 'Aa3' from 'A1', citing its government's solid finances as a large net creditor. The rating agency also upgraded Macau's foreign currency bank deposit ceiling to 'Aa3' from 'A1'. As prescribed by the Macau Basic Law, the government follows the principle of keeping expenditure within the limits of revenues in drawing up its budget, and strive to achieve a fiscal balance, avoid deficits and keep the budget commensurate with the growth rate of its gross domestic product. All the financial revenues of the Macau Special Administrative Region shall be managed and controlled by the Region itself and shall not be handed over to the Central People's Government. The Central People's Government shall not levy any taxes in the Macau Special Administrative Region. Demographics Residents' usual language spoken at home Language Percentage ofpopulationCantonese85.7%OtherChinese dialects6.7%Portuguese6.6%Mandarin3.2%English1.5%Others2.3% A-Ma Temple, a temple built in 1448 dedicated to the goddess Matsu. Ruins of St. Paul's, the façade of what was originally the Cathedral of St. Paul built in 1602. Macau is the most densely populated region in the world, with a population density of 18,428 persons per square kilometre (47,728/sq mi). 95% of Macau's population is Chinese; another 2% is of mixed Chinese/Portuguese descent, an ethnic group often referred to as Macanese. According to the 2006 by-census, 47% of the residents were born in mainland China, of whom 74.1% born in Guangdong and 15.2% in Fujian. Meanwhile, 42.5% of the residents were born in Macau, and those born in Hong Kong, the Philippines and Portugal shared 3.7%, 2.0% and 0.3% respectively. The growth of population in Macau mainly relies on immigrants from mainland China and the influx of overseas workers since its birth rate is one of the lowest in the world. According to a recent survey conducted by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Macau is the top country/region for life expectancy at birth with an average of 84.33 years, while its infant mortality rate ranks among the lowest in the world. Both Chinese (Cantonese) and Portuguese are Macau's official languages. Standard Macanese Portuguese is identical to European Portuguese. Other languages such as Mandarin, English and Hokkien are also spoken by some local communities. The Macanese language, a distinctive creole generally known as Patuá, is still spoken by several dozen Macanese. Many signs and establishments make use of Chinese and Portuguese names with English becoming commonplace as well. Most Chinese in Macau are profoundly influenced by their own tradition and culture, of which Chinese folk religion, that includes the faiths of Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism, forms an integral part. Macau has a sizable Christian community; Roman Catholics and Protestants constitute 7% and 2% of the population respectively. In addition, 17% of the population follows distilled original Mahayana Buddhism. Having an economy driven by tourism, 14.6% of Macau's workforce is employed in restaurants and hotels, and 10.3% in the gambling industry. With the opening of several casino resorts and other major constructions underway, it is reported that many sectors experience a shortage of labour. The government responds by importing labour from other neighboring regions. Currently the number of imported labours stands at a record high of 98,505 (Q2 2008), representing more than a quarter of the labour force in Macau. Some local workers complain about the lack of jobs due to the influx of cheap imported labour. Some also claim that the problem of illegal labour is severe. Another concern is the widening of income inequality in the region: Macau's Gini coefficient, a popular measure of income inequality where a low value indicates a more equal income distribution, rises from 0.43 in 1998 to 0.48 in 2006. It is higher than those of other neighbouring regions, such as mainland China (0.447), South Korea (0.316) and Singapore (0.425). Education The administrative building of the University of Macau, the first modern university in the region. A fifteen-year free education is currently being offered to residents, that includes a three-year kindergarten, followed by a six-year primary education and a six-year secondary education. The literacy rate of the territory is only 93.5%. The illiterates are mainly among the senior residents aged 65 or above; the younger generation, for example the population aged 15–29, has a literacy rate of above 99%. Currently, there is only one school in Macau where Portuguese is the medium of instruction. Macau does not have its own universal education system; non-tertiary schools follow either the British, the Chinese, or the Portuguese education system. There are currently 10 tertiary educational institutions in the region, four of them being public. In 2006, the Programme for International Student Assessment, a world-wide test of 15-year-old schoolchildren's scholastic performance coordinated by OECD, ranked Macau as the fifth and sixth in science and problem solving respectively. Nevertheless, education levels in Macau are low among high income regions. According to the 2006 by-census, among the resident population aged 14 and above, only 51.8% has a secondary education and 12.6% has a tertiary education. As prescribed by the Basic Law of Macau Chapter VI Article 121, the Government of Macau shall, on its own, formulate policies on education, including policies regarding the educational system and its administration, the language of instruction, the allocation of funds, the examination system, the recognition of educational qualifications and the system of academic awards so as to promote educational development. The government shall also in accordance with law, gradually institute a compulsory education system. Community organisations and individuals may, in accordance with law, run educational undertakings of various kinds. Healthcare Macau is served by one major public hospital, the Hospital Conde S. Januário, and one major private hospital, the Hospital Kiang Wu, both located in Macau Peninsula, as well as a university hospital called Macau University of Science and Technology Hospital in Cotai. In addition to hospitals, Macau also has numerous health centres providing free basic medical care to residents. Consultation in traditional Chinese medicine is also available. Currently none of the Macau hospitals is independently assessed through international healthcare accreditation. There are no western-style medical schools in Macau and thus all aspiring physicians in Macau have to obtain their education and qualification elsewhere. Local nurses are trained at the Macau Polytechnic Institute and the Kiang Wu Nursing College. Currently there are no training courses in midwifery in Macau. The Health Bureau in Macau is mainly responsible for coordinating the activities between the public and private organisations in the area of public health, and assure the health of citizens through specialised and primary health care services, as well as disease prevention and health promotion. The Macau Centre for Disease Control and Prevention was established in 2001, which monitors the operation of hospitals, health centres, and the blood transfusion centre in Macau. It also handles the organisation of care and prevention of diseases affecting the population, sets guidelines for hospitals and private health care providers, and issues licences. Transport Trishaw used to be a major public mode of transport in Macau. But now it is only for sightseeing purposes. In Macau traffic moves on the left. Macau has a well-established public transport network connecting the Macau Peninsula, Cotai, Taipa Island and Coloane Island. Buses and taxis are the major modes of public transport in Macau. Currently two companies, namely Transmac and Transportas Companhia de Macau, operate franchised public bus services in Macau. Macau Yearbook 2007, 453-454. The trishaw, a hybrid of the tricycle and the rickshaw, is also available, though it is mainly for sightseeing purposes. The Outer Harbour Ferry Terminal provides cross-border transportation services for passengers travelling between Macau and Hong Kong, while the Yuet Tung Terminal in the Inner Harbour serves those travelling between Macau and cities in mainland China, including Shekou and Shenzhen. Macau Yearbook 2007,458. Macau has one active international airport, known as Macau International Airport located at the eastern end of Taipa and neighbouring waters. Since currently there are no regular direct passenger-flights between mainland China and Taiwan, the airport serves as a transient avenue for the passengers travelling between the two regions. Chan, 58. Fung, 198. It is the primary hub for Viva Macau and Air Macau. In 2006, the airport handled about 5 million passengers. Macau Yearbook 2007, 467-468. Culture The Statue of Guan Yin, a blend between the traditional images of the goddess Guan Yin and Holy Mary. The mixing of the Chinese and Portuguese cultures and religious traditions for more than four centuries has left Macau with an inimitable collection of holidays, festivals and events. The biggest event of the year is the Macau Grand Prix in November, when the main streets in Macau Peninsula are converted to a racetrack bearing similarities with the Monaco Grand Prix. Other annual events include Macau Arts festival in March, the International Fireworks Display Contest in September, the International Music festival in October and/or November, and the Macau International Marathon in December. Portuguese pavement (calçada) at Largo do Senado The Lunar Chinese New Year is the most important traditional festival and celebration normally takes place in late January or early February. The Pou Tai Un Temple in Taipa is the place for the Feast of Tou Tei, the Earth god, in February. The Procession of the Passion of Our Lord is a well-known Catholic rite and journey, which travels from Igreja de Santo Agostinho to Igreja da Sé Catedral, also taking place in February. A-Ma Temple, which honours the Goddess Matsu, is in full swing in April with many congratulant worshippers during the A-Ma festival. To look on dancing dragons at the Feast of the Drunken Dragon and twinkling-clean Buddhas at the Feast of Bathing of Lord Buddha in May is common. In Coloane Village, the Taoist god Tam Kong is also honoured on the same day. Dragon Boat festival is brought into play on Nam Van Lake in June and Hungry Ghosts' festival, in late August and/or early September every year. All events and festivities of the year end with Winter Solstice in December. Local cooking in Macau consists of a blend of Cantonese and Portuguese cuisines. Many unique dishes resulted from the spice blends that the wives of Portuguese sailors used in an attempt to replicate European dishes. Its ingredients and seasonings include those from Europe, South America, Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, as well as local Chinese ingredients. Typically, Macanese food is seasoned with various spices and flavours including turmeric, coconut milk, cinnamon and bacalhau, giving special aromas and tastes. Famous dishes include Galinha à Portuguesa, Galinha à Africana (African chicken), Bacalhau, Macanese Chili Shrimps and stir-fry curry crab. Pork chop bun, ginger milk and Portuguese-style egg tart are also very popular in Macau. Macau preserves many historical properties in the urban area. The Historic Centre of Macau, which includes some twenty-five historic monuments and public squares, was officially listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO on July 15, 2005 during the 29th session of the World Heritage Committee, held in Durban, South Africa. See also Main lists: List of basic Macau topics and List of Macau-related articlesReferences Bibliography Further reading External links Government Portal of the government of Macau Government Information Bureau Macau Yearbook Cultural Affairs Bureau General information Macau from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Country Study: Macau from the United States Library of Congress (August, 2000) Dr Howard M Scott "Macau" Travel Macau Government Tourist Office Macau City Guide Special Education and Child Development Macau Child Development Association be-x-old:Макао | Macau |@lemmatized bird:1 see:5 macaw:1 aomen:2 redirect:1 island:5 pacific:1 ocean:1 bikini:1 atoll:1 topic:3 outline:1 subject:1 list:5 basic:8 macau:171 us:1 disambiguation:1 special:8 administrative:7 region:20 cantonese:3 yale:1 mun:1 dak:1 bit:1 hang:1 jeng:1 kui:1 portuguese:39 região:1 administrativa:1 especial:1 de:9 commonly:1 know:6 macao:1 jyutping:1 one:9 two:7 people:9 republic:2 china:23 hong:7 kong:8 lie:1 western:2 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5,736 | Human_rights | Cyrus Cylinder; is the world’s first documented charter of human rights. Human rights refer to the "basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled." Houghton Miffin Company (2006) Examples of rights and freedoms which have come to be commonly thought of as human rights include civil and political rights, such as the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the law; and economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to participate in culture, the right to food, the right to work, and the right to education. History The earliest sign of human rights has been found on the Cyrus Cylinder written during the reign of Cyrus the Great of Persia/Iran. The history of human rights dates back thousands of years and is judged based upon religious, cultural, philosophical and legal developments throughout the years. Several ancient documents and later religions and philosophies included a variety of concepts that may be considered to be human rights. Notable among such documents are the Edicts of Ashoka issued by Ashoka the Great of India between 272-231 BC; and the Constitution of Medina of 622 AD, drafted by Muhammad to mark a formal agreement between all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina), including Muslims, Jews and Pagans. See: Firestone (1999) p. 118; "Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online See: Watt, Muhammad at Medina R. B. Serjeant (1964), "The Constitution of Medina", Islamic Quarterly 8, p. 4 The English Magna Carta of 1215 is particularly significant in the history of English law, and is hence significant in international law and constitutional law today. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen approved by the National Assembly of France, August 26, 1789. Much of modern human rights law and the basis of most modern interpretations of human rights can be traced back to relatively recent history. The Twelve Articles of the Black Forest (1525) are considered to be the first record of human rights in Europe. They were part of the peasants' demands raised towards the Swabian League in the Peasants' War in Germany. The British Bill of Rights (or “An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown”) of 1689 made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions in the United Kingdom. Two major revolutions occurred during the 18th century, in the United States (1776) and in France (1789), leading to the adoption of the United States Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen respectively, both of which established certain legal rights. Additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded a number of fundamental rights and freedoms into law. These were followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill and G. W. F. Hegel during the 18th and 19th centuries. The term human rights probably came into use sometime between Paine's The Rights of Man and William Lloyd Garrison's 1831 writings in The Liberator saying he was trying to enlist his readers in "the great cause of human rights" Mayer (2000) p. 110 Many groups and movements have managed to achieve profound social changes over the course of the 20th century in the name of human rights. In Western Europe and North America, labour unions brought about laws granting workers the right to strike, establishing minimum work conditions and forbidding or regulating child labour. The women's rights movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to vote. National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers. One of the most influential was Quaid - Azam's movement to free his native India from British rule. Movements by long-oppressed racial and religious minorities succeeded in many parts of the world, among them the civil rights movement, and more recent diverse identity politics movements, on behalf of women and minorities in the United States. The establishment of the International Committee of the Red Cross, the 1864 Lieber Code and the first of the Geneva Conventions in 1864 laid the foundations of International humanitarian law, to be further developed following the two World Wars. The World Wars, and the huge losses of life and gross abuses of human rights that took place during them were a driving force behind the development of modern human rights instruments. The League of Nations was established in 1919 at the negotiations over the Treaty of Versailles following the end of World War I. The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global welfare. Enshrined in its Charter was a mandate to promote many of the rights which were later included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. At the 1945 Yalta Conference, the Allied Powers agreed to create a new body to supplant the League's role. This body was to be the United Nations. The United Nations has played an important role in international human rights law since its creation. Following the World Wars the United Nations and its members developed much of the discourse and the bodies of law which now make up international humanitarian law and international human rights law. International norms Humanitarian Law Original Geneva Convention in 1864. The Geneva Conventions came into being between 1864 and 1949 as a result of efforts by Henry Dunant, the founder of the International Committee of the Red Cross. The conventions safeguard the human rights of individuals involved in armed conflict, and build on the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions, the international community's first attempt to formalize the laws of war and war crimes in the nascent body of secular international law. The conventions were revised as a result of World War II and readopted by the international community in 1949. The Geneva Conventions define what is today referred to as humanitarian law. The International Committee of the Red Cross is the controlling body of the Geneva conventions. Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a non-binding declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (A/RES/217, 1948-12-10 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris) in 1948, partly in response to the atrocities of World War II. Although the UDHR is a non-binding resolution, it is now considered to be a central component of international customary law which may be invoked under appropriate circumstances by national and other judiciaries. Ball, Gready The UDHR urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the "foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world." The declaration was the first international legal effort to limit the behaviour of states and press upon them duties to their citizens following the model of the rights-duty duality. The UDHR was framed by members of the Human Rights Commission, with former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt as Chair, who began to discuss an International Bill of Rights in 1947. The members of the Commission did not immediately agree on the form of such a bill of rights, and whether, or how, it should be enforced. The Commission proceeded to frame the UDHR and accompanying treaties, but the UDHR quickly became the priority. Canadian law professor John Humprey and French lawyer René Cassin were responsible for much of the cross-national research and the structure of the document respectively, where the articles of the declaration were interpretative of the general principle of the preamble. The document was structured by Cassin to include the basic principles of dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood in the first two articles, followed successively by rights pertaining to individuals; rights of individuals in relation to each other and to groups; spiritual, public and political rights; and economic, social and cultural rights. The final three articles place, according to Cassin, rights in the context of limits, duties and the social and political order in which they are to be realized. Humphrey and Cassin intended the rights in the UDHR to be legally enforceable through some means, as is reflected in the third clause of the preamble: Some of the UDHR was researched and written by a committee of international experts on human rights, including representatives from all continents and all major religions, and drawing on consultation with leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi. Glendon (2001) The inclusion of both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights Ball, Gready (2007) p.34 was predicated on the assumption that basic human rights are indivisible and that the different types of rights listed are inextricably linked. This principle was not then opposed by any member states (the declaration was adopted unanimously, with the abstention of the Eastern Bloc, Apartheid South Africa and Saudi Arabia), however this principle was later subject to significant challenges. The Universal Declaration was bifurcated into two distinct and different covenants, a Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and another Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Over the objection of the more developed states [Capitalist], which questioned the relevance and propriety of such provisions in covenants on human rights, both begin with the right of people to self-determination and to sovereignty over their natural resources. Then the two covenants go different ways (see, Louis Henkin, The International Bill of Rights: The Universal Declaration and the Covenants, in International Enforcement of Human Rights 6-9, Bernhardt and Jolowicz, eds, (1987)) The drafters of the Covenants initially intended only one instrument. The original drafts included only political and civil rights, but economic and social rights were added early. Western States then fought for, and obtained, a division into two covenants. They insisted that economic and social right were essentially aspirations or plans, not rights, since their realization depended on availability of resources and on controversial economic theory and ideology. These, they said, were not appropriate subjects for binding obligations and should not be allowed to dilute the legal character of provisions honoring political-civil rights; states prepared to assume obligations to respect political-civil rights should not be mitments. There was wide agreement and clear recognition that the means required to enforce or induce compliance with socio-economic undertakings were different from the means required for civil-political rights. See Louis Henkin, Introduction, The International Bill of Rights 9-10 (1981). Because of the divisions over which rights to include, and because some states declined to ratify any treaties including certain specific interpretations of human rights, and despite the Soviet bloc and a number of developing countries arguing strongly for the inclusion of all rights in a so-called Unity Resolution, the rights enshrined in the UDHR were split into two separate covenants, allowing states to adopt some rights and derogate others. Though this allowed the covenants to be created, one commentator has written that it denied the proposed principle that all rights are linked which was central to some interpretations of the UDHR. Ball, Gready (2007) p.35 Law Human rights law is a system of laws, both domestic and international, designed to promote human rights. Treaties In 1966, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) were adopted by the United Nations, between them making the rights contained in the UDHR binding on all states that have signed this treaty, creating human rights law. Since then numerous other treaties (pieces of legislation) have been offered at the international level. They are generally known as human rights instruments. Some of the most significant are: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) (adopted 1966, entry into force: 1969) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (entry into force: 1981) United Nations Convention Against Torture (CAT) (adopted 1984, entry into force: 1984) Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (adopted 1989, entry into force: 1989) International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (ICRMW) (adopted 1990, entry into force: 2003) Enforcement of law The enforcement of international human rights law is the responsibility of the Nation State, and its the primary responsibility of the State to make human rights a reality. There is currently no international court that upholds human rights law (the International Criminal Court deals with crimes against humanity, war crimes and genocide), although the Council of Europe is responsible for both the European Convention on Human Rights, and the European Court of Human Rights that acts as a court of last appeal for human rights issues in member states (see the section Europe below). In practice, many human rights are very difficult to legally enforce due to the absence of consensus on the application of certain rights, the lack of relevant national legislation or of bodies empowered to take legal action to enforce them. Universal Jurisdiction Universal jurisdiction is a controversial principle in international law whereby states claim criminal jurisdiction over persons whose alleged crimes were committed outside the boundaries of the prosecuting state, regardless of nationality, country of residence, or any other relation with the prosecuting country. The state backs its claim on the grounds that the crime committed is considered a crime against all, which any state is authorized to punish. The concept of universal jurisdiction is therefore closely linked to the idea that certain international norms are erga omnes, or owed to the entire world community, as well as the concept of jus cogens. United Nations The UN General Assembly The United Nations (UN) is the only multilateral governmental agency with universally accepted international jurisdiction for universal human rights legislation. Ball, Gready (2007) p.92 Human rights are primarily governed by the United Nations Security Council and the United Nations Human Rights Council, and there are numerous committees within the UN with responsibilities for safeguarding different human rights treaties. The most senior body of the UN with regard to human rights is the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. The United Nations has an international mandate to: Human Rights Council United Nations Human Rights Council logo. The United Nations Human Rights Council, created at the 2005 World Summit to replace the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, has a mandate to investigate violations of human rights. The Human Rights Council is a subsidiary body of the General Assembly and reports directly to it. It ranks below the Security Council, which is the final authority for the interpretation of the United Nations Charter. UN Charter, Article 39 Forty-seven of the one hundred ninety-one member states sit on the council, elected by simple majority in a secret ballot of the United Nations General Assembly. Members serve a maximum of six years and may have their membership suspended for gross human rights abuses. The Council is based in Geneva, and meets three times a year; with additional meetings to respond to urgent situations. Ball, Gready (2007) p.95 Independent experts (rapporteurs) are retained by the Council to investigate alleged human rights abuses and to provide the Council with reports. The Human Rights Council may request that the Security Council take action when human rights violations occur. This action may be direct actions, may involve sanctions, and the Security Council may also refer cases to the International Criminal Court (ICC) even if the issue being referred is outside the normal jurisdiction of the ICC. The Security Council referred the human rights situation in Darfur in Sudan to the ICC despite the fact that Sudan has a functioning legal system Security Council United Nations Security Council. The United Nations Security Council has the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security and is the only body of the UN that can authorize the use of force (including in the context of peace-keeping operations), or override member nations sovereignty by issuing binding Security Council resolutions. Created by the UN Charter, it is classed as a Charter Body of the United Nations. The UN Charter gives the Security Council the power to: Investigate any situation threatening international peace; Recommend procedures for peaceful resolution of a dispute; Call upon other member nations to completely or partially interrupt economic relations as well as sea, air, postal, and radio communications, or to sever diplomatic relations; and Enforce its decisions militarily, if necessary. The Security Council hears reports from all organs of the United Nations, and can take action over any issue which it feels threatens peace and security, including human rights issues. It has at times been criticised for failing to take action to prevent human rights abuses, including the Darfur crisis, the Srebrenica massacre and the Rwandan Genocide. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court recognizes the Security Council the power to refer cases to the Court, where the Court could not otherwise exercise jurisdiction. Other UN Treaty Bodies A modern interpretation of the original Declaration of Human Rights was made in the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in 1993. The degree of unanimity over these conventions, in terms of how many and which countries have ratified them varies, as does the degree to which they are respected by various states. The UN has set up a number of treaty-based bodies to monitor and study human rights, under the leadership of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR). The bodies are committees of independent experts that monitor implementation of the core international human rights treaties. They are created by the treaty that they monitor. The Human Rights Committee promotes participation with the standards of the ICCPR. The eighteen members of the committee express opinions on member countries and make judgements on individual complaints against countries which have ratified the treaty. The judgements are not legally binding. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights monitors the ICESCR and makes general comments on ratifying countries performance. It does not have the power to receive complaints. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination monitors the CERD and conducts regular reviews of countries' performance. It can make judgements on complaints, but these are not legally binding. It issues warnings to attempt to prevent serious contraventions of the convention. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women monitors the CEDAW. It receives states' reports on their performance and comments on them, and can make judgements on complaints against countries which have opted into the 1999 Optional Protocol. The Committee Against Torture monitors the CAT and receives states' reports on their performance every four years and comments on them. It may visit and inspect individual countries with their consent. The Committee on the Rights of the Child monitors the CRC and makes comments on reports submitted by states every five years. It does not have the power to receive complaints. The Committee on Migrant Workers was established in 2004 and monitors the ICRMW and makes comments on reports submitted by states every five years. It will have the power to receive complaints of specific violations only once ten member states allow it. The Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities was established in 2008 to monitor the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Each treaty body receives secretariat support from the Treaties and Commission Branch of Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights (OHCHR) in Geneva except CEDAW, which is supported by the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW). CEDAW meets at United Nations headquarters in New York; the other treaty bodies generally meet at the United Nations Office in Geneva. The Human Rights Committee usually holds its March session in New York City. Regional human rights The three principal regional human rights instruments are the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, the American Convention on Human Rights (the Americas) and the European Convention on Human Rights. Africa Emblem of the African Union. The African Union (AU) is a supranational union consisting of fifty-three African states. Established in 2001, the AU's purpose is to help secure Africa's democracy, human rights, and a sustainable economy, especially by bringing an end to intra-African conflict and creating an effective common market. The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights is the regions principal human rights instrument and emerged under the aegis of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) (since replaced by the African Union). The intention to draw up the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights was announced in 1979 and the Charter was unanimously approved at the OAU's 1981 Assembly. Pursuant to its Article 63 (whereby it was to "come into force three months after the reception by the Secretary General of the instruments of ratification or adherence of a simple majority" of the OAU's member states), the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights came into effect on 21 October 1986 – in honour of which 21st of October was declared "African Human Rights Day". African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR) is a quasi-judicial organ of the African Union tasked with promoting and protecting human rights and collective (peoples') rights throughout the African continent as well as interpreting the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and considering individual complaints of violations of the Charter. The Commission has three broad areas of responsibility: Promoting human and peoples' rights Protecting human and peoples' rights Interpreting the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights In pursuit of these goals, the Commission is mandated to "collect documents, undertake studies and researches on African problems in the field of human and peoples, rights, organise seminars, symposia and conferences, disseminate information, encourage national and local institutions concerned with human and peoples' rights and, should the case arise, give its views or make recommendations to governments" (Charter, Art. 45). With the creation of the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights (under a protocol to the Charter which was adopted in 1998 and entered into force in January 2004), the Commission will have the additional task of preparing cases for submission to the Court's jurisdiction. In a July 2004 decision, the AU Assembly resolved that the future Court on Human and Peoples' Rights would be integrated with the African Court of Justice. The Court of Justice of the African Union is intended to be the “principal judicial organ of the Union” (Protocol of the Court of Justice of the African Union, Article 2.2). Although it has not yet been established, it is intended to take over the duties of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, as well as act as the supreme court of the African Union, interpreting all necessary laws and treaties. The Protocol establishing the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights entered into force in January 2004 but its merging with the Court of Justice has delayed its establishment. The Protocol establishing the Court of Justice will come into force when ratified by 15 countries. There are many countries in Africa accused of human rights violations by the international community and NGOs. Americas The Organization of American States (OAS) is an international organization, headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States. Its members are the thirty-five independent states of the Americas. Over the course of the 1990s, with the end of the Cold War, the return to democracy in Latin America, and the thrust toward globalization, the OAS made major efforts to reinvent itself to fit the new context. Its stated priorities now include the following: Strengthening democracy Working for peace Protecting human rights Combating corruption The rights of Indigenous Peoples Promoting sustainable development The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (the IACHR) is an autonomous organ of the Organization of American States, also based in Washington, D.C. Along with the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, based in San José, Costa Rica, it is one of the bodies that comprise the inter-American system for the promotion and protection of human rights. The IACHR is a permanent body which meets in regular and special sessions several times a year to examine allegations of human rights violations in the hemisphere. Its human rights duties stem from three documents: the OAS Charter the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man the American Convention on Human Rights The Inter-American Court of Human Rights was established in 1979 with the purpose of enforcing and interpreting the provisions of the American Convention on Human Rights. Its two main functions are thus adjudicatory and advisory. Under the former, it hears and rules on the specific cases of human rights violations referred to it. Under the latter, it issues opinions on matters of legal interpretation brought to its attention by other OAS bodies or member states. Many countries in the Americas, such as the United States, Colombia, Cuba, and Venezuela, have been accused of human rights violations. Asia Membership and expansion of the Asia Cooperation Dialogue. Note that the Republic of China (Taiwan) is recognised or acknowledged by the member states as part of the People's Republic of China (PRC), but de facto does not have any representation. There are no Asia-wide organisations or conventions to promote or protect human rights. Countries vary widely in their approach to human rights and their record of human rights protection. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a geo-political and economic organization of 10 countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Bangkok Declaration. Wikisource. Retrieved March 14, 2007 The organisation now also includes Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia. Its aims include the acceleration of economic growth, social progress, cultural development among its members, and the promotion of regional peace The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an economic and political organization of eight countries in Southern Asia, representing almost 1.5 billion people. It was established in 1985 by India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Maldives and Bhutan. In April 2007, at the Association's 14th summit, Afghanistan became its eighth member. The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (CCASG) is a trade bloc involving the seven Arab states of the Persian Gulf, with many economic and social objectives. Created in 1981, the Council comprises the Persian Gulf states of Yemen Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD) is a body created in 2002 to promote Asian cooperation at a continental level, helping to integrate the previously separate regional organizations of political or economical cooperation. The main objectives of the ACD are as follows: To promote interdependence among Asian countries in all areas of cooperation by identifying Asia's common strengths and opportunities which will help reduce poverty and improve the quality of life for Asian people whilst developing a knowledge-based society within Asia and enhancing community and people empowerment; To expand the trade and financial market within Asia and increase the bargaining power of Asian countries in lieu of competition and, in turn, enhance Asia's economic competitiveness in the global market; To serve as the missing link in Asian cooperation by building upon Asia's potentials and strengths through supplementing and complementing existing cooperative frameworks so as to become a viable partner for other regions; To ultimately transform the Asian continent into an Asian Community, capable of interacting with the rest of the world on a more equal footing and contributing more positively towards mutual peace and prosperity. None of the above organisations have a specific mandate to promote or protect human rights, but each has some human rights related economic, social and cultural objectives. R.I.D.E., the Rural Institute for Development Education, is a non governmental organization based out of India which has effectively worked to eradicate child labor and fight for human rights in the region of Tamil Nadu. A number of Asian countries are accused of serious human rights abuses by the international community and human rights organisations. Europe The Flag of Europe is the flag of both the European Union and the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe, founded in 1949, is the oldest organisation working for European integration. It is an international organisation with legal personality recognised under public international law and has observer status with the United Nations. The seat of the Council of Europe is in Strasbourg in France. The Council of Europe is responsible for both the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights. These institutions bind the Council's members to a code of human rights which, though strict, are more lenient than those of the United Nations charter on human rights. The Council also promotes the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the European Social Charter. Membership is open to all European states which seek European integration, accept the principle of the rule of law and are able and willing to guarantee democracy, fundamental human rights and freedoms. The Council of Europe is separate from the European Union, but the latter is expected to accede to the European Convention and potentially the Council itself. The EU also has a separate human rights document; the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The European Convention on Human Rights defines and guarantees since 1950 human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe. All 47 member states of the Council of Europe have signed this Convention and are therefore under the jurisdiction of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. In order to prevent torture and inhuman or degrading treatment (Article 3 of the Convention), the Committee for the Prevention of Torture was established. The European Court of Human Rights is the only international court with jurisdiction to deal with cases brought by individuals (rather than states). Oceania There are no regional approaches or agreements on human rights for Oceania, but most countries have a well-regarded human rights record. Australia is the only western democracy with no constitutional or legislative bill of rights, but a number of laws have been enacted to protect human rights and the Constitution of Australia has been found to contain certain implied rights by the High Court. However, Australia has been criticised at various times for its immigration policies, treatment of asylum seekers, treatment of its indigenous population, and foreign policy. Philosophies Several theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain how and why human rights become part of social expectations. One of the oldest Western philosophies on human rights is that they are a product of a natural law, stemming from different philosophical or religious grounds. Other theories hold that human rights codify moral behavior which is a human social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution (associated with Hume). Human rights are also described as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of law and the work of Weber). These approaches include the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage (as in Rawls) - a social contract. Natural rights Natural law theories base human rights on a “natural” moral, religious or even biological order that is independent of transitory human laws or traditions. Socrates and his philosophic heirs, Plato and Aristotle, posited the existence of natural justice or natural right (dikaion physikon, δικαιον φυσικον, Latin ius naturale). Of these, Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law, Shellens (1959) although evidence for this is due largely to the interpretations of his work by Thomas Aquinas. Jaffa (1979) The development of this tradition of natural justice into one of natural law is usually attributed to the Stoics. Sills (1968, 1972) Natural Law Some of the early Church Fathers sought to incorporate the until then pagan concept of natural law into Christianity. Natural law theories have featured greatly in the philosophies of Thomas Aquinas, Francisco Suárez, Richard Hooker, Thomas Hobbes, Hugo Grotius, Samuel von Pufendorf, and John Locke. In the Seventeenth century Thomas Hobbes founded a contractualist theory of legal positivism on what all men could agree upon: what they sought (happiness) was subject to contention, but a broad consensus could form around what they feared (violent death at the hands of another). The natural law was how a rational human being, seeking to survive and prosper, would act. It was discovered by considering humankind's natural rights, whereas previously it could be said that natural rights were discovered by considering the natural law. In Hobbes' opinion, the only way natural law could prevail was for men to submit to the commands of the sovereign. In this lay the foundations of the theory of a social contract between the governed and the governor. Hugo Grotius based his philosophy of international law on natural law. He wrote that "even the will of an omnipotent being cannot change or abrogate" natural law, which "would maintain its objective validity even if we should assume the impossible, that there is no God or that he does not care for human affairs." (De iure belli ac pacis, Prolegomeni XI). This is the famous argument etiamsi daremus (non esse Deum), that made natural law no longer dependent on theology. John Locke incorporated natural law into many of his theories and philosophy, especially in Two Treatises of Government. Locke turned Hobbes' prescription around, saying that if the ruler went against natural law and failed to protect "life, liberty, and property," people could justifiably overthrow the existing state and create a new one. The Belgian philosopher of law Frank Van Dun is one among those who are elaborating a secular conception of natural law in the liberal tradition. There are also emerging and secular forms of natural law theory that define human rights as derivative of the notion of universal human dignity. Kohen (2007) The term "human rights" has replaced the term "natural rights" in popularity, because the rights are less and less frequently seen as requiring natural law for their existence. Social contract The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes suggested the existence of a hypothetical social contract where a group of free individuals agree for the sake of the common good to form institutions to govern themselves. They give up some liberties in exchange for protection from the Sovereign. This led to John Locke's theory that a failure of the government to secure rights is a failure which justifies the removal of the government, and was mirrored in later postulation by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his "Du Contrat Social" (The Social Contract). International equity expert Paul Finn has echoed this view: The relationship between government and the governed in countries which follow the English law tradition is a fiduciary one. In equity law, a politician's fiduciary obligations are not only the duties of good faith and loyalty, but also include duties of skill and competence in managing a country and its people. Originating from within the Courts of Equity, the fiduciary concept exists to prevent those holding positions of power from abusing their authority. The fiduciary relationship between government and the governed arises from the governments ability to control people with the exercise of its power. In effect, if a government has the power to abolish any rights, it is equally burdened with the fiduciary duty to protect such an interest because it would benefit from the exercise of its own discretion to extinguish rights which it alone had the power to dispose of. Salevao (2005) p.76 Reciprocity The Golden Rule, or the ethic of reciprocity states that one must do unto others as one would be treated themselves; the principle being that reciprocal recognition and respect of rights ensures that one's own rights will be protected. This principle can be found in all the world's major religions in only slightly differing forms, and was enshrined in the "Declaration Toward a Global Ethic" by the Parliament of the World's Religions in 1993. Other theories of human rights The philosopher John Finnis argues that human rights are justifiable on the grounds of their instrumental value in creating the necessary conditions for human well-being. Finnis (1980) Interest theories highlight the duty to respect the rights of other individuals on grounds of self-interest: The biological theory considers the comparative reproductive advantage of human social behavior based on empathy and altruism in the context of natural selection. Arnhart (1998) Clayton, Schloss (2004) Paul, Miller, Paul (2001): Arnhart, Larry. Thomistic Natural Law as Darwinian Natural Right p.1 Human security is an emerging school of thought which challenges the traditional, state-based conception of security and argues that a people-focused approach to security is more appropriate in the modern interdependent world and would be more effective in advancing the security of individuals and societies across the globe. Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has argued to the effect that those who speak most vehemently about their rights, doubt at the bottom of their soul if they truly have any. Critiques of Human Rights Philosophers who have criticized the concept of human rights include Jeremy Bentham, Edmund Burke, and Karl Marx. A recent critique has been advanced by Charles Blattberg in his essay "The Ironic Tragedy of Human Rights." Blattberg argues that rights talk, being abstract, demotivates people from upholding the values that rights are meant to assert. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1330693 Concepts in human rights Indivisibility and categorization The most common categorization of human rights is to split them into civil and political rights, and economic, social and cultural rights. Civil and political rights are enshrined in articles 3 to 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Economic, social and cultural rights are enshrined in articles 22 to 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Indivisibility The UDHR included both economic, social and cultural rights and civil and political rights because it was based on the principle that the different rights could only successfully exist in combination: This is held to be true because without civil and political rights the public cannot assert their economic, social and cultural rights. Similarly, without livelihoods and a working society, the public cannot assert or make use of civil or political rights (known as the full belly thesis). The indivisibility and interdependence of all human rights has been confirmed by the 1993 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action: This statement was again endorsed at the 2005 World Summit in New York (paragraph 121). Although accepted by the signatories to the UDHR, most do not in practice give equal weight to the different types of rights. Some Western cultures have often given priority to civil and political rights, sometimes at the expense of economic and social rights such as the right to work, to education, health and housing. For example, in the United States there is no universal access to healthcare free at the point of use. Light (2002) That is not to say that Western cultures have overlooked these rights entirely (the welfare states that exist in Western Europe are evidence of this). Similarly the ex Soviet bloc countries and Asian countries have tended to give priority to economic, social and cultural rights, but have often failed to provide civil and political rights. Categorization Opponents of the indivisibility of human rights argue that economic, social and cultural rights are fundamentally different from civil and political rights and require completely different approaches. Economic, social and cultural rights are argued to be: Scott (1989 positive, meaning that they require active provision of entitlements by the state (as opposed to the state being required only to prevent the breach of rights) resource-intensive, meaning that they are expensive and difficult to provide progressive, meaning that they will take significant time to implement vague, meaning they cannot be quantitatively measured, and whether they are adequately provided or not is difficult to judge ideologically divisive/political, meaning that there is no consensus on what should and shouldn't be provided as a right socialist, as opposed to capitalist non-justiciable, meaning that their provision, or the breach of them, cannot be judged in a court of law aspirations or goals, as opposed to real 'legal' rights Similarly civil and political rights are categorized as: negative, meaning the state can protect them simply by taking no action cost-free immediate, meaning they can be immediately provided if the state decides to precise, meaning their provision is easy to judge and measure non-ideological/non-political capitalist justiciable real 'legal' rights In The No-Nonsense Guide to Human Rights Olivia Ball and Paul Gready argue that for both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights it is easy to find examples which do not fit into the above categorisation. Amongst several others, they highlight the fact that maintaining a judicial system, a fundamental requirement of the civil right to due process before the law and other rights relating to judicial process, is positive, resource-intensive, progressive and vague, while the social right to housing is precise, justiciable and can be a real 'legal' right. Ball, Gready (2007) p.37 Another categorization, offered by Karel Vasak, is that there are three generations of human rights: first-generation civil and political rights (right to life and political participation), second-generation economic, social and cultural rights (right to subsistence) and third-generation solidarity rights (right to peace, right to clean environment). Out of these generations, the third generation is the most debated and lacks both legal and political recognition. This categorisation is at odds with the indivisibility of rights, as it implicitly states that some rights can exist without others. Prioritisation of rights for pragmatic reasons is however a widely accepted necessity. Human rights expert Philip Alston argues: He, and others, urge caution with prioritisation of rights: Some human rights are said to be "inalienable rights." The term inalienable rights (or unalienable rights) refers to "a set of human rights that are fundamental, are not awarded by human power, and cannot be surrendered." Universalism vs. cultural relativism Map: Estimated Prevalence of Female Genital Cutting (FGC) in Africa. Data based on uncertain estimates. The UDHR enshrines universal rights that apply to all humans equally, whichever geographical location, state, race or culture they belong to. Proponents of cultural relativism argue for acceptance of different cultures, which may have practices conflicting with human rights. For example female genital mutilation occurs in different cultures in Africa, Asia and South America. It is not mandated by any religion, but has become a tradition in many cultures. It is considered a violation of women's and girl's rights by much of the international community, and is outlawed in some countries. Universalism has been described by some as cultural, economic or political imperialism. In particular, the concept of human rights is often claimed to be fundamentally rooted in a politically liberal outlook which, although generally accepted in Europe, Japan or North America, is not necessarily taken as standard elsewhere. For example, in 1981, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, articulated the position of his country regarding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by saying that the UDHR was "a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law. Littman (1999) The former Prime Ministers of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew, and of Malaysia, Mahathir bin Mohamad both claimed in the 1990s that Asian values were significantly different from western values and included a sense of loyalty and foregoing personal freedoms for the sake of social stability and prosperity, and therefore authoritarian government is more appropriate in Asia than democracy. This view is countered by Mahathir's former deputy: and also by Singapore's opposition leader Chee Soon Juan who states that it is racist to assert that Asians do not want human rights. Ball, Gready (2007) p.25 An appeal is often made to the fact that influential human rights thinkers, such as John Locke and John Stuart Mill, have all been Western and indeed that some were involved in the running of Empires themselves. Tunick (2006) Beate (2005) Cultural relativism is a self-detonating position; if cultural relativism is true, then universalism must also be true. Relativistic arguments also tend to neglect the fact that modern human rights are new to all cultures, dating back no further than the UDHR in 1948. They also don't account for the fact that the UDHR was drafted by people from many different cultures and traditions, including a US Roman Catholic, a Chinese Confucian philosopher, a French zionist and a representative from the Arab League, amongst others, and drew upon advice from thinkers such as Mahatma Gandhi. Michael Ignatieff has argued that cultural relativism is almost exclusively an argument used by those who wield power in cultures which commit human rights abuses, and that those whose human rights are compromised are the powerless. Ignatief, M. (2001) p.68 This reflects the fact that the difficulty in judging universalism versus relativism lies in who is claiming to represent a particular culture. Although the argument between universalism and relativism is far from complete, it is an academic discussion in that all international human rights instruments adhere to the principle that human rights are universally applicable. The 2005 World Summit reaffirmed the international community's adherence to this principle: State and non-state actors Companies, NGOs, political parties, informal groups, and individuals are known as non-State actors. Non-State actors can also commit human rights abuses, but are not generally subject to human rights law other than under International Humanitarian Law, which applies to individuals. Also, certain national instruments such as the Human Rights Act 1998 (UK), impose human rights obligations on certain entities which are not traditionally considered as part of government ("public authorities"). Multinational companies play an increasingly large role in the world, and are responsible for a large number of human rights abuses. Although the legal and moral environment surrounding the actions of governments is reasonably well developed, that surrounding multinational companies is both controversial and ill-defined. Multinational companies' primary responsibility is to their shareholders, not to those affected by their actions. Such companies may be larger than the economies of some the states within which they operate, and can wield significant economic and political power. No international treaties exist to specifically cover the behavior of companies with regard to human rights, and national legislation is very variable. Jean Ziegler, Special Rapporteur of the UN Commission on Human Rights on the right to food stated in a report in 2003: In August 2003 the Human Rights Commission's Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights produced draft Norms on the responsibilities of transnational corporations and other business enterprises with regard to human rights. These were considered by the Human Rights Commission in 2004, but have no binding status on corporations and are not monitored. Theory of value and property Henry of Ghent articulated the theory that every person has a property interest in their own body. Tierney (1997) John Locke uses the word property in both broad and narrow senses. In a broad sense, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more narrowly, it refers to material goods. He argues that property is a natural right and it is derived from labour." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke In addition, property precedes government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily." To deny valid property rights according to Locke is to deny human rights. The British philosopher had significant impacts upon the development of the Government of the UK and was central to the fundamental founding philosophy of the United States. Karl Marx later critiqued Locke's theory of property in his Theories of Surplus Value, seeing the beginnings of a theory of surplus value in Locke's works. In Locke's Second Treatise he argued that the right to own private property was unlimited as long as nobody took more than they could use without allowing any of their property to go to waste and that there were enough common resources of comparable quality available for others to create their own property. Locke did believe that some would be more "industrious and rational" than others and would amass more property, but believed this would not cause shortages. Though this system could work before the introduction of money, Marx argued in Theories of Surplus Value that Locke's system would break down and claimed money was a contradiction of the law of nature on which private property was founded. Vaughn (1978) Reproductive rights Reproductive rights are rights relating to reproduction and reproductive health. The World Health Organisation defines reproductive rights as follows: Reproductive rights were first established as a subset of human rights at the United Nation's 1968 International Conference on Human Rights. The sixteenth article of the resulting Proclamation of Teheran states, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children." Reproductive rights may include some or all of the following rights: the right to legal or safe abortion, the right to control one's reproductive functions, the right to quality reproductive healthcare, and the right to education and access in order to make reproductive choices free from coercion, discrimination, and violence. Reproductive rights may also be understood to include education about contraception and sexually transmitted infections, and freedom from coerced sterilization and contraception, protection from gender-based practices such as female genital cutting (FGC) and male genital mutilation (MGM). Template Legal issues Human rights vs. national security With the exception of non-derogable human rights (international conventions class the right to life, the right to be free from slavery, the right to be free from torture and the right to be free from retroactive application of penal laws as non-derogable ), the UN recognises that human rights can be limited or even pushed aside during times of national emergency - although Rights that cannot be derogated for reasons of national security in any circumstances are known as peremptory norms or jus cogens. Such United Nations Charter obligations are binding on all states and cannot be modified by treaty. Examples of national security being used to justify human rights violations include the Japanese American internment during World War II, Children of the Camps | Internment Timeline Stalin's Great Purge, The Great Purge and the actual and alleged modern-day abuses of terror suspects rights by some western countries, often in the name of the War on Terror. Human rights violations Aung San Suu Kyi is a prisoner of conscience and pro-democracy campaigner in Myanmar Human rights violations occur when any state or non-state actor breaches any part of the UDHR treaty or other international human rights or humanitarian law. In regard to human rights violations of United Nations laws. Article 39 of the United Nations Charter designates the UN Security Council (or an appointed authority) as the only tribunal that may determine UN human rights violations. Human rights abuses are monitored by United Nations committees, national institutions and governments and by many independent non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty International, International Federation of Human Rights, Human Rights Watch, World Organisation Against Torture, Freedom House, International Freedom of Expression Exchange and Anti-Slavery International. These organisations collect evidence and documentation of alleged human rights abuses and apply pressure to enforce human rights laws. Only a very few countries do not commit significant human rights violations, according to Amnesty International. In their 2004 human rights report (covering 2003), the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Iceland and Costa Rica are the only (mappable) countries that did not (in their opinion) violate at least some human rights significantly. There are a wide variety of databases available which attempt to measure, in a rigorous fashion, exactly what violations governments commit against those within their territorial jurisdiction. An example of this is the list created and maintained by Prof. Christian Davenport at the University of Maryland. Wars of aggression, war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide, are breaches of International humanitarian law and represent the most serious of human rights violations. When a government closes a geographical region to journalists, it raises suspicions of human rights violations. Seven regions are currently closed to foreign journalists: Chechnya, Russia Jaffna, Sri Lanka Myanmar (Burma) North Korea Papua, Indonesia Peshawar, Pakistan Tibet, People's Republic of China Medellin, Colombia Currently debated rights Events and new possibilities can affect existing rights or require new ones. Advances of technology, medicine, and philosophy constantly challenge the status quo of human rights thinking. Environmental rights There are two basic conceptions of environmental human rights in the current human rights system. The first is that the right to a healthy or adequate environment is itself a human right (as seen in the both Article 21 of the African Charter of Human and People’s Rights, and Article 11 of the San Salvador Protocol to the American Charter of Human Rights). http://www.achpr.org/english/_info/charter_en.html http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/sigs/a-52.html . The second conception is the idea that environmental human rights can be derived from other human rights, usually - the right to life, the right to health, the right to private family life and the right to property (among many others). This second theory enjoys much more widespread use in human rights courts around the world, as those rights are contained in many human rights documents. The onset of various environmental issues, especially climate change, has created potential conflicts between different human rights. Human rights ultimately require a working ecosystem and healthy environment, but the granting of certain rights to individuals may damage these. Such as the conflict between right to decide number of offspring and the common need for a healthy environment, as noted in the tragedy of the commons. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons", Science, Vol. 162, No. 3859 (December 13, 1968), pp. 1243-1248. Also available here and here. In the area of environmental rights, the responsibilities of multinational corporations, so far relatively unaddressed by human rights legislation, is of paramount consideration. Environmental Rights revolve largely around the idea of a right to a livable environment both for the present and the future generations. Future generations In 1997 UNESCO adopted the Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generation Towards the Future Generation. The Declaration opens with the words: Article 1 of the declaration states "the present generations have the responsibility of ensuring that the needs and interests of present and future generations are fully safeguarded." The preamble to the declaration states that "at this point in history, the very existence of humankind and its environment are threatened" and the declaration covers a variety of issues including protection of the environment, the human genome, biodiversity, cultural heritage, peace, development, and education. The preamble recalls that the responsibilities of the present generations towards future generations has been referred to in various international instruments, including the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO 1972), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (UN Conference on Environment and Development, 1992), the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (World Conference on Human Rights, 1993) and a number of UN General Assembly resolutions relating to the protection of the global climate for present and future generations adopted since 1990. Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generation Towards the Future Generation Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender (LGBT) rights Some organizations argue that LGBT issues, such as same-sex marriage, gay adoption rights, and protection from discrimination should be considered human rights. Canadian courts have recognized certain rights under section fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Current campaigns, such as the Human Rights Campaign, specifically focus on the rights of the LGBT community. Part of this debate includes a proposed UN declaration on LGBT rights which would for the first time condemn “discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity.” http://www.pinknews.co.uk/ While receiving widespread global support, including signatures from the member states of the European Union, opposition has come from several UN member nations, as well as the Vatican, where the Vatican’s permanent observer at the UN, indicated his belief that the declaration would discriminate against states which support "traditional" marriage. http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-9811.html Trade Although both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights emphasize the importance of a right to work, neither of these documents explicitly mention trade as a mechanism for ensuring this fundamental right. And yet trade plays a key role in providing jobs. Some experts argue that trade is inherent to human nature and that when governments inhibit international trade they directly inhibit the right to work and the other indirect benefits, like the right to education, that increased work and investment help accrue. Others have argued that the ability to trade doesn't affect everyone equally -- often groups like the rural poor, indigenous groups and women are less likely to access the benefits of increased trade. On the other hand, others think that it is no longer primarily individuals but companies that trade, and therefore it cannot be guaranteed as a human right. Additionally, trying to fit too many concepts under the umbrella of what qualifies as a human right has the potential to dilute their importance. Finally, it is difficult to define a right to trade as either "fair" or "just" in that all trade regimes create winners and losers, and changing the rules only creates different losers, not necessarily fewer. Water There is no current universal human right to water, binding or not, enshrined by the United Nations or any other multilateral body. In November 2002, the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights issued a non-binding comment affirming that access to water was a human right: This principle was reaffirmed at the 3rd and 4th World Water Councils in 2003 and 2006. This marks a departure from the conclusions of the 2nd World Water Forum in The Hague in 2000, which stated that water was a commodity to be bought and sold, not a right. There are calls from many NGOs and politicians to enshrine access to water as a binding human right, and not as a commodity. See also Customary international law Discrimination Economic freedom Freedom (political) Global governance Human responsibilities Human security Political repression Warsaw Confederation References Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project (RULAC) Bibliography Amnesty International (2004). 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Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2007 ISBN 9780773535381 Chauhan, O.P. (2004). Human Rights: Promotion and Protection. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 812612119X. Cook, Rebecca J.; Fathalla, Mahmoud F. (September 1996). "Advancing Reproductive Rights Beyond Cairo and Beijing". International Family Planning Perspectives Vol.22 (No.3): p.115-121 Davenport, Christian (2007a). State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521864909 Davenport, Christian (2007b). State Repression and Political Order. Annual Review of Political Science. Dees, Morris (2001). A Lawyer’s Journey. Chicago: American Bar Association. (Popular biography by innovative lawyer who pioneered use of civil suits to put white supremacist organizations out of business). Donnelly, Jack. (2003). Universal Human Rights in Theory & Practice. 2nd ed. Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801487765 Ellerman, David (2005). 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Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691088934 Glendon, Mary Ann (2001). A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Random House of Canada Ltd. ISBN 0375506926 Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck; Esposito, John L. (1998) Islam, Gender, and Social Change. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195113578 Hitchens, Christopher (2002). The Trial of Henry Kissinger. Verso. ISBN 1859843980 Houghton Miffin Company (2006). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Miffin. ISBN 0618701737 Jackson, Kevin (1994). Charting Global Responsibilities: Legal Philosophy and Human Rights. University Press of America. ISBN 0819194786 Jaffa, Harry V. (1979). Thomism and Aristotelianism; A Study of the Commentary by Thomas Aquinas on the Nicomachean Ethics Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313211493 (reprint of 1952 edition published by University of Chicago Press) Jahn, Beate (2005). "Barbarian thoughts: imperialism in the philosophy of John Stuart Mill". Review of International Studies 13-06-2005 31: 599-618 Cambridge University Press Jones, Lindsay. Encyclopedia of religion, second edition. ISBN 0-02-865742-X Joseph, Suad; Najmabadi, Afsaneh (eds) (2007). Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures. Brill Publishing. ISBN 9004128182 Kennedy, Duncan (1982). Legal Education and the Reproduction of Hierarchy. Journal of Legal Education Vol.32 (No. 591) Khadduri, Majid (1978). "Marriage in Islamic Law: The Modernist Viewpoints". American Journal of Comparative Law Vol. 26 (No. 2): pp. 213–218. Köchler, Hans (1981). The Principles of International Law and Human Rights Köchler, Hans. (1990). "Democracy and Human Rights". Studies in International Relations, XV. Vienna: International Progress Organization. Kohen, Ari (2007). In Defense of Human Rights: A Non-Religious Grounding in a Pluralistic World. Routledge. ISBN 0415420156 , ISBN 978-0415420150 Landman, Todd (2006). Studying Human Rights. Oxford and London: Routledge ISBN 0-415-32605-2 Lewis, Bernard (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195053265 Lewis, Bernard (21 January 1998). "Islamic Revolution". The New York Review of Books Vol.34 (Nos. 21 & 22) Light, Donald W. (2002). "A Conservative Call For Universal Access To Health Care" Penn Bioethics Vol.9 (No.4) p.4-6 Littman, David (1999). "Universal Human Rights and 'Human Rights in Islam'". Midstream Magazine Vol. 2 (no.2) pp. 2–7 Maan, Bashir; McIntosh, Alastair (1999). "Interview with William Montgomery Watt" The Coracle Vol. 3 (No. 51) pp. 8–11. Marshall, Thurgood (2001). Thurgood Marshall: His Speeches, Writings, Arguments, Opinions and Reminiscences. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. (A rare and revealing popular memoir by a distinguished contemporary Supreme Court justice). Mayer, Henry (2000). All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery. St Martin's Press. ISBN 0312253672 McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed) (2005). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an: vol 1-5 Brill Publishing. ISBN 9004147438. ISBN 978-9004147430 McLagan, Meg (2003) "Principles, Publicity, and Politics: Notes on Human Rights Media". American Anthropologist. Vol. 105 (No. 3). pp. 605–612 Hershock, Peter D; Ames, R.T.; Stepaniants, M. (eds). Technology and Cultural Values on the Edge of the Third Millennium. (Selected papers from the 8 th East-West Philosophers Conference). Honolulu: U of Hawai’i Press, 2003. 209-221. Möller, Hans-Georg (2003). How to Distinguish Friends from Enemies: Human Rights Rhetoric and Western Mass Media. Nathwani, Niraj (2003). Rethinking Refugee Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 9041120025 Paul, Ellen Frankel; Miller, Fred Dycus; Paul, Jeffrey (eds) (2001). Natural Law and Modern Moral Philosophy Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521794609 Clayton, Philip; Schloss, Jeffrey (2004). Evolution and Ethics: Human Morality in Biological and Religious Perspective Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0802826954 Robertson, Arthur Henry; Merrills, John Graham (1996). Human Rights in the World: An Introduction to the Study of the International Protection of Human Rights. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719049237. Salevao, Lutisone (2005). Rule of Law, Legitimate Governance and Develoment in the Pacific. ANU E Press. ISBN 1920942556 Sciacca, Fabrizio (ed.) (2008). "Struttura e senso dei diritti. L'Europa tra identità e giustizia politica". Milano: Bruno Mondadori. ISBN 978861591820. Scott, C. (1989). "The Interdependence and Permeability of Human Rights Norms: Towards a Partial Fusion of the International Covenants on Human Rights". Osgood Law Journal Vol. 27 Sills, David L. (1968, 1972) International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. MacMillan. Shellens, Max Salomon. 1959. "Aristotle on Natural Law." Natural Law Forum 4, no. 1. Pp. 72–100. Schimmel, Annemarie (1992). 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ISBN 0802848540 Tunick, Mark (2006). "Tolerant Imperialism: John Stuart Mill's Defense of British Rule in India". The Review of Politics 27-10-2006 68: 586-611 Cambridge University Press Vaughn, Karen I. (1978) "John Locke and the Labor Theory of Value" Journal of Libertarian Studies. Vol. 2 (No. 4) pp.311–326 External links International Federation of Human Rights - 155 Human Rights Organisations throughout the world Human Rights First - International human rights organization United Nations- Universal Declaration of Human Rights United Nations- Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights The Universal Human Rights Index of United Nations documents Guide to the Statement of Essential Human Rights at the American Law Institute Archives Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project Universal Human Rights chronological listing of the core international human rights treaties Cambodian Center for Human Rights (CCHR) be-x-old:Правы чалавека | Human_rights |@lemmatized cyrus:3 cylinder:2 world:33 first:12 document:11 charter:28 human:270 right:440 refer:9 basic:5 freedom:14 entitle:1 houghton:3 miffin:3 company:9 example:7 come:7 commonly:1 think:2 include:31 civil:24 political:36 life:8 liberty:5 expression:2 equality:2 law:85 economic:35 social:42 cultural:30 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5,737 | Freeciv | Freeciv is a multiplayer, turn-based strategy game for workstations and personal computers inspired by the commercial proprietary Sid Meier's Civilization series. The game's default settings are closest to Civilization II, both in gameplay and graphics (including the units and the isometric grid). Freeciv is available for most desktop computer operating systems. Released under the GNU General Public License, Freeciv is free software. Description Players take the role of a tribe leader in 4000 BC and have to guide their people through the centuries. Over time, new technologies are discovered, which allow the construction of new city buildings and the deployment of new units. Players can wage war on one another or form diplomatic relationships. The game ends when one civilization has eradicated all others, accomplished the goal of space colonization, or at a certain deadline. If more than one civilization remains at the deadline, the player with the highest score wins. Points are awarded for the size of a civilization, its wealth, and cultural and scientific advances. Design Freeciv is very configurable, down to the specific rules, so it can be played in Freeciv (default) mode, Civilization, Civilization II, or in a custom mode. One or several players act as game administrators and can configure the game rules. Typically modified rules are: Number of players required before the game can be started Speed of technological development Whether there should be computer controlled players Whether (computer controlled) barbarians should invade player settlements How close cities can be built to one another How continents and islands are generated and distributed over the map Map size Map topology (rectangular or hexagonal tiling; whether it wraps horizontally and vertically) In order to play a game of Freeciv, a user must start up a Freeciv client and connect it to a Freeciv server. Initially, the server is in pre-game phase; in this phase, clients can connect and game configuration parameters can be changed. At some point, the server may be ordered to start a game; in response, it creates game players (nations) and the game map, and assigns every player to either a Freeciv client or a computer player, as specified by the configuration. From that point on, the game will run until it ends or is terminated; the server can never get back into pre-game state. The user can also start a game directly from the client: this automatically starts a Freeciv server, connects to it and starts the game. The default gameplay mode in Freeciv resembles Civilization II. Features Freeciv'''s graphics system is configurable: originally, map display was always in overhead mode (like in Civ I), which many players found rather crude; isometric mode (like in Civ II) was added later. In both modes, look can be further customized by switching to an alternative set of graphics (called a tileset). The sounds can be replaced as well. Freeciv supports human-to-human multiplayer gameplay and artificial intelligence (AI) computer players. While the game is turn based, human players move simultaneously. The AI players move separately, partly at the start of a turn, partly at the end. In releases before 2.0, AI players could not engage in diplomatic relationships with human players. Under the current release, AI players will engage in a very predictable, rules-based diplomacy.Freeciv has a map and scenario editor called Civworld available as a separate download. Civworld is being integrated into the main release for the planned 2.2 version, and development snapshots as of 2007 already have some map editing capabilities built-in. Compatibility Originally developed on IRIX, Freeciv has been reported to run on Linux, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Solaris, along with a large number of other operating systems including Ultrix, QNX, OS/2, Cygwin, AmigaOS, ZETA, SkyOS and various BSDs. Freeciv is included with many popular Linux distributions. History At DAIMI, the CS department at Aarhus University, three CS students, avid players of XPilot and of Sid Meier's Civilization'', which was a stand-alone PC game for DOS, decided to find out whether the two could be fused into an X-based multiplayer Civilization-like strategy game. The students--Peter Unold, Claus Leth Gregersen and Allan Ove Kjeldbjerg--started development in November 1995; the first playable version was released in January, 1996, with bugfixing and small enhancements until April. Freeciv 1.0a source code (1996); see DESIGN Freeciv 1.0k source code (1996); see CHANGES The rules of the game were close to Civilization, while the client/server architecture was basically that of XPilot. For the developers, Freeciv 1.0 was a successful proof of concept, but a rather boring game, so they went back to XPilot. But Freeciv was already playable and addictive enough to pick up other students as players, bugfixers and feature extenders. It was useful enough to be picked up by popular Linux distributions, e.g. Debian Designed to be portable, it was ported to many platforms, which helped its survival. Freeciv playing and development continues to the present day, although the spells with little development activity have grown longer and more frequent over time. The development history is strictly incremental: while there have been many serious improvements, the basic design and architecture have not changed since the early versions. See also List of open source games References External links Project home page Longturn (Freeciv variant with one turn each day) | Freeciv |@lemmatized freeciv:22 multiplayer:3 turn:4 base:4 strategy:2 game:22 workstation:1 personal:1 computer:6 inspire:1 commercial:1 proprietary:1 sid:2 meier:2 civilization:11 series:1 default:3 setting:1 close:3 ii:4 gameplay:3 graphic:3 include:3 unit:2 isometric:2 grid:1 available:2 desktop:1 operate:2 system:3 release:5 gnu:1 general:1 public:1 license:1 free:1 software:1 description:1 player:19 take:1 role:1 tribe:1 leader:1 bc:1 guide:1 people:1 century:1 time:2 new:3 technology:1 discover:1 allow:1 construction:1 city:2 building:1 deployment:1 wage:1 war:1 one:6 another:2 form:1 diplomatic:2 relationship:2 end:3 eradicate:1 others:1 accomplish:1 goal:1 space:1 colonization:1 certain:1 deadline:2 remain:1 high:1 score:1 win:1 point:3 award:1 size:2 wealth:1 cultural:1 scientific:1 advance:1 design:4 configurable:2 specific:1 rule:5 play:2 mode:6 custom:1 several:1 act:1 administrator:1 configure:1 typically:1 modified:1 number:2 require:1 start:8 speed:1 technological:1 development:6 whether:4 control:2 barbarian:1 invade:1 settlement:1 build:2 continent:1 island:1 generate:1 distribute:1 map:7 topology:1 rectangular:1 hexagonal:1 tiling:1 wrap:1 horizontally:1 vertically:1 order:2 user:2 must:1 client:5 connect:3 server:6 initially:1 pre:2 phase:2 configuration:2 parameter:1 change:3 may:1 response:1 create:1 nation:1 assign:1 every:1 either:1 specify:1 run:2 terminate:1 never:1 get:1 back:2 state:1 also:2 directly:1 automatically:1 resembles:1 feature:2 originally:2 display:1 always:1 overhead:1 like:3 civ:2 many:4 find:2 rather:2 crude:1 add:1 later:1 look:1 customize:1 switch:1 alternative:1 set:1 call:2 tileset:1 sound:1 replace:1 well:1 support:1 human:4 artificial:1 intelligence:1 ai:4 move:2 simultaneously:1 separately:1 partly:2 could:2 engage:2 current:1 predictable:1 diplomacy:1 scenario:1 editor:1 civworld:2 separate:1 download:1 integrate:1 main:1 planned:1 version:3 snapshot:1 already:2 edit:1 capability:1 compatibility:1 develop:1 irix:1 report:1 linux:3 microsoft:1 window:1 mac:1 x:2 solaris:1 along:1 large:1 ultrix:1 qnx:1 os:1 cygwin:1 amigaos:1 zeta:1 skyos:1 various:1 bsds:1 popular:2 distribution:2 history:2 daimi:1 c:2 department:1 aarhus:1 university:1 three:1 student:3 avid:1 xpilot:3 stand:1 alone:1 pc:1 decide:1 two:1 fuse:1 peter:1 unold:1 claus:1 leth:1 gregersen:1 allan:1 ove:1 kjeldbjerg:1 november:1 first:1 playable:2 january:1 bugfixing:1 small:1 enhancement:1 april:1 source:3 code:2 see:3 architecture:2 basically:1 developer:1 successful:1 proof:1 concept:1 boring:1 go:1 addictive:1 enough:2 pick:2 bugfixers:1 extenders:1 useful:1 e:1 g:1 debian:1 portable:1 port:1 platform:1 help:1 survival:1 playing:1 continue:1 present:1 day:2 although:1 spell:1 little:1 activity:1 grow:1 long:1 frequent:1 strictly:1 incremental:1 serious:1 improvement:1 basic:1 since:1 early:1 list:1 open:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 project:1 home:1 page:1 longturn:1 variant:1 |@bigram sid_meier:2 meier_civilization:2 horizontally_vertically:1 artificial_intelligence:1 microsoft_window:1 client_server:1 external_link:1 |
5,738 | Satires_(Juvenal) | Frontispiece depicting Juvenal and Persius, from a volume translated by John Dryden in 1711. The Satires are a collection of satirical poems by the Latin author Juvenal written in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries A.D. Juvenal is credited with sixteen known poems divided among five books; all are in the Roman genre of Satire, which, at its most basic in the time of the author, comprised a wide-ranging discussion of society and social mores in dactylic hexameter. Lucilius – the acknowledged originator of Roman Satire in the form practiced by Juvenal - experimented with other meters before settling on dactylic hexameter. These five books were discrete works, and there is no reason to assume that they were published at the same time or that they are identical in theme or in approach. The poems are not individually titled, but translators have often added titles for the convenience of readers. Book I: Satires 1-5 Book II: Satire 6 Book III: Satires 7-9 Book IV: Satires 10-12 Book V: Satires 13-16 (Satire 16 is incompletely preserved) Roman Satura was a formal literary genre rather than being simply clever, humorous critique in no particular format. Juvenal wrote in this tradition, which originated with Lucilius and included the Sermones of Horace and the Satires of Persius. There were other authors who wrote within the genre, but only the texts of these three have been extensively preserved. In a tone and manner ranging from irony to apparent rage, Juvenal criticizes the actions and beliefs of many of his contemporaries, providing insight more into value systems and questions of morality and less into the realities of Roman life. The author employs outright obscenity less frequently than Martial or Catullus, but the scenes painted in his text are no less vivid or lurid for that discretion. The author makes constant allusion to history and myth as a source of object lessons or exemplars of particular vices and virtues. Coupled with his dense and elliptical Latin, these tangential references indicate that the intended reader of the Satires was highly educated. The intended reader was expected to understand these references without recourse to footnotes or reference works on Greco-Roman myth and history. The Satires are sophisticated literary works for a sophisticated reader. The Satires are concerned with perceived threats to the social continuity of the Roman citizens: social-climbing foreigners, unfaithfulness, and other more extreme excesses of their own class. The intended audience of the Satires constituted a subset of the Roman elite, primarily adult males of a more conservative social stance. Synopsis of the Satires Book I Satire I: It is Hard not to Write Satire It is hard not to write Satire. For who is so tolerant of the unjust City, so steeled, that he can restrain himself... difficile est saturam non scribere. nam quis iniquae tam patiens urbis, tam ferreus, ut teneat se... (1.30-32) 171 lines. This so-called "Programmatic Satire" lays out for the reader a catalogue of ills and annoyances that prompt the narrator to write satire. Miller, Paul Allen. Latin Verse Satire. 2005, page 232 Some examples cited by Juvenal include eunuchs getting married, elite women performing in a beast hunt, and the dregs of society suddenly becoming wealthy by gross acts of sycophancy. To the extent that it is programmatic, this satire concerns the first book rather than the satires of the other four known books. The narrator explicitly marks the writings of Lucilius as the model for his book of poems (lines 19-20), although he claims that to attack the living as his model did incur great risk (lines 165-67). The narrator contends that traditional Roman virtues, such as fides and virtus, had disappeared from society to the extent that "Rome was no longer Roman": Dare something worthy of exile to tiny Gyara and death row, if you want to be anything at all. Probity is praised – and it shivers in the street. aude aliquid brevibus Gyaris et carcere dignum, si vis esse aliquid. probitas laudatur et alget. (1.73-74) lines 1.1-19 – Since there are so many poets wasting paper and everyone’s time anyway – why not write? lines 1.20-80 – The narrator recites a catalogue of social deviants and criminals that demand Satire be written. lines 1.81-126 – Since the dawn of history, greed and fiscal corruption have never been worse. lines 1.127-146 – The narrator contrasts a typical day in the life of poor clients with that of their self-indulgent patron. lines 1.147-171 – The future cannot be worse than the present, yet only the dead better be satirized - if you want to live in safety. Satire II: Hypocrites are Intolerable I get an itch to run off beyond the Sarmatians and the frozen sea, every time those men who pretend to be old-time paragons of virtue and live an orgy, dare to spout something about morals. Vltra Sauromatas fugere hinc libet et glacialem Oceanum, quotiens aliquid de moribus audent qui Curios simulant et Bacchanalia uiuunt (2.1-3) 170 lines. The narrator claims to want to flee civilization (i.e. Roma) to beyond the world’s end when confronted by moral hypocrisy. Although the broad theme of this poem is the process of gender inversion, it would be an error to take is as simple invective against pathic men. Juvenal is concerned with gender deviance lines 2.1-35 – Pathic men that pretend to be moral exemplars are much worse than those who are open about their proclivities. The pot should not call the kettle black. lines 2.36-65 – When criticized for her morals, Laronia turns on one of these hypocrites and mocks their open effeminacy. lines 2.65-81 – Criticism of the effeminate dress of Creticus as he practices law. This moral plague (contagio) spreads like disease passes through an entire herd of livestock or a bunch of grapes. lines 2.82-116 – Effeminate dress is the gateway to complete gender inversion. lines 2.117-148 – A noble man, Gracchus, gets married to another man – but such brides are infertile no matter what drugs they try or how much they are whipped in the Lupercalia. lines 2.149-170 – The ghosts of great Romans of the past would feel themselves contaminated when such Romans descend to the underworld. Satire III: There is no Room in Roma for a Roman What could I do in Roma? I don’t know how to lie; If a book is bad, I am unable to praise it and ask for one; I don’t understand the motions of the stars – I am neither willing nor able to predict the death of someone’s father; I never inspected the guts of frogs; other men know all about ferrying what the adulterers send to brides; nobody is going to be a thief with me as his accomplice, and that right there is why I’m going in no governor’s entourage – I’m like a cripple, a useless body with a dead right hand. quid Romae faciam? mentiri nescio; librum, si malus est, nequeo laudare et poscere; motus astrorum ignoro; funus promittere patris nec uolo nec possum; ranarum uiscera numquam inspexi; ferre ad nuptam quae mittit adulter, quae mandat, norunt alii; me nemo ministro fur erit, atque ideo nulli comes exeo tamquam mancus et extinctae corpus non utile dextrae. (3.41-48) 322 lines. In the place where Numa Pompilius (the legendary second king of Rome) received a nymph’s advice on creating Roman law, the narrator has a final conversation with his Roman friend Umbricius, who is emigrating to Cumae. Umbricius claims that slick and immoral foreigners have shut a real Roman out of all opportunity to prosper. Only the first 20 lines are in the voice of the narrator; the remainder of the poem is cast as the words of Umbricius. In 1738, Samuel Johnson was inspired by this text to write his "London: A Poem in Imitation of the Third Satire of Juvenal". The archetypal question of whether an urban life of hectic ambition is to be preferred to a pastoral fantasy retreat to the country is posed by the narrator: As you love your hoe, live as the steward of your garden, whence you may lay out a feast for one hundred Pythagoreans. It is meaningful – in whatever place, in whatever backwater - to have made oneself the master of a single lizard. uiue bidentis amans et culti uilicus horti unde epulum possis centum dare Pythagoreis. est aliquid, quocumque loco, quocumque recessu, unius sese dominum fecisse lacertae. (3.228-31) lines 3.1-20 – The narrator’s old friend Umbricius is about to depart Roma for Cumae. The narrator says he would himself prefer Prochyta to the Suburra, and he describes the ancient shrine of Egeria being put up for rent to Jews and polluted by marble. lines 3.21-57 – Umbricius: There is no opportunity in Roma for an honest man. lines 3.58-125 – Umbricius: The Greeks and their ways are flowing like pollution into Roma, and they are so adept at lying flattery that they are achieving more social advancement that real Romans. lines 3.126-163 – Umbricius: The dregs of society so long as they are wealthy lord it over real Romans; there is no hope for an honest man in court if he is poor. lines 3.164-189 – Umbricius: Virtue and lack of pretension is only to be found outside the City; at Roma everything is expensive, pretentious, and bought on credit. lines 3.190-231 – Umbricius contrasts the perils and degradation of living in Roma with the easy and cheap life outside the City. lines 3.232-267 – Umbricius: The streets of Roma are annoying and dangerous if you are not rich enough to ride in a litter. lines 3.268-314 – Umbricius: Travel by night in Roma is fraught with danger from falling tiles, thugs, and robbers. lines 3.315-322 – Umbricius takes his leave of the narrator, and promises to visit him in his native Aquinum. Satire IV: The Emperor’s Fish Back when the last Flavian was ripping up a half-dead world – and Roma slaved for a bald Nero – in sight of the shrine of Venus, which Doric Ancona upholds, the marvelous expanse of an Adriatic turbot appeared, and filled the nets; ... cum iam semianimum laceraret Flauius orbem ultimus et caluo seruiret Roma Neroni, incidit Hadriaci spatium admirabile rhombi ante domum Veneris, quam Dorica sustinet Ancon, impleuitque sinus; ... (4.37-41) 154 lines. The narrator makes the emperor Domitian and his court the objects of his ridicule in this mock-epic tale of a fish so prodigious that it was fit for the emperor alone. The council of state is called to deal with the crisis of how to cook it. The main themes of this poem are the corruption and incompetence of sycophantic courtiers and the inability or unwillingness to speak truth to power. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's motto, vitam impendere vero (to pay his life for the truth) is taken from the passage below, a description of the qualifications of an imperial courtier in the reign of Domitian: ... nor was he the sort of citizen who was able to offer up the free words of his heart and stake his life on the truth. That is how he saw so many winters and indeed his eightieth summer, and by these arms he was safe even in that audience hall. ... nec ciuis erat qui libera posset uerba animi proferre et uitam inpendere uero. sic multas hiemes atque octogensima uidit solstitia, his armis illa quoque tutus in aula. (4.90-93) lines 4.1-10 – Criticism of the courtier Crispinus. lines 4.11-33 – Crispinus bought a mullet for six thousand sesterces - more expensive than the fisherman that caught him. lines 4.34-56 – Mock-epic narrative of the crisis of state caused by a giant turbot begins with the catch. lines 4.56-72 – The fisherman rushes to get the fish to the emperor. lines 4.72-93 – Crispinus and other councilors begin to arrive. lines 4.94-143 – More councilors arrive and one prophesizes that the fish is an omen of a future victory. The question of what to do with it is raised, and Montanus advises that a vessel be manufactured at once suitable for its size. lines 4.144-154 – The council break up, and the narrator voices his wish that all the actions of Domitian had been so meaningless. Satire V: Patronizing Patronage An eel awaits you - close relative of a long snake - or maybe even a Tiber-fish spotted with gray blotches, a home-born slave of the Embankment, fat from the gushing Cloaca Maxima and accustomed to venture into the covered sewer beneath the center of the Suburra. uos anguilla manet longae cognata colubrae aut glaucis sparsus maculis Tiberinus et ipse uernula riparum, pinguis torrente cloaca et solitus mediae cryptam penetrare Suburae. (5.103-106) 173 lines. The narrative frame of this poem is a dinner party where many potential dysfunctions in the ideal of the patron-client relationship are put on display. Rather than being a performance of faux-equality, the patron (Virro as in 9.35) emphasizes the superiority of himself and his peers (amici) over his clients (viles amici) by offering food and drink of unequal quality to each. Juvenal concludes with the observation that the clients who put up with this treatment deserve it. lines 5.1-11 – Begging is better than being treated disrespectfully at a patron's dinner. lines 5.12-23 – An invitation to dinner is a social exchange for your services as a client. lines 5.24-48 – Different wines and goblets for different social ranks. lines 5.49-106 – Different water is served by different grades of slaves - and different breads served by arrogant slaves. The patron gets a lobster, and you get a crayfish; he gets a Corsican mullet, and you get a sewer-fish. lines 5.107-113 – Seneca and others were known for their generosity. The elite should dine as equals with their friends - clients. lines 5.114-124 – The patron gets a goose liver and boar meat, but you get to watch the meat carver perform. lines 5.125-155 – If you had a fortune the patron would respect you; it is the cash that he really respects. Different mushrooms and apples. lines 5.156-173 – Clients who will not resist this kind of treatment deserve it and worse. Book II Satire VI: The Decay of Feminine Virtue ... I am aware of whatever counsels you old friends warn, i.e. "throw the bolt and lock her in.” But who is going to guard the guards themselves, who now keep silent the lapses of the loose girl - paid off in the same coin? The common crime keeps its silence. A prudent wife looks ahead and starts with them. ... noui consilia et ueteres quaecumque monetis amici, 'pone seram, cohibe'. sed quis custodiet ipsos custodes, qui nunc lasciuae furta puellae hac mercede silent? crimen commune tacetur. prospicit hoc prudens et a illis incipit uxor. (6.O29-34) c. 695 lines. For the discussion and synopsis, see Satire VI. Book III Satire VII: Fortuna (or the Emperor) is the Best Patron If the goddess Fortuna wants, from a mere teacher you will become consul, if the same want, a teacher will be created from a consul. For what was Ventidius? What was Tullius? Anything really other than a comet and the marvelous power of hidden fate? Kingdoms will be given to slaves, and a triumph to captives. A really fortunate man, however, is even more rare than a white crow. si Fortuna uolet, fies de rhetore consul; si uolet haec eadem, fiet de consule rhetor. Ventidius quid enim? quid Tullius? anne aliud quam sidus et occulti miranda potentia fati? seruis regna dabunt, captiuis fata triumphum. felix ille tamen coruo quoque rarior albo. (7.197-202) 243 lines. Juvenal returns to his theme of distorted economic values among the Roman elite – in this instance centered on their unwillingness to provide appropriate support for poets, lawyers, and teachers. It is the capricious whims of fate that determine the variables of a human life. lines 7.1-21 – The emperor is the only remaining patron of letters. lines 7.22-35 – Other patrons have learned to offer their admiration only. lines 7.36-52 – The urge to write is an addictive disease. lines 7.53-97 – Money and leisure are required to be a really great poet (vatis); hunger and discomfort would have hobbled even Virgil. lines 7.98-105 – Historians (scriptores historiarum) do not have it any better. lines 7.106-149 – Lawyers (causidici) get only as much respect as the quality of their dress can buy. lines 7.150-177 – No one is willing to pay teachers of rhetoric (magistri) appropriately. lines 7.178-214 – Rich men restrain only their spending on a teacher of rhetoric (rhetor) for their sons. Quintilian was rich, he was the lucky exception to the rule. lines 7.215-243 – The qualifications and efforts required of a teacher (grammaticus) are totally out of proportion to their pay. Satire VIII: True Nobility Although your whole atria display ancient wax portraits on every side, excellence is the one and only nobility. Go on and be a Paulus or Cossus or Drusus in your morals - esteem this more important than the images of your ancestors. tota licet ueteres exornent undique cerae atria, nobilitas sola est atque unica virtus. Paulus uel Cossus uel Drusus moribus esto, hos ante effigies maiorum pone tuorum. (8.19-22) 275 lines. The narrator takes issue with the idea that pedigree ought to be taken as evidence of a person’s worth. lines 8.1-38 – What is the value of a pedigree, if you are inferior to your ancestors? The word virtus in line 20 is the ultimate source of the English word virtue and is related to the Latin word vir (elite man). While the English term has primarily a moral connotation, the Latin word encompassed all characteristics appropriate to a vir – in short excellence. The narrator's point is that the only thing that makes one rightly nobilis (known, famous) is being personally outstanding. lines 8.39-55 – Many nobles have done nothing to makes themselves noble. lines 8.56-70 – Racehorses are valued for their speed not their ancestors; if they are slow they will end up pulling a cart. lines 8.71-86 – It is vile to rely on the reputations of others; one should be noble even in the face of danger. lines 8.87-126 – Govern your province honestly. When everything else is stolen from those you rule, weapons and desperation remain. lines 8.127-162 – If you live wickedly, your good ancestors are a reproach to you. lines 8.163-182 – Bad behavior should be ceased in youth. The nobles make excuses for behavior that would not be tolerated in slaves. lines 8.183-210 – When they bankrupt themselves, the nobles may sink to the level of the stage or the arena. lines 8.211-230 – The emperor Nero utterly debased himself in these ways. lines 8.231-275 – Many people without famous ancestors have served Roma with great distinction. Indeed, everyone is descended from peasants or worse if you go back far enough. Satire IX: Flattering your Patron is Hard Work But, while you downplay some services and lie about others I've done, what value do you put on the fact that - if I had not been handed over as your dedicated client - your wife would still be a virgin. uerum, ut dissimules, ut mittas cetera, quanto metiris pretio quod, ni tibi deditus essem deuotusque cliens, uxor tua uirgo maneret? (9.70-72) 150 lines. This satire is in the form of a dialogue between the narrator and Naevolus – the disgruntled client of a pathic patron. lines 9.1-26 – Narrator: Why do you look so haggard Naevolus? lines 9.27-46 – Naevolus: The life of serving the needs of pathic rich men is not paying off. lines 9.46-47 – Nar: Buy you used to think you were really sexy to men. lines 9.48-69 – Nae: Rich pathics are not willing to spend on their sickness, but I have bills to pay. lines 9.70-90 – Nae: I saved his marriage by doing his job for him with a wife that was about to get a divorce. lines 9.90-91 – Nar: You are justified in complaining Naevius. What did he say? lines 9.92-101 – Nae: He is looking for another two-legged donkey, but don’t repeat any of this, he might try to kill me. lines 9.102-123 – Nar: Rich men have no secrets. lines 9.124-129 – Nae: But what should I do now; youth is fleeting. lines 9.130-134 – Nar: You will never lack a pathic patron, don’t worry. lines 9.134-150 – Nae: But I want so little. Fortuna must have her ears plugged when I pray. Book IV Satire X: Wrong Desire is the Source of Suffering It is to be prayed that the mind be sound in a sound body. Ask for a brave soul that lacks the fear of death, which places the length of life last among nature’s blessings, which is able to bear whatever kind of sufferings, does not know anger, lusts for nothing and believes the hardships and savage labors of Hercules better than the satisfactions, feasts, and feather bed of an Eastern king. I will reveal what you are able to give yourself; For certain, the one footpath of a tranquil life lies through virtue. orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano. fortem posce animum mortis terrore carentem, qui spatium uitae extremum inter munera ponat naturae, qui ferre queat quoscumque labores, nesciat irasci, cupiat nihil et potiores Herculis aerumnas credat saeuosque labores et uenere et cenis et pluma Sardanapalli. monstro quod ipse tibi possis dare; semita certe tranquillae per uirtutem patet unica uitae. (10.356-64) 366 lines. The theme of this poem encompasses the myriad objects of prayer unwisely sought from the gods: wealth, power, beauty, children, long life, etcetera. The narrator argues that each of these is a false Good; each desired thing is shown to be not good in itself, but only good so long as other factors do not intervene. This satire is the source of the well-known phrase "mens sana in corpore sano" (a healthy mind in a healthy body), which appears in the passage above. It is also the source of the phrase "panem et circenses" (bread and circuses) - the only remaining cares of a Roman populace which has given up its birthright of political freedom (10.81). lines 10.1-27—Few know what is really Good. Wealth often destroys. lines 10.28-55—One can either cry like Heraclitus or laugh like Democritus at the state of things. But what should men pray for? lines 10.56-89—It is all too easy to fall from power - like Sejanus. The mob follows Fortuna and cares for nothing but bread and circuses. lines 10.90-113—By seeking ever more honors and power, Sejanus just made his eventual fall that much more terrible. lines 10.114-132—Being a great orator like Demosthenes or Cicero may get one killed. lines 10.133-146—Lust for military glory has ruined countries, and time will destroy even the graves of famous generals. lines 10.147-167—What did Hannibal ultimately accomplish? He dies of poison in exile. lines 10.168-187—The world was not big enough for Alexander the Great, but a coffin was. Xerxes I crawled back to Persia after his misadventure in Greece. lines 10.188-209—Long life just means ugliness, helplessness, impotence, and the loss of all pleasure. lines 10.209-239—Old people are deaf and full of diseases. Dementia is the worst affliction of all. lines 10.240-272—Old people just live to see the funerals of their children and loved ones, like Nestor or Priam. lines 10.273-288—Many men would have been thought fortunate if they had died before a late disaster overtook them: e.g. Croesus, Marius, and Pompey. lines 10.289-309—Beauty is inimical to a person’s virtue. Even if they remain untouched by corruption, it makes them objects of lust for perverts. lines 10.310-345—Beautiful men tend to become noted adulterers, risking their lives. Even if they are unwilling like Hippolytus, the wrath of scorned women may destroy them. lines 10.346-366—Is there nothing to pray for then? Trust the gods to choose what is best; they love humans more than we do ourselves, but if you must pray for something, see the translation above. Satire XI: Dinner and a Moral Our humble home does not take up such trifles. Another man will hear the clacks of castanets along with words that a naked slave standing for sale in a smelly brothel would refrain from; another man will enjoy obscene voices and every art of lust, a man who wets his inlaid floor of Lacedaemonian marbles with spit-out wine ... Our dinner party today will provide other amusements. The author of the Iliad will sing, and the poems of Vergil that make the supremacy of Homer doubtful. What does it matter by what voice such verses are read? non capit has nugas humilis domus. audiat ille testarum crepitus cum uerbis, nudum olido stans fornice mancipium quibus abstinet, ille fruatur uocibus obscenis omnique libidinis arte, qui Lacedaemonium pytismate lubricat orbem; ... nostra dabunt alios hodie conuiuia ludos: conditor Iliados cantabitur atque Maronis altisoni dubiam facientia carmina palmam. quid refert, tales uersus qua uoce legantur? (11.171-182) 208 lines. The main themes of this poem are self-awareness and moderation. The poem explicitly mentions one apothegm γνῶθι σεαυτόν (know thyself) from the temple of Apollo at Delphi, while its theme calls to mind another μηδέν ἄγαν (nothing in excess). The subject, in this instance, is the role of food and the cena (formal dinner) in Roman society. The narrator contrasts the ruinous spending habits of gourmands with the moderation of a simple meal of home-grown foods in the manner of the mythical ancient Romans. lines 11.1-55 – People that refuse to limit their gourmet habits, even in the face of having to do so on credit, soon endure poverty and consequently inferior food. The advice of Apollo to know thyself should be heeded - not just for ambitions and endeavors, but also for what should be spent on a fish. lines 11.56-89 – The narrator invites a Persicus to come to his house for dinner to see whether his actions match his rhetoric. The dinner will include only home-grown foods from the narrator’s Tiburtine land. Long ago, the noble Curius cooked things for himself that a slave on a chain-gang would reject now. lines 11.90-119 – The ancient Romans did not care for luxuries and Greek art. A Jupiter made of terracotta saved the city from the Gauls. lines 11.120-135 – Now rich people get no enjoyment from delicacies unless they eat from tables decorated with ivory. The narrator claims that his food is unharmed, despite owning no ivory. lines 11.136-161 – The narrator promises no professional meat carver or exotic slave servers, nor are his slave boys destined for emasculation and use as sexual toys. lines 11.162-182 – In place of a pornographic Spanish dance show, there will be poetry. lines 11.183-208 – Rather than endure the annoyance of all Roma at the Circus Maximus during the Megalensian Games, the narrator invites his addressee to shake off his cares and come to a simple dinner. Satire XII: True Friendship Lest these actions seem suspicious to you Corvinus, this Catullus for whose return I am placing so much on these altars, has three little heirs. It would be fun to wait for someone to pay out a sick (and in fact closing its eyes) hen for a friend so “sterile;” truly, this is too much expense, and no quail ever died for a father of children. If rich and childless Gallitta and Pacius begin to feel a chill, the entire portico is clothed with vows posted-up in the prescribed way there are those who would promise a one-hundred-cow sacrifice only because there are no elephants for sale here, ... neu suspecta tibi sint haec, Coruine, Catullus, pro cuius reditu tot pono altaria, paruos tres habet heredes. libet expectare quis aegram et claudentem oculos gallinam inpendat amico tam sterili; uerum haec nimia est inpensa, coturnix nulla umquam pro patre cadet. sentire calorem si coepit locuples Gallitta et Pacius orbi, legitime fixis uestitur tota libellis porticus, existunt qui promittant hecatomben, quatenus hic non sunt nec uenales elephanti, (12.93-102) 130 lines. The narrator describes to his addressee Corvinus the sacrificial vows that he has made for the salvation of his friend Catullus from shipwreck. These vows are to the primary Roman gods - Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva (the Capitoline Triad)- but other shipwrecked sailors are said to make offerings to Isis. In the passage quoted above, the narrator asserts that his sacrifices are not to curry favor or gain an inheritance, common reasons for making vows among those who would not hesitate to sacrifice their slaves or even children if it would bring them an inheritance. lines 12.1-29 – Description of the sacrificial preparations. lines 12.30-51 – Description of a storm: this friend had been willing to cast overboard items of great value to save his own life – who else would prefer his life to his treasures. lines 12.52-82 – They had to cut the mast due to the ferocity of the storm, but then the weather calmed and they limped their ship into the port at Ostia. lines 12.83-92 – The narrator orders that the altar and sacrifice be made ready. He says that he will propitiate his Lares (family gods) as well. lines 12.93-130 – Catullus has heirs, so the narrator is acting as a friend not a legacy-hunter (captator). Legacy hunters would sacrifice one hundred cattle, elephants, slaves, or even their own child if it secured an inheritance for them. Book V (incomplete) Satire XIII: Don’t Obsess over Liars and Crooks What you suffer: they’re the misfortunes of many, at this point well-known, and indeed trite, and drawn from the middle of Fortuna’s deck. Let’s lay off the excessive groaning. Pain should not be sharper than what’s called for, nor greater than the damage. You are hardly able to endure the least tiny particle of ills however slight – burning in your frothing guts, because a friend did not return to you the things deposited with him under oath? Does a man who has already left sixty years behind his back – a man born when Fonteius was consul - get stupefied by events like these? Or have you advanced nothing to the better from so much experience? <div style="font-size: 85%"> quae pateris: casus multis hic cognitus ac iam tritus et e medio fortunae ductus aceruo.' ponamus nimios gemitus. flagrantior aequo non debet dolor esse uiri nec uolnere maior. tu quamuis leuium minimam exiguamque malorum particulam uix ferre potes spumantibus ardens uisceribus, sacrum tibi quod non reddat amicus depositum? stupet haec qui iam post terga reliquit sexaginta annos Fonteio consule natus? an nihil in melius tot rerum proficis usu? (13.9-18) </div> 249 lines. This poem is a dissuasion from excessive rage and the desire for revenge when one is defrauded. The narrator recommends a philosophical moderation and the perspective that comes from realizing that there are many things worse than financial loss. lines 13.1-18 – Guilt is its own punishment. One should not overreact to ill-use. lines 13.19-70 – Philosophy and life-experience offer a defense against Fortuna. There are hardly as many good people as the gates of Egyptian Thebes (100) or even as the mouths of the Nile (9). The Golden Age was infinitely superior to the present age, an age so corrupt there is not even an appropriate metal to name it. lines 13.71-85 – Perjurers will swear on the arms of all the gods to deny their debts. lines 13.86-119 – Some believe that everything is a product of chance, and so do not fear to perjure themselves on the altars of the gods. Others rationalize that the wrath of the gods, though great, is very slow in coming. lines 13.120-134 – It takes no philosopher to realize that there are many worse wrongs than being defrauded. A financial loss is mourned more than a death, and it is mourned with real tears. lines 13.135-173 – It is silly to be surprised by the number and magnitude of the crimes put to trial at Roma, as silly as to be surprised by a German having blue eyes. lines 13.174-209 – Even execution of a criminal would not undo their crime; only the uneducated think that revenge is a Good. That is not what the philosophers Chrysippos, Thales, or Socrates would say. The narrator makes an extended reference to the story of a corrupt Spartan’s consultation of the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi from Herodotus (6.86). The mere intention to do evil is guilt. lines 13.210-249 – Consciousness of one’s guilt is its own punishment, with anxiety and fear of divine retribution. The natura (nature) of criminals is fixa (stuck) and mutari nescia (unable to be changed), and it rushes back to ways they have admitted are wrong (239-40). Thus, criminals tend to repeat their crimes, and eventually end up facing execution or exile. Satire XIV: Avarice is not a Family Value Although youths imitate the other vices of their own free will, they are commanded to practice only avarice unwillingly. For this vice deceives with the appearance and shape of a virtue, since it has a grim bearing and a severe surface and exterior, the miser is lauded as if he were frugal without hesitation - as if he were a sparing man, and a sure guardian of his own possessions, better than if the Serpent of the Hesperides or the one from the Black Sea guarded those same fortunes. sponte tamen iuuenes imitantur cetera, solam inuiti quoque auaritiam exercere iubentur. fallit enim uitium specie uirtutis et umbra, cum sit triste habitu uultuque et ueste seuerum, nec dubie tamquam frugi laudetur auarus, tamquam parcus homo et rerum tutela suarum certa magis quam si fortunas seruet easdem Hesperidum serpens aut Ponticus. ... (14.107-14) 331 lines. The narrator stresses that children most readily learn all forms of vice from their parents. Avarice must actually be taught since it runs counter to nature. This vice is particularly pernicious, since it has the appearance of a virtue and is the source of a myriad of crimes and cruelties. lines 14.1-37 – The greatest danger to the morals of children comes from the vices of their parents. lines 14.38-58 – People should restrain themselves from vice for the sake of their children. It is unjust for a father to criticize and punish a son who takes after himself. lines 14.59-85 – People are more concerned to present a clean atrium to outsiders than to keep their house free of vice for their children. The tastes acquired in childhood persist into adulthood. lines 14.86-95 – Caetronius squandered much of his wealth by building many fine houses; his son squandered the rest by doing the same. lines 14.96-106 – People learn to be Jewish from their parents. lines 14.107-134 – Avarice has the appearance of a virtue, but it leads to cruel deprivation of one’s slaves and one’s own self. lines 14.135-188 – It is madness to live like an indigent just to die rich. There is no amount of money or land that will satisfy greed, but ancient Romans veterans of the Punic wars or of the war against Pyrrhus were content with only two iugera (acres) of land in return for all their wounds. Impatient greed leads to crime. lines 14.189-209 – Become a lawyer, join the army, or become a merchant. Profit smells good, wherever it’s from. Nobody inquires into where you got it, but you have to have it. lines 14.210-255 – The greedy son will surpass his father as much as Achilles did Peleus. Instilling avarice is the same as teaching a child every form of crime. A son whom you have taught to have no mercy will have no mercy on you either. lines 14.256-283 – Those who take risks to increase their fortunes are like tightrope walkers. Fleets sail wherever there is hope of profit. lines 14.284-302 – Avaricious men are willing to risk their lives and fortunes just to have a few more pieces of silver with someone’s face and inscription on them. lines 14.303-316 – The anxiety of protecting wealth and possessions is a misery. Alexander the Great realized that the cynic Diogenes was happier than himself while living in his pottery home, since Alexander’s anxieties and dangers matched his ambitions, while Diogenes was content with what he had and could easily replace. lines 14.316-331 – How much is enough then? As much as Epicurus or Socrates was content to possess is best, or - in the Roman manner - a fortune equal to the equestrian order. If twice or three times that does not suffice, then not even the wealth of Croesus or of Persia will suffice. Satire XV: People without Compassion are Worse than Animals But these days there is greater concord among snakes. A savage beast spares another with similar spots. When did a stronger lion rip the life from another lion? In what forest did a wild boar perish under the tusks of larger boar? sed iam serpentum maior concordia. parcit cognatis maculis similis fera. quando leoni fortior eripuit uitam leo? quo nemore umquam expirauit aper maioris dentibus apri (15.159-162) 174 lines. The narrator discusses the centrality of compassion for other people to the preservation of civilization. While severe circumstances have at times called for desperate measures to preserve life, even the most savage tribes have refrained from cannibalism. We were given minds to allow us to live together in mutual assistance and security. Without limits on rage against our enemies, we are worse than animals. lines 15.1-26 – In Egypt they worship bizarre animal-headed gods, but not the familiar Roman ones. Similarly, they wont eat normal things, but do practice cannibalism. Ulysses must have been though a liar for his tale of the Laestrygonians or the Cyclopes. lines 15.27-32 – Recently in upper Egypt, an entire people was guilty of this crime. lines 15.33-92 – Two neighboring cities hated each other. One attacked while the other held a feast. Fists gave way to stones and then to arrows; as one side fled, one man slipped and was caught. He was ripped to pieces and eaten raw. lines 15.93-131 – The Vascones, however, were blameless, because they were compelled to cannibalism by the siege of Pompey the Great. Even at the altar of Artemis in Taurus, humans are only sacrificed, not eaten. lines 15.131-158 – Compassion is what separates humans from animals. The creator gave humans mind (animus) as well as life (vita''), so that people could live together in a civil society. Satire XVI: Soldiers are above the Law Let’s deal with the common benefits first off, among which by no means the least is that no civilian would dare to strike you – and what’s more – if he gets struck, he denies it and isn’t willing to show his knocked-out teeth to the judge either. commoda tractemus primum communia, quorum haut minimum illud erit, ne te pulsare togatus audeat, immo, etsi pulsetur, dissimulet nec audeat excussos praetori ostendere dentes (16.7-10)< 60 lines preserved. The primary theme of the preserved lines is the advantages of soldiers over mere citizens. lines 16.1-6 – The narrator wishes that he could join the legions, since soldiers have many advantages over civilians. lines 16.7-34 – Soldiers are immune to justice since they have to be tried in the camp among other soldiers, where a plaintiff will get no help prosecuting them, and may get a beating in addition for their trouble. lines 16.35-50 – Soldiers do not have to wait for legal action like civilians lines 16.51-60 – Only soldiers have the right to make a will while their father lives – leading to an inversion of power with the soldier son being above his father. Notes References Anderson, William S.. 1982. Essays on Roman Satire. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Adams, J. N.. 1982. The Latin Sexual Vocabulary. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Braund, Susanna M.. 1988. Beyond Anger: A Study of Juvenal’s Third Book of Satires. Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. Braund, Susanna. 1996. Juvenal Satires Book I. Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. Braund, Susanna. 1996. The Roman Satirists and their Masks. London: Bristol Classical Press. Courtney, E.. 1980. A Commentary of the Satires of Juvenal. London: Athlone Press. Edwards, Catherine. 1993. The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Edwards, Catherine. 1996. Writing Rome: Textual Approached to the City. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Freudenburg, Kirk. 1993. The Walking Muse: Horace on the Theory of Satire. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gleason, Maud. W. 1995. Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gowers, Emily. 1993. The Loaded Table: Representations of Food in Roman Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Highet, Gilbert. 1961. Juvenal the Satirist. New York: Oxford University Press. Hutchinson, G. O.. 1993. Latin Literature from Seneca to Juvenal. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Juvenal. 1982. The Sixteen Satires. Trans. Peter Green. London: Penguin Books. Juvenal. 1992. The Satires. Trans. Niall Rudd. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Juvenal. 1992. Persi et Juvenalis Saturae. ed. W. V. Clausen. London: Oxford University Press. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. 1996. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Richlin, Amy. 1992. The Garden of Priapus. New York: Oxford University Press. Rudd, Niall. 1982. Themes in Roman Satire. Los Angeles: University of California Press. Syme, Ronald. 1939. The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Walters, Jonathan. 1997. Invading the Roman Body: Manliness and Impenetrability in Roman Thought. in J. Hallet and M. Skinner, eds., Roman Sexualities, Princeton: Princeton University Press. External links Juvenal's 16 "Satires" in Latin, at The Latin Library Juvenal's Satires 1, 2, and 3 in Latin and English (translation G. G. Ramsay) at the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook Juvenal's Satire 3 in Latin and English, at Vroma | Satires_(Juvenal) |@lemmatized frontispiece:1 depict:1 juvenal:22 persius:2 volume:1 translate:1 john:2 dryden:1 satire:53 collection:1 satirical:1 poem:14 latin:11 author:6 write:11 late:2 early:1 century:1 credit:3 sixteen:2 know:12 divide:1 among:7 five:2 book:19 roman:34 genre:3 basic:1 time:8 comprise:1 wide:1 range:2 discussion:2 society:6 social:8 dactylic:2 hexameter:2 lucilius:3 acknowledged:1 originator:1 form:4 practice:4 experiment:1 meter:1 settle:1 discrete:1 work:4 reason:2 assume:1 publish:1 identical:1 theme:9 approach:2 individually:1 title:2 translator:1 often:2 add:1 convenience:1 reader:5 ii:3 iii:3 iv:3 v:4 incompletely:1 preserve:4 satura:1 formal:2 literary:2 rather:4 simply:1 clever:1 humorous:1 critique:1 particular:2 format:1 tradition:1 originate:1 include:3 sermones:1 horace:2 within:1 text:3 three:3 extensively:1 tone:1 manner:3 irony:1 apparent:1 rage:3 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5,739 | Leon_Trotsky | Leon Trotsky (Russian: , Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotski, Trotskij, Trockij and Trotzky) ( – August 21, 1940), born Lev Davidovich Bronstein (), was a Bolshevik revolutionary and Marxist theorist. He was one of the leaders of the Russian October Revolution, second only to Lenin. During the early days of the Soviet Union, he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army and People's Commissar of War. He was also among the first members of the Politburo. After leading a failed struggle of the Left Opposition against the policies and rise of Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and the increasing role of bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, Trotsky was expelled from the Communist Party and deported from the Soviet Union. An early advocate of Red Army intervention against European fascism, Trotsky also opposed Stalin's peace agreements with Adolf Hitler in the 1930s. As the head of the Fourth International, Trotsky continued in exile to oppose the Stalinist bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, and was eventually assassinated in Mexico by Ramón Mercader, a Soviet agent. The murder weapon was a hidden cut-down ice axe, not an ice pick. Many history and reference books have confused the two. See Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment, Oxford University Press, 1991, ISBN 0-19-507132-8, p.418 for a detailed account Trotsky's ideas form the basis of Trotskyism, a term coined as early as 1905 by his opponents in order to separate it from Marxism. Trotsky’s ideas remain a major school of Marxist thought that is opposed to the theories of Stalinism. He was one of the few Soviet political figures who was never rehabilitated by the Soviet administration. Before the 1917 Revolution 8 years old Lev Davidovich Bronstein, 1888 Lev Davidovich Bronstein , 1897 Childhood and family (1879-1896) Leon Trotsky was born Lev Davidovich Bronstein (alternative English spelling: Bronshtein) nickname: Lyova on November 7, 1879, in Yanovka, Kherson Province of the Russian Empire (today's Kirovohrad Oblast, Ukraine), a small village from the nearest post office. He was the fifth child of a well-to-do farmer, David Leontyevich Bronstein (1847–1922) and Anna Bronstein (d. 1910). Although the family was of Jewish descent, it was not religious, and the languages spoken at home were Russian and Ukrainian instead of Yiddish. Trotsky's younger sister, Olga, married Lev Kamenev, a leading Bolshevik. When Trotsky was nine, his father sent him to Odessa to be educated and he was enrolled in a historically German school, which became Russified during his years in Odessa, consequent to the Imperial government's policy of Russification. As Isaac Deutscher points out in his biography of Trotsky, Odessa was then a bustling cosmopolitan port city, very unlike the typical Russian city of the time. This environment contributed to the development of the young man's international outlook. Although it is stated in his autobiography "My Life" that he was never perfectly fluent in any language but Russian and Ukrainian, Raymond Molinier wrote that Trotsky spoke fluent French. On Meeting with Trotsky . Revolutionary activity and exile (1896-1902) Trotsky became involved in revolutionary activities in 1896 after moving to Nikolayev (now Mykolaiv). At first a narodnik (revolutionary populist), he was introduced to Marxism later that year and was originally opposed to it. But during periods of exile and imprisonment he gradually became a Marxist. Instead of pursuing a mathematics degree, Trotsky helped organize the South Russian Workers' Union in Nikolayev in early 1897. Using the name 'Lvov' See chapter III of his autobiography, 'My Life' , he wrote and printed leaflets and proclamations, distributed revolutionary pamphlets and popularized socialist ideas among industrial workers and revolutionary students. In January 1898, over 200 members of the union, including Trotsky, were arrested, and he spent the next two years in prison awaiting trial. Two months after his imprisonment, the first Congress of the newly formed Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) was held, and from then on Trotsky considered himself a member of the party. While in prison, he married fellow Marxist Aleksandra Sokolovskaya. While serving his sentence he studied philosophy. In 1900 he was sentenced to four years in exile in Ust-Kut and Verkholensk (see map) in the Irkutsk region of Siberia, where his first two daughters, Nina Nevelson and Zinaida Volkova, were born. In Siberia, Trotsky became aware of the differences within the party, which had been decimated by arrests in 1898 and 1899. Some social democrats known as "economists" argued that the party should focus on helping industrial workers improve their lot in life. Others argued that overthrowing the monarchy was more important and that a well organized and disciplined revolutionary party was essential. The latter were led by the London-based newspaper Iskra, which was founded in 1900. Trotsky quickly sided with the Iskra position. First emigration and second marriage (1902-1903) Trotsky escaped from Siberia in the summer of 1902. It is said he adopted the name of a jailer of the Odessa prison in which he had earlier been held cf, for instance, The Columbia Encyclopedia , and this became his primary revolutionary pseudonym. Once abroad, he moved to London to join Georgy Plekhanov, Vladimir Lenin, Julius Martov and other editors of Iskra. Under the pen name Pero ("feather" or "pen" in Russian), Trotsky soon became one of the paper's leading authors. Unknown to Trotsky, the six editors of Iskra were evenly split between the "old guard" led by Plekhanov and the "new guard" led by Lenin and Martov. Not only were Plekhanov's supporters older (in their 40s and 50s), but they had also spent the previous 20 years in European exile together. Members of the new guard were in their early 30s and had only recently come from Russia. Lenin, who was trying to establish a permanent majority against Plekhanov within Iskra, expected Trotsky, then 23, to side with the new guard and wrote in March 1903: Quoted in chapter XII of 'My Life' I suggest to all the members of the editorial board that they co-opt 'Pero' as a member of the board on the same basis as other members. [...] We very much need a seventh member, both as a convenience in voting (six being an even number), and as an addition to our forces. 'Pero' has been contributing to every issue for several months now; he works in general most energetically for the Iskra; he gives lectures (in which he has been very successful). In the section of articles and notes on the events of the day, he will not only be very useful, but absolutely necessary. Unquestionably a man of rare abilities, he has conviction and energy, and he will go much farther. Due to Plekhanov's opposition, Trotsky did not become a full member of the board, but from then on participated in its meetings in an advisory capacity, which earned him Plekhanov's enmity. In late 1902, Trotsky met Natalia Sedova, who soon became his companion and, from 1903 until his death, his wife. They had two children together, Lev Sedov (b. 1906) and Sergei Sedov (b. 1908). As Trotsky later explained, See Trotsky's 'Thermidor and anti-Semitism' (1937) after the 1917 revolution: In order not to oblige my sons to change their name, I, for "citizenship" requirements, took on the name of my wife. But the name change remained a technicality and he never used the name "Sedov" either privately or publicly. Natalia Sedova sometimes signed her name "Sedova-Trotskaya". Trotsky and his first wife, Aleksandra Sokolovskaya, maintained a friendly relationship until she disappeared in 1935 during the Great Purges. Split with Lenin (1903-1904) In the meantime, after a period of secret police repression and internal confusion that followed the first party Congress in 1898, Iskra succeeded in convening the party's 2nd congress in London in August 1903, Trotsky and other Iskra editors attended. The first congress went as planned, with Iskra supporters handily defeating the few "economist" delegates. Then the congress discussed the position of the Jewish Bund, which had co-founded the RSDLP in 1898 but wanted to remain autonomous within the party. In the heat of the debate, Trotsky made a controversial statement to the effect that he and eleven other non-Bund Jewish delegates who had signed an anti-Bund statement while working in the Russian party, regarded and still do regard themselves also as representatives of the Jewish proletariat. Trotsky claimed his statement was a tactical maneuver made on Lenin's request. See Israel Getzler. Martov: A Political Biography of a Russian Social Democrat, Cambridge University Press, 2003 (first edition 1967), ISBN 0-521-52602-7 p.76 Shortly thereafter, pro-Iskra delegates unexpectedly split into two factions. Lenin and his supporters (known as "Bolsheviks") argued for a smaller but highly organized party. Martov and his supporters (known as "Mensheviks") argued for a larger and less disciplined party. In a surprise development, Trotsky and most of the Iskra editors supported Martov and the Mensheviks while Plekhanov supported Lenin and the Bolsheviks. During 1903 and 1904, many members changed sides in the factions. Plekhanov soon parted ways with the Bolsheviks. Trotsky left the Mensheviks in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. From then until 1917 he described himself as a "non-factional social democrat". Trotsky spent much of his time between 1904 and 1917 trying to reconcile different groups within the party, which resulted in many clashes with Lenin and other prominent party members. Trotsky later conceded he had been wrong in opposing Lenin on the issue of the party. During these years Trotsky began developing his theory of permanent revolution, which led to a close working relationship with Alexander Parvus in 1904-1907. 1905 revolution and trial (1905-1906) After the events of Bloody Sunday (1905), Trotsky secretly returned to Russia in February 1905. At first he wrote leaflets for an underground printing press in Kiev, but soon moved to the capital, Saint Petersburg. There he worked with both Bolsheviks like Central Committee member Leonid Krasin, and the local Menshevik committee which he pushed in a more radical direction. But the latter was betrayed by a secret police agent in May, and Trotsky had to flee to rural Finland. There he worked on fleshing out his theory of permanent revolution until October, when a nationwide strike made it possible for him to return to St. Petersburg. After returning to the capital, Trotsky and Parvus took over the newspaper Russian Gazette and increased its circulation to 500,000. Trotsky also co-founded Nachalo ("The Beginning") with Parvus and the Mensheviks, which proved to be very successful. Just before Trotsky's return, the Mensheviks had independently come up with the same idea that Trotsky had -- an elected non-party revolutionary organization representing the capital's workers, the first Soviet ("Council") of Workers. By the time of Trotsky's arrival, the St. Petersburg Soviet was already functioning headed by Khrustalyov-Nosar (Georgy Nosar, alias Pyotr Khrustalyov), a compromise figure, and proved to be very popular with the workers in spite of the Bolsheviks' original opposition. Trotsky joined the Soviet under the name "Yanovsky" (after the village he was born in, Yanovka) and was elected vice-Chairman. He did much of the actual work at the Soviet and, after Khrustalev-Nosar's arrest on November 26, was elected its chairman. On December 2, the Soviet issued a proclamation which included the following statement about the Tsarist government and its foreign debts:<ref>Quoted in Chapter XIV of [http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/works/1930-lif/ch14.htm My Life'(zhizen)']</ref> The autocracy never enjoyed the confidence of the people and was never granted any authority by the people. We have therefore decided not to allow the repayment of such loans as have been made by the Tsarist government when openly engaged in a war with the entire people. The following day, December 3, the Soviet was surrounded by troops loyal to the government and the deputies were arrested. Trotsky and other Soviet leaders were tried in 1906 on charges of supporting an armed rebellion. At the trial, Trotsky delivered some of the best speeches of his life and solidified his reputation as an effective public speaker, which he confirmed in 1917-1920. He was convicted and sentenced to deportation. Second emigration (1907-1914) En route to deportation to Siberia in January 1907, Trotsky escaped and once again made his way to London, where he attended the 5th Congress of the RSDLP. In October, he moved to Vienna where he often took part in the activities of the Austrian Social Democratic Party and, occasionally, of the German Social Democratic Party, for seven years. In Vienna, Trotsky became close to Adolph Joffe, his friend for the next 20 years, who introduced him to psychoanalysis. See Chapter XVII of 'My Life' In October 1908 he started a bi-weekly Russian language Social Democratic paper aimed at Russian workers called Pravda ("Truth"), which he co-edited with Joffe, Matvey Skobelev and Victor Kopp and which was smuggled into Russia. The paper avoided factional politics and proved popular with Russian industrial workers. Both the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks split multiple times after the failure of the 1905-1907 revolution. When various Bolshevik and Menshevik factions tried to re-unite at the January 1910 RSDLP Central Committee meeting in Paris over Lenin's objections, Trotsky's Pravda was made a party-financed 'central organ'. Lev Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations. Trotsky continued publishing Pravda for another two years until it finally folded in April 1912. The Bolsheviks started a new workers-oriented newspaper in St. Petersburg on April 22, 1912, and also called it Pravda. Trotsky was so upset by what he saw as a usurpation of his newspaper's name that in April 1913 he wrote a letter to Nikolay Chkheidze, a Menshevik leader, bitterly denouncing Lenin and the Bolsheviks. Though he quickly got over the disagreement, the letter was intercepted by the police, and a copy was put into their archives. Shortly after Lenin's death in 1924, the letter was pulled out of the archives and made public by his opponents within the Communist Party, and was used to paint him as Lenin's enemy. This was a period of heightened tension within the RSDLP and led to numerous frictions between Trotsky, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. The most serious disagreement that Trotsky and the Mensheviks had with Lenin at the time was over the issue of "expropriations", See Chapter XVI of 'My Life' i.e. armed robberies of banks and other companies by Bolshevik groups to procure money for the Party, which had been banned by the 5th Congress, but continued by the Bolsheviks. In January 1912, the majority of the Bolshevik faction led by Lenin and a few Mensheviks held a conference in Prague and expelled their opponents from the party. In response, Trotsky organized a "unification" conference of social democratic factions in Vienna in August 1912 (a.k.a. "The August Bloc") and tried to re-unite the party. The attempt was generally unsuccessful. In Vienna, Trotsky continuously published articles in radical Russian and Ukrainian newspapers like Kievskaya Mysl under a variety of pseudonyms, often "Antid Oto". In September 1912 Kievskaya Mysl sent him to the Balkans as its war correspondent, where he covered the two Balkan Wars for the next year and became a close friend of Christian Rakovsky, later a leading Soviet politician and Trotsky's ally in the Soviet Communist Party. On August 3, 1914, at the outbreak of World War I which pitted Austria-Hungary against the Russian empire, Trotsky was forced to flee Vienna for neutral Switzerland to avoid arrest as a Russian émigré. World War I (1914-1917) The outbreak of WWI caused a sudden realignment within the RSDLP and other European social democratic parties over the issues of war, revolution, pacifism and internationalism. Within the RSDLP, Lenin, Trotsky and Martov advocated various internationalist anti-war positions, while Plekhanov and other social democrats (both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks) supported the Russian government to some extent. In Switzerland, Trotsky briefly worked within the Swiss Socialist Party, prompting it to adopt an internationalist resolution, and wrote a book against the war, The War and the International. The thrust of the book was against the pro-war position taken by the European social democratic parties, primarily the German party. Leon Trotsky with his daughter Nina Trotsky moved to France on November 19, 1914, as a war correspondent for the Kievskaya Mysl. In January 1915 he began editing (at first with Martov, who soon resigned as the paper moved to the Left) Nashe Slovo ("Our Word"), an internationalist socialist newspaper, in Paris. He adopted the slogan of "peace without indemnities or annexations, peace without conquerors or conquered", which didn't go quite as far as Lenin, who advocated Russia's defeat in the war and demanded a complete break with the Second International. Trotsky attended the Zimmerwald Conference of anti-war socialists in September 1915 and advocated a middle course between those who, like Martov, would stay within the Second International at any cost and those who, like Lenin, would break with the Second International and form a Third International. The conference adopted the middle line proposed by Trotsky. At first opposed to it, in the end Lenin voted See Christian Rakovsky's biography by Gus Fagan for details for Trotsky's resolution to avoid a split among anti-war socialists. In March 31, Trotsky was deported from France to Spain for his anti-war activities. Spanish authorities did not let him stay and he was deported to the United States on December 25, 1916. He arrived in New York City on January 13, 1917. In New York, he wrote articles for the local Russian language socialist newspaper Novy Mir and the Yiddish language daily Der Forverts (The Forward) in translation and made speeches to Russian émigrés. Trotsky was living in New York City when the February Revolution of 1917 overthrew Tsar Nicholas II. He left New York on March 27, but his ship was intercepted by British naval officials in Halifax, Nova Scotia and he spent a month detained at Amherst, Nova Scotia. After initial hesitation, the Russian foreign minister Pavel Milyukov was forced to demand that Trotsky be released, and the British government freed Trotsky on April 29. He finally made his way back to Russia on May 4. Upon his return, Trotsky was in substantive agreement with the Bolshevik position, but did not join them right away. Russian social democrats were split into at least 6 groups and the Bolsheviks were waiting for the next party Congress to determine which factions to merge with. Trotsky temporarily joined the Mezhraiontsy, a regional social democratic organization in St. Petersburg, and became one of its leaders. At the First Congress of Soviets in June, he was elected a member of the first All-Russian Central Executive Committee ("VTsIK") from the Mezhraiontsy faction. After an unsuccessful pro-Bolshevik uprising in Petrograd, Trotsky was arrested on August 7, 1917, but was released 40 days later in the aftermath of the failed counter-revolutionary uprising by Lavr Kornilov. After the Bolsheviks gained a majority in the Petrograd Soviet, Trotsky was elected Chairman on October 8. He sided with Lenin against Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev when the Bolshevik Central Committee discussed staging an armed uprising and he led the efforts to overthrow the Provisional Government headed by Aleksandr Kerensky. Leon Trotsky, 1918 The following summary of Trotsky's Role in 1917 was written by Stalin in Pravda, November 10, 1918. (Although this passage was quoted in Stalin's book "The October Revolution" issued in 1934, it was expunged in Stalin's Works released in 1949.) All practical work in connection with the organization of the uprising was done under the immediate direction of Comrade Trotsky, the President of the Petrograd Soviet. It can be stated with certainty that the Party is indebted primarily and principally to Comrade Trotsky for the rapid going over of the garrison to the side of the Soviet and the efficient manner in which the work of the Military Revolutionary Committee was organized. After the success of the uprising on 7-November 8, Trotsky led the efforts to repel a counter-attack by Cossacks under General Pyotr Krasnov and other troops still loyal to the overthrown Provisional Government at Gatchina. Allied with Lenin, he successfully defeated attempts by other Bolshevik Central Committee members (Zinoviev, Kamenev, Alexei Rykov, etc) to share power with other socialist parties. By the end of 1917, Trotsky was unquestionably the second man in the Bolshevik Party after Lenin, overshadowing the ambitious Zinoviev, who had been Lenin's top lieutenant over the previous decade, but whose star appeared to be fading. This turnaround led to enmity between the two Bolshevik leaders which lasted until 1926 and did much to destroy them both. After the Russian Revolution Trotsky with troops at the Polish front, 1919 Commissar for Foreign Affairs and Brest-Litovsk (1917-1918) After the Bolsheviks came to power, Trotsky became the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and published the secret treaties previously signed by the Triple Entente that detailed plans for post-war reallocation of colonies and redrawing state borders. Trotsky led the Soviet delegation during the peace negotiations in Brest-Litovsk from December 22, 1917 to February 10, 1918. At that time the Soviet government was split on the issue. Left Communists, led by Nikolai Bukharin, continued to believe that there could be no peace between a Soviet republic and a capitalist country and that only a revolutionary war leading to a pan-European Soviet republic would bring a durable peace. They cited the successes of the newly formed (January 15, 1918) voluntary Red Army against Polish forces of Gen. Józef Dowbor-Muśnicki in Belarus, White forces in the Don region, and newly independent Ukrainian forces as proof that the Red Army could repel German forces, especially if propaganda and asymmetrical warfare were used. They did not mind holding talks with the Germans as a means of exposing German imperial ambitions (territorial gains, reparations, etc) in hopes of accelerating the hoped−for Soviet revolution in the West, but they were dead set against signing any peace treaty. In case of a German ultimatum, they advocated proclaiming a revolutionary war against Germany in order to inspire Russian and European workers to fight for socialism. This opinion was shared by Left Socialist Revolutionaries, who were then the Bolsheviks' junior partners in a coalition government. 1918 Bolshevik propaganda poster depicting Trotsky as St. George slaying the reactionary dragon. The image of St. George and the dragon comes from the Moscow Coat of Arms. Lenin, who had earlier hoped for a speedy Soviet revolution in Germany and other parts of Europe, quickly decided that the imperial government of Germany was still firmly in control and that, without a strong Russian military, an armed conflict with Germany would lead to a collapse of the Soviet government in Russia. He agreed with the Left Communists that ultimately a pan-European Soviet revolution would solve all problems, but until then the Bolsheviks had to stay in power. Lenin did not mind prolonging the negotiating process for maximum propaganda effect, but, from January 1918 on, advocated signing a separate peace treaty if faced with a German ultimatum. Trotsky's position was between these two Bolshevik factions. Like Lenin, he admitted that the old Russian military, inherited from the monarchy and the Provisional Government and in advanced stages of decomposition, was unable to fight: See the "Brest-Litovsk" chapter in Trotsky's 1925 book Lenin]</ref> That we could no longer fight was perfectly clear to me and that the newly formed Red Guard and Red Army detachments were too small and poorly trained to resist the Germans. But he agreed with the Left Communists that a separate peace treaty with an imperialist power would be a terrible moral and material blow to the Soviet government, negate all its military and political successes of 1917 and 1918, resurrect the notion that the Bolsheviks secretly allied with the German government, and cause an upsurge of internal resistance. He argued that any German ultimatum should be refused, and that this may well lead to an uprising in Germany, or at least inspire German soldiers to disobey their officers since any German offensive would be a naked grab for territories. He wrote in 1925:<ref>See [http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/works/1925/lenin/04.htm Lenin We began peace negotiations in the hope of arousing the workmen's party of Germany and Austria-Hungary as well as of the Entente countries. For this reason we were obliged to delay the negotiations as long as possible to give the European workman time to understand the main fact of the Soviet revolution itself and particularly its peace policy. <p> But there was the other question: Can the Germans still fight? Are they in a position to begin an attack on the revolution that will explain the cessation of the war? How can we find out the state of mind of the German soldiers, how to fathom it? White Army propaganda poster. The caption reads, "Peace and Liberty in Sovdepiya". Throughout January and February 1918, Lenin's position was supported by 7 members of the Bolshevik Central Committee and Bukharin's by 4. Trotsky had 4 votes (his own, Felix Dzerzhinsky's, Nikolai Krestinsky's and Adolph Joffe's) and, since he held the balance of power, he was able to pursue his policy in Brest-Litovsk. When he could no longer delay the negotiations, he withdrew from the talks on February 10, 1918, refusing to sign on Germany's harsh terms. After a brief hiatus, the Central Powers notified the Soviet government that they would no longer observe the truce after February 17. At this point Lenin again argued that the Soviet government had done all it could to explain its position to Western workers and that it was time to accept the terms. Trotsky refused to support Lenin since he was waiting to see whether German workers would rebel and whether German soldiers would refuse to follow orders. Germany resumed military operations on February 18. Within a day, it became clear that the German army was capable of conducting offensive operations and that Red Army detachments, which were relatively small, poorly organized and poorly led, were no match for it. In the evening of February 18, 1918, Trotsky and his supporters in the committee abstained and Lenin's proposal was accepted 7-4. The Soviet government sent a telegram to the German side accepting the final Brest-Litovsk peace terms. Germany did not respond for three days, and continued its offensive encountering little resistance. The response arrived on February 21, but the proposed terms were so harsh that even Lenin briefly thought that the Soviet government had no choice but to fight. But in the end, the committee again voted 7-4 on February 23, 1918; the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on March 3 and ratified on March 15, 1918. Since he was so closely associated with the policy previously followed by the Soviet delegation at Brest-Litovsk, Trotsky resigned from his position as Commissar for Foreign Affairs in order to remove a potential obstacle to the new policy. Head of the Red Army (spring 1918) Trotsky with Lenin and soldiers in Petrograd in 1921 The failure of the recently formed Red Army to resist the German offensive in February 1918 revealed its weaknesses: insufficient numbers, lack of knowledgeable officers, and near absence of coordination and subordination. Celebrated and feared Baltic Fleet sailors, one of the bastions of the new regime led by Pavel Dybenko, shamefully fled from the German army at Narva. The notion that the Soviet state could have an effective voluntary or militia type military was seriously undermined. Trotsky was one of the first Bolshevik leaders to recognize the problem and he pushed for the formation of a military council of former Russian generals that would function as an advisory body. Lenin and the Bolshevik Central Committee agreed on March 4 to create the Supreme Military Council, headed by former chief of the imperial General Staff Mikhail Bonch-Bruevich. But the entire Bolshevik leadership of the Red Army, including People's Commissar (defense minister) Nikolai Podvoisky and commander-in-chief Nikolai Krylenko, protested vigorously and eventually resigned. They believed that the Red Army should consist only of dedicated revolutionaries, rely on propaganda and force, and have elected officers. They viewed former imperial officers and generals as potential traitors who should be kept out of the new military, much less put in charge of it. Their views continued to be popular with many Bolsheviks throughout most of the Russian Civil War and their supporters, including Podvoisky, who became one of Trotsky's deputies, were a constant thorn in Trotsky's side. The discontent with Trotsky's policies of strict discipline, conscription and reliance on carefully supervised non-Communist military experts eventually led to the Military Opposition, which was active within the Communist Party in late 1918-1919. On March 13, 1918 Trotsky's resignation as Commissar for Foreign Affairs was officially accepted and he was appointed People's Commissar of Army and Navy Affairs - in place of Podvoisky - and chairman of the Supreme Military Council. The post of commander-in-chief was abolished, and Trotsky gained full control of the Red Army, responsible only to the Communist Party leadership, whose Left Socialist Revolutionary allies had left the government over Brest-Litovsk. With the help of his faithful deputy Ephraim Sklyansky, Trotsky spent the rest of the Civil War transforming the Red Army from a ragtag network of small and fiercely independent detachments into a large and disciplined military machine, through forced conscription, party controlled blocking squads, compulsory obedience and officers chosen by the leadership instead of the rank and file. He defended these positions throughout his life. Civil War (1918-1920) 1918 Trotsky's managerial and organization-building skills with the Soviet military were soon tested in many ways. In May-June 1918, the Czechoslovak Legions en route from European Russia to Vladivostok rose against the Soviet government. This left the Bolsheviks with the loss of most of the country's territory, an increasingly well organized resistance by Russian anti-Communist forces (usually referred to as the White Army after their best known component) and widespread defection by the military experts that Trotsky relied on. Trotsky and the government responded with a full-fledged mobilization, which increased the size of the Red Army from less than 300,000 in May 1918 to one million in October, and an introduction of political commissars into the army. The latter were responsible for ensuring the loyalty of military experts (who were mostly former officers in the imperial army) and co-signing their orders. Unlike conventional army of the bourgeoisie, the Red Army was built on the idea of the October Revolution. As he later wrote in his autobiography: See Chapter XXXIV of My Life An army (read conventional bourgeoisie army – editor’s note) cannot be built without reprisals. Masses of men cannot be led to death unless the army command has the death-penalty in its arsenal. So long as those malicious tailless apes that are so proud of their technical achievements—the animals that we call men—will build armies and wage wars, the command will always be obliged to place the soldiers between the possible death in the front and the inevitable one in the rear. And yet armies are not built on fear. The Tsar’s army fell to pieces not because of any lack of reprisals. In his attempt to save it by restoring the death-penalty, Kerensky only finished it. Upon the ashes of the great war, the Bolsheviks created a new army. These facts demand no explanation for any one who has even the slightest knowledge of the language of history. The strongest cement in the new army was the ideas of the October revolution, and the train supplied the front with this cement. In dealing with deserters, Trotsky often appealed to them politically; arousing them with the ideas of the Revolution. In the provinces of Kaluga, Voronezh, and Ryazan, tens of thousands of young peasants had failed to answer the first recruiting summons by the Soviets … The war commissariat of Ryazan succeeded in gathering in some fifteen thousand of such deserters. While passing through Ryazan, I decided to take a look at them. Some of our men tried to dissuade me. “Something might happen,” they warned me. But everything went off beautifully. The men were called out of their barracks. “Comrade-deserters – come to the meeting. Comrade Trotsky has come to speak to you.” They ran out excited, boisterous, as curious as schoolboys. I had imagined them much worse, and they had imagined me as more terrible. In a few minutes, I was surrounded by a huge crowd of unbridled, utterly undisciplined, but not at all hostile men. The “comrade-deserters” were looking at me with such curiosity that it seemed as if their eyes would pop out of their heads. I climbed on a table there in the yard, and spoke to them for about an hour and a half. It was a most responsive audience. I tried to raise them in their own eyes; concluding, I asked them to lift their hands in token of their loyalty to the revolution. The new ideas infected them before my very eyes. They were genuinely enthusiastic; they followed me to the automobile, devoured me with their eyes, not fearfully, as before, but rapturously, and shouted at the tops of their voices. They would hardly let me go. I learned afterward, with some pride, that one of the best ways to educate them was to remind them: “What did you promise Comrade Trotsky?” Later on, regiments of Ryazan “deserters” fought well at the fronts. Given the lack of man power and the invading 16 foreign armies, Trotsky also insisted that former Tsar officers should be used as military specialists within the Red Army, with a combination of Bolshevik political commissars to ensure the revolutionary nature of the Red Army. Lenin commented on this: When Comrade Trotsky recently informed me that in our military department the officers are numbered in tens of thousands, I gained a concrete conception of what constitutes the secret of making proper use of our enemy ... of how to build communism out of the bricks that the capitalists had gathered to use against us. In September 1918, the government, facing continuous military difficulties, declared what amounted to martial law and reorganized the Red Army. The Supreme Military Council was abolished and the position of commander-in-chief was restored, filled by the commander of the Red Latvian Rifleman Ioakim Vatsetis (aka Jukums Vācietis), who had formerly led the Eastern Front against the Czechoslovak Legions. Vatsetis was put in charge of day-to-day operations of the army while Trotsky became chairman of the newly formed Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic and retained overall control of the military. Trotsky and Vatsetis had clashed earlier in 1918 while Vatsetis and Trotsky's adviser Mikhail Bonch-Bruevich were also on unfriendly terms. Nevertheless, Trotsky eventually established a working relationship with the often prickly Vatsetis. The reorganization caused yet another conflict between Trotsky and Stalin in late September. Trotsky appointed former imperial general Pavel Sytin to command the Southern Front, but in early October 1918 Stalin refused to accept him and so was recalled from the front. Lenin and Yakov Sverdlov tried to make Trotsky and Stalin reconcile, but their meeting was unsuccessful. 1919 Throughout late 1918 and early 1919, there were a number of attacks on Trotsky's leadership of the Red Army, including veiled accusations in newspaper articles inspired by Stalin and a direct attack by the Military Opposition at the VIIIth Party Congress in March 1919. On the surface, he weathered them successfully and was elected one of only five full members of the first Politburo after the Congress. But he later wrote: See Chapter XXXVI of My Life It is no wonder that my military work created so many enemies for me. I did not look to the side, I elbowed away those who interfered with military success, or in the haste of the work trod on the toes of the unheeding and was too busy even to apologize. Some people remember such things. The dissatisfied and those whose feelings had been hurt found their way to Stalin or Zinoviev, for these two also nourished hurts. In mid-1919 the dissatisfied had an opportunity to mount a serious challenge to Trotsky's leadership. The Red Army had defeated the White Army's spring offensive in the east and was about to cross the Ural mountains and enter Siberia in pursuit of Admiral Alexander Kolchak's forces. But in the south, General Anton Denikin's White Russian forces advanced, and the situation deteriorated rapidly. On June 6 commander-in-chief Vatsetis ordered the Eastern Front to stop the offensive so that he could use its forces in the south. But the leadership of the Eastern Front, including its commander Sergei Kamenev (a colonel in the imperial army, not to be confused with the Politburo member Lev Kamenev), and Eastern Front Revolutionary Military Council members Ivar Smilga, Mikhail Lashevich and Sergei Gusev vigorously protested and wanted to keep emphasis on the Eastern Front. They insisted that it was vital to capture Siberia before the onset of winter and that once Kolchak's forces were broken, many more divisions would be freed up for the Southern Front. Trotsky, who had earlier had conflicts with the leadership of the Eastern Front, including a temporary removal of Kamenev in May 1919, supported Vatsetis. At the 3-July 4 Central Committee meeting, after a heated exchange the majority supported Kamenev and Smilga against Vatsetis and Trotsky. Trotsky's plan was rejected and he was much criticized for various alleged shortcomings in his leadership style, much of it of a personal nature. Stalin used this opportunity to pressure Lenin See Chapter XXXVII of My Life to dismiss Trotsky from his post. But when, on July 5, Trotsky offered his resignation, the Politburo and the Orgburo of the Central Committee unanimously rejected it. Yet, a number of significant changes to the leadership of the Red Army were made. Trotsky was temporarily sent to the Southern Front, while the work in Moscow was informally coordinated by Smilga. Most members of the bloated Revolutionary Military Council who were not involved in its day to day operations, were relieved of their duties on July 8, while new members including Smilga were added. The same day, while Trotsky was already in the south, Vatsetis was suddenly arrested by the Cheka on suspicion of involvement in an anti-Soviet plot, and replaced by Sergei Kamenev. After a few weeks in the south, Trotsky returned to Moscow and resumed control of the Red Army. A year later, Smilga and Tukhachevsky were defeated during the Miracle at the Vistula, but Trotsky refused this opportunity to pay Smilga back, which earned him Smilga's friendship and later support during the intra-Party battles of the 1920s. See Isai Abramovich's memoirs re: the Smilga episode. Abramovich (1900-1985), a friend of Smilga's, was one of the few Trotskyists who survived the Great Purges and returned from Stalin's camps in the late 1950s. By October 1919 the government was in the worst crisis of the Civil War: Denikin's troops approached Tula and Moscow from the south, and General Nikolay Yudenich's troops approached Petrograd from the west. Lenin decided that since it was more important to defend Moscow, Petrograd would have to be abandoned. Trotsky argued See Chapter XXXV of My Life that Petrograd needed to be defended, at least in part to prevent Estonia and Finland from intervening. In a rare reversal, Trotsky was supported by Stalin and Zinoviev and prevailed against Lenin in the Central Committee. He immediately went to Petrograd, whose leadership headed by Zinoviev he found demoralized, and organized its defense, sometimes personally stopping fleeing soldiers. By October 22 the Red Army was on the offensive and in early November Yudenich's troops were driven back to Estonia, where they were disarmed and interned. Trotsky was awarded the Order of the Red Banner for his actions in Petrograd. 1920 With the defeat of Denikin and Yudenich in late 1919, the Soviet government's emphasis shifted to economic work and Trotsky spent the winter of 1919-1920 in the Urals region trying to re-start its economy. Based on his experiences there, he proposed abandoning the policies of War Communism, See Chapter XXXVIII of My Life which included confiscating grain from peasants, and partially restoring the grain market. But Lenin was still committed to War Communism and the proposal was rejected. Instead, Trotsky was put in charge of the country's railroads (while retaining overall control of the Red Army), which he tried to militarize in the spirit of War Communism. It wasn't until early 1921 that economic collapse and uprisings would force Lenin and the rest of the Bolshevik leadership to abandon War Communism in favor of the New Economic Policy. Meanwhile, in early 1920 Soviet-Polish tensions eventually led to the Polish-Soviet War. In the run-up and during the war, Trotsky argued that the Red Army was exhausted and the Soviet government should sign a peace treaty with Poland as soon as possible. He also did not believe that the Red Army would find much support in Poland proper. Lenin and other Bolshevik leaders thought that the Red Army's successes in the Russian Civil War and against the Poles meant that, as Lenin said later: See Political Report of the Central Committee of the RKP(b) to the Ninth All-Russian Conference of the Communist Party delivered by Lenin on September 20, 1920, Document 59 in The Unknown Lenin, ed. Richard Pipes, Yale University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-300-06919-7 The defensive period of the war with worldwide imperialism was over, and we could, and had the obligation to, exploit the military situation to launch an offensive war. But the Red Army offensive was turned back during the Battle of Warsaw in August 1920, in part because of Stalin's failure to obey Trotsky's orders in the run-up to the decisive engagements. Back in Moscow, Trotsky again argued for a peace treaty and this time prevailed. Trade union debate (1920-1921) Serrati and Trotsky. In late 1920, after the Bolsheviks won the Civil War and before the Eighth and Ninth Congress of Soviets, the Communist Party had a heated and increasingly acrimonious debate over the role of trade unions in the Soviet state. The discussion split the party into many "platforms" (factions), including Lenin's, Trotsky's and Bukharin's; Bukharin eventually merged his with Trotsky's. Smaller, more radical factions like the Workers' Opposition (headed by Alexander Shlyapnikov) and the Group of Democratic Centralism were particularly active. Trotsky's position formed while he led a special commission on the Soviet transportation system, Tsektran. He was appointed there to rebuild the rail system ruined by the Civil War. Being the Commissar of War and a revolutionary military leader, he saw a need to create a militarized "production atmosphere" by incorporating trade unions directly into the State apparatus. His unyielding stance was that in a worker's state the workers should have nothing to fear from the state, and the State should fully control the unions. In the Ninth Party Congress he argued for "such a regime under which each worker feels himself to be a soldier of labor who cannot freely dispose of himself; if he is ordered transferred, he must execute that order; if he does not do so, he will be a deserter who should be punished. Who will execute this? The trade union. It will create a new regime. That is the militarization of the working class." Lenin sharply criticised Trotsky and accused him of "bureaucratically nagging the trade unions" and of staging "factional attacks." His view did not focus on State control as much as the concern that a new relationship was needed between the State and the rank-and-file workers. He said, "Introduction of genuine labor discipline is conceived only if the whole mass of participants in productions take a conscious part in the fulfillment of these tasks. This cannot be achieved by bureaucratic methods and orders from above." This was a debate that Lenin thought the party could not afford. His frustration with Trotsky was used by Stalin and Zinoviev with their support for Lenin's position, to improve their standing within the Bolshevik leadership at Trotsky's expense. Disagreements threatened to get out of hand and many Bolsheviks, including Lenin, feared that the party would splinter. The Central Committee was split almost evenly between Lenin's and Trotsky's supporters, with all three Secretaries of the Central Committee (Krestinky, Yevgeny Preobrazhensky and Leonid Serebryakov) supporting Trotsky. At a meeting of his faction at the Tenth Party Congress in March 1921, Lenin's faction won a decisive victory and a number of Trotsky's supporters (including all three secretaries of the Central Committee) lost their leadership positions. Krestinsky was replaced as a member of the Politburo by Zinoviev, who had supported Lenin. Krestinsky's place in the secretariat was taken by Vyacheslav Molotov. The congress also adopted a secret resolution on "Party unity", which banned factions within the Party except during pre-Congress discussions. The resolution was later published and used by Stalin against Trotsky and other opponents. At the end of the Tenth Congress, after peace negotiations had failed, Trotsky gave the order for the suppression of the Kronstadt Rebellion, the last major revolt against Bolshevik rule. "More on the Suppression of Kronstadt" by Leon Trotsky Years later, Anarchist Emma Goldman and others criticized Trotsky's actions as Commissar for War for his role in the suppression of the rebellion, and argued that he ordered unjustified incarcerations and executions of political opponents such as anarchists, although Trotsky did not participate in the actual suppression. "Hue and Cry Over Kronstadt" by Leon Trotsky "Trotsky Protests too Much" by Emma Goldman The claim that the Kronstadt rebels were "counterrevolutionary" has been supported by evidence of White army and French government support for the Kronstadt sailors' March rebellion. "Kronstadt - A Tragic Necessity" - by Abbie Bakan Lenin's illness (1922-1923) In late 1921 Lenin's health deteriorated, he was absent from Moscow for even longer periods, and eventually had three strokes between May 26, 1922 and March 10, 1923, which caused paralysis, loss of speech and finally death on January 21, 1924. With Lenin increasingly sidelined throughout 1922, Stalin (elevated to the newly created position of the Central Committee General Secretary Yakov Sverdlov was the Central Committee's senior secretary responsible for personnel affairs from 1917 and until his death in March 1919. He was replaced by Elena Stasova, and in November 1919 by Nikolai Krestinsky. After Krestinsky's ouster in March 1921, Vyacheslav Molotov became the senior secretary, but he lacked Krestinsky's authority since he was not a full Politburo member. The position was taken over by Stalin and formalized at the XIth Party Congress in April 1922, with Molotov becoming second secretary. earlier in the year), Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev It is not clear why Kamenev, a mild mannered man with few leadership ambitions as well as Trotsky's brother-in-law, sided with Zinoviev and Stalin against Trotsky in 1922. Trotsky later speculated that it may have been due to Kamenev's love of comfort, which Trotsky found "repell[ing]" and let Kamenev know in late 1920 or early 1921: Our relations with Kamenev, which were very good in the first period after the insurrection, began to become more distant from that day. formed a troika (triumvirate) to ensure that Trotsky, publicly the number two man in the country and Lenin's heir presumptive, would not succeed Lenin. The rest of the recently expanded Politburo (Rykov, Mikhail Tomsky, Bukharin) was at first uncommitted, but eventually joined the troika. Stalin's power of patronage The Central Committee's Secretariat became increasingly important during the Civil War and especially in its aftermath as the Party switched from elected officials to appointed ones. The change was prompted by the need to allocate manpower quickly during the Civil War as well as by the transformation of the party from a small group of revolutionaries into the country's ruling party with a corresponding increase in membership. New members included career seekers and former members of banned socialist parties who were viewed with apprehension by Old Bolsheviks. To prevent a possible degeneration of the party, various membership requirements were instituted for party officials and the ultimate power of appointment of local officials was reserved for the Secretariat of the Central Committee. This put enormous power in the General Secretary's hands. in his capacity as General Secretary clearly played a role, but Trotsky and his supporters later concluded that a more fundamental reason was the process of slow bureaucratization of the Soviet regime once the extreme conditions of the Civil War were over: much of the Bolshevik elite wanted 'normalcy' while Trotsky was personally and politically personified as representing a turbulent revolutionary period that they would much rather leave behind. Although the exact sequence of events is unclear, evidence suggests that at first the troika nominated Trotsky to head second rate government departments (e.g., Gokhran, the State Depository for Valuables See Document 103 (May 22, 1922) in The Unknown Lenin ) and then, when Trotsky predictably refused, tried using it as an excuse to oust him. When, in mid-July 1922, Kamenev wrote a letter to the recovering Lenin to the effect that "(the Central Committee) is throwing or is ready to throw a good cannon overboard", Lenin was shocked and responded: See Document 106 in The Unknown Lenin Throwing Trotsky overboard - surely you are hinting at that, it is impossible to interpret it otherwise - is the height of stupidity. If you do not consider me already hopelessly foolish, how can you think of that???? From then until his final stroke, Lenin spent much of his time trying to devise a way to prevent a split within the Communist Party leadership, which was reflected in Lenin's Testament. As part of this effort, on September 11, 1922 Lenin proposed that Trotsky become his deputy at the Sovnarkom. The Politburo approved the proposal, but Trotsky "categorically refused". See Document 109 in The Unknown Lenin In late 1922, Lenin's relationship with Stalin deteriorated over Stalin's heavy-handed and chauvinistic handling of the issue of merging Soviet republics into one federal state, the USSR. At that point, according to Trotsky's autobiography, See Chapter XXXIX of My Life Lenin offered Trotsky an alliance against Soviet bureaucracy in general and Stalin in particular. The alliance proved effective on the issue of foreign trade See Lenin's letter to Stalin dictated on December 15, 1922:I am sure Trotsky will uphold my views as well as I. Faced with a united opposition by Lenin and Trotsky, the Central Committee reversed its previous decision and adopted the Lenin-Trotsky proposal. , but it was complicated by Lenin's progressing illness. In January 1923 the relationship between Lenin and Stalin completely broke down when Stalin rudely insulted Lenin's wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya. At that point Lenin amended his Testament suggesting that Stalin should be replaced as the party's General Secretary, although the thrust of his argument was somewhat weakened by the fact that he also mildly criticized other Bolshevik leaders, including Trotsky. In March 1923, days before his third stroke, Lenin prepared a frontal assault on Stalin's "Great-Russian nationalistic campaign" against the Georgian Communist Party (the so-called Georgian Affair) and asked Trotsky to deliver the blow at the XIIth Party Congress. With Lenin no longer active, Trotsky did not raise the issue at the Congress. See Chapter 11 of Trotsky's unfinished book Stalin At the XIIth Party Congress in April 1923, just after Lenin's final stroke, the key Central Committee reports on organizational and nationalities questions were delivered by Stalin and not by Trotsky, while Zinoviev delivered the political report of the Central Committee, traditionally Lenin's prerogative. Trotsky explained in Chapter 12 of his unfinished book Stalin that he refused to deliver the report because "it seemed to me equivalent to announcing my candidacy for the role of Lenin's successor at a time when Lenin was fighting a grave illness". Stalin's power of appointment had allowed him to gradually replace local party secretaries with loyal functionaries and thus control most regional delegations at the congress, which enabled him to pack the Central Committee with his supporters, mostly at the expense of Zinoviev and Kamenev's backers. See Chapter 12 of Trotsky's Stalin At the congress, Trotsky made a speech about intra-party democracy, among other things, but avoided a direct confrontation with the troika. The delegates, most of whom were unaware of the divisions within the Politburo, gave Trotsky a standing ovation, which couldn't help but upset the troika. The troika was further infuriated by Karl Radek's article Leon Trotsky — Organizer of Victory Radek wrote:The need of the hour was for a man who would incarnate the call to struggle, a man who, subordinating himself completely to the requirements of the struggle, would become the ringing summons to arms, the will which exacts from all unconditional submission to a great, sacrificial necessity. Only a man with Trotsky's capacity for work, only a man so unsparing of himself as Trotsky, only a man who knew how to speak to the soldiers as Trotsky did—only such a man could have become the standard bearer of the armed toilers. He was all things rolled into one. published in Pravda on March 14, 1923, which seemed to anoint Trotsky as Lenin's successor. The resolutions adopted by the XIIth Congress called, in general terms, for greater democracy within the Party, but were vague and remained unimplemented. In an important test of strength in mid-1923, the troika was able to neutralize Trotsky's friend and supporter Christian Rakovsky by removing him from his post as head of the Ukrainian government (Sovnarkom) and sending him to London as Soviet ambassador. When regional Party secretaries in Ukraine protested against Rakovsky's reassignment, they too were reassigned to various posts all over the Soviet Union. Left opposition (1923-1924) Starting in mid-1923, the Soviet economy ran into significant difficulties, which led to numerous strikes countrywide. Two secret groups within the Communist Party, Workers' Truth and Workers' Group, were uncovered and suppressed by the Soviet secret police. Then, in September-October, the much anticipated Communist revolution in Germany ended in defeat. On October 8, 1923 Trotsky sent a letter to the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission, attributing these difficulties to lack of intra-Party democracy. Trotsky wrote: In the fiercest moment of War Communism, the system of appointment within the party did not have one tenth of the extent that it has now. Appointment of the secretaries of provincial committees is now the rule. That creates for the secretary a position essentially independent of the local organization. [...] The bureaucratization of the party apparatus has developed to unheard-of proportions by means of the method of secretarial selection. There has been created a very broad stratum of party workers, entering into the apparatus of the government of the party, who completely renounce their own party opinion, at least the open expression of it, as though assuming that the secretarial hierarchy is the apparatus which creates party opinion and party decisions. Beneath this stratum, abstaining from their own opinions, there lays the broad mass of the party, before whom every decision stands in the form of a summons or a command. Other senior communists who had similar concerns sent The Declaration of 46 to the Central Committee on October 15, in which they wrote: [...] we observe an ever progressing, barely disguised division of the party into a secretarial hierarchy and into "laymen", into professional party functionaries, chosen from above, and the other party masses, who take no part in social life. [...] free discussion within the party has virtually disappeared, party public opinion has been stifled. [...] it is the secretarial hierarchy, the party hierarchy which to an ever greater degree chooses the delegates to the conferences and congresses, which to an ever greater degree are becoming the executive conferences of this hierarchy. Although the text of these letters remained secret at the time, they had a significant effect on the Party leadership and prompted a partial retreat by the troika and its supporters on the issue of intra-Party democracy, notably in Zinoviev's Pravda article published on November 7. Throughout November, the troika tried to come up with a compromise to placate, or at least temporarily neutralize, Trotsky and his supporters. (Their task was made easier by the fact that Trotsky was sick in November and December.) The first draft of the resolution was rejected by Trotsky, which led to the formation of a special group consisting of Stalin, Trotsky and Kamenev, which was charged with drafting a mutually acceptable compromise. On December 5, the Politburo and the Central Control Commission unanimously adopted the group's final draft as its resolution. On December 8, Trotsky published an open letter, in which he expounded on the recently adopted resolution's ideas. The troika used his letter as an excuse to launch a campaign against Trotsky, accusing him of factionalism, setting "the youth against the fundamental generation of old revolutionary Bolsheviks" Quoted in Max Shachtman. The Struggle for the New Course, New York, New International Publishing Co., 1943. See chapter The Campaign Against “Trotskyism” and other sins. Trotsky defended his position in a series of seven letters which were collected as The New Course in January 1924. The illusion of a "monolithic Bolshevik leadership" was thus shattered and a lively intra-Party discussion ensued, both in local Party organizations and in the pages of Pravda. The discussion lasted most of December and January until the XIIIth Party Conference of January 16, 17 and 18, 1924. Those who opposed the Central Committee's position in the debate were thereafter referred to as members of the Left Opposition. Since the troika controlled the Party apparatus through Stalin's Secretariat as well as Pravda through its editor Bukharin, it was able to direct the discussion and the process of delegate selection. Although Trotsky's position prevailed within the Red Army and Moscow universities and received about half the votes in the Moscow Party organization, it was defeated elsewhere, and the Conference was packed with pro-troika delegates. In the end, only three delegates voted for Trotsky's position and the Conference denounced "Trotskyism" The term "Trotskyism" was first coined by the Russian liberal politician Pavel Milyukov, the first foreign minister in the Provisional Government who, in April 1917, was forced to demand that the British government release Trotsky -- see above. as a "petty bourgeois deviation". After the Conference, a number of Trotsky's supporters, especially in the Red Army's Political Directorate, were removed from leading positions or reassigned. Nonetheless, Trotsky kept all of his posts and the troika was careful to emphasize that the debate was limited to Trotsky's "mistakes" and that removing Trotsky from the leadership was out of the question. In reality, Trotsky had already been cut off from the decision making process. Immediately after the Conference, Trotsky left for a Caucasian resort to recover from his prolonged illness. On his way, he learned about Lenin's death on January 21, 1924. He was about to return when a follow up telegram from Stalin arrived, giving an incorrect date of the scheduled funeral, which would have made it impossible for Trotsky to return in time. Many commentators speculated after the fact that Trotsky's absence from Moscow in the days following Lenin's death contributed to his eventual loss to Stalin, although Trotsky generally discounted the significance of his absence. After Lenin's death (1924) There was little overt political disagreement within the Soviet leadership throughout most of 1924. On the surface, Trotsky remained the most prominent and popular Bolshevik leader, although his "mistakes" were often alluded to by troika partisans. Behind the scenes, he was completely cut off from the decision making process. Politburo meetings were pure formalities since all key decisions were made ahead of time by the troika and its supporters. Trotsky's control over the military was undermined by reassigning his deputy, Ephraim Sklyansky, and appointing Mikhail Frunze, who was being groomed to take Trotsky's place. At the XIIIth Party Congress in May, Trotsky delivered a conciliatory speech: See Chapter VIII of Boris Souvarine's Stalin: A Critical Survey of Bolshevism None of us desires or is able to dispute the will of the Party. Clearly, the Party is always right.... We can only be right with and by the Party, for history has provided no other way of being in the right. The English have a saying, "My country, right or wrong," whether it is in the right or in the wrong, it is my country. We have much better historical justification in saying whether it is right or wrong in certain individual concrete cases, it is my party.... And if the Party adopts a decision which one or other of us thinks unjust, he will say, just or unjust, it is my party, and I shall support the consequences of the decision to the end. The attempt at reconciliation, however, did not stop troika supporters from taking potshots at him. In the meantime, the Left Opposition, which had coagulated somewhat unexpectedly in late 1923 and lacked a definite platform aside from general dissatisfaction with the intra-Party "regime", began to crystallize. It lost some less dedicated members to the harassment by the troika, but it also began formulating a program. Economically, the Left Opposition and its theoretician Yevgeny Preobrazhensky came out against further development of capitalist elements in the Soviet economy and in favor of faster industrialization. That put them at odds with Bukharin and Rykov, the "Right" group within the Party, who supported troika at the time. On the question of world revolution, Trotsky and Karl Radek saw a period of stability in Europe while Stalin and Zinoviev confidently predicted an "acceleration" of revolution in Western Europe in 1924. On the theoretical plane, Trotsky remained committed to the Bolshevik idea that the Soviet Union could not create a true socialist society in the absence of the world revolution, while Stalin gradually came up with a policy of building 'Socialism in One Country'. These ideological divisions provided much of the intellectual basis for the political divide between Trotsky and the Left Opposition on the one hand and Stalin and his allies on the other. At the XIIIth Congress Kamenev and Zinoviev helped Stalin defuse Lenin's Testament, which belatedly came to the surface. But just after the congress, the troika, always an alliance of convenience, showed signs of weakness. Stalin began making poorly veiled accusations about Zinoviev and Kamenev. Yet in October 1924, Trotsky published The Lessons of October, an extensive summary of the events of the 1917 revolution. In it, he described Zinoviev's and Kamenev's opposition to the Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917, something that the two would have preferred left unmentioned. This started a new round of intra-party struggle, which became known as the Literary Discussion, with Zinoviev and Kamenev again allied with Stalin against Trotsky. Their criticism of Trotsky was concentrated in three areas: Trotsky's disagreements and conflicts with Lenin and the Bolsheviks prior to 1917 Trotsky's alleged distortion of the events of 1917 in order to emphasize his role and diminish the roles played by other Bolsheviks Trotsky's harsh treatment of his subordinates and other alleged mistakes during the Russian Civil War Trotsky was again sick and unable to respond while his opponents mobilized all of their resources to denounce him. They succeeded in damaging his military reputation so much that he was forced to resign as People's Commissar of Army and Fleet Affairs and Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council on January 6, 1925. Zinoviev demanded Trotsky's expulsion from the Communist Party, but Stalin refused to go along and skillfully played the role of a moderate. Trotsky kept his Politburo seat, but was effectively put on probation. A year in the wilderness (1925) 1925 was a difficult year for Trotsky. After the bruising Literary Discussion and losing his Red Army posts, he was effectively unemployed throughout the winter and spring. In May 1925, he was given three posts: chairman of the Concessions Committee, head of the electro-technical board, and chairman of the scientific-technical board of industry. Trotsky wrote in My Life See Chapter 42 of My Life that he "was taking a rest from politics" and "naturally plunged into his new line of work up to my ears", but some contemporary accounts paint a picture of a remote and distracted man. See Nikolai Valentinov-Volsky's account of his work with Trotsky in 1925 in Novaia Ekonomicheskaia Politika i Krizis Partii Posle Smerti Lenina: Gody Raboty v VSNKh vo Vremia NEP, Moscow, Sovremennik, 1991. No English translation currently available. Later in the year, Trotsky resigned his two technical positions (claiming Stalin-instigated interference and sabotage) and concentrated on his work in the Concessions Committee. In one of the few political developments that affected Trotsky in 1925, the circumstances surrounding the controversy around Lenin's Testament were described by American Marxist Max Eastman in his book Since Lenin Died (1925). The Soviet leadership denounced Eastman's account and used party discipline to force Trotsky to write an article denying Eastman's version of the events. In the meantime, the troika finally broke up. Bukharin and Rykov sided with Stalin while Krupskaya and Soviet Commissar of Finance Grigory Sokolnikov aligned with Zinoviev and Kamenev. The struggle became open at the September 1925 meeting of the Central Committee and came to a head at the XIVth Party Congress in December 1925. With only the Leningrad Party organization behind them, Zinoviev and Kamenev, dubbed The New Opposition, were thoroughly defeated while Trotsky refused to get involved in the fight and didn't speak at the Congress. United opposition (1926-1927) During a lull in the intra-party fighting in the spring of 1926, Zinoviev, Kamenev and their supporters in the New Opposition gravitated closer to Trotsky's supporters and the two groups soon formed an alliance, which also incorporated some smaller opposition groups within the Communist Party. The alliance became known as the United Opposition. The United Opposition was repeatedly threatened with sanctions by the Stalinist leadership of the Communist Party and Trotsky had to agree to tactical retreats, mostly to preserve his alliance with Zinoviev and Kamenev. The opposition remained united against Stalin throughout 1926 and 1927, especially on the issue of the Chinese Revolution. The methods used by the Stalinists against the Opposition became more and more extreme. At the XVth Party Conference in October 1926 Trotsky could barely speak due to interruptions and catcalls, and at the end of the Conference he lost his Politburo seat. In 1927 Stalin started using the GPU (Soviet secret police) to infiltrate and discredit the opposition. Rank and file oppositionists were increasingly harassed, sometimes expelled from the Party and even arrested. Defeat and exile (1927-1928) In October 1927, Trotsky and Zinoviev were expelled from the Central Committee. When the United Opposition tried to organize independent demonstrations commemorating the 10th anniversary of the Bolshevik seizure of power in November 1927, the demonstrators were dispersed by force and Trotsky and Zinoviev were expelled from the Communist Party on November 12. Their leading supporters, from Kamenev down, were expelled in December 1927 by the XVth Party Congress, which paved the way for mass expulsions of rank and file oppositionists as well as internal exile of opposition leaders in early 1928. When the XVth Party Congress made Opposition views incompatible with membership in the Communist Party, Zinoviev, Kamenev and their supporters capitulated and renounced their alliance with the Left Opposition. Trotsky and most of his followers, on the other hand, refused to surrender and stayed the course. Trotsky's house on the island of Büyükada, Istanbul, Turkey, as it appears today. Trotsky was exiled to Alma Ata (now in Kazakhstan) on January 31, 1928. He was expelled from the Soviet Union in February 1929, accompanied by his wife Natalia Sedova and his son Lev Sedov. After Trotsky's expulsion from the country, exiled Trotskyists began to waver and, between 1929 and 1934, most of the leading members of the Opposition surrendered to Stalin, "admitted their mistakes" and were reinstated in the Communist Party. Christian Rakovsky, who served as an inspiration for Trotsky between 1929 and 1934 while he was in Siberian exile, was the last prominent Trotskyist to capitulate. Almost all of them perished in the Great Purges just a few years later. Last exile (1929-1940) Trotsky reading The Militant. Trotsky was deported from the Soviet Union in February 1929. His first station in exile was at Büyükada off the coast of Istanbul, Turkey where he stayed for the next four years. There were many former White Army officers in Istanbul, which put Trotsky's life in danger, but a number of Trotsky's European supporters volunteered to serve as bodyguards and assured his safety. In 1933 Trotsky was offered asylum in France by Daladier. He stayed first at Royan, then at Barbizon. He was not allowed to visit Paris. In 1935 he was given to understand he was no longer welcome in France. After weighing alternatives, he moved to Norway. Having gotten permission from then-Justice Minister Trygve Lie to enter the country, Trotsky became a guest of Konrad Knudsen near Oslo. After two yearsallegedly under influence from the Soviet Unionhe was put under house arrest. His transfer to Mexico on a freighter was arranged after consultations with Norwegian officials. Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas welcomed him warmly, even arranging for a special train to bring him to Mexico City from the port of Tampico. In Mexico, Trotsky at one point lived at the home of the painter Diego Rivera, and at another at that of Rivera's wife & fellow painter, Frida Kahlo (with whom he had an affair). Herrera, Hayden (1983). A Biography of Frida Kahlo. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN-13: 978-0060085896. He remained a prolific writer in exile, penning several key works, including his History of the Russian Revolution (1930) and The Revolution Betrayed (1936), a critique of the Soviet Union under Stalinism. Trotsky argued that the Soviet state had become a degenerated workers' state controlled by an undemocratic bureaucracy, which would eventually either be overthrown via a political revolution establishing workers' democracy, or degenerate into a capitalist class. Trotsky with American comrades, including Harry DeBoer (left) in Mexico, shortly before his assassination, 1940. While in Mexico, Trotsky also worked closely with James P. Cannon, Joseph Hansen, and Farrell Dobbs of the Socialist Workers Party of the United States, and other supporters. Cannon, a long-time leading member of the American communist movement, had supported Trotsky in the struggle against Stalinism since he first read Trotsky's criticisms of the Soviet Union in 1928. Trotsky's critique of the Stalinist regime, though banned, was distributed to leaders of the Comintern. Among his other supporters was Chen Duxiu, founder of the Chinese Communist party. Moscow show trials In August 1936, the first Moscow show trial of the so-called "Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Center" was staged in front of an international audience. During the trial, Zinoviev, Kamenev and 14 other accused, most of them prominent Old Bolsheviks, confessed to having plotted with Trotsky to kill Stalin and other members of the Soviet leadership. The court found everybody guilty and sentenced the defendants to death, Trotsky in absentia. The second show trial of Karl Radek, Grigory Sokolnikov, Yuri Pyatakov and 14 others took place in January 1937, with even more alleged conspiracies and crimes linked to Trotsky. In April 1937, an independent "Commission of Inquiry" into the charges made against Trotsky and others at the "Moscow Trials" was held in Coyoacan, with John Dewey as chairman . The findings were published in the book Not Guilty. See Not guilty; report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Charges Made Against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials, John Dewey, chairman, New York, London, Harper & brothers, 1938, xv, 422 pp. 2nd edition New York, Monad Press, distributed by Pathfinder Press 1973, c1972 xxiii, 422 pp. Fourth International James Cannon and Felix Morrow, with a bust of Trotsky. At first Trotsky was opposed to the idea of establishing parallel Communist Parties or a parallel international Communist organization that would compete with the Third International for fear of splitting the Communist movement. However, he changed his mind in mid-1933 after the Nazi takeover in Germany and the Comintern's response to it, when he proclaimed that: An organization which was not roused by the thunder of fascism and which submits docilely to such outrageous acts of the bureaucracy demonstrates thereby that it is dead and that nothing can ever revive it. ... In all our subsequent work it is necessary to take as our point of departure the historical collapse of the official Communist International. Leon Trotsky. To Build Communist Parties and an International Anew, July 15, 1933. In 1938, Trotsky and his supporters founded the Fourth International, which was intended to be a revolutionary and internationalist alternative to the Stalinist Comintern. Dies Committee Towards the end of 1939 Trotsky agreed to go to the United States to appear as a witness before the Dies Committee of the House of Representatives, a forerunner of the House Un-American Activities Committee. Representative Martin Dies, chairman of the committee, demanded the suppression of the American Communist Party. Trotsky intended to use the forum to expose the NKVD's activities against him and his followers. He made it clear that he also intended to argue against the suppression of the American Communist Party, and to use the committee as a platform for a call to transform the world war into a world revolution. Many of his supporters argued against his appearance. When the committee learned the nature of the testimony Trotsky intended to present, it refused to hear him, and he was denied a visa to enter the United States. On hearing about it, the Stalinists immediately accused Trotsky of being in the pay of the oil magnates and the FBI. See Isaac Deutscher. The Prophet Outcast: Trotsky, 1929-1940, London, New York, Oxford University Press, 1963, p.482. Final months After quarreling with Diego Rivera, in 1939 Trotsky moved into his own residence in Coyoacán, a neighborhood in Mexico City. He was ill, suffering from high blood pressure, and feared that he would suffer a cerebral hemorrhage. He even prepared himself for the possibility of ending his life through suicide. "Trotsky's Testament" (February 27, 1940) Retrieved August 27, 2007 On February 27, 1940, Trotsky wrote a document known as "Trotsky's Testament", in which he expressed his final thoughts and feelings for posterity. After forcefully denying Stalin's accusations that he had betrayed the working class, he thanked his friends, and above all his wife and dear companion, Natalia Sedova, for their loyal support: In addition to the happiness of being a fighter for the cause of socialism, fate gave me the happiness of being her husband. During the almost forty years of our life together she remained an inexhaustible source of love, magnanimity, and tenderness. She underwent great sufferings, especially in the last period of our lives. But I find some comfort in the fact that she also knew days of happiness. <p> For forty-three years of my conscious life I have remained a revolutionist; for forty-two of them I have fought under the banner of Marxism. If I had to begin all over again I would of course try to avoid this or that mistake, but the main course of my life would remain unchanged. I shall die a proletarian revolutionist, a Marxist, a dialectical materialist, and, consequently, an irreconcilable atheist. My faith in the communist future of mankind is not less ardent, indeed it is firmer today, than it was in the days of my youth. <p> Natasha has just come up to the window from the courtyard and opened it wider so that the air may enter more freely into my room. I can see the bright green strip of grass beneath the wall, and the clear blue sky above the wall, and sunlight everywhere. Life is beautiful. Let the future generations cleanse it of all evil, oppression and violence, and enjoy it to the full. <p> L. Trotsky February 27, 1940 Coiyoacan. On May 24, 1940, Trotsky survived a raid on his home by Stalinist assassins led by GPU agent Iosif Grigulevich, Mexican painter and Stalinist David Alfaro Siqueiros, and Vittorio Vidale. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60F12F93554117A93C7AB178ED85F448485F9 Assassination Study where the attack on Leon Trotsky took place. On August 20, 1940, Trotsky was successfully attacked in his home by a NKVD agent, Ramón Mercader, who buried the pick of an ice axe into Trotsky's skull. University of San Diego - Historical Monograph #4: The KGB in San Francisco and Mexico City and the GRU in New York and Washington accessed 2007-07-29 The blow was poorly delivered and failed to kill Trotsky instantly, as Mercader had intended. Witnesses stated that Trotsky spat on Mercader and began struggling fiercely with him. Hearing the commotion, Trotsky's bodyguards burst into the room and nearly killed Mercader, but Trotsky stopped them, shouting, "Do not kill him! This man has a story to tell." http://www.rotten.com/library/history/assassination/ Trotsky was taken to a hospital, operated on, and survived for more than a day, dying at the age of 60 on August 21, 1940 as a result of severe brain damage. Walsh, Lynn, The Assassination of Trotsky, Militant International Review, Summer 1980, retrieved on 2007-07-29. Mercader later testified at his trial: I laid my raincoat on the table in such a way as to be able to remove the ice axe which was in the pocket. I decided not to miss the wonderful opportunity that presented itself. The moment Trotsky began reading the article, he gave me my chance; I took out the ice axe from the raincoat, gripped it in my hand and, with my eyes closed, dealt him a terrible blow on the head. According to James P. Cannon, the secretary of the Socialist Workers Party (USA), Trotsky's last words were "I will not survive this attack. Stalin has finally accomplished the task he attempted unsuccessfully before." Australian Associated Press, Death of Leon Trotsky, The Age 150th Anniversary edition reprint, 1940-08-23, Retrieved on 2007-03-22. Leon Trotsky's grave in Coyoacán, where his ashes are buried. Epilogue Trotsky's house in Coyoacán was preserved in much the same condition as it was on the day of the assassination and is now a museum run by a board which includes his grandson Esteban Volkov. The current director of the museum is Dr. Carlos Ramirez Sandoval under whose supervision the museum has improved considerably after years of neglect. Trotsky's grave is located on its grounds. Trotsky was never formally rehabilitated by the Soviet government, despite the Glasnost-era rehabilitation of most other Old Bolsheviks killed during the Great Purges. But in 1987, under President Gorbachev, Trotsky was called "a hero and martyr", and was featured on a commemorative postage stamp. His son, Sergei Sedov, killed in 1937, was rehabilitated in 1988, as was Nikolai Bukharin. Above all, beginning in 1989, Trotsky's books, forbidden until 1987, were finally published in the Soviet Union. Trotsky's great-granddaughter, Nora Volkow (daughter of Esteban Volkov), is currently head of the U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Contributions to theory Trotsky considered himself a "Bolshevik-Leninist", arguing for the establishment of a vanguard party. He considered himself an advocate of orthodox Marxism. His politics differed in many respects from those of Stalin or Mao, most importantly in his rejection of the theory of Socialism in One Country and his declaring the need for an international "permanent revolution". Numerous Fourth Internationalist groups around the world continue to describe themselves as Trotskyist and see themselves as standing in this tradition, although they have different interpretations of the conclusions to be drawn from this. Supporters of the Fourth International echo Trotsky's opposition to Stalinist totalitarianism, advocating political revolution, arguing that socialism cannot sustain itself without democracy. Permanent Revolution Permanent Revolution is the theory that the bourgeois democratic tasks in countries with delayed bourgeois democratic development can only be accomplished through the establishment of a workers' state, and that the creation of a workers' state would inevitably involve inroads against capitalist property. Thus, the accomplishment of bourgeois democratic tasks passes over into proletarian tasks. Although most closely associated with Leon Trotsky, the call for Permanent Revolution is first found in the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in March 1850, in the aftermath of the 1848 Revolution, in their Address of the Central Committee to the Communist League: It is our interest and our task to make the revolution permanent until all the more or less propertied classes have been driven from their ruling positions, until the proletariat has conquered state power and until the association of the proletarians has progressed sufficiently far - not only in one country but in all the leading countries of the world - that competition between the proletarians of these countries ceases and at least the decisive forces of production are concentrated in the hands of the workers. ... Their battle-cry must be: "The Permanent Revolution." Trotsky's conception of Permanent Revolution is based on his understanding, drawing on the work of the founder of Russian Marxism Georgy Plekhanov, that in 'backward' countries the tasks of the Bourgeois Democratic Revolution could not be achieved by the bourgeoisie itself. This conception was first developed by Trotsky in collaboration with Alexander Parvus in late 1904 - 1905. The relevant articles were later collected in Trotsky's books 1905 and in Permanent Revolution, which also contains his essay "Results and Prospects". The United Front Trotsky was a central figure in the Comintern during its first four congresses. During this time he helped to generalise the strategy and tactics of the Bolsheviks to newly formed Communist parties across Europe and further afield. From 1921 onwards the united front, a method of uniting revolutionaries and reformists in common struggle while winning some of the workers to revolution, was the central strategy put forward by the Comintern. After he was exiled and politically marginalised by Stalinism, Trotsky continued to argue for a united front against fascism in Germany and Spain. His articles on the united front represent an important part of his political legacy. Joseph Choonara, "The United Front" in International Socialism 117 Trotsky in art Trotsky was admired by Mexican muralist Diego Rivera, a husband of Frida Kahlo. Rivera twice painted Trotsky's face as part of a montage of Communist figures, in Communist Unity Panel (1933) and again in Man at the Crossroads (1933). After the destruction of the latter, it was re-created as Man, Controller of the Universe (1934). Trotsky's death was dramatized in the 1972 film The Assassination of Trotsky, directed by Joseph Losey and starring Richard Burton as Trotsky. It was also the subject of a 1993 short play, "Variations on the Death of Trotsky", written by David Ives. In the 2002 film Frida, Trotsky was portrayed by Geoffrey Rush. The character "Snowball" in George Orwell's novella, Animal Farm, is based on Trotsky, as is Emmanuel Goldstein in Nineteen Eighty-Four. In the Seinfeld episode The Race (Seinfeld) Elaine's boyfriend Ned is a communist who resembles Trotsky. The Native Shrubs of the Santa Monica Mountains recounted the assassination of Trotsky, and that of Lincoln, in their song "The Father, the Son, and the Friendly Ghost." Notes See also Bolsheviks Fourth International Group of Democratic Centralism History of Russia, a series of articles. Labor army List of Trotskyist internationals Marxism My Life, Trotsky's autobiography. Stalinism Trotskyism Variations on the Death of Trotsky Vladimir Lenin Selected works 1905 Autobiography, 1879-1917. Between Red and White History of the Russian Revolution In Defence of Marxism In Defence of October Literature and Revolution My Life Permanent Revolution & Results and Prospects Platform of the Joint Opposition Problems of the Chinese Revolution Terrorism and Communism The Case of Leon Trotsky The First Five Years of the Communist International, Volume 1 The First Five Years of the Communist International, Volume 2 The Lessons of October The New Course The Revolution Betrayed The Stalin School of Falsification The Third International After Lenin The Transitional Program for Socialist Revolution Their Morals and Ours Trotsky's Military Writings, Volume 3 Trotsky's Military Writings, Volume 4 Trotsky's Military Writings, Volume 5 War and the International References Crazy for You references the facial hair of Trotsky. Isaac Deutscher wrote the classic--and largely sympathetic--biography in three volumes: (1954) Trotsky: The Prophet Armed (1959) Trotsky: The Prophet Unarmed (1963) Trotsky: The Prophet Outcast Isaac Deutscher (1966) Ironies of History. Daniels, Robert V (1991) Trotsky, Stalin & Socialism. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-1223-X Dimitri Volkogonov (1996) Trotsky, the Eternal Revolutionary. Free Press. Gilbert, Helen (2003) Leon Trotsky: His Life and Ideas. Red Letter Press ISBN 0-932323-17-0 Hansen, Joseph, ed. (1969) Leon Trotsky: the Man and His Work. Reminiscences and Appraisals. New York: Merit Publishers. Levine, Isaac Don (1960) The Mind of an Assassin. New York: New American Library/Signet Book. Richard Pipes, ed. (1996) The Unknown Lenin. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06919-7 Renton, David (2004) Trotsky. Thatcher, Ian D. (2003) Trotsky. ISBN 0-415-23251-1 Jean van Heijenoort (1978) With Trotsky in Exile: From Prinkipo to Coyoacan. Harvard University Press. The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, Volume 39, Academic International Press Trotsky speaks about the Moscow Trials External links Trotsky in Havana by Dimitri Prieto from Havana Times'' 65 years since Trotsky's Death an essay by Rob Sewell FBI records relating to Trotsky's murder 'Ice-pick that killed Trotsky' found in Mexico which is stained with his blood Dossier on Trotsky, International Viewpoint January 2006 images of Trotsky House, Mexico City Lenin and Trotsky - What they Really Stood For by Alan Woods and Ted Grant On anniversary of murder, museum for Trotsky proves to be tourist draw by Larry Luxner of the Jewish Telegraphic Agency, published August 23, 2005 The Contradiction of Trotsky by Claude Lefort The Leon Trotsky Internet Archive at Marxists.org (under GNU Free Documentation License) The Lubitz TrotskyanaNet, dealing with Leon Trotsky, Trotskyism and Trotskyists Trotsky's historical significance - archives of the ICFI Various criticism of Trotsky from 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5,740 | Alcohol | Functional group of an alcohol molecule. The carbon atom is bound to hydrogen atoms and may bind to other carbon atom(s) to form a carbon chain. Methanol, an alcohol with a single carbon atom, is pictured. Ethanol, which is drinking alcohol, has two carbon atoms. In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is bound to a carbon atom of an alkyl or substituted alkyl group. The general formula for a simple acyclic alcohol is CnH2n+1OH. In common terms, the word alcohol refers to ethanol, the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol is a colorless, volatile liquid with a mild odor which can be obtained by the fermentation of sugars. (Industrially, it is more commonly obtained by ethylene hydration—the reaction of ethylene with water in the presence of phosphoric acid. Lodgsdon, J.E. (1994). "Ethanol." In J.I. Kroschwitz (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed. vol. 9, p. 820. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ) Ethanol is the most widely used depressant in the world, and has been for thousands of years. This sense underlies the term alcoholism (addiction to alcohol). Other alcohols are usually described with a clarifying adjective, as in isopropyl alcohol (propan-2-ol) or wood alcohol (methyl alcohol, or methanol). The suffix -ol appears in the "official" IUPAC chemical name of all alcohols. There are three major subsets of alcohols: primary (1°), secondary (2°) and tertiary (3°), based upon the number of carbon atoms the C-OH group's carbon (shown in red) is bonded to. Ethanol is a simple 'primary' alcohol. The simplest secondary alcohol is isopropyl alcohol (propan-2-ol), and a simple tertiary alcohol is tert-butyl alcohol (2-methylpropan-2-ol). Simple alcohols The simplest and most commonly used alcohols are methanol and ethanol. Methanol was formerly obtained by the distillation of wood and called "wood alcohol." Methanol is intoxicating but not directly poisonous. It is toxic by its breakdown (toxication) by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase in the liver by forming formic acid and formaldehyde which cause permanent blindness by destruction of the optic nerve. Apart from its familiar role in alcoholic beverages, ethanol is also used as a highly controlled industrial solvent and raw material. To avoid the high taxes on ethanol for consumption, additives are added to make it unpalatable (such as denatonium benzoate—"Bitrex") or poisonous (such as methanol). Ethanol in this form is known generally as denatured alcohol; when methanol is used, it may be referred to as methylated spirits ("Meths") or "surgical spirits". Two other alcohols whose uses are relatively widespread (though not so much as those of methanol and ethanol) are propanol and butanol. Like ethanol, they can be produced by fermentation processes. (However, the fermenting agent is a bacterium, Clostridium acetobutylicum, that feeds on cellulose, not sugars like the Saccharomyces yeast that produces ethanol.) Nomenclature Systematic names In the IUPAC system, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal "e" and adds "ol", e.g. "methanol" and "ethanol". When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the "ol": propan-1-ol for CH3CH2CH2OH, propan-2-ol for CH3CH(OH)CH3. Sometimes, the position number is written before the IUPAC name: 1-propanol and 2-propanol. If a higher priority group is present (such as an aldehyde, ketone or carboxylic acid), then it is necessary to use the prefix "hydroxy", for example: 1-hydroxy-2-propanone (CH3COCH2OH). Some examples of simple alcohols and how to name them: Examples of alcohols & their names Common names for alcohols usually takes name of the corresponding alkyl group and add the word "alcohol", e.g. methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol or tert-butyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the 1st or 2nd carbon on the propane chain. Isopropyl alcohol is also occasionally called sec-propyl alcohol. As mentioned above alcohols are classified as primary (1°), secondary (2°) or tertiary (3°), and common names often indicate this in the alkyl group prefix. For example (CH3)3COH is a tertiary alcohol is commonly known as tert-butyl alcohol. This would be named 2-methylpropan-2-ol under IUPAC rules, indicating a propane chain with methyl and hydroxyl groups both attached to the middle (#2) carbon. Primary alcohol (1°)- Have general formulas RCH2OH Secondary alcohol (2°)- Have general formulas RR'CHOH Tertiary alcohol (3°)- Have general formulas RR'RCOH Hydrogen bond strength order: 1°>2°>3° Boiling point order: 1°>2°>3° Acidity order: 1°>2°>3° Etymology The word alcohol appears in English in the 16th century, loaned via French from medical Latin, ultimately from the Arabic (, "the kohl, a powder used as an eyeliner"). The Classical Arabic term is , but the Latin transcription may have been confused with that for , and most dictionaries give the latter etymology. is Arabic for the definitive article, the in English. The current Arabic name for alcohol is , re-introduced from western usage, while the Classical Arabic word is (e.g. sura 37:47), literally "spirit" (the word is also the origin of the English word "ghoul", and the name of the star Algol). was the name given to the very fine powder, produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony sulfide Sb2S3 (hence the essence or "spirit" of the substance), which was used as an antiseptic and eyeliner. Bartholomew Traheron in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo introduces the word as a term used by "barbarous" (Moorish) authors for "fine powder":the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or (as I fynde it sometymes wryten) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre.William Johnson in his 1657 Lexicon Chymicum glosses the word as antimonium sive stibium. By extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including "alcohol of wine", the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in Alchymia (1594) has vini alcohol vel vinum alcalisatum. Johnson (1657) glosses alcohol vini as quando omnis superfluitas vini a vino separatur, ita ut accensum ardeat donec totum consumatur, nihilque fæcum aut phlegmatis in fundo remaneat.'' The word's meaning became restricted to "spirit of wine" (ethanol) in the 18th century, and was again extended to the family of substances so called in modern chemistry from 1850. Physical and chemical properties Alcohols have an odor that is often described as “biting” and as “hanging” in the nasal passages. The hydroxyl group generally makes the alcohol molecule polar. Those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to other compounds. This hydrogen bonding means that alcohols can be used as protic solvents. Two opposing solubility trends in alcohols are: the tendency of the polar OH to promote solubility in water, and of the carbon chain to resist it. Thus, methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water because the hydroxyl group wins out over the short carbon chain. Butanol, with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble because of a balance between the two trends. Alcohols of five or more carbons (Pentanol and higher) are effectively insoluble in water because of the hydrocarbon chain's dominance. All simple alcohols are miscible in organic solvents. Because of hydrogen bonding, alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers. The boiling point of the alcohol ethanol is 78.29 °C, compared to 69 °C for the hydrocarbon Hexane (a common constituent of gasoline), and 34.6 °C for Diethyl ether. Alcohols, like water, can show either acidic or basic properties at the O-H group. With a pKa of around 16-19 they are generally slightly weaker acids than water, but they are still able to react with strong bases such as sodium hydride or reactive metals such as sodium. The salts that result are called alkoxides, with the general formula RO- M+. Meanwhile the oxygen atom has lone pairs of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly basic in the presence of strong acids such as sulfuric acid. For example, with methanol: Acidity & basicity of methanol Alcohols can also undergo oxidation to give aldehydes, ketones or carboxylic acids, or they can be dehydrated to alkenes. They can react to form ester compounds, and they can (if activated first) undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions. The lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen of the hydroxyl group also makes alcohols nucleophiles. For more details see the reactions of alcohols section below. Applications Alcohols can be used as a beverage (ethanol only), as fuel and for many scientific, medical, and industrial utilities. Ethanol in the form of alcoholic beverages has been consumed by humans since pre-historic times. A 50% v/v solution of ethylene glycol in water is commonly used as an antifreeze. Some alcohols, mainly ethanol and methanol, can be used as an alcohol fuel. Fuel performance can be increased in forced induction internal combustion engines by injecting alcohol into the air intake after the turbocharger or supercharger has pressurized the air. This cools the pressurized air, providing a denser air charge, which allows for more fuel, and therefore more power. Alcohols have applications in industry and science as reagents or solvents. Because of its low toxicity and ability to dissolve non-polar substances, ethanol can be used as a solvent in medical drugs, perfumes, and vegetable essences such as vanilla. In organic synthesis, alcohols serve as versatile intermediates. Ethanol can be used as an antiseptic to disinfect the skin before injections are given, often along with iodine. Ethanol-based soaps are becoming common in restaurants and are convenient because they do not require drying due to the volatility of the compound. Alcohol is also used as a preservative for specimens. Alcohol gels have become common as hand sanitizers. Production Industrially alcohols are produced in several ways: By fermentation using glucose produced from sugar from the hydrolysis of starch, in the presence of yeast and temperature of less than 37°C to produce ethanol. For instance the conversion of invertase to glucose and fructose or the conversion of glucose to zymase and ethanol. By direct hydration using ethylene (ethylene hydration or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of distilled crude oil. Endogenous It is inevitable that all humans always have some amount of alcohol in their bodies at all times, even if they never drink alcoholic beverages in their lives. This is because of a process called endogenous ethanol production. Many of the bacteria in the intestines use alcohol fermentation as a form of respiration. This metabolic method produces alcohol as a waste product, in the same way that metabolism results in the formation of carbon dioxide and water. Thus, human bodies always contain some quantity of alcohol produced by these benign bacteria. Laboratory synthesis Several methods exist for the preparation of alcohols in the laboratory. Primary alkyl halides react with aqueous NaOH or KOH mainly to primary alcohols in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution. (Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead). Aldehydes or ketones are reduced with sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride (after an acidic workup). Another reduction by aluminiumisopropylates is the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction. Alkenes engage in an acid catalysed hydration reaction using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst which gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols. The hydroboration-oxidation and oxymercuration-reduction of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis. Alkenes react with NBS and water in halohydrin formation reaction Grignard reagents react with carbonyl groups to secondary and tertiary alcohols. Related reactions are the Barbier reaction and the Nozaki-Hiyama reaction. Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation is the asymmetric reduction of β-keto-esters Amines can be converted to diazonium salts which are then hydrolyzed. The formation of a secondary alcohol via reduction and hydration is shown: Preparation of a secondary alcohol Reactions Deprotonation Alcohols can behave as weak acids, undergoing deprotonation. The deprotonation reaction to produce an alkoxide salt is either performed with a strong base such as sodium hydride or n-butyllithium, or with sodium or potassium metal. 2 R-OH + 2 NaH → 2 R-O-Na+ + 2H2↑ 2 R-OH + 2Na → 2R-O−Na + H2 E.g. 2 CH3CH2-OH + 2 Na → 2 CH3-CH2-O−Na + H2 Water is similar in pKa to many alcohols, so with sodium hydroxide there is an equilibrium set up which usually lies to the left: R-OH + NaOH <=> R-O-Na+ + H2O (equilibrium to the left) It should be noted, though, that the bases used to deprotonate alcohols are strong themselves. The bases used and the alkoxides created are both highly moisture sensitive chemical reagents. The acidity of alcohols is also affected by the overall stability of the alkoxide ion. Electron-withdrawing groups attached to the carbon containing the hydroxyl group will serve to stabilize the alkoxide when formed, thus resulting in greater acidity. On the other hand, the presence of electron-donating group will result in a less stable alkoxide ion formed. This will result in a scenario whereby the unstable alkoxide ion formed will tend to accept a proton to reform the original alcohol. With alkyl halides alkoxides give rise to ethers in the Williamson ether synthesis. Nucleophilic substitution The OH group is not a good leaving group in nucleophilic substitution reactions, so neutral alcohols do not react in such reactions. However, if the oxygen is first protonated to give R−OH2+, the leaving group (water) is much more stable, and the nucleophilic substitution can take place. For instance, tertiary alcohols react with hydrochloric acid to produce tertiary alkyl halides, where the hydroxyl group is replaced by a chlorine atom by unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. If primary or secondary alcohols are to be reacted with hydrochloric acid, an activator such as zinc chloride is needed. Alternatively the conversion may be performed directly using thionyl chloride.[1] Some simple conversions of alcohols to alkyl chlorides Alcohols may likewise be converted to alkyl bromides using hydrobromic acid or phosphorus tribromide, for example: 3 R-OH + PBr3 → 3 RBr + H3PO3 In the Barton-McCombie deoxygenation an alcohol is deoxygenated to an alkane with tributyltin hydride or a trimethylborane-water complex in a radical substitution reaction. Dehydration Alcohols are themselves nucleophilic, so R−OH2+ can react with ROH to produce ethers and water in a dehydration reaction, although this reaction is rarely used except in the manufacture of diethyl ether. More useful is the E1 elimination reaction of alcohols to produce alkenes. The reaction generally obeys Zaitsev's Rule, which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed. Tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols require a higher temperature. This is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce ethene: A more controlled elimination reaction is the Chugaev elimination with carbon disulfide and iodomethane. Esterification To form an ester from an alcohol and a carboxylic acid the reaction, known as Fischer esterification, is usually performed at reflux with a catalyst of concentrated sulfuric acid: R-OH + R'-COOH → R'-COOR + H2O In order to drive the equilibrium to the right and produce a good yield of ester, water is usually removed, either by an excess of H2SO4 or by using a Dean-Stark apparatus. Esters may also be prepared by reaction of the alcohol with an acid chloride in the presence of a base such as pyridine. Other types of ester are prepared similarly- for example tosyl (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p-toluenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine. Oxidation Primary alcohols (R-CH2-OH) can be oxidized either to aldehydes (R-CHO) or to carboxylic acids (R-CO2H), while the oxidation of secondary alcohols (R1R2CH-OH) normally terminates at the ketone (R1R2C=O) stage. Tertiary alcohols (R1R2R3C-OH) are resistant to oxidation. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids normally proceeds via the corresponding aldehyde, which is transformed via an aldehyde hydrate (R-CH(OH)2) by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the carboxylic acid. Mechanism of oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids via aldehydes and aldehyde hydrates Often it is possible to interrupt the oxidation of a primary alcohol at the aldehyde level by performing the reaction in absence of water, so that no aldehyde hydrate can be formed. Reagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to aldehydes are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones. These include: Chromium-based reagents, such as Collins reagent (CrO3·Py2), PDC or PCC. Activated DMSO, resulting from reaction of DMSO with electrophiles, such as oxalyl chloride (Swern oxidation), a carbodiimide (Pfitzner-Moffatt oxidation) or the complex SO3·Py (Parikh-Doering oxidation). Hypervalent iodine compounds, such as Dess-Martin periodinane or 2-Iodoxybenzoic acid. Catalytic TPAP in presence of excess of NMO (Ley oxidation). Catalytic TEMPO in presence of excess bleach (NaOCl) (Anelli's oxidation). Oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes and ketones Allylic and benzylic alcohols can be oxidized in presence of other alcohols using certain selective oxidants such as manganese dioxide (MnO2). Reagents useful for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones, but normally inefficient for oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes, include chromium trioxide (CrO3) in a mixture of sulfuric acid and acetone (Jones oxidation) and certain ketones, such as cyclohexanone, in the presence of aluminium isopropoxide (Oppenauer oxidation). The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using: Potassium permanganate (KMnO4). Jones oxidation. PDC in DMF. Heyns oxidation. Ruthenium tetroxide (RuO4). TEMPO. Oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids Alcohols possessing two hydroxy groups located on adjacent carbons —that is, 1,2-diols— suffer oxidative breakage at a carbon-carbon bond with some oxidants such as sodium periodate (NaIO4) or lead tetraacetate (Pb(OAc)4), resulting in generation of two carbonyl groups. Oxidative breakage of carbon-carbon bond in 1,2-diols Toxicity Ethanol in alcoholic beverages has been consumed by humans since prehistoric times for a variety of hygienic, dietary, medicinal, religious, and recreational reasons. The consumption of large doses of ethanol causes drunkenness (intoxication), which may lead to a hangover as its effects wear off. Depending upon the dose and the regularity of its consumption, ethanol can cause acute respiratory failure or death. Because ethanol impairs judgment in humans, it can be a catalyst for reckless or irresponsible behavior. The LD50 of ethanol in rats is 10,300 mg/kg. Other alcohols are substantially more poisonous than ethanol, partly because they take much longer to be metabolized and partly because their metabolzation produces substances that are even more toxic. Methanol (wood alcohol), for instance, is oxidized to the poisonous formaldehyde in the liver by alcohol dehydrogenase enzymes; this can cause blindness or death. An effective treatment to prevent formaldehyde toxicity after methanol ingestion is to administer ethanol. Alcohol dehydrogenase has a higher affinity for ethanol, thus preventing methanol from binding and acting as a substrate. Any remaining methanol will then have time to be excreted through the kidneys. Remaining formaldehyde will be converted to formic acid and excreted. Zimmerman HE, Burkhart KK, Donovan JW. Ethylene glycol and methanol poisoning: diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Emergency Nursing. 1999 Apr;25(2):116-20. PMID 10097201 Lobert S. Ethanol, isopropanol, methanol, and ethylene glycol poisoning. Critical Care Nurse. 2000 December;20(6):41-7. PMID 11878258 Methanol itself, while poisonous, has a much weaker sedative effect than ethanol. Some longer-chain alcohols such as n-propanol, isopropanol, n-butanol, t-butanol and 2-methyl-2-butanol do however have stronger sedative effects, but also have higher toxicity than ethanol. McKee M, Suzcs S, Sárváry A, Adany R, Kiryanov N, Saburova L, Tomkins S, Andreev E, Leon DA. The composition of surrogate alcohols consumed in Russia. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research. 2005 October;29(10):1884-8. PMID 16269919 Bunc M, Pezdir T, Mozina H, Mozina M, Brvar M. Butanol ingestion in an airport hangar. Human and Experimental Toxicology. 2006 Apr;25(4):195-7. PMID 16696295 These longer chain alcohols are found as contaminants in some alcoholic beverages and are known as fusel alcohols, Woo KL. Determination of low molecular weight alcohols including fusel oil in various samples by diethyl ether extraction and capillary gas chromatography. Journal of AOAC International. 2005 September-October;88(5):1419-27. PMID 16385992 Lachenmeier DW, Haupt S, Schulz K. Defining maximum levels of higher alcohols in alcoholic beverages and surrogate alcohol products. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 2008 Apr;50(3):313-21. PMID 18295386 and are reputed to cause severe hangovers although it is unclear if the fusel alcohols are actually responsible. Hori H, Fujii W, Hatanaka Y, Suwa Y. Effects of fusel oil on animal hangover models. Alcohol Clinical and Experimental Research. 2003 Aug;27(8 Suppl):37S-41S. PMID 12960505 Many longer chain alcohols are used in industry as solvents and are occasionally abused by alcoholics, Wiernikowski A, Piekoszewski W, Krzyzanowska-Kierepka E, Gomułka E. Acute oral poisoning with isopropyl alcohol in alcoholics. (Polish) Przeglad Lekarski. 1997;54(6):459-63. PMID 9333902 Mańkowski W, Klimaszyk D, Krupiński B. How to differentiate acute isopropanol poisoning from ethanol intoxication? -- a case report. (Polish) Przeglad Lekarski 2000;57(10):588-90. PMID 11199895 leading to a range of adverse health effects. Bogomolova IN, Bukeshov MK, Bogomolov DV. The forensic medical diagnosis of intoxication of alcohol surrogates by morphological findings. (Russian) Sudebno Meditsinskaia Ekspertiza. 2004 September-October;47(5):22-5. PMID 15523882 Occurrence in nature Alcohol has been found outside the Solar system. It can be found in low densities in star and planetary system forming regions of space. See http://www.springerlink.com/content/u3p6612j611w2hqv/ http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/people/ross/phys2080/ism/ism.htm (species found) Astrophysical maser (species found) See also Alcohol fuel Alcoholic beverage Blood alcohol content Breathalyzer Fatty alcohol Fetal alcohol syndrome History of alcohol List of countries by alcohol consumption Oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids Oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones Phenols Rubbing alcohol Sugar alcohol Transesterification References Bibliography be-x-old:Сьпірт | Alcohol |@lemmatized functional:1 group:25 alcohol:139 molecule:2 carbon:22 atom:9 bind:4 hydrogen:5 may:8 form:15 chain:11 methanol:20 single:1 picture:1 ethanol:39 drink:2 two:6 chemistry:2 organic:4 compound:5 hydroxyl:9 oh:15 alkyl:10 substitute:1 general:5 formula:5 simple:8 acyclic:1 common:6 term:4 word:10 refers:1 type:2 find:6 alcoholic:10 beverage:9 colorless:1 volatile:1 liquid:1 mild:1 odor:2 obtain:4 fermentation:4 sugar:4 industrially:2 commonly:4 ethylene:7 hydration:5 reaction:24 water:16 presence:9 phosphoric:1 acid:27 lodgsdon:1 j:2 e:9 kroschwitz:1 ed:2 encyclopedia:1 chemical:4 technology:1 vol:1 p:2 new:1 york:1 john:2 wiley:1 son:1 widely:1 use:27 depressant:1 world:1 thousand:1 year:1 sense:1 underlie:1 alcoholism:2 addiction:1 usually:7 describe:2 clarify:1 adjective:1 isopropyl:5 propan:4 ol:9 wood:4 methyl:4 suffix:1 appear:2 official:1 iupac:4 name:14 three:1 major:1 subset:1 primary:17 secondary:14 tertiary:12 base:8 upon:2 number:3 c:5 show:3 red:1 bond:6 tert:3 butyl:3 methylpropan:2 alcohols:2 simplest:1 used:2 formerly:1 distillation:2 call:5 intoxicate:1 directly:2 poisonous:5 toxic:2 breakdown:1 toxication:1 enzyme:1 dehydrogenase:3 liver:2 formic:2 formaldehyde:4 cause:5 permanent:1 blindness:2 destruction:1 optic:1 nerve:1 apart:1 familiar:1 role:1 also:11 highly:2 control:1 industrial:2 solvent:6 raw:1 material:1 avoid:1 high:8 tax:1 consumption:4 additive:1 add:3 make:4 unpalatable:1 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5,741 | Nociception | Nociception (synonym: nocioception or nociperception) is defined as "the neural processes of encoding and processing noxious stimuli." It is the afferent activity produced in the peripheral and central nervous system by stimuli that have the potential to damage tissue. Chronic Pain Management, Russell K. Portenoy, Michael J. Brennan, in Handbook of Neurorehabilitation, David C. Good, James R. Couch, eds. Informa Healthcare, 1994, ISBN 0824788222. This activity is initiated by nociceptors, (also called pain receptors), that can detect mechanical, thermal or chemical changes, above a set threshold. Once stimulated, a nociceptor transmits a signal along the spinal cord, to the brain. Nociception triggers a variety of autonomic responses and may also result in the experience of pain in sentient beings. "Assessing Pain and Distress: A Veterinary Behaviorist's Perspective by Kathryn Bayne" in "Definition of Pain and Distress and Reporting Requirements for Laboratory Animals: Proceedings of the Workshop Held June 22, 2000 (2000) Detection of noxious stimuli Mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli are detected by nerve endings called nociceptors, which are found in the skin and on internal surfaces such as the periosteum or joint surfaces. The concentration of nociceptors varies throughout the body, mostly found in the skin and less so in deep internal surfaces. All nociceptors are free nerve endings that have their cell bodies outside the spinal column in the dorsal root ganglia and are named according to their appearance at their sensory ends. Nociceptors have a certain threshold; that is, they require a minimum level of stimuli before they trigger a signal. In some conditions, excitation of pain fibers becomes greater as the pain stimulus continues, leading to a condition called hyperalgesia. Once the threshold is reached a signal is passed along the axon of the nerve into the spinal cord. Transmission through central nervous system Lateral spinothalamic tract The Lateral spinothalamic tract has two pathways for nociceptive information to reach the brain, the neospinothalamic tract for "fast spontaneous pain" and the paleospinothalamic tract for "slow increasing pain". Neospinothalamic tract Fast pain travels via type Aδ fibers to terminate on the dorsal horn of the spinal cord where they synapse with the dendrites of the neospinothalamic tract. The axons of these neurons travel up the spine to the brain and cross the midline through the anterior white commissure, passing upwards in the contralateral anterolateral columns. These fibres terminate on the ventrobasal complex of the thalamus and synapse with the dendrites of the somatosensory cortex. Fast pain is felt within a tenth of a second of application of the pain stimulus and is a sharp, acute, prickling pain felt in response to mechanical and thermal stimulation. It can be localised easily if Aδ fibres are stimulated together with tactile receptors. Paleospinothalamic tract Slow pain is transmitted via slower type C fibers to laminae II and III of the dorsal horns, together known as the substantia gelatinosa. Impulses are then transmitted to nerve fibers that terminate in lamina V, also in the dorsal horn, synapsing with neurons that join fibers from the fast pathway, crossing to the opposite side via the anterior white commissure, and traveling upwards through the anterolateral pathway. These neurons terminate throughout the brain stem, with one tenth of fibres stopping in the thalamus and the rest stopping in the medulla, pons and periaqueductal grey of the midbrain tectum. Slow pain is stimulated by chemical stimulation, is poorly localized and is described as an aching, throbbing or burning pain. Regulation The body possesses an endogenous analgesia system, which can be supplemented with analgesic drugs to regulate nociception and pain. There is both an analgesia system in the central nervous system and peripheral receptors that decreases the grade in which nociception reaches the higher brain areas. The degree of pain can be modified by the periaqueductal gray before it reaches the thalamus and consciousness. According to gate control theory of pain, this area can also reduce pain when non-painful stimuli are received in conjunction with nociception. Central The central analgesia system is mediated by 3 major components: the periaquaductal grey matter, the nucleus raphe magnus and the nociception inhibitory neurons within the dorsal horns of the spinal cord, which act to inhibit nociception-transmitting neurons also located in the spinal dorsal horn. Peripheral The peripheral regulation consists of several different types of opioid receptors that are activated in response to the binding of the body's endorphins. These receptors, which exist in a variety of areas in the body, inhibit firing of neurons that would otherwise be stimulated to do so by nociceptors. Factors The gate control theory of pain, proposed by Patrick Wall and Ronald Melzack, postulates that nociception (pain) is "gated" by non-nociception stimuli such as vibration. Thus, rubbing a bumped knee seems to relieve pain by preventing its transmission to the brain. Pain is also "gated" by signals that descend from the brain to the spinal cord to suppress (and in other cases enhance) incoming nociception (pain) information. Nociception response When nociceptors are stimulated they transmit signals through sensory neurons in the spinal cord. These neurons release the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate at their synapses. If the signals are sent to the reticular formation and thalamus, the sensation of pain enters consciousness in a dull poorly localized manner. From the thalamus, the signal can travel to the somatosensory cortex in the cerebrum, when the pain is experienced as localized and having more specific qualities. Nociception can also cause generalized autonomic responses before or without reaching consciousness to cause pallor, diaphoresis, tachycardia, hypertension, lightheadedness, nausea and fainting. cite seen at Feinstein B, J Langton, R Jameson, F Schiller. Experiments on pain referred from deep somatic tissues. J Bone Joint Surg 1954;36-A(5):981-97 retrieved 2007-01-06 Nociception in non-mammalian animals Nociception has been documented in non-mammalian animals, including fishes Sneddon, L. U., V. A. Braithwaite, and M. J. Gentle. 2003. Do fishes have nociceptors? Evidence for the evolution of a vertebrate sensory system. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological sciences 270: 1115-1121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2003.2349 and a wide range of invertebrates , including leeches, Pastor, J., B. Soria, and C. Belmonte. 1996. Properties of the nociceptive neurons of the leech segmental ganglion. Journal of Neurophysiology 75: 2268-2279. http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/75/6/2268 nematode worms, Wittenburg, N., and R. Baumeister. 1999. Thermal avoidance in Caenorhabditis elegans: an approach to the study of nociception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 96: 10477-10482. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/96/18/10477 sea slugs, Illich, P. A., and E. T. Walters. 1997. Mechanosensory neurons innervating Aplysia siphon encode noxious stimuli and display nociceptive sensitization. The Journal of Neuroscience 17: 459-469. http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/17/1/459 and fruit flies. Tracey, J., W. Daniel, R. I. Wilson, G. Laurent, and S. Benzer. 2003. painless, a Drosophila gene essential for nociception. Cell 113: 261-273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00272-1 As in mammals, nociceptive neurons in these species are typically characterized by responding preferentially to high temperature (40 degrees C or more), low pH, capsaicin, and tissue damage. History of term The term nociception was coined by Charles Scott Sherrington to make clear the difference between the physiological nature of nervous activity signalling tissue damage and the psychological response of pain to this physiological event. References | Nociception |@lemmatized nociception:17 synonym:1 nocioception:1 nociperception:1 define:1 neural:1 process:2 encode:2 noxious:3 stimulus:10 afferent:1 activity:3 produce:1 peripheral:4 central:5 nervous:4 system:7 potential:1 damage:3 tissue:4 chronic:1 pain:29 management:1 russell:1 k:1 portenoy:1 michael:1 j:6 brennan:1 handbook:1 neurorehabilitation:1 david:1 c:4 good:1 james:1 r:4 couch:1 ed:1 informa:1 healthcare:1 isbn:1 initiate:1 nociceptors:8 also:7 call:3 receptor:5 detect:2 mechanical:3 thermal:4 chemical:3 change:1 set:1 threshold:3 stimulate:5 nociceptor:1 transmit:4 signal:8 along:2 spinal:8 cord:6 brain:7 trigger:2 variety:2 autonomic:2 response:6 may:1 result:1 experience:2 sentient:1 assess:1 distress:2 veterinary:1 behaviorist:1 perspective:1 kathryn:1 bayne:1 definition:1 reporting:1 requirement:1 laboratory:1 animal:3 proceeding:3 workshop:1 hold:1 june:1 detection:1 nerve:4 ending:2 find:2 skin:2 internal:2 surface:3 periosteum:1 joint:2 concentration:1 varies:1 throughout:2 body:5 mostly:1 less:1 deep:2 free:1 cell:2 outside:1 column:2 dorsal:6 root:1 ganglion:2 name:1 accord:2 appearance:1 sensory:3 end:1 certain:1 require:1 minimum:1 level:1 condition:2 excitation:1 fiber:5 becomes:1 great:1 continue:1 lead:1 hyperalgesia:1 reach:5 pass:2 axon:2 transmission:2 lateral:2 spinothalamic:2 tract:7 two:1 pathway:3 nociceptive:4 information:2 neospinothalamic:3 fast:4 spontaneous:1 paleospinothalamic:2 slow:4 increase:1 travel:4 via:3 type:3 aδ:2 terminate:4 horn:5 synapse:2 dendrite:2 neuron:11 spine:1 cross:2 midline:1 anterior:2 white:2 commissure:2 upwards:2 contralateral:1 anterolateral:2 fibre:3 ventrobasal:1 complex:1 thalamus:5 somatosensory:2 cortex:2 felt:2 within:2 tenth:2 second:1 application:1 sharp:1 acute:1 prickle:1 stimulation:2 localise:1 easily:1 together:2 tactile:1 laminae:1 ii:1 iii:1 know:1 substantia:1 gelatinosa:1 impulse:1 lamina:1 v:2 synapsing:1 join:1 opposite:1 side:1 stem:1 one:1 stop:1 rest:1 stopping:1 medulla:1 pons:1 periaqueductal:2 grey:2 midbrain:1 tectum:1 poorly:2 localize:2 describe:1 aching:1 throb:1 burn:1 regulation:2 possess:1 endogenous:1 analgesia:3 supplement:1 analgesic:1 drug:1 regulate:1 decrease:1 grade:1 high:2 area:3 degree:2 modify:1 gray:1 consciousness:3 gate:4 control:2 theory:2 reduce:1 non:4 painful:1 receive:1 conjunction:1 mediate:1 major:1 component:1 periaquaductal:1 matter:1 nucleus:1 raphe:1 magnus:1 inhibitory:1 act:1 inhibit:2 transmitting:1 locate:1 consist:1 several:1 different:1 opioid:1 activate:1 binding:1 endorphin:1 exist:1 firing:1 would:1 otherwise:1 factor:1 propose:1 patrick:1 wall:1 ronald:1 melzack:1 postulate:1 vibration:1 thus:1 rub:1 bumped:1 knee:1 seem:1 relieve:1 prevent:1 descend:1 suppress:1 case:1 enhance:1 incoming:1 release:1 excitatory:1 neurotransmitter:1 glutamate:1 synapsis:1 send:1 reticular:1 formation:1 sensation:1 enters:1 dull:1 localized:1 manner:1 cerebrum:1 specific:1 quality:1 cause:2 generalized:1 without:1 pallor:1 diaphoresis:1 tachycardia:1 hypertension:1 lightheadedness:1 nausea:1 fainting:1 cite:1 see:1 feinstein:1 b:3 langton:1 jameson:1 f:1 schiller:1 experiment:1 refer:1 somatic:1 bone:1 surg:1 retrieved:1 mammalian:2 document:1 include:2 fish:2 sneddon:1 l:1 u:1 braithwaite:1 gentle:1 evidence:1 evolution:1 vertebrate:1 royal:1 society:1 london:1 series:1 biological:1 science:2 http:5 dx:2 doi:2 org:5 rspb:1 wide:1 range:1 invertebrate:1 leech:2 pastor:1 soria:1 belmonte:1 property:1 segmental:1 journal:2 neurophysiology:1 jn:1 physiology:1 cgi:3 content:3 abstract:3 nematode:1 worm:1 wittenburg:1 n:1 baumeister:1 avoidance:1 caenorhabditis:1 elegans:1 approach:1 study:1 national:1 academy:1 united:1 state:1 america:1 www:2 pnas:1 sea:1 slug:1 illich:1 p:1 e:1 walter:1 mechanosensory:1 innervate:1 aplysia:1 siphon:1 display:1 sensitization:1 neuroscience:1 jneurosci:1 fruit:1 fly:1 tracey:1 w:1 daniel:1 wilson:1 g:1 laurent:1 benzer:1 painless:1 drosophila:1 gene:1 essential:1 mammal:1 specie:1 typically:1 characterize:1 respond:1 preferentially:1 temperature:1 low:1 ph:1 capsaicin:1 history:1 term:2 coin:1 charles:1 scott:1 sherrington:1 make:1 clear:1 difference:1 physiological:2 nature:1 psychological:1 event:1 reference:1 |@bigram chronic_pain:1 spinal_cord:6 nerve_ending:2 dorsal_horn:5 axon_neuron:1 nerve_fiber:1 opioid_receptor:1 relieve_pain:1 brain_spinal:1 sensory_neuron:1 excitatory_neurotransmitter:1 reticular_formation:1 dx_doi:2 org_cgi:3 cgi_content:3 caenorhabditis_elegans:1 http_www:2 |
5,742 | Alpha_Centauri | Alpha Centauri (α Centauri / α Cen); (also known as Rigil Kentaurus, Rigil Kent, or Toliman) is the brightest star in the southern constellation of Centaurus and an established binary star system, Alpha Centauri AB (α Cen AB). To the unaided eye it appears as a single star, whose total visual magnitude identifies it as the third brightest star in the night sky. Alpha Centauri is the closest star system to the Solar System, being only 1.34 parsecs, or 4.37 light years away from our Sun. Component designations "Alpha Centauri" ("Rigil Kentaurus") is the name given to what appears as a single star to the naked eye and the brightest star in the southern constellation of Centaurus. With the aid of a telescope, Alpha Centauri can be resolved into a binary star system in close orbit. This is known as "Alpha Centauri AB" system, often abbreviated as "α Centauri AB" or "α Cen AB". "Alpha Centauri A (α Cen A)" and "Alpha Centauri B (α Cen B)" are the individual stars of the binary system, usually defined to identify them as the different component of the binary α Cen AB. As viewed from Earth, there is an additional companion located 2.18° away from the AB star system, a distance much greater than the observed separation between stars A and B. This companion is called "Proxima Centauri", "Proxima" or "α Cen C". If it were bright enough to be seen without a telescope, Proxima Centauri would appear to the naked eye as a star separate from α Cen AB. Alpha Centauri AB and Proxima Centauri form a visual double star, and they are assumed to be gravitationally associated with each other. Direct evidence that Proxima Centauri has an elliptical orbit typical of binary stars has yet to be found. Together all three components make a triple star system, referred by double star observers as the triple star (or multiple star), "α Cen AB-C". This naming system allows specialist double star astronomers to define system components and the relationships between the different components. All component designations are held and controlled by the U.S. Naval Observatory, in a continuously updated catalogue called the Washington Double Star Catalogue or WDS. It contains over 102,387 double stars or pairs using this system of designation. Nature of the system At −0.27v visual magnitude, Alpha Centauri appears to the naked-eye as a single star and is fainter than Sirius and Canopus. The next brightest star in the night sky is Arcturus. When considered among the individual brightest stars in the sky (excluding the Sun), Alpha Centauri A is the fourth brightest at +0.01 magnitude, being only fractionally fainter than Arcturus at −0.04v magnitude. Alpha Centauri B at 1.33v magnitude is twenty-first in brightness. Alpha Centauri A is the principal member or primary of the binary system, being slightly larger and more luminous than our Sun. It is a solar-like main sequence star with a similar yellowish-white color, whose stellar classification is spectral type G2 V. From the determined mutual orbital parameters, α Cen A is about 10% more massive than our Sun, with a radius about 23% larger. The projected rotational velocity ( v·sin i ) of this star is 2.7±0.7 km·s−1, resulting in an estimated rotational period of 22 days, which gives it a slightly faster rotational period than our Sun's 25 days. Alpha Centauri B is the companion star or secondary, slightly smaller and less luminous than our Sun. This main sequence star is of spectral type of K1 V, making it more an orangish-yellow color than the whiter primary star. α Cen B is about 90% the mass of the Sun and 14% smaller in radius. The projected rotational velocity ( v·sin i ) is 1.1±0.8 km·s−1, resulting in an estimated rotational period of 41 days. (An earlier estimate gave a similar rotation period of 36.8 days.) Although it has a lower luminosity than component A, star B's spectrum emits higher energies in X-rays. The light curve of B varies on a short time scale and there has been at least one observed flare. Alpha Centauri C, also known as Proxima Centauri, is of spectral class M5Ve or M5VIe, suggesting this is either a small main sequence star (Type V) or sub-dwarf (VI) with emission lines, whose B-V color index is +1.81. Its mass is about 0.12 Mʘ. Together, the bright visible components of the binary star system are called Alpha Centauri AB (α Cen AB). This "AB" designation denotes the apparent gravitational centre of the main binary system relative to other companion star(s) in any multiple star system. "AB-C" refers to the orbit of Proxima around the central binary, being the distance between the centre of gravity and the outlying companion. Some older references use the confusing and now discontinued designation of A×B. Since the distance between the Sun and α Cen AB does not differ significantly from either star, gravitationally this binary system is considered as if it were one object. Observation Resolution of the binary star α Cen AB is too close to be seen by the naked eye, as the angular separation varies between 2 and 22 arcsec, but through much of the orbit, both are easily resolved in binoculars or small 5 cm telescopes. In the southern hemisphere, Alpha Centauri is one of the stars of The Pointers or The Southern Pointers with Beta Centauri or Hadar / Agena. Norton, A.P., Ed. I. Ridpath "Norton's 2000.0 :Star Atlas and Reference Handbook", Longman Scientific and Technical, 1986, p. 39–40 Both stars directly point towards the constellation Crux—the Southern Cross. The Pointers easily distinguish the true Southern Cross from the fainter asterism known as the False Cross. Mitton, Jacquelin. "The Penguin Dictionary of Astronomy", Penguin (1993) p. 148 Beta Centauri lies some 4.5° west, mid-way between the Crux and α Centauri. South of about −29° S latitude, α Centauri is circumpolar and never sets below the horizon. This is calculated for a fixed latitude by knowing the star's declination (δ) using the formulae (90°+ δ). Alpha Centauri's declination is −60° 50′, so the latitude where the star is circumpolar will be south of −29° 10′S or 29°. Similarly, the place where Alpha Centauri never rises for northern observers is north of the latitude (90°+ δ) N or +29°N. Both stars, including the Crux, are too far south to be visible for mid-latitude northern observers. Below about +29° N latitude to the equator during the northern summer, α Centauri lies close to the southern horizon. The star culminates each year at midnight on 24 April or 9 p.m. on 8 June. As seen from Earth, Proxima Centauri lies 2.2° southwest from Alpha Centauri AB. This is about four times the angular diameter of the Full Moon, and almost exactly half the distance between α and β Centauri. Proxima usually appears as a deep-red star of 13.1v visual magnitude in a poorly populated star field, requiring moderately sized telescopes to see. Listed as V645 Cen in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars (G.C.V.S.) Version 4.2, this UV Ceti-type flare star can unexpectedly brighten rapidly to about 11.0v or 11.09V magnitude. Some amateur and professional astronomers regularly monitor for outbursts using either optical or radio telescopes. Observational history According to the renowned double star observer Robert Aitken (1961), Father Richaud discovered Alpha Centauri AB's duplicity from the Indian city of Pondicherry in December 1689 while observing a comet. Aitken, R.G., "The Binary Stars", Dover, 1961, p. 1. By 1752, Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaillé made astrometric positional measurements using a meridian circle while Sir John Herschel, in 1834, made the first micrometrical observations. Since the early 20th Century, measures have been made with photographic plates. By 1926, William Stephen Finsen calculated the approximate orbit elements close to those now accepted for this system. Aitken, R.G., "The Binary Stars", Dover, 1961, pp. 236–237. All future positions are now sufficiently accurate for visual observers to determine the relative places of the stars from a binary star ephemeris. Others, like the French astronomer D. Pourbaix (2002), have regularly refined the precision of any new published orbital elements. Popularly known, Alpha Centauri is the closest star system to our Solar System. It lies about 4.37 light-years in distance, or about 41.5 trillion kilometres, 25.8 trillion miles or 277,600 AU. Astronomer Thomas James Henderson made the original discovery from many exacting observations of the trigonometric parallaxes of the AB system between April 1832 and May 1833. He withheld the results because he suspected they were too large to be true, but eventually published in 1839 after Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel released his own accurately determined parallax for 61 Cygni in 1838. Pannekoek, A.., "A Short History of Astronomy", Dover, 1989, pp. 345–6 For this reason, we consider Alpha Centauri as the second star to have its distance measured. R.T.A. Innes from South Africa in 1915 discovered Proxima Centauri by blinking photographic plates taken at different times during a dedicated proper motion survey. This showed the large proper motion and parallax of the star was similar in both size and direction to those of α Centauri AB, suggesting immediately it was part of the system and slightly closer to us than α Centauri AB. Lying 4.22 light-years away, Proxima Centauri is the nearest star to the Sun. All current derived distances for the three stars are presently from the parallaxes obtained from the Hipparcos star catalog (HIP). The binary system With the orbital period of 79.91 years, the A and B components of this binary star can approach each other to 11.2 astronomical units (equivalent to 1.67 billion km or about the mean distance between the Sun and Saturn), or recede as far as 35.6 AU (5.3 billion km—approximately the distance from the Sun to Pluto). Aitken, R.G., "The Binary Stars", Dover, 1961, p. 236. This is a consequence of the binary's substantial orbital eccentricity e = 0.5179 — unlike the planetary orbits in the Solar System, whose orbital eccentricities do not exceed e = 0.1 (with the exception of Mercury with e = 0.206). From the orbital elements, the total mass of both stars is about 2.0 M☉ , see formula —or twice that of the Sun. The average individual stellar masses are 1.09 M☉ and 0.90 M☉, respectively, though quoted in recent years are some slightly higher mass values, such as 1.14 M☉ and 0.92 M☉, or totalling 2.06 M☉. Alpha Centauri A and B have absolute magnitudes of +4.38 and +4.71, respectively. Stellar evolution theory implies both stars are slightly older than the Sun at 5 to 6 billion years, as derived by both mass and their spectral characteristics. Viewed from Earth, the apparent orbit of this binary star means that the separation and position angle (P.A.) are in continuous change throughout the projected orbit. Observed stellar positions in 2008 are separated by 8.29 arcsec through a P.A. of 237°, reducing to 7.53 arcsec through 241° in 2009. Next closest approach will be in February 2016, at 4.0 arcsec through 300°. http://homepage.mac.com/andjames/PageAlphaCen006.htm Observed maximum separation of these stars is about 22 arcsec, while the minimum distance is a little less than 2 arcsec. Aitken, R.G., "The Binary Stars", Dover, 1961, p. 235. Widest separation occurred during February 1976 and the next will be in January 2056. In the true orbit, closest approach or periastron was in August 1955; and next in May 2035. Furthest orbital separation at apastron last occurred in May 1995 and the next will be in 2075. The apparent distance between the two stars is presently decreasing. Companion: Proxima Centauri The much fainter red dwarf star named Proxima Centauri, or simply "Proxima", is about 12,000 to 13,000 A.U. away from Alpha Centauri AB. This is equivalent to 0.21 ly or 1.94 trillion kilometres —about 5% the distance between the Sun and α Cen AB. Proxima may be gravitationally bound to α Cen AB, orbiting it with a period between 100,000 and 500,000 years. However, it is also possible that Proxima is not gravitationally bound and thus is moving along a hyperbolic trajectory around α Cen AB. The main evidence for a bound orbit is that Proxima's association with Alpha Centauri AB is unlikely to be accidental, since they share approximately the same motion through space. Theoretically, Proxima could leave the system after several million years. It is not yet certain whether Proxima and Alpha are truly gravitationally bound. Proxima is a M5.5V spectral class red dwarf with an absolute magnitude of +15.53, which is considerably less than the Sun. By mass, Proxima is presently calculated as 0.123±0.06 Mʘ (rounded to 0.12 Mʘ) or about one-eighth that of the Sun. High proper motion star All components of Alpha Centauri display significant proper motions against the background sky, similar to the first magnitude stars, Sirius and Arcturus. Over the centuries, this causes the apparent stellar positions to slowly change. Such motions define the high proper motion stars. These stellar motions were unknown to ancient astronomers. Most assumed that all stars were immortal and permanently fixed on the celestial sphere, as stated in the works of the philosopher Aristotle. Edmond Halley in 1718 found that some stars had significantly moved from their ancient astrometric positions. Berry, A., "A History of Astronomy", Dover, 1989, pp. 357–358 For example, the bright star Arcturus (α Boo) in the constellation of Boŏtes showed an almost ½° difference in 1800 years, Pannekoek, A., "A Short History of Astronomy", Dover, 1989. as did the brightest star, Sirius, in Canis Major (α CMa). Halley's positional comparison was Ptolemy's catalogue of stars known today as the Almagest whose original data was plagiarised from Hipparchos during the 1st Century B.C. Newton R.R., "The Crime of Claudius Ptolemy", T. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, (1977). Pannekoek, A., "A Short History of Astronomy", Dover, 1989, p. 157. Halley's proper motions were mostly for northern stars, so the southern star Alpha Centauri was not determined until the early 19th Century. Aitken, R.G., "The Binary Stars", Dover, 1961, p. 235. Scottish born observer Thomas James Henderson in the 1830s at the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope discovered the true distance of Alpha Centauri. He soon realised this system displayed an unusually high proper motion, Pannekoek, A., "A Short History of Astronomy", Dover, 1989, p. 333 and therefore its observed true velocity through space should be much larger. Aitken, R.G., "The Binary Stars", Dover, 1961, p. 235. In this case, the apparent stellar motion was found using Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille astrometric observations of 1751–52, by the observed differences between the two measured positions in different epochs. Using the Hipparcos Star Catalogue (HIP) data, the mean individual proper motions are −3678 mas.yr−1 (mas/yr) or −3.678 arcsec per year in right ascension and +481.84 mas.yr−1 or 0.48184 arcsec per year in declination. Space Agency: The Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues Search facility(2008) Proper motions are expressed in smaller angular units than arcsec, being measured in milli-arcsec *mas.) or one-thousandth of an arcsec. A negative value for proper motion in RA indicates the sky motion is east to west, in Declination north to south. As proper motions are cumulative, the motion of Alpha Centauri is about 6.1 arcmin/century (367.8 arcsec/century), 61.3 arcmin/millennium or 1.02 °/millennium. These motions each century is about one-fifth and twice, respectively, the diameter of the full moon. Spectroscopy has determined the mean approaching radial velocity of α Cen AB as −25.1 ± 0.3 km·s−1. HD 128620/1, database entry, The Geneva-Copenhagen Survey of Solar neighbourhood, J. Holmberg et al., 2007, CDS ID V/117A. Accessed on line November 19, 2008. A more precise calculation involves taking into account the slight changes in the stellar distance by the star's own motion. Alpha Centauri is presently slowly increasing the measured proper motion and trigonometric parallax as the stars approach us. Changes are also observed in the size of the semi-major axis 'a' of the orbital ellipse increase by 0.03 arcsec per century as the star currently approach us.<ref>The semi-major axis size is calculated from the changing radial velocity (V) in km·s−1, the distance of the Sun to α Cen AB is therefore V / 4.74 AU.yr−1. Using the trigonometric parallax π in arcsec, the changes in a are found using Δa = −1.0227×10−6 × a × V × π yr−1. Period changes (Tp) are calculated by Tp = P × (1 − V/c), where c is the speed of light in km·s−1.</ref> Also the orbital period of α Cen AB is also slightly shorter by some 0.006 years per century, caused by the change of light time as the distance reduces. Consequentially, the observed position angle of the stars are subject to changes in the orbital elements over time, as first determined by equations by W. H. van den Bos in 1926. Calculated as; θ − θo = μα × sin α × (t − to ), where; α = right ascension (in degrees), μα is the common proper motion (cpm.) expressed in degrees, and θ and θo are the current position angle and calculated position angle at the different epochs. Some slight differences of about 0.5% in the measured proper motions are caused by α Cen AB's orbital motion. Based on these observed proper motions and radial velocities, Alpha Centauri will continue into the future to slowly brighten, passing just north of the Southern Cross or Crux, before moving northwest and up towards the celestial equator and away from the galactic plane. By about A.D. 29,700, in the present-day constellation of Hydra, α Centauri will be exactly 1.00 pc or 3.26 ly away. Then it will reach the stationary radial velocity (RVel) of 0.0 km·s−1and the maximum apparent magnitude of −0.86v—similar to present day Canopus. Soon after this close approach, the system will then begin to move away from us, showing a positive radial velocity. In A.D. 43,300, α Centauri will pass near 2nd magnitude Alphard / Alpha Hydrae (α Hya). Then the apparent magnitude will be +1.03v at the distance of 1.64 pc or 5.36 ly. Due to visual perspective, about 100,000 years from now, these stars will reach a final vanishing point and slowly disappear among the countless stars of the Milky Way. Here this once bright yellow star will fall below naked-eye visibility somewhere in the faint present day southern constellation of Telescopium. This unusual location results from α Centauri's orbit around the galactic centre being highly tilted with respect to the plane of our Milky Way galaxy. Possibility of planets The discovery of planets orbiting other star systems, including similar binary systems (Gamma Cephei), raises the possibility that planets may exist in the Alpha Centauri system. Such planets could orbit α Cen A or α Cen B individually, or be on large orbits around the binary α Cen AB. Since both the principal stars are fairly similar to the Sun (for example, in age and metallicity), astronomers have been especially interested in making detailed searches for planets in the Alpha Centauri system. Several established planet-hunting teams have used various radial velocity or star transit methods in their searches around these two bright stars. All the observational studies have so far failed to find any evidence for brown dwarfs or gas giant planets. However, computer simulations show that a planet might have been able to form within a distance of 1.1 AU (160 Gm) of Alpha Centauri B and the orbit of that planet may remain stable for at least 250 million years. Bodies around A would be able to orbit at slightly farther distances due to A's stronger gravity. In addition, the lack of any brown dwarfs or gas giants around A and B make the likelihood of terrestrial planets greater than otherwise. Currently, technologies do not allow for terrestrial planets like Earth to be detected around Alpha Centauri (unless they are a few Earth masses and orbiting very close to the star, as in the Gliese 581 and HD 40307 systems, for example), but this is expected to change in the near future. Alpha Centauri is envisioned as the first target for unmanned interstellar exploration. Crossing the huge distance between the Sun and α Centauri using current spacecraft technologies would take several centuries, though the possibility of space sail, or Nuclear Pulse Fusion technology may cut this down to a matter of decades. Theoretical planets Some computer generated models of planetary formation predict the existence of terrestrial planets around both Alpha Centauri A and B. Javiera Guedes, Terrestrial Planet Formation Around Alpha Cen B see Lissauer and Quintana in references below Other models also suggested that formation of gas giant planets similar to Jupiter and Saturn remain unlikely because of the significant gravitational and angular momentum effects of this binary system. Although highly speculative, given the similarities to the Sun in spectral types, star type, age and probable stability of the orbits, it has been suggested that this stellar system could hold one of the best possibilities for harbouring extraterrestrial life on a potential planet. Some astronomers speculated that any possible terrestrial planets in the Alpha Centauri system may be bone dry or lack significant atmospheres. In our solar system both Jupiter and Saturn were likely crucial in perturbing comets into the inner solar system. Here the comets provided the inner planets with their own source of water and various other ices. We could discount this, if for example, α Centauri B happened to have giant gas planets orbiting α Centauri A (or conversely, α Cen A for α Cen B), or if the stars B and A themselves were able to successfully perturb comets into each other's inner system like Jupiter and Saturn presumably have done here. As comets probably also reside in some huge Oort Cloud located to the outer regions of stellar systems, when they are influenced gravitationally by either the giant gas planets or disruptions by passing nearby stars, many of these comets then travel sun-wards. As yet, we have no direct evidence of the existence of such an Oort Cloud around α Centauri AB, and theoretically this may have been totally destroyed during the system's formation. Any suspected Earth-like planet around Alpha Centauri A would have to be placed about 1.25 AU away—about halfway between the distances of Earth's orbit and Mars' orbit in our own Solar System—so as to have similar planetary temperatures and conditions for liquid water to exist. For the slightly less luminous and cooler Alpha Centauri B, this distance would be closer to its star at about 0.7 AU (100 Gm), being about the distance that Venus is from the Sun. To find evidence of such planets, currently both Proxima Centauri and α Centauri AB are among the listed "Tier 1" target stars for NASA's Space Interferometry Mission (SIM). Detecting planets as small as three Earth-masses or smaller within two Astronomical Units of a "Tier 1" target is possible with this new instrument. "Planet Hunting by Numbers," (Press Release), NASA, Stars and Galaxies, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 18 October 2006. Retrieved 24 April 2007. View from this system Viewed from near the Alpha Centauri system, the sky would appear very much as it does for earthbound observers, except that Centaurus would be missing its brightest star. Our Sun would be a yellow +0.5 visual magnitude star in eastern Cassiopeia at the antipodal point of Alpha Centauri's current RA and Dec. at 02h 39m 35s +60° 50' (2000). This place is close to the 3.4 magnitude star ε Cassiopeiae. An interstellar or alien observer would find the \/\/ of Cassiopeia had become a /\/\/ shape. The coordinates of the Sun would be diametrically opposite α Cen AB, at α=, δ= From Alpha Centauri, most of the familiar constellations like Ursa Major and Orion would appear almost unchanged. Bright stars relatively close to us, such as Sirius, Procyon and Altair, would have markedly different sky positions. Sirius, for example, would become part of Orion, some 2° west of Betelgeuse, and shining a little dimmer than we know it, at −1.2 magnitude. Other similar close bright stars like Arcturus, Fomalhaut and Vega, would be displaced little from their familiar positions in the sky. As the closest star would be the low luminosity red dwarf Proxima Centauri at 0.25 ly in distance, shining as an inconspicuous 4.5 magnitude star. Its slow and gradual movement against the background stars would be readily apparent over several decades. From Proxima itself, α Centauri AB would appear like two close brilliantly bright stars with the combined magnitude of −6.8. Depending on the binary's orbital position, the bright stars would appear noticeably divisible to the naked eye, or occasionally, but briefly, as single unresolved star. Based on the calculated absolute magnitudes, the visual magnitudes of α Cen A and B would be −6.5 and −5.2, respectively. Computed; using in solar terms: 1.1 Mʘ and 0.92Mʘ, luminosities 1.57 and 0.51 L*/Lʘ, Sun magnitude −26.73v), 11.2 to 35.6 AU orbit; The minimum luminosity adds planet's orbital radius to A–B distance (max) (conjunction). Max. luminosity subtracts the planet's orbital radius to A–B distance (min) (opposition). View from a hypothetical planet Any hypothetical planet orbiting around either α Centauri A or α Centauri B would see an intensely bright star in the sky with a small discernible disk. For example, an Earth-like planet about 1.25 Astronomical unit (AU) from α Cen A (with an orbital period of about one year three months or 1.3(4) a) would get Sun-like illumination from its primary. α Cen B would appear 5.7 to 8.6 magnitudes dimmer than the Sun at visual magnitudes −21.0 to −18.2, respectively, or 190 to 2700 times dimmer than α Cen A, but still 170 to 2300 times brighter than the full moon. Conversely, some similar Earth-like planet at 0.71 A.U. from α Cen B would receive significant illumination from α Cen A, which would shine 4.65 to 7.3 magnitudes dimmer than the Sun at visual magnitudes of −22.1 to −19.4, respectively. Similarly, α Cen B would be 70 to 840 times dimmer or some 520 to 6300 times brighter than the full moon. During this hypothetical planet's year of 0.6(3) a, would see the intensely bright companion star circle an ecliptical path around the sky, but its illumination would not significantly affect climate nor influence plant photosynthesis. Assuming this hypothetical planet had a low orbital inclination with respect to the mutual orbit of α Cen A and B, then the secondary star would start beside the primary at 'stellar' conjunction. Half the period later, at 'stellar' opposition, both stars would be opposite each other in the sky. Then, for about half the planetary year the appearance of the night sky would be dark blue — similar to the sky during totality at any total solar eclipse. Humans could easily walk around and clearly see the surrounding terrain. Also reading a book would be quite possible without any artificial light. After another half period in the stellar orbit, the stars would complete their orbital cycle and return to the next stellar conjunction, and the familiar Earth-like day and night cycle would return. Origin of name and cultural significance This prominent southern star commonly bears the proper name Rigil Kentaurus Bailey, F., "The Catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulugh Beigh, Tycho Brahe, Halley, and Hevelius," Memoirs of Royal Astronomical Society, vol. XIII, London, 1843. (often shortened to Rigil Kent, Kunitzsch P., & Smart, T., A Dictionary of Modern star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names and Their Derivations, Cambride, Sky Pub. Corp., 2006, p. 27 former Rigjl Kentaurus; Hyde T., "Ulugh Beighi Tabulae Stellarum Fixarum", Tabulae Long. ac Lat. Stellarum Fixarum ex Observatione Ulugh Beighi, Oxford, 1665, p. 142. Hyde T., "In Ulugh Beighi Tabulae Stellarum Fixarum Commentarii", op. cit., p. 67. Riguel Kentaurus da Silva Oliveira, R., "Crux Australis: o Cruzeiro do Sul", Artigos: Planetario Movel Inflavel AsterDomus. in Portuguese), derived from the Arabic phrase Rijl Qantūris (or Rijl al-Qantūris, Davis Jr., G. A., "The Pronunciations, Derivations, and Meanings of a Selected List of Star Names,"Popular Astronomy, Vol. LII, No. 3, Oct. 1944, p. 16. meaning "Foot of the Centaur)," but is most often referred to by its Bayer designation Alpha Centauri. An alternative name is Toliman, whose etymology may be Arabic al-Zulmān ("the Ostriches"). During the 19th century, the northern amateur popularist Elijah H. Burritt called the star Bungula, Burritt, E. H., Atlas, Designed to Illustrate the Geography of the Heavens, (New Edition), New York, F. J. Huntington and Co., 1835, pl. VII. possibly coined from "β" and the Latin ungula'' ("hoof"). This latter name is rarely used today. In Chinese, Alpha Centauri is Nánmén'èr (南門二), "Second Star of the Southern Gate". Together, Alpha and Beta Centauri form the "Southern Pointers", as they point towards Crux, the asterism of the Southern Cross. Pronunciation Alpha Centauri is sometimes pronounced to rhyme with dowry but other people pronounce it to rhyme with story. Use in modern fiction Alpha Centauri's relative proximity makes it in some ways likely the logical choice as "first port of call". A lot of Speculative fiction about interstellar travel predicts eventual human exploration, and even the discovery and colonization of planetary systems. These themes are common to many works of science fiction and video games. See also List of nearest stars List of brightest stars Project Longshot References External links SIMBAD observational data Sixth Catalogue of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars U.S.N.O. Sixth Catalogue of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars : Orbital Elements U.S.N.O. Sixth Catalogue of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars : Orbit Notes U.S.N.O. Sixth Catalogue of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars : Orbit Ephemeris U.S.N.O. The Imperial Star - Alpha Centauri Alpha Centauri - A Voyage to Alpha Centauri Immediate History of Alpha Centauri eSky : Alpha Centauri Hypothetical planets or exploration Alpha Centauri System O Sistema Alpha Centauri (Portuguese) Alpha Centauri - Associação de Astronomia (Portuguese) http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/080307-another-earth.html | Alpha_Centauri |@lemmatized alpha:60 centauri:90 α:60 cen:37 also:10 know:8 rigil:5 kentaurus:5 kent:2 toliman:2 bright:17 star:127 southern:14 constellation:7 centaurus:3 establish:2 binary:30 system:45 ab:35 unaided:1 eye:7 appear:10 single:4 whose:6 total:4 visual:14 magnitude:25 identifies:1 third:1 night:4 sky:14 close:16 solar:10 parsec:1 light:7 year:18 away:8 sun:28 component:10 designation:6 name:9 give:4 naked:6 aid:1 telescope:5 resolve:2 orbit:32 often:3 abbreviate:1 b:30 individual:4 usually:2 define:3 identify:1 different:6 view:5 earth:12 additional:1 companion:7 locate:2 distance:26 much:5 great:2 observed:4 separation:6 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5,743 | Homeschooling | Homeschooling or homeschool (also called home education or home learning) is the education of children at home, typically by parents but sometimes by tutors, rather than in a formal setting of public or private school. Although prior to the introduction of compulsory school attendance laws, most childhood education occurred within the family or community, A. Distefano, K. E. Rudestam, R. J. Silverman (2005) Encyclopedia of Distributed Learning (p221) ISBN 1597815721 homeschooling in the modern sense is an alternative in developed countries to formal education. In many places homeschooling is a legal option for parents who wish to provide their children with a different learning environment than exists in nearby schools. While academic and religious reasons dominate the motivations for homeschooling, parents cite numerous other reasons ranging from a dissatisfaction with the schools in their area to the desire for better academic test results. It is also an alternative for families living in isolated rural locations and those who choose, for practical or personal reasons, not to have their children attend school. Homeschooling may also refer to instruction in the home under the supervision of correspondence schools or umbrella schools. In some places, an approved curriculum is legally required if children are to be home-schooled. A curriculum-free philosophy of homeschooling may be called unschooling, a term coined in 1977 by American educator John Holt in his magazine Growing Without Schooling. History Frontispiece to Fireside Education, Samuel Griswold (Goodrich). For much of history and in many cultures, enlisting professional teachers (whether as tutors or in a formal academic setting) was an option available only to a small elite. Thus, until relatively recently, the vast majority of people were educated by parents (especially during early childhood) and in the context of a specific type labor that they would pursue in adult life, such as working in the fields or learning a trade. The earliest compulsory education in the West began in the late 17th century and early 18th century in the German states of Gotha, Calemberg and, particularly, Prussia. Education: Free and Compulsory – Mises Institute However, even in the 18th century, the vast majority of people in Europe lacked formal schooling, which means they were homeschooled or received no education at all. "Education" Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed., p. 959. The same was also true for colonial America History and for the United States until the 1850s. History of Alternative Education in the United States Formal schooling in a classroom setting has been the most common means of schooling throughout the world, especially in developed countries, since the early and mid 19th century. Native Americans, who traditionally used homeschooling and apprenticeship, strenuously resisted compulsory education in the United States. Removing Classrooms from the Battlefield: Liberty, Paternalism, and the Redemptive Promise of Educational Choice, 2008 BYU Law Review 377, 386 n.30 In 1964, John Caldwell Holt, published a book entitled How Children Fail which criticized traditional schools. The book was based on a theory he had developed as a teacher – that the academic failure of schoolchildren was caused by pressure placed on children in schools. Holt began making appearances on major TV talk shows and writing book reviews for Life magazine. Christine Field. The Old Schoolhouse Meets Up with Patrick Farenga About the Legacy of John Holt In his follow-up work, How Children Learn, 1967, he tried to demonstrate the learning process of children and why he believed school short-circuits this process. In these books, Holt had not suggested any alternative to institutional schooling; he had hoped to initiate a profound rethinking of education to make schools friendlier toward children. As the years passed he became convinced that the way schools were was what society wanted, and that a serious re-examination was not going to happen in his lifetime. During this time, the American educational professionals Raymond and Dorothy Moore began to research the academic validity of the rapidly growing Early Childhood Education movement. This research included independent studies by other researchers and a review of over 8,000 studies bearing on Early Childhood Education and the physical and mental development of children. They asserted that formal schooling before ages 8–12 not only lacked the anticipated effectiveness, but was actually harmful to children. The Moores began to publish their view that formal schooling was damaging young children academically, socially, mentally, and even physiologically. They presented evidence that childhood problems such as juvenile delinquency, nearsightedness, increased enrollment of students in special education classes, and behavioral problems were the result of increasingly earlier enrollment of students. Better Late Than Early, Raymond S. Moore, Dorothy N. Moore, Seventh Printing, 1993 The Moores cited studies demonstrating that orphans who were given surrogate mothers were measurably more intelligent, with superior long term effects – even though the mothers were mentally retarded teenagers – and that illiterate tribal mothers in Africa produced children who were socially and emotionally more advanced than typical western children, by western standards of measurement. Their primary assertion was that the bonds and emotional development made at home with parents during these years produced critical long term results that were cut short by enrollment in schools, and could neither be replaced nor afterward corrected in an institutional setting. Recognizing a necessity for early out-of-home care for some children – particularly special needs and starkly impoverished children, and children from exceptionally inferior homes– they maintained that the vast majority of children are far better situated at home, even with mediocre parents, than with the most gifted and motivated teachers in a school setting (assuming that the child has a gifted and motivated teacher). They described the difference as follows: "This is like saying, if you can help a child by taking him off the cold street and housing him in a warm tent, then warm tents should be provided for all children – when obviously most children already have even more secure housing." Better Late Than Early, Raymond S. Moore, Dorothy N. Moore, 1975 Similar to Holt, the Moores embraced homeschooling after the publication of their first work, Better Late Than Early, 1975, and went on to become important homeschool advocates and consultants with the publication of books like Home Grown Kids, 1981, Home School Burnout, and others. At the time, other authors published books questioning the premises and efficacy of compulsory schooling, including Deschooling Society by Ivan Illich, 1970 and No More Public School by Harold Bennet, 1972. In 1976, Holt published Instead of Education; Ways to Help People Do Things Better. In its conclusion he called for a "Children's Underground Railroad" to help children escape compulsory schooling. In response, Holt was contacted by families from around the U.S. to tell him that they were educating their children at home. In 1977, after corresponding with a number of these families, Holt began producing a magazine dedicated to home education: Growing Without Schooling. In 1980, Holt said, "I want to make it clear that I don’t see homeschooling as some kind of answer to badness of schools. I think that the home is the proper base for the exploration of the world which we call learning or education. Home would be the best base no matter how good the schools were." A Conversation with John Holt (1980) Holt later wrote a book about homeschooling, Teach Your Own, in 1981. One common theme in the homeschool philosophies of both Holt and the Moores is that home education should not be an attempt to bring the school construct into the home, or a view of education as an academic preliminary to life. They viewed it as a natural, experiential aspect of life that occurs as the members of the family are involved with one another in daily living. Methodology Homeschools use a wide variety of methods and materials. There are different paradigms, or educational philosophies, that families adopt including unit studies, Classical education (including Trivium, Quadrivium), Charlotte Mason education, Montessori method, Theory of multiple intelligences, Unschooling, Waldorf education, School-at-home, A Thomas Jefferson Education, and many others. Some of these approaches, particularly unit studies, Montessori, and Waldorf, are also available in private or public school settings. It is not uncommon for the student to experience more than one approach as the family discovers what works best for them. Most families do choose an eclectic (mixed) approach. For sources of curricula and books, "Homeschooling in the United States: 2003" found that 78 percent utilized "a public library"; 77 percent used "a homeschooling catalog, publisher, or individual specialist"; 68 percent used "retail bookstore or other store"; 60 percent used "an education publisher that was not affiliated with homeschooling." "Approximately half" used curriculum or books from "a homeschooling organization", 37 percent from a "church, synagogue or other religious institution" and 23 percent from "their local public school or district." 41 percent in 2003 utilized some sort of distance learning, approximately 20 percent by "television, video or radio"; 19 percent via "Internet, e-mail, or the World Wide Web"; and 15 percent taking a "correspondence course by mail designed specifically for homeschoolers." Individual governmental units, e,g, states and local districts, vary in official curriculum and attendance requirements. HSLDA | Home Schooling-State Unit studies The unit study approach incorporates several subjects, such as art, history, math, science, geography and theology, around the context of one topical theme, like water, animals, American slavery, or ancient Rome. Unit Study Approach. TheHomeSchoolMom.com. For example, a unit study of Native Americans could combine age-appropriate lessons in: social studies, how different tribes lived prior to colonization vs. today; art, making Native American clothing; history (of Native Americans in the U.S.); reading from a special reading list; and the science of plants used by Native Americans. Unit studies are particularly helpful for teaching multiple grade levels simultaneously, as the topic can easily be adjusted (i.e. from an 8th grader detailing and labeling a spider’s anatomy to an elementary student drawing a picture of a spider on its web). As it is generally the case that in a given "homeschool" very few students are spread out among the grade levels, the unit study approach is an attractive option. Unit study advocates assert that children retain 45% more information following this approach. All-in-one curricula "All-in-one" curricula, sometimes called a "school in a box", are comprehensive packages covering many subjects; usually an entire year's worth. They contain all needed books and materials, including pencils and writing paper. Most such curricula were developed for isolated families who lack access to public schools, libraries and shops. Typically, these materials recreate the school environment in the home and are based on the same subject-area expectations as publicly run schools, allowing an easy transition into school. They are among the more expensive options, but are easy to use and require minimal preparation. The guides are usually extensive, with step-by-step instructions. These programs may include standardized tests and remote examinations to yield an accredited school diploma. Student-paced learning Similar to All-in-one curricula are learner-paced curriculum packages. These workbooks allow the student to progress at their own speed. Online education Online schools and educational resources can improve the quality of homeschooling and make it more accessible. Online resources for homeschooling include courses of study, educational games, online tests, online tutoring, and occupational training. Online learning potentially allows students and families access to specialized teachers and materials and greater flexibility in scheduling. Parents can be with their children during online tutoring session. Finally, online tutoring is useful for students who are disabled or otherwise limited in their ability to travel. Community resources Homeschoolers often take advantage of educational opportunities at museums, community centers, athletic clubs, after-school programs, churches, science preserves, parks, and other community resources. Secondary school level students may take classes at community colleges, which typically have open admission policies. In many communities, homeschooling parents and students participate in community theater, dance, band, symphony, and chorale opportunities. Groups of homeschooling families often join together to create homeschool co-ops. These groups typically meet once a week and provide a classroom environment. These are family-centered support groups whose members seek to pool their talents and resources in a collective effort to broaden the scope of their childrens education. They provide a classroom environment where students can do hands-on and group learning such as performing, science experiments, art projects, foreign language study, spelling bees, discussions, etc. Parents whose children take classes serve in volunteer roles to keep costs low and make the program a success. Certain states, such as Maine and New Mexico, have laws that permit homeschooling families to take advantage of public school resources. In such cases, children can be members of sports teams, be members of the school band, can take art classes, and utilize services such as speech therapy while maintaining their homeschool lifestyle. Unschooling and natural learning Some people use the term "unschooling" to describe all methods of education that are not based in a school. “Natural learning” refers to a type of learning-on-demand where children pursue knowledge based on their interests and parents take an active part in facilitating activities and experiences conducive to learning but do not rely heavily on textbooks or spend much time “teaching”, looking instead for “learning moments” throughout their daily activities. Parents see their role as that of affirming through positive feedback and modeling the necessary skills, and the child’s role as being responsible for asking and learning. The term "unschooling" as coined by John Holt describes an approach in which parents do not authoritatively direct the child's education, but interact with the child following the child's own interests, leaving them free to explore and learn as their interests lead.[12][13] "Unschooling" does not indicate that the child is not being educated, but that the child is not being "schooled", or educated in a rigid school-type manner. Holt asserted that children learn through the experiences of life, and he encouraged parents to live their lives with their child. Also known as interest-led or child-led learning, unschooling attempts to follow opportunities as they arise in real life, through which a child will learn without coercion. An unschooled child may utilize texts or classroom instruction, but these are not considered central to education. Holt asserted that there is no specific body of knowledge that is, or should be, required of a child.[14] "Unschooling" should not be confused with "deschooling," which may be used to indicate an anti-"institutional school" philosophy, or a period or form of deprogramming for children or parents who have previously been schooled. Both unschooling and natural learning advocates believe that children learn best by doing; a child may learn reading to further an interest about history or other cultures, or math skills by operating a small business or sharing in family finances. They may learn animal husbandry keeping dairy goats or meat rabbits, botany tending a kitchen garden, chemistry to understand the operation of firearms or the internal combustion engine, or politics and local history by following a zoning or historical-status dispute. While any type of homeschoolers may also use these methods, the unschooled child initiates these learning activities. The natural learner participates with parents and others in learning together. Homeschooling families usually have to absorb the total costs of their child's education. NCSPE FAQ 2003, What are home-schools? Homeschooling and college admissions The lack of "formal" records and transcripts (kept by school districts) is rarely a problem for home-schooled students who wish to enter college. Most, if not all, states permit homeschooling parents to issue a high school transcript for their child, and many parents choose to use standardized test scores to aid colleges in evaluating students. The College Board suggests that homeschooled students keep detailed records and portfolios. Homeschooled students take unorthodox route to become top college candidates In the last several decades, US colleges and universities have become increasingly open to accepting students from diverse backgrounds, including home-schooled students. Homeschoolers find university doors open – Boston.com According to one source, homeschoolers have now matriculated at over 900 different colleges and universities, including institutions with highly selective standards of admission such as Harvard University, Stanford University, Cornell University, Brown University, Dartmouth College, and Princeton University. A. Distefano et al. (2005) Encyclopedia of Distributed Learning (p222) ISBN 1597815721 A growing number of homeschooled students are choosing dual enrollment, earning college credit by taking community college classes while in high school. Others choose to earn college credits through standardized tests such as the College Level Examination Program (CLEP). Motivations + Number and percentage of homeschooled students, by reason for homeschooling: 1999, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Reason for homeschooling Number ofhomeschooled students Percent s.e. Can give child better education at home 415,000 48.9 3.79 Religious reason 327,000 38.4 4.44 Poor learning environment at school 218,000 25.6 3.44 Family reasons 143,000 16.8 2.79 To develop character/morality 128,000 15.1 3.39 Object to what school teaches 103,000 12.1 2.11 School does not challenge child 98,000 11.6 2.39 Other problems with available schools 76,000 9.0 2.40 Child has special needs/disability 69,000 8.2 1.89 Transportation/convenience 23,000 2.7 1.48 Child not old enough to enter school 15,000 1.8 1.13 Parent's career 12,000 1.5 0.80 Could not get into desired school 12,000 1.5 0.99 Other reasons* 189,000 22.2 2.90 According to a 2003 U.S. Census survey, 33% of homeschooling households cited religion as a factor in their choice. The same study found that 30% felt school had a poor learning environment, 14% objected to what the school teaches, 11% felt their children were not being challenged at school, and 9% cited morality. According to the U.S. DOE's "Homeschooling in the United States: 2003", 85 percent of homeschooling parents cited "the social environments of other forms of schooling" (including safety, drugs, bullying and negative peer-pressure) as an important reason why they homeschool. 72 percent cited "to provide religious or moral instruction" as an important reason, and 68 percent cited "dissatisfaction with academic instruction at other schools." 7 percent cited "Child has physical or mental health problem", 7 percent cited "Child has other special needs", 9 percent cited "Other reasons" (including "child's choice," "allows parents more control of learning" and "flexibility"). Other reasons include more flexibility in educational practices for children with learning disabilities or illnesses, or for children of missionaries, military families, or otherwise traveling parents. Homeschooling is sometimes opted for the gifted student who is accelerated, when a child has a significant career hobby (such as acting, circus performance, dancing or music), or for families who wish to abstain from mandatory immunizations. International status and statistics Homeschooling is legal in many countries. Countries with the most prevalent home education movements include Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Some countries have highly regulated home education programs as an extension of the compulsory school system; others, such as Germany and Brazil, have outlawed it entirely. In other countries, while not restricted by law, homeschooling is not socially acceptable or considered undesirable and is virtually non-existent. Europe Austria Status: Legal Homeschooling is legal in Austria. Finland Status: Legal In Finland homeschooling is legal but unusual. The parents are responsible for the child getting the compulsory education and the advancements are supervised by the home municipality. The parents have the same freedom to make up their own curriculum as the municipalities have regarding the school, only national guiding principles of the curriculum have to be followed. Choosing homeschooling means that the municipality is not obliged to offer school books, health care at school, free lunches or other privileges prescribed by the law on primary education, but the ministery of education reminds they may be offered. The parents should be informed of the consequences of the choice and the arrangements should be discussed. Law on primary education (Swedish), 26 § Ministery of Education: Home schooling (Swedish) France Status: Legal In France, homeschooling is legal and requires the child to be registered with two authorities, the 'Inspection Académique' and the local town hall (Mairie). An inspection is carried out twice yearly once a child reaches the age of six (it is obligatory from the age of eight). The inspection involves written tests in both French and Mathematics, the first of which is used as a benchmark to check what level the child is. The tests are carried out with the anticipation that the child will progress in ability as she/he ages, thus they are designed to measure development with age, rather than as a comparison to say a school child of a similar age. Germany Status: Illegal Homeschooling is illegal in Germany (with rare exceptions). Children cannot be exempted from formal school attendance on religious grounds. The requirement for children from an age of about 6 years through the age of 16 to attend school has been upheld, on challenge from parents, by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany. Penalties against parents who allow their children to break the mandatory attendance laws may include fines (around €5,000), actions to revoke the parents' custody of their children, and jail time. Ireland Status: Legal From 2004 to 2006, 225 children had been officially registered with Ireland's National Education Welfare Board, which estimated there may be as many as 1500–2000 more unregistered homeschoolers. The National Education (Welfare) Board Ireland The right to a home education is guaranteed in the constitution of Ireland. The constitutions of Poland and Ireland give citizens the right to a home education Norway Status: Legal Homeschooling is legal. Lov om grunnskolen og den vidaregåande opplæringa 1 ch. 2 §, 2 ch. 1 § (no), Summary on the site of the Norwegian homeschooling association (en) Slovenia Status: Legal The number of people homeschooling in Slovenia has been increasing over the years. Uradni list Republike Slovenije The Slovenian term for homeschooling is "izobraževanje na domu". Spain Status: Generally illegal In Spain, homeschooling is illegal. However, the regional government of Catalonia announced in 2009 that parents would be allowed to homeschool their children up to 16 years. El País: Cataluña abre la vía para formar a los hijos en casa Sweden Status: Generally illegal Children have to attend school. Home schooling is allowed when attending school would be obviously unreasonable. Skollagen (Swedish), 3 ch. 1–2 § United Kingdom Status: Legal (England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own education laws each with slight variations regarding education otherwise than at school.) Education provided outside a formal school system is primarily known as Home Education within the United Kingdom, the term Home Schooling is occasionally used for those following a formal, structured style of education – literally schooling at home. To distinguish between those who are educated outside of school from necessity (e.g. from ill health, or a working child actor) and those who actively reject schooling as a suitable means of education the term Elective Home Education is used. UK Government guidelines on Elective home education Roland Meighan's 1995 estimate of home educators in the United Kingdom was "almost 10,000", and in 1996 the London Evening Standard stated that 15,000 families home-educating in Britain was a 50 percent increase from the previous year. Homeschooling in The United Kingdom (Learn in Freedom!) One home-education advocate estimated 50,000 children being home-educated in 2005. the Home education UK Asia and the Pacific Australia Status: Legal The Australian census does not track homeschooling families, but Philip Strange of Home Education Association, Inc. very roughly estimates 15,000. Home Education Association Inc. (Australia) – How Many Home Educators in Australia In 1995, Roland Meighan of Nottingham School of Education estimated some 20,000 families homeschooling in Australia. Home-based education effectiveness research and some of its implications (pdf document) In 2006, Victoria passed legislation The Education Training and Reform Act (2006), available online at the Australasian Legal Information Institute's website requiring the registration of children up to the age of 16 and increasing the school leaving age to 16 from the previous 15, undertaking home education (registration is optional for those age of 16–17 but highly recommended). The Victorian Registration and Qualifications Authority (VRQA) is the registering body. Victorian Registration and Qualifications Authority website Home Schooling on the VRQA site People's Republic of China Status: Deemed illegal for citizens, but no restriction against foreigner students. There are no accurate statistics on home schooling in the People's Republic of China. The Compulsory Education Law states that the community, schools and families shall safeguard the right to compulsory education of school-age children and adolescents. And, compulsory education is defined as attending a school, which is holding a schooling licence granted by the government. Therefore, homeschooling is deemed to be illegal. The Law does not apply to non-citizen children(i.e. those with foreign passports). However, due to the large population of hundreds of millions of migration workers, alongside with their children, it rarely happens that the government inspects if a child is attending a licensed school or not. Thus, there usually is no punishment to parents who homeschool their children. An organization called Shanghai Home-School Association was launched in September 2003. Hong Kong Status: Illegal Attendance at school is compulsory and free for students aged six to fifteen in Hong Kong. Parents who fail to send their children to school can be jailed for 3 months and fined HK$10000. In 2000, a man named Leung Jigwong (梁志光) disagreed with Hong Kong's education policy and refused to send his 9-year-old daughter Leung Douling (梁道靈) to school. Instead, he taught her Chinese, English, French, Mathematics and The Art of War at home. After 2.5 years of discussion, the Education Department finally served an "attendance order" on him and his child was required to attend a normal school. http://www.epochtimes.com/b5/2/8/20/n209638p.htm http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeid=136&langno=1&UID=10546 http://www.hklii.org/hk/legis/en/ord/279/s78.html Indonesia Status: Legal Homeschooling in Indonesia () is regulated under National Education System 2003 under division of non-formal education. :http://www.inherent-dikti.net/files/sisdiknas.pdf This enables the children of Home Schooling to attend an equal National Tests to obtain an “Equivalent Certificate”. http://www.jugaguru.com/article/49/tahun/2006/bulan/12/tanggal/11/id/279/ The home schooling is recently becoming a trend in upper-middle to upper class families with highly educated parents with capability to provide better tutoring http://www.jugaguru.com/news/43/tahun/2008/bulan/04/tanggal/28/id/720/ or expatriate families living far away from International School. Since 2007 the Indonesia’s National Education Department took efforts in providing Training for Home Schooling Tutors and Learning Media http://www.jugaguru.com/news/31/tahun/2007/bulan/12/tanggal/17/id/640/ even though the existence of this community is still disputed by other Non Formal education operators. http://www.jugaguru.com/expression/comment/427/2/ school. New Zealand Status: Legal Karl M. Bunday cites the New Zealand TV program "Sixty Minutes" (unrelated to the U.S. program), as stating in 1996 that there were 7,000 school-age children being homeschooled. Philip Strange of the Australian Home Education Association Inc. quotes "5274 registered home educated students in 3001 families" in 1998 from the New Zealand Ministry of Education. Americas Canada Status: Legal Meighan estimated the total number of homeschoolers in Canada, in 1995, to be 10,000 official and 20,000 unofficial. Karl M. Bunday estimated, in 1995, based on journalistic reports, that about 1 percent of school-age children were homeschooled. Homeschooling Is Growing Worldwide (Learn in Freedom!) In April 2005, the total number of registered homeschool students in British Columbia was 3,068. BC Ministry of Education In Manitoba, homeschoolers are required to register with Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth. The number of homeschoolers is noted at over 1,500 in 2006; 0.5% of students enrolled in the public system. United States Status: Legal Public schools were gradually introduced into the United States during the course of the 19th century. The first state to issue a compulsory education law was Massachusetts, in 1789, but not until 1852 did the state establish a "true comprehensive statewide, modern system of compulsory schooling." Prior to the introduction of public schools, many children were educated in private schools or in the home. During this period illiteracy was common and many children were never properly educated. An 1872 map of illiteracy in the United States shows that illiteracy was most common in the southern states which were late in adopting compulsory schooling. See: Illiteracy in the United States 1872, From The Statistics of the Population of the United States, Compiled from the Original Returns of the Ninth Census, 1872. Although this illiteracy was partly due to white resistance to education of blacks prior to Reconstruction, the map shows that southern locations without large populations of former slaves also had high levels of illiteracy. Public schools were first introduced in many parts of the South during Reconstruction. It was common for literate parents to use books dedicated to educating children such as Fireside Education, Griswold, 1828, Warren Burton's Helps to Education in the Homes of Our Country, Cornell University Making of America 1863, and the popular McGuffey Readers, sometimes bolstered by local or itinerant teachers, as means and opportunity allowed. http://www.hsc.org/professionals/briefhistory Raymond Moore, among others, asserted that the United States was at the height of its national literacy under this informal system of tutelage, but such claims are difficult to prove. Dr. Raymond Moore, Home Grown Kids, 1981 After the establishment of the Massachusetts system, other states and localities gradually began to provide public schools and to make attendance mandatory. In 1912 A.A. Berle of Tufts University, (not to be confused with the Adolf Berle who was a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference) asserted in his book The School in Your Home that the previous 20 years of mass education had been a failure and that he had been asked by hundreds of parents how they could teach their children at home. Since the beginning of public school systems in the United States, members of the Catholic Church have been practicing homeschooling or supporting private parochial schools, as they do not entirely agree with some of what is taught in many public schools. Statistically, the typical American homeschooling parents are married, homeschool their children primarily for religious or moral reasons, and are almost twice as likely to be Evangelical than the national average. They average three or more children, and typically the mother stays home to care for them. Homeschooling in the United States: 2003 – Executive Summary Kurt J. Bauman. Home-Schooling in the United States: Trends and Characteristics. U.S. Census Bureau. August 2001. Homeschooling in the United States: 2003 – The Characteristics of Homeschooled and Nonhomeschooled Students Homeschool Statistics. Home School Legal Defense Association. Atypical homeschools may even be found in single parent homes, also known as single parent homeschooling. According to the peer review journal Education Policy Analysis, based on the findings of the National Household Education Survey, of the National Center of Educational Statistics, as early as 1994, 11% of United States homeschools were being led by a single parent, and by 1999, 20.6% were so being led. EPAA Vol. 10 No. 26 Bauman: Home Schooling in the United States However, this phenomenon seems to be flying under the radar as the movement does not seem to have significant advocacy from any national agency or organization and the statistics tracking single parent homeschools have currently not yet been posted on the websites of the DOE, U.S. Department of Education Home Page the NHERI, National Home Education Research Institute – Home or The Barna Group. Welcome to The Barna Group! There is online advocacy at The Single Parent Home School Website. http://singleparenthomeschool.christianhomeeducation.org/contactus.html The website is sponsored by Morningstar Educational Network. Homeschooling has increased tremendously, from 15,000 students in 1970 to 500,000 in 1990 Home Schooling Numbers Increase Steadily. http://www.bropay.net/ . According to United States Department of Education report NCES 2003-42, "Homeschooling in the United States: 2003", there was an increase in homeschooled students in the U.S. from 850,000 students in 1999 (1.7 percent of the total student population) to 1.1 million students in 2003 (2.2 percent of the total student population). According to an unsourced National Home Education Research Institute statement, an estimated 1.9 to 2.4 million children were home educated during 2005–2006. National Home Education Research Institute – Facts on Homeschooling – July 2006 During this time, homeschooling rates increased among students whose parents have high school or lower education, 1.6 to 2.4 percent among student in grades 6–8; and 0.7 to 1.4 percent among students with only one parent. As in 1999, rates were highest in families with three or more children (3.1 percent), and higher in families with two children (1.5 percent) than only one child (1.4 percent). There were more homeschool students from families with two parents (2.5 percent) than only one parent (1.5 percent), and students from two parent families where only one parent worked were more than twice as likely to be homeschooled (5.6 percent). According to a 2000–2001 Barna survey, Home School Families Have Different Backgrounds Than Commonly Assumed CIA Factbook: United States home school parents are 39 percent less likely to be college graduates, 21 percent more likely to be married, 28 percent less likely to have experienced a divorce, and that the household income is 10% below the national average. Barna found that homeschoolers in the U.S. live predominantly in the Mid-Atlantic, the South-Atlantic, and the Pacific states. It found that homeschoolers are almost twice as likely to be evangelical as the national average (15 percent vs 8 percent), and that 91 percent describe themselves as Christian, although only 49 percent can be classified as "born again Christians." It found they were five times more likely to describe themselves as "mostly conservative" on political matters than as "mostly liberal," although only about 37 percent chose "mostly conservative", and were "notably" more likely than the national average to have a high view of the Bible and hold orthodox Christian beliefs. + Distribution of Home School Students and Students Nationally Classified by Parent Academic Attainment: 1999, Education Policy Analysis Archives. EPAA Vol. 7 No. 8 Rudner: Home School Students, 1998 Did not finish high school High school graduate only Some college, no degree Associate degree Bachelors degree Masters degree Doctorate Home school fathers 1.2% 9.3% 16.4% 6.9% 37.6% 19.8% 8.8% Males nationally 18.1 32.0 19.5 6.4 15.6 5.4 3.1 Home school mothers 0.5 11.3 21.8 9.7 47.2 8.8 0.7 Females nationally 17.2 34.2 20.2 7.7 14.8 4.5 1.3 In contrast, Lawrence Rudner's (University of Maryland) 1998 study shows that homeschool parents have a higher income than average (1.4 times by one estimate), and are more likely to have an advanced education. Rudner found that homeschooling parents tend to have more formal education than parents in the general population; that the median income for homeschooling families ($52,000) is significantly higher than that of all families with children in the United States ($36,000); that 98% of homeschooled children live in "married couple families"; that 77% of home school mothers do not participate in the labour force, whereas 98% of homeschooling fathers do participate in the labour force; and that median annual expenses for educational materials are approximately $400 per home school student.<ref name = rudner>Scholastic Achievement and Demographic Characteristics of Home School Students in 1998, Lawrence M. Rudner, University of Maryland, College Park, EDUCATION POLICY ANALYSIS ARCHIVES, Volume 7, Number 8, March 23, 1999, ISSN 1068-2341 online article Scholastic Achievement and Demographic Characteristics of Home School Students in 1998, Lawrence M. Rudner, Table 2.12</ref> A 2001 study by Dr. Clive Belfield states that the average homeschooling parent is a woman with a college degree. Belfield estimates annual homeschooling costs to be approximately $2,500 per child MSN Money. Home-school costs can add up fast. 2001 study by Dr. Clive Belfield, professor of economics at Queens College, City University of New York Supportive research The studies cited in this section have been criticised for selection bias and other problems, see below: Criticism of supportive achievement studies. Test results Figure 2. Home School Students Compared to the National Norm Group in Grade Equivalent Units, Scholastic Achievement and Demographic Characteristics of Home School Students in 1998, Lawrence M. Rudner, University of Maryland, College Park. From Education Policy Analysis Archives Figure 1. Academic Achievement of Home School, Catholic/Private and the Nation's Students, Scholastic Achievement and Demographic Characteristics of Home School Students in 1998, Lawrence M. Rudner, University of Maryland, College Park. From Education Policy Analysis Archives Numerous studies have found that homeschooled students on average outperform their peers on standardized tests. HSLDA | Academic Statistics on Homeschooling Home Schooling Achievement, a study conducted by National Home Education Research Institute (NHERI), supported the academic integrity of homeschooling. Among the homeschooled students who took the tests, the average homeschooled student outperformed his public school peers by 30 to 37 percentile points across all subjects. The study also indicates that public school performance gaps between minorities and genders were virtually non-existent among the homeschooled students who took the tests. HSLDA | Home Schooling Achievement New evidence has been found that home schooled children are getting higher scores on the ACT and tests. A study at Wheaton College in Illinois showed that the freshmen that were home schooled for high school scored fifty-eight points higher on their SAT scores than those of kids that went to a normal school. Most colleges look at the ACT and SAT scores of home schooled children when considering them for acceptance to a college. On average, home schooled children scores eighty-one points higher than the national average on the SAT scores. Social research In the 1970s Raymond S. and Dorothy N. Moore conducted four federally funded analyses of more than 8,000 early childhood studies, from which they published their original findings in Better Late Than Early, 1975. This was followed by School Can Wait, a repackaging of these same findings designed specifically for educational professionals. Better Late Than Early, Raymond S. Moore, Dorothy N. Moore, Seventh Printing, 1993, addendum Their analysis concluded that, "where possible, children should be withheld from formal schooling until at least ages eight to ten." Their reason was that children, "are not mature enough for formal school programs until their senses, coordination, neurological development and cognition are ready." They concluded that the outcome of forcing children into formal schooling is a sequence of "1) uncertainty as the child leaves the family nest early for a less secure environment, 2) puzzlement at the new pressures and restrictions of the classroom, 3) frustration because unready learning tools – senses, cognition, brain hemispheres, coordination – cannot handle the regimentation of formal lessons and the pressures they bring, 4) hyperactivity growing out of nerves and jitter, from frustration, 5) failure which quite naturally flows from the four experiences above, and 6) delinquency which is failure’s twin and apparently for the same reason." Raymond S. Moore, Dorothy Moore. When Education Becomes Abuse: A Different Look at the Mental Health of Children According to the Moores, "early formal schooling is burning out our children. Teachers who attempt to cope with these youngsters also are burning out." Aside from academic performance, they think early formal schooling also destroys "positive sociability", encourages peer dependence, and discourages self worth, optimism, respect for parents, and trust in peers. They believe this situation is particularly acute for boys because of their delay in maturity. The Moore's cited a Smithsonian Report on the development of genius, indicating a requirement for "1) much time spent with warm, responsive parents and other adults, 2) very little time spent with peers, and 3) a great deal of free exploration under parental guidance." Their analysis suggested that children need "more of home and less of formal school" "more free exploration with... parents, and fewer limits of classroom and books," and "more old fashioned chores – children working with parents – and less attention to rivalry sports and amusements." John Taylor later found, using the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, "while half of the conventionally schooled children scored at or below the 50th percentile (in self-concept), only 10.3% of the home-schooling children did so." Self-Concept in home-schooling children, John Wesley Taylor V, Ph.D., Andrews University, Berrien Springs, MI He further stated that "the self-concept of home-schooling children is significantly higher (and very much so statistically) than that of children attending the conventional school. This has implications in the areas of academic achievement and socialization, to mention only two. These areas have been found to parallel self-concept. Regarding socialization, Taylor's results would mean that very few home-schooling children are socially deprived. He claims that critics who speak out against home schooling on the basis of social deprivation are actually addressing an area which favors home schoolers. In 2003, the National Home Education Research Institute conducted a survey of 7,300 U.S. adults who had been homeschooled (5,000 for more than seven years). Their findings included: Homeschool graduates are active and involved in their communities. 71% participate in an ongoing community service activity, like coaching a sports team, volunteering at a school, or working with a church or neighborhood association, compared with 37% of U.S. adults of similar ages from a traditional education background. Homeschool graduates are more involved in civic affairs and vote in much higher percentages than their peers. 76% of those surveyed between the ages of 18 and 24 voted within the last five years, compared with only 29% of the corresponding U.S. populace. The numbers are even greater in older age groups, with voting levels not falling below 95%, compared with a high of 53% for the corresponding U.S. populace. 58.9% report that they are "very happy" with life, compared with 27.6% for the general U.S. population. 73.2% find life "exciting", compared with 47.3%. HSLDA | Homeschooling Grows Up Controversies and criticism Philosophical and political opposition Opposition to homeschooling comes from many sources, including some organizations of teachers and school districts. The National Education Association, a United States professional association and union representing teachers, opposes homeschooling. Opponents of homeschooling state several categories of concerns relating to homeschooling or its potential effects on society: Inadequate standards of academic quality and comprehensiveness; Reduced funding for public schools; Lack of socialization with peers of different ethnic and religious backgrounds; The potential for development of religious or social extremism; Children sheltered from mainstream society, or denied opportunities that are their right, such as social development; Potential for development of parallel societies that do not fit into standards of citizenship and the community. For example political scientist Rob Reich wrote in The Civic Perils of Homeschooling (2002) that homeschooling can potentially give students a one-sided point of view, as their parents may, even unwittingly, block or diminish all points of view but their own in teaching. He also argues that homeschooling, by reducing students' contact with peers, reduces their sense of civic engagement with their community. The civic perils of homeschooling Author: Rob Reich Journal: Educational Leadership (Alexandria ) Pub.: 2002-04 Volume: 59 Issue: 7 Pages: 56 Gallup polls of American voters have shown a significant change in attitude in the last twenty years, from 73% opposed to home education in 1985 to 54% opposed in 2001. CEPM – Trends and Issues: School Choice Criticism of supportive achievement studies Although there are some studies that show that homeschooled students can do well on standardized tests, HSLDA | Academic Statistics on Homeschooling some of these studies compare voluntary homeschool testing with mandatory public-school testing. Homeschooled students in the United States are not subject to the testing requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act. White House News & Policies No Child Left Behind Some U.S. states require mandatory testing for homeschooled students, but others do not. Some states that require testing allow homeschooling parents to choose which test to use. Oregon Department of Education Guidelines for Home Schooling (Section 3.3) When testing is not required, homeschoolees taking the tests are self-selected, which biases any statistical results. Katherine Pfleger. School's out The New Republic. Washington: April 6, 1998. 218(14):11-12. An exception are the SAT and ACT tests, where homeschooled and formally-schooled students alike are self-selecting; homeschoolers averaged higher scores on college entrance tests in South Carolina. Home School Legal Defense Association. "Academic Statistics on Homeschooling." http://www.hslda.org/docs/nche/000010/200410250.asp Other test scores showed mixed results, for example showing higher levels for home schoolers in English and reading, but lower scores in math. Golden, Daniel. "Home-Schooled Kids Defy Stereotypes, Ace SAT Test." The Wall Street Journal 11 February 2000. http://www.oakmeadow.com/resources/articles/WSJArticle.htm Potential for unmonitored child abuse A Washington, D.C. mother who had withdrawn her four children from public school has been charged with their murder. It has been claimed that the homeschooling exemption in the District of Columbia allowed the abuse of the children to occur undetected. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/12/us/12bodies.html?ref=us Jane Gross Lack of Supervision Noted in Deaths of Home-Schooled New York Times, January 12, 2008 Increased regulation of homeschooling in DC has been enacted in response to these events. http://newsroom.dc.gov/show.aspx/agency/seo/section/2/release/14329 DC State Board of Education Approves Homeschooling Regulations July 16, 2008 But some legal commentators have noted that child abuse occurs in public school and state social care systems, and that there is no evidence suggesting that abuse among homeschoolers is more pervasive or severe than the considerable dangers encountered in government institutions. People v. Bennett: Analytic Approaches to Recognizing a Fundamental Parental Right Under the Ninth Amendment, 1996 BYU Law Review 186, 227-34 Success of homeschooling According to some, numerous historical and current public figures were home-educated, Mimi Davis (2005), So – Why Do You Homeschool? (p76–82) ISBN 1597815721 Laura B. Tyle Making the grade (Barron's Educational Series). 2004, ISBN 0764124765 although Milton Gaither questions whether the term can be applied to figures from the past without committing an anachronism, arguing that this perspective, while accurately pointing out the anachronistic tendency of older histories of education to interpret the past as simply prolegomena to the public school, commits its own anachronism by reading current conflicts between family and State into the past. It doesn’t often recognize that the modern homeschooling movement is in many ways fundamentally different from earlier efforts to educate children in the home. Gaither, Milton. Homeschool: An American History. Palgrave, 2008. ISBN 0230606008. Introduction. Reproduced at http://gaither.wordpress.com/homeschool-an-american-history/ See also Alternative education Home School Legal Defense Association Schoolhouse Home Education Association Unschooling The Education Proposals of Neo-Capitalism which massively expand the concept of home schooling. Secular Homeschooling (magazine) References External links More information about Ivan Illich and his philosophy. A history of the modern homeschool movement, from the Cato Institute. Holt Associates Inc's website John Holt's writings and legacy National Home Education Research Institute NHERI produces research about homeschooling and sponsors the peer-reviewed academic journal Home School Researcher. 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5,744 | Lausanne | Lausanne (pronounced is a city in Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland, situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (French: Lac Léman) , and facing Évian-les-Bains (France) and with the Jura mountains to its north-west. Lausanne is located some northeast of Geneva. It is the capital of the canton of Vaud and of the district of Lausanne. The headquarters of the International Olympic Committee are located in Lausanne and the IOC officially recognises the city as the 'Capitale Olympique', and the headquarters of the Court of Arbitration for Sport. It lies in the middle of a wine region. History The Romans built a military camp, which they called Lousanna, at the site of a Celtic settlement, near the lake where currently are Vidy and Ouchy; on the hill above was a fort called 'Lausodunon' or 'Lousodunon' (The 'y' suffix is common to many place names of Roman origin in the region (e.g.) Prilly, Pully, Lutry, etc). After the fall of the Roman Empire, insecurity forced the transfer of Lausanne to its current center, a hilly, easier to defend site. The city which emerged from the camp was ruled by the Dukes of Savoy and the Bishop of Lausanne. Then it came under Berne from 1536 to 1798 and a number of its cultural treasures, including the hanging tapestries in the Cathedral, were permanently removed. Lausanne has made a number of requests to recover them. During the Napoleonic Wars, its status changed. In 1803, it became the capital of a newly formed Swiss canton, Vaud under which it joined the Swiss Federation. Modern history In 1964 the city hosted the 'World Exhibition' , displaying its newly found confidence to host major international events. From the 1950s to 1970s a large number of Italians, Spaniards and Portuguese immigrated, settling mostly in the industrial district of Renens and transforming the local diet. The city has been traditionally quiet but in the late 1960s and early 1970s there were a series of mainly youth demonstrations confronted by the police. The next vigorous demonstrations took place to protest against the high cinema prices and since then the city has returned to its very sleepy self, until the protest against the G8 meetings in 2003. Geography |View of Laussane (Lausanna) - An 1837 woodcut print The most important geographical feature of the area surrounding Lausanne is Lake Geneva (Lac Léman in French). Lausanne is built on the southern slope of the Swiss plateau, with a difference in elevation of about between the lakeshore at Ouchy and its northern edge bordering Le Mont-sur-Lausanne and Epalinges. Lausanne boasts a dramatic panorama over the lake and the Alps. In addition to its generally southward-sloping layout, the center of the city is the site of an ancient river, the Flon, which has been covered since the 19th century. The former river forms a gorge running through the middle of the city south of the old city centre, generally following the course of the present Rue Centrale, with several bridges crossing the depression to connect the adjacent neighborhoods. Due to the large differences in elevation, visitors should make a note as to which plane of elevation they are on and where they want to go, lest they find themselves tens of meters below or above the street which they are trying to travel on. The name Flon is also used for the Metro station located in the gorge. Lausanne is located at the limit between the extensive wine-growing regions of Lavaux (to the east) and la Côte (to the west). The population of the greater Lausanne area (grand Lausanne) is about 316,000 (2007 estimate). Transport 1/10 scale model of the new m2 metro in Lausanne, of the same type as the Paris line 14. A front view of the m2 is also available. Lausanne includes buses and metros (operated by TL ), nationwide and regional train lines (CFF, LEB ), and boats (CGN ). The majority of urban public transport in Lausanne is by trolleybus. Lausanne became the first city in Switzerland to have a rubber-tyred metro system, with the m2 Line which opened in October 2008. The rolling stock is a shorter version of the one used on Paris Métro Line 14. Lausanne is connected to the A1 motorway on its west side (Geneva - Zurich axis) and to the A9 on its north and east side (transit with Italy and France), the forking point between these two motorways being at the north-west side of the city. Education Palais de Rumine, place de la Riponne Lausanne enjoys some world class education and research establishements, including private schools attended by students from around the world. École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne - EPFL (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology - Lausanne) Université de Lausanne - UNIL (University of Lausanne) HEC Lausanne - Hautes Etudes Commerciales, UNIL (High Business Studies, at University of Lausanne) Business School Lausanne International Institute for Management Development (IMD) École hôtelière de Lausanne The Lausanne campus of the University of the Nations Pepperdine University maintains an international study campus in Lausanne CHUV, a hospital center with associated research (Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois Lausanne) Culture Cathedral Notre-Dame of Lausanne Waterfront view of Ouchy, just south of Lausanne Place de L'Europe, Flon, by night (English: Europe square) The Orchestre de Chambre de Lausanne and the Ensemble Vocal de Lausanne provide a diverse and rich musical life. The latter has been under the direction of Michel Corboz for many years. In January, the Prix de Lausanne, the famous dance competition takes place at the Théâtre de Beaulieu over a one-week period. The event attracts dancers and some of the big names in dance from all over the world. Each July, the "Festival de la Cité" (city festival) is held in the old part of town. There are also film and music festivals, such as the Lausanne Underground Film and Music Festival and the Bach Festival, "Le Festival et Concours Bach de Lausanne", which follows "La Nuit de Musées" (museums' night, occurring in May) in the fall season. Lausanne is also the home of the Béjart Ballet. Monuments Notre Dame de Lausanne (Cathedral, restored by Viollet-le-Duc). Hôtel de Ville (Town Hall) Museums Lausanne is also the site of many museums: Musée Olympique Lausanne (Olympic Museum) Musée de l'Elysée (Elysée Museum) Fondation de l'Hermitage (Hermitage Foundation) The Collection de l'Art Brut (Art Brut Collection) mudac (Musée de design et d'arts appliqués contemporains) Musée Historique de Lausanne (Lausanne Historical Museum) Musée monétaire cantonal (formerly Cabinet des Médailles cantonal, Cantonal Money Museum - short presentation in English Espace Arlaud Espace des Inventions (Science Center for Kids) Fondation Claude Verdan - Musée de la main (Museum of the Hand) Vivarium de Lausanne Musée et jardins botaniques cantonaux (Cantonal Botanical Museum and Gardens - short presentation in English Musée cantonal d'Archéologie et d'Histoire (Cantonal Museum of Archeology and History short presentation in English) Musée cantonal des Beaux-Arts (Cantonal Fine Arts Museum) Musée cantonal de Géologie (Cantonal Geological Museum) Musée romain de Lausanne-Vidy (Lausanne-Vidy Roman Museum) Art Galleries Main contemporary art galleries: Galerie Lucy Mackintosh Lucy Mackintosh on wikipedia Synopsism Espace Saint-François Art centers or artists' run galleries Circuit Galerie Galerie 1m3 Doll espace d'art contemporain Music Contemporary composer Leonardo Balada's Symphony No. 4 is subtitled 'Lausanne'. Igor Stravinsky's L'Histoire du Soldat was premiered in Lausanne in September 1918. Sports Sporting activities are very popular in Lausanne, with water sports available on the nearby lake and mountaineering in the nearby mountains. Cycling is also a popular pastime, with the vineyards in the surrounding hills providing spectacular views and challenging routes. There is an annual athletic contest (Athletissima ), road running through the city (the 20 km de Lausanne ), the Tour de Romandie road cycling race, marathon (website) and triathlon competition, among other sports events. The two most important sports are ice hockey and football. Lausanne Hockey Club Lausanne-Sport Football Club Lausanne-Sports Aviron Rowing Club Lausanne Sharks American Football Club International Olympic Committee Headquarters Court of Arbitration for Sport Headquarters International Hockey Federation Headquarters International Table Tennis Federation Headquarters Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) The World Air Sports Federation Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) The international governing body for equestrian Fédération Internationale des Sociétés d'Aviron (FISA) The international governing body for rowing Fédération Internationale d'Escrime (FIE) The international governing body for fencing International Baseball Federation International Swimming Federation International Skating Union NSFL Non Professional Swiss Romand American Football Federation Notable people Jean-Pascal Delamuraz was Mayor of Lausanne before becoming member of the Federal Council The writer C.F. Ramuz was born in Lausanne Auguste Piccard (on the right), physicist, inventor and explorer was a resident of Lausanne The choreographer Maurice Béjart established the "Béjart Ballet Lausanne" in 1987 Lausanne is the birthplace of: David Bennent, Actor Metropolitan Anthony (Bloom) of Sourozh, Russian Orthodox ecclesiastic located in Britain François-Louis David Bocion, Swiss artist and teacher Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, Swiss traveler and orientalist Alejo Carpentier, Cuban-French writer Stéphane Chapuisat, Footballer Benjamin Constant, Swiss thinker, writer and French politician Aloise Corbaz, Swiss outsider artist Charles Dutoit, conductor Egon von Furstenberg, fashion designer Eugène Grasset, Swiss decorative artist Henry Markram, Director of the Blue Brain Project Bertrand Piccard, Swiss psychiatrist and balloonist Charles Ferdinand Ramuz, Swiss writer Ubol Ratana, Thai princess Théophile Steinlen, Art Nouveau painter and printmaker Elizabeth Thompson (Lady Butler), British painter Bernard Tschumi, contemporary architect, writer, and educator Nanos Valaoritis (1921) Greek poet Félix Vallotton, post-impressionist painter Vincent Perez, film actor and director Stanislas Wawrinka, Swiss Tennis player Jocelyn Wildenstein, Manhattan socialite and ex-wife of the late Alec Wildenstein Notable residents: Lorik Cana, Professional Footballer for Albania and Marseille Jean-Pascal Delamuraz, Swiss politician Jean Anouilh, French dramatist Ingvar Kamprad, Founder of IKEA Alice Bailly, Swiss painter and multimedia artist Maurice Béjart, choreographer Capucine, French actress and model Coco Chanel, fashion designer Pierre de Coubertin, French baron and IOC founder Helen of Greece and Denmark, Queen Mother of Romania Victoria Eugenia of Battenberg, queen of Spain Peter Carl Fabergé, Russian jeweller Edward Gibbon, British historian Gloria Guinness, socialite and writer. Ravi Gupta, American-born scientific researcher and scholar Oswald Heer, Swiss geologist and naturalist Stéphane Lambiel, men's figure skater and 2-time World Champion Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim, Finnish president and field marshal James Mason, English actor Jô Soares, Brazilian humorist Waldemar Mordecai Haffkine, Ukrainian bacteriologist Paloma Picasso, Fashion designer Auguste Piccard, Swiss physicist, inventor and explorer Albin Schram, Renowned manuscript collector Georges Simenon, Belgian writer Han Suyin, China-born writer Karol Szymanowski, Polish composer Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, French architect Pierre Viret, Swiss reformed theologian Serge Voronoff, Surgeon buried in Lausanne Sébastien Loeb, French rally driver See also Eurovision Song Contest 1989 List of mayors of Lausanne Franco-Provençal language Scots Kirk, Lausanne (Church of Scotland) Lac de Sauvabelin Beau-Rivage Palace References External links City of Lausanne, official site The official tourism homepage of Lausanne 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5,745 | Bug_(poker) | The Joker is commonly used as a bug. A bug in poker is a limited form of wild card. One or both jokers are often added to the deck and played as bugs. In draw poker played for high and pai gow poker, the bug is considered to be an ace, unless it can be used as a missing card to complete a straight or a flush, in which case it becomes the highest card which can complete the hand. K-K-Joker-5-2 is a pair of kings with an ace kicker. A-A-Joker-9-4 is three aces. A♥ J♥ 8♥ 3♥ Joker is a flush, ace-king high, the bug becoming the K♥, even if another player holds the "real" K♥. (But see double-ace flush for a variant rule.) 7-6-5-4-Joker is an eight-high straight, the bug becoming an eight rather than a three since both complete the straight but the eight is higher. J♣ 10♣ 8♣ 7♣ Joker is a straight flush, jack high, the bug becoming the 9♣. In California lowball, the bug is the lowest unpaired card in a hand. For example in 8-6-4-3 plus the bug, the bug becomes an ace; in A-2-3-5 plus the bug, the bug becomes a four. Holding the bug greatly increases the power of certain drawing hands. For example, playing for high, a natural four-straight such as Q-J-10-9 drawing one has nine outs to complete the hand, any king or eight or the bug. By contrast a four-straight including the bug can have as many as sixteen outs to complete the straight - Q-J-10-Joker can catch any ace, king, nine, or eight. | Bug_(poker) |@lemmatized joker:8 commonly:1 use:2 bug:15 poker:3 limited:1 form:1 wild:1 card:4 one:2 often:1 add:1 deck:1 play:3 draw:3 high:7 pai:1 gow:1 consider:1 ace:7 unless:1 miss:1 complete:5 straight:7 flush:4 case:1 become:6 hand:4 k:4 pair:1 king:4 kicker:1 three:2 j:4 even:1 another:1 player:1 hold:2 real:1 see:1 double:1 variant:1 rule:1 eight:5 rather:1 since:1 jack:1 california:1 lowball:1 low:1 unpaired:1 example:2 plus:2 four:3 greatly:1 increase:1 power:1 certain:1 natural:1 q:2 nine:2 contrast:1 include:1 many:1 sixteen:1 catch:1 |@bigram pai_gow:1 straight_flush:2 ace_flush:1 california_lowball:1 |
5,746 | Dianic_Wicca | Dianic Wicca, also known as Dianic Witchcraft and Dianic Feminist Witchcraft, Falcon River (2004) The Dianic Wiccan Tradition. From The Witches Voice. Retrieved 2007-05-23. is a tradition, or denomination, of the neopagan religion of Wicca. It was founded by Zsuzsanna Budapest in the United States in the 1970s, and is notable for its focus on the worship of the Goddess, and on feminism. It combines elements of British Traditional Wicca, Italian folk-magic recorded in Charles Leland's Aradia, feminist values, and ritual, folk magic, and healing practices learned from her mother. It is normally practiced in female-only covens. Beliefs and practices Most Dianic Wiccans worship the Goddess only, acknowledging that She is the source of all living and contains all within Her. There are Dianic witches who practice other forms of paganism (possibly including honoring a male deity or deities) outside of their Dianic practice. Some Dianics are monotheistic, some are polytheistic, some are non-theistic. Most Dianics worship in female-only circles and covens, but there are mixed-gender Dianic traditions. Eclecticism, appreciation of cultural diversity, ecological concern, and familiarity with sophisticated concepts of psyche and transformation are characteristic. Originally lesbians formed the majority of the movement, however modern Dianic groups may be all-lesbian, all-heterosexual or mixed. Jade River (2004) The Dianic Tradition. From The Witches' Voice. Retrieved 2007-05-23. Some Dianic Wiccans as "positive path" practitioners do neither manipulative spellwork nor hexing; other Dianic witches (notably Zsuzsanna Budapest) do not consider hexing or binding of those who attack women to be wrong. Differences between Dianic and mainstream Wicca Like other Wiccans, Dianics may form covens, attend festivals, celebrate the eight major Wiccan holidays, Samhain, Beltane, Imbolc (or Imbolg), Lammas, the solstices and equinoxes (see Wheel of the Year) and the Esbats, which are rituals held at the full moon. They use many of the same altar tools, rituals and vocabulary as other Wiccans. Dianics may also gather in more informal Circles. The most noticeable differences between the two are that Dianic covens are usually female-only while other Wiccan covens are usually mixed, some aiming for equal numbers of men and women, and that most Wiccans worship the God and Goddess, while Dianics generally worship the Goddess as Whole Unto Herself; or if they worship the God, it is as a consort of the Goddess, rather than an equal. It should be noted many Wiccans do not consider the Dianic path to be Wiccan at all as they only venerate, and sometimes espouse only the existence of, the Goddess. See also Goddess movement Dianic tradition Feminist theology Sacred feminine Thealogy References Interview with Starhawk in Modern Pagans: An Investigation of Contemporary Pagan Practices, ed. V. Vale and John Sulak, Re/Search, San Francisco, 2001, ISBN 1-889307-10-6. Adler, Margot. Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today. Boston: Beacon press, 1979; 1986. ISBN 0-8070-3237-9. Especially "Ch 8: Women, Feminism , and the Craft". Budapest, Zsuzsanna. Holy Book of Women's Mysteries, The. 1980 (2003 electronic). ISBN 0-914728-67-9. www.witchvox.com articles on Dianic Tradition, Dianic Wicca, MacFarland Dianic Tradition, and (for a non-friendly pagan reaction to women-centric paganism) http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=usnv&c=words&id=10792. On Starhawk, the Reclaiming Tradition and feminism, M. Macha NightMare http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=usca&c=trads&id=3212. (A better citation from one of her or Starhawk's books will be provided in time.) Ochshorn, Judith and Cole, Ellen. Women's Spirituality, Women's Lives. Haworth Press 1995. ISBN 1560247223. pp 122 & 133 referring to Z Budapest, Diane Stein, and Shekinah Mountainwater among others in a discussion of Dianic Witchcraft. External links Ruth Barret's profile on Tree of Life store's website Temple of the Amazonia Awakening Circle of Aradia Dianic Cosmology Dianic Wiccan Tradition Re-Formed Congregation of the Goddess, International Temple of Diana Z Budapest Flash Silvermoon House of the Goddess (Center for Pagan Wombyn) The Blue Roebuck Daughters of the Goddess A site dedicated to Marija Gimbutus A movie about the work of Marija Gimbutas (Macromedia Flash format) Daughters of the Moon, a feminist tarot deck The Wise Woman's Tarot, a matriarchal, multicultural deck | Dianic_Wicca |@lemmatized dianic:22 wicca:5 also:3 know:1 witchcraft:3 feminist:4 falcon:1 river:2 wiccan:11 tradition:9 witch:5 voice:2 retrieved:2 denomination:1 neopagan:1 religion:1 found:1 zsuzsanna:3 budapest:5 united:1 state:1 notable:1 focus:1 worship:6 goddess:11 feminism:3 combine:1 element:1 british:1 traditional:1 italian:1 folk:2 magic:2 record:1 charles:1 leland:1 aradia:2 value:1 ritual:3 heal:1 practice:6 learn:1 mother:1 normally:1 female:3 covens:1 belief:1 acknowledge:1 source:1 living:1 contain:1 within:1 form:4 paganism:2 possibly:1 include:1 honor:1 male:1 deity:2 outside:1 dianics:5 monotheistic:1 polytheistic:1 non:2 theistic:1 circle:3 coven:4 mixed:3 gender:1 eclecticism:1 appreciation:1 cultural:1 diversity:1 ecological:1 concern:1 familiarity:1 sophisticated:1 concept:1 psyche:1 transformation:1 characteristic:1 originally:1 lesbians:1 majority:1 movement:2 however:1 modern:2 group:1 may:3 lesbian:1 heterosexual:1 jade:1 positive:1 path:2 practitioner:1 neither:1 manipulative:1 spellwork:1 hexing:1 notably:1 consider:2 hex:1 binding:1 attack:1 woman:8 wrong:1 difference:2 mainstream:1 like:1 attend:1 festival:1 celebrate:1 eight:1 major:1 holiday:1 samhain:1 beltane:1 imbolc:1 imbolg:1 lammas:1 solstice:1 equinox:1 see:2 wheel:1 year:1 esbats:1 hold:1 full:1 moon:3 use:1 many:2 altar:1 tool:1 vocabulary:1 gather:1 informal:1 noticeable:1 two:1 usually:2 aim:1 equal:2 number:1 men:1 god:2 generally:1 whole:1 unto:1 consort:1 rather:1 note:1 venerate:1 sometimes:1 espouse:1 existence:1 theology:1 sacred:1 feminine:1 thealogy:1 reference:1 interview:1 starhawk:3 pagan:5 investigation:1 contemporary:1 ed:1 v:1 vale:1 john:1 sulak:1 search:1 san:1 francisco:1 isbn:4 adler:1 margot:1 draw:1 druid:1 worshipper:1 america:1 today:1 boston:1 beacon:1 press:2 especially:1 ch:1 craft:1 holy:1 book:2 mystery:1 electronic:1 www:3 witchvox:3 com:3 article:1 macfarland:1 friendly:1 reaction:1 centric:1 http:2 va:2 html:2 usnv:1 c:2 word:1 id:2 reclaim:1 macha:1 nightmare:1 usca:1 trads:1 good:1 citation:1 one:1 provide:1 time:1 ochshorn:1 judith:1 cole:1 ellen:1 spirituality:1 life:2 haworth:1 pp:1 refer:1 z:2 diane:1 stein:1 shekinah:1 mountainwater:1 among:1 others:1 discussion:1 external:1 link:1 ruth:1 barret:1 profile:1 tree:1 store:1 website:1 temple:2 amazonia:1 awaken:1 cosmology:1 congregation:1 international:1 diana:1 flash:2 silvermoon:1 house:1 center:1 wombyn:1 blue:1 roebuck:1 daughter:2 site:1 dedicate:1 marija:2 gimbutus:1 movie:1 work:1 gimbutas:1 macromedia:1 format:1 tarot:2 deck:2 wise:1 matriarchal:1 multicultural:1 |@bigram dianic_wicca:2 dianic_wiccan:4 dianic_tradition:5 solstice_equinox:1 san_francisco:1 boston_beacon:1 http_www:2 external_link:1 marija_gimbutas:1 macromedia_flash:1 tarot_deck:1 |
5,747 | Afghan_Turkestan | Approximate boundaries of Afghan Turkestan (in orange), with respect to modern-day provinces of Afghanistan. Afghan Turkestan is a region in northern Afghanistan, on the border with the former Soviet republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. It was the name of a former province in this area, which was centred on Mazari Sharif and included territory in the modern provinces of Balkh, Jowzjan, Faryab and Sar-e Pol. The whole territory, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the Amu Darya on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, was some 500 miles in length, with an average width from the Russian frontier to the Hindu Kush of 114 miles (183 km). It thus comprised about 57,000 square miles (148,000 km²) or roughly two-ninths of the former kingdom of Afghanistan. Geography The area is agriculturally poor except in the river valleys, being rough and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulating wastes and pasture-lands towards the Turkman Desert. Population The bulk of the people are Uzbek, Turkmen and Tajiks with large concentration of Hazara and Pashtuns. USA Today - Pashtuns say they're being brutalized, May 12, 2002. History Ancient Balkh or Bactria was an integral part of Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, and was occupied by a race of Afghan blood. In the 5th century BCE, it became a province of the Achaemenian Empire and later bacame part of the Seleucid Empire. About 250 BC Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 BC. After this came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The district was devastated by Genghis Khan, and has never since fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbek hands. In the 18th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Khan Durani, and so remained under his son Timur. But under the fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back under the independent rule of various Uzbek chiefs. At the beginning of the 19th century they belonged to Bukhara; but under the emir Dost Mahommed the Afghans recovered Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 1859. The sovereignty over Andkhui, Shibarghan, Saripul and Maimana was in dispute between Bukhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah the bonds once more relaxed. References External links | Afghan_Turkestan |@lemmatized approximate:1 boundary:1 afghan:5 turkestan:2 orange:1 respect:1 modern:2 day:1 province:5 afghanistan:3 region:1 northern:1 border:1 former:3 soviet:1 republic:1 turkmenistan:1 uzbekistan:1 tajikistan:1 name:1 area:2 centre:1 mazari:1 sharif:1 include:1 territory:3 balkh:3 jowzjan:1 faryab:1 sar:1 e:1 pol:1 whole:1 junction:1 kokcha:1 river:2 amu:1 darya:1 north:1 east:1 herat:1 south:2 west:1 mile:3 length:1 average:1 width:1 russian:2 frontier:1 hindu:1 kush:1 km:1 thus:1 comprise:1 square:1 roughly:1 two:1 ninth:1 kingdom:1 geography:1 agriculturally:1 poor:1 except:1 valley:1 rough:1 mountainous:1 towards:2 subside:1 undulating:1 waste:1 pasture:1 land:1 turkman:1 desert:1 population:1 bulk:1 people:1 uzbek:3 turkmen:1 tajik:1 large:1 concentration:1 hazara:1 pashtun:2 usa:1 today:1 say:1 brutalize:1 may:1 history:2 ancient:1 bactria:3 integral:1 part:3 margiana:1 archaeological:1 complex:1 occupy:1 race:1 blood:1 century:4 bce:1 become:1 achaemenian:1 empire:3 later:1 bacame:1 seleucid:1 bc:2 diodotus:1 theodotus:1 governor:1 seleucidae:1 declare:1 independence:1 commence:1 greco:1 bactrian:1 dynasty:1 succumb:1 parthian:1 nomadic:1 movement:1 come:1 buddhist:1 era:1 leave:1 trace:1 gigantic:1 sculpture:1 bamian:1 rock:1 cut:1 tope:1 haibak:1 district:1 devastate:1 genghis:1 khan:2 never:1 since:1 fully:1 recover:2 prosperity:1 belong:2 delhi:1 fell:2 hand:1 form:1 dominion:1 ahmad:1 durani:1 remained:1 son:2 timur:2 fratricidal:1 war:1 separate:1 khanate:2 back:1 independent:1 rule:2 various:1 chief:1 beginning:1 bukhara:2 emir:1 dost:1 mahommed:1 tashkurgan:1 akcha:1 four:1 western:1 kunduz:1 sovereignty:1 andkhui:1 shibarghan:1 saripul:1 maimana:1 dispute:1 kabul:2 settle:1 anglo:1 agreement:1 favour:1 claim:1 strong:1 abdur:1 rahman:1 outlying:1 closely:1 weld:1 accession:1 habibullah:1 bond:1 relaxed:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram turkmenistan_uzbekistan:1 uzbekistan_tajikistan:1 mazari_sharif:1 amu_darya:1 hindu_kush:1 mile_km:1 bactria_margiana:1 margiana_archaeological:1 seleucid_empire:1 greco_bactrian:1 genghis_khan:1 ahmad_khan:1 abdur_rahman:1 external_link:1 |
5,748 | August_Horch | August Horch in a Horch automobile, 1908. August Horch Memorial plate in Cologne, Germany. August Horch (12 October, 1868 – 3 February, 1951) was a German engineer and automobile pioneer, the founder of the manufacturing giant which would eventually become Audi. He was born in Winningen, Moselle and was educated in Mittweida. August Horch worked for Karl Benz from 1896, before founding A. Horch & Cie in November 1899, in Ehrenfeld, Cologne, Germany. The first Horch automobile was built in 1901. The company moved to Reichenbach in 1902 and Zwickau in 1904. Horch left the company in 1909 after a dispute, and set up in competition in Zwickau. His new firm was initially called Horch Automobil-Werke GmbH, but following a legal dispute over the Horch name, he was obliged to change the company name. (The court decided that Horch was a registered trademark on behalf of August Horch's former partners and August Horch was not entitled to use it any more). Consequently, Horch renamed his company to Audi Automobilwerke GmbH in 1910, Audi being the Latinization of Horch. In August 1928, the Danish engineer Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen of DKW acquired a majority holding in Audiwerke. In June 1932 Audi, DKW, Horch and Wanderer merged to form Auto Union AG, the new company's logo was four interlinked rings, one for each of the founder companies. Horch was on the supervisory board of Auto Union. | August_Horch |@lemmatized august:7 horch:17 automobile:3 memorial:1 plate:1 cologne:2 germany:2 october:1 february:1 german:1 engineer:2 pioneer:1 founder:2 manufacturing:1 giant:1 would:1 eventually:1 become:1 audi:4 bear:1 winningen:1 moselle:1 educate:1 mittweida:1 work:1 karl:1 benz:1 found:1 cie:1 november:1 ehrenfeld:1 first:1 build:1 company:6 move:1 reichenbach:1 zwickau:2 leave:1 dispute:2 set:1 competition:1 new:2 firm:1 initially:1 call:1 automobil:1 werke:1 gmbh:2 follow:1 legal:1 name:2 oblige:1 change:1 court:1 decide:1 registered:1 trademark:1 behalf:1 former:1 partner:1 entitle:1 use:1 consequently:1 rename:1 automobilwerke:1 latinization:1 danish:1 jørgen:1 skafte:1 rasmussen:1 dkw:2 acquire:1 majority:1 hold:1 audiwerke:1 june:1 wanderer:1 merge:1 form:1 auto:2 union:2 ag:1 logo:1 four:1 interlinked:1 ring:1 one:1 supervisory:1 board:1 |@bigram august_horch:6 karl_benz:1 registered_trademark:1 supervisory_board:1 |
5,749 | Transport_in_Chad | Transport infrastructure within Chad is generally poor, especially in the north and east of the country. There are no railways and river transport is limited to the south-west corner. Roads are mostly unsurfaced and are likely to be impassable during the wet season, especially in the southern half of the country. In the north, roads are merely tracks across the desert and land mines continue to present a danger. Draft animals (horses, donkeys and camels) remain important in much of the country. Fuel supplies can be erratic, even in the south-west of the country, and are expensive. Elsewhere they are practically non-existent. Rebuilt Bridge in south west of Chad Railways Chad has no railways, but Libya is contemplating extending its naiscent railway network to sub-Saharan Africa, perhaps via Chad on its way to other countries. This link would be . http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BQQ/is_1_41/ai_69709357 Rail links in Adjacent countries Libya 1435 mm under construction Sudan 1067 mm Central African Republic - no Cameroon - 1000 mm Nigeria - 1067 mm Niger - no Maps UN Map UNHCR Atlas Map Highways total: 33,400 km paved: Approximately 500 km. Some, but not all of the roads in N'Djamena are paved. The country has one paved road outside of N'Djamena, which runs from Massakory in the north, through N'Djamena and then south, through the cities of Guelendeng, Bongor, Kelo and Moundou, with a short spur leading in the direction of Kousseri, Cameroon, near N'Djamena. Expansion of the road towards Cameroon via Pala and Lere is reportedly in the preparatory stages. unpaved: 33,133 km (1999 est.) Waterways 2,000 km navigable note: Chari and Logone Rivers are navigable only in wet season (2002). Both flow northwards, from the south of Chad, into Lake Chad. ummm chad is a very gay place Pipelines Since 2003, a 1,070 km pipeline has been used to export crude oil from the oilfields around Doba to offshore oil-loading facilities on Cameroon's Atlantic coast at Kribi. Seaports and harbors None (landlocked) Chad's main routes to the sea are:- From N'Djamena and the south west of Chad: By road to Ngaoundéré, in Cameroon, and then by rail to Douala By road to Maiduguri, in Nigeria, and then by rail to Port Harcourt From the north and east of Chad: By road across the Sahara desert to Libya In colonial times, the main access was by road to Bangui, in the Central African Republic, then by river boat to Brazzaville, and onwards by rail from Brazzaville to Pointe Noire, on Congo's Atlantic coast. This route is now little used. There is also a route across Sudan, to the Red Sea, but very little trade goes this way. Links with Niger, north of Lake Chad, are practically nonexistent; it is easier to reach Niger via Cameroon and Nigeria. Airports 59 (2003 est.) Airports - with paved runways total: 6 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 0 (2003 est.) List of airports with paved runways: Abeche Bol, Chad Faya-Largeau Mao Moundou N'Djamena Airports - with unpaved runways total: 53 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 914 to 1,523 m: 20 under 914 m: 10 (2003 est.) Maps UNJLC map See also Chad Economy of Chad External links List of airports in Chad References | Transport_in_Chad |@lemmatized transport:2 infrastructure:1 within:1 chad:15 generally:1 poor:1 especially:2 north:5 east:2 country:7 railway:4 river:3 limit:1 south:6 west:4 corner:1 road:9 mostly:1 unsurfaced:1 likely:1 impassable:1 wet:2 season:2 southern:1 half:1 merely:1 track:1 across:3 desert:2 land:1 mine:1 continue:1 present:1 danger:1 draft:1 animal:1 horse:1 donkey:1 camel:1 remain:1 important:1 much:1 fuel:1 supply:1 erratic:1 even:1 expensive:1 elsewhere:1 practically:2 non:1 existent:1 rebuilt:1 bridge:1 libya:3 contemplate:1 extend:1 naiscent:1 network:1 sub:1 saharan:1 africa:1 perhaps:1 via:3 way:2 link:4 would:1 http:1 findarticles:1 com:1 p:1 article:1 rail:4 adjacent:1 mm:4 construction:1 sudan:2 central:2 african:2 republic:2 cameroon:6 nigeria:3 niger:3 map:5 un:1 unhcr:1 atlas:1 highway:1 total:3 km:5 pave:4 approximately:1 n:6 djamena:6 one:1 outside:1 run:1 massakory:1 city:1 guelendeng:1 bongor:1 kelo:1 moundou:2 short:1 spur:1 lead:1 direction:1 kousseri:1 near:1 expansion:1 towards:1 pala:1 lere:1 reportedly:1 preparatory:1 stage:1 unpaved:2 est:4 waterways:1 navigable:2 note:1 chari:1 logone:1 flow:1 northward:1 lake:2 ummm:1 gay:1 place:1 pipeline:2 since:1 use:2 export:1 crude:1 oil:2 oilfield:1 around:1 doba:1 offshore:1 loading:1 facility:1 atlantic:2 coast:2 kribi:1 seaport:1 harbor:1 none:1 landlocked:1 main:2 route:3 sea:2 ngaoundéré:1 douala:1 maiduguri:1 port:1 harcourt:1 sahara:1 colonial:1 time:1 access:1 bangui:1 boat:1 brazzaville:2 onwards:1 pointe:1 noire:1 congo:1 little:2 also:2 red:1 trade:1 go:1 nonexistent:1 easy:1 reach:1 airport:5 runway:3 list:2 paved:1 abeche:1 bol:1 faya:1 largeau:1 mao:1 unjlc:1 see:1 economy:1 external:1 reference:1 |@bigram non_existent:1 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 http_findarticles:1 findarticles_com:1 n_djamena:6 unpaved_km:1 waterways_km:1 chari_logone:1 logone_river:1 crude_oil:1 seaport_harbor:1 none_landlocked:1 sahara_desert:1 pave_runway:1 airport_paved:1 paved_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 external_link:1 |
5,750 | Mano-a-mano | Mano-a-mano is a Spanish and Italian construction meaning "hand to hand". It was used originally for bullfights where two matadors alternate competing for the admiration of the audience. Mano a mano in the Diccionario de la Real Academia Española. Current Spanish usage describes any kind of competition between two people where they both compete trying to outdo each other. Within the Doce Pares Eskrima fighting system, it is one of the three ranges of engagement, specifically the closest one. This does not indicate solely unarmed combat. This term has been adopted in English with similar meaning, possibly by Ernest Hemingway. The English adoption can be likened to the phrases "one on one", "head to head", or "single combat" and conveys the idea of intense competition. It is commonly misunderstood as a cognate by English speakers who think that the term means "man to man". French sometimes use this expression in a blend of the Portuguese and Spanish meaning. “Donner quelque chose de mano a mano” means to give something to someone in person, with direct physical contact (as opposed to using an intermediary, be it a common friend, a phone call or an e-mail). Jack Nicholson mistakenly refers to the phrase as "mano y mano" (hand and hand) in his portrayal of The Joker in the film Batman (1989). ESPN sportscaster Chris Berman mistakenly uses "mano y mano" in his football coverage. Robert Lee, announcer for the television show Mythbusters, also mistakenly uses the "mano y mano" phrase. List of MythBusters episodes Phone Book Friction Aired September 10, 2008 References | Mano-a-mano |@lemmatized mano:12 spanish:3 italian:1 construction:1 meaning:3 hand:4 use:5 originally:1 bullfight:1 two:2 matador:1 alternate:1 compete:2 admiration:1 audience:1 diccionario:1 de:2 la:1 real:1 academia:1 española:1 current:1 usage:1 describe:1 kind:1 competition:2 people:1 try:1 outdo:1 within:1 doce:1 par:1 eskrima:1 fight:1 system:1 one:4 three:1 range:1 engagement:1 specifically:1 close:1 indicate:1 solely:1 unarmed:1 combat:2 term:2 adopt:1 english:3 similar:1 possibly:1 ernest:1 hemingway:1 adoption:1 liken:1 phrase:3 head:2 single:1 convey:1 idea:1 intense:1 commonly:1 misunderstand:1 cognate:1 speaker:1 think:1 mean:2 man:2 french:1 sometimes:1 expression:1 blend:1 portuguese:1 donner:1 quelque:1 choose:1 give:1 something:1 someone:1 person:1 direct:1 physical:1 contact:1 oppose:1 intermediary:1 common:1 friend:1 phone:2 call:1 e:1 mail:1 jack:1 nicholson:1 mistakenly:3 refer:1 portrayal:1 joker:1 film:1 batman:1 espn:1 sportscaster:1 chris:1 berman:1 football:1 coverage:1 robert:1 lee:1 announcer:1 television:1 show:1 mythbusters:2 also:1 list:1 episodes:1 book:1 friction:1 air:1 september:1 reference:1 |@bigram mano_mano:6 diccionario_de:1 academia_española:1 unarmed_combat:1 ernest_hemingway:1 jack_nicholson:1 |
5,751 | Book_of_Nahum | The book of Nahum is a book in the Bible's Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh. It stands seventh in order among what are known as the twelve Minor Prophets. Author and Context Nahum prophesied, according to some, in the beginning of the reign of Ahaz (740s BC). Others, however, think that his prophecies are to be referred to the latter half of the reign of Hezekiah (700s BC). Probably the book was written in Jerusalem, where he witnessed the invasion of Sennacherib and the destruction of his host (2 Kings 19:35). And still others support the idea that the "book of vision" was written shortly before the fall of Nineveh (612 BCE). This theory is evidenced by the fact that the oracles must be dated after the Assyrian destruction of Thebes in 663 BCE as this event is mentioned in Nah 3:8. The subject of this prophecy is the approaching complete and final destruction of Nineveh, the capital of the great and at that time flourishing Assyrian empire. Assur-bani-pal was at the height of his glory. Nineveh was a city of vast extent, and was then the center of the civilization and commerce of the world, a "bloody city all full of lies and robbery" (Nahum 3:1), for it had robbed and plundered all the neighboring nations. It was strongly fortified on every side, bidding defiance to every enemy. One popular verse is 3:5, "Behold, I am against thee, saith YHWH of hosts, and I will uncover thy skirts upon thy face; and I will show the nations thy nakedness, and the kingdoms thy shame." This is very symbolic showing that Nineveh was known for being a city full of prostitutes. Jonah had already uttered his message of warning, and Nahum was followed by Zephaniah, who also predicted (Zephaniah 2:4-15) the destruction of the city, predictions which were remarkably fulfilled (625 BC) when Nineveh was destroyed apparently by fire, and the Assyrian empire came to an end, an event which changed the face of Asia. Theme From its opening, Nahum shows God to be slow to anger but also one who will be no means clear the guilty but will bring his vengeance and wrath to pass. The opening passage (Nahum 1:2-3) states: "God is jealous, and the LORD revengeth; the LORD revengeth, and is furious; the LORD will take vengeance on his adversaries, and he reserveth wrath for his enemies. The LORD is slow to anger, and great in power, and will not at all acquit the wicked". God is strong and will use means, but a mighty God doesn't need anyone else to carry out vengeance and wrath for him. Nahum’s theme carries a particular warning to the Ninevites of coming events, although he is partly in favor of the destruction. Nahum at aboutbibleprophecy.com The prophet Jonah shows us where God shows concern for the people of Nineveh, while Nahum’s writing testifies to his belief in the righteousness of God. Nahum at earlyjewishwritings.com The Assyrians had been used as God's "rod of [...] anger, and the staff in their hand [as] indignation." (Isaiah 10:5) Contents Chapters 1:1-2:2 show the majesty and might of God the LORD in goodness and severity See also . Chapters 2:3-3:19 describe the fall of Nineveh in 612 BCE. Nineveh is compared to Thebes, the Egyptian city that Assyria itself had destroyed in 663 BCE. Nahum describes the siege and frenzied activity of Nineveh’s troops as they try in vain to halt the invaders. Poetically, he becomes a participant in the battle, and with subtle irony, barks battle commands to the defenders. Nahum uses numerous similes and metaphors. Nineveh is ironically compared with a lion, in reference to the lion as an Assyrian symbol of power; Nineveh is the lion of strength that has a den full of dead prey but will become weak like the lion hiding in its den. It comes to conclusion with a taunt song and funeral dirge of the impending destruction of Nineveh and the "sleep" or death of the Assyrian people and demise of the once great Assyrian conqueror-rulers. References External links Jewish translations: Nachum - Nahum (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English) Nahum at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) BibleGateway | Book_of_Nahum |@lemmatized book:5 nahum:14 bible:3 old:1 testament:1 jewish:2 tanakh:1 stand:1 seventh:1 order:1 among:1 know:2 twelve:1 minor:1 prophet:2 author:1 context:1 prophesy:1 accord:1 beginning:1 reign:2 ahaz:1 bc:3 others:2 however:1 think:1 prophecy:2 refer:1 latter:1 half:1 hezekiah:1 probably:1 write:3 jerusalem:1 witness:1 invasion:1 sennacherib:1 destruction:6 host:2 king:1 still:1 support:1 idea:1 vision:1 shortly:1 fall:2 nineveh:12 bce:4 theory:1 evidence:1 fact:1 oracle:1 must:1 date:1 assyrian:7 thebe:1 event:3 mention:1 nah:1 subject:1 approach:1 complete:1 final:1 capital:1 great:4 time:1 flourish:1 empire:2 assur:1 ban:1 pal:1 height:1 glory:1 city:5 vast:1 extent:1 center:1 civilization:1 commerce:1 world:1 bloody:1 full:3 lie:1 robbery:1 rob:1 plunder:1 neighboring:1 nation:2 strongly:1 fortify:1 every:2 side:1 bid:1 defiance:1 enemy:2 one:2 popular:1 verse:1 behold:1 thee:1 saith:1 yhwh:1 uncover:1 thy:4 skirt:1 upon:1 face:2 show:5 nakedness:1 kingdom:1 shame:1 symbolic:1 showing:1 prostitute:1 jonah:2 already:1 utter:1 message:1 warning:2 follow:1 zephaniah:2 also:3 predict:1 prediction:1 remarkably:1 fulfil:1 destroy:2 apparently:1 fire:1 come:3 end:1 change:1 asia:1 theme:2 opening:2 god:8 slow:2 anger:3 mean:2 clear:1 guilty:1 bring:1 vengeance:3 wrath:3 pass:1 passage:1 state:1 jealous:1 lord:5 revengeth:2 furious:1 take:1 adversary:1 reserveth:1 power:2 acquit:1 wicked:1 strong:1 use:3 mighty:1 need:1 anyone:1 else:1 carry:2 particular:1 ninevites:1 although:1 partly:1 favor:1 aboutbibleprophecy:1 com:2 u:1 concern:1 people:2 testifies:1 belief:1 righteousness:1 earlyjewishwritings:1 rod:1 staff:1 hand:1 indignation:1 isaiah:1 content:1 chapter:2 majesty:1 might:1 goodness:1 severity:1 see:1 describe:2 compare:2 thebes:1 egyptian:1 assyria:1 siege:1 frenzied:1 activity:1 troop:1 try:1 vain:1 halt:1 invader:1 poetically:1 become:2 participant:1 battle:2 subtle:1 irony:1 bark:1 command:1 defender:1 numerous:1 simile:1 metaphor:1 ironically:1 lion:4 reference:2 symbol:1 strength:1 den:2 dead:1 prey:1 weak:1 like:1 hiding:1 conclusion:1 taunt:1 song:1 funeral:1 dirge:1 impending:1 sleep:1 death:1 demise:1 conqueror:1 ruler:1 external:1 link:1 translation:3 nachum:1 judaica:1 press:1 rashi:1 commentary:1 chabad:1 org:2 christian:1 online:1 gospelhall:1 esv:1 kjv:1 darby:1 american:1 standard:2 version:2 basic:1 english:1 new:1 revise:1 biblegateway:1 |@bigram strongly_fortify:1 anyone_else:1 simile_metaphor:1 external_link:1 translation_rashi:1 rashi_commentary:1 commentary_chabad:1 chabad_org:1 bible_gospelhall:1 gospelhall_org:1 org_esv:1 esv_kjv:1 kjv_darby:1 |
5,752 | Cinema_of_the_Soviet_Union | The cinema of the Soviet Union, not to be confused with "Cinema of Russia" despite Russian language films being predominant in both genres, includes several film contributions of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union reflecting elements of their pre-Soviet culture, language and history, although sometimes censored by the Central Government. Most notable for their republican cinema were Russian SSR, Armenian SSR, Georgian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, and, to a lesser degree, Lithuanian SSR, Byelorussian SSR and Moldavian SSR. At the same time, the nation's film industry, which was fully nationalized throughout most of the country's history, was guided by philosophies and laws propounded by the monopoly Soviet Communist Party which introduced a new view on the cinema, socialist realism, which was different from the one before or after the existence of the Soviet Union. Historical outline A 1926 Soviet poster for The Battleship Potemkin. The new state, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, officially came into existence on December 30, 1922. From the outset, it was held that film would be the most ideal propaganda tool for the Soviet Union because of its mass popularity among the established citizenry of the new land; V. I. Lenin, in fact, declared it the most important medium for educating the masses in the ways, means and successes of Communism, a position which was later echoed by Joseph Stalin. Meanwhile, between World War I and the Russian Revolution, most of the film industry, and the general infrastructure needed to support it (e.g. electrical power), was in a shambles. The majority of cinemas had been in the corridor between Moscow and St. Petersburg in Russia, and most were out of commission. Additionally, many of the performers, producers, directors and other artists of pre-Soviet Russia, had fled the country or were moving ahead of the Red Army forces as they pushed further and further south into the remainder of the Russian Empire. Furthermore, the new government did not have the funds to spare for an extensive reworking of the system of filmmaking. Thus, they initially opted for project approval and censorship guidelines while leaving what of the industry remained in private hands. As this amounted mostly to cinema houses, the first Soviet films consisted of recycled films of the Russian Empire and its imports, to the extent that these were not determined to be offensive to the new Soviet ideology. Ironically, the first new film released in Soviet Russia did not exactly fit this mold: this was Father Sergius, a religious film completed during the last weeks of the Russian Empire but not yet exhibited. It appeared on Soviet screens in 1918. Beyond this, the government was principally able to fund only short, educational films, the most notorious of which were the agitki - propaganda films intended to "agitate", or energize and enthuse, the masses to participate fully in approved Soviet activities, and deal effectively with those who remained in opposition to the new order. These short (often one small reel) films were often simple visual aids and accompaniments to live lectures and speeches, and were carried from city to city, town to town, village to village (along with the lecturers) to indoctrinate the entire countryside, even reaching areas where film had not been previously seen. Newsreels, as documentaries, were the other major form of earliest Soviet cinema. Dziga Vertov's newsreel series Kino-Pravda, the best known of these, lasted from 1922 to 1925 and had a propagandistic bent; Vertov used the series to promote Socialist realism but also to experiment with cinema. Still, in 1921 , there was not one functioning cinema in Moscow until late in the year. Its rapid success, utilizing old Russian and imported feature films, jumpstarted the industry significantly, especially insofar as the government did not heavily or directly regulate what was shown, and by 1923 an additional 89 cinemas had opened. Despite extremely high taxation of ticket sales and film rentals, there was an incentive for individuals to begin making feature film product again - there were places to show the films - albeit they now had to conform their subject matter to a Soviet world view. In this context, the directors and writers who had remained in support of the objectives of Communism assumed quick dominance in the industry, as they were the ones who could most reliably and convincingly turn out films that would satisfy government censors. New talent joined the experienced remainder, and an artistic community assembled with the goal of defining "Soviet film" as something distinct and better from the output of "decadent capitalism". The leaders of this community viewed it essential to this goal to be free to experiment with the entire nature of film, a position which would result in several well-known creative efforts but would also result in an unforeseen counter-reaction by the increasingly solidifying administrators of the government-controlled society. Eisenstein's Battleship Potemkin was released to wide acclaim in 1925; the film was heavily fictionalized and also propagandistic, preaching the party line about the virtues of the proletariat. The party leaders soon found it difficult to control directors' expression, partly because definitive understanding of a film's meaning was elusive. One of the most popular films released in the 1930s was Circus. Immediately after the end of the Second World War, color movies such as The Stone Flower (1946), Ballad of Siberia (1947), and The Kuban Cossacks (1949) were released. Other notable films from the 1940s include Aleksandr Nevsky and Ivan Grozny. In the late 1950s and early 1960s Soviet Cinema produced Ballada o Soldate (Ballad of a Soldier), which won the 1961 BAFTA Award for Best Film, and The Cranes Are Flying. Vysota (Height) is considered to be one of the best films of the 1950s (it also became the foundation of the bard movement). Screenshot from Grigori Chukhrai's Ballad of a Soldier (1959). The 1980s saw a diversification of subject matter. Touchy issues could now be discussed openly. The results were films like Pokayanie (Repentance), which dealt with Stalinist repressions in Georgia, and the allegorical science fiction movie Kin-dza-dza!, which satirized the Soviet life in general. Censorship After Stalin, Soviet filmmakers were given a freer hand to film what they believed audiences wanted to see in their film's characters and stories. However, the industry remained a part of the government and if any material was found politically offensive or undesirable, it was either removed, edited, reshot, or shelved. In rare cases the filmmakers managed to convince the government of the innocence of their work and the film was released. The definition of "socialist realism" was liberalized to allow development of more human characters, but communism still had to remain uncriticized in its fundamentals. Additionally, the degree of relative artistic liberality was changed from administration to administration. Oddities created by censorship include: The first chapter of the epic film Освобождение (Liberation) was filmed 20 years after the subsequent three parts. The director had refused to minimize the errors of the Soviet High Command during the first year of the war, and instead waited for a time when he could film this portion accurately. Eisenstein's Aleksandr Nevsky was censored before the German invasion of the Soviet Union due to its depiction of a strong Russian leader defying an invading army of German Teutonic knights. After the invasion, the film was released for propaganda purposes to considerable critical acclaim. Sergei Eisensteins Ivan the terrible part II was completed in 1945 but was not reelased until 1958 5 years after Stalin's Death. Revolution and Civil War The first Soviet Russian state film organization, the Film Supdepartment of the People's Commissariat of Education, was established in 1917. The work of the nationalized motion-picture studios was administered by the All-Russian Photography and Motion Picture Department, which was recognized in 1923 into Goskino, which in 1926 became Sovkino. The world's first state-filmmaking school, the First State School of Cinematography, was established in Moscow in 1919. During the Russian Civil War, agitation trains and ships visited soldiers, workers, and peasants. Lectures, reports, and political meetings were accompanied by newsreels about events at the various fronts. 1920s In the 1920s, the documentary film group headed by Vertov blazed the trail from the conventional newsreel to the "imagecentered publicistic film", which became the basis of the Russian film documentary. Typical of the 1920s were the topical news serial "Kinopravda" and the film "Forward, Soviet!" by Vertov, whose experiments and achievements in documentary films influenced the development of Russian and world cinematography. Other important films of the 1920s were Shub's historical-revolutionary films such as "The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty." The film "Hydropeat" by I. Zheliabuzhsky marked the beginning of popular science films. Feature-length agitation films in 1918-21 were important in the development of the film industry. Innovation in Russian filmmaking was expressed p articularly in the work of Eisenstein. The film "Battleship Potemkin" was noteworthy for its innovative montage and metaphorical quality of its film language. It won world acclaim. Eisenstein developed concepts of the revolutionary epic in the film "October." Also noteworthy was Pudovkin's adaptation of Gorky's "Mother" to the screen in 1926. Pudovkin developed themes of revolutionary history in the film "The End of St Petersburg" (1927). Other noteworthy silent films were films dealing with contemporary life such as Barnet's "The House on the Trubnaia." The films of Protazanov were devoted to the revolutionary struggle and the shaping of a new way of life, such as "Don Diego and Pelageia" (1928). Ukrainian director Dovzhenko was noteworthy for the historical-revolutionary epic "Zvenigora", the "Arsenal" and the poetic film "Earth". http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00075/36400.htm?text=%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE&encid=bse&stpar1=1.6.1 1930s In the early 1930s, Russian filmmakers applied socialist realism to their work. Among the most outstanding films was "Chapaev", a film about Russian revolutonaries and society during the Revolution and Civil War. Revolutionary history was developed in films such as "Golden Mountains" by Sergei Yutkevich, "The Outskirts" by Boris Barnet, and the trilogy about Maksim comprised of "The Youth of Maksim", "The Return of Maksim", and "The Vyborg Side". Also notable were biographical films about Lenin such as Mikhail Romm's "Lenin in October" and "Lenin in 1918". The life of Russian society and everyday people were depicted in films such as "Courageous Seven" and "Komsomolsk" by Sergei Gerasimov. The comedies of G. Aleksandrov such as "Volga-Volga" and "The Blazing Path" as well as "The Rich Bride" by Ivan Pyryev and "By the Deep Blue Sea" by Boris Barnet focus on the psychology of the common person, enthusiasm for work and intolerance for remnants of the past. Many films focused on national heroes, including "Alexander Nevsky" by Sergei Eisenstein, "Minin and Pozharsky" by V.Pudovkin, and "Bogdan Khmelnitsky" by I. Savchenko. There were adapdations of literary classics, particularly Mark Donskoi's trilogy of films about Maksim Gorky composed of "Childhood of Gorky", "My Apprenticeships", and "My Universities." http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00075/36400.htm?text=%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE&encid=bse&stpar1=1.6.1 One of the most popular films released in the 1930s was Circus. Immediately after the end of the Second World War, color movies such as The Stone Flower (1946), Ballad of Siberia (1947), and The Kuban Cossacks (1949) were released. Other notable films from the 1940s include Aleksandr Nevsky and Ivan Grozny. 1950s With the start of the Cold War, writers, still considered the primary auteurs, were all the more reluctant to take up script writing, and the early 50s saw only a handful of feature films completed during any year. The death of Stalin was a merciful relief to many, and all the more so was the official trashing of his public image as a benign and competent leader by Nikita Khruschev two years later. This latter event gave filmmakers the margin of comfort they needed to move away from the narrow formula stories of socialist realism, expand its boundaries, and begin work on a wider range of entertaining and artistic Soviet films. Notable films include: The Cranes Are Flying, directed at Mosfilm by the Georgian-born director Mikhail Kalatozov in 1957. It won the Palme d'Or at the 1958 Cannes Film Festival. 1960s-70s The 1960s and 1970s saw the creation of many films, many of which moulded Soviet and post-Soviet culture. They include: I am striding Through Moscow (Ya Shagayu po Moskve) (1963) Operation "Y" and other Shurik's adventures (Operatsiya "Y" i drugie priklucheniya Shurika) (1965) and its sequel, Kidnapping, Caucasian Style (Kavkazskaya Plennitsa) (1966) White Sun of the Desert (Beloe Solntze Pustyni) (1970), a classic 'Eastern', although with dubious stereotyping of central Asians. It is ritually watched by cosmonauts before launches, and has contributed many quotes to the Russian language such as 'The East is a delicate matter'. Its theme tune became a huge hit. Solaris (1972) Gentlemen of Fortune (Gentelmeny Udachi) (1972) starring Yevgeny Leonov Seventeen Instants of Spring (Semnadtsat mgnoveniy vesny) (1973), which created the immortal character of Standartenführer Stirlitz, and whose compelling and unbiased look at the life of a spy in wartorn Germany made the film popular in both German states as well. Irony of Fate (Original title: Ирония судьбы, или С лёгким паром!) (1975) Moscow Does Not Believe In Tears (1979) (Moskva Slezam ne Verit) The Diamond Arm (Brilliantovaya Ruka). The last four comedies, especially Diamond Arm, have contributed a lot of humorous quotes. Soviet directors were more concerned with artistic success than with economical success (They were paid by the academy, and so money was not a critical issue). This contributed to the creation of a large number of more philosophical films. In keeping with Russian character, tragi-comedies were very popular. Soviet films tend to be rather culture-specific and are difficult for many foreigners to understand without having been exposed to the culture first. Animation was a respected genre, with many directors experimenting with technique. Tale of Tales (1979) by Yuriy Norshteyn was twice given the title of "Best Animated Film of All Eras and Nations" by animation professionals from around the world, in 1984 and 2002. These decades were prominent in the production of the Ostern or Red Western. In the year of the 60th anniversary of the Soviet cinema (1979), on April 25, a decision of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR established a commemorative "Day of the Soviet cinema". It was then celebrated in the USSR each year on August 27, the day on which V. I. Lenin signed a decree to nationalise the country's cinematic and photographic industries. 1980s The policies of perestroika and glasnost saw a loosening of the censorship of earlier eras Butenko, I. A. & Razlogov, K. E., Recent Social Trends in Russia, 1960-1995, McGill-Queen's Press, 1997. ISBN 0773516107 . A genre known as "chernukha" (from the Russian word for "black"), including films such as Little Vera, portrayed the harsh realities of Soviet life Hertenstein, Mike, Idols and Icons (Part II) A Survey of Russian and Soviet Cinema . Notable films of this period include: Pokrovsky Gates (Pokrovskiye Vorota) (1982) a made-for-television comedy starring Oleg Menshikov Little Vera (Malenkaya Vera) (1988) notable as one of the first Soviet film with sexually explicit scenes Kin-dza-dza! (1986) allegorical science fiction Soviet films There are many movies which are well-remembered and looked upon fondly in the former Soviet republics; famous lines or jokes from these movies are often quoted and some have even become a part of the Russian language as sayings and idioms. Most of these classic Soviet movies were produced by Mosfilm and other state-owned film studios. Genres Movies Action Белое солнце пустыни ("Beloye solntse pustyni", "White Sun of the Desert") - one of the best loved Soviet films of all time. For more information on this type of movie, see Red Western. Science Fiction Aelita, a 1924 silent film directed by Yakov Protazanov based on Alexei Tolstoy's novel of the same name Solaris and Stalker by Andrey Tarkovsky Kin-dza-dza!, a 1986 dystopian comedy/science fiction film by Georgi Daneliya. Comedy Gentlemen of Fortune - a schoolteacher played by Evgeni Leonov pretends to be a criminal boss called Professor (who looks exactly like him) in order to gain information about a stolen artifact from Professor's two lackeys. Kidnapping, Caucasian Style ("Kavkazskaya plennitsa, ili Novye priklyucheniya Shurika", "Prisoner of the Caucasus, or Shurik's New Adventures"). A lot of ethnic humor, as Shurik gets involved unwittingly in kidnapping. It's also a satire of corrupt local officials. Ivan Vasilievich: Back to the Future ("Ivan Vasilyevich menyaet professiyu", "Ivan Vasilievich changes his profession") - a scientist's time travel machine ends up teleporting his tenement administrator into 16th century Russia and bringing Ivan the Terrible into the present. The two are identical in appearance and chaos promptly ensues. The Twelve Chairs - based on the famous novel of the same name by Ilf and Petrov. The Diamond Arm - starring Yuri Nikulin, Anatoli Papanov, and Andrei Mironov. Inept smugglers try to recover diamonds which ended up with the wrong man. The Pokrovsky Gates - starring Oleg Menshikov as a young student who comes to Moscow and finds himself involved in the misfortunes of his fellow apartment tenants. Drama Ирония судьбы или с лёгким паром ("Ironiya sudby ili s lyogkim parom", "Irony of Fate, or Enjoy Your Bath") - a comedy-drama so beloved in Russia that it is broadcasted on television every New Year Eve, similarly to the American movie A Christmas Story being broadcast every Christmas. Место встречи изменить нельзя ("Mesto vstrechi izmenit nelzya", "The Meeting Place Cannot Be Changed") - A 1979 miniseries set in 1945. Vladimir Vysotsky plays a no-nonsense cop trying to catch the deadly Black Cat gang. Обыкновенное чудо ("Obyknovennoye chudo", "Ordinary wonder") - a fairy-tale love story about a bear who has been transformed into a man by a wizard, and must be kissed by a princess to return to his original form. Семнадцать мгновений весны ("Semnadtsat mgnoveniy vesny", "Seventeen Moments of Spring") - a multi-episode film about an undercover Soviet spy, "Stirlitz", in Germany during World War II. An entire type of joke, usually based on a play on words, has arisen from these movies. And Quiet Flows the Don (1957-8) by Sergei Gerasimov - an adaptation of the Nobel prize winning novel And Quiet Flows the Don. Война и мир ("Voyna i mir", "War and Peace") - a version of Tolstoy's novel as giant as the original. Notable filmmakers Early personalities in the development of Soviet cinema: Grigori Aleksandrov Alexander Dovzhenko Sergei Eisenstein Lev Kuleshov Yakov Protazanov Vsevolod Pudovkin Ivan Pyryev Dziga Vertov Later personalities: Andrei Konchalovsky Nikita Mikhalkov Aleksandr Sokurov Andrei Tarkovsky Aleksei German Elem Klimov Larissa Shepitko Eldar Ryazanov Leonid Gaidai Georgi Daneliya Kira Muratova Sergei Parajanov Soviet studios Armenfilm Azerbaijanfilm Belarusfilm Georgiafilm Gorky Film Studio Gruziya-film Kazahfilm Kievnauchfilm Kirgizfilm Lenfilm Lithuanian Film Studio Moldova-Film Mosfilm Dovzhenko Film Studios Odessa Cinema Studio Pilot Rīgas kinostudija Soyuzmultfilm Sverdlovsk Film Studio Tadjikfilm Tallinnfilm Turkmenfilm Uzbekfilm See also Cinema of Russia, Cinema of Ukraine, etc. List of Soviet movies of the year by ticket sales History of Russian animation History of cinema World cinema References External links Russian Film Database, University of Innsbruck, Austria | 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5,753 | Politics_of_Haiti | Politics of Haiti takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, pluriform multiparty system whereby the President of Haiti is head of state directly elected by popular vote. The Prime Minister acts as head of government, and is appointed by the President from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the President and Prime Minister who together constitute the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti. The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government delegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of March 29, 1987. Political background Haiti is officially a presidential republic, although it is often claimed to be authoritarian in practice. Suffrage is universal, for adults over 18. The constitution was modeled after those of the United States and of France. It was approved in March 1987, but it was completely suspended from June 1988 to March 1989 and was only fully reinstated in October 1994. On February 29, 2004, a rebellion culminated in a coup against the popularly elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, allegedly with the assistance of the French and United States governments; U.S. and French soldiers were on the ground in Haiti at the time, recently arrived (See controversy). The first elections since the overthrow were held on February 8, 2006 to elect a new President. Rene Preval was declared to have won with over 50 percent of the vote. Runoff elections for legislative seats were held on April 21. In 2008, Parliament voted to dismiss President Preval's Prime Minister following severe rioting over food prices. His selected replacement for the post was rejected by Parliament, throwing the country into a prolonged period without a government. Haiti is undergoing a major food crisis as prices for food escalate. Corruption Political corruption is a common problem in Haiti. The country has consistently ranked as one of the most corrupt nations according to the Corruption Perceptions Index, a measure of perceived political corruption. In 2006, Haiti was ranked as the most corrupt nation out of the 163 that were surveyed for the Index. The International Red Cross reported that Haiti was 155th out of 159 countries in a similar survey of corrupt countries. Branches of government Executive branch Presidential Palace in Port-au-Prince |President |René Préval |Lespwa |14 May 2006 |- |Prime Minister |Michèle Pierre-Louis |independent |5 September 2008 |} Haiti's executive branch is composed of two parts, the presidency and the government. In this sense, "government" refers specifically to the portion of the executive branch outside of the presidency, and not to Haiti's political system as a whole. Government president The president is the head of state and elected by popular vote every five years. He is assisted by his cabinet, which must be approved by the National Assembly. Jean-Bertrand Aristide had been in office since February 7, 2001, having received 92% of votes in the elections of 2000. On February 29, 2004, President Aristide reportedly "voluntarily relinquished" the presidency. However, Aristide claims he was pressured to accept the demands of the rebels by the United States and France. Alternatively, President Aristide claims that he was kidnapped. Following Aristide's departure, Boniface Alexandre became the de-facto interim president. Alexandre, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, was in line to succeed the President in case of death or resignation, according to the 1987 Constitution of Haiti. The current president is René Préval, who received 51 percent of the votes in the 2005 elections. (see also: 2004 Haiti Rebellion, List of heads of state of Haiti) Government Haiti's government is composed of the Prime Minister, the other Ministers, and the Secretaries of State. The prime minister, the head of government, is appointed by the president and ratified by the National Assembly. He appoints the Ministers and Secretaries of State and goes before the National Assembly to obtain a vote of confidence for his declaration of general policy. The Prime Minister enforces the laws and, along with the President, is responsible for national defense. Yvon Neptune was appointed Prime Minister on March 4, 2002, but following the overthrow of the government in February 2004, he was replaced by an interim Prime Minister, Gérard Latortue. The constitutional Prime Minister, Yvon Neptune languished in jail for over a year, accused of complicity in an alleged massacre in Saint-Marc. United Nations officials, expressing scepticism towards the evidence, called for either due process or his release. Having entered custody in June 2004, Neptune was formally charged on September 20 2005, but was never sent to trial. He was finally released on 28 July 2006. The last Prime Minister, Jacques-Édouard Alexis, entered office in 2006 and was removed in April 2008. Michèle Pierre-Louis received approval to become the next Prime Minister from both houses in July. The ministries of the Haitian government are: P. Schutt-Ainé, Haiti: A Basic Reference Book, 166 Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Rural Development Ministry of Commerce and Industry Ministry of Finance and Economy Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cults Ministry of Information and Coordination Ministry of Interior and National Defense Ministry of Justice Ministry of National Education, Youth and Sports Ministry of Planning and Foreign Aid Ministry of Public Health and Population Ministry of Public Works, Transportation and Communications Ministry of Social Affairs Legislative branch The bicameral National Assembly of Haiti (Assemblée Nationale) consists of the Chamber of Deputies (Chambre des Députés) and the Senate (Sénat). The Chamber of Deputies has ninety-nine members, who are elected for four-year terms. The Senate consists of thirty seats, one third elected every two years. In the popular elections of 2000, twenty six seats were won by Aristide's Lavalas Family Party. Prior to a 2002 territorial law which created a tenth department, the chamber of Deputies had eighty three seats and the senate had twenty-seven. Judicial branch The legal system is based on the Roman civil law system. Haiti accepts compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice. There is a Supreme Court (Cour de Cassation), assisted by local and civil courts at a communal level. Through its Administration of Justice (AOJ) program, the United States has helped support the independence and competency of Haiti's judicial branch through the training of hundreds of Haitian judges and prosecutors, particularly at the Magisterial Training School established in 1995. The AOJ program ended in July 2000, upon expiration of a bilateral assistance agreement between the United States and the Government of Haiti. During its tenure, the AOJ program also provided free legal assistance for thousands of impoverished Haitians, and has helped obtain the release of hundreds of people detained without trial. U.S. reform programs have included the participation of non-governmental organizations, particularly to encourage conflict resolution and mediation programs that alleviate pressure on the still-overmatched judicial system. In spite of these initiatives, Haiti's judicial system remains severely troubled -- lacking the modern facilities, properly trained officials, and resources it requires to be able to meet the demands placed upon it. The Carrefour Feuilles trial in September 2000 and the Raboteau trial in November 2000 evidenced significant improvements in the judicial system's capacity. Nevertheless, Haiti's system remains in need of continued reform and strengthening. Administrative divisions Haiti has ten departments (départements): Artibonite, Centre, Grand'Anse, Nippes, Nord, Nord-Est, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, and Sud-Est. Each department is divided into from three to seven arrondissements, and arrondissements are further divided into communes. Political parties and elections International organization participation ACCT, ACP, Caricom (suspended member), CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO Notes References External links Haiti's New Government Faces Historic Dilemmas U.S. Institute of Peace Briefing, May 2006 International Mission for Monitoring Haitian Elections | Politics_of_Haiti |@lemmatized politics:1 haiti:25 take:1 place:2 framework:1 presidential:3 republic:2 pluriform:1 multiparty:1 system:9 whereby:1 president:16 head:5 state:10 directly:1 elect:6 popular:3 vote:7 prime:12 minister:14 act:1 government:18 appoint:4 majority:1 party:3 national:9 assembly:6 executive:4 power:3 exercise:1 together:1 constitute:1 legislative:3 vest:1 two:3 chamber:4 organize:1 unitarily:1 thus:1 central:1 delegate:1 department:4 without:3 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5,754 | Floorball | Floorball, often referred to as floor hockey, is an indoor team sport, which was developed in the 1970s. It is a fast paced sport, with limited physical contact allowed. Floorball is most popular in areas where the sport has developed the longest, such as the Czech Republic, Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland. The game is played indoors on a gym floor, making it a year-round sport at the amateur and professional levels. There are professional leagues, such as Finland's Salibandyliiga and Sweden's Svenska Superligan. While there are 49 members of the International Floorball Federation (IFF), the Czech Republic, Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland have finished in most of the coveted 1st, 2nd and 3rd places at the Floorball World Championships. In addition to those four countries, floorball is gaining popularity in countries such as Australia, Canada, Japan, Singapore, and the United States. History Official logo of the International Floorball Federation, floorball's governing body. Although the history of floorball's origins is unknown, it is believed that North Americans that immigrated to Scandinavia developed the game from ball hockey in the 1970s. The game is believed to have originated in Gothenburg, Sweden. The sport began as something that was played for fun as a pastime at schools. After a decade or so, floorball began showing up in Scandinavian countries such as Finland, Norway, and Sweden, where the once school pastime was becoming a developed sport. Formal rules soon were developed, and clubs began to form. After some time, several countries developed national associations, and the IFF was founded in 1986. The game of floorball is also known by many other names, such as salibandy (in Finland), innebandy (in Sweden), and unihockey (in Switzerland). The names 'salibandy' and 'innebandy' are derived from a sport similar to hockey called bandy. Both of those names literally translate to 'indoor bandy'. Expansion When the IFF was founded in 1986, the sport was played in mostly Scandinavian countries, Japan, and several parts of Europe. By 1990, floorball was recognized in 7 countries, and by the time of the first European Floorball Championships in 1994, that number had risen to 14. That number included the United States, who were the first country outside of Europe and Asia to recognize floorball , IFF - History in short . By the time of the first men's world championships in 1996, 20 nations played floorball, with 12 of them participating at the tournament. As of 2009, the sport of floorball has been played in almost 80 countries. Of those, 49 have national floorball associations that are recognized by the IFF. With the addition of Sierra Leone, Africa's first floorball nation, the IFF has at least one national association on each continent of the world, with the exception of Antarctica. Development 10 years after the IFF was founded, the first world championships were played, with a sold out final of 15,106 people at the Globen in Stockholm, Sweden. In addition to that, the world's two largest floorball leagues, Finland's Salibandyliiga and Sweden's Svenska Superligan were formed, in 1986 and 1995 respectively. Recognition In December, 2008, the IFF and the sport of floorball received recognition from the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The IFF hopes that this provisional recognition will help allow floorball to become a part of the 2020 Summer Olympics , IFF Receives International Olympic Committee Recognition . In January, 2009, the IFF and the sport of floorball received recognition from Special Olympics. This recognition could make floorball an official Special Olympics sport in just two years. As well, the IFF hopes that floorball will be included as a demonstration sport at the 2013 Special Olympics World Winter Games , Floorball receives recognition by the Special Olympics . In addition to recognition by the International Olympic Committee and Special Olympics, the IFF is also a member of the General Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF), and co-operates with the International University Sports Federation (FISU) , IFF - Organization . World Championships Sweden celebrates their 2006 World Floorball Championship after defeating Finland 7:6 in Sudden Victory Overtime. The world floorball championships are a semi-annual event where teams from across the world gather to play in a tournament in order to win the world championship. As of 2009, seven men's, as well as six women's, four men's under-19, and three women's under-19 world floorball championships have taken place. The Czech Republic, Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland remain the only four countries to have ever captured a medal at a World Championship event. A floorball world championship is awarded twice a year, and bi-annually in each age group. The Men's World Floorball Championships take place every December (since 2008) in every even year. The Women's World Floorball Championships take place every December (since 2009) in every odd year. The Men's under-19 World Floorball Championships take place every May (since 2009) in every odd year. The Women's under-19 World Floorball Championships take place every May (since 2008) in every even year. From 1996 to 2009, the IFF will use a world floorball championship format where the last team in the A-Division is relegated to the B-Division, while the top team in the B-Division is promoted to the A-Division. This format caused much hardship for countries such as Australia, Canada, Slovakia, and Spain, who have all been trying to get to the B-Division from the C-Division since 2004. In 2010, the IFF plans to adopt a FIFA-like continental qualification system, where teams must qualify to play at the world championships. Depending on the number of countries registered per continent or region, the IFF gives spots for the world championships. For example, for the 2010 Men's World Floorball Championships, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, and the United States will need to play for one spot at the world championships in a continental qualification tournament for the Americas , WFC new system . Gameplay The dimensions of a floorball rink. Measurements Floorball is played indoors on a rink which size can officially vary from 18-22 meters wide to 36-44 meters long. The rink is surrounded by 50 cm high enclosed boards with rounded corners. The goals are 160 cm wide and 115 cm high. Their depth is 65 cm and they are 2.85 meters from the end of the nearest boards. Equipment Field Players Typical equipment for a floorball player consists of a pair of shorts, a shirt, socks and indoor sport shoes. In addition to that, players are allowed to wear shin guards, eye protectors and protective padding for vital areas. Players, except for the goalkeeper, also carry sticks. A floorball player is also known as a 'floorballer'. Sticks A floorball stick is short compared with ice hockey; the maximum size for a stick is 105 cm. As a stick cannot weigh any more than 350 grams, floorball manufacturers produce sticks that are often made of carbon and composite materials. Goalkeepers Goalkeepers wear protection that is very limited; padded pants, a padded chest protector, and a helmet. The goalkeeper can also wear other protective equipment, but bulky padding is not permitted. Some of this other protective equipment includes knee pads, jocks (for men), and gloves. Ball A Floorball ball. This is a precision type ball, characterized by 1516 tiny dimples that reduce air resistance, as well as friction on the floor. In floorball, the objective is to get a plastic whiffle ball into a net with the aid of the stick past a goaltender. A floor ball weighs 23 grams and its diameter is 72 mm. It has 26 holes in it; each of which are 11 mm in diameter. Many of these balls now are made with aerodynamic technology, where the ball has over a thousand small dimples in it that reduce air resistance. There have been several times where a ball has been recorded to have traveled at a speed of approximately 190 km/h. Rules Each team can field six players at a time on the court, one player being a goalkeeper. A floorball game is officially played over three periods lasting 20 minutes each. Time is stopped in the case of penalties, goals, time-outs and any situation where the ball is not considered to be in play. An intermission of 10 minutes takes place between each periods, where teams change ends and substitution areas. Each team is allowed a timeout of 30 seconds (which is often used late in matches). There are two referees to oversee the game, each with equal authority. Checking is disallowed in floorball. Controlled shoulder-to-shoulder contact is allowed, but ice hockey-like checking is forbidden. Pushing players without the ball or competing for a loose ball is also disallowed, and many of these infractions lead to two minute penalties. The best comparison in terms of legal physical contact is soccer, where checking is used to improve one's positioning in relation to the ball rather than to remove an opposing player from the play. In addition to checking, players cannot lift another opponents stick or perform any stick infractions in order to get to the ball. As well, players may not raise their stick or play the ball above their knee level, and a stick cannot be placed in between a player's legs (to avoid tripping). The rules of floorball are based on safety of the players. When a player commits a foul, or when the ball is deemed unplayable, play is resumed from a face-off or a free hit. A free hit involves a player from one team to start play from the place where the ball was last deemed unplayable. A comparison of this is a free kick in soccer. For many fouls, such as stick infractions, a free hit is the only discipline provided. However, at the referee's discretion, a penalty may be worth either two or five minutes. At that point, the player who committed the foul sits in the penalty area, and his team is short handed for the time of the penalty. If an 'extreme' foul is committed, such as physical contact or unsportsmanlike behavior, a player may receive a 10 minute penalty or even a match misconduct. Forms of Floorball Freebandy Freebandy is a sport that developed in the 2000s from floorball fanatics who specialize in a technique called 'zorro', which involves lifting the ball onto a stick and allowing air resistance and fast movements to keep the ball 'stuck' to the stick. This technique is also referred to as 'airhooking' or 'skyhooking'. In freebandy, the rules are very much the same of those of floorball, with the exception of high nets and no infractions for high sticking. As well, the sticks are slightly tweaked from those of a floorball variety to include a 'pocket' where the ball can be placed. Special Olympics Floorball at the Special Olympics is slightly modified from the 'regular' form of floorball. Matches are played 3-on-3 with a goaltender, on a smaller court that measures 20 meters long by 12 meters wide. This form of floorball was developed for the intellectually disabled, and has yet to be played at the Special Olympics. There is a strong possibility that it will be played at the 2013 Special Olympics World Winter Games , IFF Receives More Recognition! . Streetbandy Streetbandy is a form of floorball that is often played outside. It is usually played on a smaller court, and may involve players playing from 1-on-1 to 5-on-5. Goaltenders do not play in this type of floorball, as the nets are very small (household garbage cans are sometimes used). Swiss Floorball Swiss floorball is a revised version of a floorball match. The match is played on a slightly smaller court and often involves only three field players playing on each side, in 3-on-3 floorball. This form of floorball is also slightly shorter, with only two periods of 15 minutes each played. Wheelchair Floorball Originally developed for players with disabilities, wheelchair floorball is played with the exact same rules as 'regular' floorball. Players use the same stick and ball, and goaltenders are also allowed to play. The first ever IFF-sanctioned wheelchair floorball matches were played between the men's teams of the Czech Republic and Sweden, during the 2008 Men's World Floorball Championships in Prague, Czech Republic. In addition to this, there is also an electric wheelchair variation. Competitions AIK Innebandy celebrate their 2007-08 EuroFloorball Cup after narrowly defeating Warberg IC 2:1 in Sudden Victory Overtime in the final match. In addition to the world floorball championships, there are many international floorball club competitions. Asia Pacific Floorball Championship The Asia Pacific Floorball Championships are played every year in Australia or Singapore. The event was created by the Singapore Floorball Association together with the cooperation of the Asia Oceania Floorball Confederation (AOFC). Members of the AOFC get together during this tournament to play for the Asia Pacific Floorball Championship every year. The most recent champions are Singapore. Canada Cup The Canada Cup is an international club tournament that is held every year in Toronto, Canada. It is the largest floorball club tournament outside of Europe, and attracts 40+ clubs from worldwide, every year. The winners of the 2008 tournament were Montreal's Red Phoenix floorball club. Czech Open The largest club team tournament, the Czech Open is a traditional summer tournament held in Prague, Czech Republic. It is famous not only for its on-court activities, but also for those off-court. The tournament attracts 200+ clubs every year from 20 different countries. The most recent champions of the prestigious Czech Open are Sweden's Sirius IBK. EuroFloorball Cup The EuroFloorball Cup (formerly European Cup) is the only IFF-organized club event. It has taken place every single year since 1993, and in 2000, it changed its format to a 2-year event (i.e. 2000-01). In 2008, the tournament switched back to its one-year format. Teams qualify for the tournament in three different divisions, two of those being East Europe and West Europe, while the other division consists of runners-up to the champions of the top four countries in the previous year's EuroFloorball Cup. The reigning EuroFloorball Cup Champions are Sweden's AIK Innebandy, capturing the tournament three times in the past three years. Citations External links International Floorball Federation Planet Floorball (International floorball resource site) Floorball-World.com (International floorball news site) | Floorball |@lemmatized floorball:78 often:5 refer:2 floor:4 hockey:5 indoor:3 team:13 sport:17 develop:8 fast:2 paced:1 limited:2 physical:3 contact:4 allow:7 popular:1 area:4 long:3 czech:9 republic:6 finland:8 sweden:13 switzerland:4 game:8 play:30 indoors:2 gym:1 make:4 year:18 round:1 amateur:1 professional:2 level:2 league:2 salibandyliiga:2 svenska:2 superligan:2 member:3 international:12 federation:5 iff:20 finish:1 coveted:1 place:11 world:27 championship:23 addition:8 four:4 country:13 gain:1 popularity:1 australia:3 canada:6 japan:2 singapore:4 united:3 state:3 history:3 official:2 logo:1 govern:1 body:1 although:1 origin:1 unknown:1 believe:2 north:1 american:1 immigrate:1 scandinavia:1 ball:21 originate:1 gothenburg:1 begin:3 something:1 fun:1 pastime:2 school:2 decade:1 show:1 scandinavian:2 norway:1 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freebandy:3 fanatic:1 specialize:1 technique:2 zorro:1 onto:1 movement:1 keep:1 stuck:1 airhooking:1 skyhooking:1 sticking:1 slightly:4 tweak:1 variety:1 pocket:1 modify:1 regular:2 measure:1 intellectually:1 disabled:1 yet:1 strong:1 possibility:1 streetbandy:2 usually:1 household:1 garbage:1 sometimes:1 used:1 swiss:2 revised:1 version:1 side:1 played:1 wheelchair:4 originally:1 disability:1 exact:1 sanction:1 prague:2 electric:1 variation:1 competition:2 aik:2 celebrate:1 eurofloorball:5 cup:8 narrowly:1 warberg:1 ic:1 pacific:3 create:1 together:2 cooperation:1 oceania:1 confederation:1 aofc:2 recent:2 champion:4 hold:2 toronto:1 attract:2 worldwide:1 winner:1 montreal:1 red:1 phoenix:1 open:3 traditional:1 famous:1 activity:1 different:2 prestigious:1 sirius:1 ibk:1 formerly:1 organize:1 single:1 e:1 switch:1 back:1 east:1 west:1 runner:1 previous:1 reign:1 citation:1 external:1 link:1 planet:1 resource:1 site:2 com:1 news:1 |@bigram fast_paced:1 czech_republic:6 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5,755 | Demographics_of_Burundi | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Burundi, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographics of Burundi, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. At 206.1 persons per km²., Burundi has the second-largest population density in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most people live on farms near areas of fertile volcanic soil. The population is made up of three major ethnic groups -- Bahutu (Hutu), Batutsi or Watusi (Tutsi), and Batwa (Twa). Kirundi is the common language. Intermarriage takes place frequently between the Hutus and Tutsis. The terms "pastoralist" and "agriculturist," often used as ethnic designations for Watusi and Bahutu, respectively, are only occupational titles which vary among individuals and groups. Although Hutus encompass the majority of the population, historically Tutsis have been politically and economically dominant. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 8,090,068 Note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2006 est.) Age structure Population pyramid 0-14 years: 46.3% (male 1,884,825/female 1,863,200) 15-64 years: 51.1% (male 2,051,451/female 2,082,017) 65 years and over: 2.6% (male 83,432/female 125,143) (2006 est.) Median age Total: 16.6 years Male: 16.4 years Female: 16.9 years (2006 est.) Population growth rate 3.44% (2008 est.) Birth rate 42.22 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 13.46 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 8.22 immigrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 63.13 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 70.26 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 55.79 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 51.29 years Male: 50.48 years Female: 52.12 years (2007 est.) Total fertility rate 6.48 children born/woman (2007 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: 6% (2003 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: 250,000 (2003 est.) Deaths: 25,000 (2003 est.) Major infectious diseases Degree of risk: very high Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Vectorborne disease: malaria (2005) Nationality Noun: Burundian(s) Adjective: Burundian Ethnic groups Hutu (Bantu) 85%, Tutsi 14%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%, Europeans 7,000, South Asians 2,000 Religions Christian 67% (Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 5%), indigenous beliefs 22.9%, Muslim 10%, Buddhist 0.1% Languages Kirundi (official), French (official), Swahili (along Lake Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area) Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 51.6% Male: 58.5% Female: 45.2% (2003 est.) References | Demographics_of_Burundi |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:17 burundi:3 include:1 density:2 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 data:1 fao:1 year:13 number:1 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 person:1 per:1 second:1 large:1 sub:1 saharan:1 africa:1 people:2 live:5 farm:1 near:1 area:2 fertile:1 volcanic:1 soil:1 make:1 three:1 major:2 ethnic:3 group:3 bahutu:2 hutu:4 batutsi:1 watusi:2 tutsi:4 batwa:1 twa:2 kirundi:2 common:1 language:2 intermarriage:1 take:2 place:1 frequently:1 term:1 pastoralist:1 agriculturist:1 often:1 use:1 designation:1 respectively:1 occupational:1 title:1 vary:1 among:1 individual:1 although:1 encompass:1 majority:1 historically:1 politically:1 economically:1 dominant:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:2 indicate:1 note:1 estimate:1 country:1 explicitly:1 account:1 effect:1 excess:1 mortality:3 due:1 aid:3 result:1 low:2 life:2 expectancy:2 high:2 infant:2 death:7 rate:9 growth:2 change:1 distribution:1 age:4 sex:2 would:1 expect:1 july:1 est:15 structure:1 pyramid:1 male:12 female:12 median:1 total:6 birth:7 net:1 migration:1 immigrant:1 ratio:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 infectious:1 disease:3 degree:1 risk:1 food:1 waterborne:1 bacterial:1 diarrhea:1 hepatitis:1 typhoid:1 fever:1 vectorborne:1 malaria:1 nationality:1 noun:1 burundian:2 adjective:1 bantu:1 pygmy:1 european:1 south:1 asians:1 religion:1 christian:1 roman:1 catholic:1 protestant:1 indigenous:1 belief:1 muslim:1 buddhist:1 official:2 french:1 swahili:1 along:1 lake:1 tanganyika:1 bujumbura:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 politically_economically:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 excess_mortality:1 life_expectancy:2 infant_mortality:2 male_female:9 net_migration:1 est_infant:1 mortality_rate:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 infectious_disease:1 food_waterborne:1 waterborne_disease:1 bacterial_diarrhea:1 diarrhea_hepatitis:1 hepatitis_typhoid:1 typhoid_fever:1 fever_vectorborne:1 vectorborne_disease:1 nationality_noun:1 lake_tanganyika:1 literacy_definition:1 |
5,756 | Nuoro | Nuoro (Nùgoro Which probably means "home"; "Pitzinnu de Nugoro eris" ("The child of Nuoro yesterday") edited by Tina Falchi Marras and the students of the second grade of the middle school N. 3 of Nuoro, printed on March 27 1980 by Tipolito Arti Grafiche AR.P.E.F. of Armando Paola, Nuoro. pag. 179: "NUGORO da una rad. nugor -- fuoco dimora" ("NUGORO from a root nugor -- home fireplace") , in the ancient Nuoro's dialect), is a town in central Sardinia, Italy, located at the slopes of Mount Ortobene. The capital of the province of Nuoro, it is the administrative center of one Europe's less-densely populated areas. Nearby is the Monte Ortobene. Overlying the central mountains in a panoramic position, Nuoro is a typical Sardinian town. It is the hometown of Grazia Deledda, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1926. The area of the Province of Nuoro is known for its concentration of centenarians and supercentenarians, including Antonio Todde, the world's oldest living man from March 5, 2001 to January 3, 2002. A Street of Nuoro History The earliest traces of human settlements in the Nuoro area, the so-called Domus de janas, date back to the 3rd millennium BC. Fragments of Ozieri culture ceramics have been dated to c. 3500 BC. The province of Nuoro was a center of the Nuraghe civilization from 1500 BC, including more than 30 nuraghe sites, such has that at Tanca Manna with about 800 huts. The area, lying on the road from Karalis (Cagliari) to Ulbia (Olbia) was also colonized by the Romans. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Sardinia was held by the Vandals and then by the Byzantines. According to the letters of Pope Gregory I, in the island co-existed a Romanized and Christianized area (that of the provinciales) with, in the interior, Pagan cultures (Gens Barbaricina). As the Byzantine control waned, the Guidicati appeared. A small village known as Nugor appears on a medieval map from 1147. In the two following centuries it grew to more than 1000 inhabitants. Nuoro remained a town of average importance under the Aragonese and Spanish domination of Sardinia, until famine and plague struck it in the late 17th century. After the annexion to the Piedmont in the Kingdom of Sardinia, the town became the administrative center of the area, obtaining the title of city in 1836; in the 19th century it was one of the main cultural centers of Sardinia. Transportation The city is connected to Oblia and Cagliari by the SS 131 State Road. It has a station on the Ferrovie della Sardegna railroad to the Marghine area and Macomer. Public transport in the city is held by ATP Nuoro. Notable people Grazia Deledda, writer Salvatore Satta, scholar of Jurisprudence Costantino Nivola, sculptor Giovanni Pintori, graphic artist Maria Giacobbe, writer and essayist (in Italian and in Danish) Franco Oppo, composer Gianfranco Zola, soccer player References | Nuoro |@lemmatized nuoro:13 nùgoro:1 probably:1 mean:1 home:2 pitzinnu:1 de:2 nugoro:3 eris:1 child:1 yesterday:1 edit:1 tina:1 falchi:1 marras:1 student:1 second:1 grade:1 middle:1 school:1 n:1 print:1 march:2 tipolito:1 arti:1 grafiche:1 ar:1 p:1 e:1 f:1 armando:1 paola:1 pag:1 da:1 una:1 rad:1 nugor:3 fuoco:1 dimora:1 root:1 fireplace:1 ancient:1 dialect:1 town:4 central:2 sardinia:5 italy:1 locate:1 slope:1 mount:1 ortobene:2 capital:1 province:3 administrative:2 center:4 one:2 europe:1 le:1 densely:1 populated:1 area:7 nearby:1 monte:1 overlie:1 mountain:1 panoramic:1 position:1 typical:1 sardinian:1 hometown:1 grazia:2 deledda:2 win:1 nobel:1 prize:1 literature:1 know:2 concentration:1 centenarian:1 supercentenarians:1 include:2 antonio:1 todde:1 world:1 oldest:1 live:1 man:1 january:1 street:1 history:1 early:1 trace:1 human:1 settlement:1 call:1 domus:1 janas:1 date:2 back:1 millennium:1 bc:3 fragment:1 ozieri:1 culture:2 ceramic:1 c:1 nuraghe:2 civilization:1 site:1 tanca:1 manna:1 hut:1 lie:1 road:2 karalis:1 cagliari:2 ulbia:1 olbia:1 also:1 colonize:1 roman:2 fall:1 western:1 empire:1 hold:2 vandal:1 byzantine:2 accord:1 letter:1 pope:1 gregory:1 island:1 co:1 exist:1 romanized:1 christianized:1 provinciales:1 interior:1 pagan:1 gen:1 barbaricina:1 control:1 wan:1 guidicati:1 appear:2 small:1 village:1 medieval:1 map:1 two:1 follow:1 century:3 grow:1 inhabitant:1 remain:1 average:1 importance:1 aragonese:1 spanish:1 domination:1 famine:1 plague:1 struck:1 late:1 annexion:1 piedmont:1 kingdom:1 become:1 obtain:1 title:1 city:3 main:1 cultural:1 transportation:1 connect:1 oblia:1 state:1 station:1 ferrovie:1 della:1 sardegna:1 railroad:1 marghine:1 macomer:1 public:1 transport:1 atp:1 notable:1 people:1 writer:2 salvatore:1 satta:1 scholar:1 jurisprudence:1 costantino:1 nivola:1 sculptor:1 giovanni:1 pintori:1 graphic:1 artist:1 maria:1 giacobbe:1 essayist:1 italian:1 danish:1 franco:1 oppo:1 composer:1 gianfranco:1 zola:1 soccer:1 player:1 reference:1 |@bigram province_nuoro:3 densely_populated:1 grazia_deledda:2 nobel_prize:1 millennium_bc:1 pope_gregory:1 writer_essayist:1 |
5,757 | Chromatin | Fig. 1: The major structures in DNA compaction; DNA, the nucleosome, the 10nm "beads-on-a-string" fibre, the 30nm fibre and the metaphase chromosome. Chromatin is the complex combination of DNA, RNA, and protein that makes up chromosomes. It is found inside the nuclei of eukaryotic cells, and within the nucleoid in prokaryotic cells. It is divided between heterochromatin (condensed) and euchromatin (extended) forms. The major components of chromatin are DNA and histone proteins, although many other chromosomal proteins have prominent roles too. The functions of chromatin are to package DNA into a smaller volume to fit in the cell, to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis, and to serve as a mechanism to control expression and DNA replication. Chromatin contains genetic material-instructions to direct cell functions. Changes in chromatin structure are affected by chemical modifications of histone proteins such as methylation (DNA and proteins) and acetylation (proteins), and by non-histone, DNA-binding proteins. Basic structure Simplistically, there are seven levels of chromatin organization (Fig. 1): DNA wrapping around nucleosomes - the "beads on a string" structure. A 30 nm condensed chromatin fiber consisting of nucleosome arrays in their most compact form. Higher level DNA packaging into the metaphase chromosome.... These structures do not occur in all reem prokaryotic cells. Examples of cells with more extreme packaging are spermatozoa and avian red blood cells. During spermiogenesis, the spermatid's chromatin is remodelled into a more spaced packaged, widened, almost crystal-like structure. This process is associated with the cessation of transcription and involves nuclear protein exchange. The histones are mostly displaced, and replaced by protamines (small, arginine-rich proteins). It should also be noted that during mitosis, while most of the chromatin is tightly compacted, there are small regions that are not as tightly compacted. These regions often correspond to promoter regions of genes that were active in that cell type prior to entry into cromitosis. The lack of compaction of these regions is called bookmarking, which is an epigenetic mechanism believed to be important for transmitting to daughter cells the "memory" of which genes were active prior to entry into mitosis. This bookmarking mechanism is needed to help transmit this memory because transcription ceases during mitosis. Levels of organization During interphase The structure of chromatin during interphase is optimised to allow easy access of transcription and DNA repair factors to the DNA while compacting the DNA into the nucleus. The structure varies depending on the access required to the DNA. Genes that require regular access by RNA polymerase require the looser structure provided by euchromatin. Change in structure Chromatin undergoes various forms of change in its structure. Histone proteins, the foundation blocks of chromatin, are modified by various post-translational modification to alter DNA packing. Acetylation results in the loosening of chromatin and lends itself to replication and transcription. When methylated they hold DNA together strongly and restrict access to various enzymes. A recent study showed that there is a bivalent structure present in the chromatin: methylated lysine residues at location 4 and 27 on histone 3. It is thought that this may be involved in development; there is more methylation of lysine 27 in embryonic cells than in differentiated cells, whereas lysine 4 methylation positively regulates transcription by recruiting nucleosome remodeling enzymes and histone acetylases. Polycomb-group proteins play a role in regulating genes through modulation of chromatin structure. For additional information see Histone modifications in chromatin regulation and RNA polymerase control by chromatin structure DNA structure The structures of A-, B- and Z-DNA. The vast majority of DNA within the cell is the normal DNA structure. However in nature DNA can form three structures, A-, B- and Z-DNA. A and B chromosomes are very similar, forming right-handed helices, while Z-DNA is a more unusual left-handed helix with a zig-zag phosphate backbone. Z-DNA is thought to play a specific role in chromatin structure and transcription because of the properties of the junction between B- and Z-DNA. At the junction of B- and Z-DNA one pair of bases is flipped out from normal bonding. These play a dual role of a site of recognition by many proteins and as a sink for torsional stress from RNA polymerase or nucleosome binding. The nucleosome and "beads-on-a-string" Main articles: Nucleosome, Chromatosome and Histone A cartoon representation of the nucleosome structure. From . The basic repeat element of chromatin is the nucleosome, interconnected by sections of linker DNA, a far shorter arrangement than pure DNA in solution. In addition to the core histones there is the linker histone, H1, which contacts the exit/entry of the DNA strand on the nucleosome. The nucleosome, together with histone H1, is known as a chromatosome. Nucleosomes, connected by about 20 to 60 base pairs of linker DNA, form an approximately 10 nm "beads-on-a-string" fibre. (Fig. 1-2). The nucleosomes bind DNA non-specifically, as required by their function in general DNA packaging. There is, however, some preference in the sequences the nucleosomes will bind. This is largely through the properties of DNA; adenosine and thymine are more favorably compressed into the inner minor grooves. This means nucleosomes bind preferentially at one position every 10 base pairs - where the DNA is rotated to maximise the number of A and T bases which will lie in the inner minor groove. (See mechanical properties of DNA.) 30 nm chromatin fibre Two proposed structures of the 30nm chromatin filament. Left: 1 start helix "solenoid" structure. Right: 2 start loose helix structure. Note: the nucleosomes are omitted in this diagram - only the DNA is shown. With addition of H1, the "beads-on-a-string" structure in turn coils into a 30 nm diameter helical structure known as the 30nm fibre or filament. The precise structure of the chromatin fibre in the cell is not known in detail, and there is still some debate over this. This level of chromatin structure is thought to be the form of euchromatin, which contains actively transcribed genes. EM studies have demonstrated that the 30 nm fibre is highly dynamic such that it unfolds into a 10 nm fiber ("beads-on-a-string") structure when transversed by an RNA polymerase engaged in transcription. Four proposed structures of the 30nm chromatin filament for DNA repeat length per nucleosomes ranging from 177 to 207 bp. Linker DNA in yellow and nucleosomal DNA in pink. The existing models commonly accept that the nucleosomes lie perpendicular to the axis of the fibre, with linker histones arranged internally. A stable 30 nm fibre relies on the regular positioning of nucleosomes along DNA. Linker DNA is relatively resistant to bending and rotation. This makes the length of linker DNA critical to the stability of the fibre, requiring nucleosomes to be separated by lengths that permit rotation and folding into the required orientation without excessive stress to the DNA. In this view, different length of the linker DNA should produce different folding topologies of the chromatin fiber. Recent theoretical work, based on electron-microscopy images of reconstituted fibers support this view. Spatial organization of chromatin in the cell nucleus The layout of the genome within the nucleus is not random - specific regions of the genome are always found in certain areas. Specific regions of the chromatin are thought to be bound to the nuclear membrane, while other regions are bound together by protein complexes. The layout of this is not, however, well characterised apart from the compaction of one of the two X chromosomes in mammalian females into the Barr body. This serves the role of permanently deactivating these genes, which prevents females getting a 'double dose' of relative to males. Metaphase chromatin Karyogram of human male using Giemsa staining, showing the classic metaphase chromatin structure. The metaphase structure of chromatin differs vastly to that of interphase. It is optimised for physical strength and manageability, forming the classic chromosome structure seen in karyotypes. The structure of the condensed chromosome is thought to be loops of 30nm fibre to a central scaffold of proteins. It is, however, not well characterised. The physical strength of chromatin is vital for this stage of division to prevent shear damage to the DNA as the daughter chromosomes are separated. To maximise strength the composition of the chromatin changes as it approaches the centromere, primarily through alternative histone H1 anologues. Non-histone chromosomal proteins The proteins that are found associated with isolated chromatin fall into several functional categories: chromatin-bound enzymes high mobility group (HMG) proteins transcription factors scaffold proteins transition proteins (testis specific proteins) protamines (present in mature sperm) Enzymes associated with chromatin are those involved in DNA transcription, replication and repair, and in post-translational modification of histones. They include various types of nucleases and proteases. Scaffold proteins encompass chromatin proteins such as insulators, domain boundary factors and cellular memory modules (CMMs). Chromatin: alternative definitions Simple and concise definition: Chromatin is DNA plus the proteins (and RNA) that package DNA within the cell nucleus. A biochemists’ operational definition: Chromatin is the DNA/protein/RNA complex extracted from eukaryotic lysed interphase nuclei. Just which of the multitudinous substances present in a nucleus will constitute a part of the extracted material will depend in part on the technique each researcher uses. Furthermore, the composition and properties of chromatin vary from one cell type to the another, during development of a specific cell type, and at different stages in the cell cycle. The DNA + histone = chromatin definition: The DNA double helix in the cell nucleus is packaged by special proteins termed histones. The formed protein/DNA complex is called chromatin. The structural entity of chromatin is the nucleosome. Nobel Prizes The following scientists were recognized for their contributions to chromatin research with Nobel Prizes: YearWhoAward1910Albrecht Kossel (University of Heidelberg) Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances"1933Thomas Hunt Morgan (California Institute of Technology)Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity"1962Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins (MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Harvard University and London University respectively)Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material"1982Aaron Klug (MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology)Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes"1993Roberts and SharpNobel Prize in Physiology "for their independent discoveries of split genes"2006Roger Kornberg (Stanford University)Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription" See also Nucleosome Histone-Modifying Enzymes Chromosome Chromatid Salt-and-pepper chromatin References Other references Corces, V. G. 1995. Chromatin insulators. Keeping enhancers under control. Nature 376:462-463. Cremer, T. 1985. Von der Zellenlehre zur Chromosomentheorie: Naturwissenschaftliche Erkenntnis und Theorienwechsel in der frühen Zell- und Vererbungsforschung, Veröffentlichungen aus der Forschungsstelle für Theoretische Pathologie der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. Springer-Vlg., Berlin, Heidelberg. Elgin, S. C. R. (ed.). 1995. Chromatin Structure and Gene Expression, vol. 9. IRL Press, Oxford, New York, Tokyo. Gerasimova, T. I., and V. G. Corces. 1996. Boundary and insulator elements in chromosomes. Current Op. Genet. and Dev. 6:185-192. Gerasimova, T. I., and V. G. Corces. 1998. Polycomb and Trithorax group proteins mediate the function of a chromatin insulator. Cell 92:511-521. Gerasimova, T. I., and V. G. Corces. 2001. CHROMATIN INSULATORS AND BOUNDARIES: Effects on Transcription and Nuclear Organization. Annu Rev Genet 35:193-208. Gerasimova, T. I., K. Byrd, and V. G. Corces. 2000. A chromatin insulator determines the nuclear localization of DNA [In Process Citation]. Mol Cell 6:1025-35. Ha, S. C., K. Lowenhaupt, A. Rich, Y. G. Kim, and K. K. Kim. 2005. Crystal structure of a junction between B-DNA and Z-DNA reveals two extruded bases. Nature 437:1183-6. Pollard, T., and W. Earnshaw. 2002. Cell Biology. Saunders. Saumweber, H. 1987. Arrangement of Chromosomes in Interphase Cell Nuclei, p. 223-234. In W. Hennig (ed.), Structure and Function of Eucaryotic Chromosomes, vol. 14. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. Sinden, R. R. 2005. Molecular biology: DNA twists and flips. Nature 437:1097-8. Van Holde KE. 1989. Chromatin. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-96694-3. Van Holde, K., J. Zlatanova, G. Arents, and E. Moudrianakis. 1995. Elements of chromatin structure: histones, nucleosomes, and fibres, p. 1-26. In S. C. R. Elgin (ed.), Chromatin structure and gene expression. IRL Press at Oxford University Press, Oxford. External links Chromatin, Histones & Cathepsin; PMAP The Proteolysis Map-animation Recent chromatin publications and news | Chromatin |@lemmatized fig:3 major:2 structure:39 dna:57 compaction:3 nucleosome:12 bead:6 string:6 fibre:12 metaphase:5 chromosome:13 chromatin:55 complex:5 combination:1 rna:7 protein:22 make:3 find:3 inside:1 nucleus:8 eukaryotic:3 cell:24 within:4 nucleoid:1 prokaryotic:2 divide:1 heterochromatin:1 condense:2 euchromatin:3 extend:1 form:8 component:1 histone:21 although:1 many:2 chromosomal:2 prominent:1 role:6 function:5 package:4 small:3 volume:1 fit:1 strengthen:1 allow:2 mitosis:4 meiosis:1 serve:2 mechanism:3 control:3 expression:3 replication:3 contain:2 genetic:1 material:3 instruction:1 direct:1 change:4 affect:1 chemical:1 modification:4 methylation:3 acetylation:2 proteins:7 non:3 binding:2 basic:2 simplistically:1 seven:1 level:4 organization:4 wrap:1 around:1 nucleosomes:11 nm:7 fiber:4 consisting:1 array:1 compact:4 high:2 packaging:3 occur:1 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5,758 | Inoculation | Inoculation is the placement of something to where it will grow or reproduce, and is most commonly used in respect of the introduction of a serum, vaccine, or antigenic substance into the body of a human or animal, especially to produce or boost immunity to a specific disease; but also can be used to refer to the communication of a disease to a living organism by transferring its causative agent into the organism, to implant microorganisms or infectious material into a culture medium such as a brewers vat or a petri dish, to safeguard as if by inoculation, to introduce an idea or attitude into someone's mind, any placement of microorganisms or viruses at a site where infection is possible such as to increase soybeans' nitrogen fixation one can treat soybeans at planting with Rhizobium japonicum inoculant. The verb "to inoculate" is from Middle English "inoculaten", which meant "to graft a scion (a scion is a plant part to be grafted onto another plant); which in turn is from Latin "inoculare", past participle "inoculat-". Your Dictionary Inoculation entry at Gardening section of mimi.hu This article covers variolation, inoculation as a method of purposefully infecting a person with smallpox (Variola) in a controlled manner so as to minimise the severity of the infection and also to induce immunity against further infection. See vaccination for post-variolation methods of safeguarding as if by inoculation by administering weakened or dead pathogens to a healthy person or animal with the intent of conferring immunity against a targeted form of a related disease agent. Today the terms inoculation, vaccination and immunisation are used more or less interchangeably and popularly refer to the process of artificial induction of immunity against various infectious diseases. The microorganism used in an inoculation is called the inoculant or inoculum. Origins India The earliest record of inoculation is thought to be found in 8th century India, when Madhav wrote the Nidāna, a 79-chapter book which lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and complications. Hopkins, page 140 According to Donald R. Hopkins (2002), Madhav included a special chapter on smallpox (masūrikā) and described the method of inoculation to protect against smallpox. Previously, Dominik Wujastyk (1995), however, had argued that inoculation was not mentioned in any ancient Sanskrit medical treatises and that it was a rumor which began in the 19th century: Inoculation was current in Turkey ,in the early eighteenth century; there is evidence that it may have been brought to Turkey from China. It is interesting, then, to find a detailed account by a renowned English surgeon in 1767, describing the widespread practice of inoculation in Bengal. There is also some evidence to push the Indian practice of inoculation back further, to 1731. Once again, there is a historical paradox here: there is not the slightest trace of this important and effective treatment in any of the Sanskrit medical treatises. Smallpox was certainly recognised in Ayurvedic texts, where it is called masurika ('lentil' disease) and was treated after a fashion. But of inoculation there is absolutely no mention. The link between theory and practice is broken once again. Wujastyk, Dominik. (1995). "Medicine in India," in Oriental Medicine: An Illustrated Guide to the Asian Arts of Healing, 19–38. Edited by Serindia Publications. London: Serindia Publications. ISBN 0906026369. Page 29. China Robert Temple writes that the practice of inoculation for smallpox began in China during the 10th century. Temple, Robert. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. With a forward by Joseph Needham. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. ISBN 0671620282. Page 135. A Song Dynasty (960–1279) chancellor of China, Wang Dan (957–1017), lost his eldest son to smallpox and sought a means to spare the rest of his family from the disease, so he summoned physicians, wise men, and magicians from all across the empire to convene at the capital in Kaifeng and share ideas on how to cure patients of it. Temple, Robert. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. With a forward by Joseph Needham. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. ISBN 0671620282. Page 135–136. From Mount Emei in Sichuan, a Daoist hermit, a nun known as a "numinous old woman" and "holy physician"—who Temple says was associated with the 'school of the ancient immortals' and thus most likely specialized in 'internal alchemy'—introduced the technique of inoculation to the capital. Temple, Robert. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. With a forward by Joseph Needham. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. ISBN 0671620282. Page 136. However, Joseph Needham states that this information comes from the Zhongdou xinfa (種痘心法) written in 1808 by Zhu Yiliang, centuries after the alleged events. Needham, Joseph. (1999). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 6, Medicine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Page 154 The first clear and credible reference to smallpox inoculation in China comes from Wan Quan's (1499–1582) Douzhen xinfa (痘疹心法) of 1549, which states that some women unexpectedly menstruate during the procedure, yet his text did not give details on techniques of inoculation. Inoculation was first vividly described by Yu Chang in his book Yuyi cao (寓意草), or Notes on My Judgment, published in 1643. Inoculation was reportedly not widely practiced in China until the reign of the Longqing Emperor (r. 1567–1572) during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), as written by Yu Tianchi in his Shadou jijie (痧痘集解) of 1727, which he alleges was based on Wang Zhangren's Douzhen jinjing lu (痘疹金鏡錄) of 1579. Needham, Joseph. (1999). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 6, Medicine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Page 134. Temple, Robert. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. With a forward by Joseph Needham. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. ISBN 0671620282. Page 137. From these accounts, it is known that the Chinese banned the practice of using smallpox material from patients who actually had the full-blown disease of Variola major (considered too dangerous); instead they used proxy material of a cotton plug inserted into the nose of a person who had already been inoculated and had only a few scabs, i.e. Variola minor. This was called "to implant the sprouts", an idea of transplanting the disease which fit their conception of beansprouts in germination. Robert Temple quotes an account from Zhang Yan's Zhongdou xinshu (種痘新書), or New book on smallpox inoculation, written in 1741 during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), which shows how the Chinese process had become refined up until that point: Method of storing the material. Wrap the scabs carefully in paper and put them into a small container bottle. Cork it tightly so that the activity is not dissipated. The container must not be exposed to sunlight or warmed beside a fire. It is best to carry it for some time on the person so that the scabs dry naturally and slowly. The container should be marked clearly with the date on which the contents were taken from the patient. In winter, the material has yang potency within it, so it remains active even after being kept from thirty to forty days. But in summer the yang potency will be lost in approximately twenty days. The best material is that which had not been left too long, for when the yang potency is abundant it will give a 'take' with nine persons out of ten people—and finally it becomes completely inactive, and will not work at all. In situations where new scabs are rare and the requirement great, it is possible to mix new scabs with the more aged ones, but in this case more of the powder should be blown into the nostril when the inoculation is done. Temple, Robert. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. With a forward by Joseph Needham. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. ISBN 0671620282. Page 136–137. As for other methods used in China, the technique of scratching the skin and putting pox onto the scab seems to have developed later than the first accounts made in China, and possibly came from Central Asia—according to Temple. Importation to the West Mary Wortley Montagu, by Charles Jervas, after 1716. The practice was introduced to the west by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (May 26, 1689-August 21, 1762). Lady Montagu's husband, Edward Wortley Montagu, served as the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1716 to 1717. She witnessed inoculation being practiced by physicians in Constantinople, Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March 2006. and was greatly impressed:<ref>Donald R. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History (University of Chicago Press, 2983)''</ref> she had lost a brother to smallpox and bore facial scars from the disease herself. In March 1718 she had the embassy surgeon, Charles Maitland, inoculate her five-year-old son. In 1721, after returning to England, she had her four-year-old daughter inoculated . She invited friends to see her daughter, including Sir Hans Sloane, the King's physician. Sufficient interest arose that Maitland gained permission to test inoculation at Newgate prison in exchange for their freedom on six prisoners due to be hanged, an experiment which was witnessed by a number of notable doctors. All survived, and in 1722 the Prince of Wales' daughters received inoculations . The practice of inoculation slowly spread amongst the royal families of Europe, usually followed by more general adoption amongst the people. The practice is documented in America as early as 1721, when Zabdiel Boylston, at the urging of Cotton Mather, successfully inoculated two slaves and his own son. Mather, a prominent Boston minister, had heard a description of the African practice of inoculation from his Sudanese slave, Onesimus, in 1706, but had been previously unable to convince local physicians to attempt the procedure. Silverman,Kenneth. ‘’The Life and Times of Cotton Mather’’, Harper & Row, New York, 1984. ISBN 0-06-015231-1, p. 339. Following this initial success, Boylston began performing inoculations throughout Boston, despite much controversy and at least one attempt upon his life. The effectiveness of the procedure was proven when, of the nearly three hundred people Boylston inoculated during the outbreak, only six died, whereas the mortality rate among those who contracted the disease naturally was one in six. A History Of The Warfare Of Science With Theology In Christendom by Andrew Dickson White. Natural experiment in inoculationaround Boston, 1721 Total Died % Mortality Variolated c 300 6 c 2% Unvariolated c 6000 c 1000 "about 14%" In France considerable opposition arose to the introduction of inoculation. Voltaire, in his Lettres Philosophiques, wrote a criticism of his countrymen for being opposed to inoculation and having so little regard for the welfare of their children, concluding that "had inoculation been practised in France it would have saved the lives of thousands.". Lettres Philosophiques. Voltaire. (English translation on-line ) Inoculation grew in popularity in Europe through the 18th century. Given the high prevalence and often severe consequences of smallpox in Europe in the 18th century (according to Voltaire, there was a 60% incidence of first infection, a 20% mortality rate, and a 20% incidence of severe scarring), In fact, the mortality rate of the Varoiola Minor form of smallpox then found in Europe was 1-3% as opposed to 30-50% for the Variola Major type found elsewhere; however. blindness, infertility, and severe scarring were common. Figures from "The Search for Immunisation", In Our Time, BBC Radio 4 (2006). many parents felt that the benefits of inoculation outweighted the risks and so inoculated their children. Letter of Lady Montagu reproduced at http://www.foundersofscience.net/lady_mary_montagu.htm viewed 18 March 2006 Mechanism Two forms of the disease of Smallpox were recognised, now known to be due to two strains of the Variola virus. Those contracting Variola Minor had a greatly reduced risk of death — 1-2% — compared to those contracting Variola Major with 30% mortality. Infection via inhaled viral particles in droplets spread the infection more widely than the deliberate infection through a small skin wound. The smaller, localised infection is adequate to stimulate the immune system to produce specific immunity to the virus, while requiring more generations of the virus to reach levels of infection likely to kill the patient. The rising immunity terminates the infection. So the twofold effect is to ensure the less fatal form of the disease is the one caught, and to give the immune system the best start possible in combating it. Typical site of inoculation in Europe and the British colonies Inoculation in the East was historically performed by blowing smallpox crusts into the nostril. In Britain, Europe and the American Colonies the preferred method was rubbing material from a smallpox pustule from a selected mild case (Variola minor) into a scratch between the thumb and forefinger. This would generally be performed when an individual was in normal good health, and thus at peak resistance. The recipient would develop smallpox; however, due to being introduced through the skin rather than the lungs, and possibly because of the inoculated individual's preexisting state of good health, the small inoculum, and the single point of initial infection, the resulting case of smallpox was generally milder than the naturally-occurring form, produced far less facial scarring, and had a far lower mortality rate. As with survivors of the natural disease, the inoculated individual was subsequently immune to re-infection. Supplanted by vaccination In 1796, Edward Jenner introduced the far safer method of inoculation with the cowpox virus, a non-fatal virus that also induced immunity to smallpox. This led to smallpox inoculation falling into disuse and eventually being banned in England in 1840. See also Stress inoculation Notes References Hopkins, Donald R. (2002). The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in history''. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226351688. External links US National Library of Medicine Lettres Philosophiques. Voltaire (English translation) Inoculation in India An account of the manner of inoculating for the small pox in the India. Holwell, J Z. RCP Edward Jenner and Vaccination. Harris A HISTORY OF THE WARFARE OF SCIENCE WITH THEOLOGY IN CHRISTENDOM Andrew Dickson White. Arm-to-Arm Against Bioterrorism by Donald W. Miller, Jr., MD The Science of Agricultural Inoculation by INTX Microbials | Inoculation |@lemmatized inoculation:40 placement:2 something:1 grow:2 reproduce:2 commonly:1 use:7 respect:1 introduction:2 serum:1 vaccine:1 antigenic:1 substance:1 body:1 human:1 animal:2 especially:1 produce:3 boost:1 immunity:7 specific:2 disease:14 also:5 refer:2 communication:1 living:1 organism:2 transfer:1 causative:1 agent:2 implant:2 microorganism:3 infectious:2 material:7 culture:1 medium:1 brewer:1 vat:1 petri:1 dish:1 safeguard:2 introduce:5 idea:3 attitude:1 someone:1 mind:1 virus:6 site:2 infection:12 possible:3 increase:1 soybean:2 nitrogen:1 fixation:1 one:5 treat:2 plant:3 rhizobium:1 japonicum:1 inoculant:2 verb:1 inoculate:7 middle:1 english:4 inoculaten:1 mean:2 graft:2 scion:2 part:3 onto:2 another:1 turn:1 latin:1 inoculare:1 past:1 participle:1 inoculat:1 dictionary:1 entry:1 garden:1 section:1 mimi:1 hu:1 article:1 cover:1 variolation:2 method:7 purposefully:1 infect:1 person:5 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5,759 | Maximinus_Thrax | Gaius Iulius Verus Maximinus (c. 173–238), also known as Maximinus Thrax (i.e. Maximinus the Thracian) and Maximinus I, was Roman Emperor from 235 to 238. Maximinus is described by several ancient sources (none of which, except for Herodian's Roman History, was actually contemporary with Maximinus) as the first barbarian who wore the imperial purple and the first emperor never to set foot in Rome. Maximinus Thrax is best remembered for his physical size. He was the tallest emperor, a giant in his age. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Maximini_duo*.html#ref16 He was the first of the so-called barracks emperors of the 3rd century; his rule is often considered to mark the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century. Rise to power According to the notoriously unreliable Historia Augusta (Augustan History), Maximinus was born in Thrace or Moesia to a Gothic father and an Alanic mother; however, the supposed parentage is highly unlikely, as the presence of the Goths in the Danubian area is first attested after the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century. Sir Ronald Syme, writing that "the word 'Gothia' should have sufficed for condemnation" of the passage in the Augustan History, felt that the burden of evidence from Herodian, Syncellus and elsewhere pointed to Maximinus having been born in Moesia. Syme, Emperors and Biography (Oxford University Press, 1971), pp. 182, 185-6. Most likely he was a provincial of low birth who, similarly to later emperors of the 3rd century, would elevate himself, via a military career, from the condition of a soldier in one of the Roman legions to the foremost positions of political power. He joined the army during the reign of Septimius Severus, but did not rise to a powerful position until promoted by Alexander Severus. Maximinus was in command of the recruits from Pannonia, who were angered by Alexander's payments to the Alemanni and his avoidance of war. The troops, among whom included the Legio XXII Primigenia, elected the stern Maximinus, killing young Alexander and his mother at Moguntiacum, also a site where many Christians were martyred (Mainz) in 235. The Praetorian Guard acclaimed him emperor, and their choice was grudgingly confirmed by the Senate, who were displeased to have a peasant as emperor. His son Maximus became caesar. According to British historian Edward Gibbon: Rule Consolidation of power Maximinus hated the nobility and was ruthless towards those he suspected of plotting against him. He began by eliminating the close advisors of Alexander. His suspicions may have been justified; two plots against Maximinus were foiled. The first was during a campaign across the Rhine, during which a group of officers, supported by influential senators, plotted the destruction of a bridge across the river, to leave Maximinus stranded on the other side. Afterwards they planned to elect senator Magnus emperor; however the plot was discovered and the conspirators executed. The second plot involved Mesopotamian archers who were loyal to Alexander. They planned to elevate Quartinus, but their leader Macedo changed sides and murdered Quartinus instead, although this was not enough to save his own life. Defence of frontiers The Crisis of the Third Century (also known as the "Military Anarchy" or the "Imperial Crisis") is a commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 caused by three simultaneous crises: external invasion, internal civil war, and economic collapse. Maximinus' first campaign was against the Alamanni, whom Maximinus defeated despite heavy Roman casualties in a swamp near what is today Baden-Württemberg. After the victory, Maximinus took the title Germanicus Maximus, raised his son Maximus to the rank of Caesar and Prince of Youths, and deified his late wife Paulina. Securing the German frontier, at least for a while, Maximinus then set up a winter encampment at Sirmium in Pannonia, and from that supply base fought the Dacians and the Sarmatians during the winter of 235–236. Gordian I and Gordian II Early in 238, in the province of Africa, a treasury official's extortions through false judgments in corrupt courts against some local landowners ignited a full-scale revolt in the province. The landowners armed their clients and their agricultural workers and entered Thysdrus (modern El Djem), where they murdered the offending official and his bodyguards and proclaimed the aged governor of the province, Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus (Gordian I), and his son, Gordian II, as co-emperors. The senate in Rome switched allegiance, gave both Gordian and Gordian II the title of Augustus, and set about rousing the provinces in support of the pair. Maximinus immediately assembled his army and advanced on Rome, the Pannonian legions leading the way. Meanwhile, in Africa, the revolt had not gone as planned. The province of Africa was bordered on the west by the province of Numidia, whose governor, Capellianus, nursed a long-standing grudge against the Gordians and controlled the only legionary unit (III Augusta) in the area. He marched on Carthage and easily overwhelmed the local militias defending the city. Gordian II was killed in the fighting and, on hearing this, Gordian I hanged himself with his belt. Pupienus, Balbinus, and Gordian III When the African revolt collapsed, the senate found itself in great jeopardy. Having shown clear support for the Gordians, they could expect no clemency from Maximinus when he reached Rome. In this predicament, they determined to defy Maximinus and elected two of their number, Pupienus and Balbinus, as co-emperors. When the Roman mob heard that the Senate had selected two men from the Patrician class, men whom the ordinary people held in no great regard, they protested, showering the imperial cortège with sticks and stones. A faction in Rome preferred Gordian's grandson (Gordian III), and there was severe street fighting. The emperors had no option but to compromise, and, sending for the grandson of the elder Gordian they appointed him Caesar. Defeat and death Maximinus marched on Rome, but at Aquileia Maximinus's troops, suffering from famine and disease, bogged down in an unexpected siege of the city, which had closed its gates when they approached, became disaffected. In April 238 Praetorian guards in his camp assassinated him, his son and his chief ministers. Their heads were cut off, placed on poles, and carried to Rome by cavalrymen. The Senate elected the thirteen year-old Gordian III emperor. Politics Maximinus coin, with Greek legend. Maximinus doubled the pay of soldiers; this act, along with virtually continuous warfare, required higher taxes. Tax-collectors began to resort to violent methods and illegal confiscations, further alienating the governing class. Maximinus reversed Alexander's policy of clemency towards the Christians, who were viewed as unsupportive enemies of the state. He persecuted Christians ruthlessly, and the bishop of Rome, Pontian, as well as his successor, Anterus, are said to have been martyred. Appearance Maximinus is noted in the Historia Augusta as being significantly taller than his contemporaries; "He was of such size, so Cordus reports, that men said he was eight foot, six inches in height" Historia Augusta • The Two Maximini . It is likely however that this is one of the many 'tall tales' in the Historia Augusta, and is immediately suspect due to its citation of 'Cordus', one of the several fictitious authorities the work cites. However, due to his consistent portrayal as a man with a prominent brow, nose, and jaw, some researchers suspect he may have suffered from overgrowth to some extent in form of acromegaly. Klawan, Harold, L. The Medicine of History from Paracelsus to Freud, Raven Press, 1982, New York, 3-15 However, some historians interpret this (as well as other information on his appearance, like excessive sweating and superhuman strength) as popular stereotyped attributes which do no more than intentionally turn him into a stylized embodiment of the barbarian bandit Thomas Grünewald, transl. by John Drinkwater. Bandits in the Roman Empire:, Myth and Reality, Routledge, 2004, p. 84. ISBN 0-415-32744-X or emphasize the admiration and aversion that the image of the soldier invoked to the civilian population. Jean-Michel Carrié in Andrea Giardina (ed.), transl. by Lydia G. Cochrane. The Romans, University of Chicago Press, 1993, p. 116-117. ISBN 0-226-29050-6 Sources A. Bellezza: Massimino il Trace, Geneva 1964. H. Börm: Die Herrschaft des Kaisers Maximinus Thrax und das Sechskaiserjahr 238. Der Beginn der Reichskrise?, in: Gymnasium 115, 2008. J. Burian: Maximinus Thrax. Sein Bild bei Herodian und in der Historia Augusta, in: Philologus 132, 1988. L. de Blois: The onset of crisis in the first half of the third century A.D., in: K.-P. Johne et al. (eds.), Deleto paene imperio Romano, Stuttgart 2006. K. Dietz: Senatus contra principem. Untersuchungen zur senatorischen Opposition gegen Kaiser Maximinus Thrax, Munich 1980. F. Kolb: Der Aufstand der Provinz Africa Proconsularis im Jahr 238 n. Chr.: die wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Hintergründe, in: Historia 26, 1977. A. Lippold: Kommentar zur Vita Maximini Dua der Historia Augusta, Bonn 1991. X. Loriot: Les premières années de la grande crise du IIIe siècle: De l'avènement de Maximin le Thrace (235) à la mort de Gordien III (244), in: ANRW II/2, 1975. 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5,760 | Demographics_of_Haiti | Population of Haiti (in thousands) from 1961 to 2003 Although Haiti averages approximately 250 people per square kilometer (650 per sq. mi.), its population is concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys. About 95% of Haitians are of predominantly Afro-Caribbean descent CIA - The World Factbook -- Haiti . The remainder of the population vary in ethnic groups from mulattoes, mestizoes, marabous, to Arabs (primarily Syrian and Lebanese people), and Europeans. Also a significant amount of Jewish ancestry http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/haiti.html . White-descended Haitians are mainly of French, Polish, Spanish, Italian, and German heritage. Hispanic residents in Haiti are mostly Cuban, Colombian, Panamanian, Venezuelan, or Dominican. There is a very small percentage within the minority who are of Asian origin. A majority of Haitians inherit both African and Taino/Arawak heritage due to the history of the island. There is a very small percentage within the minority who are of Asian descent; nearly all are immigrant residents. The very small number of Asians in Haiti are virtually all concentrated in the country's largest urban areas (primarily Port-au-Prince). About two thirds of the Haitian population live in rural areas. Culture Haiti is an Afro-Latin nation with some African contributions to the culture as well as its language, music and religion. Primarily French, Spanish, and to a much lesser extent (food, art, and folk religion) Taíno and Arab customs are also present in the society. Haiti has many close cultural ties with its neighbors, Cuba especially, and the neighboring Dominican Republic due to the history involving those countries and the post-imperialist era. Languages French is one of two official languages. All Haitians speak Haitian Creole, the country's other official language. The latter, is a creole based primarily on French and Spanish languages, with some English, Taíno, Portuguese, African, and Arabic influences. Spanish though not official is spoken by a growing amount of the population. It is spoken more frequently near the border with the Dominican Republic, however Spanish is increasingly being spoken in more westward areas, as Venezuelan, Cuban, and Dominican trade influence Haitian society, and Haiti becomes increasingly involved in Latin American affairs. English is increasingly spoken among the young and in the business sector. Religion The state religion is Roman Catholicism which most of the population professes. Some Haitians have converted to Protestantism through the work of missionaries active throughout the country. Much of the population also practice Vodou traditions but these claims are denied by a significant amount of the strict Roman Catholic populace. Haitians that do practice both faiths however tend to see no conflict in these African-rooted beliefs co-existing with Christian faiths. Education Although public education is free, private and parochial schools provide around 75% of educational programs offered. Less than 65% of children of primary school age are actually enrolled. At the secondary level, the figure drops to 15%. Of those enrolled in primary school, 63% will complete it. On average, it takes 16 years to produce a single graduate of the 6-year cycle. Though Haitians place a high value on education, few can afford to send their children to secondary school. Remittances sent by Haitians living abroad are important in paying educational costs. Emigration Large-scale emigration, principally to the United States, and Quebec- but also to Cuba, Canada, France, Spain, Belgium, French Guiana, Venezuela, the Dominican Republic, the Bahamas, and other Caribbean neighbors - has created what Haitians refer to as the Tenth Department or the Diaspora. About one of every six Haitians live abroad. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook The 2008 World Factbook: Haiti . Note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2007 est.) Population: 8,706,497 Age structure: (2003 est.) 0-14 years: 42.1% (male 1,846,175; female 1,817,082) 15-64 years: 54.4% (male 2,313,542; female 2,426,326) 65 years and over: 3.5% (male 134,580; female 168,792) Median age: Total: 18.4 years Male: 17.9 years Female: 18.8 years Population growth rate: 2.453% (2007 est.) Birth rate: 35.87 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) Death rate: 10.4 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) Net migration rate: -0.94 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.) Sex ratio: (2003 est.) At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.016 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.954 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.797 male(s)/female Total population: 0.973 male(s)/female (2007 est.) Infant mortality rate: Total: 63.83 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 59.07 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 68.45 deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth: Total population: 57.03 years Male: 55.35 years Female: 58.75 years Total fertility rate: 4.86 children born/woman (2007 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: 2.2% (2005 est.) data.unaids.org/pub/EPISlides/2007/2007_epiupdate_en.pdf Nationality: Noun: Haitian(s) Adjective: Haitian Ethnic groups: Black 95%, Mulatto and White 5% Religions: Roman Catholic 80%, Protestant 16% (Baptist 10%, Pentecostal 4%, Adventist 1%, other 1%), none 1%, other 3% Languages: French (official), Haitian Creole (official), Spanish (non official) Literacy: (2008 est.) Institut Haitien de Statistique et d'Informatique - IHSI Definition: Age 15 and over that can read and write Total population: 61.0% Male: 63.8% Female: 58.3% References See also Haiti | Demographics_of_Haiti |@lemmatized population:17 haiti:11 thousand:1 although:2 average:2 approximately:1 people:2 per:2 square:1 kilometer:1 sq:1 mi:1 concentrate:2 heavily:1 urban:2 area:4 coastal:1 plain:1 valley:1 haitian:14 predominantly:1 afro:2 caribbean:2 descent:2 cia:3 world:4 factbook:4 remainder:1 vary:1 ethnic:2 group:2 mulatto:2 mestizo:1 marabous:1 arabs:1 primarily:4 syrian:1 lebanese:1 european:1 also:5 significant:2 amount:3 jewish:1 ancestry:1 http:1 www:1 jewishvirtuallibrary:1 org:2 jsource:1 vjw:1 html:1 white:2 descended:1 mainly:1 french:6 polish:1 spanish:6 italian:1 german:1 heritage:2 hispanic:1 resident:2 mostly:1 cuban:2 colombian:1 panamanian:1 venezuelan:2 dominican:5 small:3 percentage:2 within:2 minority:2 asian:3 origin:1 majority:1 inherit:1 african:4 taino:1 arawak:1 due:3 history:2 island:1 nearly:1 immigrant:1 number:1 virtually:1 country:5 large:2 port:1 au:1 prince:1 two:2 third:1 live:6 rural:1 culture:2 latin:2 nation:1 contribution:1 well:1 language:6 music:1 religion:5 much:2 less:2 extent:1 food:1 art:1 folk:1 taíno:2 arab:1 custom:1 present:1 society:2 many:1 close:1 cultural:1 tie:1 neighbor:2 cuba:2 especially:1 neighboring:1 republic:3 involve:2 post:1 imperialist:1 era:1 one:2 official:6 speak:5 creole:3 latter:1 base:1 english:2 portuguese:1 arabic:1 influence:2 though:2 grow:1 frequently:1 near:1 border:1 however:2 increasingly:3 westward:1 trade:1 becomes:1 american:1 affair:1 among:1 young:1 business:1 sector:1 state:2 roman:3 catholicism:1 profess:1 convert:1 protestantism:1 work:1 missionary:1 active:1 throughout:1 practice:2 vodou:1 tradition:1 claim:1 deny:1 strict:1 catholic:2 populace:1 faith:2 tend:1 see:2 conflict:1 root:1 belief:1 co:1 exist:1 christian:1 education:3 public:1 free:1 private:1 parochial:1 school:4 provide:1 around:1 educational:2 program:1 offer:1 child:3 primary:2 age:5 actually:1 enrol:2 secondary:2 level:1 figure:1 drop:1 complete:1 take:2 year:14 produce:1 single:1 graduate:1 cycle:1 haitians:2 place:1 high:2 value:1 afford:1 send:2 remittance:1 abroad:2 important:1 pay:1 cost:1 emigration:2 scale:1 principally:1 united:1 quebec:1 canada:1 france:1 spain:1 belgium:1 guiana:1 venezuela:1 bahamas:1 create:1 refer:1 tenth:1 department:1 diaspora:1 every:1 six:1 demographic:2 statistic:2 following:1 note:1 estimate:1 explicitly:1 account:1 effect:1 excess:1 mortality:3 aid:2 result:1 low:2 life:2 expectancy:2 infant:2 death:6 rate:9 growth:2 change:1 distribution:1 sex:2 would:1 otherwise:1 expect:1 july:1 est:11 structure:1 male:12 female:12 median:1 total:6 birth:7 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 ratio:1 fertility:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:1 adult:1 prevalence:1 data:1 unaids:1 pub:1 epislides:1 pdf:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 black:1 protestant:1 baptist:1 pentecostal:1 adventist:1 none:1 non:1 literacy:1 institut:1 haitien:1 de:1 statistique:1 et:1 informatique:1 ihsi:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 |@bigram square_kilometer:1 sq_mi:1 coastal_plain:1 afro_caribbean:1 syrian_lebanese:1 http_www:1 www_jewishvirtuallibrary:1 jewishvirtuallibrary_org:1 org_jsource:1 dominican_republic:3 haitian_creole:2 roman_catholicism:1 private_parochial:1 french_guiana:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 excess_mortality:1 life_expectancy:2 infant_mortality:2 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 mortality_rate:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:1 adult_prevalence:1 nationality_noun:1 baptist_pentecostal:1 |
5,761 | Albert_of_Mainz | Cardinal Albert of Hohenzollern, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg: engraved portrait by Albrecht Dürer, 1519 Cardinal Albert of Hohenzollern (German: ; June 28, 1490 – September 24, 1545) was Elector and Archbishop of Mainz from 1514 to 1545, and Archbishop of Magdeburg from 1513 to 1545. Biography Born in Cölln, Albert was the younger son of John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg. After their father's death, Albert and his older brother Joachim I Nestor became margraves of Brandenburg in 1499, but only his older brother held the title of an elector of Brandenburg. Having studied at the university of Frankfurt (Oder), Albert entered the ecclesiastical profession, and in 1513 became archbishop of Magdeburg at the age of 23 and administrator of the Diocese of Halberstadt. In 1514 he obtained the Electorate of Mainz, and in 1518 was made a cardinal at the age of 28. Meanwhile to pay for the pallium of the see of Mainz and to discharge the other expenses of his elevation, Albert had borrowed 21,000 ducats from Jacob Fugger, and had obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of indulgences in his diocese to obtain funds to repay this loan, as long as half the collection was forwarded to the Papacy. An agent of the Fuggers subsequently traveled in the Cardinal's retinue in charge of the cashbox. For this work he procured the services of John Tetzel, and so indirectly exercised a potent influence on the course of the Reformation. It was as a disgusted response to Tetzel's activities selling indulgences that Martin Luther wrote his famous 95 Theses, which he sent to Albert on 31 October 1517 and traditionally nailed to the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg. Albert forwarded the theses to Rome, suspecting them of heresy. When the imperial election of 1519 drew near, the elector's vote was eagerly solicited by the partisans of Charles (afterwards the emperor Charles V) and by those of Francis I, King of France, and he appears to have received a large amount of money for the vote, which he cast eventually for Charles. Cardinal Albert, Archbishop of Mainz and portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1526. Albert's large and liberal ideas, his friendship with Ulrich von Hutten, and his political ambitions, appear to have raised hopes that he would be won over to Protestantism; but after the Peasants' War of 1525 he ranged himself definitely among the supporters of Catholicism, and was among the princes who met to concert measures for its defence at Dessau in July 1525. Meeting of Saint Erasmus of Formiae and Saint Maurice by Matthias Grünewald (1517-1523), Alte Pinakothek, Munich. Grünewald used Albert of Mainz, who commissioned the painting, as the model for St. Erasmus (left). His hostility towards the reformers, however, was not so extreme as that of his brother Joachim I, Elector of Brandenburg; and he appears to have exerted himself in the interests of peace, although he was a member of the League of Nuremberg, which was formed in 1538 as a counterpoise to the League of Schmalkalden. The new doctrines nevertheless made considerable progress in his dominions, and he was compelled to grant religious liberty to the inhabitants of Magdeburg in return for 500,000 florins. During his latter years indeed he showed more intolerance towards the Protestants, and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in his dominions. Albert adorned the collegiate church (Stiftskirche) at Halle (Saale) and the cathedral at Mainz in sumptuous fashion, and took as his motto the words Domine, dilexi decorem domus tuae (Latin for: "Lord, I admired the adornment of your house."). A generous patron of art and learning, he counted Erasmus among his friends. He died at Aschaffenburg in 1545. References |- | Albert_of_Mainz |@lemmatized cardinal:5 albert:12 hohenzollern:2 archbishop:5 mainz:7 magdeburg:4 engrave:1 portrait:2 albrecht:1 dürer:1 german:1 june:1 september:1 elector:5 biography:1 bear:1 cölln:1 young:1 son:1 john:2 cicero:1 brandenburg:4 father:1 death:1 old:1 brother:3 joachim:2 nestor:1 become:2 margrave:1 older:1 hold:1 title:1 study:1 university:1 frankfurt:1 oder:1 enter:1 ecclesiastical:1 profession:1 age:2 administrator:1 diocese:2 halberstadt:1 obtain:3 electorate:1 make:2 meanwhile:1 pay:1 pallium:1 see:1 discharge:1 expense:1 elevation:1 borrow:1 ducat:1 jacob:1 fugger:1 permission:1 pope:1 leo:1 x:1 conduct:1 sale:1 indulgence:2 fund:1 repay:1 loan:1 long:1 half:1 collection:1 forward:2 papacy:1 agent:1 fuggers:1 subsequently:1 travel:1 retinue:1 charge:1 cashbox:1 work:1 procure:1 service:1 tetzel:2 indirectly:1 exercise:1 potent:1 influence:1 course:1 reformation:1 disgusted:1 response:1 activity:1 sell:1 martin:1 luther:1 write:1 famous:1 thesis:2 send:1 october:1 traditionally:1 nail:1 door:1 castle:1 church:2 wittenberg:1 rome:1 suspect:1 heresy:1 imperial:1 election:1 drew:1 near:1 vote:2 eagerly:1 solicit:1 partisan:1 charles:3 afterwards:1 emperor:1 v:1 francis:1 king:1 france:1 appear:3 receive:1 large:2 amount:1 money:1 cast:1 eventually:1 lucas:1 cranach:1 elder:1 liberal:1 idea:1 friendship:1 ulrich:1 von:1 hutten:1 political:1 ambition:1 raise:1 hope:1 would:1 win:1 protestantism:1 peasant:1 war:1 range:1 definitely:1 among:3 supporter:1 catholicism:1 prince:1 meet:1 concert:1 measure:1 defence:1 dessau:1 july:1 meeting:1 saint:2 erasmus:3 formiae:1 maurice:1 matthias:1 grünewald:2 alte:1 pinakothek:1 munich:1 use:1 commission:1 painting:1 model:1 st:1 leave:1 hostility:1 towards:2 reformer:1 however:1 extreme:1 exert:1 interest:1 peace:1 although:1 member:1 league:2 nuremberg:1 form:1 counterpoise:1 schmalkalden:1 new:1 doctrine:1 nevertheless:1 considerable:1 progress:1 dominion:2 compel:1 grant:1 religious:1 liberty:1 inhabitant:1 return:1 florin:1 latter:1 year:1 indeed:1 show:1 intolerance:1 protestant:1 favour:1 teaching:1 jesuit:1 adorn:1 collegiate:1 stiftskirche:1 halle:1 saale:1 cathedral:1 sumptuous:1 fashion:1 take:1 motto:1 word:1 domine:1 dilexi:1 decorem:1 domus:1 tuae:1 latin:1 lord:1 admire:1 adornment:1 house:1 generous:1 patron:1 art:1 learning:1 count:1 friend:1 die:1 aschaffenburg:1 reference:1 |@bigram archbishop_mainz:3 albrecht_dürer:1 mainz_archbishop:1 elector_brandenburg:3 joachim_nestor:1 margrave_brandenburg:1 older_brother:1 frankfurt_oder:1 pope_leo:1 sale_indulgence:1 martin_luther:1 lucas_cranach:1 cranach_elder:1 ulrich_von:1 halle_saale:1 |
5,762 | Alcoholism | Alcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions. In common and historic usage, alcoholism refers to any condition that results in the continued consumption of alcoholic beverages despite health problems and negative social consequences. Modern medical definitions The American Medical Association "Definitions" describe alcoholism as a disease and addiction which results in a persistent use of alcohol despite negative consequences. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, alcoholism, also referred to as dipsomania www.dictionary.com,Definition: dipsomania described a preoccupation with, or compulsion toward the consumption of, alcohol and/or an impaired ability to recognize the negative effects of excessive alcohol consumption. Although not all of these definitions specify current and on-going use of alcohol as a qualifier for alcoholism, some do, as well as remarking on the long-term effects of consistent, heavy alcohol use, including dependence and symptoms of withdrawal. While the ingestion of alcohol is, by definition, necessary to develop alcoholism, the use of alcohol does not predict the development of alcoholism. It is estimated that 9% of the general population is predisposed to alcoholism based on genetic factors. The quantity, frequency and regularity of alcohol consumption required to develop alcoholism varies greatly from person to person. In addition, although the biological mechanisms underpinning alcoholism are uncertain, some risk factors, including social environment, stress, emotional health, genetic predisposition, age, and gender have been identified. For example, those who consume alcohol at an early age, by age 16 or younger, are at a higher risk of alcohol dependence or abuse. Also, studies indicate that the proportion of men with alcohol dependence are higher than that of the proportion of women, 7% and 2.5% respectively, although women are more vulnerable to long-term consequences of alcoholism. Around 90% of adults in United States consume alcohol and more than 700,000 of them are treated daily for alcoholism. "King Alcohol and his Prime Minister" circa 1820 Definitions and terminology The definitions of alcoholism and related terminology vary significantly between the medical community, treatment programs, and the general public. Medical definitions The Journal of the American Medical Association defines alcoholism as "a primary, chronic disease characterized by impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking." The DSM-IV (the standard for diagnosis in psychiatry and psychology) defines alcohol abuse as repeated use despite recurrent adverse consequences. APA Dictionary of Psychology, 1st ed., Gary R. VandenBos, ed., Washington: American Psychological Association, 2007 It further defines alcohol dependence as alcohol abuse combined with tolerance, withdrawal, and an uncontrollable drive to drink. (See DSM diagnosis below.) According to the APA Dictionary of Psychology, alcoholism is the popular term for alcohol dependence. Note that there is debate whether dependence in this use is physical (characterised by withdrawal), psychological (based on reinforcement), or both. Terminology Many terms are applied to a drinker's relationship with alcohol. Use, misuse, heavy use, abuse, addiction, and dependence are all common labels used to describe drinking habits, but the actual meaning of these words can vary greatly depending upon the context in which they are used. Even within the medical field, the definition can vary between areas of specialization. The introduction of politics and religion further muddles the issue. Use refers to simple use of a substance. An individual who drinks any alcoholic beverage is using alcohol. Misuse, problem use, abuse, To use wrongly or improperly; misuse: abuse alcohol; The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed. and heavy use do not have standard definitions, but suggest consumption of alcohol to the point where it causes physical, social, or moral harm to the drinker. The definitions of social and moral harm are highly subjective and therefore differ from individual to individual. Within politics, abuse is often used to refer to the illegal use of any substance. Within the broad field of medicine, abuse sometimes refers to use of prescription medications in excess of the prescribed dosage, sometimes refers to use of a prescription drug without a prescription, and sometimes refers to use that results in long-term health problems. Within religion, abuse can refer to any use of a poorly regarded substance. The term is often avoided because it can cause confusion with audiences that do not necessarily share a single definition. Remission is often used to refer to a state where an alcoholic is no longer showing symptoms of alcoholism. The American Psychiatric Association considers remission to be a condition where the physical and mental symptoms of alcoholism are no longer evident, regardless of whether or not the person is still drinking. They further subdivide those in remission into early or sustained, and partial or full. Etymology 1904 advertisement describing alcoholism a disease.The term "alcoholism" was first used in 1849 by the physician Magnus Huss to describe the systematic adverse effects of alcohol. In the United States, use of the word "alcoholism" was largely popularized by the founding and growth of Alcoholics Anonymous in 1935. AA's basic text, known as the "Big Book," describes alcoholism as an illness that involves a physical allergy and a mental obsession. Note that the definition of "allergy" used in this context is not the same as used in modern medicine. A 1960 study by E. Morton Jellinek is considered the foundation of the modern disease theory of alcoholism. Jellinek's definition restricted the use of the word "alcoholism" to those showing a particular natural history. The modern medical definition of alcoholism has been revised numerous times since then. The American Medical Association currently uses the word alcoholism to refer to a particular chronic primary disease. http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/388/sci_drug_addiction.pdf A minority opinion within the field, notably advocated by Herbert Fingarette and Stanton Peele, argue against the existence of alcoholism as a disease. Critics of the disease model tend to use the term "heavy drinking" when discussing the negative effects of alcohol consumption. Epidemiology Substance use disorders are a major public health problem facing many countries. "The most common substance of abuse/dependence in patients presenting for treatment is alcohol." Gabbard: "Treatments of Psychiatric Disorders". Published by the American Psychiatric Association: 3rd edition, 2001, ISBN 0-88048-910-3 In the United Kingdom, the number of 'dependent drinkers' was calculated as over 2.8 million in 2001. Cabinet Office Strategy Unit Alcohol misuse: How much does it cost? September 2003 The World Health Organization estimates that about 140 million people throughout the world suffer from alcohol dependence. WHO European Ministerial Conference on Young People and Alcohol WHO to meet beverage company representatives to discuss health-related alcohol issues Within the medical and scientific communities, there is broad consensus regarding alcoholism as a disease state. For example, the American Medical Association considers alcohol a drug and states that "drug addiction is a chronic, relapsing brain disease characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use despite often devastating consequences. It results from a complex interplay of biological vulnerability, environmental exposure, and developmental factors (e.g., stage of brain maturity)." Current evidence indicates that in both men and women, alcoholism is 50-60% genetically determined, leaving 40-50% for environmental influences. A 2002 study by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism surveyed a group of 4,422 adult alcoholics and found that after one year some were no longer alcoholics, even though only 25.5% of the group received any treatment, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism 2001-2002 Survey Finds That Many Recover From Alcoholism Press release 18 January 2005. with the breakdown as follows: 25% still dependent 27.3% in partial remission (some symptoms persist) 11.8% asymptomatic drinkers (consumption increases chances of relapse) 35.9% fully recovered — made up of 17.7% low-risk drinkers plus 18.2% abstainers. In contrast, however, the results of a long term (60 year) follow-up of two groups of alcoholic men by George Vaillant at Harvard Medical School indicated that "return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence." Vaillant also noted that "return-to-controlled drinking, as reported in short-term studies, is often a mirage." Identification and diagnosis Multiple tools are available to those wishing to conduct screening for alcoholism. Identification of alcoholism may be difficult because there is no detectable physiologic difference between a person who drinks frequently and a person with the condition. Identification involves an objective assessment regarding the damage that imbibing alcohol does to the drinker's life compared with the subjective benefits the drinker perceives from consuming alcohol. While there are many cases where an alcoholic's life has been significantly and obviously damaged, there are always borderline cases that can be difficult to classify. Unless they have M.C. type symptoms, and in these cases are probably alcoholics, no diagnosis needed. Addiction Medicine specialists have extensive training with respect to diagnosing and treating patients with alcoholism. Screening Several tools may be used to detect a loss of control of alcohol use. These tools are mostly self reports in questionnaire form. Another common theme is a score or tally that sums up the general severity of alcohol use. The CAGE questionnaire, named for its four questions, is one such example that may be used to screen patients quickly in a doctor's office. The CAGE questionnaire, among others, has been extensively validated for use in identifying alcoholism. It is not valid for diagnosis of other substance use disorders, although somewhat modified versions of the CAGE are frequently implemented for such a purpose. The Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire is a more sensitive diagnostic test than the CAGE test. Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire (SADD) It helps distinguish a diagnosis of alcohol dependence from one of heavy alcohol use. The Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) is a screening tool for alcoholism widely used by courts to determine the appropriate sentencing for people convicted of alcohol-related offenses, Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) driving under the influence being the most common. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) is a screening questionnaire developed by the World Health Organization. This test is unique in that it has been validated in six countries and is used internationally. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: Guidelines for Use in Primary Care Like the CAGE questionnaire, it uses a simple set of questions - a high score earning a deeper investigation. The Paddington Alcohol Test (PAT) was designed to screen for alcohol related problems amongst those attending Accident and Emergency departments. It concords well with the AUDIT questionnaire but is administered in a fifth of the time. Genetic predisposition testing Psychiatric geneticists John I. Nurnberger, Jr., and Laura Jean Bierut suggest that alcoholism does not have a single cause—including genetic—but that genes do play an important role "by affecting processes in the body and brain that interact with one another and with an individual's life experiences to produce protection or susceptibility." They also report that fewer than a dozen alcoholism-related genes have been identified, but that more likely await discovery. Nurnberger, Jr., John I., and Bierut, Laura Jean. "Seeking the Connections: Alcoholism and our Genes." Scientific American, Apr2007, Vol. 296, Issue 4. At least one genetic test exists for an allele that is correlated to alcoholism and opiate addiction. New York Daily News (William Sherman) Test targets addiction gene 11 February 2006 Human dopamine receptor genes have a detectable variation referred to as the DRD2 TaqI polymorphism. Those who possess the A1 allele (variation) of this polymorphism have a small but significant tendency towards addiction to opiates and endorphin releasing drugs like alcohol. Although this allele is slightly more common in alcoholics and opiate addicts, it is not by itself an adequate predictor of alcoholism, and some researchers argue that evidence for DRD2 is contradictory. DSM diagnosis The DSM-IV diagnosis of alcohol dependence represents one approach to the definition of alcoholism. In part this is to assist in the development of research protocols in which findings can be compared with one another. According to the DSM-IV, an alcohol dependence diagnosis is: Urine and blood tests There are reliable tests for the actual use of alcohol, one common test being that of blood alcohol content (BAC). These tests do not differentiate alcoholics from non-alcoholics; however, long-term heavy drinking does have a few recognizable effects on the body, including: Macrocytosis (enlarged MCV)1 Elevated GGT² Moderate elevation of AST and ALT and an AST: ALT ratio of 2:1. High carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT) However, none of these blood tests for biological markers are as sensitive as screening questionaires. Effects of long term alcohol misuse The primary effect of alcoholism is to encourage the sufferer to drink at times and in amounts that are damaging to physical health. The secondary damage caused by an inability to control one's drinking manifests in many ways. Alcoholism also has significant social costs to both the alcoholic and their family and friends. Alcoholics have a very high suicide rate and studies show between 8% and 21% of alcoholics commit suicide. Alcoholism also has a significant adverse impact on mental health. The risk of suicide among alcoholics has been determined to be 5,080 times that of the general public. Physical health effects It is common for a person suffering from alcoholism to drink well after physical health effects start to manifest. The physical health effects associated with alcohol consumption may include cirrhosis of the liver, pancreatitis, epilepsy, polyneuropathy, alcoholic dementia, heart disease, increased chance of cancer, nutritional deficiencies, sexual dysfunction, and death from many sources. Severe cognitive problems are not uncommon in alcoholics. Approximately 10% of all dementia cases are alcohol related making alcohol the 2nd leading cause of dementia. Mental health effects Long term misuse of alcohol can cause a wide range of mental health effects. Alcohol misuse is not only toxic to the body but also to brain function and thus psychological well being can be adversely affected by the long-term effects of alcohol misuse. Psychiatric disorders are common in alcoholics, especially anxiety and depression disorders, with as many as 25% of alcoholics presenting with severe psychiatric disturbances. Typically these psychiatric symptoms caused by alcohol misuse initially worsen during alcohol withdrawal but with abstinence these psychiatric symptoms typically gradually improve or disappear altogether. Psychosis, confusion and organic brain syndrome may be induced by chronic alcohol abuse which can lead to a misdiagnosis of major mental health disorders such as schizophrenia. Panic disorder can develop as a direct result of long term alcohol misuse. Panic disorder can also worsen or occur as part of the alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Chronic alcohol misuse can cause panic disorder to develop or worsen an underlying panic disorder via distortion of the neurochemical system in the brain. The co-occurrence of major depressive disorder and alcoholism is well documented. Among those with comorbid occurrences, a distinction is commonly made between depressive episodes that are secondary to the pharmacological or toxic effects of heavy alcohol use and remit with abstinence, and depressive episodes that are primary and do not remit with abstinence. Additional use of other drugs may increase the risk of depression in alcoholics. Depressive episodes with an onset prior to heavy drinking or those that continue in the absence of heavy drinking are typically referred to as "independent" episodes, whereas those that appear to be etiologically related to heavy drinking are termed "substance-induced". Social effects The social problems arising from alcoholism can be massive and are caused in part due to the serious pathological changes induced in the brain from prolonged alcohol misuse and partly because of the intoxicating effects of alcohol. Being drunk or hung over during work hours can result in loss of employment, which can lead to financial problems including the loss of living quarters. Drinking at inappropriate times, and behavior caused by reduced judgment, can lead to legal consequences, such as criminal charges for drunk driving or public disorder, or civil penalties for tortious behavior. An alcoholic's behavior and mental impairment while drunk can profoundly impact surrounding family and friends, possibly leading to marital conflict and divorce, or contributing to domestic violence. This can contribute to lasting damage to the emotional development of the alcoholic's children, even after they reach adulthood. The alcoholic could suffer from loss of respect from others who may see the problem as self-inflicted and easily avoided. Alcohol withdrawal Alcohol withdrawal differs significantly from most other drugs in that it can be directly fatal. For example it is extremely rare for heroin withdrawal to be fatal. When people die from heroin or cocaine withdrawal they typically have serious underlying health problems which are made worse by the strain of acute withdrawal. An alcoholic, however, who has no serious health issues, has a significant risk of dying from the direct effects of withdrawal if it is not properly managed. Drugs which have a similar mechanism of action to alcohol also have a similar risk of causing death during withdrawal, including barbiturate and benzodiazepine withdrawal. Alcohol's primary effect is the increase in stimulation of the GABAA receptor, promoting central nervous system depression. With repeated heavy consumption of alcohol, these receptors are desensitized and reduced in number, resulting in tolerance and physical dependence. Thus when alcohol is stopped, especially abruptly, the person's nervous system suffers from uncontrolled synapse firing. This can result in symptoms that include anxiety, life threatening seizures, delirium tremens and hallucinations, shakes and possible heart failure. Acute withdrawal symptoms tend to subside after 1 - 3 weeks. Less severe symptoms (e.g. insomnia and anxiety) may continue as part of a post withdrawal syndrome gradually improving with abstinence for a year or more. Withdrawal symptoms begin to subside as the body and central nervous system makes adaptations to reverse tolerance and restore GABA function towards normal. Other neurotransmitter systems are involved, especially glutamate and NMDA. Treatments Treatments for alcoholism are quite varied because there are multiple perspectives for the condition itself. Those who approach alcoholism as a medical condition or disease recommend differing treatments than, for instance, those who approach the condition as one of social choice. Most treatments focus on helping people discontinue their alcohol intake, followed up with life training and/or social support in order to help them resist a return to alcohol use. Since alcoholism involves multiple factors which encourage a person to continue drinking, they must all be addressed in order to successfully prevent a relapse. An example of this kind of treatment is detoxification followed by a combination of supportive therapy, attendance at self-help groups, and ongoing development of coping mechanisms. The treatment community for alcoholism typically supports an abstinence-based zero tolerance approach; however, there are some who promote a harm-reduction approach as well. Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas, has developed a model to support college students who are in recovery from addictive disorders such as alcoholism. . Effectiveness When considering the effectiveness of treatment options, one must consider the success rate based on those who enter a program, not just those who complete it. Since completion of a program is the qualification for success, success among those who complete a program is generally near 100%. It is also important to consider not just the rate of those reaching treatment goals but the rate of those relapsing. Results should also be compared to the roughly 5% rate at which people will quit on their own. A year after completing a rehab program, about a third of alcoholics are sober, an additional 40 percent are substantially improved but still drink heavily on occasion, and a quarter have completely relapsed. Based on information from Dr. Mark Willenbring of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, the February 2007 issue of Newsweek - Adler, Jerry; Underwood, Anne; Kelley, Raina; Springen, Karen; Breslau, Karen. "Rehab Reality Check" Newsweek, 2/19/2007, Vol. 149 Issue 8, p44-46, 3p, 4c Detoxification Alcohol detoxification or 'detox' for alcoholics is an abrupt stop of alcohol drinking coupled with the substitution of drugs that have similar effects to prevent alcohol withdrawal. Detoxification treats the physical effects of prolonged use of alcohol, but does not actually treat alcoholism. After detox is complete, relapse is likely without further treatment. These rehabilitations (or 'rehabs') may take place in an inpatient or outpatient setting. Group therapy and psychotherapy A regional service center for Alcoholics Anonymous. After detoxification, various forms of group therapy or psychotherapy can be used to deal with underlying psychological issues that are related to alcohol addiction, as well as provide relapse prevention skills. The mutual-help group-counseling approach is one of the most common ways of helping alcoholics maintain sobriety. Many organizations have been formed to provide this service. Alcoholics Anonymous was the first group, and has more members than all other programs combined. Some of the others include LifeRing Secular Recovery, Rational Recovery, SMART Recovery, and Women For Sobriety. Rationing and moderation Rationing and moderation programs such as Moderation Management and DrinkWise do not mandate complete abstinence. While most alcoholics are unable to limit their drinking in this way, some return to moderate drinking. A 2002 U.S. study by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) showed that 17.7% of individuals diagnosed as alcohol dependent more than one year prior returned to low-risk drinking. However, this group showed fewer initial symptoms of dependency. A follow-up study, using the same NESARC subjects that were judged to be in remission in 2001-2002, examined the rates of return to problem drinking in 2004-2005. The major conclusion made by the authors of this NIAAA study was "Abstinence represents the most stable form of remission for most recovering alcoholics". Medications A variety of medications may be prescribed as part of treatment for alcoholism. Antabuse (disulfiram) prevents the elimination of acetaldehyde, a chemical the body produces when breaking down ethanol. Acetaldehyde itself is the cause of many hangover symptoms from alcohol use. The overall effect is severe discomfort when alcohol is ingested: an extremely fast-acting and long-lasting uncomfortable hangover. This discourages an alcoholic from drinking in significant amounts while they take the medicine. A recent 9-year study found that incorporation of supervised disulfiram and a related compound carbamide into a comprehensive treatment program resulted in an abstinence rate of over 50%. Naltrexone is a competitive antagonist for opioid receptors, effectively blocking our ability to use endorphins and opiates. Alcohol releases endorphins, hence when naltrexone is in the body drinkers no longer get any pleasure from consuming alcohol. Naltrexone is used in two very different forms of treatment. The first treatment uses naltrexone to decrease cravings for alcohol and encourage abstinence. The other treatment, called pharmacological extinction, combines naltrexone with normal drinking habits in order to reverse the endorphin conditioning that causes alcohol addiction. This results in a reduced desire to drink that persists after naltrexone use is discontinued, as long as the patient always takes naltrexone before drinking. Naltrexone comes in two forms. Oral naltrexone (originally but no longer available as the brand ReVia) is a pill that must be taken one hour before drinking to be effective. Vivitrol is a time-release formulation that is injected in the buttocks once a month. Acamprosate (also known as Campral) is thought to stabilize the chemical balance of the brain that would otherwise be disrupted by alcoholism. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved this drug in 2004, saying "While its mechanism of action is not fully understood, Campral is thought to act on the brain pathways related to alcohol abuse... Campral proved superior to placebo in maintaining abstinence for a short period of time..." " The COMBINE study was unable to demonstrate efficacy for Acamprosate. Topiramate (brand name Topamax), a derivative of the naturally occurring sugar monosaccharide D-fructose, has been found effective in helping alcoholics quit or cut back on the amount they drink. In one study heavy drinkers were six times more likely to remain abstinent for a month if they took the medication, even in small doses. In another study, those who received topiramate had fewer heavy drinking days, fewer drinks per day and more days of continuous abstinence than those who received the placebo. Evidence suggests that topiramate antagonizes excitatory glutamate receptors, inhibits dopamine release, and enhances inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid function. A 2008 review of the effectiness of topiramate concluded that the results of published trials are promising, however at this time, data are insufficient to support using topiramate in conjunction with brief weekly compliance counseling as a first-line agent for alcohol dependence. Olmsted CL, Kockler DR. Topiramate for alcohol dependence. 2008. Ann Pharmacother. 2008 Oct;42(10):1475-80. Epub 2008 Aug 12. Dual addictions The AMA definition of alcoholism refers to a disease entity involving the use of alcohol and any cross-tolerant sedative-hypnotic, including barbiturates and benzodiazepines. As discussed above, the DSM-IV definition of alcohol dependence refers to alcohol only, and DSM-IV uses sedative dependence to refer to the disease entity involving non-alcohol sedative agents. Alcoholics may also require treatment for other psychotropic drug addictions. The most common dual addiction in alcohol dependence is a benzodiazepine dependence with studies showing 10 - 20% of alcohol dependent individuals having problems of dependence and/or misuse problems of benzodiazepines. Note that using alcoholism's definition, there is no dual addiction if one uses both alcohol and any solid sedative. Dependence on other sedative hypnotics such as zolpidem and zopiclone as well as opiates also occurs as well as illegal drugs. Benzodiazepine withdrawal can like alcohol be medically severe and include the risk of psychosis and seizures if not managed properly. Benzodiazepine dependency requires careful reduction in dosage to avoid a serious benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome and health consequences. Benzodiazepines have the problem of increasing cravings for alcohol in problem alcohol consumers. Benzodiazepines also increase the volume of alcohol consumed by problem drinkers. Women and alcoholism Alcoholism has a higher prevalence among men, though in recent decades, the proportion of female alcoholics has increased. It is important to articulate the different biological and social ways alcoholism manifests in women in order to understand barriers to treatment and effective recovery strategies. Biological differences and physiological effects Biologically, women have symptom profiles from their alcohol use that differ in important ways from men. They experience a telescoping of physiological effects from alcohol use. Equal dosages of alcohol consumed by men and women generally result in women having higher blood alcohol concentrations (BACs). This can be attributed to many reasons, the main being that women have less body water than men. A given amount of alcohol, therefore becomes more highly concentrated in a woman's body. Besides this fact, women also become more intoxicated, which is due to different hormone release. Women develop long-term complications of alcohol dependence more rapidly than do alcoholic men. Additionally, women have a higher mortality rate from alcoholism than men. Examples of long term complications include brain, heart, and liver damage and an increased risk for breast cancer. Additionally, heavy drinking over time has been found to have a negative effect on reproductive functioning in women. This results in reproductive dysfunction such as anovulation, decreased ovarian mass, irregular menses, amenorrhea, luteal phase dysfunction, and early menopause. Psychological and emotional effects Psychiatric disorders are generally more prevalent among those with alcohol disorders. This is true for both men and women, however the disorders differ depending on gender. Women who have alcohol-use disorders have co-occurring psychiatric diagnosis such as major depression, anxiety, panic disorder, bulimia, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or borderline personality disorder. Men with alcohol-use disorders more often have co-occurring diagnosis of narcissistic and antisocial personality disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, impulse disorders and attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Women with alcoholism are also more likely to have a history of physical or sexual assault, abuse and domestic violence than those in the general population. This trauma can lead to higher instances of PTSD, depression, anxiety, and a greater dependence on alcohol. Societal barriers to treatment Attitudes and social stereotypes about women and alcohol can create barriers to the detection and treatment of female alcohol abusers. Such beliefs stigmatize women who drink by characterizing them as "both generally and sexually immoral" or the "fallen women." Fear of stigmatization may lead women to deny that they are suffering from a medical condition, to hide their drinking, and to drink alone. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be less likely to suspect that a woman they know is an alcoholic. In contrast, attitudes and social stereotypes about men and alcohol can lower barriers to the detection and treatment of male alcohol abusers. Such beliefs reward men who drink by characterizing them as "both generally and sexually moral" or the "risen men." Reduced fear of stigma may lead men to admit that they are suffering from a medical condition, to publicly display their drinking, and to drink in groups. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be more likely to suspect that a man they know is an alcoholic. Women also tend to have a greater fear that the negative implications from the stigma will reflect poorly on their families. This may also keep them from seeking help. Therefore, men also tend to have less fear that the negative implications from the stigma will reflect poorly on their families. This may encourage them to seek help. Implications for treatment Research has indicated a lack of adequate training for practitioners both in problematic alcohol use in general, and in relation to women's issues. The complexity of alcohol use disorders, particularly with gender-related issues, indicates that the need for practitioners' knowledge, insight and compassion is enormous. Better education and awareness surrounding the gender implications of alcoholism will help care providers to adequately treat women who suffer from alcoholism. Early intervention will also increase the probability of recovery. Societal impact The various health problems associated with long-term alcohol consumption are generally perceived as detrimental to society, for example, money due to lost labor-hours, medical costs, and secondary treatment costs. Alcohol use is a major contributing factor for head injuries, motor vehicle accidents, violence, and assaults. Beyond money, there is also the pain and suffering of the individuals besides the alcoholic affected. For instance, alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can lead to Fetal alcohol syndrome, CDC. (2004). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Guidelines for Referral and Diagnosis. Can be downloaded at http://www.cdc.gov/fas/faspub.htm an incurable and damaging condition. Streissguth, A. (1997). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A Guide for Families and Communities. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing. ISBN 1-55766-283-5. Estimates of the economic costs of alcohol abuse, collected by the World Health Organization, vary from one to six per cent of a country's GDP. One Australian estimate pegged alcohol's social costs at 24 per cent of all drug abuse costs; a similar Canadian study concluded alcohol's share was 41 per cent. A study quantified the cost to the UK of all forms of alcohol misuse as £18.5–20 billion annually (2001 figures). Stereotypes Depiction of a wino or town drunk Stereotypes of alcoholics are often found in fiction and popular culture. The 'town drunk' is a stock character in Western popular culture. Stereotypes of drunkenness may be based on racism or xenophobia, as in the depiction of the Irish as heavy drinkers. In Australia, Canada, and the United States, Aboriginal people have similarly been stereotyped as alcoholics. On the other hand, studies by social psychologists Stivers and Greeley attempt to document the perceived prevalence of high alcohol consumption amongst the Irish in America. In film and literature In modern times, the recovery movement has led to more realistic depictions of problems that stem from heavy alcohol use. Authors such as Charles R. Jackson and Charles Bukowski describe their own alcohol addiction in their writings. The disjoined narrative of Patrick Hamilton's Hangover Square reflects the alcoholism of its central character. A famous depiction of alcoholism, and the psychology of an alcoholic, is in Malcolm Lowry's widely acclaimed novel Under the Volcano, which details the final day of the British consul Geoffrey Firmin on the Day of the Dead in 1939 Mexico and his choice to continue his extreme alcohol consumption instead of returning to the wife he loves. Films like Bad Santa, Days of Wine and Roses, My Name is Bill W., Withnail and I, Arthur, Leaving Las Vegas, Shattered Spirits and The Lost Weekend, chronicle similar stories of alcoholism. Politics and public health Because alcohol use disorders are perceived as impacting society as a whole, governments and parliaments have formed alcohol policies in order to reduce the harm of alcoholism. The World Health Organization, the European Union and other regional bodies are working on alcohol action plans and programs. See also Alcohol consumption and health Alcoholism in family systems Alcohol dementia Alcohol-related traffic crashes Alcohol tolerance Alcohol withdrawal syndrome Binge drinking List of countries by alcohol consumption Drunkenness E. Morton Jellinek Ethanol Metabolism biochemical discussion of alcohol metabolism List of deaths through alcohol Substance abuse Self-medication Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome Willingway Hospital Medical diagnostics to test for alcohol use Blood alcohol content Full blood count Liver function tests References Further reading Berry, Ralph E.; Boland James P. The Economic Cost of Alcohol Abuse The Free Press, New York, 1977 ISBN 0-02-903080-3 Milam, Dr. James R. and Ketcham, Katherine Under The Influence: A Guide to the Myths and Realities of Alcoholism. Bantam, 1983, ISBN 0-553-27487-2 National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Etiology and Natural History of Alcoholism. Pence, Gregory, "Kant on Whether Alcoholism is a Disease," Ch. 2, The Elements of Bioethics, McGraw-Hill Books, 2007 ISBN 0-073-13277-2. Royce, James E. and Scratchley, David Alcoholism and Other Drug Problems Free Press, March 1996 ISBN 0-684-82314-4 ISBN 978-0-684-82314-0 Valliant, George E., ''The Natural History of Alcoholism Revisited, Harvard University Press, May 1995 ISBN 0-674-60378-8 ISBN 978-0-674-60378-3 Warren Thompson, MD, FACP. "Alcoholism." Emedicine.com, June 6, 2007. 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5,763 | HMS_Beagle | HMS Beagle was a Cherokee class 10-gun brig-sloop of the Royal Navy, named after the beagle, a breed of dog. She was launched on 11 May 1820 from the Woolwich Dockyard on the River Thames, at a cost of £7,803. In July of that year she took part in a fleet review celebrating the coronation of King George IV of the United Kingdom in which she was the first ship to sail under the new London Bridge. After that there was no immediate need for Beagle so she was kept in reserve for five years and "lay in ordinary", moored afloat but without masts or rigging. She was then adapted as a survey barque and took part in three expeditions. On the second survey voyage the young naturalist Charles Darwin was on board, and his work would eventually make the Beagle one of the most famous ships in history. First voyage On 27 September 1825 Beagle docked at Woolwich for repairs and fitted out for her new duties at a total cost of £5,913. Her guns were reduced from ten cannons to six and a mizzen mast was added to improve her maneuvrability, thereby changing her from a brig to a bark (or barque). Beagle set sail from Plymouth on 22 May 1826 on her first voyage, under the command of Captain Pringle Stokes. The mission was to accompany the larger ship HMS Adventure (380 tons) on a hydrographic survey of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, under the overall command of the Australian Captain Phillip Parker King, Commander and Surveyor. King was born on Norfolk Island and left for England in 1796. Colonial Secretary Index, 1788-1825, In the New South Wales State Records. Faced with the more difficult part of the survey in the desolate waters of Tierra del Fuego, Captain Pringle Stokes fell into a deep depression. At Port Famine on the Strait of Magellan he locked himself in his cabin for 14 days, then on 2 August 1828 shot himself and died in delirium 12 days later. Guardian review: Man on a suicide mission Captain Parker King then replaced Stokes with the Executive Officer of Beagle, Lieutenant W.G. Skyring. They sailed to Rio de Janeiro where on 15 December 1828 Rear Admiral Sir Robert Otway, commander in chief of the South American station aboard , named as (temporary) Captain of the Beagle his aide, Flag Lieutenant Robert FitzRoy. The 23-year-old aristocrat FitzRoy proved an able commander and meticulous surveyor. In one incident a group of Fuegians stole a ship's boat, and FitzRoy took their families on board as hostages. Eventually he held two men, a girl and a boy who was given the name of Jemmy Button, and these four native Fuegians were taken back with them when the Beagle returned to England on 14 October 1830. During this survey, the Beagle Channel was identified and named after the ship. Second voyage The Beagle being hailed by native Fuegians during the survey of Tierra del Fuego, painted by Conrad Martens who became ship's artist in 1833. FitzRoy had been given reason to hope that the South American Survey would be continued under his command, but when the Lords of the Admiralty appeared to abandon the plan, he made alternative arrangements to return the Fuegians. A kind uncle heard of this and contacted the Admiralty. Soon afterwards FitzRoy heard that he was to be appointed commander of HMS Chanticleer to go to Tierra del Fuego, but due to her poor condition Beagle was substituted for the voyage. FitzRoy was re-appointed as commander on 27 June 1831 and the Beagle was commissioned on 4 July 1831 under his command, with Lieutenants John Clements Wickham and Bartholomew James Sulivan. The Beagle was immediately taken into dock at Devonport for extensive rebuilding and refitting. As she required a new deck, FitzRoy had the upper-deck raised considerably, by 8 inches (200 mm) aft and 12 inches (300 mm) forward. The Cherokee-class ships had the reputation of being "coffin brigs," which handled badly and were prone to sinking; the raised deck gave the Beagle better handling and made her less liable to become top-heavy and capsize by helping the decks to drain more quickly so that less water would collect in the gunwales. Additional sheathing added to the hull added about 7 tons to her displacement. FitzRoy spared no expense in her fitting out, which included 22 chronometers, and five examples of the Sympiesometer, a kind of mercury-free barometer patented by Alexander Adie which was favoured by FitzRoy as giving the accurate readings required by the Admiralty. FitzRoy had found a need for expert advice on geology during the first voyage, and had resolved that if on a similar expedition, he would "endeavour to carry out a person qualified to examine the land; while the officers, and myself, would attend to hydrography." Command in that era could involve stress and loneliness, as shown by the suicide of Captain Stokes, and FitzRoy's own uncle Viscount Castlereagh had committed suicide under stress of overwork. His attempts to get a friend to accompany him fell through, and he asked his friend and superior, Captain Francis Beaufort, to seek a gentleman naturalist as a self-financing passenger who would give him company during the voyage. A sequence of enquiries led to Charles Darwin, a young gentleman on his way to becoming a rural clergyman, joining the voyage. Beagle was originally scheduled to leave on 24 October 1831 but because of delays in her preparations the departure was delayed until December. She attempted to depart on 10 December but ran into bad weather. Finally, on the morning of 27 December, the Beagle left her anchorage in the Barn Pool, under Mount Edgecumbe on the west side of Plymouth Sound, on what was to become a ground breaking scientific expedition. After completing extensive surveys in South America she returned via New Zealand, Sydney, Hobart Town (6 February 1836), to Falmouth, Cornwall, England on 2 October 1836. Third voyage "General Chart of Australia", showing coasts examined by the Beagle during the third voyage in red, from John Lort Stokes' Discoveries in Australia Six months later, Beagle set off in 1837 to survey large parts of the coast of Australia under the command of Commander John Clements Wickham, who had been a Lieutenant on the second voyage, with assistant surveyor Lieutenant John Lort Stokes who had been a Midshipman on the first voyage of the Beagle, then mate and assistant surveyor on the second voyage (no relation to Pringle Stokes). They started with the western coast between the Swan River (modern Perth, Australia) and the Fitzroy River, Western Australia, then surveyed both shores of the Bass Strait at the southeast corner of the continent. To aid the Beagle in her surveying operations in Bass’s Strait, the Colonial cutter Vansittart, of Van Diemen’s Land, was most liberally lent by His Excellency Sir John Franklin, and placed under the command of Mr C C Forsyth, the Senior Mate, assisted by Mr Pasco, another of her Mates. In May 1839 they sailed north to survey the shores of the Arafura Sea opposite Timor. Wickham named the Beagle Gulf and Port Darwin, which was first sighted by Stokes and which later gave its name to the city of Darwin, Australia. When Wickham fell ill and resigned, the command was taken over in March 1841 by Lieutenant John Lort Stokes who continued the survey. The third voyage was completed in 1843. Final years In 1845 the Beagle was refitted as a static coastguard watch vessel and transferred to Customs and Excise to control smuggling on the Essex coast to the north bank of the Thames estuary. She was moored mid-river on the River Roach which forms part of a maze of waterways in the marshes south of Burnham-on-Crouch. In 1851 oyster companies and traders petitioned for her to be removed as she was obstructing the river, and the 1851 Navy List dated 25 May showed her renamed as Southend "W.V. No. 7" at Paglesham. In 1870, she was sold to "Messrs Murray and Trainer" for breaking up. Investigations started in 2000 by a team led by Dr Robert Prescott of the University of St Andrews found documents confirming that "W.V. 7" was the Beagle, and noted a vessel matching her size shown midstream on the 1847 hydrographic survey chart. A later chart showed a nearby indentation to the north bank which could have been a dock for the Beagle. Site investigations found an area of marshy ground some 15 ft (5 m) deep matching this chart position, with many fragments of pottery of the correct period. An atomic dielectric resonance survey carried out in November 2003 found traces of timbers forming the size and shape of the lower hull, indicating a substantial amount of timbers from below the waterline still in place. An old anchor of 1841 pattern was excavated. It was also found that the 1871 census recorded a new farmhouse in the name of William Murray and Thomas Rainer, leading to speculation that the merchant's name was a misprint for T. Rainer. The farmhouse was demolished in the 1940s, but a nearby boathouse incorporated timbers matching knee timbers used in the Beagle. Further investigations are proposed. Their investigations featured in a BBC Television programme which showed how each watch ship would have accommodated seven coastguard officers, drawn from other areas to minimise collusion with the locals. Each officer had about three rooms to house his family, forming a small community. They would use small boats to intercept smugglers, and the investigators found a causeway giving access at low tide across the soft mud of the river bank. Apparently the next coastguard station along was the Kangaroo, a sister ship of the Beagle. Replica Currently planned for 2009 is a replica of HMS Beagle. This £3.3m wooden barque is to be built as part of a project to recreate Darwin's 1830s voyage which proved crucial in the genesis and intellectual foundations of the theory of natural selection. The vessel is to be built in Milford Haven. When completed, the new Beagle is anticipated to be able to recreate the 1831-36 circumnavigation with international crews of aspiring young scientists aboard, following the same course and making similar landfalls to those made by the original HMS Beagle when Darwin was aboard. "Replicas on the Blocks," Ships Monthly. April 2007. See also Beagle 2 - Mars space probe named after HMS Beagle, which was lost 25 December 2003 Beagle Channel Beagle conflict The Voyage of the Beagle, a book written by Charles Darwin about the Beagle'''s second voyageDiscoveries in Australia, a book written by John Lort Stokes about the Beagle's third voyageThe Voyage of the Space Beagle, a science fiction adventure by A.E. van Vogt loosely inspired by Darwin's voyage aboard HMS Beagle.Sources and referencesHMS Beagle: Survey Ship "Extraordinary" / Karl Heinz Marquardt (2007) ISBN 0851777031Voyage of the Beagle, Charles Darwin (including FitzRoy's commentary on refitting the Beagle from his account of the voyage), Penguin Books, London 1989 ISBN 0-14-043268-X . . . External links Darwin Online - bibliography: Proceedings of the first and second expeditions, and Darwin's Journal (The Voyage of the Beagle). list includes The Voyage of the Beagle John Lort Stokes, Discoveries in Australia, Volume 1, Volume 2. Robert FitzRoy, 1836, Sketch of the Surveying Voyages of his Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle, 1825-1836. Commanded by Captains P. P. King, P. Stokes, and R. Fitz-Roy, Royal Navy. Journal of the Geological Society of London'' 6: 311-343 Visit and Testimony of Captain Fitz-Roy HMS Beagle - Port Cities The sympiesometer of Alexander Adie The Journal of Syms Covington - Chapter 1. The replica HMS Beagle project BBC News - Darwin's Beagle ship 'found' The Observer - Evolution of radar points to HMS Beagle's resting place. 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5,764 | Kowtow | Kowtow (; Cantonese: Kau tàuh) is the act of deep respect shown by kneeling and bowing so low as to have your head touching the ground. An alternative Chinese term is ketou (); however, the meaning is somewhat altered: kòu originally meant "knock with reverence", whereas kē has the general meaning of "touch upon (a surface)". In Han Chinese culture, the kowtow is the highest sign of reverence. It was widely used to show reverence for one's elders, superiors, and especially the Emperor, as well as for religious and cultural objects of worship. In modern times, usage of the kowtow has become much reduced. Traditional usage In Imperial Chinese protocol, the kowtow was performed before the Emperor of China. Depending on the solemnity of the situation, different grades of kowtow would be used. In the most solemn of ceremonies, for example at the coronation of a new Emperor, the Emperor's subjects would undertake the ceremony of the "three kneelings and nine kowtows", which involves kneeling from a standing position three times, and each time, performing the kowtow three times while kneeling. More usually, however, a single kowtow is sufficient. As government officials represented the majesty of the Emperor while carrying out their duties, commoners were also required to kowtow to them in formal situations. For example, a commoner brought before a local magistrate would be required to kneel and kowtow. A commoner is then required to remain kneeling, whereas a person who has earned a degree in the Imperial examinations is permitted a seat. Since one is required by Confucian philosophy to show great reverence to one's parents and grandparents, children may also be required to kowtow to their elderly ancestors, particularly on special occasions. For example, at a wedding, the marrying couple was traditionally required to kowtow to both sets of parents, as acknowledgment of the debt owed for their nurturing. Confucius believed there was a natural harmony between the body and mind and therefore, whatever actions were expressed through the body would be transferred over to the mind. Because the body is placed in a low position in the kowtow, the idea is that you will naturally convert to your mind a feeling of respect. What you do to your body has an impact on your mind. It is important to remember that respect was needed to have a good society according to the Confucian philosophy. That is why bowing was so important. Modern usage The kowtow, and other traditional forms of reverence, were much maligned after the May Fourth Movement. Today, only vestiges of the traditional usage of the kowtow remain. In many situations, the standing bow has replaced the kowtow. For example, some, but not all, people would choose to kowtow before the grave of an ancestor, or while making traditional offerings to an ancestor. Direct descendants may also kowtow at the funeral of an ancestor, while others would simply bow. During a wedding, some couples may kowtow to their respective parents, though the standing bow is today more common. In extreme cases, the kowtow can be used to express profound gratitude, apology, or to beg for forgiveness. The kowtow remains alive as part of a formal induction ceremony in certain traditional trades that involve apprenticeship or discipleship. For example, Chinese martial arts schools often require a student to kowtow to a master. Likewise, traditional performing arts often also require the kowtow. Religion The kowtow is often performed in groups of three before Buddhist statues and images or tombs of the dead. In Buddhism it is more commonly termed either "worship with the crown (of the head)" (頂禮 ding li) or "casting the five limbs to the earth" (五體投地 wuti tou di) - referring to the two arms, two legs and forehead. For example, in certain ceremonies, a person would perform a sequence of three sets of three kowtows - stand up and kneel down again between each set - as an extreme gesture of respect; hence the term three kneelings and nine head knockings (). Also, some Buddhist pilgrims would kowtow once for every three steps made during their long journeys. Often the number three referring to the Triple Gem of Buddhism, the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. Diplomacy and the West Kowtow came into English in the early 19th century to describe the bow itself, but its meaning soon shifted to describe any abject submission or grovelling. Many westerners who first encountered the practice believed it was a sign of worship, but kowtowing does not necessarily have religious overtones in traditional Chinese culture. Kowtow was very important in the diplomacy of China with European powers, since it was required to come into the presence of the Emperor of China, but it meant submission before him. The British embassies of George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney (1793) and William Pitt Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst (1816) were foiled since kowtowing would mean acknowledging their King as a subject of the Emperor. Dutch ambassador Isaac Titsingh did not refuse to kowtow during the course of his 1794-1795 mission to the Imperial Court of Emperor Qianlong. van Braam Houckgeest, Andreas Everardus. (1798). An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India company, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1794 and 1795, Vol. I (English edition). pp. 285 in original (p. 335 of pp. 339 in digitized format). The members of the Titsingh mission, including Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest and Chrétien-Louis-Joseph de Guignes, made every effort to conform with the demands of the complex Imperial court etiquette. Neither the Chinese nor these Europeans could have known that this would be the last appearance by any Western ambassador at the Imperial court until after the Opium Wars of the next century. The kowtow was often performed in intra-Asian diplomatic relations as well. According to Annals of Joseon Dynasty, in 1596, Japanese Kampaku Toyotomi Hideyoshi who unified Japan had to kneel five times on the ground and hit his head three times on the ground (五拜三叩头礼), to show his vassal status to the Chinese Ming Dynasty. See also Chinese social relations Culture of China Finger kowtow: 1, 2 Posture emoticons Foot washing -- another act of extreme humility John Moyse Salute Sifu Sujud Orz Dogeza Proskynesis Notes References Rockhill, William Woodville. "Diplomatic Missions to the Court of China: The Kotow Question I," The American Historical Review, Vol. 2, No. 3 (Apr., 1897), pp. 427–442. Rockhill, William Woodville. "Diplomatic Missions to the Court of China: The Kotow Question II," The American Historical Review, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Jul., 1897), pp. 627–643. | Kowtow |@lemmatized kowtow:33 cantonese:1 kau:1 tàuh:1 act:2 deep:1 respect:4 show:4 kneel:6 bow:5 low:2 head:4 touch:2 ground:3 alternative:1 chinese:8 term:3 ketou:1 however:2 meaning:3 somewhat:1 altered:1 kòu:1 originally:1 mean:3 knock:1 reverence:5 whereas:2 kē:1 general:1 upon:1 surface:1 han:1 culture:3 high:1 sign:2 widely:1 use:3 one:3 elder:1 superior:1 especially:1 emperor:9 well:2 religious:2 cultural:1 object:1 worship:3 modern:2 time:6 usage:4 become:1 much:2 reduce:1 traditional:7 imperial:5 protocol:1 perform:5 china:7 depend:1 solemnity:1 situation:3 different:1 grade:1 would:10 solemn:1 ceremony:4 example:6 coronation:1 new:1 subject:2 undertake:1 three:10 kneeling:3 nine:2 involve:2 stand:4 position:2 usually:1 single:1 sufficient:1 government:1 official:1 represent:1 majesty:1 carry:1 duty:1 commoner:3 also:6 require:9 formal:2 bring:1 local:1 magistrate:1 remain:3 person:2 earn:1 degree:1 examination:1 permit:1 seat:1 since:3 confucian:2 philosophy:2 great:1 parent:3 grandparent:1 child:1 may:4 elderly:1 ancestor:4 particularly:1 special:1 occasion:1 wedding:2 marry:1 couple:2 traditionally:1 set:3 acknowledgment:1 debt:1 owe:1 nurturing:1 confucius:1 believe:2 natural:1 harmony:1 body:4 mind:4 therefore:1 whatever:1 action:1 express:2 transfer:1 place:1 idea:1 naturally:1 convert:1 feeling:1 impact:1 important:3 remember:1 need:1 good:1 society:1 accord:2 bowing:1 form:1 malign:1 fourth:1 movement:1 today:2 vestige:1 many:2 replace:1 people:1 choose:1 grave:1 make:3 offering:1 direct:1 descendant:1 funeral:1 others:1 simply:1 respective:1 though:1 common:1 extreme:3 case:1 profound:1 gratitude:1 apology:1 beg:1 forgiveness:1 alive:1 part:1 induction:1 certain:2 trade:1 apprenticeship:1 discipleship:1 martial:1 art:2 school:1 often:5 student:1 master:1 likewise:1 performing:1 religion:1 group:1 buddhist:2 statue:1 image:1 tomb:1 dead:1 buddhism:2 commonly:1 either:1 crown:1 頂禮:1 ding:1 li:1 cast:1 five:2 limb:1 earth:1 五體投地:1 wuti:1 tou:1 di:1 refer:2 two:2 arm:1 leg:1 forehead:1 sequence:1 gesture:1 hence:1 knocking:1 pilgrim:1 every:2 step:1 long:1 journey:1 number:1 triple:1 gem:1 buddha:1 dharma:1 sangha:1 diplomacy:2 west:1 come:2 english:2 early:1 century:2 describe:2 soon:1 shift:1 abject:1 submission:2 grovel:1 westerner:1 first:1 encounter:1 practice:1 necessarily:1 overtone:1 european:2 power:1 presence:1 british:1 embassy:2 george:1 macartney:2 earl:2 william:3 pitt:1 amherst:2 foil:1 acknowledge:1 king:1 dutch:2 ambassador:2 isaac:1 titsingh:2 refuse:1 course:1 mission:4 court:6 qianlong:1 van:2 braam:2 houckgeest:2 andreas:2 everardus:2 authentic:1 account:1 east:1 india:1 company:1 year:1 vol:3 edition:1 pp:4 original:1 p:1 digitized:1 format:1 member:1 include:1 chrétien:1 louis:1 joseph:1 de:1 guignes:1 effort:1 conform:1 demand:1 complex:1 etiquette:1 neither:1 could:1 know:1 last:1 appearance:1 western:1 opium:1 war:1 next:1 intra:1 asian:1 diplomatic:3 relation:2 annals:1 joseon:1 dynasty:2 japanese:1 kampaku:1 toyotomi:1 hideyoshi:1 unify:1 japan:1 hit:1 五拜三叩头礼:1 vassal:1 status:1 ming:1 see:1 social:1 finger:1 posture:1 emoticon:1 foot:1 wash:1 another:1 humility:1 john:1 moyse:1 salute:1 sifu:1 sujud:1 orz:1 dogeza:1 proskynesis:1 note:1 reference:1 rockhill:2 woodville:2 kotow:2 question:2 american:2 historical:2 review:2 apr:1 ii:1 jul:1 |@bigram parent_grandparent:1 beg_forgiveness:1 martial_art:1 performing_art:1 triple_gem:1 buddha_dharma:1 isaac_titsingh:1 emperor_qianlong:1 diplomatic_relation:1 joseon_dynasty:1 toyotomi_hideyoshi:1 ming_dynasty:1 diplomatic_mission:2 |
5,765 | Code_coverage | Code coverage is a measure used in software testing. It describes the degree to which the source code of a program has been tested. It is a form of testing that inspects the code directly and is therefore a form of white box testing . Currently, the use of code coverage is extended to the field of digital hardware, the contemporary design methodology of which relies on Hardware description languages (HDLs). Code coverage techniques were amongst the first techniques invented for systematic software testing. The first published reference was by Miller and Maloney in Communications of the ACM in 1963. Code coverage is one consideration in the safety certification of avionics equipment. The standard by which avionics gear is certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is documented in DO-178B. RTCA/DO-178(b), Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification, Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics, December 1, 1992. Coverage criteria To measure how well the program is exercised by a test suite, one or more coverage criteria are used. There are a number of coverage criteria, the main ones being: Function coverage - Has each function in the program been called? Statement coverage - Has each line of the source code been executed? Decision coverage (also known as Branch coverage) - Has each control structure (such as an if statement) evaluated both to true and false? Condition coverage (or Predicate coverage) - Has each boolean sub-expression evaluated both to true and false (this does not necessarily imply decision coverage)? Modified Condition/Decision Coverage (MC/DC) - Has every condition in a decision taken on all possible outcomes at least once? Has each condition been shown to affect that decision outcome independently? Path coverage - Has every possible route through a given part of the code been executed? Entry/exit coverage - Has every possible call and return of the function been executed? Safety-critical applications are often required to demonstrate that testing achieves 100% of some form of code coverage. Some of the coverage criteria above are connected. For instance, path coverage implies decision, statement and entry/exit coverage. Decision coverage implies statement coverage, because every statement is part of a branch. Full path coverage, of the type described above, is usually impractical or impossible. Any module with a succession of decisions in it can have up to paths within it; loop constructs can result in an infinite number of paths. Many paths may also be infeasible, in that there is no input to the program under test that can cause that particular path to be executed. However, a general-purpose algorithm for identifying infeasible paths has been proven to be impossible (such an algorithm could be used to solve the halting problem) Dorf, Richard C.: Computers, Software Engineering, and Digital Devices, Chapter 12, pg. 15. CRC Press, 2006. ISBN 0849373409, 9780849373404; via Google Book Search . Techniques for practical path coverage testing instead attempt to identify classes of code paths that differ only in the number of loop executions, and to achieve "basis path" coverage the tester must cover all the path classes. Code coverage in practice The target software is built with special options or libraries and/or run under a special environment such that every function that is exercised (executed) in the program(s) is mapped back to the function points in the source code. This process allows developers and quality assurance personnel to look for parts of a system that are rarely or never accessed under normal conditions (error handling and the like) and helps reassure test engineers that the most important conditions (function points) have been tested. The resulting output is then analysed to see what areas of code have not been exercised and the tests are updated to include these areas as necessary. Combined with other code coverage methods, the aim is to develop a rigorous, yet manageable, set of regression tests. Test engineers can look at code coverage test results to help them devise test cases and input or configuration sets that will increase the code coverage over vital functions. Two common forms of code coverage used by testers are statement (or line) coverage and path (or edge) coverage. Line coverage reports on the execution footprint of testing in terms of which lines of code were executed to complete the test. Edge coverage reports which branches or code decision points were executed to complete the test. They both report a coverage metric, measured as a percentage. The meaning of this depends on what form(s) of code coverage have been used, as 67% path coverage is more comprehensive than 67% statement coverage. Generally, code coverage tools and libraries exact a performance and/or memory or other resource cost which is unacceptable to normal operations of the software. Thus, they are only used in the lab. As one might expect, there are classes of software that cannot be feasibly subjected to these coverage tests, though a degree of coverage mapping can be approximated through analysis rather than direct testing. There are also some sorts of defects which are affected by such tools. In particular, some race conditions or similar real time sensitive operations can be masked when run under code coverage environments; and conversely, some of these defects may become easier to find as a result of the additional overhead of the testing code. Code coverage may be regarded as a more up-to-date incarnation of debugging in that the automated tools used to achieve statement and path coverage are often referred to as “debugging utilities”. These tools allow the program code under test to be observed on screen while the program is executing; additionally, commands and keyboard function keys are available to allow the code to be “stepped” through literally line by line. Alternatively, it is possible to define pinpointed lines of code as “breakpoints” which will allow a large section of the code to be executed, then stopping at that point and displaying that part of the program on screen. Judging where to put breakpoints is based on a reasonable understanding of the program indicating that a particular defect is thought to exist around that point. The data values held in program variables can also be examined and, in some instances, altered (with care) to try out “what if” scenarios. Clearly, use of a debugging tool is more the domain of the software engineer at a unit test level and it is more likely that the software tester will ask the software engineer to perform this. However, it is useful for the tester to understand the concept of a debugging tool. Software code coverage tools NCover - .Net code coverage tool with cyclomatic complexity Insure++ - a coverage of source code of application tested with functional tests. iSYSTEM winIDEA - measures coverage on a wide variety of embedded processors. It works by recoding execution directly on hardware, without instrumenting code or modifying the program and in real-time. EMMA - a free Java code coverage tool Atlassian Clover - a Java code coverage and test visualization tool which also displays coverage per-test. Free for open source projects Jtest, C++test, .Test - calculate percentage of code covered by tests. LDRA Testbed measures statement coverage, branch/decision coverage, LCSAJ Coverage, procedure/function call coverage, branch condition coverage, branch condition combination coverage and modified condition decision coverage (MC/DC) for DO-178B Level A. Cobertura - a free Java tool that calculates the percentage of code accessed by tests Devel::Cover - Code coverage metrics for Perl gcov - Code coverage test for GCC compiler ggcov - GTK+ GUI for gcov lcov - Web UI for gcov gcov-kernel - gcov support for the Linux kernel VB Watch - Visual Basic code coverage and performance analysis tool rcov - Code coverage for Ruby PartCover - .NET 2.0 code coverage tool BullseyeCoverage - C and C++ code coverage tool python-coverage - Code coverage for Python XDebug - PHP debugging tool, including code coverage CodeCover - Java / Cobol code coverage tool for use by shell in win / linux, apache ant script, or as Eclipse-Plugin (including boolean analyzer and correlation matrix), XML Reports Sonar - Sonar collects, analyzes and reports metrics on source code. Includes consolidated reporting on and across projects throughout time. shcov - Code coverage collection and visulization for shell scripts Hardware code coverage tools Aldec Cadence Design Systems Mentor Graphics Nusym Technology EVE Synopsys See also Mutation testing Software metric Regression testing Static code analysis White box testing Modified Condition/Decision Coverage Intelligent verification Cyclomatic complexity Notes External links Introduction to Code Coverage Don't be fooled by the coverage report Maximising Code Coverage in Complex Database and SOA Environments Systematic mistake analysis of digital computer programs | Code_coverage |@lemmatized code:51 coverage:75 measure:5 use:10 software:12 test:35 describe:2 degree:2 source:6 program:12 form:5 inspect:1 directly:2 therefore:1 white:2 box:2 currently:1 extend:1 field:1 digital:3 hardware:4 contemporary:1 design:2 methodology:1 relies:1 description:1 language:1 hdls:1 technique:3 amongst:1 first:2 invent:1 systematic:2 publish:1 reference:1 miller:1 maloney:1 communication:1 acm:1 one:4 consideration:2 safety:2 certification:2 avionics:2 equipment:2 standard:1 gear:1 certify:1 federal:1 aviation:1 administration:1 faa:1 document:1 rtca:1 b:1 airborne:1 system:3 radio:1 technical:1 commission:1 aeronautics:1 december:1 criterion:4 well:1 exercise:3 suite:1 number:3 main:1 function:9 call:3 statement:9 line:7 execute:9 decision:12 also:6 know:1 branch:6 control:1 structure:1 evaluate:2 true:2 false:2 condition:11 predicate:1 boolean:2 sub:1 expression:1 necessarily:1 imply:1 modify:3 mc:2 dc:2 every:5 take:1 possible:4 outcome:2 least:1 show:1 affect:2 independently:1 path:15 route:1 give:1 part:4 entry:2 exit:2 return:1 critical:1 application:2 often:2 require:1 demonstrate:1 achieves:1 connect:1 instance:2 implies:2 full:1 type:1 usually:1 impractical:1 impossible:2 module:1 succession:1 within:1 loop:2 construct:1 result:4 infinite:1 many:1 may:3 infeasible:2 input:2 cause:1 particular:3 however:2 general:1 purpose:1 algorithm:2 identify:2 prove:1 could:1 solve:1 halting:1 problem:1 dorf:1 richard:1 c:4 computer:2 engineering:1 device:1 chapter:1 pg:1 crc:1 press:1 isbn:1 via:1 google:1 book:1 search:1 practical:1 instead:1 attempt:1 class:3 differ:1 execution:3 achieve:2 basis:1 tester:4 must:1 cover:3 practice:1 target:1 build:1 special:2 option:1 library:2 run:2 environment:3 map:1 back:1 point:5 process:1 allow:4 developer:1 quality:1 assurance:1 personnel:1 look:2 rarely:1 never:1 access:2 normal:2 error:1 handling:1 like:1 help:2 reassure:1 engineer:4 important:1 output:1 analyse:1 see:2 area:2 update:1 include:4 necessary:1 combine:1 method:1 aim:1 develop:1 rigorous:1 yet:1 manageable:1 set:2 regression:2 devise:1 case:1 configuration:1 increase:1 vital:1 two:1 common:1 edge:2 report:6 footprint:1 term:1 complete:2 metric:4 percentage:3 meaning:1 depend:1 comprehensive:1 generally:1 tool:17 exact:1 performance:2 memory:1 resource:1 cost:1 unacceptable:1 operation:2 thus:1 lab:1 might:1 expect:1 cannot:1 feasibly:1 subject:1 though:1 mapping:1 approximate:1 analysis:4 rather:1 direct:1 testing:1 sort:1 defect:3 race:1 similar:1 real:2 time:3 sensitive:1 mask:1 conversely:1 become:1 easy:1 find:1 additional:1 overhead:1 regard:1 date:1 incarnation:1 debug:4 automated:1 refer:1 utility:1 observe:1 screen:2 additionally:1 command:1 keyboard:1 key:1 available:1 step:1 literally:1 alternatively:1 define:1 pinpointed:1 breakpoints:2 large:1 section:1 stop:1 display:2 judge:1 put:1 base:1 reasonable:1 understanding:1 indicating:1 think:1 exist:1 around:1 data:1 value:1 hold:1 variable:1 examine:1 alter:1 care:1 try:1 scenario:1 clearly:1 domain:1 unit:1 level:2 likely:1 ask:1 perform:1 useful:1 understand:1 concept:1 debugging:1 ncover:1 net:2 cyclomatic:2 complexity:2 insure:1 functional:1 isystem:1 winidea:1 wide:1 variety:1 embedded:1 processor:1 work:1 recode:1 without:1 instrument:1 emma:1 free:3 java:4 atlassian:1 clover:1 visualization:1 per:1 open:1 project:2 jtest:1 calculate:2 ldra:1 testbed:1 lcsaj:1 procedure:1 combination:1 modified:1 cobertura:1 devel:1 perl:1 gcov:5 gcc:1 compiler:1 ggcov:1 gtk:1 gui:1 lcov:1 web:1 ui:1 kernel:2 support:1 linux:2 vb:1 watch:1 visual:1 basic:1 rcov:1 ruby:1 partcover:1 bullseyecoverage:1 python:2 xdebug:1 php:1 codecover:1 cobol:1 shell:2 win:1 apache:1 ant:1 script:2 eclipse:1 plugin:1 analyzer:1 correlation:1 matrix:1 xml:1 sonar:2 collect:1 analyzes:1 consolidated:1 reporting:1 across:1 throughout:1 shcov:1 collection:1 visulization:1 aldec:1 cadence:1 mentor:1 graphic:1 nusym:1 technology:1 eve:1 synopsys:1 mutation:1 static:1 intelligent:1 verification:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 introduction:1 fool:1 maximise:1 complex:1 database:1 soa:1 mistake:1 |@bigram communication_acm:1 halting_problem:1 crc_press:1 cyclomatic_complexity:2 embedded_processor:1 gcc_compiler:1 linux_kernel:1 external_link:1 |
5,766 | Demographics_of_Kazakhstan | The Demographics of Kazakhstan enumerate the demographic features of the population of Kazakhstan, including population growth, population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population. Population of Kazakhstan. Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands Demographic trends Official estimates put the population of Kazakhstan at 15.7 million as of 1 July 2008, of which 47% is rural and 53% urban population. Population and social policy, Statistical Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan The 2008 population estimate is 4.8% higher than the population reported in the last census from January 1999 (slightly less than 15 million). If these estimates are confirmed by the forthcoming 2009 population census, this would mean that the decline in population that began after 1989 has been arrested and possibly reversed. The population of Kazakhstan increased steadily from 6.1 million in the 1939 census to 16.5 million in the 1989 census. Official estimates indicate that the population continued to increase after 1989, peaking out at 17 million in 1993 and then declining to 15 million in the 1999 census. The downward trend continued through 2002, when the estimated population bottomed out at 14.9 million, and then resumed its growth. Population dynamics and ethnic composition of Kazakhstan in the second half of the 20th century, Demoscope Weekly, No. 103-104, 3-16 March 2003 Kazakhstan underwent significant urbanization during the first 50 years of the Soviet era, as the share of rural population declined from more than 90% in the 1920s to less than 50% since the 1970s. Population of Kazakhstan 1939-2008 Year (January)Population ('000)Rural, %Urban, %Source19396,0817228census19599,2955655census197013,0015050census197914,6854654census198916,5374357census199316,9864357estimate199914,9534357census200214,8514357estimate200515,0754357estimate200815,5724753estimate Data sources: Population 1939-1999 from demoscope.ru, 2002-2008 from Kazakhstan Statistical Agency web site. Rural/urban shares 1939-1993 from statistical yearbooks, print editions, Statistical Yearbook of Kazakhstan, Alma-Ata, various years since 1980 2002-2008 from Kazakhstan Statistical Agency web site. Discrepancies in Western sources As of 2003, there were discrepancies between Westerm sources regarding the population of Kazakhstan. United States government sources, including the CIA World Fact Book and the US Census Bureau International Data Base, listed the population as 15,340,533, CIA Factbook (Kazakhstan) Retrieved on May 2, 2008 while the World Bank gave a 2002 estimate of 14,794,830. This discrepancy was presumably due to difficulties in measurement caused by the large migratory population in Kazakhstan, emigration, and low population density - only about 5.5 persons per km² in an area the size of Western Europe. Ethnic groups According to the 1999 census there are two dominant ethnical groups in Kazakhstan, they are ethnic Kazakhs (53.4%) and ethnic Russians (30%) with a wide array of other groups represented, including Ukrainians, Uzbeks, Germans, Chechens, Koreans, and Uyghurs - that is, virtually any group that has ever come under the Russian sphere of influence. This diverse demography is due to the country's central location and its historical use by Russia as a place to send colonists, dissidents, and minority groups from its other frontiers - one can almost not understand Kazakhstan without understanding population transfer in the Soviet Union. From the 1930s until the 1950s, both Russian opposition (and such Russians "accused" of being part of the opposition) and certain minorities (esp. Volga Germans, Poles, Ukrainians, Crimean Tartars, Kalmyks) had been interned in labor camps often merely due to their heritage or beliefs, mostly on collective orders by Stalin. This makes Kazakhstan one of the few places on Earth where normally-disparate Germanic, Indo-Iranian, Koreans, Chechen, and Turkic groups live together in a rural setting and not as a result of modern immigration. Most of the population speaks Russian; only half of ethnic Kazakhs speak Kazakh fluently, although it is enjoying a renaissance. Both Kazakh and Russian languages have official status. After the fall of the Soviet Union, the German population of Kazakhstan proceeded to emigrate en masse during the 1990s , as Germany is willing to repatriate them. Also much of the smaller Greek minority took the chance to repatriate to Greece, so did many Russians move to Russia. Some groups have fewer good options for emigration but because of the economic situation are also leaving at rates comparable to the rest of the former East bloc. Table: Ethnic Composition of Kazakhstan Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: data for 1959-1999 (Internet Archive v. 27 November 2007) Alexandrov, Mikhail. Uneasy Alliance: Relations Between Russia and Kazakhstan in the Post-Soviet Era, 1992-1997. Greenwood Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0313309656 Demographic situation in the Republic of Kazakhstan in 2006, Agency on Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Internet Archive v. 11 October 2007) Nationality 1897 % 1911 % 1926 % 1939 % 1959 % 1970 % 1979 % 1989 % 1999 % 2006 %</tr> Kazakh 73.9 60.8 59.5 38.0 30.0 32.6 36.0 39.7 53.4 59.2</tr> Russian 12.8 27.0 18.0 40.2 42.7 42.4 40.8 37.4 29.9 25.6</tr> Ukrainian * * 12.4 10.8 8.2 7.2 6.1 5.4 3.7 2.9</tr> German - - 0.7 1.5 7.1 6.6 6.1 5.8 2.4 1.4</tr> Tatar 1.1 1.1 0.7 1.6 1.5 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.7 1.5</tr> Uzbek 1.3 1.1 3.2 1.7 1.1 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.5 2.9</tr> Belarusian * * - 0.5 1.2 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.8 -</tr> Uyghur - - - - 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.4 1.5</tr> Korean - - - - 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 -</tr> * For 1897 and 1911 "Russians" include all Slavs. Kazakh boy with a camel in Baikonur Table: Ethnic Composition of Kazakhstan (Detailed Census Data) Ethnodemographic situation in Kazakhstan on ide.go.jp (unidentified source) Ethnic groups19991989As % of 1989% Of PopTotal population14,953,12616,464,46490.82100.00Kazakhs7,985,0396,534,616122.1953.40Russians4,479,6186,227,54971.9329.95Ukrainians547,052896,24061.033.65Uzbeks370,663332,017111.632.47Germans353,441957,51836.912.36Tatars248,952327,98275.901.66Uyghurs210,339185,301113.511.40Belarusians111,926182,60161.290.74Koreans99,657103,31596.450.66Azerbaijanis78,29590,08386.910.52Poles47,29759,95678.880.31Dungans36,94530,165122.470.24Kurds32,76425,425128.860.21Chechens31,79949,50764.230.21Tajiks25,65725,514100.560.17Bashkirs23,22441,84755.490.15Moldovans19,45833,09858.780.13Ingush16,89319,91484.820.11Mordvins16,14730,03653.750.10Armenians14,75819,11977.190.09Greeks12,70346,74627.170.08Kyrgyz10,89614,11277.210.07Bulgarians6,91510,42666.320.04Lezgins4,61613,90533.190.03Turkmens1,7293,84644.950.01Other166,342203,62681.681.11No11190.840.00 Total Slavic/European population 39.0% in 1999 (compared with 60.3% in 1959, 57.3% in 1970,54.5% in 1979, and 49.8% in 1989). CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Age structure Kazakhstan Population pyramid, 2005 0-14 years: 22.1% (male 1,734,622/female 1,659,723) 15-64 years: 69.6% (male 5,219,983/female 5,463,468) 65 years and over: 8.2% (male 443,483/female 819,254) (2008 est.) Population growth rate 0.374% (2008 est.) Birth rate 16.44 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate 9.39 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate -3.31 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.54 male(s)/female total population: 0.93 male(s)/female (2008 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 26.56 deaths/1,000 live births male: 31.03 deaths/1,000 live births female: 21.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 67.55 years male: 62.24 years female: 73.16 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate 1.88 children born/woman (2008 est.) According to the Kazakhstan Demographic and Health Survey in 1999, the TFR for Kazakhs was 2.5 and that for Russians was 1.38. TFR in 1989 for Kazakhs & Russians were 3.58 and 2.24 respectively. TFR according to regions: Almaty City-1.00, South - 2.86, West-2.26, Karaganda-1.59, North-1.72, East- 1.42. percentage of people currently pregnant was 2.89% (2.95% of Kazakhs, 2.49% of Russians and 3.42% of Others). Kazakhstan: Demographic and Health Survey, 1999 - Final Report, Chapter 4: Fertility Nationality noun: Kazakhstani(s) adjective: Kazakhstani Religions Muslim (47%) Russian Orthodox (44%) Protestant (2%) other (7%) Languages (2001 est) Kazakh (Qazaq, state language) (64.4%) Russian (official, used in everyday business) (95%) Literacy (1999 est) definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 99.5% male: 99.8% female: 99.3% References External links For current data, use these sites. World Bank Database CIA World Fact Book page on Kazakhstan US Census Bureau International Data Base countrystudies.us WESP population statistics Russians left behind in Central Asia | Demographics_of_Kazakhstan |@lemmatized demographic:8 kazakhstan:29 enumerate:1 feature:1 population:37 include:4 growth:3 density:2 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:3 economic:2 status:2 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 data:7 fao:1 year:13 number:1 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 trend:2 official:4 estimate:6 put:1 million:7 july:1 rural:5 urban:3 social:1 policy:1 statistical:5 agency:4 republic:3 high:2 report:2 last:1 census:9 january:2 slightly:1 less:2 confirm:1 forthcoming:1 would:1 mean:1 decline:3 begin:1 arrest:1 possibly:1 reverse:1 increase:2 steadily:1 indicate:2 continue:2 peak:1 downward:1 bottom:1 resume:1 dynamic:1 ethnic:8 composition:3 second:1 half:2 century:1 demoscope:2 weekly:1 march:1 underwent:1 significant:1 urbanization:1 first:1 soviet:4 era:2 share:2 since:2 source:5 ru:1 web:2 site:3 yearbook:2 print:1 edition:1 alma:1 ata:1 various:1 discrepancy:3 western:2 westerm:1 regard:1 united:2 states:1 government:1 cia:5 world:6 fact:2 book:2 u:3 bureau:2 international:2 base:2 list:1 factbook:3 retrieve:1 may:1 bank:2 give:1 presumably:1 due:3 difficulty:1 measurement:1 cause:1 large:1 migratory:1 emigration:2 low:1 person:1 per:1 area:1 size:1 europe:1 group:7 accord:3 two:1 dominant:1 ethnical:1 kazakh:10 russian:14 wide:1 array:1 represent:1 ukrainian:3 uzbek:2 german:4 chechen:2 korean:3 uyghurs:1 virtually:1 ever:1 come:1 sphere:1 influence:1 diverse:1 demography:1 country:1 central:2 location:1 historical:1 use:3 russia:3 place:2 send:1 colonist:1 dissident:1 minority:3 frontier:1 one:2 almost:1 understand:2 without:1 transfer:1 union:2 opposition:2 accuse:1 part:1 certain:1 esp:1 volga:1 pole:1 crimean:1 tartar:1 kalmyks:1 intern:1 labor:1 camp:1 often:1 merely:1 heritage:1 belief:1 mostly:1 collective:1 order:1 stalin:1 make:1 earth:1 normally:1 disparate:1 germanic:1 indo:1 iranian:1 turkic:1 live:4 together:1 setting:1 result:1 modern:1 immigration:1 speak:2 fluently:1 although:1 enjoy:1 renaissance:1 language:3 fall:1 proceed:1 emigrate:1 en:1 masse:1 germany:1 willing:1 repatriate:2 also:2 much:1 small:1 greek:1 take:1 chance:1 greece:1 many:1 move:1 good:1 option:1 situation:3 leave:2 rate:7 comparable:1 rest:1 former:1 east:2 bloc:1 table:2 office:1 nation:1 commissioner:1 human:1 right:1 internet:2 archive:2 v:2 november:1 alexandrov:1 mikhail:1 uneasy:1 alliance:1 relation:1 post:1 greenwood:1 press:1 isbn:1 statistic:4 october:1 nationality:2 tr:10 tatar:1 belarusian:1 uyghur:1 slav:1 boy:1 camel:1 baikonur:1 detailed:1 ethnodemographic:1 ide:1 go:1 jp:1 unidentified:1 poptotal:1 total:6 slavic:1 european:1 compare:1 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 age:2 structure:1 pyramid:1 male:11 female:11 est:11 birth:7 death:5 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:2 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 survey:2 tfr:3 respectively:1 region:1 almaty:1 city:1 south:1 west:1 karaganda:1 north:1 percentage:1 people:1 currently:1 pregnant:1 others:1 final:1 chapter:1 noun:1 kazakhstani:2 adjective:1 religion:1 muslim:1 orthodox:1 protestant:1 qazaq:1 state:1 everyday:1 business:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 current:1 database:1 page:1 countrystudies:1 wesp:1 russians:1 behind:1 asia:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 statistical_yearbook:2 united_states:1 states_government:1 census_bureau:2 cia_factbook:1 soviet_union:2 indo_iranian:1 en_masse:1 uneasy_alliance:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 nationality_noun:1 external_link:1 countrystudies_u:1 |
5,767 | Geography_of_Burma | Burma (Officially The Union of Myanmar) is a country located on the mainland of southeast Asia, and would be the northwestern most entity of the region. Maritime claims contiguous zone: 24 nautical miles continental shelf: 200 nautical miles (370 km) or to the edge of the continental margin exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) Climate Tropical monsoon in the lowlands below 2,000m; cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April). Climate varies in the highlands depending on elevation; subtropical temperate climate at around 2,500m, temperate at 3,000m, cool, alpine at 3,500m and above the alpine zone, cold, harsh tundra and Arctic climate. The higher elevations are subject to heavy snowfall and bad weather. Terrain Central lowlands ringed by steep, rugged highlands, with the country's highest point at the 5881m Hkakabo Razi. Ayeyarwady River, Salween, Mekong Natural resources petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, some marble, limestone, precious stones, natural gas, hydropower Land use arable land: 15% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 1% forests and woodland: 49% other: 34% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 10,680 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts Environment - current issues deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease Environment - international agreements party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements Geography - note It is strategically located near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes. List of islands of Burma The following is a list of islands of Burma: Cheduba Island Coco Islands Mergui Archipelago Ramree | Geography_of_Burma |@lemmatized burma:3 officially:1 union:1 myanmar:1 country:2 locate:2 mainland:1 southeast:1 asia:1 would:1 northwestern:1 entity:1 region:1 maritime:1 claim:1 contiguous:1 zone:3 nautical:3 mile:3 continental:2 shelf:1 km:2 edge:1 margin:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 climate:5 tropical:3 monsoon:3 lowland:2 cloudy:2 rainy:2 hot:1 humid:1 summer:1 southwest:1 june:2 september:2 less:1 scant:1 rainfall:1 mild:1 temperature:1 low:1 humidity:1 winter:1 northeast:1 december:1 april:1 varies:1 highland:2 depend:1 elevation:2 subtropical:1 temperate:2 around:1 cool:1 alpine:2 cold:1 harsh:1 tundra:1 arctic:1 high:2 subject:1 heavy:1 snowfall:1 bad:1 weather:1 terrain:1 central:1 ring:1 steep:1 rugged:1 point:1 hkakabo:1 razi:1 ayeyarwady:1 river:1 salween:1 mekong:1 natural:3 resource:1 petroleum:1 timber:3 tin:1 antimony:1 zinc:1 copper:1 tungsten:1 lead:1 coal:1 marble:1 limestone:1 precious:1 stone:1 gas:1 hydropower:1 land:3 use:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:2 irrigated:1 hazard:1 destructive:1 earthquake:1 cyclone:1 flood:1 landslide:1 common:1 season:1 periodic:1 drought:1 environment:2 current:1 issue:1 deforestation:1 industrial:1 pollution:2 air:1 soil:1 water:2 inadequate:1 sanitation:1 treatment:1 contribute:1 disease:1 international:1 agreement:2 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 desertification:1 endanger:1 specie:1 law:1 sea:1 nuclear:1 test:1 ban:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 ship:1 sign:1 ratified:1 none:1 select:1 geography:1 note:1 strategically:1 near:1 major:1 indian:1 ocean:1 shipping:1 lane:1 list:2 island:3 following:1 cheduba:1 coco:1 islands:1 mergui:1 archipelago:1 ramree:1 |@bigram southeast_asia:1 contiguous_zone:1 zone_nautical:2 nautical_mile:3 continental_shelf:1 mile_km:2 hot_humid:1 southwest_monsoon:1 northeast_monsoon:1 subtropical_temperate:1 temperate_climate:1 ayeyarwady_river:1 zinc_copper:1 marble_limestone:1 precious_stone:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 destructive_earthquake:1 flood_landslide:1 rainy_season:1 periodic_drought:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 ozone_layer:1 tropical_timber:2 timber_tropical:1 sign_ratified:1 ratified_none:1 shipping_lane:1 |
5,768 | Celtic_music | Celtic music is a term utilised by artists, record companies, music stores and music magazines to describe a broad grouping of musical genres that evolved out of the folk musical traditions of the Celtic peoples of Western Europe. As such there is no real body of music which can be accurately be described as Celtic, but the term has stuck and may refer to both orally-transmitted traditional music and recorded popular music. Celtic music means two things mainly. First, it is the music of the peoples calling themselves Celts (a non-musical, primarily political definition), as opposed to, say, "French music" or "English music." Secondly, it refers to whatever qualities may be unique to the musics of the Celtic Nations (a musical definition). Some insist that different ostensibly Celtic musics actually have nothing in common – such as Geoff Wallis and Sue Wilson in their book The Rough Guide to Irish Music – whereas others (such as Alan Stivell), say there is. Often, the term Celtic music is applied to the music of Ireland and Scotland, because both places have produced well-known distinctive styles which actually have genuine commonality and clear mutual influences; however, it is notable that Irish and Scottish traditional musicians themselves avoid the term "Celtic music," except when forced by the necessities of the market. The definition is further complicated by the fact that Irish independence has allowed Ireland to promote 'Celtic' music as a specifically Irish product. In reality, the terms 'Scots/Scottish' and 'Irish' are purely modern geographical references to a people who share a common Celtic ancestry and consequently, a common musical heritage. These styles are known because of the importance of Irish and Scottish people in the English speaking world, especially in the United States, where it had a profound impact on American music, particularly bluegrass and country music. http://www.chincoteagueculturalalliance.org/articles/article/5493371/95457.htm The music of Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man, Brittany, Galicia, Cantabria and Asturias and Portugal are also considered Celtic music, the tradition being particularly strong in Brittany, where Celtic festivals large and small take place throughout the year, and in Wales, where the ancient eisteddfod tradition still occurs. Additionally, the musics of ethnically Celtic peoples abroad are vibrant, especially in Canada and the United States. Divisions In Celtic Music: A Complete Guide, June Skinner Sawyers acknowledges six Celtic nationalities divided into two groups according to their linguistic heritage. The Q-Celtic nationalities are the Irish, Scottish and Manx peoples, while the P-Celtic groups are the Cornish, Bretons and Welsh peoples. Musician Alan Stivell uses a similar dichotomy, between the Gaelic (Irish/Scottish/Manx) branch and the Brythonic (Breton/Welsh/Cornish) group, which differentiate "mostly by the extended range (sometimes more than two octaves) of Irish and Scottish melodies and the closed range of Breton and Welsh melodies (often reduced to a half-octave), and by the frequent use of the pure pentatonic scale in Gaelic music." translation by Steve Winick Definition debate At issue is the lack of many common threads uniting the "Celtic" peoples listed above. While the ancient Celts undoubtedly had their own musical styles, the actual sound of their music remains a complete mystery. There is also tremendous variation between "Celtic" regions. Ireland, Scotland, and Brittany have living traditions of language and music, and there has been a recent major revival of interest in Wales. However, Cornwall and the Isle of Man have only small-scale revivalist movements that have yet to take hold. Galicia has no Celtic language today (Galician is a Romance language descending from Galician-Portuguese, although all the Western part of the Peninsula had Celtic languages in pre-Roman times, as did England, France, and parts of Italy and Turkey), but Galician music is often claimed to be "Celtic." The same is true of the music of Asturias, Cantabria, and that of Northern Portugal (some say even traditional music from Central Portugal can be labeled Celtic). Thus traditionalists and musicological scholars dispute that the "Celtic" lands have any folk connections to each other. Critics of the idea of modern Celtic music claim that the idea is the creation of modern marketing designed to stimulate regional identity in the creation of a consumer niche; June Skinner Sawyers, for example, notes that "Celtic music is a marketing term that I am using, for the purposes of this book, as a matter of convenience, knowing full well the cultural baggage that comes with it". The so-called "marketing" or "show-business" creation was popularized by the idealistic man who first (late 1960s) blended the music of all the Celtic countries with a modern touch in his recordings and concerts: the Breton Alan Stivell. Although this composer is one of the main modern promoters of this kind of music, he did not create the term. Forms Identifying "common characteristics" of Celtic music is problematic. Most of the popular musical forms now thought of as characteristically "Celtic" were once common in many places in Western Europe. There is debate over whether jigs were adapted from the Italian gigue, a common form of the baroque era, The origins of Irish traditional music google books for example, while polkas have their origin in Czech and Polish tradition. Online Etymology Dictionary, "polka"; Compact Oxford English Dictionary, "polka"] On the other hand, there are musical genres and styles specific to each Celtic country, due in part to the influence of individual song traditions and the characteristics of specific languages. Strathspeys are specific to Highland Scotland, for example, and it has been hypothesized that they mimic the rhythms of the Scottish Gaelic language. Traditional Gaelic song and singing sean-nós Festivals The Celtic music scene involves a large number of music festivals. Some of the most prominent include: Festival Internacional do Mundo Celta de Ortigueira (Ortigueira, Galicia) (Spain) Yn Chruinnaght (Isle of Man) Celtic Colours (Cape Breton, Nova Scotia) Celtic Connections (Glasgow, Scotland) Festival Interceltique de Lorient (Lorient, Brittany) Fleadh ceol na hEireann (Tullamore, Ireland) Festival Intercéltico de Sendim (Sendim, Portugal) http://www.intercelticosendim.com/ Festival Intercéltico do Porto (Porto,Portugal) Festival Anual de Música Celta (Buenos Aires, Argentina) Celtic Fusion The oldest musical tradition which fits under the label of Celtic fusion originated in the rural American south in the early colonial period and incorporated Scottish, Scots-Irish, Irish, English, and African influences. Variously referred to as roots music, American folk music, or old-time music, this tradition has exerted a strong influence on all forms of American music, including country, blues, and rock and roll. Irish Folk, Trad and Blues: A Secret History" by Colin Harper (2005) covers Horslips, The Pogues, Planxty and others. In addition to its lasting effects on other genres, it marked the first modern large-scale mixing of musical traditions from multiple ethnic and religious communities within the Celtic Diaspora. In the 1960s several bands put forward modern adaptations of Celtic music pulling influences from several of the Celtic nations at once to create a modern pan-celtic sound. A few of those include bagadoù (Breton pipe bands), Fairport Convention, Alan Stivell, Pentangle and Steeleye Span, and Horslips. Later, beginning in 1982 with The Pogues' invention of Celtic folk-punk, there has been a movement to incorporate Celtic influences into other genres of music. Today there are Celtic-influenced sub genres of virtually every type of popular music including electronica, rock, metal, punk, hip hop, reggae, new age, Latin and pop. Collectively these modern interpretations of Celtic music are sometimes referred to as Celtic fusion. Other Modern adaptations Outside of America, the first deliberate attempts to create a "Pan-Celtic music" were made by the Breton Taldir Jaffrennou, having translated songs from Ireland, Scotland, and Wales into Breton between the two world wars. One of his major work was to bring the Welsh hymn "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" back in Brittany and create lyrics in Breton. Eventually this song became "Bro goz va zadoù" ("Old land of my fathers") and is the most widely accepted Breton anthem. In the 50s, the Breton Alan Cochevelou (future Alan Stivell) played a mixed repertoire from the main Celtic countries on the Celtic harp his father created. Modern music may also be termed "Celtic" because it is written and recorded in a Celtic language, regardless of musical style. Many of the Celtic languages have experienced resurgences in modern years, spurred on partly by the action of artists and musicians who have embraced them as hallmarks of identity and distinctness. In 1978 Runrig recorded an album in Scottish Gaelic. In 1992 Capercaillie recorded "A Prince Among Islands", the first Scottish Gaelic language record to reach the UK top 40. Since about 2005, Oi Polloi (from Scotland) have recorded in Scottish Gaelic. Mill a h-Uile Rud (a Scottish Gaelic punk band from Seattle) recorded in the language in 2004. Several contemporary bands have Welsh language songs, such as Ceredwen, which fuses traditional instruments with trip-hop beats, the Super Furry Animals, Fernhill (band), and so on (see the Music of Wales article for more Welsh and Welsh-language band). See also Music of Brittany Folk music of Ireland Music of Wales Music of the Isle of Man Music of Scotland Music of Cornwall Music of Galicia, Cantabria and Asturias References Steve Winick External links Ancient Celtic music - article at Citizendium gardensessions.co.uk Free internet radio show, free folk downloads, news, reviews, lyrics and all things folk Irish and Celtic Music Podcast Free internet radio show | Celtic_music |@lemmatized celtic:52 music:57 term:8 utilise:1 artist:2 record:8 company:1 store:1 magazine:1 describe:2 broad:1 grouping:1 musical:11 genre:5 evolve:1 folk:8 tradition:9 people:8 western:3 europe:2 real:1 body:1 accurately:1 stick:1 may:3 refer:4 orally:1 transmitted:1 traditional:6 popular:3 mean:1 two:4 thing:2 mainly:1 first:5 call:2 celt:2 non:1 primarily:1 political:1 definition:4 oppose:1 say:3 french:1 english:4 secondly:1 whatever:1 quality:1 unique:1 nation:2 insist:1 different:1 ostensibly:1 actually:2 nothing:1 common:7 geoff:1 wallis:1 sue:1 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5,769 | Politics_of_Greenland | Politics of Greenland takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic Danish dependency, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Greenland is a self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark since 1979. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Greenland (known as Landsting). The party system is dominated by the social democratic Forward, the separatist and socialist Inuit Community and the conservative liberal Feeling of Community. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Executive branch The monarch of Denmark is also head of state of Greenland. She is represented by a High Commissioner, appointed by her. The Prime Minister is elected by Parliament and leads the Landsstyre. |Queen |Margaret II of Denmark | |14 January 1972 |- |High Commissioner |Soren Moller | |2005 |- |Prime Minister |Hans Enoksen |Forward |14 December 2002 |- |Other government party | |Inuit Community | |} Legislative branch Greenland has a unicameral Parliament or Landsting (31 seats; members are elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms). Two representatives were elected to the Danish Parliament or Folketing at the last Danish elections, Siumut 1, Inuit Ataqatigiit 1. Judicial branch High Court or Landsret. Administrative divisions Diplomatic representations With Denmark having responsibility for Greenland's international affairs, other countries do not have direct diplomatic representation in Greenland -- their embassies or consulates in Denmark are responsible for their relations with Greenland and their citizens in Greenland. Greenland is represented internationally by the embassies and consulates of Denmark, although Greenland does directly participate in some Nordic organisations which provide membership for dependent territories. See also Greenlandic self-government referendum, 2008 International organization participation Nordic Council Nordic Investment Bank | Politics_of_Greenland |@lemmatized politics:1 greenland:11 take:1 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:2 democratic:2 danish:3 dependency:1 whereby:1 prime:3 minister:3 head:2 government:5 multi:1 party:3 system:2 self:2 govern:1 overseas:1 administrative:2 division:2 denmark:6 since:1 executive:3 power:2 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 parliament:4 know:1 landsting:2 dominate:1 social:1 forward:2 separatist:1 socialist:1 inuit:3 community:3 conservative:1 liberal:1 feeling:1 judiciary:1 independent:1 legislature:1 branch:3 monarch:1 also:2 state:1 represent:2 high:3 commissioner:2 appoint:1 elect:3 lead:1 landsstyre:1 queen:1 margaret:1 ii:1 january:1 soren:1 moller:1 hans:1 enoksen:1 december:1 unicameral:1 seat:1 member:1 popular:1 vote:1 basis:1 proportional:1 representation:3 serve:1 four:1 year:1 term:1 two:1 folketing:1 last:1 election:1 siumut:1 ataqatigiit:1 judicial:1 court:1 landsret:1 diplomatic:2 responsibility:1 international:2 affair:1 country:1 direct:1 embassy:2 consulate:2 responsible:1 relation:1 citizen:1 internationally:1 although:1 directly:1 participate:1 nordic:3 organisation:1 provide:1 membership:1 dependent:1 territory:1 see:1 greenlandic:1 referendum:1 organization:1 participation:1 council:1 investment:1 bank:1 |@bigram dependency_whereby:1 prime_minister:3 judiciary_independent:1 legislative_branch:1 unicameral_parliament:1 proportional_representation:1 judicial_branch:1 |
5,770 | Ezra | Site traditionally described as the tomb of Ezra at Al Uzayr near Basra.Ezra () was a Jewish priestly scribe who led about 5,000 Israelite exiles living in Babylon to their home city of Jerusalem in 459 BC. Ezra reconstituted the dispersed Jewish community on the basis of the Torah and with an emphasis on the law. According to the Hebrew Bible, Ezra resolved the identity threat which arose by the intermarriage between Jews and foreigners and provided a definite reading of the Torah. Liwak, Rüdiger; Schwemer, Anna Maria "Ezra." Brill's New Pauly. Ezra." Encyclopædia Britannica.2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Ezra is highly respected in the Jewish tradition. His knowledge of the Torah is considered to have been equal with Moses. The New Encyclopedia of Judaism, Ezra Like Moses, Enoch, and David, Ezra is given the honorific title of "scribe" and is referred to as , or "Ezra the scribe" in the Jewish tradition. Edward Kessler, Neil Wenborn,A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations, Cambridge University Press, p.398 Although not explicitly mentioned in the Quran among the prophets, he is considered as one of the prophets by some Muslim scholars, based on Islamic traditions. Etymology and meaning The Hebrew term (Ezra) is probably an abbreviation of "" meaning "God helps". Emil G. Hirsch, Isaac Broydé, "Ezra the Scribe", Jewish Encyclopedia (Online) . Sources Our knowledge of Ezra comes from the Book of Ezra, the Book of Nehemiah, and the apocryphal Book of I Esdras. Hebrew Bible According to the genealogy in Ezra 7:1-5, Ezra was the son of Seraiah, the high priest taken captive by Babylonians (Not the babelites)(see 2 Kings 25:18 and compare 1 Chron. 6:14), a lineal descendant of Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron. In the seventh year of the reign of Artaxerxes I Longimanus, Ezra obtained leave to go to Jerusalem and to take with him a company of Israelites. Artaxerxes showed great interest in Ezra's undertaking, granting him his requests, and giving him gifts for the house of God. , Ezra assembled a band of approximately 5,000 exiles to go to Jerusalem. Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard, Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, p.285 They rested on the banks of the Ahava for three days and organized their four-month march across the desert. After observing a day of public fasting and prayer, they left the banks of the river Ahava for Jerusalem. Having rich gifts and treasures in their keeping and being without military escort, they made the due precaution for the safeguarding of the treasures. After his arrival in Jerusalem, Ezra notices that contrary to the Jewish law, even the Jews of high standing and priests, had intermarried with pagan non-Hebrew women. Catholic Encyclopedia, Esdras Ezra took strenuous measures against such marriages and insisted upon the dismissal of such wives. No record exists of Ezra until we find him at the reading of the Law which took place after the rebuilding of the wall of the city by Nehemiah. Ezra then brought the "book of the law of Moses" for the assembly. On the first day of the seventh month (Tishri), Ezra and his assistants read the Torah aloud to the whole population from the morning until midday. According to the text, a great religious awakening occurred. Ezra read the entire scroll of the Torah to the people, and he and other scholars and Levites explained the meaning of what is being read so that the people could understand them. These festivities culminated in an enthusiastic and joyous seven-day celebration of the Festival of Sukkot, concluding on the eighth day with the holiday of Shemini Atzeret. On the 24th day, immediately following the holidays, they held a solemn assembly, fasting and confessing their sins and the iniquities of their fathers. , Afterwards, they renewed their national covenant to follow the Torah and to observe and fulfill all of the Lord's commandments, laws and decrees. Esdras Besides the books of Ezra and Nehemiah accepted as a canonical part of the Hebrew Bible by all churches, the book of Esdras also preserves the Greek text of Ezra and a part of Nehemiah. There are disagreements among Christians over the authenticity of the book of Esdras. "Greek Ezra" or sometimes named I (or II or III) Esdras was considerably popular in the early Church. It was included in the canon of the Septuagint (a translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek). In the reforming Council of Trent (1545–63), the Roman Catholic Church removed the book from the canon and placed it as an appendix to the New Testament. (cf. "biblical literature." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, p.173; "Esdras, First Book of." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online ) The Eastern Orthodox Church however considers I Esdras as canonical, as does the Oriental Orthodox Church (cf. Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, p.423; R. W. Cowley, The Biblical Canon Of The Ethiopian Orthodox Church Today, Ostkirchliche Studien, 1974, Volume 23, pp. 318-323.) The first century Jewish historian, Josephus, preferred I Esdras over the canonical Ezra–Nehemiah and placed Ezra as a contemporary of Xerxes son of Darius, rather than of Artaxerxes. "Esdras, First Book of." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online The apocalyptic fourth book of Ezra (also called the second book of Esdras) is thought by Western scholars to have been written AD 100 probably in Hebrew-Aramaic. It was one of the most important sources for Jewish theology at the end of the first century. In this book, Ezra has a seven part prophetic revelation, converses with an angel or God three times and has four visions. Ezra, while in the Babylonian Exile, prophecies the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem. The central theological themes are "the question of theodicy, God's justness in the face of the triumph of the heathens over the pious, the course of world history in terms of the teaching of the four kingdoms (12,11 Daniel), the function of the law, the eschatological judgment, the appearance on Earth of the heavenly Jerusalem, the Messianic Period, at the end of which the Messiah will die (7:29), the end of this world and the coming of the next, and the Last Judgment." Ezra restores the law that was destroyed with the burning of the temple. He dictates 24 books for the public (i.e. the Hebrew Bible) and another 70 for the wise alone (70 unnamed revelatory works). Howard H. Cox, The Pentateuch: History Or Story?, p.101 At the end, he is taken up to heaven like Enoch and Elijah. Ezra is seen as a new Moses in this book. There is also another work, thought to be influenced by this one, known as the Greek Apocalypse of Ezra. Role in Judaism Traditionally Judaism credits Ezra with establishing the Great Assembly of scholars and prophets, the forerunner of the Sanhedrin, as the authority on matters of religious law. The Great Assembly is credited with establishing numerous features of contemporary traditional Judaism in something like their present form, including Torah reading, the Amidah, and establishing the feast of Purim. In Rabbinic traditions, Ezra is metaphorically referred to as the "flowers that appear on the earth" signifying the springtime in the national history of Judaism. Even if the law had not been given to Moses before, Ezra was worthy of being its vehicle. A disciple of Baruch ben Neriah, he favored study of the Law over the reconstruction of the Temple and thus because of his studies, he did not join the first party returning to Jerusalem in the reign of Cyrus. According to another opinion, he did not join the first party so as not to compete, even involuntarily, with Jeshua ben Jozadak for the office of chief priest. According to the early 20th century "Jewish Encyclopedia", a source often quoted because of its easy availability on the Internet, Ezra was also doubtful of the correctness of some words in Torah and said that "Should Elijah... approve the text, the points will be disregarded; should he disapprove, the doubtful words will be removed from the text". According to the tradition, Ezra was the writer of the Book of Chronicles. Islam The Quran says: "And the Jews say: Ezra is the son of Allah, and the Christians say: The Messiah is the son of Allah. That is their saying with their mouths. They imitate the saying of those who disbelieved of old. Allah (Himself) fighteth against them". Muslim scholars such as Mutahhar al-Maqdisi and Djuwayni and notably Ibn Hazm and al-Samaw'al accused Ezra of falsification of the Scriptures. Uzayr, Encyclopedia of Islam Ezra lived between the times of King Solomon and the time of Zechariah, father of John the Baptist. Encyclopaedia of Holy Prophet and Companions By Ashraf, Shahid, p199 Of The Quran, Ibn Kathir . Ezra is usually identified by Muslim commentators with the name Uzair (Arabic: عزير). Only one Qur'anic verse () mentions Ezra or Uzair, by the name and accuses Jews therein of hailing him as "the son of God", in a similar fashion as the Christians hail Jesus as the "son of God", citing it to be a blasphemous utterance of which neither Christians nor Jews have any authority and that in saying so they merely imitate what other peoples of more ancient cultures used to attribute to God, i.e., a progeny. There is no support for this claim in any Jewish literature or available historical accounts. Considering the fact that Jews have vehemently opposed Christianity on the basis that it considered Jesus the son of God is considered Idolatry in Judaism and enormous numbers of Jews were willing to be martyred for refusing to accept Jesus as the son of God, and other problems Mainstream scholars reject this view and consider it mere slander. Some Muslim apologists have tried to claim as a result that this refers to a small group of Jews. Many believe by doing so, Muslim apologists are trying to limit Allah, in order to prove the Quran is the word of Allah. Furthermore this argument has many problems such as it contradicting Hadith, and other ayat in the Quran, which imply all Jews believe Ezra is the son of God. Furthermore the belief that Ezra is the son of God, contradicts fundamental tents of Judaism. As such even if a religious group, or individual, existed who believed Ezra was the son of God, it would be wrong to say they were following Judaism. The Book of Ezra which predates the Quran by about 1000 years says Ezra is the son of Seraiah. To this day, no Religious text has ever been found saying Ezra is the son of God. No outside reference predating the Quran has ever been found claiming any Jew believed Ezra is the son of God. Some Muslim have even misquoted the entry on Ezra in the Encyclopedia Judaica, to try to prove Ezra was indeed considered the son of God by some Jews. The problem is that it says clearly on the Encyclopedia Judaica entry, "Muhammed claims (Sura 9:30) that in the opinion of the Jews, Uzayr (Ezra) is the son of God. These words are enigma because no such opinion is to be found among the Jews, even though Ezra was singled out for special appreciation (see Sanh. 21b; Yev. 86b)." And here the quran says They have taken as lords beside Allah their rabbis and their monks and the Messiah son of Mary, when they were bidden to worship only One God. There is no God save Him. Be He Glorified from all that they ascribe as partner (unto Him)! 9:31. These people who do misquote the Encyclopedia Judaica entry quote the part where Encyclopedia Judaica is basically says even though it is not true, some Muslim apologists have still tried to claim such, out of context, and make it seem as though Encyclopedia Judaica was agreeing there were Jews who believed Ezra was the son of God, when the text says the exact opposite. As such this verse has been very controversial in Islam. For more information on this see Uzair Academic view Historicity and genealogy Mary Joan Winn Leith in the The Oxford History of the Biblical World believes that the historical Ezra's life was enhanced in the scripture and was given a theological buildup, but this does not imply that Ezra did not exist. Gosta W. Ahlstrom, argues the inconsistencies of the biblical tradition are insufficient to say that Ezra, with his central position as the 'father of Judaism' in the Jewish tradition, has been a later literary invention. Gosta W. Ahlstrom, The History of Ancient Palestine, Fortress Press, p.888 Those who argue against the historicity of Ezra argue that the presentation style of Ezra as a leader and lawgiver resembles that of Moses. There are also similarities between Ezra the priest-scribe (but not high priest) and Nehemiah the secular governor on the one hand and Joshua and Zerubbabel on the other hand. The early second century BCE Jewish author Jesus ben Sirach praises Nehemiah, but makes no mention of Ezra. According to the biblical genealogy of Ezra in , he is the son of Seraiah, the high priest taken captive by Babylonians. William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, William Horbury, John Sturdy, The Cambridge History of Judaism, p.144 Time line Scholars are divided over the chronological sequence of the activities of Ezra and Nehemiah. Ezra came to Jerusalem "in the seventh year of Artaxerxes the King". The text does not specify whether the king in the passage refers to Artaxerxes I (465-424 BCE) or to Artaxerxes II (404-359 BCE). The dates of Nehemiah's and Ezra's respective missions, and their chronological relation to each other, are uncertain, because each mission is dated solely by a regnal year of an Achaemenian King Artaxerxes; and in either case we do not know for certain whether the Artaxerxes in question is Artaxerxes I (465-424 B.C.) or Artaxerxes II (404-359 B.C.). So we do not know whether the date of Ezra's mission was 458 B.C. or 397 B.C.' Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, vol.12 (1961) Oxford University Press, 1964 pp.484-485 n.2 Most scholars hold that Ezra lived during the rule of Artaxerxes I, though some have difficulties with this assumption: Nehemiah and Ezra "seem to have no knowledge of each other; their mission do not overlap; is transposed for rhetorical reasons; is almost unanimously considered to be a scribal harmonization and no reflection of Ezra's activity appears in Jerusalem of Nehemiah." These difficulties has led many scholars to assume that Ezra arrived in the seventh year of the rule of Artaxerxes II , i.e. some 50 years after Nehemiah. This assumption would imply that the biblical account is not chronological. The last group of scholars regard "the seventh year" as a scribal error and hold that the two men were contemporaries. John Boederman, The Cambridge Ancient History, 2002, p.272 References External links Jewish Encyclopedia: Ezra the Scribe Catholic Encyclopedia: Esdras | Ezra |@lemmatized site:1 traditionally:2 describe:1 tomb:1 ezra:75 al:4 uzayr:3 near:1 basra:1 jewish:14 priestly:1 scribe:6 lead:2 israelite:2 exile:3 live:3 babylon:1 home:1 city:2 jerusalem:10 bc:1 reconstitute:1 dispersed:1 community:1 basis:2 torah:8 emphasis:1 law:10 accord:7 hebrew:8 bible:7 resolve:1 identity:1 threat:1 arose:1 intermarriage:1 jew:14 foreigner:1 provide:1 definite:1 reading:3 liwak:1 rüdiger:1 schwemer:1 anna:1 maria:1 brill:1 new:4 pauly:1 encyclopædia:8 britannica:8 online:5 highly:1 respect:1 tradition:7 knowledge:3 consider:9 equal:1 moses:6 encyclopedia:12 judaism:10 like:3 enoch:2 david:2 give:4 honorific:1 title:1 refer:2 edward:1 kessler:1 neil:1 wenborn:1 dictionary:3 christian:5 relation:2 cambridge:3 university:2 press:3 p:8 although:1 explicitly:1 mention:3 quran:8 among:3 prophet:4 one:6 muslim:7 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5,771 | Tettigoniidae | For other uses of the term "katydid", see Katydid (disambiguation) The family Tettigoniidae, known in American English as katydids and in British English as bush-crickets, contains more than 6,400 species. It is part of the suborder Ensifera and the only family in the superfamily Tettigonioidea. They are also known as long-horned grasshoppers, although they are more closely related to crickets than to grasshoppers. Many tettigoniids exhibit mimicry and camouflage, commonly with shapes and colors similar to leaves. Tettigoniids may be distinguished from grasshoppers by the length of their filamentous antennae, which may exceed their own body length, while grasshoppers' antennae are always relatively short and thickened. The males of tettigoniids have sound-producing organs (via stridulation) located on the hind angles of their front wings. In some species females are also capable of stridulation. There are about 255 species in North America, but the majority of species live in the tropical regions of the world. The diet of tettigoniids includes leaves, flowers, bark, and seeds, but many species are exclusively predatory, feeding on other insects, snails or even small vertebrates such as snakes and lizards. Some are also considered pests by commercial crop growers and are sprayed to limit growth. Large tettigoniids can inflict a painful bite or pinch if handled but seldom break the skin. The males provide a nuptial gift for the females in the form of a spermatophylax, a nutritious body produced with the males' ejaculate. Vahed, K. 1998 The function of nuptial feeding in insects: review of empirical studies. Biological Reviews 73, 43-78. The eggs of tettigoniids are typically oval shaped and laid in rows on the host plant. References Photo gallery Macroxiphus nymph.Speckled Bush Cricket (nymph) Northamptonshire, EnglandDark Bush Cricket (nymph) Northamptonshire, EnglandTettigoniid on a rockA green bush cricket sitting on a leafNote the long antennaeAngle-wing Katydid (Microcentrum) in North TexasKatydid in the night near Torino, ItalyConocephalus nigropleurumJuvenile male Caedicia simplex. Auckland , New Zealand. Also found in Australia.Bush cricket in a green housePeruvian Leaf KatydidPhricta aberrans, Australia. External links Bush katydid genus Scudderia Stål, 1873 - diagnostic photographs, natural history Black-sided meadow katydid - Conocephalus nigropleurum - diagnostic photographs BugGuide.net--family Tettigoniidae Singing Insects of North America (SINA) website. Bug guide.net-- Pink Katydid North American Katydids, with range maps and audio files of katydid songs. | Tettigoniidae |@lemmatized us:1 term:1 katydid:9 see:1 disambiguation:1 family:3 tettigoniidae:2 know:2 american:2 english:2 british:1 bush:6 cricket:6 contain:1 specie:5 part:1 suborder:1 ensifera:1 superfamily:1 tettigonioidea:1 also:4 long:2 horn:1 grasshopper:4 although:1 closely:1 relate:1 many:2 tettigoniid:6 exhibit:1 mimicry:1 camouflage:1 commonly:1 shape:2 color:1 similar:1 leaf:3 may:2 distinguish:1 length:2 filamentous:1 antenna:2 exceed:1 body:2 always:1 relatively:1 short:1 thickened:1 male:4 sound:1 produce:2 organ:1 via:1 stridulation:2 locate:1 hind:1 angle:1 front:1 wing:2 female:2 capable:1 north:4 america:2 majority:1 live:1 tropical:1 region:1 world:1 diet:1 include:1 flower:1 bark:1 seed:1 exclusively:1 predatory:1 feed:1 insect:3 snail:1 even:1 small:1 vertebrate:1 snake:1 lizard:1 consider:1 pest:1 commercial:1 crop:1 grower:1 spray:1 limit:1 growth:1 large:1 inflict:1 painful:1 bite:1 pinch:1 handle:1 seldom:1 break:1 skin:1 provide:1 nuptial:2 gift:1 form:1 spermatophylax:1 nutritious:1 ejaculate:1 vahed:1 k:1 function:1 feeding:1 review:2 empirical:1 study:1 biological:1 egg:1 typically:1 oval:1 lay:1 row:1 host:1 plant:1 reference:1 photo:1 gallery:1 macroxiphus:1 nymph:3 speckle:1 northamptonshire:2 englanddark:1 englandtettigoniid:1 rocka:1 green:2 sit:1 leafnote:1 antennaeangle:1 microcentrum:1 texaskatydid:1 night:1 near:1 torino:1 italyconocephalus:1 nigropleurumjuvenile:1 caedicia:1 simplex:1 auckland:1 new:1 zealand:1 find:1 australia:2 houseperuvian:1 katydidphricta:1 aberrans:1 external:1 link:1 genus:1 scudderia:1 stål:1 diagnostic:2 photograph:2 natural:1 history:1 black:1 side:1 meadow:1 conocephalus:1 nigropleurum:1 bugguide:1 net:2 sing:1 sina:1 website:1 bug:1 guide:1 pink:1 range:1 map:1 audio:1 file:1 song:1 |@bigram closely_relate:1 snake_lizard:1 photo_gallery:1 external_link:1 |
5,772 | Joseph_Greenberg | Joseph Harold Greenberg (May 28, 1915 – May 7, 2001) was a prominent and controversial American linguist, principally known for his work in two areas, linguistic typology and the genetic classification of languages. Early life and career (Main source: Croft 2003) Greenberg was born on May 28th, 1915 to Jewish parents in Brooklyn, New York. His first love was music. At the age of 14, he gave a piano concert at Steinway Hall. He continued to play the piano daily throughout his life. After finishing high school, he decided to pursue a scholarly career rather than a musical one. He enrolled at Columbia University in New York. In his senior year, he attended a class taught by Franz Boas on American Indian languages. With references from Boas and Ruth Benedict, he was accepted as a graduate student by Melville J. Herskovits at Northwestern University in Chicago. In the course of his graduate studies he did fieldwork among the Hausa of Nigeria, where he learned the Hausa language. The subject of his doctoral dissertation was the influence of Islam on a Hausa group that, unlike most others, had not converted to it. In 1940, he began postdoctoral studies at Yale University. These were interrupted by service in the U.S. Army Signal Corps during World War II, where he worked as a codebreaker and participated in the landing at Casablanca. Before leaving for Europe he married Selma Berkowitz, whom he had met during his first year at Columbia. After the war, Greenberg taught at the University of Minnesota before returning to Columbia University in 1948 as a teacher of anthropology. While in New York he became acquainted with Roman Jakobson and André Martinet, who introduced him to Prague school structuralism. In 1962, he moved to the anthropology department of Stanford University in California, where he continued to work for the rest of his life. Contributions to linguistics Linguistic typology Greenberg's reputation rests in part on his contributions to synchronic linguistics and the quest to identify linguistic universals. In the late 1950s, Greenberg began to examine corpora of languages covering a wide geographic and genetic distribution. He located a number of interesting potential universals as well as many strong cross-linguistic tendencies. In particular, Greenberg invented the notion of "implicational universal", which takes the form, "if a language has structure X, then it must also have structure Y." For example, X might be "mid front rounded vowels" and Y "high front rounded vowels" (for terminology see phonetics). This kind of research was taken up by many scholars following Greenberg's example and remains important in synchronic linguistics. Like Noam Chomsky, Greenberg sought to discover the universal structures underlying human language. Unlike Chomsky, Greenberg’s approach was empirical rather than logico-deductive. Greenberg’s approach, often characterized as "functionalist", is commonly opposed to Chomsky’s rationalist approach. A call to reconcile the Greenbergian and Chomskyan approaches can be found in Linguistic Universals, edited by Ricardo Mairal and Juana Gil (2006). It remains to be seen whether this call will be heeded. Many who are strongly opposed to Greenberg's methods of language classification (see below) nevertheless acknowledge the importance of his typological work, in particular his tremendously influential 1963 article, "Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements." Mass comparison Greenberg rejected the view, prevalent among linguists since the mid-20th century, that comparative reconstruction was the appropriate vehicle to discover relationships between languages. He argued that genetic classification is methodologically prior to comparative reconstruction: you cannot engage in the comparative reconstruction of languages until you know which languages to compare (1957:44). He also criticized the prevalent view that comprehensive comparisons of two languages at a time (which commonly take years to carry out) could establish language families of any size. He pointed out that, even for 8 languages, there are already 4,140 ways to classify them, while for 25 languages there are 4,749,027,089,305,918,018 ways (1957:44). (By way of comparison, the Niger-Congo family has some 1,500 languages.) It is evident, therefore, that all language families of any size were established by some means other than bilateral comparison. The theory of mass comparison is an attempt to demonstrate what those means are. Greenberg argued for the virtues of breadth over depth: Instead of increasing the amount of material to be compared (to the entire vocabulary, grammar, and phonology of each language) and restricting the number of languages to be compared to two at a time, Greenberg advocated restricting the amount of material to be compared (to basic vocabulary, morphology, and known paths of sound change) and increasing the number of languages to be compared to all the languages in a given area. This would, he asserted, make it possible to compare large numbers of languages reliably, while providing a check on accidental resemblances through the sheer number of languages under comparison, since the mathematical probability that resemblances are accidental decreases sharply with the number of languages concerned (1957:39). He also considered that mass borrowing of basic vocabulary is unknown and that borrowing, when it occurs, is concentrated in cultural vocabulary and clusters "in certain semantic areas", making it easy to detect (1957:39), when the issue was not to get every word right but to determine the broad patterns of relationship. Thus the theory of mass comparison – contrary to what is claimed by Greenberg’s critics – from the very beginning addressed the issues of chance resemblance and borrowing and provided explanations for why these are not obstacles to it. Greenberg first called this method "mass comparison" in an article in 1954 (reprinted in Greenberg 1955). As of 1987, he replaced the term "mass comparison" with "multilateral comparison" to bring home its contrast with the bilateral comparisons recommended in linguistics textbooks. According to him, multilateral comparison is not in any way opposed to the comparative method, but is, on the contrary, its necessary first step (1957:44). In Greenberg's view, comparative reconstruction has the status of an explanatory theory for facts already established by language classification (1957:45), but the facts remain prior – reflecting the methodological empiricism also visible in his typological work. The use of mass comparison as a tool for establishing genealogical relationships between languages is rejected by most historical linguists (Campbell 2001:45). Among the most outspoken critics of mass comparison have been Lyle Campbell, Donald Ringe, William Poser, and the late R. Larry Trask. Using the method of mass comparison, Greenberg arrived at a number of novel classifications of languages. All these classifications were rejected when first proposed as factually incorrect and methodologically unsound. Since then, some have come to be accepted in whole, others in part; some are still rejected; the status of others is pending. Some details and appreciations of these classifications follow. Genetic classification of languages The languages of Africa Main articles: Languages of Africa, The Languages of Africa (book), Afro-Asiatic languages, Nilo-Saharan languages, Niger-Congo languages, Khoisan languages. Greenberg is widely known for his development of a new classification system for the languages of Africa, which he published as a series of articles in the Southwestern Journal of Anthropology from 1949 to 1954 (reprinted together as a book in 1955) and, in a heavily revised form, in 1963, followed by a revised edition in 1966 (reprinted without change in 1970). A few further changes to the classification were made by Greenberg in an article in 1981. Greenberg grouped the hundreds of African languages into just four families, which he dubbed Afroasiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo, and Khoisan. In the course of this work, Greenberg coined the term "Afroasiatic" to replace the earlier term "Hamito-Semitic" after showing that Hamitic, widely accepted since the 19th century, is not a valid language family. Another major feature of his work was to classify the Bantu languages, which occupy much of sub-Saharan Africa, not as an independent language family but as a branch of the newly identified Niger-Congo family. Greenberg's classification rested in part on earlier classifications, making new macrogroups by joining already established families through mass comparison. His classification was for a time considered very bold and speculative, especially the proposal of a Nilo-Saharan language family, but is now generally accepted by African specialists and has been used as a basis for further work by other scholars. Greenberg's work on African languages has been criticised by Lyle Campbell and Donald Ringe, who do not feel that his classification is justified by his data and request a reexamination of his macro-phyla by "reliable methods" (Ringe 1993:104). Even Harold Fleming and Lionel Bender, who are sympathetic to Greenberg's classification, acknowledge that at least some of his macrofamilies (particlularly Nilo-Saharan and Khoisan) are not fully accepted by the linguistic community and may need to be split up (Campbell 1997). Neither Campbell nor Ringe is an African specialist. Their objection is methodological: if mass comparison is not a valid method, it cannot have successfully brought order out of the chaos of African languages. In contrast, some linguists have sought to combine Greenberg's four African families into larger units. In particular, Edgar Gregersen (1972) proposed joining Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan into a larger family, which he termed Kongo-Saharan, a link more recently endorsed by Roger Blench (1995). The languages of New Guinea, Tasmania, and the Andaman Islands Main articles: Indo-Pacific languages, Trans–New Guinea languages, Papuan languages In 1971 Greenberg proposed the Indo-Pacific macrofamily, which groups together the Papuan languages (a large number of language families of New Guinea and nearby islands) with the native languages of the Andaman Islands and Tasmania but excludes the Australian Aboriginal languages. Its principal feature was to reduce the manifold language families of New Guinea to a single genetic unit, with the exception of the Austronesian languages spoken there, which are known to result from a more recent migration. Greenberg's subgrouping of these languages has not been accepted by the few specialists who have worked on the classification of these languages since, in particular Stephen Wurm (1982) and Malcolm Ross (2005), but their work has provided considerable support for his once-radical idea that these languages form a single genetic unit. The languages of the Americas Main article: Amerind languages Americanist linguists classify the native languages of the Americas into two language families spoken in parts of North America, Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dené, and some 600 to 2,000 language families (Diamond 1997:368) that occupy the rest of North America and all of Central and South America. Early on, Greenberg (1957:41, 1960) became convinced that many of the reportedly unrelated languages could be classified into larger groupings. In his 1987 book Language in the Americas, while supporting the Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dené groupings, he proposed that all the other Native American languages belong to a single language family. He termed this postulated family Amerind. Language in the Americas was greeted with a firestorm of criticism (bibliography in Greenberg 2005:406-409). Even before the work had appeared in print, Lyle Campbell, an Americanist, called for it to be "shouted down" (1986:488). A virtual who's who of Americanists lined up against Amerind. The criticisms are directed not so much toward the classification per se, but primarily to the method of mass comparison used to establish it, which the majority of historical linguists consider inherently unreliable (see above); and toward the large number of errors that have been shown to be present in the sources used by Greenberg, such as wrong or non-existent words, incorrect translations, words attributed to the wrong languages, and unsupported or wrong identification of prefixes and suffixes. While some of these errors (which, according to Greenberg's defenders, only affect a few percent of the data) could conceivably lead to an artificial increase in the similarity measure, others would merely introduce random noise in the measurement, and therefore tend to reduce it — which would only strengthen Greenberg's conclusions. Nevertheless, the allegations of widespread errors in the data along with objections to his methodology have led many linguists to dismiss this part of Greenberg's work. The languages of northern Eurasia Main article: Eurasiatic languagesLater in his life, Greenberg proposed that all of the language families of northern Eurasia belong to a single higher-order family, which he called Eurasiatic. The only exception was Yeniseian, which has since been shown to be related to the Na-Dené languages of North America (Vajda 2008). The Eurasiatic grouping resembles the older Nostratic groupings of Holger Pedersen and Vladislav Illich-Svitych in including Indo-European, Uralic, and Altaic, but differs from them in including Nivkh, Japonic, Korean, and Ainu and in excluding Afro-Asiatic. There are also a number of other differences; for example, Greenberg subgrouped Uralic with the Yukaghir languages. He continued to work on this project from the time of his diagnosis with incurable pancreatic cancer until his death in May, 2001. The final volume of his Eurasiatic work (2002) was seen through the press after his passing by his colleague and former student Merritt Ruhlen. Selected works by Joseph H. Greenberg Books 1955. Studies in African Linguistic Classification. New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. (Photo-offset reprint of the SJA articles with minor corrections.) 1957. Essays in Linguistics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1963. The Languages of Africa. (Heavily revised version of Greenberg 1955.) Bloomington: Indiana University Press. (From the same publisher: second, revised edition, 1966; third edition, 1970. All three editions simultaneously published at The Hague by Mouton & Co.) 1966. Language Universals: With Special Reference to Feature Hierarchies. The Hague: Mouton & Co. (Reprinted 1980 and, with a foreword by Martin Haspelmath, 2005.) 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 2000. Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, Volume 1: Grammar. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 2002. Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, Volume 2: Lexicon. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 2005. Genetic Linguistics: Essays on Theory and Method, edited by William Croft. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Books (editor) 1963. Universals of Language: Report of a Conference Held at Dobbs Ferry, New York, April 13-15, 1961. Cambridge: MIT Press. (Second edition 1966.) 1978. Universals of Human Language, 4 volumes. Volume 1: Method and Theory. Volume 2: Phonology. Volume 3: Word Structure. Volume 4: Syntax. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Articles, reviews, etc. 1940. "The decipherment of the 'Ben-Ali Diary': A preliminary statement." Journal of Negro History 25.3, 372-375. 1941. "Some problems in Hausa phonology." Language 17, 316-323. 1947. "Arabic loan-words in Hausa." Word 3, 85-87. 1948. "The classification of African languages." American Anthropologist 50, 24-30. 1949. "Studies in African linguistic classification: I. Introduction, Niger-Congo family." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 5, 79-100. 1949. "Studies in African linguistic classification: II. The classification of Fulani." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 5, 190-98. 1949. "Studies in African linguistic classification: III. The position of Bantu." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 5, 309-17. 1950. "Studies in African linguistic classification: IV. Hamito-Semitic." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 6, 47-63. 1950. "Studies in African linguistic classification: V. The Eastern Sudanic Family." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 6, 143-60. 1950. "Studies in African linguistic classification: VI. The Click languages." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 6, 223-37. 1950. "Studies in African linguistic classification: VII. Smaller families; index of languages." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 6, 388-98. 1954. "Studies in African linguistic classification: VIII. Further remarks on method; revisions and corrections." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 10, 405-15. 1957. "The nature and uses of linguistic typologies." International Journal of American Linguistics 23, 68-77. 1960. "The general classification of Central and South American languages." In Selected Papers of the Fifth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, edited by Anthony F.C. Wallace, 791-4. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. (Reprinted in Genetic Linguistics, 2005.) 1962. "Is the vowel-consonant dichotomy universal?" Word 18, 73-81. 1963. "Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements." In Universals of Language, pp. 58–90. Cambridge: MIT Press. (In second edition of Universals of Language, 1966: pp. 73-113.) 1966. "Synchronic and diachronic universals in phonology." Language 42, 508-17. 1970. "Some generalizations concerning glottalic consonants, especially implosives." International Journal of American Linguistics 36, 123-145. 1971. "The Indo-Pacific hypothesis." In Current Trends in Linguistics, Volume 8: Linguistics in Oceania, edited by Thomas A. Sebeok et al., 807-871. The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter. (Reprinted in Genetic Linguistics, 2005.) 1972. "Numeral classifiers and substantival number: Problems in the genesis of a linguistic type." Working Papers in Language Universals 9, 1-39. 1979. "Rethinking linguistics diachronically." Language 55, 275-90. 1979. "The classification of American Indian languages." In Papers of the Mid-American Linguistic Conference at Oklahoma, edited by Ralph E. Cooley, Mervin R. Barnes, and John A. Dunn, 7-22. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Interdisciplinary Linguistics Program. 1981. "African linguistic classification." In General History of Africa, Volume 1: Methodology and African Prehistory, edited by Joseph Ki-Zerbo, 292-308. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1983. "Some areal characteristics of African languages." In Current Approaches to African Linguistics, Volume 1, edited by Ivan R. Dihoff, 3-21. Dordrecht: Foris. 1985. With Christy G. Turner II and Stephen L. Zegura. "Convergence of evidence for peopling of the Americas." Collegium antropologicum 9, 33-42. 1986. With Christy G. Turner II and Stephen L. Zegura. "The settlement of the Americas: A comparison of the linguistic, dental, and genetic evidence." Current Anthropology 27.5 (December 1986), 477-97. 1989. "Classification of American Indian languages: A reply to Campbell." Language 65.1, 107-114. 1993. "Observations concerning Ringe's 'Calculating the factor of chance in language comparison'." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 137.1, 79-90. 2000. Review of Michael Fortescue, Language Relations across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. Review of Archaeology 21.2, 23-24. References Blench, Roger. 1995. "Is Niger-Congo simply a branch of Nilo-Saharan?" In Fifth Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium, Nice, 24-29 August, 1992: Proceedings, edited by Robert Nicolaï and Franz Rottland (1995), 36-49. Köln: Köppe Verlag. Campbell, Lyle. 1986. "Comment on Greenberg, Turner, and Zegura." Current Anthropology 27, 488. Campbell, Lyle. 1997. American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195094271. Campbell, Lyle. 2001. "Beyond the comparative method." In Historical Linguistics 2001: Selected Papers from the 15th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Melbourne, 13-17 August 2001, edited by Barry J. Blake, Kate Burridge, and Jo Taylor. Diamond, Jared. 1997. Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: Norton. ISBN 0393038912. Gregersen, Edgar. 1972. "Kongo-Saharan." Journal of African Languages 11.1, 69-89. Mairal, Ricardo and Juana Gil. 2006. Linguistic Universals. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521545525. Ringe, Donald A. 1993. "A reply to Professor Greenberg." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 137, 91-109. Ross, Malcolm. 2005. "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages." In Papuan Pasts: Cultural, Linguistic and Biological Histories of Papuan-speaking Peoples, edited by Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide, and Jack Golson, pp. 15-66. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Wurm, Stephen A. 1982. The Papuan Languages of Oceania. Tübingen: Gunter Narr. See also Linguistic universal Monogenesis (linguistics) Nostratic languages External links "What we all spoke when the world was young" by Nicholas Wade, New York Times'' (February 1, 2000) Obituary from Stanford Report Memorial Resolution "Joseph Harold Greenberg" by William Croft (2003) (also: HTML version) "Complete bibliography of the publications of Joseph H. 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5,773 | Kandahar | Kandahār, also spelled Qandahār, () is the second largest city in Afghanistan, with a population of 324,800 (2006 estimate). It is the capital of Kandahar province, located in the south of the country at about 1,005 m (3,297 feet) above sea level. The Arghandab River runs right next to the city. Kandahar is a major trading center for sheep, wool, cotton, silk, felt, food grains, fresh and dried fruit, and tobacco. The region produces fine fruits, especially pomegranates and grapes, and the city has plants for canning, drying, and packing fruit. Kandahar has an international airport and extensive road links with Farah and Herat to the west, Ghazni and Kabul to the northeast, Tarin Kowt to the north, and Quetta in Pakistan to the south. Many empires have long fought over the city, due to its strategic location along the trade routes of Southern and Central Asia. In 1748, Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the Durrani Empire, made Kandahar the capital of Afghanistan. Columbia Encyclopedia (Sixth Edition) - Kandahar...Link Columbia Encyclopedia (Fifth Edition) - The City of Kandahar...Link Name It is believed that Kandahar may have derived from the Pashto pronunciation of Alexandria, or Iskanderiya. A temple to the deified Alexander as well as an inscription in Greek and Aramaic by the emperor Ashoka, who lived a few decades later, have been discovered in the old citadel. Ashoka's Rock Edicts...Link An alternative etymology derives the name of the city from Gandhara Hobson Jobson Dictionary , the name of an ancient kingdom and its capital city located between the Hindukush and Sulaiman Mountains (basically identical to the modern extend of the Pashtun-inhabited territories in Pakistan and Afghanistan) Gandara...Link , although Kandahar in modern times and the ancient Gandhara are not totally identical, geographically. W. Vogelsang, "Gandahar", in The Circle Of Ancient Iranian Studies E. Herzfeld, "The Persian Empire: Studies on Geography and Ethnography of the Ancient Near East", ed. G. Walser, Wiesbaden 1968, pp. 279, 293-94, 336-38, 345 History Prehistory Excavations of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree, the University of Pennsylvania, the Smithsonian Institution, and others suggest that the region around Kandahar is one of the oldest human settlements known so far. Dupree writes: Bilingual Edict of Ashoka (in Greek and Aramaic), found in Kandahar. Circa 250 BC, Afghan National Museum. Hellenistic era Kandahar was founded in 330 BC by Alexander the Great, near the site of the ancient city of Mundigak (established around 3000 BC). Previously, the city was the provincial capital of Arachosia and was ruled by the Achaemenid Empire. The main inhabitants of Arachosia were the Pactyans, Map of the Median Empire from the University of Texas in Austin, showing Pactyans in what is now Kandahar, Afghanistan...Link an ancient Iranian tribe, who were probably one of the ancestors of today's Pashtuns. Kandahar was named Alexandria, a popular name given to many cities that Alexander founded or refounded during his conquests. Alexander the Great: his towns - Alexandria in Arachosia...Link The city has been a frequent target for conquest because of its strategic location in Southern Asia, controlling the main trade route linking the Indian subcontinent with the Middle East, Central Asia and the Persian Gulf. Mentioned in Bopearachchi, "Monnaies Greco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques", p52. Original text in paragraph 19 of Parthian stations It later became part of the Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta Maurya, after the departure of Alexander. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka erected a pillar there with a bilingual inscription in Greek and Aramaic. Maurya dynasty...Link The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom occupied Kandahar after the Mauryans, but then lost the city to the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Islamic conquest In the 7th century AD, Arab armies invaded the region with the new religion of Islam but were unable to succeed in fully converting the population. In 870 AD, Yaqub ibn Layth Saffari, a local ruler of the Saffarid dynasty in Seistan, conquered Kandahar and the rest of the nearby regions in the name of Islam. Dupree writes: Kandahar was taken by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th century. In the 13th century it was invaded by Genghis Khan and his Mongol armies. It became part of the Timurid Empire during the 14th century and 15th century, which was founded by Tamerlane. Pir Muhammad, grandson of Tamerlane, held the seat of government in Kandahar from about 1383 until his death in 1407. Following Pir Mohammad's death, the city was ruled by other Timurids. In the late 15th century Kandahar was entrusted to the Arghuns, who eventually achieved independence from the Timurids. Tamerlane's descendant, Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, annexed Kandahar in the 16th century. Babur's son, Humayun, lost it to the Shah of Persia. Humayun's son, Akbar, regained control of Kandahar but by the early 1700s subsequent Mughal emperors lost the territory once again to the Persians. Modern history Ahmad Shah Durrani being crowned as the first Emir of Afghanistan in October 1747. Mirwais Khan Hotak, a local Afghan (Pashtun) from the Ghilzai clan, revolted and killed Gurgin Khan, the Georgian governor who ruled in the name of the Persian Shah. Mirwais Khan defeated a subsequent expedition by Gurgin's nephew Kay Khusraw and succefully resisted attempts by the Persian government to convert the local people from Sunni to the Shia version of Islam. Mirwais Khan remained in power until his death in 1715 and was succeeded by his son, Mir Mahmud Hotaki. Afghanland - Mirwais Khan Hotak...Link In 1722, Mir Mahmud led an army of Afghans to Isfahan, the capital of the Safavid Persia and proclaimed himself King of Persia. The Hotaki dynasty was eventually removed from power by a new ruler, Nader Shah Afshar, who invaded Kandahar in 1738 and destroyed the city by artillery fire. Removing the surviving inhabitant, Nader Shah built a new town to the west of the ancient city, naming it after himself, "Naderabad". Nader Shah was assassinated nine years later assumingly by his own family members. Encyclopaedia Britannica - The Hotakis (from Afghanistan)...Link Ahmad Shah Durrani, an ethnic Pashtun and chief of the Abdali clan, gained control of Kandahar in 1747 and made it the capital of his new Afghan Empire. Previously, Ahmad Shah served as a military commander and personal bodyguard of Nader Shah of Persia. Encyclopaedia Britannica - The Durrani dynasty...Link His empire included present-day Afghanistan, the souther provinces of the then Soviet Russia, Pakistan, and Kohistan provinces of Iran. In October 1772, Ahmad Shah retired to his home in Maruf, Kandahar, where he died peacefully. Encyclopaedia Britannica - Ahmad Shah Durrani...Link The (now) "Old City" was laid out by Ahmad Shah and is dominated by his mausoleum. Between 1773-76, his eldest son Timur Shah Durrani transferred the capital of Afghanistan from Kandahar to Kabul, where the Durrani legacy continued. Kandahar Sher Ali Manor Courtyard On 28th Muharram 1242 Hijri (September 2, 1826) Syed Ahmad Shaheed's forces reached Kandahar en route to Peshawar. Their purpose was to wage jihad against the Sikh kingdom of Ranjit Singh and aid their fellow Pashtuns of the N.W.F.P. Within a few days more than 400 Kandharians presented themselves for the jihad, out of whom 270 were selected. Sayed Deen Muhammad Kandharai was appointed their leader. A view of the Chilzina mountain and adjacent area in 1881. British and Indian forces from British India occupied the city in 1839, during the first Anglo-Afghan war. They were forced to withdraw approximately three years later, in 1842. The British and Indian forces returned in 1878 during the second Anglo-Afghan war. They emerged from the city in July 1880 to confront Ayub Khan, but were heavily defeated at the Battle of Maiwand. They were again forced to withdraw a few years later, despite winning a battle near the city (see Battle of Kandahar). Kandahar remained peaceful for the next 100 years. In the 1960s, Kandahar International Airport was built, with the help of the United States Agency for International Development, 10 miles (16 kilometers) south-east of the city. It was used by the Red Army during their ten-year occupation of the country. As of 2001, the airport is used by the US and NATO forces as a military base. Kandahar International Airport in 1969. During the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan (1979-1989), Kandahar was under Soviet command and witnessed heavy fighting. Soviet troops surrounded the city, and subjected it to a heavy artillery and air bombardment in which many civilians lost their lives. Conflict Studies Journal at the University of New Brunswick...Link After the Soviet withdrawal and the fall of Najibullah's government in 1992, Kandahar fell into the hands of a local militia leader (Gul Agha Sherzai). In August 1994, the Taliban captured Kandahar and turned the city into their capital. Reuters, Link Since their removal in late 2001, smaller bands have spread throughout the nearby provinces. Kandahar once again came under the control of Gul Agha Sherzai, who had controlled the province and city before the rise of the Taliban, and was credited with permitting the same corruption that first fueled the growth of the Taliban. Sherzai was transferred in 2003 and replaced by Yusuf Pashtun until the current Asadullah Khalid took the post in 2005. The military of Afghanistan, which is supported by US-NATO forces, has gradually expanded its authority and presence throughout most of the country. Kandahar is in full control of the new Afghan government, which is led by US-backed President Hamid Karzai. The Canadian Forces maintain their military command headquarters at Kandahar, being the main NATO-led security force in the province. Climate Kandahar has an arid, continental climate characterized by little precipitation and high variation between summer and winter temperatures. Summers start in mid-May, last until late-September, and are extremely dry. They peak in June with average temperatures of around 32oC (90oF). They are followed by a dry autumn from early-October to late-November with average temperatures sliding from 18oC (64oF) to 9C (48oF). Winter starts in December and sees most of the precipitation in the form of snow. Temperatures average around 5-8oC (42 - 46oF), although lows can drop well below freezing. They end in early-March and are followed by a pleasant spring till late-April with temperatures in the 15oC (60oF) range. Demography Kandahar is primarily a Pashto-speaking city. Pashtuns make up the overwelming majority of the population, with some Persian-speaking Tajiks and Hazaras as the minority. There is also a tiny population of Uzbeks as well as Afghan Sikhs and Hindus. Transport Kandahar International Airport has been used by the NATO forces to deliver troops and humanitarian supplies since late 2001. Repairs and upgrades also occurred during that period; the airport re-opened for civilian use in late 2006. Pajhwok Afghan News - AAA begins flights for Kandahar... Link Commuters of the city use the public bus system (Millie Bus), and yellow taxicabs are common. Private vehicle use is increasing, partially due to road and highway improvements. Large dealerships are importing cars from Dubai, UAE. Lonely Planet - Tony Wheeler - Afghanistan Practicalities...Link Kandahar is connected to Kabul by the Kabul-Kandahar Highway and to Herat by the Kandahar-Herat Highway. There is a bus station located at the start of the Kabul-Kandahar Highway, where a number of private buses are available to take people to most major cities of the country. Kandahar is also connected by road to Quetta in neighboring Pakistan. Due to the ongoing war the route to Kabul has become increasingly dangerous as insurgent attacks on convoys and destruction of bridges make it an unreliable link between the two cities. Education The city has public schools in every district for both males and females. However, many conservative parents do not allow females in their family to get high school or higher education. There are at least 2 universities, one is Ahmad Shah Lycée and the other is Kandahar University. Communications Telecommunication services in the city are provided by InstaTelecom, Afghan Wireless, Roshan, Etisalat and Areeba mobile companies. In November 2006, the Afghan Ministry of Communications signed a US 64.5 million dollar agreement with a company (ZTE Corporation) for the establishment of a countrywide fiber optical cable network. This will improve telephone, internet, television and radio broadcast services not just in Kandahar but throughout the country. Pajhwok Afghan News - Ministry signs contract with Chinese company...Link Besides foreign channels, Afghanistan's local television channels include: Ariana TV Ariana Afghanistan TV Khorasan TV Lamar TV Shamshad TV Tolo TV Recent developments The model plan of a 20,000 home development project called Kandahar Valley. Due to almost 30 years of destruction and no development, Kandahar (along with the rest of the country) is going through a nationwide reconstruction period. As of 2002, large amounts of money have been pouring in for construction purposes. New modern-style buildings are slowly replacing the older ones. Kandahar's major highways were repaired and completed including the highway to Kabul. However, work on smaller roads in some parts around the city is still in progress. Kandahar's residents have access to clean drinking water and 24 hour electricity. Although not every part of the city may receive it, plans and works are underway to extend these services to every home. South Asian News Agency, 30 Power Generators to Be Installed in Kandahar Up to 20,000 single-family homes and associated infrastructure such as roads, water and sewer systems, and community buildings, including schools, are under construction on empty land in Kandahar. U.S. Department of State, U.S. Government Agency Grants $3 Million to Build Afghan Homes About 6 miles (10 km) east of Kandahar, a huge industrial park is under construction with modern facilities. The park will have professional management for the daily maintenance of public roads, internal streets, common areas, parking areas, 24 hours perimeter security, access control for vehicles and persons. Afghanistan Investment Support Agency, Afghanistan Industrial Parks Development Authority A railroad track from the Pakistani town of Chaman to Kandahar is planned for the near future. The feasibility study was completed in or about early 2006, allowing for the next step to lay-down the rail track. The work on the rail track will take approximately 2 years to complete. Places of interest Under the shimmering turquoise dome that dominates the sand-blown city [of Kandahar] lies the body of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the young Kandahari warrior who in 1747 became Afghanistan's first king. The mausoleum is covered in deep blue and white tiles behind a small grove of trees, one of which is said to cure toothache. In front of it is a small mosque with a marble vault containing one of the holiest relics in the Islamic World, a kherqa, the Sacred Cloak of the Prophet Mohammed that was given to Ahmad Shah by Murad Beg, the Emir of Bokhara. The Sacred Cloak is kept locked away, taken out only at times of great crisis1 but the mausoleum is open and there is a constant line of men leaving their sandals at the door and shuffling through to marvel at the surprisingly long marble tomb and touch the glass case containing Ahmad Shah's brass helmet. Before leaving they bend to kiss a length of pink velvet said to be from his robe. It bears the unmistakable scent of jasmine. 1 Until Mullah Omar took it out in November 1996 and displayed it to a crowd of ulema of religious scholars to have himself declared Amir al-Mu'mineen, (Commander of the Faithful), the last time had been when the city was struck by a cholera epidemic in the 1930s. Lamb, Christina (2002). The Sewing Circles of Herat. HarperCollins. First Perennial edition (2004), p. 38 and n. ISBN 0-06-050527-3. The charming village of Sher Surkh is located southeast of the city, in the suburbs of the old city of Nadirabad. Kandahar Museum is located at the western end of the third block of buildings lining the main road east of Eidgah Durwaza (gate). It has many paintings by the now famous Ghiyassuddin, painted while he was a young teacher in Kandahar. He is acknowledged among Afghanistan’s leading artists. Just to the north of the city, off its northeast corner at the end of buria (matting) bazaar, there is a charming shrine dedicated to a celebrated saint who lived in Kandahar more than 300 years ago. The grave of Hazratji Baba, long to signify his greatness, but otherwise covered solely by rock chips, is undecorated save for tall pennants at its head. A monument to pious martyrs (Shahidan: those who died in battle defending their land) stands in the center of Kandahar’s main square called Da Shahidanu Chawk, which was built in the 1940s. The Chilzina is a rock-cut chamber above the plain at the end of the rugged chain of mountains forming the western defence of Kandahar’s Old City. Forty steps, about, lead to the chamber which is guarded by two chained lions, defaced, and inscribed with an account of Moghul conquest. The rugged cliffs from which the Chilzina was hewn form the natural western bastion of the Old City of Kandahar which was destroyed in 1738 by Nadir Shah Afshar of Persia. A short distance from Chilzina, going west on the main highway, a bright blue dome appears on the right. This is the mausoleum of Mir Wais Khan, the Ghilzai chieftain who declared Kandahar’s independence from the Persians in 1709. The shrine of Baba Wali, its terraces shaded by pomegranate groves beside the Arghandab River, is also very popular for picnics and afternoon outings. Night view of Kandahar International Airport in 2007. The Shrine of Baba Wali at Arghandab Valley, on the outskirt of the city. Airports Kandahar International Airport Districts Arghandab Valley Kandahar Valley (under construction) Shāri Noe Dand Karz Mirwais Mina Daman Sarpuza Zoar Shār (Old City) General Baba Saab (picnic area & weekend spot) Bāghi Pull (picnic area & weekend spot) Chilzina View (Moghul Emperor Babur's inscription site) Kandahar Stadium Kandahar Museum Mosques and Shrines Friday Mosque or Mosque of the Cloak of the Prophet Mohammed Jama-e Mubārak or Mosque of the Hair of the Prophet Shrine of Baba Wali Mausoleums Mausoleum of Ahmad Shah Durrani Mausoleum of Mirwais Khan Hotak Shopping Herat Bazaar Kabul Bazaar Shah Bazaar Shkar Pur Bazaar Banks AIB Bank Kabul Bank Azizi Bank Hospitals Afghan National Army Regional Hospital Mirwais Hospital Poly Clinic Al Bilal Hospital Matin Hospital Al Hadi Farhad Hospital See also Kandahar Province Notable people from Kandahar Hamid Karzai Said Tayeb Jawad Nashenas Naghma Gul Agha Sherzai Mirwais Khan Hotak Mir Mahmud Hotaki Nur Jahan References Further reading Hill, John E. 2004. The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. Draft annotated English translation. Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation. Thapar, Romila (1963): Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas. Oxford University Press. 3rd impression, New Delhi, 1980. Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia. World Publishing company, Cleveland, Ohio. Mentor Book edition, 1966. Toynbee, Arnold J. (1961). Between Oxus and Jumna. London. Oxford University Press. Vogelsang, W. (1985). "Early historical Arachosia in South-east Afghanistan; Meeting-place between East and West." Iranica antiqua, 20 (1985), pp. 55–99. Wood, Michael (1997). In the footsteps of Alexander the Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia. BBC, London. First published 1997. Paperback Edition 2001. External links Old photos of Kandahar Lancia Kandahar Arachosia Alexandria in Arachosia ARACHOSIA, province (satrapy) Kandahar's cemetery of 'miracles' be-x-old:Кандагар | Kandahar |@lemmatized kandahār:1 also:6 spell:1 qandahār:1 second:2 large:3 city:40 afghanistan:18 population:4 estimate:1 capital:8 kandahar:73 province:8 locate:5 south:5 country:6 foot:1 sea:1 level:1 arghandab:4 river:2 run:1 right:2 next:3 major:3 trading:1 center:2 sheep:1 wool:1 cotton:1 silk:1 felt:1 food:1 grain:1 fresh:1 dried:1 fruit:3 tobacco:1 region:5 produce:1 fine:1 especially:1 pomegranate:2 grape:1 plant:1 canning:1 drying:1 pack:1 international:7 airport:8 extensive:1 road:7 link:20 farah:1 herat:5 west:5 ghazni:2 kabul:9 northeast:2 tarin:1 kowt:1 north:2 quetta:2 pakistan:4 many:5 empire:10 long:3 fight:1 due:4 strategic:2 location:2 along:2 trade:2 route:4 southern:2 central:2 asia:4 ahmad:13 shah:21 durrani:9 founder:2 make:4 columbia:2 encyclopedia:2 sixth:1 edition:5 fifth:1 name:8 believe:1 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5,774 | André_Weil | André Weil should not be confused with Hermann Weyl (1885–1955) or Andrew Wiles (1953–). André Weil (May 6, 1906 – August 6, 1998) () was an influential mathematician of the 20th century, renowned for the breadth and quality of his research output, its influence on future work, and the elegance of his exposition. He is especially known for his foundational work in number theory and algebraic geometry. He was a founding member and the de facto early leader of the influential Bourbaki group. The philosopher Simone Weil was his sister. Life Born in Paris to Alsatian agnostic Jewish parents who fled the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany, Weil studied in Paris, Rome and Göttingen and received his doctorate in 1928. While in Germany, he befriended Carl Ludwig Siegel. He spent two academic years at Aligarh Muslim University from 1930. Sanskrit literature was a life-long interest. After one year in Marseille, he taught six years in Strasbourg. He married Éveline in 1937. Weil was in Finland when World War II broke out; he had been traveling in Scandinavia since April 1939. Eveline returned to France without him. The following anecdote is taken from his autobiography: after having been arrested under suspicion of espionage in Finland, when the USSR attacked on 30 November 1939, he was saved from being shot only by the intervention of Rolf Nevanlinna. This is the version that Nevanlinna propagated after the war. However, such a story is a bit too good to be true. In 1992, the Finnish mathematician Osmo Pekonen went to the archives to check the facts. Based on the documents, he established that Weil was not really going to be shot, even if he was under arrest, and that Nevanlinna probably didn't do—and didn't need to do—anything to save him. Pekonen published a paper Osmo Pekonen: L'affaire Weil à Helsinki en 1939, Gazette des mathématiciens 52 (avril 1992), pp. 13—20. With an afterword by André Weil. on this with an afterword by André Weil himself. Nevanlinna's motivation for concocting such a story of himself as the rescuer of a famous Jewish mathematician probably was the fact that he had been a Nazi sympathizer during the war. The story also appears in Nevanlinna's autobiography, published in Finnish, but the dates don't match with real events at all. It is true, however, that Nevanlinna housed Weil in the summer of 1939 at his summer residence Korkee at Lohja in Finland—and offered Hitler's Mein Kampf as bedside reading. Weil signed 'Bourbaki' in Nevanlinna's guestbook. Weil returned to France via Sweden and the United Kingdom, and was detained at Le Havre in January 1940. He was charged with failure to report for duty, and was imprisoned in Le Havre and then Rouen. It was in the military prison in Bonne-Nouvelle, a district of Rouen, from February to May, that he did the work that made his reputation. He was tried on May 3, 1940. Sentenced to five years, he asked to be sent to a military unit instead, and joined a regiment in Cherbourg. After the fall of France, he met up with his family in Marseille, where he arrived by sea. He then went to Clermont-Ferrand, where he managed to join Éveline, who had been in German-occupied France. In January 1941, Weil and his family sailed from Marseille to New York. He spent the war in the United States, where he was supported by the Rockefeller Foundation and Guggenheim Foundation. For two years, he unhappily taught undergraduate mathematics at Lehigh University. He taught at the Universidade de São Paulo, 1945–47, where he worked with Oscar Zariski. He taught at the University of Chicago from 1947 to 1958, before spending the remainder of his career at the Institute for Advanced Study. In 1979, he shared the second Wolf Prize in Mathematics. Work He made substantial contributions in many areas, the most important being his discovery of profound connections between algebraic geometry and number theory. This began in his doctoral work leading to the Mordell–Weil theorem (1928, and shortly applied in Siegel's theorem on integral points). Mordell's theorem had an ad hoc proof; Weil began the separation of the infinite descent argument into two types of structural approach, by means of height functions for sizing rational points, and by means of Galois cohomology, which was not to be clearly named as that for two more decades. Both aspects have steadily developed into substantial theories. Among his major accomplishments were the 1940 proof, while in prison, of the Riemann hypothesis for local zeta-functions, and his subsequent laying of proper foundations for algebraic geometry to support that result (from 1942 to 1946, most intensively). By modern standards his claim to have a proof had a very easy ride, but wartime conditions were one factor, and the fact that the German experts made little or no comment another. The so-called Weil conjectures were hugely influential from around 1950; they were later proved by Bernard Dwork, Alexander Grothendieck, Michael Artin, and Pierre Deligne, who completed the most difficult step in 1973. He had introduced the adele ring in the late 1930s, following Claude Chevalley's lead with the ideles, and given a proof of the Riemann–Roch theorem with them (a version appeared in his Basic Number Theory in 1967). His 'matrix divisor' (vector bundle avant le jour) Riemann–Roch theorem from 1938 was a very early anticipation of later ideas such as moduli spaces of bundles. The Weil conjecture on Tamagawa numbers proved resistant for many years. Eventually the adelic approach became basic in automorphic representation theory. He picked up another credited Weil conjecture, around 1967, which later under pressure from Serge Lang became known as the Taniyama–Shimura conjecture based on the presentation of the basic ideas at the 1955 Nikkō conference. His attitude towards conjectures struck many in the field as oblique; he wrote that one should not dignify a guess as a conjecture lightly, and in the Shimura–Taniyama case, the evidence was only there after extensive computational work carried out from the late 1960s. Other significant results were on Pontryagin duality and differential geometry. He introduced the concept of uniform space in general topology. His work on sheaf theory hardly appears in his published papers, but correspondence with Henri Cartan in the late 1940s, and reprinted in his collected papers, proved most influential. He discovered that the so-called Weil representation, previously introduced in quantum mechanics by Irving Segal and Shale, gave a contemporary framework for understanding the classical theory of quadratic forms. This was also a beginning of a substantial development by others, connecting representation theory and theta-functions. As expositor Weil's ideas made an important contribution to the writings and seminars of Bourbaki, before and after World War II. His books had an important influence on research, and exceptional situation in mathematics. (In one famous case, the influence was possibly negative: Alexander Grothendieck is said to have complained of the 'aridity' of Weil's Foundations of Algebraic Geometry.) The style of his books is clearly demarcated from that of his research papers. He invented the notation "Ø" for the empty set (q.v.). BooksArithmétique et géométrie sur les variétés algébriques (1935)Sur les espaces à structure uniforme et sur la topologie générale (1937)L'intégration dans les groupes topologiques et ses applications (1940)Foundations of Algebraic Geometry (1946)Sur les courbes algébriques et les variétés qui s’en déduisent (1948)Variétés abéliennes et courbes algébriques (1948)Introduction à l'étude des variétés kählériennes (1958)Discontinuous subgroups of classical groups (1958) Chicago lecture notesBasic Number Theory (1967)Dirichlet Series and Automorphic Forms, Lezioni Fermiane (1971) Lecture Notes in Mathematics, vol. 189,Essais historiques sur la théorie des nombres (1975)Elliptic Functions According to Eisenstein and Kronecker (1976)Œuvres Scientifiques, Collected Works, three volumes (1979)Number Theory for Beginners (1979) with Maxwell RosenlichtAdeles and Algebraic Groups (1982)Number Theory: An Approach Through History From Hammurapi to Legendre (1984) His autobiography: French: Souvenirs d’Apprentissage (1991) ISBN 3764325003. Review in English by J. E. Cremona. English translation: The Apprenticeship of a Mathematician'' (1992), ISBN 0817626506 Quotations "God exists since mathematics is consistent, and the Devil exists since we cannot prove it." Weil's Law of university hiring: "First rate people hire other first rate people. Second rate people hire third rate people. Third rate people hire fifth rate people." See also Weil cohomology Weil conjecture disambiguation page Weil conjectures Weil conjecture on Tamagawa numbers Weil distribution Weil divisor Weil's explicit formula Siegel–Weil formula Weil group, Weil-Deligne group scheme Weil–Châtelet group Chern-Weil homomorphism Chern-Weil theory Hasse–Weil L-function Weil pairing Weil reciprocity law Weil representation Borel–Weil theorem De Rham–Weil theorem Mordell–Weil theorem. Notes External links André Weil: memorial articles in the Notices of AMS by Armand Borel, Pierre Cartier, Komaravolu Chandrasekharan, Shiing-Shen Chern, and Shokichi Iyanaga Image of Weil A 1940 Letter of André Weil on Analogy in Mathematics | André_Weil |@lemmatized andré:6 weil:45 confuse:1 hermann:1 weyl:1 andrew:1 wile:1 may:3 august:1 influential:4 mathematician:4 century:1 renowned:1 breadth:1 quality:1 research:3 output:1 influence:3 future:1 work:9 elegance:1 exposition:1 especially:1 know:2 foundational:1 number:8 theory:12 algebraic:6 geometry:6 founding:1 member:1 de:6 facto:1 early:2 leader:1 bourbaki:3 group:6 philosopher:1 simone:1 sister:1 life:2 bear:1 paris:2 alsatian:1 agnostic:1 jewish:2 parent:1 flee:1 annexation:1 alsace:1 lorraine:1 germany:2 study:2 rome:1 göttingen:1 receive:1 doctorate:1 befriend:1 carl:1 ludwig:1 siegel:3 spend:3 two:4 academic:1 year:6 aligarh:1 muslim:1 university:4 sanskrit:1 literature:1 long:1 interest:1 one:4 marseille:3 teach:4 six:1 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5,775 | Diacritic | The letter a with a diacritic A diacritic () (also diacritical mark, diacritical point, diacritical sign) is an ancillary glyph added to a letter, or basic glyph. The term derives from the Greek διακριτικός (diakritikós, "distinguishing"). Diacritic is both an adjective and a noun, whereas diacritical is only an adjective. Some diacritical marks, such as the grave and acute, but not the cedilla, are often called accents. Diacritical marks may appear above or below a letter, or in some other position such as within the letter. The main use of diacritics in the Latin alphabet is to change the sound value of the letter to which they are added. Examples from English are the cedilla in façade, which shows it is pronounced /s/ rather than /k/; the diaeresis in coöperate, which shows the two vowels are pronounced separately; and the acute and grave 'accents' which show a final vowel is to be pronounced, as in saké and poetic breathèd. In other Latin alphabets, they may distinguish between homonyms, such as French là "there" vs la "the", which are both pronounced [la]. In Gaelic type, a dot over the letter f indicates that it is silent. In other alphabetic systems diacritics may perform other functions. For example, Hebrew vowel pointing and Vietnamese tone marks indicate sounds (vowels and tones) which are not conveyed by the basic alphabet. Indic virama and Arabic sukun mark the absence of a vowel. Cantillation marks indicate prosody. Other uses include Old Slavic titlo, which marks abbreviations, and Greek diacritics which showed that letters of the alphabet were being used as numerals. In orthography and collation, a letter modified by a diacritic may be treated either as a new, distinct letter or as a letter–diacritic combination. This varies from language to language and, in some cases, from case to case within a language. Types Among the types of diacritic are these: accent marks (thus called because the acute, the grave and the circumflex accent were originally used to indicate different types of pitch accents, in the polytonic orthography of Greek) ( ´ ) acute accent (Latin apex) ( ˋ ) grave accent ( ) circumflex accent ( ) caron, inverted circumflex, (Czech háček, Slovak mäkčeň, Slovene strešica) ( ˝ ) double acute accent ( ̏ ) double grave accent dots ( ), ( . ) dot (Indic anusvara) ( · ) Interpunct tittle, the dot used by default in the modern lowercase form of the Latin letters "i" and "j" ( ¨ ) trema, diaeresis, or umlaut sign ( ) colon, used in the International Phonetic Alphabet to mark long vowels. ( ˚ ) ring (Swedish kål) macron or line ( ¯ ) macron (Hawaiian kahakō) ( ) macron below overlays ( | ) bar through the basic letter ( / ) slash through the basic letter ( – ) stroke through the basic letter curves ( ˘ ) breve sicilicus, a palaeographic diacritic similar to a caron or breve ( ) tilde ( ) titlo curls above ( ’ ) apostrophe ( ) hook (Vietnamese dấu hỏi) ( ) horn (Vietnamese dấu móc) curls below ( , ) comma ( ¸ ) cedilla ( ˛ ) ogonek Some of these marks are sometimes diacritics, but also have other uses: that applies to the tilde, dot, comma, titlo, apostrophe, bar, and colon. The dot on the letter i of the Latin alphabet originated as a diacritic to clearly distinguish i from the vertical strokes of adjacent letters. It first appeared in the sequence ii (as in ingeníí) in Latin manuscripts of the 11th century, then spread to i adjacent to m, n, u before being used for all lower-case i. The j, which separated from the i later, inherited the "dot". The shape of the diacritic developed from initially resembling today's acute accent to a long flourish by the 15th century. With the advent of Roman type it was reduced to the round dot we have today. OED Diacritics specific to non-Latin alphabets Arabic (ئ ؤ إ أ and stand alone ء) : indicates a glottal stop. (ــًــٍــٌ ) (تنوين) symbols. Serve a grammatical role in Arabic. The sign ًـً is most commonly written in combination with ا (Alif), e.g. ـًا . (ـّـ) : Gemination (doubling) of consonants. (ٱ ) : Indicates where an alif is not pronounced. (آ ) . A replacement for two alifs in a row. Read as a glottal stop followed by a long /aː/. (ــٰ) superscript alif (also "short" or "dagger alif". A rare replacement for "long" Alif in some words. (In Arabic: حركات also called تشكيل tashkīl). (ـَ ) (a) (ـِ ) (i) (ـُ ) (u) (ـْـ ) (no vowel) The or vowel points serve two purposes: They serve as a phonetical guide. They indicate the presence of short vowels or their absence At the last letter of a word, the vowel point reflects the inflection case or conjugation mood. For nouns, The is for the nominative, for the accusative, and for the genitive. For verbs, the is for the imperfective, for the perfective, and the is for verbs in the imperative or jussive moods. Vowel points or should not be confused with consonant points or (إعجام) - one, two or three dots written above or below a consonant to distinguish between letters of the same or similar form. Greek These diacritics are used in addition to the acute, grave, and circumflex accents and the diaeresis: Iota subscript ( ) rough breathing, aspiration, spiritus asper ( ) smooth (or soft) breathing, spiritus lenis Hebrew Niqqud ( ּ ) Dagesh ( ּ ) Mappiq ( ֿ ) Rafe ( ׁ ) Shin dot (at top right corner) ( ׂ ) Sin dot (at top left corner) ( ְ ) Shva ( ֻ ) Kubutz ( ֹ ) Holam ( ָ ) Kamatz ( ַ ) Patakh ( ֶ ) Segol ( ֵ ) Tzeire ( ִ ) Hiriq Other ( ׳ ) Geresh Non-alphabetic scripts Some non-alphabetic scripts also employ symbols that function essentially as diacritics. Non-pure abjads (such as Hebrew and Arabic script) and abugidas use diacritics for denoting vowels. Hebrew and Arabic also indicate consonant doubling and change with diacritics; Hebrew and Devanagari use them for foreign sounds. Devanagari and related abugidas also use a diacritical mark called a virama to mark the absence of a vowel. In addition, Devanagari uses the moon-dot chandrabindu ( ँ ). The Japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries use the dakuten (゛) and handakuten (゜) (in Japanese: 濁点 and 半濁点) symbols, also known as nigori (濁) or ten-ten (点々) and maru (丸), to indicate voiced consonants or other phonetical changes. Emoticons are commonly created with diacritic symbols, especially Japanese emoticons on popular boards such as 2chan and the many other imageboards suffixed -chan. Alphabetization or collation Different languages use different rules to put diacritic characters in alphabetical order. French treats letters with diacritical marks the same as the underlying letter for purposes of ordering and dictionaries. The Scandinavian languages, by contrast, treat the characters with diacritics ä, ö and å as new and separate letters of the alphabet, and sort them after z. Usually ä is sorted as equal to æ (ash) and ö is sorted as equal to ø (o-slash). Also, aa, when used as an alternative spelling to å, is sorted as such. Other letters modified by diacritics are treated as variants of the underlying letter, with the exception that ü is frequently sorted as y. Languages that treat accented letters as variants of the underlying letter usually alphabetize words with such symbols immediately after similar unmarked words. For instance, in German where two words differ only by an umlaut, the word without it is sorted first in German dictionaries (e.g. schon and then schön, or fallen and then fällen). However, when names are concerned (e.g. in phone books or in author catalogues in libraries), umlauts are often treated as combinations of the vowel with a suffixed e; Austrian phone books now treat characters with umlauts as separate letters (immediately following the underlying vowel). In Spanish, the grapheme ñ is considered a new letter different from n and collated between n and o, as it denotes a different sound from that of a plain n. But the accented vowels á, é, í, ó, ú are not separated from the unaccented vowels a, e, i, o, u as the acute accent in Spanish only modifies stress within the word, not the sound of a letter. For a comprehensive list of the collating orders in various languages, see Collating sequence. Generation with computers Modern computer technology was developed mostly in the English-speaking countries, so data formats, keyboard layouts, etc., were developed with a bias favouring English, a language with a "simple" alphabet, one without diacritical marks. This has led to fears internationally that the marks and accents may be made obsolete to facilitate the worldwide exchange of data. Efforts have been made to create internationalized domain names that further extend the English alphabet (e.g., "pokémon.com"). Depending on the keyboard layout, which differs amongst countries, it is more or less easy to enter letters with diacritics on computers and typewriters. Some have their own keys; some are created by first pressing the key with the diacritic mark followed by the letter to place it on. Such a key is sometimes referred to as a dead key, as it produces no output of its own, but modifies the output of the key pressed after it. In modern Microsoft Windows operating systems, the keyboard layout US International allows one to type Latin letters with the acute, grave, circumflex, diæresis, tilde, and cedilla found in Western European languages (specifically, those combinations found in the ISO Latin-1 character set) directly: "+e gives ë, ~+o gives õ, etc. On Apple Macintosh computers, there are keyboard shortcuts for the most common diacritics; Option-e followed by a vowel places an acute accent, Option-u followed by a vowel gives an umlaut, option-c gives a cedilla, etc. Diacritics can be composed in most X Window System keyboard layouts. On computers, the availability of code pages determines whether one can use certain diacritics. Unicode solves this problem by assigning every known character its own code; if this code is known, most modern computer systems provide a method to input it. With Unicode, it is also possible to combine diacritical marks with most characters. Languages with letters containing diacritics The following languages have letters which contain diacritics. Germanic and Celtic Danish and Norwegian uses additional characters like the o-slash ø and the a-circle å. These letters are collated after z and æ, in the order ø, å. Faroese uses acute accents and other special letters. All are considered separate letters and have their own place in the alphabet: á, í, ó, ú, ý, and ø. Icelandic uses acute accents and other special letters. All are considered separate letters, and have their own place in the alphabet: á, é, í, ó, ú, ý, and ö. Among the Scandinavian languages, Danish and Norwegian have long used o-slash (ø), but have more recently incorporated a-ring (å) after Swedish example. Historically the å has developed from a ligature by writing a small a on top of the letter a; if an å character is unavailable, some Scandinavian languages allow the substitution of a doubled a. The Scandinavian languages collate these letters after z, but have different collation standards. Swedish uses characters identical to a-diaeresis (ä) and o-diaeresis (ö) in the place of ash and o-slash in addition to the a-circle (å). Historically the diaeresis for the Swedish letters ä and ö, like the German umlaut, has developed from a small gothic e written on top of the letters. These letters are collated after z, in the order å, ä, ö. Romance Galician: as in Spanish, the character ñ is a letter and collated between n and o Leonese: could use ñ or . Romanian uses a breve on the letter a (ă) to indicate the sound schwa , as well as a circumflex over the letters a (â) and i (î) for the sound . Romanian also writes a comma below the letters s () and t () to represent the sounds and , respectively. These characters are collated after their non-diacritic equivalent. Spanish: the character ñ is considered a letter, and collated between n and o. Slavic Bosnian and Croatian have the symbols ć, č, đ, š and ž, which are considered separate letters and are listed as such in dictionaries and other contexts in which words are listed according to alphabetical order. Bosnian and Croatian also have one digraph including a diacritic, dž which is also alphabetised independently, and follows d and precedes đ in the alphabetical order. The Serbian Latin alphabet contains the same letters, but the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet has no diacritics. The Czech alphabet contains 27 graphemes (letters) when written without diacritics and 42 graphemes when written including them. Czech uses the acute (á é í ó ú ý), the háček (č ď ě ň ř š ť ž), and for one letter (ů) the ring. Polish has the following letters: ą ć ę ł ń ó ś ź ż. These are considered to be separate letters, each of them is placed in alphabet right after its Latin counterpart (i.e. ą between a and b), ź and ż are placed after z in this order. The Slovak alphabet uses the acute (á é í ó ú ý ĺ ŕ), caron (č ď ľ ň š ť ž), umlaut (ä) and circumflex accent (ô). The Slovene alphabet has the symbols č, š and ž, which are considered separate letters and are listed as such in dictionaries and other contexts in which words are listed according to alphabetical order. Baltic Latvian has the following letters: ā ē ī ū ŗ ļ ķ ņ ģ š ž č. Lithuanian. In general usage, where letters appear with the caron (č, š and ž) they are considered as separate letters from c, s or z and collated separately; letters with the ogonek (ą, ę, į and ų), the macron (ū) and the superdot (ė) are considered as separate letters as well, but not given a unique collation order. Finno-Ugric Estonian has a distinct letter õ which contains a tilde. Estonian "dotted vowels" ä, ö, ü are similar to German, but these are also distinct letters, not like German umlauted letters. All four have their own place in the alphabet, between w and x. Carons in š or ž appear only in foreign proper names and loanwords. Also these are distinct letters, placed in the alphabet between s and t. Finnish uses dotted vowels (ä and ö). As in Swedish and Estonian, these are regarded as individual letters, rather than vowel + umlaut combinations (as happens in German). It also uses the characters å, š and ž in foreign names and loanwords. In the Finnish alphabet, å, ä and ö collate as separate letters after z, the others as variants of their base letter. Hungarian uses the umlaut, the acute and double acute accent (unique to Hungarian): ö ü, á é í ó ú and ő ű. The acute accent indicates the long form of a vowel (in case of i/í, o/ó, u/ú) while the double acute performs the same function for ö and ü. The acute accent can also indicate a different sound (more open, like in case of a/á, e/é). Both long and short forms of the vowels are listed separately in the Hungarian alphabet but members of the pairs a/á, e/é, i/í, o/ó, ö/ő, u/ú and ü/ű are collated in dictionaries as the same letter. Livonian has the following letters: ā, ä, , , ē, ī, ļ, ņ, ō, , , õ, , ŗ, š, , ū, ž. Turkic Azerbaijani includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü. Crimean Tatar includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü. Unlike Standard Turkish (but like Cypriot Turkish), Crimean Tatar also has the letter Ñ. Gagauz includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü. Unlike Turkish, Gagauz also has the letters Ä, Ê and Ţ. Ţ is derived from the Romanian alphabet for the same sound. Turkish uses a G with a breve (Ğ), two letters with a diaeresis (Ö and Ü, representing two rounded front vowels), two letters with a cedilla (Ç and Ş, representing the affricate and the fricative ), and also possesses a dotted capital İ (and a dotless lowercase ı representing a high unrounded back vowel). In Turkish each of these are separate letters, rather than versions of other letters, where dotted capital İ and lower case i are the same letter, as are dotless capital I and lowercase ı. Typographically, Ç and Ş are often rendered with a subdot, as in ; when a hook is used, it tends to have more a comma shape than the usual cedilla. The new Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, and Gagauz alphabets are based on the Turkish alphabet and its same diacriticized letters, with some additions. Other Albanian has two special letters Ç and Ё upper and lowercase. They are placed next to the most similar letters in the alphabet, c and e correspondingly. Esperanto has the symbols ŭ, ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ and ŝ, which are included in the alphabet, and considered separate letters. Hawaiian uses the kahakô (macron) over vowels, although there is some disagreement over considering them as individual letters. The kahakô over a vowel can completely change the meaning of a word that is spelled the same but without the kahakô. Kurdish uses the symbols Ç, Ê, Î, Ş and Û with other 26 standard Latin alphabet symbols. Maltese uses a C, G, and Z with a dot over them (Ċ, Ġ, Ż), and also has an H with an extra horizontal bar. For uppercase H, the extra bar is written slightly above the usual bar. For lowercase H, the extra bar is written crossing the vertical, like a t, and not touching the lower part (Ħ, ħ). The above characters are considered separate letters. The letter 'c' without a dot has fallen out of use due to redundancy. 'Ċ' is pronounced like the English 'ch' and 'k' is used as a hard c as in 'cat'. The digraph 'għ' (called għajn after the Arabic letter name ʻayn for ع) is considered separate, and sometimes ordered after 'g', whilst in other volumes it is placed between 'n' and 'o' (the Latin letter 'o' originally evolved from the shape of Phoenician ʻayin which was traditionally collated after Phoenician nūn). Vietnamese uses the horn diacritic for the letters ơ and ư; the circumflex for the letters â, ê, and ô; the breve for the letter ă; and a bar through the letter đ. Cyrillic alphabets Belarusian has a letter ў. Belarusian, Bulgarian, Russian and Ukrainian have the letter й. Belarusian and Russian have the letter ё. In Russian, this letter is usually replaced in print by е, although it has a different pronunciation. The use of е instead of ё in print does not affect the pronunciation. Ё is still used in children's books and in handwriting, is always used in dictionaries. A minimal pair is все (vse, "all" pl.) and всё (vsyo, "everything" n. sg.). In Belarusian the replacement by е is a mistake, in Russian, it is possible to use either е and ё in print in place of ё but the former is more common. Ukrainian has the letter ï. Macedonian has the letters ќ and ѓ. The acute accent " ́" above any vowel in Cyrillic alphabets is used in dictionaries, books for children and foreign learners to indicate the word stress, it also can be used for disambiguation of similarly spelled words with different lexical stresses. Diacritics that do not produce new letters Blackboard used in class at Harvard shows students' efforts at placing the ü and acute accent diacritic used in Spanish orthography. English is one of the few European languages that does not have many words which contain diacritical marks (with the exception of the apostrophe in word contractions). Exceptions are unassimilated foreign loanwords, including borrowings from French and increasingly Spanish; however, the diacritic is also sometimes omitted from such words. Loanwords that frequently appear with the diacritic in English include café, résumé (a usage that helps distinguish it from the verb resume, though the former is often written résumé), and naïveté (see List of English words with diacritics). In older practice (and even among some orthographically conservative modern writers) one may see examples such as élite and rôle. English once used the diaeresis more often than not in words such as coöperation (from Fr. coopération) and zoölogy (from Lat. zoologia), but this practice has become far less common (The New Yorker's house style is one of the few major publications to retain this feature, and various individual writers still use it). It is not competely extinct, but not common. English has also added a diacritic to a common spelling of maté (from Sp. and Port. mate). A few English words can only be distinguished from others by a diacritic or modified letter, including animé, exposé, lamé, maté, öre, øre, pâté, piqué, rosé. The same is true of résumé, alternately résumé, but nevertheless it is sometimes spelled resume in the US, and saké, which is more commonly spelled sake. The acute and grave accents are occasionally used in poetry and lyrics: the acute to indicate stress overtly where it might be ambiguous (rébel vs. rebél) or nonstandard for metrical reasons (caléndar), the grave to indicate that an ordinarily silent or elided syllable is pronounced (warnèd, parlìament). In certain personal names such as Renée and Zoë, the diacritical marks are included more often than omitted. Other languages The following languages have letter-diacritic combinations that are not considered independent letters. Afrikaans uses diaeresis to mark vowels that are pronounced separately and not as one would expect where they occur together, for example voel (to feel) as opposed to voël (bird). The circumflex is used in ê, î, ô and û generally to indicate long close-mid, as opposed to open-mid vowels, for example in the words wêreld (world) and môre (morning, tomorrow). The acute accent is used to add emphasis in the same way as underlining or writing in bold or italics in English, for example Dit is jóú boek (It is your book). The grave accent is used to distinguish between words that are different only in placement of the stress, for example appel (apple) and appèl (appeal) and in a few cases where it makes no difference to the pronunciation but distinguishes between homophones. The two most usual cases of the latter are the in the sayings òf... òf (either... or) and nòg... nòg (neither... nor) to distinguish them from of (or) and nog (again, still). Aymara uses a diacritical horn over p, q, t, k, ch. Catalan has the following composite characters: à, ç, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, l·l. The acute and the grave accent indicate stress and vowel height, the cedilla marks the result of a historical palatalization, the diaeresis mark indicates either a hiatus, or that the letter u is pronounced when the graphemes gü, qü are followed by e or i, the interpunct (·) distinguishes the different values of ll/l·l. Czech has the following composite characters: á, č, ď, é, ě, í, ň, ó, ř, š, ť, ú, ů, ý, and ž. Dutch uses the diaeresis. For example in ruïne it means that the u and the i are separately pronounced in their usual way, and not in the way that the combination ui is normally pronounced. Thus it works as a separation sign and not as an indication for an alternative version of the i. Diacritics can be used for emphasis (érg koud for very cold) or for disambiguation between a number of words that are spelled the same when context doesn't indicate the correct meaning (één appel = one apple, een appel = an apple; vóórkomen = to occur, voorkómen = to prevent). Grave and acute accents are used on a very small number of words, mostly loanwords. The ç also appears in some loanwords. Faroese. Non-Faroese accented letters are not added to the Faroese alphabet. These include é, ö, ü, å and recently also letters like š, ł, and ć. Filipino has the following composite characters: á, à, â, é, è, ê, í, ì, î, ó, ò, ô, ú, ù, û. The actual use of diacritics for Filipino, however, is rare. Finnish. Carons in š and ž appear only in foreign proper names and loanwords, but may be substituted with sh or zh if and only if it is technically impossible to produce accented letters in the medium. Contrary to Estonian, š and ž are not considered distinct letters in Finnish. French uses the grave accent (accent grave), the acute accent (accent aigu), the circumflex (accent circonflexe), the cedilla (cédille), and the diaeresis. Galician vowels can bear a grave accent (á, é, í, ó, ú) to indicate stress or difference between two otherwise same written words (é, '(he/she) is' vs. e, 'and'), but trema is only used with ï and ü to show diaeresis in pronunciation. Only in foreign words Galician may use of another diacritics as ç (widely used in the Middle Age) ê or à. German uses the three so-called umlauts ä, ö and ü. These diacritics indicate vowel changes. For instance the word Ofen /'o:fən/ (English: oven) has the plural Öfen /'ø:fən/ (ovens). The sign originated in a superscript e; a handwritten Sütterlin e resembles two parallel vertical lines, like an umlaut. In old German texts, we see the letter "Y", when being pronounced /y/ written as "ÿ". For example "Babÿlon." Hebrew has many various diacritic marks known as niqqud that are used above and below script to represent vowels. These must be distinguished from cantillation, which are keys to pronunciation and syntax. The International Phonetic Alphabet uses diacritic symbols and diacritic letters to indicate phonetic features or secondary articulations. Irish uses acute accent to indicate that the vowel is long. It is known as síneadh fada (long sign) or simply fada (long) in Irish. Italian mainly has the acute and the grave (à, è/é, ì, ò/ó, ù), typically to indicate a stressed syllable which would not be stressed under the normal rules of pronunciation but sometimes also to distinguish between words which are otherwise spelled the same way (e.g. "e", and; "è", is). Lithuanian uses the acute, grave and tilde in dictionaries to indicate stress types in the language's pitch accent system. Maltese sometimes uses diacritics on some vowels to indicate stress or long vowels, but this is restricted to pronunciation assistance in dictionaries. Occitan has the following composite characters: á, à, ç, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, n·h, s·h. The acute and the grave accent indicate stress and vowel height, the cedilla marks the result of a historical palatalization, the diaeresis mark indicates either a hiatus, or that the letter u is pronounced when the graphemes gü, qü are followed by e or i, the interpunct (·) distinguishes the different values of nh/n·h and sh/s·h. Portuguese has the following composite characters: à, á, â, ã, ç, é, ê, í, ó, ô, õ, ú. The acute and the circumflex accent indicate stress and vowel height, the grave accent indicates crasis, the tilde represents nasalization, and the cedilla marks the result of a historical palatalization. Acute accents are also used in Slavic language dictionaries and textbooks to indicate lexical stress, placed over the vowel of the stressed syllable. This can also serve to disambiguate meaning (e.g., in Russian писа́ть (pisáť) means "to write", but пи́сать (písať) means "to piss"), or "бо́льшая часть" (the biggest part) vs "больша́я часть" (the big part). Slovak has the acute (á, é, í, ĺ, ó, ŕ, ú, ý), the caron (č, ď, dž, ľ, ň, š, ť, ž), the circumflex (only above o - ô) and the diaeresis (only above a - ä). Spanish uses the acute accent and the diaeresis. The acute is used on a vowel in a stressed syllable in words with irregular stress patterns. It can also be used to "break up" a diphthong as in tío (pronounced , rather than as it would be without the accent). Moreover, the acute can be used to distinguish words that otherwise are spelt alike, such as si ("if") and sí ("yes"), and also to distinguish interrogative and exclamative pronouns from homophones with a different grammatical function, such as donde/¿dónde? ("where"/"where?") or como/¿cómo? ("as"/"how?"). The diaeresis is used only over u (ü) for it to be pronounced in the combinations gue and gui, where u is normally silent, for example ambigüedad. In poetry, the diaeresis may be used on i and u as a way to force a hiatus. Very rarely, the "dotted l" may also be found, especially in loanwords, in order to indicate that the letters "ll" should not be pronounced as the Castilian letter "elle," but rather, as the letter "ele," in much the way that a diaeresis might be used to "break" a diphthong in other languages. This is accent mark, however, derives from other Iberian languages. Swedish uses the acute accent to show non-standard stress, for example in (café) and (résumé). This occasionally helps resolve ambiguities, such as ide (hibernation) versus idé (idea). In these words, the acute accent is not optional. Some proper names use non-standard diacritics, such as Carolina Klüft and Staël von Holstein. For foreign loanwords the original accents are strongly recommended, unless the word has been infused into the language, in which case they are optional. Hence crème fraîche but ampere. Tamil does not have any diacritics in itself, but uses the Hindu numerals 2, 3 and 4 as diacritics to represent aspirated, voiced, and voiced-aspirated consonants when the Tamil script is used to write long passages in Sanskrit. Thai has its own system of diacritics derived from Indic numerals, which denote different tones. Vietnamese uses the acute accent (dấu sắc), the grave accent (dấu huyền), the tilde (dấu ngã), the dot below (dấu nặng) and the hook (dấu hỏi) on vowels as tone indicators. Welsh uses the circumflex, diaeresis, acute and grave accents on its seven vowels a, e, i, o, u, w, y. The most common is the circumflex (which it calls to bach, meaning "little roof", or acen grom "crooked accent", or hirnod "long sign") to denote a long vowel, usually to disambiguate it from a similar word with a short vowel. The rarer grave accent has the opposite effect, shortening vowel sounds which would usually be pronounced long. The acute accent and diaeresis are also occasionally used, to denote stress and vowel separation respectively. The w-circumflex and the y-circumflex are among the most commonly accented characters in Welsh, but unusual in languages generally, and were until recently very hard to obtain in word-processed and HTML documents. Transliteration Several languages which are not written with the Roman alphabet are transliterated, or romanized, using diacritics. Examples: Chinese has several romanizations that use the umlaut, but only on u (ü). In Hanyu Pinyin, the four tones of Mandarin Chinese are denoted by the macron (first tone), acute (second tone), caron (third tone) and grave (fourth tone) diacritics. Example: ā, á, ǎ, à. Romanized Japanese (Romaji) uses diacritics to mark long vowels. The Hepburn romanization system uses a macron to mark long vowels, and the Kunrei-shiki and Nihon-shiki systems use a circumflex. Sanskrit, as well as many of its descendants, like Hindi and Bengali, uses a lossless transliteration system for representing words in the Roman alphabet. This includes several letters with diacritical markings, such as horizontal lines above vowels (ā, ī, ū), dots above and below consonants (ṛ, ḥ, ṃ, ṇ, ṣ, ṭ, ḍ) as well as a few others (ś, ñ). Arabic has several romanisations, depending on the type of the application, region, intended audience, country, etc. many of them extensively use diacritics, e.g. some methods use a dot for rendering emphatic consonants (ṣ, ṭ, ḍ, ẓ, ḥ). Macron is often used to render long vowels. š is often used for /ʃ/. ġ for /ɣ/. See also Alphabets derived from the Latin :Category:Latin-derived alphabets :Category:Specific letter-diacritic combinations Collating sequence Combining character Heavy metal umlaut Latin alphabet List of English words with diacritics List of Latin letters List of U.S. cities with diacritics Romanization Typing accents References External links Unicode Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing, by J. C. 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5,776 | Eden_Phillpotts | The clapper bridge at Postbridge, which is the central location of Phillpotts' novel The Thief of Virtue. Eden Phillpotts (4 November 1862 – 29 December 1960) was an English author, poet and dramatist. He was born in India, educated in Plymouth, Devon, and worked as an insurance officer for 10 years before studying for the stage and eventually becoming a writer. He was the author of many novels, plays and poems about Dartmoor. His Dartmoor cycle of 18 novels and two volumes of short stories still have many avid readers despite the fact that many titles are out of print. Phillpotts also wrote many other books with a Dartmoor setting. He was for many years the President of the Dartmoor Preservation Association and cared passionately about the conservation of Dartmoor. One of his novels, Widecombe Fair, inspired by an annual fair at the village of Widecombe-in-the-Moor, provided the scenario for his comic play The Farmer's Wife. It went on to become a silent movie of the same name, directed by Alfred Hitchcock and filmed in 1927. The cast included: Jameson Thomas, Lillian Hall-Davis, Gordon Harker and Gibb McLaughlin. Phillpotts was a friend of Agatha Christie, who was an admirer of his work and a regular visitor to his home. Jorge Luis Borges was another admirer. Jorge Luis Borges: Conversations. University Press of Mississippi, 1998. Page 218. Some of his novels about Dartmoor include: Children of the Mist (1898) Sons of the Morning (1900) The River (1902) The American Prisoner (1904) The Whirlwind (1907) The Mother (1908) The Virgin in Judgment (1908) The Three Brothers (1909) The Thief of Virtue (1910) The Beacon (1911) The Forest on the Hill (1912) Orphan Dinah (1920) He also wrote a series of novels each set against the background of a different trade or industry. Titles include: Brunel's Tower (a pottery), Storm in a Teacup (hand-papermaking). Among his other works is The Grey Room, the plot of which is centered on a haunted room in an English manor house. He also wrote a number of other mystery novels, both under his own name and the pseudonym Harrington Hext. Titles include: The Thing at Their Heels, The Red Redmaynes, The Monster, The Clue from the Stars and The Captain's Curio. Although mainly a novelist, he also wrote several plays, the most famous being Yellow Sands. Late in his long writing career he wrote a few books of interest to science fiction readers, the most noteworthy being Saurus, which involves an alien reptilian being observing human life, somewhat after the fashion in which ethnographers observed peoples deemed "primitive" at that time. References External links Works by or about Eden Phillpotts at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated) (plain text and HTML) Eden Phillpotts at ISFDB (Internet Speculative Fiction DB) | Eden_Phillpotts |@lemmatized clapper:1 bridge:1 postbridge:1 central:1 location:1 phillpotts:6 novel:7 thief:2 virtue:2 eden:3 november:1 december:1 english:2 author:2 poet:1 dramatist:1 bear:1 india:1 educate:1 plymouth:1 devon:1 work:4 insurance:1 officer:1 year:2 study:1 stage:1 eventually:1 become:2 writer:1 many:5 play:3 poem:1 dartmoor:6 cycle:1 two:1 volume:1 short:1 story:1 still:1 avid:1 reader:2 despite:1 fact:1 title:3 print:1 also:4 write:5 book:3 setting:1 president:1 preservation:1 association:1 care:1 passionately:1 conservation:1 one:1 widecombe:2 fair:2 inspire:1 annual:1 village:1 moor:1 provide:1 scenario:1 comic:1 farmer:1 wife:1 go:1 silent:1 movie:1 name:2 direct:1 alfred:1 hitchcock:1 film:1 cast:1 include:4 jameson:1 thomas:1 lillian:1 hall:1 davis:1 gordon:1 harker:1 gibb:1 mclaughlin:1 friend:1 agatha:1 christie:1 admirer:2 regular:1 visitor:1 home:1 jorge:2 luis:2 borges:2 another:1 conversation:1 university:1 press:1 mississippi:1 page:1 child:1 mist:1 son:1 morning:1 river:1 american:1 prisoner:1 whirlwind:1 mother:1 virgin:1 judgment:1 three:1 brother:1 beacon:1 forest:1 hill:1 orphan:1 dinah:1 series:1 set:1 background:1 different:1 trade:1 industry:1 brunel:1 tower:1 pottery:1 storm:1 teacup:1 hand:1 papermaking:1 among:1 grey:1 room:2 plot:1 center:1 haunted:1 manor:1 house:1 number:1 mystery:1 pseudonym:1 harrington:1 hext:1 thing:1 heel:1 red:1 redmaynes:1 monster:1 clue:1 star:1 captain:1 curio:1 although:1 mainly:1 novelist:1 several:1 famous:1 yellow:1 sand:1 late:1 long:1 writing:1 career:1 interest:1 science:1 fiction:2 noteworthy:1 saurus:1 involve:1 alien:1 reptilian:1 observe:2 human:1 life:1 somewhat:1 fashion:1 ethnographer:1 people:1 deem:1 primitive:1 time:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 internet:2 archive:1 scan:1 original:1 edition:1 color:1 illustrate:1 plain:1 text:1 html:1 isfdb:1 speculative:1 db:1 |@bigram eden_phillpotts:3 poet_dramatist:1 avid_reader:1 alfred_hitchcock:1 agatha_christie:1 jorge_luis:2 luis_borges:2 science_fiction:1 external_link:1 |
5,777 | Ice_age | The Antarctic ice sheet. Ice sheets expand during an ice age. Variations in temperature, CO2, and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 400,000 years The general term "ice age" or, more precisely, "glacial age" denotes a geological period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in an expansion of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. Within a long-term ice age, individual pulses of extra cold climate are termed "glaciations". Glaciologically, ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres; J. Imbrie and K.P.Imbrie, Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery (Short Hills NJ: Enslow Publishers) 1979. by this definition we are still in an ice age (because the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets still exist). J. Gribbin, Future weather (New York: Penguin) 1982. More colloquially, when speaking of the last few million years, "the" ice age refers to the most recent colder period (or freezing period) with extensive ice sheets over the North American and Eurasian continents: in this sense, the most recent ice age peaked, in its Last Glacial Maximum about 20,000 years ago. This article will use the term ice age in the former, glaciological, sense: glacials for colder periods during ice ages and interglacials for the warmer periods. Origin of ice age theory In some alpine regions of Europe it was common knowledge that glaciers had previously been far more extensive. In 1742 Pierre Martel (1701–1767), an engineer and geographer living in Geneva, visited the valley of Chamonix in the Alps of Savoy. Two years later he published an account of his journey. He reported that the inhabitants of that valley attributed the dispersal of erratic boulders to the fact that the glaciers had once extended much further. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte [The Discovery of the Ice Ages. International Reception and Consequences for the Understanding of climate history], Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 69. Later similar explanations were reported from other regions of the Alps. In 1815 the carpenter and chamois hunter Jean-Pierre Perraudin (1767–1858) explained erratic boulders in the Val de Bagnes in the Swiss canton of Valais as being due to glaciers previously extending further. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 106 et seqq. An unknown woodcutter from Meiringen in the Bernese Oberland advocated a similar idea in a discussion with the Swiss-German geologist Jean de Charpentier (1786–1855) in 1834. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 189. Comparable explanations are also known from the Val de Ferret in the Valais and the Seeland in western Switzerland. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 111 and 189. Such explanations could also be found in other parts of the world. When the Bavarian naturalist Ernst von Bibra (1806–1878) visited the Chilean Andes in 1849–1850 the natives attributed fossil moraines to the former action of glaciers. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 111. Meanwhile, European scholars had begun to wonder what had caused the dispearsal of erratic material. From the middle of the 18th century some discussed ice as a means of transport. The Swedish mining expert Daniel Tilas (1712–1772) was, in 1742, the first person to suggest drifting sea ice in order to explain the presence of erratic boulders in the Scandinavian and Baltic regions. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 59. In 1795, the Scottish philosopher and gentleman naturalist, James Hutton (1726–1797), explained erratic boulders in the Alps with the action of glaciers. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 84 and 86. Two decades later, in 1818, the Swedish botanist Göran Wahlenberg (1780–1851) published his theory of a glaciation of the Scandinavian peninsula. He regarded glaciation as a regional phenomenon. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 118-119. Only a few years later, the Danish-Norwegian Geologist Jens Esmark (1763–1839) argued a sequence of worldwide ice ages. In a paper published in 1824, Esmark proposed changes in climate as the cause of those glaciations. He attempted to show that they originated from changes in the earth´s orbit. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 121 et seqq. During the following years, Esmark’s ideas were discussed and taken over in parts by Swedish, Scottish and German scientists. At the University of Edinburgh Robert Jameson (1774–1854) seemed to be relatively open towards Esmark´s ideas. Jameson´s remarks about ancient glaciers in Scotland were most probably prompted by Esmark. Davies, Gordon L.: The Earth in Decay. A History of British Geomorphology 1578-1878, London 1969, p. 267f. Cunningham, Frank F.: Forbes, James David Forbes. Pioneer Scottish Glaciologist, Edinburgh 1990, p. 15. In Germany, Albrecht Reinhard Bernhardi (1797–1849), professor of forestry at Dreissigacker, adopted Esmark´s theory. In a paper published in 1832, Bernhardi speculated about former polar ice caps reaching as far as the temperate zones of the globe. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 179 et seqq. Independently of these debates, the Swiss civil engineer Ignaz Venetz (1788–1859) in 1829, explained the dispersal of erratic boulders in the Alps, the nearby Jura Mountains and the North German Plain as being due to huge glaciers. When he read his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, most scientists remained sceptical. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 136-137. Finally, Venetz managed to convince his friend Jean de Charpentier. De Charpentier transformed Venetz´s idea into a theory with a glaciation limited to the Alps. His thoughts resembled Wahlenberg´s theory. In fact, both men shared the same volcanistic, or in de Charpentier’s case rather plutonistic assumptions, about earth history. In 1834, de Charpentier presented his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 188-191. In the meantime, the German botanist Karl Friedrich Schimper (1803–1867) was studying mosses which were growing on erratic boulders in the alpine upland of Bavaria. He began to wonder where such masses of stone had come from. During the summer of 1835 he made some excursions to the Bavarian Alps. Schimper came to the conclusion that ice must have been the means of transport for the boulders in the alpine upland. In the winter of 1835 to 1836 he held some lectures in Munich. Schimper then assumed that there must have been global times of obliteration (“Verödungszeiten“) with a cold climate and frozen water. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 194-196. Schimper spent the summer months of 1836 at Devens, near Bex, in the Swiss Alps with his former university friend Louis Agassiz (1801–1873) and Jean de Charpentier. Schimper, de Charpentier and possibly Venetz convinced Agassiz that there had been a time of glaciation. During Winter 1836/7 Agassiz and Schimper developed the theory of a sequence of glaciations. They mainly drew upon the preceding works of Venetz, of de Charpentier and on their own fieldwork. There are indications that Agassiz was already familiar with Bernhardi´s paper at that time. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 207-210. At the beginning of 1837 Schimper coined the term ice age (“Eiszeit“). Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 213. In July 1837 Agassiz presented their synthesis before the annual meeting of the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft at Neuchâtel. The audience was very critical or even opposed the new theory because it contradicted the established opinions on climatic history. Most contemporary scientist thought that the earth had been gradually cooling down since its birth as a molten globe. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 216-217. In order to overcome this rejection, Agassiz embarked on geological fieldwork. He published his book Study on glaciers ("Études sur les glaciers") in 1840. Agassiz, Louis: Etudes sur les glaciers. Ouvrage accompagné d'un atlas de 32 planches, Neuchâtel, 1840. De Charpentier was put out by this as he had also been preparing a book about the glaciation of the Alps. De Charpentier felt that Agassiz should have given him precedence as it was he who had introduced Agassiz to in depth glacial research. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 223-224. De Charpentier, Jean: Essais sur les glaciers et sur le terrain erratique du bassin du Rhône, Lausanne 1841. Besides that, Agassiz had, as a result of personal quarrels, omitted any mention of Schimper in his book. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 220-223. Altogether, it took several decades until the ice age theory was fully accepted. This happened on an international scale in the second half of the 1870’s. Krüger, Tobias: Die Entdeckung der Eiszeiten. Internationale Rezeption und Konsequenzen für das Verständnis der Klimageschichte, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7965-2439-4, p. 540-542. Evidence for ice ages There are three main types of evidence for ice ages: geological, chemical, and paleontological. Geological evidence for ice ages comes in various forms, including rock scouring and scratching, glacial moraines, drumlins, valley cutting, and the deposition of till or tillites and glacial erratics. Successive glaciations tend to distort and erase the geological evidence, making it difficult to interpret. Furthermore, this evidence was difficult to date exactly; early theories assumed that the glacials were short compared to the long interglacials. The advent of sediment and ice cores revealed the true situation: glacials are long, interglacials short. It took some time for the current theory to be worked out. The chemical evidence mainly consists of variations in the ratios of isotopes in fossils present in sediments and sedimentary rocks and ocean sediment cores. For the most recent glacial periods ice cores provide climate proxies from their ice, and atmospheric samples from included bubbles of air. Because water containing heavier isotopes has a higher heat of evaporation, its proportion decreases with colder conditions How are past temperatures determined from an ice core?, Scientific American, September 20, 2004 . This allows a temperature record to be constructed. However, this evidence can be confounded by other factors recorded by isotope ratios. The paleontological evidence consists of changes in the geographical distribution of fossils. During a glacial period cold-adapted organisms spread into lower latitudes, and organisms that prefer warmer conditions become extinct or are squeezed into lower latitudes. This evidence is also difficult to interpret because it requires (1) sequences of sediments covering a long period of time, over a wide range of latitudes and which are easily correlated; (2) ancient organisms which survive for several million years without change and whose temperature preferences are easily diagnosed; and (3) the finding of the relevant fossils, which requires a lot of luck. Despite the difficulties, analyses of ice core and ocean sediment cores has shown periods of glacials and interglacials over the past few million years. These also confirm the linkage between ice ages and continental crust phenomena such as glacial moraines, drumlins, and glacial erratics. Hence the continental crust phenomena are accepted as good evidence of earlier ice ages when they are found in layers created much earlier than the time range for which ice cores and ocean sediment cores are available. Major ice ages Ice age map of northern central Europe. Red: maximum limit of Weichselian ice age; yellow: Saale ice age at maximum (Drenthe stage); blue: Elster ice age maximum glaciation. There have been at least four major ice ages in the Earth's past. Outside these periods, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes. The earliest hypothesized ice age, called the Huronian, was around 2.7 to 2.3 billion years ago during the early Proterozoic Eon. The earliest well-documented ice age, and probably the most severe of the last 1 billion years, occurred from 850 to 630 million years ago (the Cryogenian period) and may have produced a Snowball Earth in which permanent ice covered the entire globe and was ended by the effects of the accumulation of greenhouse gases such as CO2 produced by volcanoes. "The presence of ice on the continents and pack ice on the oceans would inhibit both silicate weathering and photosynthesis, which are the two major sinks for CO2 at present." Cryogenian Snowballs It has been suggested that the end of this ice age was responsible for the subsequent Ediacaran and Cambrian Explosion, though this theory is recent and controversial. A minor ice age, the Andean-Saharan, occurred from 460 to 430 million years ago, during the Late Ordovician and the Silurian period. There were extensive polar ice caps at intervals from 350 to 260 million years ago, during the Carboniferous and early Permian Periods, associated with the Karoo Ice Age. While an ice sheet on Antarctica began to grow some 20 million years ago, the current ice age is said to have started about 2.58 million years ago. During the late Pliocene the spread of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere began. Since then, the world has seen cycles of glaciation with ice sheets advancing and retreating on 40,000- and 100,000-year time scales called glacials (glacial advance) and interglacials (glacial retreat). The earth is currently in an interglacial, and the last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago. All that remains of the continental ice sheets are the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. Sediment records showing the fluctuating sequences of glacials and interglacials during the last several million years. Ice ages can be further divided by location and time; for example, the names Riss (180,000–130,000 years bp) and Würm (70,000–10,000 years bp) refer specifically to glaciation in the Alpine region. Note that the maximum extent of the ice is not maintained for the full interval. Unfortunately, the scouring action of each glaciation tends to remove most of the evidence of prior ice sheets almost completely, except in regions where the later sheet does not achieve full coverage. It is possible that glacial periods other than those above, especially in the Precambrian, have been overlooked because of scarcity of exposed rocks from high latitudes from older periods. Glacials and interglacials Shows the pattern of temperature and ice volume changes associated with recent glacials and interglacials Minimum (interglacial, black) and maximum (glacial, grey) glaciation of the northern hemisphere Minimum (interglacial, black) and maximum (glacial, grey) glaciation of the southern hemisphere Within the ice ages (or at least within the last one), more temperate and more severe periods occur. The colder periods are called glacial periods, the warmer periods interglacials, such as the Eemian Stage. Glacials are characterized by cooler and drier climates over most of the Earth and large land and sea ice masses extending outward from the poles. Mountain glaciers in otherwise unglaciated areas extend to lower elevations due to a lower snow line. Sea levels drop due to the removal of large volumes of water above sea level in the icecaps. There is evidence that ocean circulation patterns are disrupted by glaciations. Since the Earth has significant continental glaciation in the Arctic and Antarctic, we are currently in a glacial minimum of a glaciation. Such a period between glacial maxima is known as an interglacial. The Earth has been in an interglacial period known as the Holocene for more than 11,000 years. It was conventional wisdom that "the typical interglacial period lasts about 12,000 years," but this has been called into question recently. For example, an article in Nature argues that the current interglacial might be most analogous to a previous interglacial that lasted 28,000 years. Predicted changes in orbital forcing suggest that the next glacial period would begin at least 50,000 years from now, even in absence of human-made global warming (see Milankovitch cycles). Moreover, anthropogenic forcing from increased greenhouse gases might outweigh orbital forcing for as long as intensive use of fossil fuels continues . At a meeting of the American Geophysical Union (December 17, 2008), scientists detailed evidence in support of the controversial idea that the introduction of large-scale rice agriculture in Asia, coupled with extensive deforestation in Europe began to alter world climate by pumping significant amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere over the last 1,000 years. In turn, a warmer atmosphere heated the oceans making them much less efficient storehouses of carbon dioxide and reinforcing global warming, possibly forestalling the onset of a new glacial age. Did Early Climate Impact Divert a New Glacial Age? Newswise, Retrieved on December 17, 2008. Positive and negative feedbacks in glacial periods Each glacial period is subject to positive feedback which makes it more severe and negative feedback which mitigates and (in all cases so far) eventually ends it. Processes which make glacial periods more severe Ice and snow increase the Earth's albedo, i.e. they make it reflect more of the sun's energy and absorb less. Hence, when the air temperature decreases, ice and snow fields grow, and this continues until an equilibrium is reached. Also, the reduction in forests caused by the ice's expansion increases albedo. Another theory proposed by Ewing and Donn in 1956 Ewing, Maurice and William L. Donn. 1956. A Theory of Ice Ages. Science 123:1061-6, Retrieved on February 24, 2009 hypothesized that an ice-free Arctic Ocean leads to increased snowfall at high latitudes. When low-temperature ice covers the Arctic Ocean there is little evaporation or sublimation and the polar regions are quite dry in terms of precipitation, comparable to the amount found in mid-latitude deserts. This low precipitation allows high-latitude snowfalls to melt during the summer. An ice-free Arctic Ocean absorbs solar radiation during the long summer days, and evaporates more water into the Arctic atmosphere. With higher precipitation, portions of this snow may not melt during the summer and so glacial ice can form at lower altitudes and more southerly latitudes, reducing the temperatures over land by increased albedo as noted above. (Current projected consequences of global warming include a largely ice-free Arctic Ocean within 5–20 years, see Arctic shrinkage.) Additional fresh water flowing into the North Atlantic during a warming cycle may also reduce the global ocean water circulation (see Shutdown of thermohaline circulation). Such a reduction (by reducing the effects of the Gulf Stream) would have a cooling effect on northern Europe, which in turn would lead to increased low-latitude snow retention during the summer. It has also been suggested that during an extensive ice age glaciers may move through the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, extending into the North Atlantic ocean to an extent that the Gulf Stream is blocked. Processes which mitigate glacial periods Ice sheets that form during glaciations cause erosion of the land beneath them. After some time, this will reduce land above sea level and thus diminish the amount of space on which ice sheets can form. This mitigates the albedo feedback, as does the lowering in sea level that accompanies the formation of ice sheets. Another factor is the increased aridity occurring with glacial maxima, which reduces the precipitation available to maintain glaciation. The glacial retreat induced by this or any other process can be amplified by similar inverse positive feedbacks as for glacial advances. Causes of ice ages The causes of ice ages remain controversial for both the large-scale ice age periods and the smaller ebb and flow of glacial–interglacial periods within an ice age. The consensus is that several factors are important: atmospheric composition (the concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane); changes in the Earth's orbit around the Sun known as Milankovitch cycles (and possibly the Sun's orbit around the galaxy); the motion of tectonic plates resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on the Earth's surface, which could affect wind and ocean currents; variations in solar output; the orbital dynamics of the Earth-Moon system; and the impact of relatively large meteorites, and volcanism including eruptions of supervolcanoes. Some of these factors influence each other. For example, changes in Earth's atmospheric composition (especially the concentrations of greenhouse gases) may alter the climate, while climate change itself can change the atmospheric composition (for example by changing the rate at which weathering removes CO2). Maureen Raymo, William Ruddiman and others propose that the Tibetan and Colorado Plateaus are immense CO2 "scrubbers" with a capacity to remove enough CO2 from the global atmosphere to be a significant causal factor of the 40 million year Cenozoic Cooling trend. They further claim that approximately half of their uplift (and CO2 "scrubbing" capacity) occurred in the past 10 million years. Ruddiman, W.F. and J.E. Kutzbach. 1991. Plateau Uplift and Climate Change. Scientific American 264:66-74 Raymo, M.E., W.F. Ruddiman, and P.N. Froelich (1988) Influence of late Cenozoic mountain building on ocean geochemical cycles. Geology, v. 16, p. 649-653. Changes in Earth's atmosphere There is evidence that greenhouse gas levels fell at the start of ice ages and rose during the retreat of the ice sheets, but it is difficult to establish cause and effect (see the notes above on the role of weathering). Greenhouse gas levels may also have been affected by other factors which have been proposed as causes of ice ages, such as the movement of continents and volcanism. The Snowball Earth hypothesis maintains that the severe freezing in the late Proterozoic was ended by an increase in CO2 levels in the atmosphere, and some supporters of Snowball Earth argue that it was caused by a reduction in atmospheric CO2. The hypothesis also warns of future Snowball Earths. William Ruddiman has proposed the early anthropocene hypothesis, according to which the anthropocene era, as some people call the most recent period in the Earth's history when the activities of the human race first began to have a significant global impact on the Earth's climate and ecosystems, did not begin in the 18th century with the advent of the Industrial Era, but dates back to 8,000 years ago, due to intense farming activities of our early agrarian ancestors. It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of the Milankovitch cycles. In his overdue-glaciation hypothesis Ruddiman states that an incipient ice age would probably have begun several thousand years ago, but the arrival of that scheduled ice age was forestalled by the activities of early farmers. Position of the continents The geological record appears to show that ice ages start when the continents are in positions which block or reduce the flow of warm water from the equator to the poles and thus allow ice sheets to form. The ice sheets increase the Earth's reflectivity and thus reduce the absorption of solar radiation. With less radiation absorbed the atmosphere cools; the cooling allows the ice sheets to grow, which further increases reflectivity in a positive feedback loop. The ice age continues until the reduction in weathering causes an increase in the greenhouse effect. There are three known configurations of the continents which block or reduce the flow of warm water from the equator to the poles: A continent sits on top of a pole, as Antarctica does today. A polar sea is almost land-locked, as the Arctic Ocean is today. A supercontinent covers most of the equator, as Rodinia did during the Cryogenian period. Since today's Earth has a continent over the South Pole and an almost land-locked ocean over the North Pole, geologists believe that Earth will continue to endure glacial periods in the geologically near future. Some scientists believe that the Himalayas are a major factor in the current ice age, because these mountains have increased Earth's total rainfall and therefore the rate at which CO2 is washed out of the atmosphere, decreasing the greenhouse effect. The Himalayas' formation started about 70 million years ago when the Indo-Australian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate, and the Himalayas are still rising by about 5 mm per year because the Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm/year. The history of the Himalayas broadly fits the long-term decrease in Earth's average temperature since the mid-Eocene, 40 million years ago. Other important aspects which contributed to ancient climate regimes are the ocean currents, which are modified by continent position as well as other factors. They have the ability to cool (e.g. aiding the creation of Antarctic ice) and the ability to warm (e.g. giving the British Isles a temperate as opposed to a boreal climate). The closing of the Isthmus of Panama about 3 million years ago may have ushered in the present period of strong glaciation over North America by ending the exchange of water between the tropical Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. We are all Panamanians - formation of Isthmus of Panama may have started a series of climatic changes that led to evolution of hominids The Uplift of the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding Mountain Areas above the Snowline Matthias Kuhle's geological theory of Ice Age development was suggested by the existence of an ice sheet covering the Tibetan plateau during the Ice Ages (Last Glacial Maximum ?). The plate-tectonic uplift of Tibet past the snow-line has led to a c. 2.4 million km² ice surface with a 70% greater albedo than the bare land surface. The reflection of energy into space resulted in a global cooling, triggering the Pleistocene Ice Age. Because this highland is at a subtropical latitude, with 4 to 5 times the insolation of high-latitude areas, what would be Earth's strongest heating surface has turned into a cooling surface. Kuhle explains the interglacial periods by the 100 000-year cycle of radiation changes due to variations of the Earth's orbit. This comparatively insignificant warming, when combined with the lowering of the Nordic inland ice areas and Tibet due to the weight of the superimposed ice-load, has led to the repeated complete thawing of the inland ice areas. Kuhle, M.(1988): The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and the Onset of Ice Ages- An Autocycle Hypothesis. GeoJournal 17 (4, Tibet and High-Asia. Results of the Sino-German Joint Expeditions (I), 581-596. Kuhle, M. (2004): The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and LGM) ice cover in High and Central Asia. Development in Quaternary Science 2c (Quaternary Glaciation - Extent and Chronology, Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, Eds: Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.), 175-199. (Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam) Kuhle, M. (2007): The Past Ice Stream Network in the Himalayas and the Tibetan Ice Sheet during the Last Glacial Period and its glacial-isostatic, eustatic and climatic consequences. Tectonophysics 445 (1-2), 116-144 Variations in Earth's orbit (Milankovitch cycles) The Milankovitch cycles are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of the Earth's orbit around the sun. Each cycle has a different length, so at some times their effects reinforce each other and at other times they (partially) cancel each other. It is very unlikely that the Milankovitch cycles can start or end an ice age (series of glacial periods): Even when their effects reinforce each other they are not strong enough. The "peaks" (effects reinforce each other) and "troughs" (effects cancel each other) are much more regular and much more frequent than the observed ice ages. In contrast, there is strong evidence that the Milankovitch cycles affect the occurrence of glacial and interglacial periods within an ice age. The present ice ages are the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by ice cores that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milanković orbital forcing periods is so close that orbital forcing is generally accepted. The combined effects of the changing distance to the Sun, the precession of the Earth's axis, and the changing tilt of the Earth's axis redistribute the sunlight received by the Earth. Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of the Earth's axis, which affect the intensity of seasons. For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 65 degrees north latitude varies by as much as 25% (from 400 W/m² to 500 W/m², see graph at ). It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when summers become too cool to melt all of the accumulated snowfall from the previous winter. Some workers believe that the strength of the orbital forcing is too small to trigger glaciations, but feedback mechanisms like CO2 may explain this mismatch. While Milankovitch forcing predicts that cyclic changes in the Earth's orbital parameters can be expressed in the glaciation record, additional explanations are necessary to explain which cycles are observed to be most important in the timing of glacial–interglacial periods. In particular, during the last 800,000 years, the dominant period of glacial–interglacial oscillation has been 100,000 years, which corresponds to changes in Earth's orbital eccentricity and orbital inclination. Yet this is by far the weakest of the three frequencies predicted by Milankovitch. During the period 3.0–0.8 million years ago, the dominant pattern of glaciation corresponded to the 41,000-year period of changes in Earth's obliquity (tilt of the axis). The reasons for dominance of one frequency versus another are poorly understood and an active area of current research, but the answer probably relates to some form of resonance in the Earth's climate system. The "traditional" Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles. Richard A. Muller and Gordon J. MacDonald and others have pointed out that those calculations are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three-dimensional orbit also has a 100,000-year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as the earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the solar system. Although this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the "predicted" periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same. The Muller and MacDonald theory, in turn, has been challenged by Jose Antonio Rial . Another worker, William Ruddiman, has suggested a model that explains the 100,000-year cycle by the modulating effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000-year cycle) on precession (23,000-year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000- and 23,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by Peter Huybers who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that the Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the second or third cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80,000 and 120,000 years. This theory is consistent with the existing uncertainties in dating, but not widely accepted at present (Nature 434, 2005, ). Variations in the Sun's energy output There are at least two types of variation in the Sun's energy output: In the very long term, astrophysicists believe that the sun's output increases by about 10% per billion (109) years. In about one billion years the additional 10% will be enough to cause a runaway greenhouse effect on Earth—rising temperatures produce more water vapour, water vapour is a greenhouse gas (much stronger than CO2), the temperature rises, more water vapour is produced, etc. Shorter-term variations, some possibly caused by hunting''. Since the Sun is huge, the effects of imbalances and negative feedback processes take a long time to propagate through it, so these processes overshoot and cause further imbalances, etc.—"long time" in this context means thousands to millions of years. The long-term increase in the Sun's output cannot be a cause of ice ages. The best known shorter-term variations are sunspot cycles, especially the Maunder minimum, which is associated with the coldest part of the Little Ice Age. Like the Milankovitch cycles, sunspot cycles' effects are too weak and too frequent to explain the start and end of ice ages but very probably help to explain temperature variations within them. Volcanism It is theoretically possible that undersea volcanoes could end an ice age by causing global warming. One suggested explanation of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum is that undersea volcanoes released methane from clathrates and thus caused a large and rapid increase in the greenhouse effect. There appears to be no geological evidence for such eruptions at the right time, but this does not prove they did not happen. It is challenging to see how volcanism could cause an ice age, since its cooling effects would have to be stronger than and to outlast its warming effects. This would require dust and aerosol clouds which would stay in the upper atmosphere blocking the sun for thousands of years, which seems very unlikely. Undersea volcanoes could not produce this effect because the dust and aerosols would be absorbed by the sea before they reached the atmosphere. Recent glacial and interglacial phases Northern hemisphere glaciation during the last ice ages. The set up of 3 to 4 km thick ice sheets caused a sea level lowering of about 120 m. Glacial stages in North America The major glacial stages of the current ice age in North America are the Illinoian, Sangamonian and Wisconsin stages. The use of the Nebraskan, Afton, Kansan, and Yarmouthian (Yarmouth) stages to subdivide the ice age in North America have been discontinued by Quaternary geologists and geomorphologists. These stages have all been merged into the Pre-Illinoian Stage in the 1980s. Hallberg, G.R., 1986, Pre-Wisconsin glacial stratigraphy of the Central Plains region in Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri. Quaternary Science Reviews. vol. 5, pp. 11-15. Richmond, G.M. and D.S. Fullerton, 1986, Summation of Quaternary glaciations in the United States of America. Quaternary Science Reviews. vol. 5, pp. 183-196. Gibbard, P.L., S. Boreham, K.M. Cohen and A. Moscariello, 2007, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years v. 2007b., jpg version 844 KB. Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England During the most recent North American glaciation, during the latter part of the Wisconsin Stage (26,000 to 13,300 years ago), ice sheets extended to about 45 degrees north latitude. These sheets were 3 to 4 km thick. This Wisconsin glaciation left widespread impacts on the North American landscape. The Great Lakes and the Finger Lakes were carved by ice deepening old valleys. Most of the lakes in Minnesota and Wisconsin were gouged out by glaciers and later filled with glacial meltwaters. The old Teays River drainage system was radically altered and largely reshaped into the Ohio River drainage system. Other rivers were dammed and diverted to new channels, such as the Niagara, which formed a dramatic waterfall and gorge, when the waterflow encountered a limestone escarpment. Another similar waterfall, at the present Clark Reservation State Park near Syracuse, New York, is now dry. The area from Long Island to Nantucket was formed from glacial till, and the plethora of lakes on the Canadian Shield in northern Canada can be almost entirely attributed to the action of the ice. As the ice retreated and the rock dust dried, winds carried the material hundreds of miles, forming beds of loess many dozens of feet thick in the Missouri Valley. Isostatic rebound continues to reshape the Great Lakes and other areas formerly under the weight of the ice sheets. The Driftless Zone, a portion of western and southwestern Wisconsin along with parts of adjacent Minnesota, Iowa, and Illinois, was not covered by glaciers. Effects of glaciation Although the last glacial period ended more than 8,000 years ago, its effects can still be felt today. For example, the moving ice carved out landscape in Canada, Greenland, northern Eurasia and Antarctica. The erratic boulders, till, drumlins, eskers, fjords, kettle lakes, moraines, cirques, horns, etc., are typical features left behind by the glaciers. The weight of the ice sheets was so great that they deformed the Earth's crust and mantle. After the ice sheets melted, the ice-covered land rebounded (see Post-glacial rebound). Due to the high viscosity of the Earth, the flow of mantle rocks which controls the rebound process is very slow – at a rate of about 1 cm/year near the center of rebound today. During glaciation, water was taken from the oceans to form the ice at high latitudes, thus global sea level drops by about 120 meters, exposing the continental shelves and forming land-bridges between land-masses for animals to migrate. During deglaciation, the melted ice-water returned to the oceans, causing sea level to rise. This process can cause sudden shifts in coastlines and hydration systems resulting in newly submerged lands, emerging lands, collapsed ice dams resulting in salination of lakes, new ice dams creating vast areas of freshwater, and a general alteration in regional weather patterns on a large but temporary scale. It can even cause temporary reglaciation. This type of chaotic pattern of rapidly changing land, ice, saltwater and freshwater has been proposed as the likely model for the Baltic and Scandinavian regions, as well as much of central North America at the end of the last glacial maximum, with the present-day coastlines only being achieved in the last few millennia of prehistory. Also, the effect of elevation on Scandinavia submerged a vast continental plain that had existed under much of what is now the North Sea, connecting the British Isles to Continental Europe. The redistribution of ice-water on the surface of the Earth and the flow of mantle rocks causes the gravitational field and the moment of inertia of the Earth to change. Changes in the moment of inertia result in a change in the rotational motion of the Earth (see Post-glacial rebound). The weight of the redistributed surface mass loaded the lithosphere, caused it to flexure and also induced stress within the Earth. The presence of the glaciers generally suppressed the movement of faults below (Johnston 1989, Wu & Hasegawa 1996, Turpeinen et al. 2008). However, during deglaciation, the faults experience accelerated slip, and earthquakes are triggered (see Post-glacial rebound). Earthquakes triggered near the ice margin may in turn accelerate ice calving and may account for the Heinrich events (Hunt & Malin 1998). As more ice is removed near the ice margin, more intraplate earthquakes are induced and this positive feedback may explain the fast collapse of ice sheets. See also Geology International Union for Quaternary Research Irish Sea Glacier Little ice age Post-glacial rebound Timeline of glaciation Global cooling Notes External links Cracking the Ice Age from PBS http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/samson/climate_patterns/ Overview of the Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis | Ice_age |@lemmatized antarctic:5 ice:147 sheet:31 expand:1 age:70 variation:13 temperature:14 dust:5 vostok:1 core:10 last:23 year:59 general:2 term:12 precisely:1 glacial:52 denote:1 geological:8 period:47 long:13 reduction:5 earth:50 surface:8 atmosphere:11 result:8 expansion:2 continental:9 polar:5 alpine:5 glacier:19 within:9 individual:1 pulse:1 extra:1 cold:4 climate:16 glaciation:34 glaciologically:1 imply:2 presence:4 extensive:6 northern:8 southern:2 hemisphere:5 j:5 imbrie:2 k:2 p:26 solve:1 mystery:1 short:5 hill:1 nj:1 enslow:1 publisher:1 definition:1 still:5 greenland:3 exist:3 gribbin:1 future:3 weather:5 new:7 york:2 penguin:1 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5,778 | Olney_Hymns | The Olney Hymns (Olney is sometimes pronounced Oh-knee, but more frequently all-knee) were first published in February 1779, and are the combined work of curate John Newton (1725 - 1807) and his poet friend, William Cowper (1731 - 1800). The hymns were written for use in Newton's rural parish which was made up of relatively poor and uneducated followers. The Olney Hymns are an illustration of the potent ideologies of the Evangelical movement, to which both men belonged, present in many communities in England at the time. The Olney Hymns were very popular; by 1836 there had been 37 recorded editions, and it is likely that many other editions were printed in both and America. As hymn-singing gained popularity in the nineteenth century, many (around 25) of the hymns were reproduced in other hymn-books and pamphlets. Today around six of the original 384 Olney Hymns regularly feature in modern church worship, the most famous of which is 'Amazing Grace'. Background The Buckinghamshire town from which the hymns get their name, Olney, was, at the time of first publication, a market town of about 2,000 people. Around 1,200 of these were employed in its main, poorly-paid, lace-making industry. As a result Olney's population was principally of a low income status; Cowper is said to have described his neighbours as 'the half-starved and ragged of the earth'. The Olney Hymns were, however, written primarily with this poor and under-educated population in mind. Olney itself, situated near the borders of Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, and Northamptonshire, places it within a region traditionally associated with religious Dissent. Dissenters were Protestants who refused to follow the rules of the Church of England after the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, and when Newton settled in Olney the village still supported two Dissenting chapels. Notable local Dissenters included John Bunyan, of Bedford, author of the Pilgrim's Progress, and another important hymn writer, Philip Dodderidge (1702 - 51), of Northampton. Newton, with his own associations with Dissenters (his mother was one) meant he was in a position to conciliate with, rather than confront, his parishioners, and he quickly achieved a reputation as a popular preacher. Within his first year at Olney a gallery was added to the church to increase its congregational capacity, and the weekly prayer-meetings were moved in 1769 to Lord Dartmouth's mansion, the Great House, to accommodate even greater numbers. 'Jesus where're thy people meet' was written for their first meeting at the Great House. Newton and Cowper's personal background John Newton was an only child, and was a self-educated sea captain, at one time captaining slave ships. Newton's 'Conversion', an essential element within the Evangelical belief, occurred during a violent storm at sea on 10 March, 1748. Newton describes the event in his autobiography, An Authentic Narrative (published 1764), and thereafter marked the anniversary of his conversion as a day of thanks-giving. This incident revived Newton's belief in God and, despite considerable reservations from within the established church (it took six years to be ordained into the Church of England), he achieved the position of priest to the village of Olney in 1764. Newton's apparent influence and charisma proved beneficial to him and his parish when local Evangelical merchant, John Thornton, to whom he had sent a copy of his autobiography, offered the parish £200 per year, requesting that Newton, in part, provided for the poor. This annual contributing ceased when Newton left in 1780 when he took the position of Rector at St. Mary Woolnoth, in London. Newton's epitaph on a plaque in St. Mary Woolnoth, written by Newton himself, bears these words: JOHN NEWTON, Clerk Once an infidel and libertine A servant of slaves in Africa, Was, by the rich mercy of our Lord and Saviour JESUS CHRIST, restored, pardoned, and appointed to preach the Gospel which he had long laboured to destroy. He ministered, Near sixteen years in Olney, in Bucks, And twenty-eight years in this Church. William Cowper was the son of an Anglican clergyman and well-educated at Westminster School. Cowper was liable to bouts of severe depression throughout his adult life, and during a period in an asylum he was councilled by his cousin, Martin Madam, an Evangelical clergyman. His new enthusiasm for Evangelicalism, his 'Conversion', his and his move to Olney in 1767 brought him into contact with John Newton. Cowper eventually became an unpaid curate to Newton's church, helping with the distribution of Thornton's funds. Cowper is best known, not just for his contribution to the Olney Hymns, but as a poet, letter-writer, and translator: his works include John Gilpin (1782), The Task (1785) and his translation of Homer, published in 1791. Cowper left Olney for nearby Weston Underwood in 1786. The hymns in more detail The Olney Hymns are in part an expression of Newton and Cowper's personal religious faith and experience, and a reflection of the principal tenets of the Evangelical faith: the inherent sinfulness of man; religious conversion; atonement; activism; devotion to the Bible; God's providence; and the belief in an eternal life after death. However, they were primarily written for immediate and day-to-day use in Newton's ministry of Olney. Here they were sung, or chanted, in church or at Newton's other Sunday and weekday meetings as a collective expression of worship. Hymn singing, though, was not without controversy, particularly within the official church, the Church of England. By the 1760s hymns had become an established feature of religious devotion in the Evangelical church, where early (post-Reformation) hymns were versifications (producing song-like verses from the original words of the psalms) of the biblical text of the psalms, known as metrical psalms. To the Church of England hymns other than metrical psalms were of questionable legality until the 1820s, as they were not explicitly sanctioned by the Book of Common Prayer. As a consequence, many church leaders reserved hymn-singing to meetings other than the main Sunday services, and for private or household devotions. In the preface to the Hymns Newton says that: 'They should be Hymns, not Odes, if designed for public worship, and for the use of plain people'. Newton also explains his two primary motives for publishing; his desire to promote 'the faith and comfort of sincere Christians', and as a permanent record of his friendship with Cowper. Newton is attributed with suggesting that he and Cowper collaborate on a collection of hymns, ultimately drawn largely from Newton's texts accumulated over (by the time of publication) some 10 years. Of the 348 hymns in the original published edition of 1779 some commentaries state that Cowper wrote just 66 between 1772 and 1773, and Newton the remainder, while other sources attribute 67 to Cowper. It is known, however, that Newton wrote some of the hymns in direct response to events around him; 'Oh for a closer walk with God' for instance was written in response to the serious illness then being suffered by Cowper's house companion, Mary Unwin, an illness she survived. There is no evidence to show that either Newton or Cowper wrote any music to accompany the hymns. It is assumed that they were initially sung to any suitable tune that fitted the metre (rhythm), most probably to sixteenth or seventeenth century metrical psalm tunes. Subsequently individual tunes have become linked to specific hymns from the Olney books. For example, the tune 'Austria' (originally Haydn's 'Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser') is associated today with the hymn 'Glorious things of thee are spoken', just as 'New Britain', an American folk melody with possible Scottish origins has since the 1830s been associated with 'Amazing grace'. As an expression of the many Evangelical beliefs, 'Amazing Grace' serves as an example: the very first stanza (verse) for instance expresses Newton's sense of past sinfulness, as a 'wretch', but also conversion, from being 'lost' and 'blind' to 'now I see'. God's providence, and Cowper's sense of a close and personal relationship with God are voiced in stanza four: 'He will my shield and portion be'. The belief in eternal life after death is expressed in stanzas five and six: 'when this flesh and heart shall fail', 'I shall possess' 'A life of joy and peace', and 'God, who call'd me here below, Will be for ever mine'. 'Amazing Grace' was not the original title of this hymn: it was originally written as a poem entitled 'Faith's Review and Expectation' and appears in Book I of the Olney Hymns with the poem's title and 'hymn 41'. The six stanza version quoted is the original, as written by Newton, but it has also appeared in longer forms where others have added verses or where verses from other hymns from the Olney books have been moved across. The Olney Hymns are subdivided into three books: Book I, On Select Texts of Scripture; Book II, On occasional Subjects; and, Book III, On the Progress and Changes of the Spiritual Life. The sub-divisions reflect key Evangelical beliefs. Book I holds that the Bible is the ultimate source of religious authority, and its hymns are written to provide the believer, through simple language, with a thorough understanding of its contents. Book II's 'Occasional Subjects' are those that bring understanding to the priorities of the Evangelical spiritual life. There is a section for instance on 'Providences', which serves to illustrate the Evangelical belief in God's ever-present controlling hand. Book III is written to express Newton's ideas of the stages of personal spiritual awakening and salvation. The undoubted popularity of the hymns was not simply a matter of local taste, but can be seen within the wider, developing religious climate in England. The relative rise in popularity of the Evangelical movement in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was due to a number of reasons: the on-set of the Industrial Revolution and the subsequent break up of, particularly, rural communities, was an unsettling influence on a parish like Olney; Methodism had seen a significant growth in popularity in the same period; and Evangelicalism was gradually finding its way into the established Church of England. However, Newton and Cowper's writing clearly fitted its purpose. Cowper's relatively few hymns demonstrate his poetic and creative abilities, whereas Newton's prose have been assessed by some as 'wooden'. Nevertheless, the principal purpose of the hymns was not a theological discussion or representation of the Bible, but were written for 'plain people'. In this respect Newton's use of simple and repetitive metres (rhythms) and simple rhyming structures ensured that his audience were better able to remember these hymns. The significant emphasis with 'I' within the hymns is an indication of Newton's view that the hymns are a product of his personal experience, a feature of his belief in personal repentance and Conversion, and his desire for a personal relationship with God. External links The Olney Hymns online The Victorian Web - The Olney Hymns by John Newton The Cowper & Newton Museum Amazing Grace: The story of John Newton William Cowper Poet's Corner - William Cowper The Olney-Newton Link References Drew, Philip, ['Untitled: Review'], in The Modern Language Review, Vol. 78, No. 4 (1983), pp. 905- 906 'John Newton, William Cowper and others: the Olney Hymns in context', in Ian Donnachie and Carmen Lavin (eds.), From Enlightenment to Romanticism Anthology I, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), pp. 229 - 269 Hartley, Lodwick, 'The Worm and the Thorn: A Study of Cowper's "Olney Hymns"', in The Journal of Religion, Vol. 29, No. 3 (1949). pp. 220 - 229 Newton, John, Olney hymns, in three books : I: On select texts of scripture; II. On occasional subjects; III. On the progress and changes of the spiritual life., (London: Printed for J. Johnson, 1806) Wolffe, John, 'Olney Hymns', in Religion, Exploration and Slavery, (Milton Keynes: The Open University, 2004), pp. 15 - 52 | Olney_Hymns |@lemmatized olney:30 hymn:45 sometimes:1 pronounced:1 oh:2 knee:2 frequently:1 first:5 publish:4 february:1 combined:1 work:2 curate:2 john:12 newton:40 poet:3 friend:1 william:5 cowper:23 write:15 use:4 rural:2 parish:4 make:1 relatively:2 poor:3 uneducated:1 follower:1 illustration:1 potent:1 ideology:1 evangelical:11 movement:2 men:1 belong:1 present:2 many:5 community:2 england:7 time:4 popular:2 recorded:1 edition:3 likely:1 print:2 america:1 singing:3 gain:1 popularity:4 nineteenth:2 century:3 around:4 reproduce:1 book:13 pamphlet:1 today:2 six:4 original:5 regularly:1 feature:3 modern:2 church:14 worship:3 famous:1 amazing:2 grace:5 background:2 buckinghamshire:2 town:2 get:1 name:1 publication:2 market:1 people:4 employ:1 main:2 poorly:1 paid:1 lace:1 making:1 industry:1 result:1 population:2 principally:1 low:1 income:1 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5,779 | James_Scarlett,_1st_Baron_Abinger | The 1st Lord Abinger. James Scarlett, 1st Baron Abinger (13 December 1769 – 17 April 1844) was an English judge. He was born in Jamaica, where his father, Robert Scarlett, had property. In the summer of 1785 he was sent to England to complete his education at Hawkshead Grammar School and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his B.A. degree in 1789. Having entered the Inner Temple he was called to the bar in 1791, and joined the northern circuit and the Lancashire sessions. Though he had no professional connections, he gradually obtained a large practice, ultimately confining himself to the Court of King's Bench and the northern circuit. He took silk in 1816, and from this time till the close of 1834 he was the most successful lawyer at the bar; he was particularly effective before a jury, and his income reached £18,500, a large sum for that period. He first entered parliament in 1819 as Whig member for Peterborough, representing that constituency with a short break (1822–1823) till 1830, when he was elected for the borough of Malton. He became Attorney-General, and was knighted when Canning formed his ministry in 1827; and though he resigned when the Duke of Wellington came into power in 1828, he resumed office in 1829 and went out with the Duke in 1830. His opposition to the Reform Bill caused him to leave the Whigs and join the Tories, and he was elected, first for Cockermouth in 1831 and then in 1832 for Norwich, for which he sat until the dissolution of parliament in 1835. He was appointed Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer in 1834, and presided in that court for more than nine years. While attending the Norfolk circuit on April 2, he was suddenly seized with apoplexy, and died in his lodgings at Bury. He had been raised to the peerage as Baron Abinger in 1835, taking his title from the Surrey estate he had bought in 1813. The qualities which brought him success at the bar were not equalled on the bench; he had a reputation for unfairness, and complaints were made about his domineering attitude towards juries. Lord Abinger was twice married (the second time only six months before his death), and by his first wife (d. 1829) had three sons and two daughters, the title passing to his eldest son Robert (1794–1861). His second son, General Sir James Yorke Scarlett (1799–1871), leader of the heavy cavalry charge at Balaklava, is dealt with in a separate article, as is his third son, Peter Campbell Scarlett, a diplomat. His elder daughter, Mary, married John Campbell, 1st Baron Campbell of St Andrews, and was herself created Baroness Stratheden (Lady Stratheden and Campbell) (d. 1860). Sir William Anglin Scarlett (d. 1831), Lord Abinger's younger brother, was chief justice of Jamaica. Cases Fouldes v. Willoughby (1841) References Peter Campbell Scarlett, A Memoir Of The Right Honorable James, First Lord Abinger, Chief Baron Of Her Majesty's Court Of Exchequer, 1877 Edward Foss, Lives of the JudgesEdward Manson, Builders of our Law'', 1904 External links | James_Scarlett,_1st_Baron_Abinger |@lemmatized lord:5 abinger:6 james:3 scarlett:6 baron:5 december:1 april:2 english:1 judge:1 bear:1 jamaica:2 father:1 robert:2 property:1 summer:1 send:1 england:1 complete:1 education:1 hawkshead:1 grammar:1 school:1 afterwards:1 trinity:1 college:1 cambridge:1 take:3 b:1 degree:1 enter:2 inner:1 temple:1 call:1 bar:3 join:2 northern:2 circuit:3 lancashire:1 session:1 though:2 professional:1 connection:1 gradually:1 obtain:1 large:2 practice:1 ultimately:1 confine:1 court:3 king:1 bench:2 silk:1 time:2 till:2 close:1 successful:1 lawyer:1 particularly:1 effective:1 jury:2 income:1 reach:1 sum:1 period:1 first:4 parliament:2 whig:2 member:1 peterborough:1 represent:1 constituency:1 short:1 break:1 elect:2 borough:1 malton:1 become:1 attorney:1 general:2 knight:1 form:1 ministry:1 resign:1 duke:2 wellington:1 come:1 power:1 resume:1 office:1 go:1 opposition:1 reform:1 bill:1 cause:1 leave:1 tory:1 cockermouth:1 norwich:1 sit:1 dissolution:1 appoint:1 chief:3 exchequer:2 preside:1 nine:1 year:1 attend:1 norfolk:1 suddenly:1 seize:1 apoplexy:1 die:1 lodging:1 bury:1 raise:1 peerage:1 title:2 surrey:1 estate:1 buy:1 quality:1 bring:1 success:1 equal:1 reputation:1 unfairness:1 complaint:1 make:1 domineer:1 attitude:1 towards:1 twice:1 marry:1 second:2 six:1 month:1 death:1 wife:1 three:1 son:4 two:1 daughter:2 passing:1 eldest:1 sir:2 yorke:1 leader:1 heavy:1 cavalry:1 charge:1 balaklava:1 dealt:1 separate:1 article:1 third:1 peter:2 campbell:5 diplomat:1 elder:1 mary:1 married:1 john:1 st:1 andrew:1 create:1 baroness:1 stratheden:2 lady:1 william:1 anglin:1 younger:1 brother:1 justice:1 case:1 fouldes:1 v:1 willoughby:1 reference:1 memoir:1 right:1 honorable:1 majesty:1 edward:1 fo:1 life:1 judgesedward:1 manson:1 builder:1 law:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram lord_abinger:4 duke_wellington:1 peerage_baron:1 eldest_son:1 younger_brother:1 external_link:1 |
5,780 | Francium | Francium (), formerly known as eka-caesium and actinium K, Actually the least unstable isotope, Fr-223 is a chemical element that has the symbol Fr and atomic number 87. It has the lowest electronegativity of all known elements, and is the second rarest naturally occurring element (after astatine). Francium is a highly radioactive metal that decays into astatine, radium, and radon. As an alkali metal, it has one valence electron. Francium was discovered by Marguerite Perey in France (from which the element takes its name) in 1939. It was the last element discovered in nature, rather than synthesized. Some synthetic elements, like technetium, have later been found in nature. Outside the laboratory, francium is extremely rare, with trace amounts found in uranium and thorium ores, where the isotope francium-223 continually forms and decays. As little as 20-30 g (one ounce) exists at any given time throughout the Earth's crust; the other isotopes are entirely synthetic. The largest amount ever collected of any isotope was a cluster of 10,000 atoms (of francium-210) created as an ultracold gas at Stony Brook in 1997. Characteristics Francium is the least stable of the naturally occurring elements: its most stable isotope, francium-223, has a half-life of only 22 minutes. In contrast, astatine, the second-least stable naturally occurring element, has a maximum half-life of 8.5 hours. All isotopes of francium decay into either astatine, radium, or radon. Francium is also less stable than all synthetic elements up to element 105. Francium is an alkali metal whose chemical properties most resemble those of caesium. A very heavy element with a single valence electron, it has the highest equivalent weight of any element. Liquid francium — if such a substance were to be created — should have a surface tension of 0.05092 N/m at its melting point. The francium’s melting point was claimed to have calculated to be around 27 °C (80 °F, 300 K). However, the melting point is uncertain because of the element’s extreme rarity and radioactivity. This melting point may have been in limited precision, or so much heat produced from radioactivity that its calculated melting point may have been overestimated. However, the melting point of francium is estimated to be about 22 °C (71 °F, 295 K), based from the periodic trends in melting points with other alkali metals. Also the boiling point may have been overestimated at around 677 °C (1250 °F, 950 K). Based from the periodic trends with other alkali metals, the boiling point of francium is estimated to be between 660 to 665 °C (1220 to 1230 °F, 935 to 940 K). Linus Pauling estimated the electronegativity of francium at 0.7 on the Pauling scale, the same as caesium; the value for caesium has since been refined to 0.79, although there are no experimental data to allow a refinement of the value for francium. Francium has a slightly higher ionisation energy than caesium, 392.811(4) kJ/mol as opposed to 375.7041(2) kJ/mol for caesium, as would be expected from relativistic effects, and this would imply that caesium is the less electronegative of the two. Francium coprecipitates with several caesium salts, such as caesium perchlorate, which results in small amounts of francium perchlorate. This coprecipitation can be used to isolate francium, by adapting the radiocaesium coprecipitation method of Glendenin and Nelson. It will additionally coprecipitate with many other caesium salts, including the iodate, the picrate, the tartrate (also rubidium tartrate), the chloroplatinate, and the silicotungstate. It also coprecipitates with silicotungstic acid, and with perchloric acid, without another alkali metal as a carrier, which provides other methods of separation. E. N K. Hyde Radiochemistry of Francium,Subcommittee on Radiochemistry, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council; available from the Office of Technical Services, Dept. of Commerce, 1960. Nearly all francium salts are water-soluble. A. G. Maddock. Radioactivity of the heavy elements. Q. Rev., Chem. Soc., 1951, 3, 270–314. Applications Due to its instability and rarity there are no commercial applications for francium. It has been used for research purposes in the fields of biology and of atomic structure. Its use as a potential diagnostic aid for various cancers has also been explored, but this application has been deemed impractical. Francium's ability to be synthesized, trapped, and cooled, along with its relatively simple atomic structure have made it the subject of specialized spectroscopy experiments. These experiments have led to more specific information regarding energy levels and the coupling constants between subatomic particles. Studies on the light emitted by laser-trapped francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels which are fairly similar to those predicted by quantum theory. History As early as 1870, chemists thought that there should be an alkali metal beyond caesium, with an atomic number of 87. It was then referred to by the provisional name eka-caesium. Adloff, Jean-Pierre; Kaufman, George B. (2005-09-25). Francium (Atomic Number 87), the Last Discovered Natural Element. The Chemical Educator 10 (5). Retrieved on 2007-03-26. Research teams attempted to locate and isolate this missing element, and at least four false claims were made that the element had been found before an authentic discovery was made. Erroneous and incomplete discoveries Russian chemist D. K. Dobroserdov was the first scientist to claim to have found eka-caesium, or francium. In 1925, he observed weak radioactivity in a sample of potassium, another alkali metal, and concluded that eka-caesium was contaminating the sample. He then published a thesis on his predictions of the properties of eka-caesium, in which he named the element russium after his home country. Shortly thereafter, Dobroserdov began to focus on his teaching career at the Polytechnic Institute of Odessa, and he did not pursue the element further. The following year, English chemists Gerald J. F. Druce and Frederick H. Loring analyzed X-ray photographs of manganese(II) sulfate. They observed spectral lines which they presumed to be of eka-caesium. They announced their discovery of element 87 and proposed the name alkalinium, as it would be the heaviest alkali metal. In 1930, Fred Allison of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute claimed to have discovered element 87 when analyzing pollucite and lepidolite using his magneto-optical machine. Allison requested that it be named virginium after his home state of Virginia, along with the symbols Vi and Vm. In 1934, however, H.G. MacPherson of UC Berkeley disproved the effectiveness of Allison's device and the validity of this false discovery. In 1936, Romanian chemist Horia Hulubei and his French colleague Yvette Cauchois also analyzed pollucite, this time using their high-resolution X-ray apparatus. They observed several weak emission lines, which they presumed to be those of element 87. Hulubei and Cauchois reported their discovery and proposed the name moldavium, along with the symbol Ml, after Moldavia, the Romanian province where they conducted their work. In 1937, Hulubei's work was criticized by American physicist F. H. Hirsh Jr., who rejected Hulubei's research methods. Hirsh was certain that eka-caesium would not be found in nature, and that Hulubei had instead observed mercury or bismuth X-ray lines. Hulubei, however, insisted that his X-ray apparatus and methods were too accurate to make such a mistake. Because of this, Jean Baptiste Perrin, Nobel Prize winner and Hulubei's mentor, endorsed moldavium as the true eka-caesium over Marguerite Perey's recently discovered francium. Perey, however, continuously criticized Hulubei's work until she was credited as the sole discoverer of element 87. Perey's analysis Eka-caesium was discovered in 1939 by Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris, France when she purified a sample of actinium-227 which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220 keV. However, Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80 keV. Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product, one which was separated during purification, but emerged again out of the pure actinium-227. Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being thorium, radium, lead, bismuth, or thallium. The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal (such as coprecipitating with caesium salts), which led Perey to believe that it was element 87, caused by the alpha decay of actinium-227. Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay in actinium-227. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6%, a figure which she later revised to 1%. Perey named the new isotope actinium-K (now referred to as francium-223) and in 1946, she proposed the name catium for her newly discovered element, as she believed it to be the most electropositive cation of the elements. Irène Joliot-Curie, one of Perey's supervisors, opposed the name due to its connotation of cat rather than cation. Perey then suggested francium, after France. This name was officially adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1949, becoming the second element after gallium to be named after France. It was assigned the symbol Fa, but this abbreviation was revised to the current Fr shortly thereafter. Francium was the last element discovered in nature, rather than synthesized, following rhenium in 1925. Further research into francium's structure was carried out by, among others, Sylvain Lieberman and his team at CERN in the 1970s and 1980s. This sample of uraninite contains about 100,000 atoms (3.3 g) of francium-223 at any given time. Occurrence Natural Francium-223 is the result of the alpha decay of actinium-227 and can be found in trace amounts in uranium and thorium minerals. In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 1×1018 uranium atoms. It is also calculated that there is at most 30 g of francium in the earth's crust at any time. This makes it the second rarest element in the crust after astatine. Synthesized In the MOT, a magnetic field is created by the copper solenoids. Neutral francium atoms enter the glass bulb from the left and are trapped by lasers. Francium can be synthesized in the nuclear reaction 197Au + 18O → 210Fr + 5n. This process, developed by Stony Brook Physics, yields francium isotopes with masses of 209, 210, and 211, which are then isolated by the magneto-optic trap (MOT). The production rate of a particular isotope depends on the energy of the oxygen beam. An 18O beam from the Stony Brook LINAC creates 210Fr in the gold target with the nuclear reaction 197Au + 18O = 210Fr + 5n. The production required some time to develop and understand. It was critical to operate the gold target very close to its melting point and to make sure that its surface was very clean. The nuclear reaction imbeds the francium atoms deep in the gold target, and they must be removed efficiently. The atoms diffuse fast to the surface of the gold target and are released as ions. The francium ions are guided by electrostatic lenses until they land into a surface of hot yttrium and become neutral again. The francium is then injected into a glass bulb. A magnetic field and retroreflected laser beams cool and confine the atoms. Although the atoms remain in the trap for only about 20 seconds before escaping (or decaying), a steady stream of fresh atoms replaces those lost, keeping the number of trapped atoms roughly constant for minutes or longer. Initially, about 1000 francium atoms were trapped in the experiment. This was gradually improved and is capable of trapping over 300,000 neutral atoms of francium a time. Although these are neutral "metallic" atoms ("francium metal"), they in a gaseous unconsolidated state. Enough francium is trapped that a video camera can capture the light given off by the atoms as they fluoresce. The atoms appear as a glowing sphere about 1 millimeter in diameter. This was the very first time that anyone had ever seen francium. The researchers can now make extremely sensitive measurements of the light emitted and absorbed by the trapped atoms, providing the first experimental results on various transitions between atomic energy levels in francium. Initial measurements show very good agreement between experimental values and calculations based on quantum theory. Other synthesis methods include bombarding radium with neutrons, and bombarding thorium with protons, deuterons, or helium ions. Francium has not yet, , been synthesized in amounts large enough to weigh. Isotopes There are 34 known isotopes of francium ranging in atomic mass from 199 to 232. Francium has seven metastable nuclear isomers. Francium-223 and francium-221 are the only isotopes that occur in nature, though the former is far more common. Francium-223 is the most stable isotope with a half-life of 21.8 minutes, and it is highly unlikely that an isotope of francium with a longer half-life will ever be discovered or synthesized. Francium-223 is the fifth product of the actinium decay series as the daughter isotope of actinium-227. Francium-223 then decays into radium-223 by beta decay (1149 keV decay energy), with a minor (0.006%) alpha decay path to astatine-219 (5.4 MeV decay energy). Francium-221 has a half-life of 4.8 minutes. It is the ninth product of the neptunium decay series as a daughter isotope of actinium-225. Francium-221 then decays into astatine-217 by alpha decay (6.457 MeV decay energy). The least stable ground state isotope is francium-215, with a half-life of 0.12 μs. (9.54 MeV alpha decay to astatine-211): Its metastable isomer, francium-215m, is less stable still, with a half-life of only 3.5 ns. See also Notes External links WebElements.com - Francium Los Alamos National Laboratory - Francium Stony Brook University Physics Dept. 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5,781 | Anglican_Communion | The Anglican Communion is an international association of national Anglican churches. There is no single "Anglican Church" with universal juridical authority as each national or regional church has full autonomy. As the name suggests, the Anglican Communion is an association of these churches in full communion with the Church of England (which may be regarded as the mother church of the worldwide communion) and specifically with its principal primate, the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the Focus for Unity The status of full communion means that there is mutual agreement on essential doctrines, and that full participation in the sacramental life of each national church is available to all communicant Anglicans. With approximately 77 million members, the Anglican Communion is the third largest communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches. Analysis: Damage done to Episcopal church - USATODAY.com Major Branches of Religions Some of these churches are known as Anglican, explicitly recognising the historical link to England (Ecclesia Anglicana means "Church of England"); others, such as the American and Scottish Episcopal churches, or the Church of Ireland, prefer a separate name. Each church has its own doctrine and liturgy, based in most cases on that of the Church of England; and each church has its own legislative process and overall episcopal polity, under the leadership of a local primate. The Archbishop of Canterbury, religious head of the Church of England, has no formal authority outside that jurisdiction, but is recognised as symbolic head of the worldwide communion. Among the other primates he is primus inter pares, which translates "first among equals". The Anglican Communion considers itself to be part of the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church and to be both Catholic and Reformed. For some adherents it represents a non-papal Catholicism, for others a form of Protestantism though without a dominant guiding figure such as Luther, Knox, Calvin, Zwingli or Wesley. For others, their self-identity represents some combination of the two. The communion encompasses a wide spectrum of belief and practice including evangelical, liberal, and catholic. Ecclesiology, polity, ethos The Anglican Communion has no official legal existence nor any governing structure which might exercise authority over the member churches. There is an Anglican Communion Office in London, under the aegis of the Archbishop of Canterbury, but it only serves a supporting and organisational role. The Communion is held together by a shared history, expressed in its ecclesiology, polity and ethos and also by participation in international consultative bodies. Three elements have been important in holding the Communion together: First, the shared ecclesial structure of the component churches, manifested in an episcopal polity maintained through the apostolic succession of bishops and synodical government; second, the principle of belief expressed in worship, investing importance in approved prayer books and their rubrics; and third, the historical documents and standard divines that have influenced the ethos of the Communion. Originally, the Church of England was self-contained and relied for its unity and identity on its own history, its traditional legal and episcopal structure and its status as an established church of the state. As such Anglicanism was, from the outset, a movement with an explicitly episcopal polity, a characteristic which has been vital in maintaining the unity of the Communion by conveying the episcopate's role in manifesting visible catholicity and ecumenism. Early in its development, Anglicanism developed a vernacular prayer book, called the Book of Common Prayer. Unlike other traditions, Anglicanism has never been governed by a magisterium nor by appeal to a founding theologian, nor by an extra-credal summary of doctrine (such as the Westminster Confession of the Presbyterian Church). Instead, Anglicans have typically appealed to the Book of Common Prayer and its offshoots as a guide to Anglican theology and practice. This had the effect of inculcating the principle of lex orandi, lex credendi ("the law of prayer is the law of belief") as the foundation of Anglican identity and confession. Protracted conflict through the seventeenth century with more radical Protestants on the one hand and Roman Catholics who still recognised the primacy of the Pope on the other, resulted in an association of churches that were both deliberately vague about doctrinal principles, yet bold in developing parameters of acceptable deviation. These parameters were most clearly articulated in the various rubrics of the successive prayer books, as well as the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion. These Articles, while never binding, have had an influence on the ethos of the Communion, an ethos reinforced by their interpretation and expansion by such influential early theologians as Richard Hooker, Lancelot Andrewes, John Cosin, and others. With the expansion of the British Empire, and hence the growth of Anglicanism outside Great Britain and Ireland, the Communion sought to establish new vehicles of unity. The first major expression of this were the Lambeth Conferences of the communion's bishops, first convened by Archbishop of Canterbury Charles Longley in 1867. From the outset, these were not intended to displace the autonomy of the emerging provinces of the Communion, but to "discuss matters of practical interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may serve as safe guides to future action." Chicago Lambeth Quadrilateral One of the enduringly influential early resolutions of the conference was the so-called Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888. Its intent was to provide the basis for discussions of reunion with the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches, but it had the ancillary effect of establishing parameters of Anglican identity. Its four principles are: "The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, as 'containing all things necessary to salvation', and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith." "The Apostles' Creed, as the Baptismal Symbol; and the Nicene Creed, as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith." "The two Sacraments ordained by Christ Himself - Baptism and the Supper of the Lord - ministered with unfailing use of Christ's words of Institution, and of the elements ordained by Him." "The Historic Episcopate, locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of God into the Unity of His Church." Instruments of Communion The Anglican Communion uses the compass rose as its symbol, signifying its worldwide reach and decentralized nature. It is surmounted, like ecclesiastical coats of arms, by a bishop's mitre; in the centre is a cross of St. George recalling the communion's origins in the Church of England. The Greek motto, ("The truth will set you free") is a quotation from John 8:32. It was designed by Edward Nason West, Canon of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City. As mentioned above, the Anglican Communion has no international juridical organisation. The Archbishop of Canterbury's role is strictly symbolic and unifying; and the Communion's three international bodies are consultative and collaborative, their resolutions having no legal effect on the independent provinces of the Communion. Taken together, however, the four do function as "instruments of communion", since all churches of the communion participate in them. In order of antiquity, they are: The Archbishop of Canterbury (ab origine) functions as the spiritual head of the Communion. He is the focus of unity, since no church claims membership in the Communion without being in communion with him. The present incumbent is Dr Rowan Williams. The Lambeth Conference (first held in 1867) is the oldest international consultation. It is a forum for bishops of the Communion to reinforce unity and collegiality through manifesting the episcopate, to discuss matters of mutual concern, and to pass resolutions intended to act as guideposts. It is held roughly every ten years and invitation is by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Anglican Consultative Council (first met in 1971) was created by a 1968 Lambeth Conference resolution, and meets usually at three year intervals. The council consists of representative bishops, clergy, and laity chosen by the thirty-eight provinces. The body has a permanent secretariat, the Anglican Communion Office, of which the Archbishop of Canterbury is president. The Primates' Meeting (first met in 1979) is the most recent manifestation of international consultation and deliberation, having been first convened by Archbishop Donald Coggan as a forum for "leisurely thought, prayer and deep consultation." Since there is no binding authority in the Communion, these international bodies are a vehicle for consultation and persuasion. In recent years, persuasion has tipped over into debates over conformity in certain areas of doctrine, discipline, worship, and ethics. The most notable example has been the objection of many provinces of the Communion (particularly in Africa and Asia) to the changing role of homosexuals in the North American churches (e.g., by blessing same-sex unions and ordaining and consecrating gays and lesbians in same-sex relationships), and to the process by which changes were undertaken. Those who objected condemned these actions as unscriptural, unilateral, and without the agreement of the Communion prior to these steps being taken. In response, the American Episcopal Church and the Anglican Church of Canada answered that the actions had been undertaken after lengthy scriptural and theological reflection, legally in accordance with their own canons and constitutions and after extensive consultation with the provinces of the Communion. The Primates' Meeting voted to request the two churches to withdraw their delegates from the 2005 meeting of the Anglican Consultative Council, and Canada and the United States decided to attend the meeting but without exercising their right to vote. They have not been expelled or suspended, since there is no mechanism in this voluntary association to suspend or expel an independent province of the Communion. Since membership is based on a province's communion with Canterbury, expulsion would require the Archbishop of Canterbury's refusal to be in communion with the affected jurisdiction(s). In line with the suggestion of the Windsor Report, Dr Williams has recently established a working group to examine the feasibility of an Anglican covenant which would articulate the conditions for communion in some fashion. Archbishop of Canterbury: address to General Synod on the Anglican Communion, ACNS 4164, July 7, 2006 Provinces of the Anglican Communion All thirty-eight provinces of the Anglican Communion are independent, each with its own primate and governing structure. These provinces may take the form of national churches (such as in Canada, Uganda, or Japan) or a collection of nations (such as the West Indies, Central Africa, or Southeast Asia). They are, in alphabetical order: The Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia The Anglican Church of Australia The Church of Bangladesh The Igreja Episcopal Anglicana do Brasil (Anglican Episcopal Church of Brazil) The Anglican Church of Burundi The Anglican Church of Canada The Church of the Province of Central Africa The Iglesia Anglicana de la Region Central America (Anglican Church in the Central Region of America) The Province de L'Eglise Anglicane Du Congo (Province of the Anglican Church of Congo) The Church of England Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui (Hong Kong Anglican Church) The Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean The Church of Ireland The Nippon Sei Ko Kai (The Anglican Communion in Japan) The Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East The Anglican Church of Kenya The Anglican Church of Korea The Church of the Province of Melanesia The Anglican Church of Mexico The Church of the Province of Myanmar The Church of Nigeria The Church of North India The Church of Pakistan The Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea The Episcopal Church in the Philippines The Church of the Province of Rwanda The Scottish Episcopal Church The Church of the Province of South East Asia The Church of South India The Anglican Church of Southern Africa Iglesia Anglicana del Cono Sur de las Americas (Anglican Church of the Southern Cone of the Americas) The Episcopal Church of the Sudan The Anglican Church of Tanzania The Church of Uganda The Episcopal Church The Church in Wales The Church of the Province of West Africa The Church in the Province of the West Indies A world map showing the Provinces of the Anglican Communion (Blue). Also shown are the Churches in full communion with the Anglican Church: The Nordic Lutheran churches of the Porvoo Communion (Green), and the Old Catholic Churches in the Utrecht Union (Red). In addition, there are six extra-provincial churches, five of which are under the metropolitical authority of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Anglican Church of Bermuda (extra-provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) Iglesia Episcopal de Cuba (Episcopal Church of Cuba) (under a metropolitan council) The Parish of the Falkland Islands (extra-provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) The Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church (extra-provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) The Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church (extra-provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) The Church of Ceylon (extra-provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) History The Anglican Communion is a relatively recent concept. The Church of England (which until the 20th century included the Church in Wales) initially separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1538 in the reign of King Henry VIII, reunited in 1555 under Queen Mary I and then separated again in 1570 under Queen Elizabeth I (the Roman Catholic Church excommunicated Elizabeth I in 1570 in response to the Act of Supremacy 1559). The Church of England has always thought of itself not as a new foundation but rather as a reformed continuation of the ancient "English Church" (Ecclesia Anglicana) and a reassertion of that church's rights. As such it was a distinctly national phenomenon. The Church of Scotland separated from the Roman Catholic Church with the Scottish Reformation in 1560, and the split from it of the Scottish Episcopal Church began in 1582, in the reign of James VI of Scotland, over disagreements about the role of bishops. The oldest-surviving Anglican church outside of the British Isles (Britain and Ireland) is St. Peter's Church, in St. George's, Bermuda, established in 1612 (though the actual building had to be rebuilt several times over the following century). This is also the oldest surviving Protestant church in the New World. It remained part of the Church of England until 1978, when the Anglican Church of Bermuda separated. The Church of England was the state religion not only in England, but in her trans-Oceanic colonies. Thus the only member churches of the present Anglican Communion existing by the mid-18th century were the Church of England, its closely-linked sister church, the Church of Ireland (which also separated from Roman Catholicism under Henry VIII), and the Scottish Episcopal Church which for parts of the 17th and 18th centuries was partially underground (it was suspected of Jacobite sympathies). However, the enormous expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries of the British Empire brought the church along with it. At first all these colonial churches were under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of London. After the American Revolution, the parishes in the newly independent country found it necessary to break formally from a church whose Supreme Governor was (and remains) the British monarch. Thus they formed their own dioceses and national church, the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, in a mostly amicable separation. At about the same time, in the colonies which remained linked to the crown, the Church of England began to appoint colonial bishops. In 1787 a bishop of Nova Scotia was appointed with a jurisdiction over all of British North America; in time several more colleagues were appointed to other cities in present-day Canada. In 1814 a bishop of Calcutta was made; in 1824 the first bishop was sent to the West Indies and in 1836 to Australia. By 1840 there were still only ten colonial bishops for the Church of England; but even this small beginning greatly facilitated the growth of Anglicanism around the world. In 1841 a "Colonial Bishoprics Council" was set up and soon many more dioceses were created. In time, it became natural to group these into provinces, and a metropolitan appointed for each province. Although it had at first been somewhat established in many colonies, in 1861 it was ruled that, except where specifically established, the Church of England had just the same legal position as any other church. Thus a colonial bishop and colonial diocese was by nature quite a different thing from their counterparts back home. In time bishops came to be appointed locally rather than from England, and eventually national synods began to pass ecclesiastical legislation independent of England. A crucial step in the development of the modern communion was the idea of the Lambeth Conferences, as discussed above. These conferences demonstrated that the bishops of disparate churches could manifest the unity of the church in their episcopal collegiality, despite the absence of universal legal ties. Some bishops were initially reluctant to attend, fearing that the meeting would declare itself a council with power to legislate for the church; but it agreed to pass only advisory resolutions. These Lambeth Conferences have been held roughly decennially since 1878 (the second such conference) and remain the most visible coming-together of the whole Communion. Ecumenical relations Apostolic Succession The Anglican Communion hold that Apostolic Succession is a core element of the validity of clerical ordinations. The Roman Catholic Church does not recognize most Anglican orders (see Apostolicae Curae). Some Eastern Orthodox Churches have issued statements to the effect that Anglican orders could be accepted, yet still have reordained converts from the Anglican clergy; other Orthodox Churches have rejected Anglican orders altogether. Orthodox bishop Kallistos Ware explains this apparent discrepancy as follows: Anglican clergy who join the Orthodox Church are reordained; but [some Orthodox Churches hold that] if Anglicanism and Orthodoxy were to reach full unity in the faith, perhaps such reordination might not be found necessary. It should be added, however, that a number of individual Orthodox theologians hold that under no circumstances would it be possible to recognize the validity of Anglican Orders. Excerpts from the Orthodox Church by Bishop Kallistos Ware Controversies One effect of the Communion's dispersed authority has been that conflict and controversy regularly arise over the effect divergent practices and doctrines in one part of the Communion have on others. Disputes that had been confined to the Church of England could be dealt with legislatively in that realm, but as the Communion spread out into new nations and disparate cultures, such controversies multiplied and intensified. These controversies have generally been of two types: liturgical and social. The first such controversy of note concerned that of the growing influence of the Catholic Revival manifested in the so-called ritualism controversies of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Later, rapid social change and the dissipation of British cultural hegemony over its former colonies contributed to disputes over the role of women, the parameters of marriage and divorce, and the practice of contraception and abortion. More recently, disagreements over homosexuality have strained the unity of the Communion as well as its relationships with other Christian denominations. Simultaneous with debates about social theology and ethics, the Communion has debated prayer book revision and the acceptable grounds for achieving full communion with non-Anglican churches. References See also Affirming Catholicism Anglican Communion Network Anglican ministry Anglican sacraments Anglicans online Anglo-Catholicism Continuing Anglican movement Historical development of Church of England dioceses External links Official website Anglicans Online Decentralised nature of worldwide Anglicanism | Anglican_Communion |@lemmatized anglican:61 communion:60 international:7 association:4 national:7 church:124 single:1 universal:2 juridical:2 authority:6 regional:1 full:7 autonomy:2 name:2 suggest:1 england:21 may:3 regard:1 mother:1 worldwide:4 specifically:2 principal:1 primate:6 archbishop:18 canterbury:18 focus:2 unity:10 status:2 mean:2 mutual:2 agreement:2 essential:1 doctrine:5 participation:2 sacramental:1 life:1 available:1 communicant:1 approximately:1 million:1 member:3 third:2 large:1 world:4 roman:8 catholic:13 eastern:2 orthodox:9 analysis:1 damage:1 episcopal:21 usatoday:1 com:1 major:2 branch:1 religion:3 know:1 explicitly:2 recognise:3 historical:3 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5,782 | Adenylate_cyclase | Epinephrine binds its receptor, that associates with an heterotrimeric G protein. The G protein associates with adenylate cyclase that converts ATP to cAMP, spreading the signal (more details...) Adenylate cyclase (, also known as adenylyl cyclase, adenyl cyclase or AC) is a lyase enzyme. It is a part of the cAMP dependent pathway Types There are ten known adenylate cyclases in mammals: ADCY1 ADCY2 ADCY3 ADCY4 ADCY5 ADCY6 ADCY7 ADCY8 ADCY9 ADCY10 Reaction Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP to 3',5'-cyclic AMP (cAMP) and pyrophosphate. The reaction that Adenylate Cyclase catalyzes is the conversion of ATP to 3',5'-cyclic AMP cAMP is an important molecule in eukaryotic signal transduction, a so-called second messenger. Adenylate cyclase can be activated or inhibited by G proteins, which are coupled to membrane receptors and thus can respond to hormonal or other stimuli. Following activation of adenylate cyclase, the resulting cAMP acts as a second messenger by interacting with and regulating other proteins such as protein kinase A and cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels. Photoactivatable adenylate cyclase (PAC) was discovered in E. gracilis and can be expressed in other organisms through genetic manipulation. Shining blue light on a cell containing PAC activates it and abruptly increases the rate of conversion of ATP to cAMP. This is a useful technique for researchers in neuroscience because it allows them to quickly increase the intracellular cAMP levels in particular neurons, and to study the effect of that increase in neural activity on the behavior of the organism. For example, PAC expression in certain neurons has been shown to alter the grooming behavior in fruit flies exposed to blue light . Researchers also use channelrhodopsin-2 in a similar fashion. Structure Structure of adenylate cyclase Adenylyl cyclase is a transmembrane protein. It passes through the plasma membrane twelve times. The important parts for its function are located in the cytoplasm and can be subdivided into the N-terminus, C1a, C1b, C2a and C2b. The C1 region exists between transmembrane helices six and seven and the C2 region follows transmembrane helix 12. The C1a and C2a domains form a catalytic dimer where ATP binds and is converted to cAMP. Regulation Adenylate cyclase is stimulated by G proteins, and by forskolin, as well as other class-specific substrates: Isoforms I, III and VIII are also stimulated by Ca2+/calmodulin. Isoforms V and VI are inhibited by Ca2+ in a calmodulin-independent manner. In neurons, adenylate cyclases are located next to calcium ion channels for faster reaction to Ca2+ influx; they are suspected of playing an important role in learning processes. This is supported by the fact that adenylate cyclases are coincidence detectors, meaning that they are only activated by several different signals occurring together. Additional images External links | Adenylate_cyclase |@lemmatized epinephrine:1 bind:2 receptor:2 associate:2 heterotrimeric:1 g:4 protein:7 adenylate:12 cyclase:12 convert:2 atp:5 camp:8 spread:1 signal:3 detail:1 also:3 know:1 adenylyl:2 adenyl:1 ac:1 lyase:1 enzyme:1 part:2 dependent:1 pathway:1 type:1 ten:1 known:1 cyclases:3 mammal:1 reaction:3 catalyze:1 conversion:3 cyclic:3 amp:2 pyrophosphate:1 catalyzes:1 important:3 molecule:1 eukaryotic:1 transduction:1 call:1 second:2 messenger:2 activate:3 inhibit:2 couple:1 membrane:2 thus:1 respond:1 hormonal:1 stimulus:1 follow:2 activation:1 result:1 act:1 interact:1 regulate:1 kinase:1 nucleotide:1 gate:1 ion:2 channel:2 photoactivatable:1 pac:3 discover:1 e:1 gracilis:1 express:1 organism:2 genetic:1 manipulation:1 shin:1 blue:2 light:2 cell:1 contain:1 abruptly:1 increase:3 rate:1 useful:1 technique:1 researcher:2 neuroscience:1 allow:1 quickly:1 intracellular:1 level:1 particular:1 neuron:3 study:1 effect:1 neural:1 activity:1 behavior:2 example:1 expression:1 certain:1 show:1 alter:1 grooming:1 fruit:1 fly:1 expose:1 use:1 channelrhodopsin:1 similar:1 fashion:1 structure:2 transmembrane:3 pass:1 plasma:1 twelve:1 time:1 function:1 locate:2 cytoplasm:1 subdivide:1 n:1 terminus:1 region:2 exists:1 helix:2 six:1 seven:1 domain:1 form:1 catalytic:1 dimer:1 regulation:1 stimulate:2 forskolin:1 well:1 class:1 specific:1 substrate:1 isoforms:2 iii:1 viii:1 calmodulin:2 v:1 vi:1 independent:1 manner:1 next:1 calcium:1 fast:1 influx:1 suspect:1 play:1 role:1 learn:1 process:1 support:1 fact:1 coincidence:1 detector:1 mean:1 several:1 different:1 occur:1 together:1 additional:1 image:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram heterotrimeric_g:1 adenylate_cyclase:9 adenylyl_cyclase:2 cyclic_amp:2 signal_transduction:1 protein_kinase:1 cyclic_nucleotide:1 transmembrane_protein:1 plasma_membrane:1 transmembrane_helix:2 external_link:1 |
5,783 | Optical_brightener | Optical brighteners, optical brightening agents (OBAs), fluorescent brightening agents (FBAs) or fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) are dyes that absorb light in the ultraviolet and violet region (usually 340-370nm) of the electromagnetic spectrum, and re-emit light in the blue region (typically 420-470nm). Fluorescent activity is a short term or rapid emission response, unlike phosphorescence, which is a delayed emission. These additives are often used to enhance the appearance of color of fabric and paper, causing a perceived "whitening" effect, making materials look less yellow by increasing the overall amount of blue light reflected. Properties The most common classes of chemicals with this property are the stilbenes and older, non-commercial fluorescent dyes such as umbelliferone, which absorb energy in the UV portion of the spectrum and re-emit it in the blue portion of the visible spectrum. A white surface treated with an optical brightener can emit more visible light than that which shines on it, making it appear brighter. The blue light emitted by the brightener compensates for the diminishing blue of the treated material and changes the hue away from yellow or brown and toward white. There are approximately 400 brightener types listed in the Color Index, but less than 90 are actually produced commercially and only a handful are commercially important. Generically, the C.I. FBA number can be assigned to a specific molecule, however, some are duplicated, since manufacturers apply for the index number when they produce it. The global OBA production for paper, textiles and detergents is dominated by just a few di- and tetra-sulfonated triazole-stilbenes and a di-sulfonated stilbene-biphenyl. These are subject to fading when exposed long term to UV, due to the formation of optically inactive stilbene cis-isomers found at the center of the molecule. All brighteners have extended conjungation and/or aromaticity, allowing for electron movement. Some non-stilbene brighteners are used in more permanent applications such as whitening synthetic fiber. Basic class types of brighteners include: Triazine-stilbenes (di-, tetra- or hexa-sulfonated) Coumarins Imidazolines Diazoles Triazoles Benzoxazolines Biphenyl-stilbenes Brighteners can be "boosted" by the addition of certain polyols like high molecular weight polyethylene glycol or polyvinyl alcohol. These additives increase the visible blue light emissions significantly. Brighteners can also be "quenched". Too much use of brightener will often cause a greening effect as emissions start to show above the blue region in the visible spectrum. Besides the formation of cis isomer in stilbene-containing brighteners (only the trans isomer is optically active), continued exposure to UV-containing light will actually cleave the molecule and start the process of degradation. Common uses Brighteners are commonly added to laundry detergents to replace whitening agents removed during washing and to make the clothes appear cleaner. Optical brighteners have replaced bluing which was formerly used to produce the same effect. Some brighteners can cause allergic reactions when in contact with skin, depending on the individual. Brighteners are used in many papers, especially high brightness papers, resulting in their strongly fluorescent appearance under UV illumination. Paper brightness is typically measured at 457nm, well within the fluorescent activity range of brighteners. Paper used for banknotes does not contain optical brighteners, so a common method for detecting counterfeit notes is to check for fluorescence. A side effect of optical whitening is to make the treated fabrics more visible with Night Vision Devices than non-treated ones. This may or may not be desirable for military or other applications. Optically brightened paper is often not useful in exacting photographic or art applications, since the whiteness decreases with time. Endues of optical brighteners include: Detergent whitener (instead of blueing agents) Paper brightening (internal or in a coating) Fiber whitening (internal, added to polymer melts) Textile whitening (external, added to fabric finishes) References External links Laundry detergent components by brand | Optical_brightener |@lemmatized optical:7 brighteners:14 brightening:2 agent:5 obas:1 fluorescent:6 brighten:1 fbas:1 whitening:2 fwas:1 dye:2 absorb:2 light:7 ultraviolet:1 violet:1 region:3 usually:1 electromagnetic:1 spectrum:4 emit:4 blue:8 typically:2 activity:2 short:1 term:2 rapid:1 emission:4 response:1 unlike:1 phosphorescence:1 delayed:1 additive:2 often:3 use:7 enhance:1 appearance:2 color:2 fabric:3 paper:8 cause:3 perceived:1 whiten:5 effect:4 make:4 material:2 look:1 less:2 yellow:2 increase:2 overall:1 amount:1 reflect:1 property:2 common:3 class:2 chemical:1 stilbenes:4 old:1 non:3 commercial:1 umbelliferone:1 energy:1 uv:4 portion:2 visible:5 white:2 surface:1 treat:3 brightener:4 shin:1 appear:2 brighter:1 compensate:1 diminish:1 change:1 hue:1 away:1 brown:1 toward:1 approximately:1 type:2 list:1 index:2 actually:2 produce:3 commercially:2 handful:1 important:1 generically:1 c:1 fba:1 number:2 assign:1 specific:1 molecule:3 however:1 duplicate:1 since:2 manufacturer:1 apply:1 global:1 oba:1 production:1 textile:2 detergent:4 dominate:1 di:3 tetra:2 sulfonated:3 triazole:1 stilbene:4 biphenyl:2 subject:1 fade:1 expose:1 long:1 due:1 formation:2 optically:3 inactive:1 ci:1 isomer:3 find:1 center:1 extend:1 conjungation:1 aromaticity:1 allow:1 electron:1 movement:1 permanent:1 application:3 synthetic:1 fiber:2 basic:1 include:2 triazine:1 hexa:1 coumarins:1 imidazolines:1 diazoles:1 triazoles:1 benzoxazolines:1 boost:1 addition:1 certain:1 polyols:1 like:1 high:2 molecular:1 weight:1 polyethylene:1 glycol:1 polyvinyl:1 alcohol:1 significantly:1 also:1 quenched:1 much:1 greening:1 start:2 show:1 besides:1 cis:1 contain:3 trans:1 active:1 continue:1 exposure:1 cleave:1 process:1 degradation:1 commonly:1 add:3 laundry:2 replace:2 remove:1 wash:1 clothes:1 cleaner:1 bluing:1 formerly:1 allergic:1 reaction:1 contact:1 skin:1 depend:1 individual:1 many:1 especially:1 brightness:2 result:1 strongly:1 illumination:1 measure:1 well:1 within:1 range:1 banknote:1 method:1 detect:1 counterfeit:1 note:1 check:1 fluorescence:1 side:1 treated:1 night:1 vision:1 device:1 one:1 may:2 desirable:1 military:1 brightened:1 useful:1 exact:1 photographic:1 art:1 whiteness:1 decrease:1 time:1 endues:1 whitener:1 instead:1 internal:2 coating:1 polymer:1 melt:1 external:2 finish:1 reference:1 link:1 component:1 brand:1 |@bigram optical_brighteners:4 electromagnetic_spectrum:1 fluorescent_dye:1 ci_isomer:1 polyethylene_glycol:1 cis_isomer:1 trans_isomer:1 laundry_detergent:2 allergic_reaction:1 external_link:1 |
5,784 | National_Film_Preservation_Board | The United States National Film Preservation Board is the board selecting films for preservation in the Library of Congress' National Film Registry. It was established by the National Film Preservation Act of 1988. The National Film Registry is meant to preserve up to 25 "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant films" each year; to be eligible, films must be at least 10 years old. Members of the Board also advise the Librarian of Congress on ongoing development and implementation of the national film preservation plan. The National Film Preservation Board (NFPB) is a federal agency located within the Library of Congress. The NFPB was established by the National Film Preservation Act of 1988, and reauthorized in 1992, 1996 and 2005. The 1996 reauthorization also created the non-profit National Film Preservation Foundation, which is loosely affiliated with the National Film Preservation Board, but the private-sector Foundation (NFPF) and federal Board (NFPB) are separate, legally distinct entities. External links Publications Moving Image Resources | National_Film_Preservation_Board |@lemmatized united:1 state:1 national:9 film:12 preservation:8 board:6 select:1 library:2 congress:3 registry:2 establish:2 act:2 mean:1 preserve:1 culturally:1 historically:1 aesthetically:1 significant:1 year:2 eligible:1 must:1 least:1 old:1 member:1 also:2 advise:1 librarian:1 ongoing:1 development:1 implementation:1 plan:1 nfpb:3 federal:2 agency:1 locate:1 within:1 reauthorized:1 reauthorization:1 create:1 non:1 profit:1 foundation:2 loosely:1 affiliate:1 private:1 sector:1 nfpf:1 separate:1 legally:1 distinct:1 entity:1 external:1 link:1 publication:1 move:1 image:1 resource:1 |@bigram culturally_historically:1 historically_aesthetically:1 aesthetically_significant:1 external_link:1 |
5,785 | Estonian_language | Estonian (; ) is the official language of Estonia, spoken by about 1.1 million people in Estonia and tens of thousands in various émigré communities. It is a Finno-Ugric language and is closely related to Finnish. One distinctive feature that has caused a great amount of interest in linguists is that Estonian has what is traditionally seen as three degrees of phoneme length: short, long, and "overlong", such that , and are distinct. In actuality, the distinction is not purely in the phoneme length, and the underlying phonological mechanism is still disputed. State Language Cannot the tongue of this land In the fire of incantation Rising up to the heavens Seek for eternity? Kristjan Jaak Peterson Those lines have been interpreted as a claim to reestablish the birthright of the Estonian language. Kristjan Jaak Peterson (1801-22) the first student at the then German-language University of Tartu to acknowledge his Estonian origin, is commonly regarded as a herald of Estonian national literature and considered the founder of modern Estonian poetry. His birthday on March 14 is celebrated in Estonia as the Mother Tongue Day. Culture and Customs of the Baltic States By Kevin O'Connor; P.126 ISBN 0313331251 The domination of Estonia after the Northern Crusades, from the 13th century to 1918 by Denmark, Germany, Sweden, and Russia resulted in few early written literary works in the Estonian language. Writings in Estonian became significant only in the 19th century with the spread of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, during the Estophile Enlightenment Period (1750-1840). Although Baltic Germans at large regarded the future of Estonians as being a fusion with the Baltic Germans, the Estophile educated class admired the ancient culture of the Estonians and their era of freedom before the conquests by Danes and Germans in the 13th century. Estonia:Identity and Independence By Jean-Jacques p.84 ISBN 9042008903 After the Estonian War of Independence, the Estonian language became the state language of the newly independent country. When Estonia was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in World War II, the status of the Estonian language changed to the first of two official languages (Russian being the other one). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education By Sylvia Prys Jones, Colin Baker ISBN 1853593621 In the second half of the 1970s, the pressure of bilingualism intensified, resulting in widespread knowledge of Russian throughout the country. The Russian language was termed as ‘the language of friendship of nations’ and was taught to Estonian children as early as in kindergarten. Although teaching Estonian to non-Estonians in schools was compulsory, in practice learning the language was often considered unnecessary. Russificationat estonica.org During the Perestroika era The Law on the Status of the Estonian Language was adopted in January 1989. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the restoration of Republic of Estonia's independence. Estonian went back to being the only state language in Estonia. Estonian literature The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century. Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words and fragments of sentences. The earliest extant samples of connected Estonian are the so-called Kullamaa prayers dating from 1524 and 1528. [http://books.google.com/books?id=owQBH74N8CIC&pg Aspects of Altaic Civilization By Denis Sinor] ISBN 0700703802 In 1525 the first book published in the Estonian language was printed. The book was a Lutheran manuscript, which never reached the reader and was destroyed immediately after publication. The first extant Estonian book is a bilingual German-Estonian translation of the Lutheran catechism by S.Wanradt and J. Koell dating to 1535, during the Protestant Reformation period. For the use of priests an Estonian grammar was printed in German in 1637. Dictionary of Languages By Andrew Dalby; p. 182 ISBN 0231115695 The New Testament was translated into southern Estonian in 1686 (northern Estonian, 1715). The two dialects were united based on northern Estonian by Anton Thor Helle. Writings in Estonian became more significant in the 19th century during the Estophile Enlightenment Period (1750-1840). The birth of native Estonian literature was in 1810 to 1820 when the patriotic and philosophical poems by Kristjan Jaak Peterson were published. From 1525 to 1917 14 503 titles were published in Estonia, as opposed to the 23 868 titles which were published between 1918 and 1940. In modern times Jaan Kross Jaan Kross at google.books and Jaan Kaplinski Jaan Kaplinski at google.books remain as two of Estonia's best known and most translated writers. Classification Estonian belongs to the Baltic Finnic branch of the Uralic languages. Estonian is thus closely related to Finnish, spoken on the other side of the Gulf of Finland, and is one of the few languages of Europe that is not Indo-European. Despite some overlaps in the vocabulary due to borrowings, in terms of its origin, Estonian is not related to its nearest neighbours, Swedish, Latvian and Russian, which are all Indo-European languages. Estonian is distantly related to Hungarian (there is no mutual intelligibility between the two). It has been influenced by Swedish, German (initially Middle Low German, later also standard German), Russian, and Latvian, though it is not related to them genetically. Like Finnish and Hungarian, Estonian is an agglutinative language, but unlike them, it has lost the vowel harmony of Proto-Uralic, although in older texts the vowel harmony is still to be recognized. Furthermore, the apocope of word-final sounds is extensive and has caused a shift from a purely agglutinative to an inflected language. The basic word order is Subject Verb Object. Dialects The Estonian dialects are divided into two groups - the northern and southern dialects, usually associated with the cities of Tallinn in the north and Tartu in the south, in addition to a distinct kirderanniku dialect, that of the northeastern coast of Estonia. The northern group consists of the kesk or middle dialect that is also the basis for the standard language, the lääne or western dialect, roughly corresponding to Läänemaa and Pärnumaa, the saarte (islands') dialect of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa and the ida or eastern dialect on the northwestern shore of Lake Peipsi. The southern group consists of the Tartu, Mulgi, Võro and Seto dialects. These are sometimes considered either variants of a South Estonian language, or separate languages altogether. Also, Seto is not usually considered a dialect of Estonian, but rather a variant of Võro. Writing system Alphabet Like Finnish, Estonian employs the Latin alphabet, in addition to which the Estonian alphabet contains letters ä, ö, ü, and õ, plus the later additions š and ž. The letters c, q, w, x and y are limited to proper names of foreign origin, and f, z, š, and ž appear in loanwords and foreign names only. Ö, and ü are pronounced similarly to their equivalents in Swedish and German. Unlike in standard German but like Finnish, Ä is pronounced [æ], as in English mat. The vowels Ä, Ö and Ü are clearly separate phonemes and inherent in Estonian, although the letter shapes come from German. The letter õ denotes , unrounded , or a close-mid back unrounded vowel. (It has a different sound from the same letter in Portuguese. It is similar to the Kazakh ұ and the Vietnamese ơ, and it is also close to the Turkish ı and the Russian ы.) Orthography Estonian orthography is essentially phonemic with each phoneme of the language represented by exactly one grapheme. Exceptions to this derive from historical agreements: for example the initial letter 'h' in words, preservation of the morpheme in declension of the word (writing b, g, d in places where p, k, t is pronounced) and in the use of 'i' and 'j'. Where it is very impractical or impossible to type š and ž, they are substituted with sh and zh in some written texts, although this is considered incorrect. Otherwise, the h in sh represents a voiceless glottal fricative, as in pasha (pas-'ha); this also applies to some foreign names. Modern Estonian orthography is based on the Newer Orthography created by Eduard Ahrens in the second half of the 19th century based on Finnish Orthography. The Older Orthography it replaced was created in the 17th century by Bengt Gottfried Forselius and Johann Hornung based on standard German orthography. Earlier writing in Estonian had by and large used an ad hoc orthography based on Latin and Middle Low German orthography. Some influences of the standard German orthography — for example, writing 'W'/'w' instead of 'V'/'v' persisted well into the 1930s. It should be noted that Estonian words and names quoted in international publications from Soviet sources are often incorrect back-transliterations from the Russian transliteration. Examples are the use of "ya" for "ä" (e.g. Pyarnu instead of the correct Pärnu) and "y" instead of "õ" (e.g., Pylva instead of the correct Põlva). Even in the Encyclopædia Britannica one can find "ostrov Khiuma", where "ostrov" means "island" in Russian and "Khiuma" is back-transliteration from Russian instead of correct "Hiiumaa" (Hiiumaa>Хийума(а)>Khiuma). Phonology Vowels Front BackUnroundedRoundedUnroundedRoundedCloseMidOpen There are eighteen phonemic monophthongs, with three phonetic lengths. Of these, simple and long are segmentally phonemic, and the third length level is suprasegmentally phonemic and aided by a distinctive tonal contour. The script distinguishes only short and long, marked by vowel doubling, e.g. öö "night". There are 5 segmental diphthongs, Mati Hint. Häälikutest sõnadeni. Valgus 1978, Tallinn. and polysyllablic vowel clusters are also found. There are very few instances of vowel allophony: 'ä' may have pronunciations and , and the phoneme is pronounced as the diphthong . Characteristic to Estonian is the vowel õ (), a close-mid near-back unrounded vowel, which is farther back than the schwa (), but unrounded unlike . Consonants Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive Nasal ()1 Fricative () () Approximant Trill Notes: only appears as an allophone of before . and are considered foreign sounds and they only appear in loanwords. There is one series of stops, unvoiced unaspirated, with three phonemic lengths, written b d g, p t k and pp tt kk. The rest of the consonants also have distinctive length, but only short and long are distinguished in writing. As with vowels, two segmental length levels are phonemic, and the third level is suprasegmentally phonemic. For example, for 'n', short 'n' in lina "sheet", half-long 'n' in linna "town's", over-long 'n' in linna "to the town". The latter addition of length is traceable to a grammatical marker *-han that has elided. The fricatives are s h, added with f š ž z for loans. The other consonants are j l m n r v, plus the allophonic velar nasal in nk and ng. Consonants may be palatalized; but this is not written in the orthography, as palatalization generally occurs before front vowels (also in the final consonant in the nominative case of nouns if such vowel follows in the genetive). About 0.15% of the vocabulary features fully phonemic palatalization, where palatalization occurs without the front vowel. The process is similar to that found in Eastern Finnish dialects, where word-final 'i' is elided, leaving the palatalization on the consonant. Thus, palatalization does not necessarily need a front vowel, and palatalized vs. plain continuants can be articulated. Proto-Finnic, the ancestor of the Estonian language, lost palatalization, but Estonian is one of those languages which reacquired it from Slavic. Yet, it underwent further modification, which makes Estonian palatalization different from Russian palatalization. In Russian, palatalization causes some affrication and necessarily features a palatal approximant/fricative offglide, which is not the case in Estonian, where the consonant is otherwise unaffected. Gradation In Estonian, sounds alternate between various grades of sound length and sound quality in different grammatical forms of a word; see also vowel gradation, consonant gradation, lenition. Quantitative changes (strong grade : weak grade) alternation of overlong and long vowels aaa : aa, eee : ee, ooo : oo, uuu : uu (saal : saali, keelama : keelata, kool : kooli, suur : suure) alternation of overlong and long consonants nnn : nn, lll : ll (linn : linna, kallama : kallata) alternation of long and short consonants pp : p, tt : t, kk : k, ss : s (sepp : sepa, võtta : võtan, hakkan : hakata, kirss : kirsi) alternation of strong and weak consonants p : b, t : d, k : g (kupja : kubjas, kartma : kardan, vilkuda : vilgub) Qualitative changes (strong grade : weak grade) alternation of long and lowered long vowels iu : eo, ua : oa, ue : oe, uu : oo, üi : öe (pidu : peo, tuba : toa, lugema : loen, sugu : soo, süsi : söe) alternation of weak and assimilated weak consonants b : m, d : n/l/r, s : r (hamba : hammas, kandma : kannan, vars : varre) alternation of weak and lenited weak consonants b : v, d : j, g : j (kaebama : kaevata, rada : raja, märg : märja) alternation of weak and elided weak consonants b : Ø, d/t : Ø, g/k : Ø, s : Ø (tuba : toa, leht : lehe, arg : ara, mesi : mee) Partition of grades in declension singular nominative and singular genitive have the opposite grades (leht : lehe - strong : weak, hammas : hamba - weak : strong) singular nominative and singular partitive have the same grades (leht : lehte - strong : strong, hammas : hammast - weak : weak) plural partitive has the strong grade (lehti - strong, hambaid - strong) Partition of grades in conjugation -da infinitive and present tense have the opposite grades (lugeda : loen - strong : weak, hakata : hakkan - weak : strong) -ma infinitive has the strong grade (lugema - strong, hakkama - strong) -tud participle has the weak grade (loetud - weak, hakatud - weak) Stress The stress in Estonian is usually on the first syllable. There are some exceptions with the stress on the second syllable: aitäh "thanks", sõbranna "female friend". In loanwords, the original stress can be borrowed as well: ideaal "ideal", professor "professor". The stress is weak, and as length levels already control an aspect of "articulation intensity", most words appear evenly stressed. Grammar Main article: Estonian grammar Typologically, Estonian represents a transitional form from an agglutinating language to a fusional language. Over the course of Estonian history, German has exercised a strong influence on Estonian, both in vocabulary and syntax. In Estonian nouns and pronouns do not have grammatical gender, but nouns and adjectives decline in fourteen cases: nominative, genitive, partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative, terminative, essive, abessive, and comitative, with the case and number of the adjective(s) always agreeing with that of the noun (except in the terminative, essive, abessive and comitative, where there is agreement only for the number, the adjective being in the genitive form). Thus the illative for "a yellow house" (kollane maja) — "into a yellow house" is (kollasesse majja). With respect to the Proto-Finnic language, elision has occurred; thus, the actual case marker may be absent, but the stem is changed, cf. maja — majja and Pohjanmaa dialect of Finnish maja — majahan. The direct object of the verb appears either in the accusative (for total objects) or in the partitive (for partial objects). The accusative coincides with the genitive in the singular and with nominative in the plural. Accusative vs. partitive case opposition of object used with transitive verbs creates a telicity contrast, just as in Finnish. This is a rough equivalent of the perfect vs. imperfect aspect opposition. The verbal system lacks a distinctive future tense (the present tense serves here) and features special forms to express an action performed by an undetermined subject (the "impersonal"). Vocabulary Although the Estonian and Germanic languages are of completely different origins, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and English, for example. This is primarily due to the fact that the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one third of its vocabulary from Germanic languages, mainly from Low Saxon (Middle Low German) during the period of German rule, and High German (including standard German). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22-25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent. Ex nihilo lexical enrichment Estonian language planners such as Ado Grenzstein (a journalist active in Estonia in the 1870s-90s) tried to use formation ex nihilo, Urschöpfung, See p. 149 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2003, ‘‘Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew’’, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). ISBN 1-4039-1723-X. i.e. they created new words out of nothing. Examples are Ado Grenzstein's coinages kabe ‘draughts, chequers’ and male ‘chess’. See p. 149 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2003, ‘‘Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew’’, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). ISBN 1-4039-1723-X. "The most famous reformer of Estonian, Johannes Aavik (1880-1973), also used creations ex nihilo (cf. ‘free constructions’, Tauli 1977), along with other sources of lexical enrichment such as derivations, compositions and loanwords (often from Finnish; cf. Saareste and Raun 1965: 76). Aavik belonged to the so-called Noor-Eesti (‘Young Estonia’) movement, which appeared in Tartu, a university town in south-eastern Estonia, around 1905 (for discussion, see Raun 1991). In Aavik’s dictionary (1921), which lists approximately 4000 words, there are many words which were (allegedly) created ex nihilo. Consider • ese ‘object’, • kolp ‘skull’, • liibuma ‘to cling’, • naasma ‘to return, come back’, • nõme ‘stupid, dull’, • range ‘strict’, • reetma ‘to betray’, • solge ‘slim, flexible, graceful’ (which did not gain currency, cf. Contemporary Estonian graatsiline ‘graceful’), and • veenma ‘to convince’. Other Aavikisms ex nihilo (not appearing in Aavik 1921) include • nentima ‘to admit, state’, • nördima ‘to grow indignant’, • süüme ‘conscience’, and • tõik ‘fact’." See p. 149 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2003, ‘‘Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew’’, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). ISBN 1-4039-1723-X. "Note, however, that many of the coinages that have been considered (often by Aavik himself) as words concocted ex nihilo could well have been influenced by foreign lexical items, for example words from Russian, German, French, Finnish, English and Swedish. Aavik had a broad classical education and knew Ancient Greek, Latin and French. Consider • relv ‘weapon’ versus English revolver, • roim ‘crime’ versus English crime, • siiras ‘sincere’ versus English sincere/serious • embama ‘to embrace’ versus English embrace, and • taunima ‘to condemn, disapprove’ versus Finnish tuomita ‘to judge’ (these Aavikisms appear in Aavik’s 1921 dictionary). Consider also • evima ‘to have, possess, own’ (cf. also Estonian omama ‘to own’, and mul on, lit. ‘to me is’, i.e. ‘for me there is’, meaning ‘I have’) versus English have; • laup ‘forehead’ versus Russian лоб lob ‘forehead’; • mõrv ‘murder’ and mõrvama ‘to murder’ versus English murder (these Aavikisms do not appear in Aavik 1921); and • laip ‘corpse’ versus German Leib ‘body’ and German Leiche ‘body, corpse’. These words might be better regarded as a peculiar manifestation of morpho-phonemic adaptation of a foreign lexical item. The often irregular and arbitrary sound changes could then be explained not as subconscious foreign influence but rather as conscious manipulation by the coiner. Aavik seems to have paid little attention to the origin of his neologisms. On occasion, he replaced existing native words or expressions with neologisms of foreign descent. Therefore, Aavik cannot be considered a purist in the traditional sense, i.e. he was not ‘anti-foreignisms/loanwords’ as such." See p. 150 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2003, ‘‘Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew’’, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). ISBN 1-4039-1723-X. Language example Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Estonian: Kõik inimesed sünnivad vabadena ja võrdsetena oma väärikuselt ja õigustelt. Neile on antud mõistus ja südametunnistus ja nende suhtumist üksteisesse peab kandma vendluse vaim. (All people are born free and equal in their dignity and rights. They are given reason and conscience and they shall create their relationships to one another according to the spirit of brotherhood.) References See also Swadesh list for Finnic languages Swadesh list for Finno-Ugric languages External links Summer School of Estonian at Tallinn University Estonica.org article Estonian literary magazine Maps of dialect areas from the Institute of the Estonian Language Estonian Language Handbook (Eesti keele käsiraamat) — Institute of the Estonian Language Learn Estonian! - Rated list of online Estonian courses and other resources Õigekeelsussõnaraamat: shows the inflection of more than 100000 Estonian words, based on 90 patterns of nouns and 200 patterns of verbs Estonian verb conjugator and noun declinator Learn to speak Estonian *Eesti keel ja meel*("Estonian Language and Mind"). A computer-based course in colloquial Estonian using English, German, French, Russian, Italian, Dutch, Romanian, Greek, or Hungarian as the source language. It is best suited for advanced beginners and intermediate students of Estonian. It can be used on-line or purchased as a DVD-disk (ISBN 9789985979457). Estonian language course Dictionaries An Estonian-English dictionary (Institute of the Estonian Language) An English-Estonian-English dictionary (Institute of Baltic Studies) — based on a common school dictionary An Estonian-English-Estonian dictionary An Estonian-English-Estonian dictionary Recordings Various audio files of speakers of Estonian dialects, settlers and emigres | Estonian_language |@lemmatized estonian:88 official:2 language:57 estonia:14 speak:3 million:1 people:2 ten:1 thousand:1 various:3 émigré:1 community:1 finno:2 ugric:2 closely:2 relate:5 finnish:12 one:10 distinctive:4 feature:4 cause:3 great:1 amount:1 interest:1 linguist:1 traditionally:1 see:8 three:3 degree:1 phoneme:5 length:10 short:5 long:11 overlong:3 distinct:2 actuality:1 distinction:1 purely:2 underlying:1 phonological:1 mechanism:1 still:2 dispute:1 state:5 cannot:2 tongue:2 land:1 fire:1 incantation:1 rise:1 heaven:1 seek:1 eternity:1 kristjan:3 jaak:3 peterson:3 line:2 interpret:1 claim:1 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5,786 | Crystallographic_defect | Crystalline solids have a very regular atomic structure: that is, the local positions of atoms with respect to each other are repeated at the atomic scale. These arrangements are called crystal structures, and their study is called crystallography. However, most crystalline materials are not perfect: the regular pattern of atomic arrangement is interrupted by crystal defects. P. Ehrhart, Properties and interactions of atomic defects in metals and alloys,volume 25 of Landolt-Börnstein, New Series III, chapter 2, page 88, Springer, Berlin, 1991 R. W. Siegel, Atomic Defects and Diffusion in Metals, in Point Defects and Defect Interactions in Metals, edited by J.-I. Takamura, page 783, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1982 Point Defects in Solids, edited by J. H. Crawford and L. M. Slifkin (Plenum Press, New York, 1975) G. D. Watkins, Native defects and their interactions with impurities in silicon, in Defects and Diffusion in Silicon Processing, edited by T. Diaz de la Rubia, S. Coffa, P. A. Stolk, and C. S. Rafferty, volume 469 of MRS Symposium Proceedings, page 139, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1997 . The various types of defects are enumerated here. Point defects Point defects are defects which are not extended in space in any dimension. There is not strict limit for how small a "point" defect should be, but typically the term is used to mean defects which involve at most a few extra or missing atoms without an ordered structure of the defective positions. Larger defects in an ordered structure are usually considered dislocation loops. For historical reasons, many point defects especially in ionic crystals are called 'centers': for example the vacancy in many ionic solids is called an F-center. Vacancies are sites which are usually occupied by an atom but which are unoccupied. If a neighboring atom moves to occupy the vacant site, the vacancy moves in the opposite direction to the site which used to be occupied by the moving atom. The stability of the surrounding crystal structure guarantees that the neighboring atoms will not simply collapse around the vacancy. In some materials, neighboring atoms actually move away from a vacancy, because they can form better bonds with atoms in the other directions. A vacancy (or pair of vacancies in an ionic solid) is sometimes called a Schottky defect. Interstitials are atoms which occupy a site in the crystal structure at which there is usually not an atom. They are generally high energy configurations. Small atoms in some crystals can occupy interstices without high energy, such as hydrogen in palladium. Schematic illustration of some simple point defect types in a monatomic solid A nearby pair of a vacancy and an interstitial is often called a Frenkel defect or Frenkel pair Impurities occur because materials are never 100% pure. In the case of an impurity, the atom is often incorporated at a regular atomic site in the crystal structure. This is neither a vacant site nor is the atom on an interstitial site and it is called a substitutional defect. The atom is not supposed to be anywhere in the crystal, and is thus an impurity. Antisite defects T. Mattila and R. M. Nieminen, Direct Antisite Formation in Electron Irradiation of GaAs, Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 2721 (1995) H. Hausmann, A. Pillukat, and P. Ehrhart, Point defects and their reactions in electron-irradiated GaAs investigated by optical absorption spectroscopy, Phys. Rev. B 54, 8527 (1996) occur in an ordered alloy or compound. For example, some alloys have a regular structure in which every other atom is a different species, for illustration assume that type A atoms sit on the cube corners of a cubic lattice, and type B atoms sit in center of the cubes. If one cube has an A atom at its center, the atom is on a site usually occupied by an atom, but it is not the correct type. This is neither a vacancy nor an interstitial, nor an impurity. Topological defects are regions in a crystal where the normal chemical bonding environment is topologically different from the surroundings. For instance, in a perfect sheet of graphite (graphene) all atoms are in rings containing six atoms. If the sheet contains regions where the number of atoms in a ring is different from six, while the total number of atoms remains the same, a topological defect has formed. An example is the Stone Wales defect in nanotubes, which consists of two adjacent 5-membered and two 7-membered atom rings. Schematic illustration of defects in a compound solid, using GaAs as an example. (Click on the figure!) Also amorphous solids may contain defects. These are naturally somewhat hard to define, but sometimes their nature can be quite easily understood. For instance, in ideally bonded amorphous silica all Si atoms have 4 bonds to O atoms and all O atoms have 2 bonds to Si atom. Thus e.g. an O atom with only one Si bond (a dangling bond) can be considered a defect in silica. K. Lieb and J. Keinonen, Luminescence of ion-irradiated a-quartz, Contemporary Physics 47, 305 (2006) Complexes can form between different kinds of point defects. For example, if a vacancy encounters an impurity, the two may bind together if the impurity is too large for the lattice. Interstitials can form 'split interstitial' or 'dumbbell' structures where two atoms effectively share an atomic site, resulting in neither atom actually occupying the site. Line defects Line defects can be described by gauge theories. Dislocations are linear defects around which some of the atoms of the crystal lattice are misaligned. J. P. Hirth and J. Lothe, Theory of dislocations (Krieger, Malabar, Florida), 2nd edition, 1992 There are two basic types of dislocations, the EDGE dislocation and the SCREW dislocation. ("MIXED" dislocations combining aspects of both types are also common). An edge dislocation is shown. The dislocation line is presented in blue, the Burgers vector b in black. Edge dislocations are caused by the termination of a plane of atoms in the middle of a crystal. In such a case, the adjacent planes are not straight, but instead bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal structure is perfectly ordered on either side. The analogy with a stack of paper is apt: if a half a piece of paper is inserted in a stack of paper, the defect in the stack is only noticeable at the edge of the half sheet. The screw dislocation is more difficult to visualise, but basically comprises a structure in which a helical path is traced around the linear defect (dislocation line) by the atomic planes of atoms in the crystal lattice. The presence of dislocation results in lattice strain (distortion). The direction and magnitude of such distortion is expressed in terms of a Burgers vector (b). For an edge type, b is perpendicular to the dislocation line, whereas in the cases of the screw type it is parallel. In metallic materials, b is aligned with close-packed crytallographic directions and its magnitude is equivalent to one interatomic spacing. Dislocations can move if the atoms from one of the surrounding planes break their bonds and rebond with the atoms at the terminating edge. It is the presence of dislocations and their ability to readily move (and interact) under the influence of stresses induced by external loads that leads to the characteristic malleability of metallic materials. Dislocations can be observed using transmission electron microscopy, field ion microscopy and atom probe techniques. Deep level transient spectroscopy has been used for studying the electrical activity of dislocations in semiconductors, mainly silicon. Disclinations are line defects corresponding to "adding" or "subtracting" an angle around a line. Basically, this means that if you track the crystal orientation around the line defect, you get a rotation. Usually they play a role only in liquid crystals. Planar defects Grain boundaries occur where the crystallographic direction of the lattice abruptly changes. This usually occurs when two crystals begin growing separately and then meet. Anti phase boundaries occur in ordered alloys: in this case, the crystallographic direction remains the same, each side of the boundary has an opposite phase: For example if the ordering is usually ABABABAB, an anti phase boundary takes the form of ABABBABA. Stacking faults occur in a number of crystal structures, but the common example is in close-packed structures. Face-centered cubic (fcc) structures differ from hexagonal close packed (hcp) structures only in stacking order: both structures have close packed atomic planes with sixfold symmetry -- the atoms form equilateral triangles. When stacking one of these layers on top of another, the atoms are not directly on top of one another -- the first two layers are identical for hcp and fcc, and labelled AB. If the third layer is placed so that its atoms are directly above those of the first layer, the stacking will be ABA -- this is the hcp structure, and it continues ABABABAB. However there is another location for the third layer, such that its atoms are not above the first layer. Instead, the fourth layer is placed so that its atoms are directly above the first layer. This produces the stacking ABCABCABC, and is actually a cubic arrangement of the atoms. A stacking fault is a one or two layer interruption in the stacking sequence, for example if the sequence ABCABABCAB were found in an fcc structure. Bulk defects Voids are small regions where there are no atoms, and can be thought of as clusters of vacancies. Impurities can cluster together to form small regions of a different phase. These are often called precipitates. Mathematical Classification Method A successful mathematical classification method for physical lattice defects, which works not only with the theory of dislocations and other defects in crystals but also, e.g., for disclinations in liquid crystals and for excitations in superfluid , is the topological homotopy theory. N. D. Mermin, The topological theory of defects in ordered media, Rev. Mod. Phys. 51 (1979) 591, See also Crystallographic defects in diamond Kröger-Vink Notation Single references Books Hagen Kleinert, Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter, Vol. II, "STRESSES AND DEFECTS", pp. 743–1456, World Scientific (Singapore, 1989); Paperback ISBN 9971-5-0210-0 (also available online here) Hermann Schmalzried: Solid State Reactions. 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5,787 | FIFA_World_Cup_Trophy | The World Cup is a gold trophy that is awarded to the winners of the FIFA World Cup. Since the advent of the World Cup in 1930, two trophies have represented victory: the Jules Rimet Trophy from 1930 to 1970, and the FIFA World Cup Trophy from 1974 to the present day. The Jules Rimet Trophy, originally named Victory, but later renamed in honour of former FIFA president Jules Rimet, was made of gold plated sterling silver and lapis lazuli and depicted Nike, the Greek goddess of victory. Brazil won the trophy outright in 1970, prompting the commissioning of a replacement. The Jules Rimet Trophy was stolen in 1983 and never recovered. The replacement trophy, the FIFA World Cup Trophy, was first used in 1974. Made of 18 carat gold with a malachite base, it depicts two human figures holding up the Earth. The current holders of the trophy are Italy, winners of the 2006 World Cup. Jules Rimet Trophy Replica of the Jules Rimet Trophy awarded to winners Uruguay in 1930 The Jules Rimet Trophy was the original prize for winning the World Cup. Originally called "Victory", but generally known simply as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde, it was officially renamed in 1946 to honour the FIFA President Jules Rimet who in 1929 passed a vote to initiate the competition. Designed by Abel Lafleur and made of gold plated sterling silver on a blue base of lapis lazuli, it stood 35 centimetres (14 in) high and weighed 3.8 kilograms (8.4 lb). It comprised an octagonal cup, supported by a winged figure representing Nike, the ancient Greek goddess of victory. The Jules Rimet Trophy was taken to Uruguay for the first FIFA World Cup aboard the Conte Verde, which set sail from Villefranche-sur-Mer, just south of Nice, on 21 June 1930. This was the same ship that carried Jules Rimet and the footballers representing France, Romania and Belgium who were participating in the tournament that year. The first team to be awarded the trophy were Uruguay, the winners of the 1930 World Cup. During World War II, the trophy was held by 1938 winners Italy. Ottorino Barassi, the Italian vice-president of FIFA and president of FIGC, secretly transported the trophy from a bank in Rome and hid it in a shoe-box under his bed to prevent the Nazis from taking it. On 20 March 1966, four months before the 1966 FIFA World Cup in England, the trophy was stolen during a public exhibition at Westminster Central Hall. The trophy was found just seven days later wrapped in newspaper at the bottom of a suburban garden hedge in Upper Norwood, South London, by a dog named Pickles. As a security measure, The Football Association secretly manufactured a replica of the trophy for use in the post-match celebrations. The replica was also used on subsequent occasions until 1970. The replica was sold at an auction in 1997 for £254,500, when it was purchased by FIFA. The high auction price, several times the reserve price of £20,000-£30,000, led to speculation that the auctioned trophy was not a replica, and was in fact genuine. Subsequent to the auction, FIFA arranged for the replica to be displayed at the English National Football Museum in Preston. The Brazilian team won the tournament for the third time in 1970, allowing them to keep the real trophy in perpetuity, as had been stipulated by Jules Rimet in 1930. However, the cup was stolen again on 19 December 1983, when it was taken from a display at the Brazilian Football Confederation headquarters in Rio de Janeiro. The trophy was kept in a cabinet with a front of bullet-proof glass, but a rear made of wood was pried open with a crowbar. The trophy was never recovered, which suggests it may have been melted down. Four men were eventually tried and convicted in absentia for the crime. The Confederation commissioned a replica of their own, made by Eastman Kodak, using 1.8 kg (3.97 lb) of gold. This replica was presented to the Brazilian president in 1984. FIFA World Cup Trophy The FIFA World Cup (awarded 1974–Present) FIFA World Cup Trophy on a German stamp The replacement trophy was first presented at the 1974 FIFA World Cup, to West Germany captain Franz Beckenbauer. Designed by Silvio Gazzaniga and produced by Bertoni, Milano, it stands 36.5 centimetres (14.4 inches) tall and is made of 5 kg (11 lb) of 18 carat (75%) solid gold with a base (13 centimetres [5.1 inches] in diameter) containing two layers of malachite. The trophy, which weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb) in total, depicts two human figures holding up the Earth. The trophy has the visible engravement "FIFA World Cup" in outpouring letters at its base. The name of the country whose national team wins each tournament is engraved in the bottom side of the trophy, and therefore is not visible when the trophy is standing upright. The text states the year in figures and the name of winning nation in English, for example "— 2002 Brazil". As of 2006 nine winners have been engraved on the base. It is not known whether FIFA will retire the trophy after all of the name plaques at the base are filled in; this will not occur until after the 2038 World Cup at the earliest. FIFA's regulations now state that the trophy, unlike its predecessor, cannot be won outright: the winners of the tournament receive a replica (gold plated rather than solid gold). Shortly before the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany, the trophy was briefly returned to Italy for restoration before eventually being awarded to the same country. On 14 July 2006 it was reported that The World Cup Trophy appeared to have been broken after being in Italy's hands for only a few days. Fabio Cannavaro, Italy's captain, was photographed holding a piece of green malachite that had broken off the base, which was subsequently glued back into place. 'World Cup suffers at hands of the winners', Daily Telegraph, 14 July 2006. Before the FIFA World Cup Final Game starts, players get to stare and admire the cup while getting into the stadium. It is considered bad luck to touch the cup before the end of the game. According to the myth, if a player participating on the Final game touches the cup, the team he plays for will lose the FIFA World Cup Final game. Winners Jules Rimet Trophy Brazil - 1958, 1962, 1970 Italy - 1934, 1938 Uruguay - 1930, 1950 West Germany - 1954 England - 1966 FIFA World Cup Trophy Brazil - 1994, 2002 Italy - 1982, 2006 West Germany - 1974, 1990 Argentina - 1978, 1986 France - 1998 Total CountryJules Rimet TrophyFIFA World CupTotal Brazil325 Italy224 Germany (as West Germany)123 Argentina022 Uruguay202 England101 France011T O T A L9918Countries won55 References External links The story of the 1966 theft The Observer FIFA Trophies (PDF) | FIFA_World_Cup_Trophy |@lemmatized world:25 cup:28 gold:8 trophy:38 award:4 winner:9 fifa:22 since:1 advent:1 two:4 represent:3 victory:5 jules:12 rimet:13 present:4 day:3 originally:2 name:5 later:2 rename:2 honour:2 former:1 president:5 make:5 plat:3 sterling:2 silver:2 lapis:2 lazuli:2 depict:3 nike:2 greek:2 goddess:2 brazil:4 win:6 outright:2 prompt:1 commissioning:1 replacement:3 steal:3 never:2 recover:2 first:4 use:4 carat:2 malachite:3 base:7 human:2 figure:4 hold:4 earth:2 current:1 holder:1 italy:7 replica:9 uruguay:4 original:1 prize:1 call:1 generally:1 know:2 simply:1 coupe:1 du:1 monde:1 officially:1 pass:1 vote:1 initiate:1 competition:1 design:2 abel:1 lafleur:1 blue:1 stand:3 centimetre:3 high:2 weigh:2 kilogram:1 lb:4 comprise:1 octagonal:1 support:1 winged:1 ancient:1 take:3 aboard:1 conte:1 verde:1 set:1 sail:1 villefranche:1 sur:1 mer:1 south:2 nice:1 june:1 ship:1 carry:1 footballer:1 france:2 romania:1 belgium:1 participate:2 tournament:4 year:2 team:4 war:1 ii:1 ottorino:1 barassi:1 italian:1 vice:1 figc:1 secretly:2 transport:1 bank:1 rome:1 hid:1 shoe:1 box:1 bed:1 prevent:1 nazi:1 march:1 four:2 month:1 england:2 public:1 exhibition:1 westminster:1 central:1 hall:1 find:1 seven:1 wrap:1 newspaper:1 bottom:2 suburban:1 garden:1 hedge:1 upper:1 norwood:1 london:1 dog:1 pickle:1 security:1 measure:1 football:3 association:1 manufacture:1 post:1 match:1 celebration:1 also:1 subsequent:2 occasion:1 sell:1 auction:3 purchase:1 price:2 several:1 time:2 reserve:1 lead:1 speculation:1 auctioned:1 fact:1 genuine:1 arrange:1 display:2 english:2 national:2 museum:1 preston:1 brazilian:3 third:1 allow:1 keep:2 real:1 perpetuity:1 stipulate:1 however:1 december:1 confederation:2 headquarters:1 rio:1 de:1 janeiro:1 cabinet:1 front:1 bullet:1 proof:1 glass:1 rear:1 made:1 wood:1 pry:1 open:1 crowbar:1 suggest:1 may:1 melt:1 men:1 eventually:2 try:1 convict:1 absentia:1 crime:1 commission:1 eastman:1 kodak:1 kg:3 awarded:1 german:1 stamp:1 west:4 germany:6 captain:2 franz:1 beckenbauer:1 silvio:1 gazzaniga:1 produce:1 bertoni:1 milano:1 inch:2 tall:1 solid:2 diameter:1 contain:1 layer:1 total:2 visible:2 engravement:1 outpouring:1 letter:1 country:2 whose:1 engrave:2 side:1 therefore:1 upright:1 text:1 state:2 nation:1 example:1 nine:1 whether:1 retire:1 plaques:1 fill:1 occur:1 early:1 regulation:1 unlike:1 predecessor:1 cannot:1 receive:1 rather:1 shortly:1 briefly:1 return:1 restoration:1 july:2 report:1 appear:1 break:2 hand:2 fabio:1 cannavaro:1 photograph:1 piece:1 green:1 subsequently:1 glue:1 back:1 place:1 suffers:1 daily:1 telegraph:1 final:3 game:4 start:1 player:2 get:2 stare:1 admire:1 stadium:1 consider:1 bad:1 luck:1 touch:2 end:1 accord:1 myth:1 play:1 lose:1 argentina:1 countryjules:1 trophyfifa:1 cuptotal:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 story:1 theft:1 observer:1 pdf:1 |@bigram jules_rimet:12 rimet_trophy:8 trophy_fifa:3 lapis_lazuli:2 carat_gold:1 du_monde:1 weigh_kilogram:1 kilogram_lb:1 sur_mer:1 vice_president:1 upper_norwood:1 de_janeiro:1 convict_absentia:1 eastman_kodak:1 kg_lb:3 franz_beckenbauer:1 centimetre_inch:2 weigh_kg:1 fabio_cannavaro:1 daily_telegraph:1 bad_luck:1 external_link:1 |
5,788 | Cytoplasm | Schematic showing the cytoplasm, with major components of a typical animal cell (organelles): (1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosomes (little dots) (4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (6) Golgi apparatus (7) Cytoskeleton (8) smooth ER (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole (11) cytoplasm (12) lysosome (13) centrioles within centrosome The cytoplasm is the part of a cell that is enclosed within the plasma membrane. In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm contains organelles, such as mitochondria, which are filled with liquid that is kept separate from the rest of the cytoplasm by biological membranes. The cytoplasm is the site where most cellular activities occur, such as many metabolic pathways, and processes such as cell division. The part of the cytoplasm that is not held within organelles is called the cytosol. The cytosol is a complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved molecules, and water that fills much of the volume of a cell. The cytosol is a gel, with a network of fibers dispersed through water. Due to this network of pores and high concentrations of dissolved macromolecules, such as proteins, an effect called macromolecular crowding occurs and the cytosol does not act as an ideal solution. This crowding effect alters how the components of the cytosol interact with each other. Constituents The cytoplasm has three major elements; the cytosol, organelles and inclusions. Cytosol Proteins in different cellular compartments and structures tagged with green fluorescent protein. The cytosol is the portion of a cell that is not enclosed within membrane-bound organelles. The cytosol is a translucent fluid in which the other cytoplasmic elements are suspended. Cytosol makes up about 70 % of the cell volume and is composed of water, salts and organic molecules. Cytoplasm Composition The cytoplasm also contains the protein filaments that make up the cytoskeleton, as well as soluble proteins and large structures such as ribosomes, proteasomes, and the mysterious vault complexes. The inner, granular and more fluid portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm. Organelles Organelles are membrane-bound compartments within the cell that have specific functions. Some major organelles that are suspended in the cytosol are the mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and in plant cells chloroplasts. Cytoplasmic inclusions The inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the cytosol. A huge range of inclusions exist in different cell types, and range from crystals of calcium oxalate or silicon dioxide in plants, to granules of energy-storage materials such as starchs, glycogen, or polyhydroxybutyrate. A particularly widespread example are lipid droplets, which are spherical droplets composed of lipids and proteins that are used in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes as a way of storing lipids such as fatty acids and sterols. Lipid droplets make up much of the volume of adipocytes, which are specialized lipid-storage cells, but they are also found in a range of other cell types. Notes Further reading Alberts, Bruce et al. (2003). Essential Cell Biology, 2nd ed., Garland Science, 2003, ISBN 081533480X. Human Anatomy & Physiology, seventh edition By; Elain N Marieb and Latja Hoehn. External links What is cytoplasm? - by Genevieve Theirs -2002 Luby-Phelps K. Cytoarchitecture and physical properties of cytoplasm: volume, viscosity, diffusion, intracellular surface area. Int Rev Cytol. 2000;192:189-221. | Cytoplasm |@lemmatized schematic:1 show:1 cytoplasm:13 major:3 component:2 typical:1 animal:1 cell:13 organelle:8 nucleolus:1 nucleus:1 ribosome:2 little:1 dot:1 vesicle:1 rough:1 endoplasmic:2 reticulum:2 er:2 golgi:2 apparatus:2 cytoskeleton:3 smooth:1 mitochondrion:3 vacuole:1 lysosome:2 centriole:1 within:5 centrosome:1 part:2 enclose:2 plasma:1 membrane:4 eukaryotic:1 contain:2 fill:2 liquid:1 keep:1 separate:1 rest:1 biological:1 site:1 cellular:2 activity:1 occur:1 many:1 metabolic:1 pathway:1 process:1 division:1 hold:1 call:2 cytosol:12 complex:2 mixture:1 filament:1 dissolve:1 molecule:2 water:3 much:2 volume:4 gel:1 network:2 fiber:1 disperse:1 due:1 pore:1 high:1 concentration:1 dissolved:1 macromolecule:1 protein:5 effect:2 macromolecular:1 crowding:1 occurs:1 act:1 ideal:1 solution:1 crowd:1 alter:1 interact:1 constituent:1 three:1 element:2 inclusion:4 proteins:1 different:2 compartment:2 structure:2 tag:1 green:1 fluorescent:1 portion:2 bound:2 translucent:1 fluid:2 cytoplasmic:2 suspend:3 make:3 compose:2 salt:1 organic:1 composition:1 also:2 filaments:1 well:1 soluble:1 large:1 proteasomes:1 mysterious:1 vault:1 inner:1 granular:1 refer:1 endoplasm:1 specific:1 function:1 plant:2 chloroplast:1 small:1 particle:1 insoluble:1 substance:1 huge:1 range:3 exist:1 type:2 crystal:1 calcium:1 oxalate:1 silicon:1 dioxide:1 granule:1 energy:1 storage:2 material:1 starch:1 glycogen:1 polyhydroxybutyrate:1 particularly:1 widespread:1 example:1 lipid:5 droplet:3 spherical:1 use:1 prokaryote:1 eukaryotes:1 way:1 store:1 fatty:1 acid:1 sterol:1 adipocytes:1 specialize:1 find:1 note:1 far:1 reading:1 albert:1 bruce:1 et:1 al:1 essential:1 biology:1 ed:1 garland:1 science:1 isbn:1 human:1 anatomy:1 physiology:1 seventh:1 edition:1 elain:1 n:1 marieb:1 latja:1 hoehn:1 external:1 link:1 genevieve:1 luby:1 phelps:1 k:1 cytoarchitecture:1 physical:1 property:1 viscosity:1 diffusion:1 intracellular:1 surface:1 area:1 int:1 rev:1 cytol:1 |@bigram organelle_nucleolus:1 nucleolus_nucleus:1 nucleus_ribosome:1 vesicle_rough:1 rough_endoplasmic:1 endoplasmic_reticulum:2 reticulum_er:1 er_golgi:1 golgi_apparatus:2 apparatus_cytoskeleton:1 cytoskeleton_smooth:1 smooth_er:1 mitochondrion_vacuole:1 vacuole_cytoplasm:1 cytoplasm_lysosome:1 lysosome_centriole:1 plasma_membrane:1 eukaryotic_cell:1 organelle_mitochondrion:1 metabolic_pathway:1 silicon_dioxide:1 starch_glycogen:1 fatty_acid:1 et_al:1 anatomy_physiology:1 external_link:1 |
5,789 | Antibiotics | Testing the susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus to antibiotics by the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. Antibiotics diffuse out from antibiotic-containing disks and inhibit growth of S. aureus resulting in a zone of inhibition. In common usage, an antibiotic is a substance or compound (also called chemotherapeutic agent) that kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria. Antibiotics belong to the group of antimicrobial compounds used to treat infections caused by microorganisms, including fungi and protozoa. The term "antibiotic" (from the – anti, "against" and – bios, "life") was coined by Selman Waksman in 1942 to describe any substance produced by a micro-organism that is antagonistic to the growth of other micro-organisms in high dilution. This original definition excluded naturally occurring substances, such as gastric juice and hydrogen peroxide (they kill bacteria but are not produced by micro-organisms), and also excluded synthetic compounds such as the sulfonamides (which are antimicrobial agents). Many antibiotics are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight less than 2000 Da. With advances in medicinal chemistry, most antibiotics are now modified chemically from original compounds found in nature, as is the case with beta-lactams (which include the penicillins, produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium, the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems). Some antibiotics are still produced and isolated from living organisms, such as the aminoglycosides; in addition, many more have been created through purely synthetic means, such as the quinolones. History of antibiotics Penicillin, the first natural antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. Although potent antibiotic compounds for treatment of human diseases caused by bacteria (such as tuberculosis, bubonic plague, or leprosy) were not isolated and identified until the twentieth century, cures for infection were described in ancient Chinese medicine using plants with antibiotic-like properties over 2,500 years ago. How Products Are Made: Antibiotics Many other ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians, ancient Greeks and medieval Arabs already used molds and plants to treat infections. Cinchona bark became widely used as a therapeutic agent in the 17th century for the treatment of malaria, the disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Originally known as antiobiosis, antibiotics were drugs that had actions against bacteria. The term antibiosis which means ‘against life’ was introduced by the French bacteriologist Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these drugs. Calderon CB, Sabundayo BP (2007). Antimicrobial Classifications: Drugs for Bugs. In Schwalbe R, Steele-Moore L, Goodwin AC. Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Protocols. CRC Press. Taylor & Frances group. ISBN 0-8247-4100-5 (Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. ). These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Wakeman, an American microbiologist in 1942. Chemotherapy as a science and the story of antibiotic development began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich, a German medical scientist in the late 1880s. Dr. Ehrlich noted that certain dyes would bind to and color human, animal or bacterial cells, while others did not. He then extended the idea that it might be possible to make certain dyes or chemicals that would act as a magic bullet or selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria while not harming the human host. After much experimentation, screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, he discovered the first medicinally useful drug, the man-made antibiotic, Salvarsan. However, the adverse side-effect profile of salvarsan, coupled with the later discovery of the antibiotic penicillin, superseded its use as an antibiotic. The work of Ehrlich, which marked the birth of the antibiotic revolution, was followed by the discovery of Prontosil by Domagk in 1932. Prontosil, the first commercially available antibacterial antibiotic was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk (who received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts) at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci but not against enterobacteria. The discovery and development of this first sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibiotics. The antibiotic properties of Penicillium sp. were first described in England by John Tyndall in 1875. However, his work went by without much notice from the scientific community until Alexander Fleming's discovery of Penicillin in 1928. Even then the therapeutic potential of penicillin was not pursued. More than ten years later, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey became interested in Flemming's work, and came up with the purified form of penicillin. The purified antibiotic displayed antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria. It also had low toxicity and could be taken without causing adverse effects. Furthermore it’s activity was not inhibited by biological contituents such as pus unlike the sulfonamides. At the time, no-one had discovered a compound equalling this activity. The discovery of penicillin led to renewed interest into the search of antibiotic compounds with similar capabilities. Because of their discovery of penicillin Ernst Chain and Howard Florey and Alexander Fleming shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine. In 1939, Rene Dubos isolated gramicidin, one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics in use during World War II to prove highly effective in treating wounds and ulcers. Florey credited Dubos for reviving his research on penicillin. Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics Points of attack on bacteria by antibiotics The environment of individual antibiotics varies with the location of the infection, the ability of the antibiotic to reach the infection site, and the ability of the microbe to inactivate or excrete the antibiotic. At the highest level, antibiotics can be classified as either bactericidal or bacteriostatic. Bactericidals kill bacteria directly where bacteriostatics prevent cell division. However, these classifications are based on laboratory behavior; in practice, both of these are capable of ending a bacterial infection. Pelczar, M.J., Chan, E.C.S. and Krieg, N.R. (1999) “Host-Parasite Interaction; Nonspecific Host Resistance”, In: Microbiology Conceptsand Applications, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, U.S.A. pp. 478-479. The bactericidal activity of antibiotics may be growth phase dependent and in most but not all cases action of many bactericidal antibiotics requires ongoing cell activity and cell division for the drugs' killing activity. The minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration are used to measure in vitro activity antimicrobial and is an excellent indicator of antimicrobial potency. However, in clinical practice these measurements alone are insufficient to predict clinical outcome. By combining the pharmacokinetic profile of antibiotic with the antimicrobial activity several pharmacological parameters appear to be significant markers of drug efficacy. http://medind.nic.in/ibi/t02/i6/ibit02i6p390.pdf (accessed 13th Nov 2008) The activity of antibiotics may be concentration-dependent and characteristic antimicrobial activity increases with the progressively higher antibiotic concentrations. They may also be time-dependent where the antimicrobial activity does not increase with increasing antibiotic concentrations, however it is critical that the minimum inhibitory serum concentrations is maintained for a certain length of time. Administration Oral antibiotics are simply ingested, while intravenous antibiotics are used in more serious cases, such as deep-seated systemic infections. Antibiotics may also sometimes be administered topically, as with eye drops or ointments. Antibiotic classes Unlike many previous treatments for infections, which often consisted of administering chemical compounds such as strychnine and arsenic, with high toxicity also against mammals, most antibiotics from microbes have fewer side-effects, and high effective target activity. Most anti-bacterial antibiotics do not have activity against viruses, fungi, or other microbes. Anti-bacterial antibiotics can be categorized based on their target specificity: "narrow-spectrum" antibiotics target particular types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, while broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Antibiotics which target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins, cephalosporins), or cell membrane (polymixins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (quinolones, sulfonamides) usually are bactericidal in nature. Those which target protein synthesis such as the aminoglycosides, macrolides and tetracyclines are usually bacteriostatic. In the last few years three new classes of antibiotics have been brought into clinical use. This follows a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibiotic compounds. These new antibiotics are of the following three classes: cyclic lipopeptides (daptomycin), glycylcyclines (tigecycline), and oxazolidinones (linezolid). Tigecycline is a broad-spectrum antibiotic, while the two others are used for Gram-positive infections. These developments show promise as a means to counteract the growing bacterial resistance to existing antibiotics. Production Since the first pioneering efforts of Florey and Chain in 1939, the importance of antibiotics to medicine has led to much research into discovering and producing them. The process of production usually involves screening of wide ranges of microorganisms, testing and modification. Production is carried out using fermentation, usually in strongly aerobic form. Side effects Although antibiotics are generally considered safe and well tolerated, they have been associated with a wide range of adverse effects. Side effects are many, varied and can be very serious depending on the antibiotics used and the microbial organisms targeted. The safety profiles of newer medications may not be as well established as those that have been in use for many years. Adverse effects can range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions including photodermatitis. One of the more common side effects is diarrhoea, sometimes caused by the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium difficile, which results from the antibiotic disrupting the normal balance of the intestinal flora, University of Michigan Health System: Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhoea, November 26, 2006 Such overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria may be alleviated by ingesting probiotics during a course of antibiotics. . An antibiotic-induced disruption of the population of the bacteria normally present as constituents of the normal vaginal flora may also occur, and may lead to overgrowth of yeast species of the genus Candida in the vulvo-vaginal area. Other side effects can result from interaction with other drugs, such as elevated risk of tendon damage from administration of a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid. Drug-Drug interactions Contraceptive pill Hypothetically, interference of some antibiotics with the efficiency of birth control pills is thought to occur in two ways. Modification of the intestinal gut flora resulting in the reduced absorption of the estrogens and induction of hepatic liver enzymes which metabolise the pills active ingredients faster may affect the pill's usefulness. However, the majority of studies indicate that antibiotics do not interfere with contraception, even though a small percentage of women may experience decreased effectiveness of birth control pills while taking an antibiotic the failure rate is comparible to those taking the pill. Moreover, there have been no studies that have conclusively demonstrated that disruption of the gut flora affects contraception. Interaction with the combined oral contraceptive pill through induction of hepatic enzymes by the antifungal medication griseofulvin and the broad-spectrum antibiotic rifampicin has been shown to occur. It is recommended that extra contraceptive measures are applied during antimicrobial therapy using these antimicrobials. Alcohol Alcohol can interfere with the activity or metabolization of antibiotics. It may affect the activity of liver enzymes, which break down the antibiotics. Moreover, certain antibiotics, including metronidazole, tinidazole, co-trimoxazole, cephamandole, ketoconazole, latamoxef, cefoperazone, amoxicillin, cefmenoxime, and furazolidone, chemically react with alcohol, leading to serious side effects, which include severe vomiting, nausea, and shortness of breath. Alcohol consumption while taking such antibiotics is therefore explicitly prohibited. Additionally, serum levels of doxycycline and erythromycin succinate may, in certain circumstances, be significantly reduced by alcohol consumption. Stockley, IH (2002), Stockley's Drug Interactions. 6th ed. London: Pharmaceutical Press. Antibiotic resistance SEM depicting methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. The emergence of antibiotic resistance is an evolutionary process that is based on selection for organisms that have enhanced ability to survive doses of antibiotics that would have previously been lethal. Antibiotics like Penicillin and Erythromycin which used to be one-time miracle cures are now less effective because bacteria have become more resistant. Antibiotics themselves act as a selective pressure which allows the growth of resistant bacteria within a population and inhibits susceptible bacteria. Antibiotic selection of pre-existing antibiotic resistant mutants within bacterial populations was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria-Delbrück experiment. Survival of bacteria often results from an inheritable resistance. Any antibiotic resistance may impose a biological cost and the spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria may be hampered by the reduced fitness associated with the resistance which proves disadvantageous for survival of the bacteria when antibiotic is not present. Additional mutations, however, may compensate for this fitness cost and aids the survival of these bacteria. The underlying molecular mechanisms leading to antibiotic resistance can vary. Intrinsic resistance may naturally occur as a result of the bacteria's genetic makeup. The bacterial chromosome may fail to encode a protein which the antibiotic targets. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibiotic-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms which have been shown to be similar to and may have been transferred to antibiotic resistant strains. The spread of antibiotic resistance mechanisms occurs through vertical transmission of inherited mutations from previous generations and genetic recomination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. Antibiotic resistance exchanged between different bacteria by plasmids that carry genes which encode antibiotic resistance which may result in co-resistance to multiple antibiotics. These plasmids can carry different genes with diverse resistance mechanisms to unrelated antibiotics but because they are located on the same plasmid multiple antibiotic resistance to more than one antibiotic is transferred. Alternatively, cross-resistance to other antibiotics within the bacteria results when the same resistance mechanism is responsible for resistance to more than one antibiotic is selected for. Antibiotic misuse Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have been a contributing factor to the emergence of resistant bacteria. The problem is further exacerbated by self-prescribing of antibiotics by individuals without the guidelines of a qualified clinician and the non-therapeutic use of antibiotics as growth promoters in agriculture. Antibiotics are frequently prescribed for indications in which their use is not warranted, an incorrect or sub-optimal antibiotic is prescribed or in some cases for infections likely to resolve without treatment. Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to improve the regulatory climate. Approches to tackling the issues of missuse and overuse of antibiotics by the establishment of the Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance which aims actively address the problem antimicrobial resistance are being organised and coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and also includes the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), Centers for Medicare Medicaid Services (CMS), the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), the Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Department of Defense (DoD), the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). "." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved on March 12, 2009. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. The overuse of antibiotics like penicillin and erythromycin which used to be one-time miracle cures were associated with emerging resistance since the 1950s. Therapeutic usage of antibiotics in hospitals has been seen to be associated with increases in multi-antibiotic resistant bacteria. Common forms of antibiotic misuse include failure to take into account the patient's weight and history of prior antibiotic use when prescribing, since both can strongly affect the efficacy of an antibiotic prescription, failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, failure to prescribe or take the course of treatment at fairly precise correct daily intervals (e.g. "every 8 hours" rather than merely "3x per day"), or failure to rest for sufficient recovery to allow clearance of the infecting organism. These practices may facilitate the development of bacterial populations with antibiotic resistance. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment is another common form of antibiotic misuse. A common example is the prescription and use of antibiotics to treat viral infections such as the common cold that have no effect. In agriculture, associated antibiotic resistance with the non-therapeutic use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animals resulted in their restricted use in the UK in the 1970 (Swann report 1969). Currently there is a EU wide ban on the non-therapeutic use of antibiotics as growth promoters. It is estimated that greater than 70% of the antibiotics used in U.S. are given to feed animals (e.g. chickens, pigs and cattle) in the absence of disease. Mellon, M et al. (2001) Hogging It!: Estimates of Antimicrobial Abuse in Livestock, 1st ed. Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists. Antibiotic use in food animal production has been associated with the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria including Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus spp. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1997/WHO_EMC_ZOO_97.4.pdf (accessed Nov 12, 2008) http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1998/WHO_EMC_ZDI_98.12_(p1-p130).pdf (accessed Nov 12, 2008) Evidence from some US and European studies suggest that these resistant bacteria cause infections in humans that do not respond to commonly prescribed antibiotics. In response to these practices and attendant problems, several organizations (e.g. The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all non-therapeutic uses. However, delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics are common, and may include resistance to these changes by industries using or selling antibiotics, as well as time spent on research to establish causal links between antibiotic use and emergence of untreatable bacterial diseases. Two federal bills (S.742 GovTrack.us. S. 742--109th Congress (2005): Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2005, GovTrack.us (database of federal legislation) <http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=s109-742> (accessed Nov 12, 2008) and H.R. 2562 GovTrack.us. H.R. 2562--109th Congress (2005): Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2005, GovTrack.us (database of federal legislation) <http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-2562> (accessed Nov 12, 2008) ) aimed at phasing out non-therapeutic antibiotics in US food animal production were proposed but not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations including the American Holistic Nurses’ Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). http://www.acpm.org/2003051H.pdf (accessed Nov 12, 2008) The EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth promotional agents since 2003. http://www.legaltext.ee/text/en/T80294.htm (accessed Nov 12, 2008) One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who they believed expected them, although they correctly identified only about 1 in 4 of those patients". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescribing of antibiotics. Delaying antibiotics for 48 hours while observing for spontaneous resolution of respiratory tract infections may reduce antibiotic usage; however, this strategy may reduce patient satisfaction. Excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers may also be classified as misuse. In the United Kingdom, there are NHS posters in many doctors surgeries indicating that 'unfortunately, no amount of antibiotics will get rid of your cold', following on from many patients specifically requesting antibiotics from their doctor inappropriately, believing they will help treat viral infections. Resistance modifying agents One solution to combat resistance currently being researched is the development of pharmaceutical compounds that would revert multiple antibiotic resistance. These so called resistance modifying agents may target and inhibit MDR mechanisms, rendering the bacteria susceptible to antibiotics to which they were previously resistant. These compounds targets include among others Efflux inhibition(Phe-Arg-β-naphthylamide) B. Marquez. (2005). Bacterial efflux systems and efflux pumps inhibitors. Biochimie87 1137–1147 Beta Lactamase inhibitors - Including Clavulanic acid and Sulbactam Beyond antibiotics The comparative ease of identifying compounds which safely cured bacterial infections was more difficult to duplicate in treatments of fungal and viral infections. Antibiotic research led to great strides in the knowledge of biochemistry, establishing large differences between the cellular and molecular physiology of the bacterial cell and that of the mammalian cell. This explained the observation that many compounds that are toxic to bacteria are non-toxic to human cells. In contrast, the basic biochemistries of the fungal cell and the mammalian cell are much more similar. This restricts the development and use of therapeutic compounds that attack a fungal cell, while not harming mammalian cells. Similar problems exist in antibiotic treatments of viral diseases. Human viral metabolic biochemistry is very closely similar to human biochemistry, and the possible targets of antiviral compounds are restricted to very few components unique to a mammalian virus. Research into bacteriophages for use as antibiotics is presently ongoing. Several types of bacteriophage appear to exist that are specific for each bacterial taxonomic group or species. Research into bacteriophages for medicinal use is just beginning, but has led to advances in microscopic imaging. Purdue University "Biologists build better software, beat path to viral knowledge", see Imaging of Epsilon 15, a virus that infects the bacterium Salmonella News report While bacteriophages provide a possible solution to the problem of antibiotic resistance, there is no clinical evidence yet that they can be deployed as therapeutic agents to cure disease. Phage therapy, the use of particular viruses to attack bacteria, has been used in the past on humans in the US and Europe during the 1920s and 1930s, but these treatments had mixed results. With the discovery of penicillin in the 1940s, Europe and the US changed therapeutic strategies to using antibiotics. However, in the former Soviet Union phage therapies continued to be studied. In the Republic of Georgia, the Eliava Institute of Bacteriophage, Microbiology & Virology continues to research the use of phage therapy. Various companies and foundations in North America and Europe are currently researching phage therapies. However, phage are living and reproducing; concerns about genetic engineering in freely released viruses currently limit certain aspects of phage therapy. Bacteriocins are also a growing alternative to the classic small-molecule antibiotics . Different classes of bacteriocins have different potential as therapeutic agents. Small molecule bacteriocins (microcins, for example, and lantibiotics) may be similar to the classic antibiotics; colicin-like bacteriocins are more likely to be narrow-spectrum, demanding new molecular diagnostics prior to therapy but also not raising the spectre of resistance to the same degree. One drawback to the large molecule antibiotics is that they will have relative difficulty crossing membranes and travelling systemically throughout the body. For this reason, they are most often proposed for application topically or gastrointestinally . Because bacteriocins are peptides, they are more readily engineered than small molecules . This may permit the generation of cocktails and dynamically improved antibiotics that are modified to overcome resistance. Probiotics are another alternative that goes beyond traditional antibiotics by employing a live culture which may establish itself as a symbiont, competing, inhibiting, or simply interfering with colonization by pathogens. It may produce antibiotics or bacteriocins, essentially providing the drug in vivo and in situ, potentially avoiding the side effects of systemic administration. References External links | Antibiotics |@lemmatized test:3 susceptibility:2 staphylococcus:2 aureus:3 antibiotic:148 kirby:1 bauer:1 disk:2 diffusion:1 method:1 diffuse:1 containing:1 inhibit:6 growth:10 result:11 zone:1 inhibition:2 common:7 usage:3 substance:3 compound:15 also:11 call:3 chemotherapeutic:1 agent:8 kill:4 bacteria:33 belong:1 group:4 antimicrobial:16 use:38 treat:5 infection:17 cause:6 microorganism:2 include:13 fungi:3 protozoa:1 term:2 anti:3 bios:1 life:2 coin:1 selman:2 waksman:1 describe:4 produce:7 micro:3 organism:7 antagonistic:1 high:4 dilution:1 original:2 definition:1 exclude:2 naturally:2 occur:6 gastric:1 juice:1 hydrogen:1 peroxide:1 organisms:1 synthetic:2 sulfonamide:4 many:10 relatively:2 small:5 molecule:5 molecular:4 weight:2 less:2 da:1 advance:2 medicinal:2 chemistry:1 modify:3 chemically:2 find:2 nature:2 case:4 beta:2 lactams:1 penicillin:13 genus:3 penicillium:2 cephalosporin:2 carbapenems:1 still:1 isolate:2 live:3 aminoglycosides:2 addition:1 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5,790 | Agapanthus_africanus | Agapanthus africanus (African lily; syn. Agapanthus umbellatus) is a member of the family Alliaceae According to the APG II taxonomy system. Sometimes classified in the family Agapanthaceae. and a native of the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. It is sometimes know as plum plum by native South Africans . It has a short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow, arching leaves 10-35 cm long and 1-2 cm broad, and a central flower stalk 25-60 cm tall, ending in an umbel of 20-30 white, or bright blue, funnel-shaped flowers, each flower 2.5-5 cm diameter. Cultivation It was introduced to Europe at the close of the 17th century as a handsome greenhouse plant, and is hardy outdoors in the south of England and Ireland if protected from severe frosts. The plants are easy to cultivate and (in areas that have winter) are generally grown in large pots or tubs that can be protected from frost. Several cultivars are known, such as 'Albus' (with white flowers), 'Sapphire' (dark blue flowers), 'Aureus' (leaves striped with yellow), and 'Variegatus' (leaves almost entirely white with a few green bands). There are also double-flowered and larger- and smaller-flowered cultivars. During the summer they require plenty of water and are very effective on the margins of lakes or by running streams, where they thrive. They may be propagated from offsets or by dividing the rootstock in early spring or autumn. Notes References External links PlantZAfrica: Agapanthus africanus Mweb: Agapanthus africanus Plantweb: Agapanthus africanus Agapanthus africanus | Agapanthus_africanus |@lemmatized agapanthus:6 africanus:5 african:2 lily:1 syn:1 umbellatus:1 member:1 family:2 alliaceae:1 accord:1 apg:1 ii:1 taxonomy:1 system:1 sometimes:2 classify:1 agapanthaceae:1 native:2 cape:1 good:1 hope:1 south:3 africa:1 know:2 plum:2 short:1 stem:1 bear:1 tuft:1 long:2 narrow:1 arch:1 leaf:2 cm:4 broad:1 central:1 flower:6 stalk:1 tall:1 end:1 umbel:1 white:3 bright:1 blue:2 funnel:1 shaped:1 diameter:1 cultivation:1 introduce:1 europe:1 close:1 century:1 handsome:1 greenhouse:1 plant:2 hardy:1 outdoors:1 england:1 ireland:1 protect:2 severe:1 frost:2 easy:1 cultivate:1 area:1 winter:1 generally:1 grow:1 large:2 pot:1 tub:1 several:1 cultivar:2 albus:1 sapphire:1 dark:1 aureus:1 strip:1 yellow:1 variegatus:1 leave:1 almost:1 entirely:1 green:1 band:1 also:1 double:1 small:1 flowered:1 summer:1 require:1 plenty:1 water:1 effective:1 margin:1 lake:1 run:1 stream:1 thrive:1 may:1 propagate:1 offset:1 divide:1 rootstock:1 early:1 spring:1 autumn:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 plantzafrica:1 mweb:1 plantweb:1 |@bigram agapanthus_africanus:5 family_alliaceae:1 family_agapanthaceae:1 cm_tall:1 external_link:1 |
5,791 | Kent | Kent () is a county in southeast England, and is one of the home counties. It borders East Sussex, Surrey and Greater London and has a defined boundary with Essex in the middle of the River Thames estuary. The ceremonial county boundaries of Kent include the shire county of Kent and the unitary borough of Medway. Kent has a nominal border with France halfway through the Channel Tunnel. Maidstone is its county town and historically Rochester and Canterbury have been accorded city status though only the latter still holds it. Kent's location between London and the continent has led to its being in the front line of several conflicts, including the Battle of Britain during World War II. East Kent was named Hell Fire Corner during the conflict. England has relied on the county's ports to provide warships through much of the past 800 years; the Cinque Ports in the 12th–14th centuries and Chatham Dockyard in the 16th–20th centuries were of particular importance to the country's security. France can be seen clearly in fine weather from the iconic White Cliffs of Dover. Because of its abundance of orchards and hop gardens, Kent is widely known as "The Garden of England" — a name often applied when marketing the county or its produce, although other regions have tried to lay claim to the title. Kent loses its Garden of England title to North Yorkshire The Guardian 1 June 2006 Garden of England title defended BBC 1 June 2006 Major industries in the north-west of Kent have included cement, papermaking, and aircraft construction, but these are now in decline. Large parts of Kent are within the London commuter belt. South and East Kent rely on tourism and agriculture. Coal mining has also played its part in Kent's industrial heritage. History The area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe. The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era. There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley. The modern name of Kent is derived from the Brythonic word Cantus meaning "rim" or "border". This describes the eastern part of the current county area as a border land or coastal district. Julius Caesar had described the area as Cantium, or home of the Cantiaci in 51 BC. The extreme west of the modern county was occupied by Iron Age tribes, known as the Regnenses. It is possible that another ethnic group occupied The Weald and East Kent. East Kent became a kingdom of the Jutes during the 5th century and was known as Cantia from about 730 and as Cent in 835. The early medieval inhabitants of the county were known as the Cantwara, or Kent people. These people regarded the city of Canterbury as their capital. In 597, Pope Gregory I appointed Augustine as the first Archbishop of Canterbury. In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity. The Diocese of Canterbury became Britain's first Episcopal See and has since remained Britain's centre of Christianity. In the 11th century, the people of Kent adopted the motto Invicta, meaning "undefeated". This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy. The Kent people's continued resistance against the Normans led to Kent's designation as a semi-autonomous County Palatine in 1067. Under the nominal rule of William's half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted similar powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales and Scotland. During the medieval and early modern period, Kent played a major role in several of England's most notable rebellions, including the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, led by Wat Tyler, Jack Cade's Kent rebellion of 1450, and Wyatt's Rebellion of 1554 against Queen Mary I. The Royal Navy first used the River Medway in 1547. By the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) a small dockyard had been established at Chatham. By 1618, storehouses, a ropewalk, a drydock, and houses for officials had been built downstream from Chatham. By the 17th century, tensions between Britain and the powers of the Netherlands and France led to increasing military build-up in the county. Forts were built all along the coast following the raid on the Medway, a successful attack by the Dutch navy on the shipyards of the Medway towns in 1667. The 18th century was dominated by wars with France, during which the Medway became the primary base for a fleet that could act along the Dutch and French coasts. When the theatre of operation moved to the Atlantic, this role was assumed by Portsmouth and Plymouth, with Chatham concentrating on shipbuilding and ship repair. As an indication of the area's military importance, the first Ordnance Survey map ever drawn was a one-inch map of Kent, published in 1801. Many of the Georgian naval buildings still stand. In the early 1800s, smugglers were very active on the Kent coastline. Gangs such as The Aldington Gang brought spirits, tobacco and salt to the county, and transported goods such as wool across the sea to France. In 1889, the County of London was created and the townships of Deptford, Greenwich, Woolwich, Lee, Eltham, Charlton, Kidbrooke and Lewisham were transferred out of Kent and in 1900 the area of Penge was gained. Some of Kent, notably Dartford, is contiguous with Greater London. During World War II, much of the Battle of Britain was fought in the skies over the county. Between June 1944 and March 1945, over 10,000 V1 flying bombs, known as "Doodlebugs", were fired on London from bases in Northern France. Many were destroyed by aircraft, anti-aircraft guns, and barrage balloons, yet both London and Kent were hit by around 2,500 of these bombs. After the war, Kent's borders changed several more times. In 1965 the London boroughs of Bromley and Bexley were created from nine towns formerly in Kent. In 1998, Rochester, Chatham, Gillingham, and Rainham left the administrative county of Kent to form the Unitary Authority of Medway. They have, however, remained in the ceremonial county of Kent. During this reorganisation, through an administrative oversight, the city of Rochester lost its official city status. Climate Kent is one of the warmest parts of Britain. On August 10th 2003, in Brogdale (a town in Kent) it reached a temperature of 38.5 degrees Celsius, and that is the hottest temperature ever recorded in the United Kingdom. Physical geography 'The White Cliffs of Dover' Kent is in the southeastern corner of England. It borders the River Thames and the North Sea to the north, and the Straits of Dover and the English Channel to the south. France is across the Strait. The major geographical features of the county are determined by a series of ridges and valleys running east-west across the county. These are the results of weathering of the Wealden dome, a dome across Kent and Sussex created by Alpine movements 10–20 million years ago. This dome consists of an upper layer of chalk above successive layers of upper greensand, upper clay, lower greensand, lower clay, and red sandstone. The ridges and valleys formed when the exposed clay eroded faster than the exposed chalk, greensand, or red sandstone. Geological map of southeast England, showing a concentric circular pattern formed by the weathering of the Wealden dome. Sevenoaks, Maidstone, Ashford, and Folkestone are built on greensand, while Tonbridge and Tunbridge Wells are built on red sandstone. Dartford, Gravesend, the Medway towns, Sittingbourne, Faversham, Canterbury, Deal, and Dover are built on chalk. Britain's Structure and Scenery, L.Dudley Stamp, Pub Sept 1946, Collins New Naturalist Series. The easterly section of the Wealden dome has been eroded away by the sea, and cliffs such as the white cliffs of Dover are present where a chalk ridge known as the North Downs meets the coast. Spanning Dover and Westerham is the Kent Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The Wealden dome is a Mesozoic structure lying on a Palaeozoic foundation, which usually creates the right conditions for coal formation. This is found in East Kent roughly between Deal, Canterbury, and Dover. The coal measures within the Westphalian Sandstone are deep (below 800 - 1300 ft or approximately 250 m – 400 m) and subject to flooding. They occur in two major troughs, which extend under the English Channel where similar coalfields are located. Seismic activity has occasionally been recorded in Kent, though the epicentres were offshore. In 1382 and 1580 there were two earthquakes exceeding 6.0 on the Richter Scale. In 1776, 1950, and on 28 April 2007 there were earthquakes of around 4.3. The 2007 earthquake caused physical damage in Folkestone. Geological cross section of Kent, showing how it relates to major towns The coastline of Kent is continuously changing, due to tectonic uplift and coastal erosion. Until about 960, the Isle of Thanet was an island, separated by the Wantsum channel, formed around a deposit of chalk; over time, the channels silted up with alluvium. Similarly Romney Marsh and Dungeness have been formed by accumulation of alluvium. Kent's principal river, the River Medway, rises near East Grinstead in Sussex and flows eastwards to a point near Maidstone. Here it turns north and breaks through the North Downs at Rochester, then joins the estuary of the River Thames as its final tributary near Sheerness. The Medway is some long. The river is tidal as far as Allington lock, but in earlier times, cargo-carrying vessels reached as far upstream as Tonbridge. The Medway has captured the head waters of other rivers such as the River Darent. Other rivers of Kent include the River Stour in the east. Demographics {| class="wikitable" id="toc" style="float: right; margin-left: 2em; width: 40%; font-size: 90%;" cellspacing="3" !colspan="4"|Kent Compared |- |2001 UK census||Kent||South East England||England|- |Total population||1,579,206||8,000,645||49,138,831 |- |Foreign born||5.8%||8.1%||9.2% |- |White||96.5%||95.1%||90.9% |- |Asian||2.0%||2.7%||4.6% |- |Black||0.4%||0.7%||2.3% |- |Christian||74.6%||72.8%||72% |- |Muslim||0.6%||1.4%||3.1% |- |Sikh||0.7%||0.5%||0.7% |- |} As of the 2001 UK census, Kent, including Medway, had 1,579,206 residents and 646,308 households, of which 1,329,718 residents and 546,742 households were within the administrative boundaries. Of those households, 48.9% were married couples living together, 9.0% were co-habiting couples and 8.7% were lone parents; 28.0% of households consisted of individuals, 14.6% had someone of pensionable age living alone, and 30.4% included children aged under 16 or a person aged 16 to 18 who was in full-time education. For every 100 females, there were 93.9 males. The ethnicity of the Kent was 96.5% White, 0.9% mixed race, 0.3% Chinese, 1.7% other Asian and 0.4% Black. The place of birth for residents was 94.2% United Kingdom, 0.7% Republic of Ireland, 0.5% Germany, 0.9% other Western Europe countries, 0.3% Eastern Europe, 0.8% Africa, 0.6% Far East, 0.9% South Asia, 0.2% Middle East, 0.4% North America, 0.1% South America and 0.3% Oceania. Religion was recorded as 74.6% Christian, 0.7% Sikh, 0.6% Muslim, 0.4% Hindu, 0.2% Buddhist and 0.1% Jewish, while 15.2% were recorded as having no religion, 0.3% had an alternative religion, and 7.8% did not state their religion. Government Kent County Council (KCC) and its 12 district councils administer most of the county (3352 km²), while the Medway unitary authority administers the more densely populated remainder (192 km²). Together they have around 300 town and parish councils. Kent County Council's headquarters are in Maidstone, while Medway's offices are in Strood and Gillingham. As of the 2005 county council elections, Kent County Council was controlled by the Conservative Party; 57 of the Council's 84 seats were held by the Conservatives, 21 by the Labour Party, 6 by the Liberal Democrats and 1 by an Independent. As of the 2007 local elections, Medway Council was controlled by the Conservatives; 33 of the Council's 55 seats were held by the Conservatives, 13 by the Labour Party, 8 by the Liberal Democrats and 1 by an Independent. Currently, all of Kent's district councils are controlled by the Conservatives; the only British county that is in this position. At the national level, Kent is represented in Parliament by 17 MPs, 10 of whom are Conservative and 7 are Labour. Kent is in the European Parliament constituency of South East England, which elects ten members of the European Parliament. Economy As of the 2001 UK census, employment statistics for the residents in Kent, including Medway, were as follows: 41.1% in full-time employment, 12.4% in part-time employment, 9.1% self-employed, 2.9% unemployed, 2.3% students with jobs, 3.7% students without jobs, 12.3% retired, 7.3% looking after home or family, 4.3% permanently sick or disabled, and 2.7% economically inactive for other reasons. Of residents aged 16–74, 16% had a higher education qualification or the equivalent, compared to 20% nationwide. Converted oast at Frittenden. The average hours worked per week by residents of Kent were 43.1 for males and 30.9 for females. Their industry of employment was 17.3% retail, 12.4% manufacturing, 11.8% real estate, 10.3% health and social work, 8.9% construction, 8.2% transport and communications, 7.9% education, 6.0% public administration and defence, 5.6% finance, 4.8% other community and personal service activities, 4.1% hotels and restaurants, 1.6% agriculture, 0.8% energy and water supply, 0.2% mining, and 0.1% private households. This is higher than the whole of England for construction and transport/communications, and lower for manufacturing. Kent is sometimes known as the "Garden of England" for its abundance of orchards and hop gardens. Distinctive hop-drying buildings called oasts are common in the countryside, although many have been converted into dwellings. Nearer to London, market gardens also flourish. However, in recent years, there has been a significant drop in agriculture, and industry and services are increasing their utilization of the area. This is illustrated by the following table of economic indicator gross value added (GVA) between 1995 and 2000 (figures are in millions of British Pounds Sterling). Year Regional GVA Agriculture Industry Services County of Kent (excluding Medway) 1995 12,369 379 3.1% 3,886 31.4% 8,104 65.5% 2000 15,259 259 1.7% 4,601 30.2% 10,399 68.1% 2003 18,126 287 1.6% 5,057 27.9% 12,783 70.5% Medway 1995 1,823 21 3.1% 560 31.4% 1,243 68.2% 2000 2,348 8 1.7% 745 30.2% 1,595 67.9% 2003 2,671 10 1.6% 802 27.9% 1,859 69.6% Components may not sum to totals due to rounding includes energy and construction includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured North Kent is heavily industrialised with cement-making at Northfleet and Cuxton, brickmaking at Sittingbourne, shipbuilding on the Medway and Swale, engineering and aircraft design and construction at Rochester, chemicals at Dartford and papermaking at Swanley, and oil refining at Grain. A steel mini mill in Sheerness and a rolling mill in Queenborough.There are two nuclear power stations at Dungeness, although the older one, built in 1965, was closed at the end of 2006. Cement-making, papermaking, and coal-mining were important industries in Kent during the 19th and 20th century. Cement came to the fore in the 19th century when massive building projects were undertaken. The ready supply of chalk and huge pits between Stone and Gravesend bear testament to that industry. There were also other workings around Burham on the tidal Medway. Kent's original paper mills stood on streams like the River Darent, tributaries of the River Medway, and on the River Stour. Two 18th century mills were on the River Len and at Tovil on the River Loose. In the late 19th century huge modern mills were built at Dartford and Northfleet on the River Thames and at Kemsley on The Swale. In pre-industrial times, almost every village and town had its own windmill or watermill, with over 400 windmills known to have stood at some time. Twenty eight survive within the county today, plus two replica mills and a further two in that part of Kent now absorbed into London. All the major rivers in the county were used to power watermills. From about 1900, several coal pits operated in East Kent. The Kent coalfield was mined during the 20th century at several collieries, including Chislet, Tilmanstone, Betteshanger, and the Snowdown Colliery, which ran from 1908 to 1986. The west of the county (including Maidstone, Tunbridge Wells & Sevenoaks) is generally more affluent than the east, especially when compared to the coastal regions of Folkestone, Dover & Thanet. This is partly due to the former's proximity to London, making it prime "commuter belt" and the latter's geographic extremities. The eagerly awaited CTRL 2009 rail service, using the high speed Channel Tunnel line to bring coastal areas' travel times to London down to around an hour, is hoped to further regeneration. Arts Kent has provided inspiration for several notable writers and artists. Canterbury's religious role gave rise to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, a key development in the English language. The father of novelist Charles Dickens worked at the Chatham Dockyard; in many of his books, the celebrated novelist featured the scenery of Chatham, Rochester, and the Cliffe marshes. The landscape painter J. M. W. Turner spent part of his childhood in the town of Margate in East Kent, and regularly returned to visit it throughout his life. The East Kent coast inspired many of his works, including some of his most famous seascapes. During the late 1930s, Nobel Prize-awarded novelist William Golding worked as a teacher at Maidstone Grammar School, where he met his future wife Ann Brookfield. In addition, the highly successful current pop production team Xenomania work out of a converted rectory in Kent. Transport Roads The M2 and High Speed 1 crossing the Medway Valley, south of Rochester. With the Roman invasion, a road network was constructed to connect London to the Channel ports of Dover, Lympne and Richborough. The London–Dover road was Watling Street. These roads are now approximately the A2, B2068, A257, and the A28. The A2 runs through Dartford (A207), Gravesend, Rochester, Canterbury and Dover; the A20 through Eltham, Wrotham, Maidstone, Charing, Ashford. Hythe, Folkestone and Dover; the A21 around Sevenoaks, Tonbridge, Tunbridge Wells and on to Hastings in East Sussex. In the 1960s, two motorways were built; the M2 from Medway to Faversham, and the M20 from Swanley to Folkestone. Part of the M25 runs through Kent, from Westerham to the Kent and Essex tunnel at Dartford. The Dartford tunnel has been joined by the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge, together providing four lanes in each direction. The M26 motorway, built in 1980, provides a short link between the M25 at Sevenoaks and the M20 near Wrotham. Water The medieval Cinque Ports, except for Dover, have all now silted up. The Medway Estuary has been an important port and naval base for 500 years. The River Medway is tidal up to Allington and navigable up to Tonbridge. Kent's two canals are the Royal Military Canal between Hythe and Rye, which still exists, and the Thames and Medway Canal between Strood and Gravesend. Built in 1824, it was purchased in 1846 by the railways, which partially backfilled it. Container ports are located at Ramsgate and Thamesport. Railways A Eurostar train at km 48 on HS1, the High Speed 1, near Strood The earliest locomotive-driven passenger-carrying railway in Britain was the Canterbury and Whitstable Railway which opened in 1830. This and the London and Greenwich Railway later merged into South Eastern Railway (SER). By the 1850s, SER's networks had expanded to Ashford, Ramsgate, Canterbury, Tunbridge Wells, and the Medway towns. SER's major London termini were London Bridge, Charing Cross, and Cannon Street. Kent also had a second major railway, the London, Chatham and Dover Railway (LCDR). Originally the East Kent Railway in 1858, it linked the northeast Kent coast with London terminals at Victoria and Blackfriars. The two companies merged in 1899, forming the South Eastern and Chatham Railway (SECR). In the aftermath of World War I, the government's Railways Act 1921 grouped railway companies together; the SECR joined neighbouring London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LBSCR) and London and South Western Railway (LSWR) to form the Southern Railway. Britain's railways were nationalised in 1948, forming British Rail. The railways were privatised in 1996 and most Kent passenger services were franchised to Connex South Eastern. Following financial difficulties, Connex lost the franchise and was replaced by South Eastern Trains and after Southeastern. The Channel Tunnel was completed in 1994 and High Speed 1 in November 2007 with a London terminus at St Pancras. A new station, Ebbsfleet International, opened between Dartford and Gravesend, serving northern Kent. The high speed lines will be utilised to provide a faster train service to coastal towns like Ramsgate and Folkestone. This station is in addition to the existing station at Ashford International, which has suffered a massive cut in service as a result. Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway In addition to the "mainline" railways, there are several light, heritage, and industrial railways in Kent. There are three heritage, standard gauge railways; Spa Valley Railway near Tunbridge Wells on the old Tunbridge Wells West branch, East Kent Railway on the old East Kent coalfield area and the Kent and East Sussex Railway on the Weald around Tenterden. In addition there is the gauge, tourist-oriented Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway on the southeast Kent coast along the Dungeness peninsular. Finally, there is the , industrial Sittingbourne & Kemsley Light Railway. Air A limited number of charter flights are provided by Kent's Kent International Airport at Manston, and London Ashford Airport at Lydd. However, most passengers across the South East use the larger Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted and Luton airports. In 2002, it was revealed that the government is considering building a new four-runway airport on the marshland near the village of Cliffe on the Hoo Peninsula, but this plan was dropped following protests by cultural and environmental groups. Education The county has three universities; Canterbury Christ Church University with campuses throughout East Kent, University of Kent, with campuses in Canterbury and Medway, and University of Greenwich, with sites at Woolwich, Eltham, London and Medway. The University of Creative Arts (UCA) also has three of its five campuses in the county. Whereas much of the UK adopted a comprehensive education system in the 1970s, Kent County Council (KCC) and Medway Unitary Authority are among around fifteen local authorities still providing wholly selective education through the eleven-plus high schools and grammar schools. Together, the two Kent authorities have 38 of the 164 grammar schools remaining in the UK. KCC has the largest education department of any local authority in the UK, providing school places for over 289,000 pupils. Schools in Kent (data from 2000) LEA Nursery Primary Secondary (High) Secondary (Grammar) Special Pupil Referral UnitsIndependent City Technology College Total KCC 1 475 74 32 34 11 83 1 711 Medway 0 89 14 6 3 1 7 0 120 For the 2005-06 school year, KCC and Medway introduced a standardised school year, based on six terms, as recommended by the Local Government Association in its 2000 report, "The Rhythms of Schooling". Local media Television Kent is served by the BBC's South East region, which is based in Royal Tunbridge Wells and provides local news for the county and East Sussex. Its commercial rival is ITV Meridian Ltd, which has a newsroom at The Maidstone Studios despite the main studio being based in Hampshire. Parts of Kent close to the London area such as Gravesend or Dartford can also pick up ITV London. The county is also served by two internet-based TV channels, Kent TV (part-owned by Kent County Council) and YourKentTV which is owned by the Kent on Sunday group. Radio Kent has three county-wide stations - BBC Radio Kent, based in Royal Tunbridge Wells; and the commercial stations Invicta FM, based in Whitstable, and the Kent opt-out for Gold. The county is covered by 9 smaller radio stations each covering one or more towns or cities. Seven of these are branded KMFM and are owned by the KM Group, covering the following areas: KMFM Ashford KMFM Canterbury KMFM Dover and Folkestone KMFM Maidstone KMFM Medway KMFM Thanet KMFM West Kent Gravesend and Dartford were served by Time 106.8, which also served parts of south-east London. The station closed in April 2009. BRFM covers the Isle of Sheppey, while Sittingbourne is served by SFM. Canterbury is also covered by the university station CSR 97.4FM', a joint production between the city's two universities. Newspapers The KM Group, Kent on Sunday and Kent Regional News and Media all provide local newspapers for most of the large towns and cities. County-wide papers include the Kent Messenger, Kent on Sunday and the Saturday Observer, and the Kent and Sussex Courier''. See also List of places in Kent List of civil parishes in Kent :Category:Towns in Kent :Category:Villages in Kent List of tourist attractions in Kent Recreational walks in Kent Thames Gateway - includes details of regeneration projects in the northern areas of Kent List of people from Kent Thanet Duke of Kent References External links Kent Parishes – Forum for History, Genealogy, Ancestry and local information Kent County Council – local government website Kent Wildlife Trust – Kent Wildlife Trust is the most active conservation trust in the county Kent Online – a Kent Messenger Group website Camelot Village – Kent heritage Kent Downs – Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty website CPRE Kent- Kent Branch of the Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE) historic-kent.co.uk – further information on villages throughout Kent. BBC – origins of Kent placenames Kent Coast in Pictures – photographs of the coastline of Kent. 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5,792 | National_Geographic_Society | Motto "To increase and diffuse geographic knowledge while promoting the conservation of the world's cultural, historical, and natural resources."Established 1888President John M. FaheyHeadquarters Washington, D.C., USAMembership 8.5 millionFounder Gardiner Greene HubbardHomepage NationalGeographic.com The National Geographic Society (NGS), headquartered in Washington, D.C. in the United States, is one of the largest non-profit scientific and educational institutions in the world. Its interests include geography, archaeology and natural science, the promotion of environmental and historical conservation, and the study of world culture and history. The National Geographic Society’s characteristic logo is a yellow portrait rectangular frame, which identifiably appears on the margins surrounding the front covers of their magazines. Overview A dancer of the cafes, Algeria, 1917 photograph from the National Geographic Magazine The National Geographic Society's historical mission is "to increase and diffuse geographic knowledge while promoting the conservation of the world's cultural, historical, and natural resources." Its President and CEO since March 1998, John M. Fahey, Jr., says National Geographic's purpose is to inspire people to care about their planet. The Society is governed by a twenty-three member Board of Trustees composed of a group of distinguished educators, leading business executives, former governmental officials, and conservationists. The organization sponsors and funds scientific research and exploration. The Society publishes an official journal, National Geographic Magazine, and other magazines, books, school products, maps, other publications, web and film products in numerous languages and countries around the world. It also has an educational foundation that gives grants to education organizations and individuals to enhance geography education. Its Committee for Research and Exploration has given grants for scientific research for most of the Society's history and has recently awarded its 9,000th grant for scientific research, conducted worldwide and often reported on by its media properties. Its various media properties reach about 360 million people around the world monthly. National Geographic maintains a museum free for the public in its Washington, D.C. headquarters, and has helped to sponsor such popular traveling exhibits such as the "King Tut" exhibit featuring magnificent artifacts from the tomb of the young Egyptian Pharaoh, which toured in several American cities, ending its U.S. showing at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia. The Tut exhibit is currently in Atlanta. Another National Geographic exhibit of "The Cultural Treasures of Afghanistan" opened in May 2008 at the National Gallery of Art in Washington. The exhibit will travel over the next eighteen months to the Houston Museum of Fine Arts, the Asian Art Museum in San Francisco, and the Metropolitan Museum in New York City. National Geographic opened in November, 2008 a major retail store on Regent Street in London. History The official diploma presented to Italian Admiral Ernesto Burzagli when he was awarded membership in the National Geographic Society in 1928. On January 13, 1888, 33 explorers and scientists gathered at the Cosmos Club, a private club then located on Lafayette Square in Washington, D.C., to organize "a society for the increase and diffusion of geographical knowledge." After preparing a constitution and a plan of organization, the National Geographic Society was incorporated two weeks later on January 27. Gardiner Greene Hubbard became its first president and his son-in-law, Alexander Graham Bell, eventually succeeded him in 1897 following his death. In 1899 Bell's son-in-law Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor was named the first full-time editor of National Geographic Magazine and served the organization for fifty-five years (1954), and members of the Grosvenor family have played important roles in the organization since. Bell and his son-in-law, Grosvenor, devised the successful marketing notion of Society membership and the first major use of photographs to tell stories in magazines. The current Chairman of the Board of Trustees of National Geographic is Gilbert Melville Grosvenor, who received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2005 for the Society's leadership for Geography education. In 2004, the National Geographic Headquarters in Washington, D.C. was one of the first buildings to receive a "Green" certification http://news.nationalgeographic.com/kids/2004/04/greenbuilding.html from Global Green USA. Global Green The National Geographic received the prestigious Prince of Asturias Award for Communications and Humanity in October 2006 in Oviedo, Spain. Publications National Geographic Magazine Cover of January, 1915 National Geographic The National Geographic Magazine, later shortened to National Geographic, published its first issue nine months after the Society was founded as the Society's official journal, a benefit for joining the tax exempt National Geographic Society. The magazine has had for many years a trademarked yellow border around the edge of its cover. There are 12 monthly issues of National Geographic per year, plus at least four additional map supplements. On rare occasions, special issues of the magazine are also created. The magazine contains articles about geography, popular science, world history, culture, current events and photography of places and things all over the world and universe. The National Geographic magazine is currently published in 32 language editions in many countries around the world. Combined English and other language circulation is nearly nine million monthly with more than fifty million readers monthly. Other publications In addition to its flagship magazine, the Society publishes five other periodicals in the United States: National Geographic Kids: launched in 1975 as National Geographic World, it adopted its current name in 2001. It has a U.S. circulation of over 1.5 million. There are also currently 18 local language editions of NG Kids, with another half million in circulation. An Arabic edition of the children's magazine was launched in Egypt in early 2007, and more than 42,000 copies are distributed to all the public schools in Egypt, in addition to another 15,000 single copy sales. More recently, an Albanian and Polish edition were launched. National Geographic Little Kids: for children aged 3-6. National Geographic Traveler: launched in 1984. There are nine language editions of NG Traveler. National Geographic Adventure: launched in 1999 National Geographic Explorer: classroom magazine launched in 2001 as National Geographic for Kids, which has grown to about 2 1/2 million circulation. National Geographic Green Guide: Launched in 2003, tips to consumers of how to live a "greener" life. The print version was discontinued in January 2009. http://www.foliomag.com/2008/national-geographic-discontinues-green-guide-print Glimpse Magazine (In Association With National Geographic) The Society also runs an online news outlet called National Geographic News. The Society previously published: The National Geographic School Bulletin, magazine similar to the National Geographic but aimed at grade school children, was published weekly during the school year from 1919 to 1975, when it was replaced by National Geographic World. During the 1980s and 1990s, it published a research journal which later closed. The Society has published maps, atlases, and numerous books. It also lends its license to other publishers, for example to Thames & Kosmos for a line of science kits. In October 2007, National Geographic created a new Global Media group composed of its magazine, book publishing, television, film, music, radio, digital media and maps units. Tim Kelly, 51, president and CEO of National Geographic Ventures, has been named president, Global Media. Television Programs by the National Geographic Society are also broadcasted on television. National Geographic television specials as well as television series have been aired on PBS and other networks in the United States and globally for many years. The Geographic series in the U.S. started on CBS in 1964, moved to ABC in 1973 and shifted to PBS (produced by WQED, Pittsburgh) in 1975. It has featured stories on numerous scientific figures such as Louis Leakey, Jacques Cousteau, or Jane Goodall that not only featured their work but helped make them world-famous and accessible to millions. A majority of the specials were narrated by various actors, including Richard Kiley and Martin Sheen. The specials' theme music, by Elmer Bernstein, was also adopted by the National Geographic Channel. The National Geographic Channel has begun to launch a number of subbranded channels in international markets, such as Nat Geo Wild, Nat Geo Adventure, Nat Geo Junior, and Nat Geo Music. In 1997, internationally, and in 2001 in the United States, the Society launched, in part ownership with other entities like News Corporation, the National Geographic Channel, a television channel with global distribution for cable and satellite viewers. National Geographic Films, a wholly-owned taxable subsidiary of the National Geographic Society, has also produced a feature film based on the diary of a Russian submarine commander starring Harrison Ford in K-19: The Widowmaker, and most recently retooling a French-made documentary for U.S. distribution with a new score and script narrated by Morgan Freeman called March of the Penguins, which received an Academy Award for the Best Documentary in 2006. After a record $77 million theatrical gross in the United States, over four million DVD copies of March of the Penguins have been sold. National Geographic Films launched a new feature film in July called Arctic Tale, featuring the story of two families of walrus and polar bears. Queen Latifah is the narrator of this film. Inspired by a National Geographic Magazine article, National Geographic opened in October 2007 a 3-D large format and Reality 3-D film called Sea Monsters, with a musical score by Peter Gabriel. National Geographic Films is co-producing with Edward Norton and Brad Pitt the 10-hour mini series of Steven Ambrose's award-winning Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson and the Opening of the American West for HBO. The National Geographic website (nationalgeographic.com) provides a wealth of content in multimedia formats, including a recently launched site highlighting world music. Retail stores By the end of 2008, National Geographic Society opened its first dedicated retails stores, in November in London and in December in Singapore (VivoCity). Support for research & projects The Society has helped sponsor many expeditions and research projects over the years, including: Codex Tchacos - Conservation and translation of the only known surviving copy of the Gospel of Judas Ian Baker - Discovers hidden waterfall of the Tsangpo Gorge, Tibet Robert Ballard - RMS Titanic (1985) and John F. Kennedy's PT-109 (2002) discovery Robert Bartlett - Arctic Exploration (1925-45) George Bass - Undersea archaeology - Bronze Age trade Lee Berger - Oldest footprints of modern humans ever found Hiram Bingham - Machu Picchu Excavation (1915) Richard E. Byrd - First flight over South Pole (1929) Jacques-Yves Cousteau - Undersea exploration Mike Fay - MegaTransect (1999) and MegaFlyover (2004) in Africa Dian Fossey - Mountain gorillas Birute Galdikas - Orangutans Jane Goodall - Chimpanzees Robert F. Griggs - Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes (1916) Heather Halstead - World Circumnavigations of Reach the World Louis and Mary Leakey - Discovery of manlike Zinjanthropus, more than 1.75 million years old Gustavus McLeod - First flight to the North Pole in an open-air cockpit aircraft Robert Peary and Matthew Henson - North Pole Expedition (1905) Paul Sereno - Dinosaurs Will Steger - Polar Exploration & First Explorer-in-Residence 1996 Explorer-in-Residence Spencer Wells - The Genographic Project Xu Xing - Discovery of fossil dinosaurs in China that have distinct feathers The Society supports many socially-based projects including AINA, a Kabul-based organization dedicated to developing an independent Afghan media, which was founded by one of the Society's most famous photographers, Reza. The Society also sponsors the National Geographic Bee, an annual geographic contest for American middle-school students. More than four million students a year begin the geography competition locally, which culminates in a national competition of the winners of each state each May in Washington, D.C. Alex Trebek has moderated the final competition since the competition began some seventeen years ago. Every two years, the Society conducts an international geography competition of competing teams from all over the world. The most recent was held at Marineworld in San Diego, California during the summer of 2007, and had representatives from 18 country teams. The team from Mexico emerged as the winner. Hubbard Medal Anne Morrow Lindbergh's customized medal detailing her flight route The Hubbard Medal is awarded by the National Geographic Society for distinction in exploration, discovery, and research. The medal is named for Gardiner Greene Hubbard, the first National Geographic Society president. The Hubbard Medal has been presented 34 times as of 2000, the most recent award going posthumously to Matthew Henson, Robert Peary's fellow Arctic explorer. Allen Counter accepts Hubbard medal for Henson Toys Over the years, National Geographic has released a metal detector, ant colony, and other items. It also operates a subsidiary, NGS Games, which produces computer games such as "Plan-It Green". See also National Geographic Magazine Royal Geographical Society Royal Canadian Geographical Society Maps of the United States National Geographic Bee References Further reading External links Official websites National Geographic Online National Geographic Magazine Online National Geographic for Kids National Geographic News National Geographic Photography National Geographic Maps National Geographic Maps TOPO! Explorer MapMachine National Geographic Channel National Geographic Traveler National Geographic Museum at Explorers Hall EarthPulse - A Visual Guide to Global Trends Everyday Explorers Additional resources National Geographic Libraries & Information Services NGS Collectors Corner - managed by National Geographic Libraries' Archives. National Geographic Official YouTube Channel Additional information "How They Found National Geographic's 'Afghan Girl'" (March 7, 2003) National Geographic Exploration of the California Central Coast Photos, maps, and other images Society's flag | National_Geographic_Society |@lemmatized motto:1 increase:3 diffuse:2 geographic:76 knowledge:3 promote:2 conservation:4 world:16 cultural:3 historical:4 natural:3 resource:3 establish:1 john:3 faheyheadquarters:1 washington:7 c:6 usamembership:1 millionfounder:1 gardiner:3 greene:3 hubbardhomepage:1 nationalgeographic:3 com:4 national:74 society:32 ng:4 headquarter:1 united:6 state:7 one:3 large:2 non:1 profit:1 scientific:5 educational:2 institution:1 interest:1 include:5 geography:6 archaeology:2 science:3 promotion:1 environmental:1 study:1 culture:2 history:4 characteristic:1 logo:1 yellow:2 portrait:1 rectangular:1 frame:1 identifiably:1 appear:1 margin:1 surround:1 front:1 cover:3 magazine:21 overview:1 dancer:1 cafe:1 algeria:1 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5,793 | Field_extension | In mathematics, more specifically in abstract algebra, field extensions are the main object of study in field theory. The general idea is to start with a base field and construct in some manner a larger field which contains the base field and satisfies additional properties. Field extensions can be generalized to ring extension which consists of a ring and one of its subrings. Definitions Let L be a field. If K is a subset of L which is closed with respect to the field operations of addition and multiplication in L and the additive and multiplicative inverses of every element in K are in K, then we say that K is a subfield of L, that L is an extension field of K, and that L /K, read as "L over K", is a field extension. If L is an extension of F which is in turn an extension of K, then we say F is an intermediate field (or intermediate extension or subextension) of the field extension L /K. Given a field extension L /K and a subset S of L, we denote by K(S) the smallest subfield of L which contains K and S. We say K(S) is generated by the adjunction of elements of S to K. If S consists of only one element s we often write K(s) instead of K({s}). A field extension of the form L=K(s) is called a simple extension and s is called a primitive element of the extension. Given a field extension L /K, then L can also be considered as a vector space over K. The elements of L are the "vectors" and the elements of K are the "scalars". We add the vectors just like we add elements in L, and scalar multiplication is multiplication of elements from L by elements from K. The dimension of this vector space is called the degree of the extension, and is denoted by [L : K]. An extension of degree 1 (that is, one where L is equal to K) is called a trivial extension. Extensions of degree 2 and 3 are called quadratic extensions and cubic extensions, respectively. Depending on whether the degree is finite or infinite the extension is called a finite extension or infinite extension. Notes The notation L /K is purely formal and does not imply the formation of a quotient ring or quotient group or any other kind of division. In some literature the notation L:K is used. It is often desirable to talk about field extensions in situations where the small field is not actually contained in the larger one, but is naturally embedded. For this purpose, one abstractly defines a field extension as an injective ring homomorphism between two fields. Every ring homomorphism between fields is injective, so field extensions are precisely the morphisms in the category of fields. Henceforth, we will suppress the injective homomorphism and assume that we are dealing with actual subfields. Examples The field of complex numbers C is an extension field of the field of real numbers R, and R in turn is an extension field of the field of rational numbers Q. Clearly then, C/Q is also a field extension. We have [C : R] = 2 because {1,i } is a basis, so the extension C/R is finite. This is a simple extension because C=R(i ). [R : Q] = (the cardinality of the continuum), so this extension is infinite. The set Q(√2) = {a + b√2 | a, b ∈ Q} is an extension field of Q, also clearly a simple extension. The degree is 2 because {1, √2} can serve as a basis. Finite extensions of Q are also called algebraic number fields and are important in number theory. Another extension field of the rationals, quite different in flavor, is the field of p-adic numbers Qp for a prime number p. It is common to construct an extension field of a given field K as a quotient ring of the polynomial ring K[X] in order to "create" a root for a given polynomial f (X). Suppose for instance that K does not contain any element x with x 2 = −1. Then the polynomial X 2 + 1 is irreducible in K[X], consequently the ideal (X 2 + 1) generated by this polynomial is maximal, and L = K[X]/(X 2 + 1) is an extension field of K which does contain an element whose square is −1 (namely the residue class of X). By iterating the above construction, one can construct the splitting field of any polynomial from K[X]. This is an extension field L of K in which the given polynomial splits into a product of linear factors. If p is any prime number and n is a positive integer, we have a finite field GF(p n) with p n elements; this is an extension field of the finite field GF(p) = Z/pZ with p elements. Given a field K, we can consider the field K(X) of all rational functions in the variable X with coefficients in K; the elements of K(X) are fractions of two polynomials over K, and indeed K(X) is the field of fractions of the polynomial ring K[X]. This field of rational functions is an extension field of K. This extension is infinite. Given a Riemann surface M, the set of all meromorphic functions defined on M is a field, denoted by C(M). It is an extension field of C, if we identify every complex number with the corresponding constant function defined on M. Given an algebraic variety V over some field K, then the function field of V, consisting of the rational functions defined on V and denoted by K(V), is an extension field of K. Elementary properties If L /K is a field extension, then L and K share the same 0 and the same 1. The additive group (K,+) is a subgroup of (L,+), and the multiplicative group (K−{0},·) is a subgroup of (L−{0},·). In particular, if x is an element of K, then its additive inverse −x computed in K is the same as the additive inverse of x computed in L; the same is true for multiplicative inverses of non-zero elements of K. In particular then, the characteristics of L and K are the same. Algebraic and transcendental elements If L is an extension of K, then an element of L which is a root of a nonzero polynomial over K is said to be algebraic over K. Elements that are not algebraic are called transcendental. As an example: In C/R, i is algebraic because it is a root of x2+1. In R/Q, √2 + √3 is algebraic, because it is a root of x4−10x2+1 In R/Q, e is transcendental because there is no polynomial with rational coefficients that has e as a root (see transcendental number) In C/R, e is algebraic because it is the root of x−e The special case of C/Q is especially important, and the names algebraic number and transcendental number are used to describe the complex numbers that are algebraic and transcendental (respectively) over Q. If every element of L is algebraic over K, then the extension L/K is said to be an algebraic extension; otherwise it is said to be transcendental. If every element of L except those in K is transcendental over K, then the extension is said to be purely transcendental. It can be shown that an extension is algebraic if and only if it is the union of its finite subextensions. In particular, every finite extension is algebraic. For example, C/R and Q(√2)/Q, being finite, are algebraic. R/Q is transcendental, although not purely transcendental. K(X)/K is purely transcendental. A simple extension is finite if generated by an algebraic element, and purely transcendental if generated by a transcendental element. So R/Q is not simple, as it is neither finite nor purely transcendental. Every field K has an algebraic closure; this is essentially the largest extension field of K which is algebraic over K and which contains all roots of all polynomial equations with coefficients in K. For example, C is the algebraic closure of R. A subset S of L is called algebraically independent over K if no non-trivial polynomial relation with coefficients in K exists among the elements of S. The largest cardinality of an algebraically independent set is called the transcendence degree of L /K. Given any algebraically independent set S over K, then K(S)/K is purely transcendental. It is always possible to find a set S, algebraically independent over K, such that L /K(S) is algebraic. Such a set S is called a transcendence basis of L /K. All transcendence bases have the same cardinality, equal to the transcendence degree of the extension. Normal, separable and Galois extensions A field extension L /K is called normal if every irreducible polynomial in K[X] that has a root in L completely factors into linear factors over L. Every algebraic extension F /K admits a normal closure L, which is an extension field of F such that L /K is normal and which is minimal with this property. An algebraic extension L /K is called separable if the minimal polynomial of every element of L over K is separable, i.e. has no repeated roots in an algebraic closure over K. A Galois extension is a field extension that is both normal and separable. A consequence of the primitive element theorem states that every finite separable extension has a primitive element (i.e. is simple). Given any field extension L /K, we can consider its automorphism group Aut(L /K), consisting of all field automorphisms α : L → L with α(x) = x for all x in K. When the extension is Galois this automorphism group is called the Galois group of the extension. Extensions whose Galois group is abelian are called abelian extensions. For a given field extension L /K, one is often interested in the intermediate fields F (subfields of L that contain K). The significance of Galois extensions and Galois groups is that they allow a complete description of the intermediate fields: there is a bijection between the intermediate fields and the subgroups of the Galois group, described by the fundamental theorem of Galois theory. See also Field theory Glossary of field theory | Field_extension |@lemmatized mathematics:1 specifically:1 abstract:1 algebra:1 field:64 extension:69 main:1 object:1 study:1 theory:5 general:1 idea:1 start:1 base:3 construct:3 manner:1 large:4 contain:7 satisfies:1 additional:1 property:3 generalize:1 ring:8 consist:2 one:7 subrings:1 definition:1 let:1 l:52 k:86 subset:3 close:1 respect:1 operation:1 addition:1 multiplication:3 additive:4 multiplicative:3 inverse:4 every:11 element:27 say:7 subfield:2 read:1 f:6 turn:2 intermediate:5 subextension:1 give:11 denote:4 small:2 generate:4 adjunction:1 consists:1 often:3 write:1 instead:1 form:1 call:15 simple:6 primitive:3 also:5 consider:3 vector:4 space:2 scalar:2 add:2 like:1 dimension:1 degree:7 equal:2 trivial:2 quadratic:1 cubic:1 respectively:2 depend:1 whether:1 finite:12 infinite:4 note:1 notation:2 purely:7 formal:1 imply:1 formation:1 quotient:3 group:9 kind:1 division:1 literature:1 use:2 desirable:1 talk:1 situation:1 actually:1 naturally:1 embed:1 purpose:1 abstractly:1 define:4 injective:3 homomorphism:3 two:2 precisely:1 morphisms:1 category:1 henceforth:1 suppress:1 assume:1 deal:1 actual:1 subfields:2 examples:1 complex:3 number:13 c:12 real:1 r:14 rational:6 q:15 clearly:2 basis:3 cardinality:3 continuum:1 set:6 b:2 serve:1 algebraic:23 important:2 another:1 quite:1 different:1 flavor:1 p:7 adic:1 qp:1 prime:2 common:1 polynomial:14 x:25 order:1 create:1 root:9 suppose:1 instance:1 irreducible:2 consequently:1 ideal:1 maximal:1 whose:2 square:1 namely:1 residue:1 class:1 iterate:1 construction:1 splitting:1 split:1 product:1 linear:2 factor:3 n:3 positive:1 integer:1 gf:2 z:1 pz:1 function:6 variable:1 coefficient:4 fraction:2 indeed:1 riemann:1 surface:1 meromorphic:1 identify:1 corresponding:1 constant:1 variety:1 v:4 elementary:1 share:1 subgroup:3 particular:3 compute:2 true:1 non:2 zero:1 characteristic:1 transcendental:16 nonzero:1 example:3 e:6 see:2 special:1 case:1 especially:1 name:1 describe:2 otherwise:1 except:1 show:1 union:1 subextensions:1 although:1 neither:1 closure:4 essentially:1 equation:1 algebraically:4 independent:4 relation:1 exists:1 among:1 transcendence:4 always:1 possible:1 find:1 normal:5 separable:5 galois:9 completely:1 admit:1 minimal:2 repeat:1 consequence:1 theorem:2 state:1 automorphism:2 aut:1 consisting:1 automorphisms:1 α:2 abelian:2 interested:1 significance:1 allow:1 complete:1 description:1 bijection:1 fundamental:1 glossary:1 |@bigram abstract_algebra:1 additive_multiplicative:1 multiplicative_inverse:2 scalar_multiplication:1 cardinality_continuum:1 additive_inverse:2 algebraic_transcendental:2 purely_transcendental:6 algebraic_closure:3 galois_extension:3 irreducible_polynomial:1 |
5,794 | Glyph | Various glyphs representing the character a in the Zapfino typeface. A glyph () is an element of writing. Two or more glyphs representing the same symbol, whether interchangeable or context-dependent, are called allographs; the abstract unit they are variants of is called a grapheme or character. Glyphs may also be ligatures, that is, compound characters, or diacritics. Etymology The term has been used in English since 1727, borrowed from glyphe in use by French antiquaries (since 1701), from the Greek γλυφή, glyphē, "carving," from the verb γλύφειν, glýphein, "to hollow out, engrave, carve" (cognate to Latin glubere "to peel" and English cleave). Compare the carved and incised "sacred glyphs" hieroglyphs, which have had a longer history in English dating from the first Elizabethan translation of Plutarch, who adopted "hieroglyphic" as a Latin adjective. Maya glyph for Day 10 of the tzolkin calendar. But "glyph" first came to widespread European attention with the engravings and in lithographs from Frederick Catherwood's drawings of undeciphered glyphs of the Maya civilization in the early 1840s. Archaeology In archaeology, a glyph is a carved or inscribed symbol. It may be a pictogram or ideogram, or part of a writing system such as a syllable or logogram. Typography The adjacent characters fi represented as one glyph. In typography, a glyph is a particular graphical representation, in a particular typeface, of a grapheme, or sometimes several graphemes in combination (a composed glyph), or a part of a grapheme. In computing as well as typography, the term character refers to a grapheme or grapheme-like unit of text, as found in natural language writing systems (scripts). It may be a letter, a numeral, a punctuation mark, or a pictographic or decorative symbol such as dingbats. A character or grapheme is an abstract unit of text, whereas a glyph is a graphical unit. For example, the sequence fi contains two characters, but can be represented by one glyph, the two characters being combined into a single unit known as a ligature. Conversely, some typewriters require the use of multiple glyphs to depict a single character, as an overstruck apostrophe and period to create an exclamation mark. Most typographic glyphs originate from the characters of a typeface. In a typeface each character typically corresponds to a single glyph, but there are exceptions, such as a font used for a language with a large alphabet or complex writing system, where one character may correspond to several glyphs, or several characters to one glyph. Graphonomics In graphonomics, the term glyph is used for a non-character, i.e: either a sub-character or multi-character pattern. Other uses In the mobile text input technologies, Glyph is a family of text input methods based on the decomposition of letters into basic shapes. See also Allograph Character (computing) Character encoding Hieroglyph Punchcutting Typeface | Glyph |@lemmatized various:1 glyph:20 represent:4 character:18 zapfino:1 typeface:5 element:1 write:3 two:3 symbol:3 whether:1 interchangeable:1 context:1 dependent:1 call:2 allographs:1 abstract:2 unit:5 variant:1 grapheme:7 may:4 also:2 ligature:2 compound:1 diacritic:1 etymology:1 term:3 use:5 english:3 since:2 borrow:1 glyphe:1 french:1 antiquary:1 greek:1 γλυφή:1 glyphē:1 carve:2 verb:1 γλύφειν:1 glýphein:1 hollow:1 engrave:1 cognate:1 latin:2 glubere:1 peel:1 cleave:1 compare:1 carved:2 incised:1 sacred:1 glyphs:1 hieroglyph:2 longer:1 history:1 dating:1 first:2 elizabethan:1 translation:1 plutarch:1 adopt:1 hieroglyphic:1 adjective:1 maya:2 day:1 tzolkin:1 calendar:1 come:1 widespread:1 european:1 attention:1 engraving:1 lithograph:1 frederick:1 catherwood:1 drawing:1 undeciphered:1 civilization:1 early:1 archaeology:2 inscribed:1 pictogram:1 ideogram:1 part:2 system:3 syllable:1 logogram:1 typography:3 adjacent:1 fi:2 one:4 particular:2 graphical:2 representation:1 sometimes:1 several:3 combination:1 compose:1 compute:2 well:1 refers:1 like:1 text:4 find:1 natural:1 language:2 scripts:1 letter:2 numeral:1 punctuation:1 mark:2 pictographic:1 decorative:1 dingbat:1 whereas:1 example:1 sequence:1 contain:1 combine:1 single:3 know:1 conversely:1 typewriter:1 require:1 multiple:1 depict:1 overstruck:1 apostrophe:1 period:1 create:1 exclamation:1 typographic:1 originate:1 typically:1 correspond:2 exception:1 font:1 large:1 alphabet:1 complex:1 writing:1 graphonomics:2 non:1 e:1 either:1 sub:1 multi:1 pattern:1 us:1 mobile:1 input:2 technology:1 family:1 method:1 base:1 decomposition:1 basic:1 shape:1 see:1 allograph:1 encode:1 punchcutting:1 |@bigram maya_civilization:1 punctuation_mark:1 exclamation_mark:1 |
5,795 | Alliance_'90%2FThe_Greens | The Alliance '90/The Greens (German: Bündnis 90/Die Grünen) is a green and centre-left political party in Germany which originated from the merger of the German Green Party and Alliance 90. History 1970s: Foundation In the 1970s, environmentalists and peace activists were politically organized as The Greens (German: Die Grünen). Opposition to pollution, use of nuclear power, NATO military action, and certain aspects of life in a highly industrialized society were principal campaign issues. Important figures in the first years were among others Rudi Dutschke, Heinrich Böll, Petra Kelly and Joseph Beuys. 1980s: Parliamentary representation on the federal level In 1982, the right-wing factions of the party broke away to form the Ecological Democratic Party. Those who remained in the Green party were more strongly anti-military action and against restrictions on immigration and abortion, while supporting the decriminalization of marijuana use, placing a higher priority on working for the rights of gays and lesbians, and tending to advocate what they described as "anti-authoritarian" concepts of education and child-raising. They also tended to identify more closely with a culture of protest and civil disobedience, frequently clashing with police at demonstrations against atomic weapons, nuclear power, or the construction of a new runway (Startbahn West) at Frankfurt airport. Those who left the party at the time might have felt similarly about some of these issues, but did not identify with the forms of protest in which Green Party members took part. After some success at state level and the vote for the European parliament, the party first won seats in the Bundestag, the lower house of the German parliament, in the 1983 election. Among the important political issues at the time was the deployment of Pershing II IRBMs and nuclear-tipped cruise missiles by the U.S. and NATO on West German soil, generating strong opposition in the general population that found an outlet in mass demonstrations. The newly formed party was able to draw on this popular movement to recruit support. Partly due to the impact of the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, and to growing awareness of the threat of air pollution and acid rain to German forests ("Waldsterben"), the Greens increased their share of the vote to 8.3% in the January 1987 West German national election. Around this time, Joschka Fischer, although never holding any important party office, emerged as de facto leader of the party, which he remained until resigning all leadership posts following the German federal election, 2005. 1990s: German reunification, fall out of parliament In the December 1990 elections, taking place in newly-reunified Germany, the Greens in the West did not pass the 5% limit required to win seats in the Bundestag. It was only due to a temporary modification of German election law, applying the five-percent "hurdle" separately in East and West Germany, that the Greens acquired any parliamentary seats at all. This happened because in the territory of the former GDR, the Greens, in a joint effort with Alliance 90, a loose grouping of civil rights activists with diverse political views, were able to gain more than 5% of the vote. Some people attribute this poor performance to the reluctance of the campaign to cater to the prevalent mood of nationalism and patriotism, instead focusing on subjects such as climate change (a campaign poster at the time proudly stated: "Everyone is talking about Germany; we're talking about the weather!", paraphrasing a popular slogan of Deutsche Bundesbahn, the German national railway.) After the 1994 election, however, the party returned to the Bundestag when the Greens got 7.3% of the vote nationwide and 49 seats. 1998–2002: Greens as governing party, first term In 1998, despite a slight fall in their percentage of the vote (6.7%), the Greens retained 47 seats and joined the federal government for the first time in coalition with the Social Democrats. Joschka Fischer became vice chancellor and foreign minister in the new government, which had two other Green ministers (Andrea Fischer, later Renate Künast, and Jürgen Trittin). Almost immediately the party was plunged into a crisis by the question of German participation in the NATO actions in Kosovo. Numerous anti-war party members resigned their party membership when the first post-war deployment of German troops in a military conflict abroad occurred under a Green government, and the party began to experience a long string of defeats in local and regional elections. Disappointment with the Green participation in government increased when anti-nuclear-power activists realized that shutting down the country's nuclear plants would not happen as quickly as they wished, and numerous pro-business SPD members of the federal cabinet opposed the environmentalist agenda of the Greens, calling for tacit compromises. In 2001, the party experienced a further crisis as some Green Members of Parliament refused to back the government's plan of sending military personnel to help with the 2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan. Chancellor Gerhard Schröder called a vote of confidence, tying it to his strategy on the war. Four Green MPs and one Social Democrat voted against the government, but Schröder was still able to command a majority. On the other hand, a major success of the Greens as a governing party, was the 2000 decision to phase out the use of nuclear energy. Minister of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety Jürgen Trittin reached an agreement with energy companies on the gradual phasing out of the country's nineteen nuclear power plants and a cessation of civil usage of nuclear power by 2020. This was authorized through the Nuclear Exit Law. Based on an estimate of 32 years as the normal period of operation for a nuclear power plant, the agreement defines precisely how much energy a power plant is allowed to produce before being shut down. 2002–2005: Greens as governing party, second term Despite the crises of the preceding electoral period, in 2002, the Greens increased their total to 55 seats (in a smaller parliament) and 8.6%. This was partly due to the perception that the internal debate over the war in Afghanistan had been more honest and open than in other parties, and one of the MPs who had voted against the Afghanistan deployment, Hans-Christian Ströbele, was directly elected to the Bundestag as a district representative for the Kreuzberg-Friedrichshain constituency in Berlin, becoming the first Green to ever gain a first-past-the-post seat in Germany. Certain lobby groups which had benefited from Green-initiated legislation in the 1998-2002 term, such as the environmental lobby (Renewable Energies Act) or gays and lesbians (Registered Partnership Law), also rewarded the party with their votes. Perhaps most important for determining the success of both the Greens and the SPD was the increasing threat of war in Iraq, which was highly unpopular with the German public, and helped gather votes for the parties which had taken a stand against participation in this war. Despite losses for the SPD, the coalition government with the Social Democrats commanded a very slight majority in the Bundestag and was renewed, with Joschka Fischer as foreign minister, Renate Künast as minister for consumer protection, nutrition and agriculture, and Jürgen Trittin as minister for the environment. One internal issue in 2002 was the failed attempt to settle a long-standing discussion about the question of whether members of parliament should be allowed to become members of the party executive. Two party conventions declined to change the party statute. The necessary majority of two thirds wasn't reached by a very small margin. As a result, former party chairpersons Fritz Kuhn and Claudia Roth (who had been elected into parliament that year) were no longer able to continue in their executive function and were replaced by former party secretary general Reinhard Bütikofer and former Bundestag member Angelika Beer. The party then held a member referendum on this question in the spring of 2003 which did change the party statute. Now members of parliament may be elected for two of the six seats of the party executive, as long as they are not ministers or caucus leaders. 57% of all party members voted in the member referendum, with 67% voting in favor of the change. The referendum was only the second in the history of Bündnis 90/Die Grünen, the first having been held about the merger of the Greens and Bündnis 90. In 2004, after Angelika Beer was elected to the European parliament, Claudia Roth was elected to replace her as party chair. The only party convention in 2003 was planned for November 2003, but about 20% of the local organisations forced the federal party to hold a special party convention in Cottbus early to discuss the party position in regard to the Agenda 2010, a major reform of the German welfare programs planned by Chancellor Schröder. The November 2003 party convention was held in Dresden and decided the election platform for the 2004 European Parliament elections. The German Green list for these elections was headed by Rebecca Harms (then leader of the Green parliament party in Lower Saxony) and Daniel Cohn-Bendit, previously Member of the European Parliament for Les Verts, the French Green Party. The November 2003 convention is also noted because it was the first convention of a German political party ever using an electronic voting system. The Greens gained a record 13 of Germany's 99 seats in these elections, particularly on the back of the perceived competence of Green ministers in the federal government and the unpopularity of the SPD. In early 2005, the Greens were the target of the German Visa Affair 2005, instigated in the media by the CDU. At the end of April 2005, they celebrated the decommissioning of the Obrigheim nuclear power plant. They are also continuing to support a bill for an Anti-Discrimination Law in the Bundestag. In May 2005, the only remaining red-green coalition at the provincial (Länder) level of government in North Rhine-Westphalia lost the vote, leaving only the federal government with participation of the Greens (apart from local governments). In the 2005 early federal election the party incurred very small losses and achieved 8.1% of the vote and 51 seats. However, due to larger losses of the SPD, the previous coalition no longer had a majority in the Bundestag. 2005–2008: Greens back in opposition For almost two years after the federal elections in 2005, the Greens were not part of any government at the state or federal level. In June 2007, the Greens in Bremen entered into a coalition with the Social Democratic Party (SPD). In April 2008 the Greens in Hamburg entered into a coalition with the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), the first such coalition at the state level in Germany. Although the Greens had to agree to the deepening of the Elbe River, the construction of a new coal-fired power plant and two road projects they had opposed, they also received some significant concessions from the CDU. These include reforming the public schools by increasing the number of elementary school grades, the restoration of the streetcar as a public transportation mode in the city state, and more pedestrian-friendly real estate development. Electorate The Infratest Dimap political research company has suggested the Green voter demographic includes those on higher incomes (e.g. above €2000/month) and the party's support is less among households with lower incomes. The same polling research also concluded that the Greens received fewer votes from the unemployed and general working population, with business people favouring the party as well as the Free Democratic Party. According to Infratest Dimap the Greens received more voters from the age group 34-42 than any other age group and that the young were generally more supportive of the party than the old. (Source: Intrafest Dimap political research company for the ARD. http://www.infratest-dimap.de/?id=282 ) The Greens have a higher voter demographic in urban areas than rural areas, except for a small number of rural areas with pressing local environmental concerns, such as strip mining or radioactive waste deposits. The cities of Bonn, Cologne, Stuttgart, Berlin, Hamburg, Frankfurt and Munich have among the highest percentage of Green voters in the country. The smaller towns of Freiburg, Tübingen, Konstanz, Oldenburg, Heidelberg and Göttingen, most of them towns with old and fairly large Universities, also have a strong share of Green votes. The party has a lower level of support in the states of the former German Democratic Republic (East Germany). See also Green Party faction (Bundestag) Politics of Germany List of political parties in Germany Federal Assembly of Germany (Bundesversammlung) Worldwide Green Parties Green Youth (Germany) Important greens Marieluise Beck Volker Beck Angelika Beer Reinhard Bütikofer Daniel Cohn-Bendit Joschka Fischer Petra Kelly Renate Künast Fritz Kuhn Cem Özdemir Claudia Roth Hans-Christian Ströbele Jürgen Trittin References Literature about the German Green Party Frankland, E. Gene / Schoonmaker, Donald (1992): Between Protest & Power: The Green Party in Germany. Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford: Westview Press. Kolinsky, Eva (1989): The Greens In West Germany: Organisation and Policy Making Oxford: Berg. Raschke, Joachim (1993): Die Grünen: Wie sie wurden, was sie sind. Köln: Bund-Verlag. Raschke, Joachim (2001): Die Zukunft der Grünen. Frankfurt am Main / New York: Campus. Veen, Hans-Joachim / Hoffmann, Jürgen (1992): Die Grünen zu Beginn der neunziger Jahre. Profil und Defizite einer fast etablierten Partei. Bonn / Berlin: Bouvier. Wiesenthal, Helmut (2000): "Profilkrise und Funktionswandel. Bündnis 90/Die Grünen auf dem Weg zu einem neuen Selbstverständnis", in Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, B5 2000, S. 22-29. External links Official Homepage of Bündnis 90/Die Grünen with some English language information Online archive at Heinrich Böll Foundation, German "German Greens and Pax Europa" (English) The Nation article about Green foreign policy | Alliance_'90%2FThe_Greens |@lemmatized alliance:3 green:54 german:22 bündnis:5 die:8 grünen:8 centre:1 leave:3 political:7 party:53 germany:14 originate:1 merger:2 history:2 foundation:2 environmentalist:2 peace:1 activist:3 politically:1 organize:1 opposition:3 pollution:2 use:4 nuclear:12 power:10 nato:3 military:4 action:3 certain:2 aspect:1 life:1 highly:2 industrialized:1 society:1 principal:1 campaign:3 issue:4 important:5 figure:1 first:10 year:4 among:4 others:1 rudi:1 dutschke:1 heinrich:2 böll:2 petra:2 kelly:2 joseph:1 beuys:1 parliamentary:2 representation:1 federal:11 level:6 right:3 wing:1 faction:2 break:1 away:1 form:3 ecological:1 democratic:5 remain:3 strongly:1 anti:5 restriction:1 immigration:1 abortion:1 support:5 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5,796 | Brian_Lara | Brian Charles Lara, TC, OCC (born 2 May 1969, in Santa Cruz, Trinidad and Tobago) is a former West Indian cricketer, who is widely regarded as one of the finest batsmen ever. He topped the Test batting rankings on several occasions and holds several cricketing records. He holds the record for the highest individual score in first-class cricket, with 501 not out for Warwickshire against Durham at Edgbaston in 1994, which is the only quintuple hundred in first-class cricket history. He also holds the record for the highest individual score in a test innings after scoring 400 not out against England at Antigua in 2004. Remarkably, he is the only batsman to have ever scored a hundred, a double century, a triple century, a quadruple century and a quintuple century in first class games over the course of a senior career. Lara also holds the test record of scoring most number of runs in a single over, when he scored 28 runs off an over by Robin Peterson of South Africa in 2003. Lara's match-winning performance of 153 not out against Australia in Bridgetown, Barbados in 1999 has been rated by Wisden as the second best batting performance in the history of Test cricket, next only to the 270 runs scored by Sir Donald Bradman in The Ashes test match of 1937. Muttiah Muralitharan, rated as the greatest Test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, and the highest wicket-taker in both Test cricket Cricinfo, Highest Test Wicket-takers and in One Day Internationals (ODIs), Cricinfo, Highest ODI Wicket-takers has hailed Lara as his toughest opponent among all batsmen in the world. He was awarded the Wisden Leading Cricketer in the World awards in 1994 and 1995 and is also one of only three cricketers to receive the prestigious BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year, the other two being Sir Garfield Sobers and Shane Warne. Brian Lara is popularly nicknamed as The Prince of Trinidad or simply The Prince. Early life Lara's father Bunty and one of his older sisters Agnes Cyrus enrolled him in the local Harvard Coaching Clinic at the age of six for weekly coaching sessions on Sundays. As a result, Lara had a very early education in correct batting technique. Lara's first school was St. Joseph's Roman Catholic primary. He then went to San Juan secondary, but played no cricket there. A year later, at fourteen years old, he moved on to Fatima College where he started his development as a promising young player under cricket coach Mr. Harry Ramdas. Aged 14, he amassed 745 runs in the schoolboys' league, with an average of 126.16 per innings, which earned him selection for the Trinidad national under-16 team. When he was 15 years old, he played in his first West Indian under 19 youth tournament and that same year, Lara represented West Indies in Under-19 cricket. Lara moved in with his future fellow Trinidadian cricketer Michael Carew in Woodbrook, Port of Spain (a 20 minute drive from Santa Cruz). Michael's father Joey Carew worked with him on his cricketing and personal career development. Michael got Lara his first job at Angostura Ltd. in the marketing department. Lara played in Trinidad and Tobago junior soccer and table tennis sides but Lara believed that cricket was his path to success, saying that he wanted to emulate his idols Gordon Greenidge, Viv Richards and Roy Fredericks. Early cricket career 1987 was a breakthrough year for Lara, when in the West Indies Youth Championships he scored 498 runs beating the record of 480 by Carl Hooper set the previous year. The Coming Foretold The Independent retrieved 30 July 2007 He captained the Trinidad and Tobago team at this tournament whom eventually won the tournament due to a match winning 116 from Lara. In January 1988, Lara made his first-class debut for Trinidad and Tobago in the Red Stripe Cup against Leeward Islands. In his second first-class match he made 92 against a Barbados attack containing Joel Garner and Malcolm Marshall, two greats of West Indies teams. Later in the same year, he captained the West Indies team in Australia for the Bicentennial Youth World Cup where the West Indies reached the semi-finals. Later that year, his innings of 182 as captain of the West Indies under 23 XI against the touring Indian team elevated his reputation even further. His first selection for the full West Indies team followed in due course, but unfortunately coincided with the death of his father and Lara withdrew from the team. In 1989, he captained a West Indies B Team in Zimbabwe and scored 145. In 1990, at the age of 20, Lara became Trinidad and Tobago's youngest ever captain, leading them that season to victory in the one-day Geddes Grant Shield. It was also in 1990 that he made his belated Test debut for West Indies against Pakistan, scoring 44 and 5. He had made his ODI debut a month earlier against Pakistan, scoring 11. In the 1992 World Cup Lara did well averaging 47.57 with a highest score of 88 retired hurt. In January 1993, Lara scored 277 versus Australia in Sydney, this was his maiden Test century in his fifth Test, this innings was the turning point of the series as West Indies won the final two Tests to win the series 2-1.Lara went on to name his daughter Sydney after scoring 277 at SCG. He was greatly influenced by Trinidadian Lester Armogan. Lara was devastated with "Uncle Les's" death, but has been able to rebound. He knows "Uncle Les" is watching. Profiles - IslandEvents.com - Profile: Brian Charles Lara - Mar 1, 2007 Career Lara holds several world records for high scoring. He has the highest individual score in both first-class cricket (501 not out for Warwickshire against Durham in 1994) and Test cricket (400 not out for the West Indies against England in 2004). Lara amassed his world record 501 in 474 minutes off only 427 balls. He hit 308 in boundaries (10 sixes and 62 fours). His partners were Roger Twose (115 partnership - 2nd wicket), Trevor Penney (314 - 3rd), Paul Smith (51 - 4th) and Keith Piper (322 unbroken - 5th). Earlier in that season Lara scored six centuries in seven innings while playing for Warwickshire. He is the only man to have reclaimed the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in 1994, a record that stood until Matthew Hayden's 380 against Zimbabwe in 2003. His 400 not out also made him the second player after Donald Bradman to score two Test triple-centuries, and the second after Bill Ponsford to score two first-class quadruple-centuries. He has scored nine double centuries in Test cricket, second only to Bradman's twelve. In 1995 Lara in the test match away series against England, scored 3 hundreds in Three consecutive Matches which earned him the Man of the Series award. The Test Series was eventually drawn 2-2. He also held the record for the highest total number of runs in a Test career, after overtaking Allan Border in an innings of 226 played at Adelaide Oval, Australia in November 2005. However this was broken by Sachin Tendulkar of India on October 19, 2008 whilst playing against Australia at Mohali in the 2nd Test of the Border-Gavaskar Trophy 2008. Hence, he now holds the new world record of most runs in a Test Career. Lara captained the West Indies from 1998 to 1999 in this period West Indies suffered their first whitewash at the hands of South Africa following this they played Australia in a four Test series which was drawn 2-2, Lara scored 546 runs including two centuries and one double hundred. In the second Test at Kingston he scored 213 while in the third Test he scored 153* in the second innings as West Indies chased down 311 with one wicket left. He won the Man of the Match award for both matches and was also named Man of the Series. In 2001 Lara was named the Man of the Carlton Series in Australia with an average of 46.50 the highest average by a West Indian in that series scoring two half centuries and one century, 116 against Australia. Also in that year Lara amassed 688 runs in the three match away Test series against Sri Lanka making three centuries and one fifty including a double century and a century in the first and second innings of the 3rd Test Match at the Sinhalese Sports Ground making 42% of the team's runs in that series. These extraordinary performances led Muttiah Muralitharan to state that Lara was the most dangerous batsman he had ever faced. Murali: 'Lara's still No. 1' Lara was reappointed as captain against the touring Australians in 2003, and struck 110 in his first Test match back in charge, showing signs of him returning to his best. Later that season under his captaincy West Indies won the two match Test series against Sri Lanka 1-0 with Lara making a double century in the First Test. In September 2004, West Indies won the ICC Champions Trophy in England under his captaincy. In March 2005, Lara declined selection for the West Indies team because of a dispute over his personal Cable & Wireless sponsorship deal, which clashed with the Cricket Board's main sponsor, Digicel. Six other players were involved in this dispute, including stars Chris Gayle, Ramnaresh Sarwan and Dwayne Bravo. Lara said he declined selection in a stand of solidarity, when these players were dropped because of their sponsorship deals. 'I'm ready to play if best team is selected' - Lara The issue was resolved after the first Test of the series against the touring South African team. Lara returned to the team for the second Test (and scored a huge first innings score of 196), but in the process lost his captaincy indefinitely to the newly-appointed Shivnarine Chanderpaul. In the next Test, against the same opponents, he scored a 176 in the first innings. After a one day series against South Africa, he scored his first Test century against the visiting Pakistanis in the first Test at Kensington Oval, Bridgetown, Barbados which the West Indies eventually won. On 26 April 2006 Lara was reappointed the captain of the West Indies cricket team for the third time. This followed the resignation of Shivnarine Chanderpaul, who had been captain for thirteen months - in which the West Indies won just one of the 14 Test matches they had competed. In May 2006, Lara led the West Indies to successful One-Day series victories against Zimbabwe and India. Lara's team played Australia in the finals of the DLF Cup and the ICC Champions Trophy where they finished runners up in both finals. On 16 December 2006 he became the first player for the West Indies to pass 10,000 One Day International runs. along with Sachin Tendulkar one of only two players to do so in both forms of the game. On 10 April 2007 Lara confirmed his retirement from one day cricket post the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Lara confirms one-day retirement BBC News retrieved 30 July 2007 A few days later he announced that he would in fact be retiring from all international cricket after the tournament. Legend Lara to end Windies career BBC News retrieved 30 July 2007 Lara played his final international game on 21 April 2007 in a dead rubber World Cup game against England. He was run out for 18; England won the game. Before the end of this world cup Glenn McGrath stated that Lara is the greatest batsman that he has ever bowled to. McGrath rates Lara just ahead of Tendulkar retrieved 4 December 2007 Retirement Lara during his lap of honour, 2007 CWC. On 19 April 2007 Lara announced his retirement from all forms of international cricket, indicating that the West Indies vs England match on 21 April 2007 would be his last international appearance. Lara turns his back on cricket retrieved on 29 April 2007 He was run out after a bad mixup with Marlon Samuels for 18, as England went on to win the match by one wicket. West Indies v England BBC News retrieved 29 July 2007 He announced before the 2007 Cricket World Cup that this would be his last appearance in one day internationals. After his last match, in the post-game presentation interview, he asked the fans, "Did I entertain?", to which he received a resounding "Yes!" from the West Indies fans, after which he went out and took his 'lap of honor' where he met and shook hands with many of the fans. This marked the last time Lara would play actively in the game. It should be noted that while Lara has gone on record as saying that this would be his last appearance in international cricket, he has also indicated his interest in retaining some involvement in the sport. On 23 July 2007 Lara agreed to sign for the Indian Cricket League. Lara signs up for new Indian league He is currently the captain of the Mumbai Champs. Brian Lara volunteered to play for his home team Trinidad during the start of 2008 domestic season. He had not played for Trinidad for the last two years. He made his comeback a memorable one with a match winning hundred over Guyana, followed by a dismissive undefeated half-century in the second innings, scored at over two runs per ball. In the third round game (Trinidad got a bye in the second round), Brian Lara suffered a fractured arm against the Leeward Islands in St Maarten on Jan 19th. Brian Lara is not playing in the current season of ICL due to a broken arm. Though it was expected that the arm would heal in 6 weeks, it did not and he is still nursing the injury. Recently BCCI has granted amnesty to ICL players, so Brian Lara may start playing for one of IPL leagues, which has greater following than ICL. Controversies On the fourth day of the first test match at Antigua Recreation Ground, St John's, Antigua during India's tour of West Indies, 2006, Mahendra Singh Dhoni's flick off Dave Mohammed to the midwicket region was caught by Daren Ganga. As the batsman started to walk back, captain Rahul Dravid declared the innings when confusion started as the umpires were not certain if the fielder stepped on the ropes and Dhoni stayed for the umpire's verdict. While the replays were inconclusive, the captain of the West Indies side, Brian Lara wanted Dhoni to walk-off based on the fielder's assertion of the catch. The impasse continued for more than 15 minutes. Ultimately, Dhoni walked-off and Dravid's declaration was effected but the game was delayed. Lara was called by the match referee for explanation of his actions but was not fined. Lara did not cross the line Off the field Brian Lara has established the Pearl and Bunty Lara Foundation, which is a charitable organisation in memory of his parents that aims to address health and social care issues. He is an Ambassador for Sport of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, and travels on a diplomatic passport to promote his country throughout the world. Brian Lara received an honorary doctorate from the University of Sheffield on Wednesday 10 January 2007. The ceremony took place at the Trinidad Hilton, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. West Indies cricketer to receive honorary degree from UK University of Sheffield retrieved 30 July 2007 Brian Charles Lara, will be one of four persons to receive the highest award of the Caribbean Community (Caricom) in July. On 7 September 2008 he took part in Soccer Aid 2008, playing for the Rest of the World vs a team of England celebrites and ex pros. Lara was also a talented football player in his youth and often played with his close friends Dwight Yorke, Shaka Hislop and Russell Latapy while growing up together in Trinidad. Yorke, Hislop and Latapy would go on to play for Trinidad and Tobago at the 2006 FIFA World Cup. Personal life Lara has dated British supermodel Lindsey Ward. Lara is the father of a girl called Sydney whom he fathered with Trinidadian journalist and model Leasel Rovedas. Sydney is so named as a tribute to one of Lara's favourite grounds, the Sydney Cricket Ground, where Lara scored his first Test century- the highly acclaimed 277 in the 1992-93 season. His father died in 1989 of a heart attack and his mother died in 2002 of cancer. Lara has close ties with Trinidadian business mogul Wayne Armogan, who is the son of late Trinidadian Lester Armogan Cricinfo - Lee's jingle, Pup's Bingle . Statistics Highlights Brian Lara's career performance graph. Lara struck 277 runs against Australia in Sydney, his maiden Test century, the fourth highest maiden Test century by any batsman, Highest Maiden Tons Stats from CricInfo, retrieved 30 July 2007 the highest individual score in all Tests between the two teams and the fourth-highest century ever recorded against Australia by any Test batsman. He became the first man to score seven centuries in eight first-class innings, the first being the record 375 against England and the last being the record 501 not out against Durham. After Matthew Hayden had eclipsed his Test record for highest individual score 375 by five runs in 2003, he reclaimed the record scoring 400 not out in 2004 against England. With these innings he became the second player to score two Test triple centuries, the second player to score two career quadruple centuries, the only player to achieve both these milestones, and regained the distinction of being the holder of both the record first-class individual innings and the record Test individual innings. In the same innings, he became the second batsman to score 1000 Test runs in five different years, four days after Matthew Hayden first set the record. He was the all-time leading run scorer in Test cricket, a record he attained on 26 November 2005 Most Test Runs Stats from CricInfo retrieved 30 July 2007 until surpassed by Sachin Tendulkar on 17 October 2008. He was the fastest batsmen to score 10,000 (with Sachin Tendulkar) and 11,000 Test runs, in terms of number of innings. Fastest Test Runs Stats from CricInfo retrieved 30 July 2007 He scored 34 centuries; joint-third along with Sunil Gavaskar, on the all-time list behind Sachin Tendulkar () and Ricky Ponting (37). Most Test hundreds in a career He has the most centuries for a West Indian Leading Test Batsmen Stats from CricInfo retrieved 30 July 2007 Nine of his centuries are double centuries (surpassed only by Donald Bradman) Two of them are triple-centuries (matched by Bradman and India's Virender Sehwag). He has scored centuries against all Test-playing nations. He achieved this feat in 2005 by scoring his first Test century against Pakistan at the Kensington Oval in Bridgetown, Barbados. He became only the sixth batsman to score a century in one session, doing so against Pakistan on 21 November 2006. 100 Before Lunch Stats from CricInfo retrieved 30 July 2007 Lara has scored an astonishing 20% of his team runs, The Lara story in numbers CricInfo retrieved 30 July 2007 a feat surpassed only by Bradman (23%) and George Headley (21%). Lara scored 688 runs (42% of team output, a record for a series of three or more Tests, and the second highest aggregate runs in history for a three-Test series) in the 2001-02 tour of Sri Lanka. Highest Aggregate runs in series Stats from CricInfo retrieved 30 July 2007 He also scored a century and a double century in the third Test in that same Sri Lanka tour, a feat repeated only five other times in Test cricket history. 100s in each innings Stats from Cric Info retrieved 30 July 2007 The first was the unenviable one of becoming the batsman to score the most runs (351) on a losing side in a Test. The second record was that he became the batsman to score the largest proportion (53.83 per cent) of his team's runs in a Test (221 out of 390 and 130 out of 262). He eclipsed the long-standing record of 51.88 per cent by the South African J. H. Sinclair (106 out of 177 and 4 out of 35) against England at Cape Town in an 1898 - 1899 series. http://www.stabroeknews.com/index.pl/article_daily_features?id=56541818 Lara holds the world record of scoring most runs in a single over (28 runs against left-arm spinner RJ Peterson of South Africa) in Test cricket. Most Runs from One Over Stats from CricInfo retrieved 30 July 2007 He also scored 26 runs in a single over off the bowling of Danish Kaneria at Multan Cricket Stadium on 21 November 2006. He scored the ninth fastest Test century, doing so off 77 balls against Pakistan on 21 November 2006. Fastest test landmarks Stats from CricInfo retrieved 30 July 2007 With 164 catches, He is the fourth all-time catch-taker of non-Wicketkeepers, behind Rahul Dravid, Mark Waugh and Stephen Fleming. Test Career catches Stats from CricInfo retrieved 29 March 2008 In 1994, he was awarded the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality Award. In 1995, he was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year. Comfortably averaging over 50 per innings (the benchmark for batting greatness in Test cricket), Lara has been ranked the number one batsman in Test cricket in the PricewaterhouseCoopers Cricket Ratings several times. Lara has played some of his best innings in recent years. Wisden published a top 100 list in July 2001, a distillation of the best performances from 1,552 Tests, 54,494 innings and 29,730 bowling performances. Three innings by Lara were placed in the top 15 (the most for any batsman in that range). His heroic 153 not out in Bridgetown, Barbados, during West Indies' 2-2 home series draw against Australia in *1998-1999 was deemed the second greatest Test innings ever played, behind Bradman's 270 against England in the Third Test of the 1936–1937 series at Melbourne. On 13 October 2003, PricewaterhouseCoopers Ratings team published a list of top innings since 1990 under their own methodology. Lara's 213 against Australia in Kingston, Jamaica in 1999 came out to be the top innings. His 375 was placed 8th and his three other innings, including the 153 not out, were not far behind. Lara previously holds the fastest century in ODI's in 45 balls against Bangladesh. He is one of six batsmen to make a century before lunch. Cricinfo - Records - Test matches - Hundred runs before lunch, retrieved 2009-05-18. Test Centuries The following tables illustrate a summary of the Test and ODI centuries scored by Brian Lara. In the column Runs, * indicates being not out. The column title Match refers to the Match Number of his career. Test Centuries of Brian Lara Runs Match Against City/Country Venue Year Result [1] 277 5 Australia Sydney, Australia Sydney Cricket Ground 1993 Drawn [2] 167 13 England Georgetown, Guyana Bourda 1993 Won [3] 375 16 England St John's, Antigua Antigua Recreation Ground 1994 Drawn [4] 147 21 New Zealand Wellington, New Zealand Basin Reserve 1995 Won [5] 145 29 England Manchester, England Old Trafford 1995 Lost [6] 152 30 England Nottingham, England Trent Bridge 1995 Drawn [7] 179 31 England London, England Kennington Oval 1995 Drawn [8] 132 38 Australia Perth, Australia W.A.C.A. Ground 1997 Won [9] 103 42 India St John's, Antigua Antigua Recreation Ground 1997 Drawn [10] 115 45 Sri Lanka Kingstown, Saint Vincent Arnos Vale Ground 1997 Drawn [11] 213 61 Australia Kingston, Jamaica Sabina Park 1999 Won [12] 153* 62 Australia Bridgetown, Barbados Kensington Oval 1999 Won [13] 100 63 Australia St John's, Antigua Antigua Recreation Ground 1999 Lost [14] 112 68 England Manchester, England Old Trafford 2000 Drawn [15] 182 73 Australia Adelaide, Australia Adelaide Oval 2000 Lost [16] 178 81 Sri Lanka Galle, Sri Lanka Galle Stadium 2001 Lost [17] 221 83 Sri Lanka Colombo, Sri Lanka Sinhalese Sports Club Ground 2001 Lost [18] 130 83 Sri Lanka Colombo, Sri Lanka Sinhalese Sports Club Ground 2001 Lost [19] 110 91 Australia Georgetown, Guyana Bourda 2003 Lost [20] 122 92 Australia Port of Spain, Trinidad Queen’s Park Oval 2003 Lost [21] 209 95 Sri Lanka Gros Islet, Saint Lucia Beausejour Stadium 2003 Drawn [22] 191 98 Zimbabwe Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Queen’s Sport Club 2003 Won [23] 202 99 South Africa Johannesburg, South Africa New Wanderers Stadium 2003 Lost [24] 115 101 South Africa Cape Town, South Africa Newlands 2004 Drawn [25] 400* 106 England St John's, Antigua Antigua Recreation Ground 2004 Drawn [26] 120 108 Bangladesh Kingston, Jamaica Sabina Park 2004 Won [27] 196 113 South Africa Port of Spain, Trinidad Queen’s Park Oval 2005 Lost [28] 176 114 South Africa Bridgetown, Barbados Kensington Oval 2005 Lost [29] 130 116 Pakistan Bridgetown, Barbados Kensington Oval 2005 Won [30] 153 117 Pakistan Kingston, Jamaica Sabina Park 2005 Lost [31] 226 121 Australia Adelaide, Australia Adelaide Oval 2005 Lost [32] 120 126 India Gros Islet, Saint Lucia Beausejour Stadium 2006 Drawn [33] 122 129 Pakistan Lahore, Pakistan Gadaffi Stadium 2006 Lost [34] 216 130 Pakistan Multan, Pakistan Multan Cricket Stadium 2006 Drawn One-Day International Centuries ODI Centuries of Brian Lara Runs Match Against City/Country Venue Year [1] 128 41 Pakistan Durban, South Africa Kingsmead 1993 [2] 111* 42 South Africa Bloemfontein, South Africa Springbok Park 1993 [3] 114 45 Pakistan Kingston, Jamaica Sabina Park 1993 [4] 153 54 Pakistan Sharjah, UAE Sharjah C.A. Stadium 1993 [5] 139 83 Australia Port of Spain, Trinidad Queen’s Park Oval 1995 [6] 169 90 Sri Lanka Sharjah, UAE Sharjah C.A. Stadium 1995 [7] 111 96 South Africa Karachi, Pakistan National Stadium 1996 [8] 146* 100 New Zealand Port of Spain, Trinidad Queen’s Park Oval 1996 [9] 104 102 New Zealand Kingstown, Saint Vincent Arnos Vale Ground 1996 [10] 102 108 Australia Brisbane, Australia Brisbane Cricket Ground 1997 [11] 103* 109 Pakistan Perth, Australia W.A.C.A Ground 1997 [12] 110 125 England Bridgetown, Barbados Kensington Oval 1998 [13] 117 157 Bangladesh Dhaka, Bangladesh Bangabandhu National Stadium 1999 [14] 116* 176 Australia Sydney, Australia Sydney Cricket Ground 2001 [15] 111 202 Kenya Colombo, Sri Lanka Sinhalese Sports Club Ground 2002 [16] 116 203 South Africa Cape Town, South Africa Newlands 2003 [17] 116 217 Sri Lanka Bridgetown, Barbados Kensington Oval 2003 [18] 113 219 Zimbabwe Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Queens Sports Club 2003 [19] 156 250 Pakistan Adelaide, Australia Adelaide Oval 2005 Man of the Match Awards Test Cricket Man of the Match Awards – Brian Lara Runs Against City/Country Venue Result Year [1] 277 Australia Sydney, Australia Sydney Cricket Ground Match Drawn 1993 [2] 167 England Georgetown, Guyana Bourda West Indies won by an innings and 44 runs 1993 [3] 375 England St John's, Antigua Antigua Recreation Ground Match Drawn 1993 [4] 179 England London, England Kennington Oval Match Drawn 1995 [5] 104 India St John’s, Antigua Antigua Recreation Ground Match Drawn 1997 [6] 213 Australia Kingston, Jamaica Sabina Park West Indies won by 10 wickets 1999 [7] 8/153* Australia Bridgetown, Barbados Kensington Oval West Indies won by 1 wicket 1999 [8] 221/130 Sri Lanka Colombo, Sri Lanka Sinhalese Sport Club Ground Sri Lanka won by 10 wickets 2001 [9] 209 Sri Lanka Gros Islet, Saint Lucia Beausejour Stadium Match Drawn 2003 [10] 191/1 Zimbabwe Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Queens Sports Club West Indies won by 128 runs 2003 [11] 400* England St John’s, Antigua Antigua Recreation Ground Match Drawn 2004 [12] 226/17 Australia Adelaide, Australia Adelaide Oval Australia won by 7 wickets2005 One-Day International Cricket Man of the Match Awards – Brian Lara Runs Against City/Country Venue Result Year [1] 54 Pakistan Karachi, Pakistan National Stadium West Indies won by 24 runs 1991 [2] 69 Australia Brisbane, Australia Brisbane Cricket Ground West Indies won by 12 runs 1992 [3] 88 Pakistan Melbourne, Australia Melbourne Cricket Ground West Indies won by 10 wickets 1992 [4] 72 Zimbabwe Brisbane, Australia Brisbane Cricket Ground West Indies won by 75 runs 1992 [5] 86 South Africa Port of Spain, Trinidad Queens Park Oval West Indies won by 10 wickets 1992 [6] 128 Pakistan Durban, South Africa Kingsmead West Indies won by 124 runs 1993 [7] 111* South Africa Bloemfontein, South Africa Springbok Park West Indies won by 9 wickets1993 [8] 114 Pakistan Kingston, Jamaica Sabina Park West Indies won by 4 wickets 1993 [9] 95* Pakistan Port of Spain, Trinidad Queens Park Oval West Indies won by 5 wickets 1993 [10] 153 Pakistan Sharjah, UAE Sharjah C.A. Stadium West Indies won by 6 wickets 1993 [11] 82 Sri Lanka Kolkata, India Eden Gardens West Indies won by 7 wickets 1993 [12] 55* New Zealand Auckland, New Zealand Eden Park West Indies won by 25 runs 1995 [13] 72 New Zealand Wellington, New Zealand Basin Reserve West Indies won by 41 runs 1995 [14] 139 Australia Port of Spain, Trinidad Queens Park Oval West Indies won by 133 runs 1995 [15] 169 Sri Lanka Sharjah, UAE Sharjah C. A. Stadium West Indies won by 4 runs 1995 [16] 111 South Africa Karachi, Pakistan National Stadium West Indies won by 19 runs 1996 [17] 146* New Zealand Port of Spain, Trinidad Queens Park Oval West Indies won by 7 wickets 1996 [18] 103* Pakistan Perth, Australia W.A.C.A Grounds West Indies won by 5 wickets 1997 [19] 90 Australia Perth, Australia W.A.C.A Grounds West Indies won by 4 wickets 1997 [20] 88 Pakistan Sharjah, UAE Sharjah C.A. Stadium West Indies won by 43 runs 1997 [21] 51 England Kingstown, Saint Vincent Arnos Vale Ground West Indies won by 4 wickets 1998 [22] 60 India Singapore Kallang Ground West Indies won by 42 runs 1999 [23] 117 Bangladesh Dhaka, Bangladesh Bangabandhu National Stadium West Indies won by 109 runs 1999 [24] 116* Australia Sydney, Australia Sydney Cricket Ground Australia won by 28 runs2001 [25] 83* Zimbabwe Perth, Australia W.A.C.A Grounds West Indies won by 44 runs 2001 [26] 59* New Zealand Gros Islet, Saint Lucia Beausejour Stadium West Indies won by 7 wickets 2002 [27] 103* Kenya Colombo, Sri Lanka Sinhalese Sports Club Ground West Indies won by 29 runs 2002 [28] 116 South Africa Cape Town, South Africa Newlands West Indies won by 3 runs 2003 [29] 80 Australia Port of Spain, Trinidad Queens Park Oval West Indies won by 39 runs 2003 [30] 156 Pakistan Adelaide, Australia Adelaide Oval West Indies won by 58 runs 2005 See also Brian Lara Cricket series of video games Brian Lara Stadium Notes and references External links Last exit for Lara Cricinfo Profile Brian Lara's Test Statistics (by HowSTAT!) Brian Lara's One-Day International Statistics (by HowSTAT!) 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5,797 | Bachelor | A bachelor is a man above the age of majority who has never been married (see single). The term is sometimes restricted to men who do not have and are not actively seeking a spouse or other personal partner. Cole, David. "Note on Analyticity and the Definability of 'Bachelor'." Philosophy Department of the University of Minnesota Duluth. 1 February 1999. Accessed 14 February 2008. For example, men who are in a committed relationship with a personal partner (female or male) to whom they are not married are no longer generally considered "bachelors," but neither are they considered married. Thus, a broad grey, unnamed status has emerged between the concepts of "bachelor" and "married man." Research done by sociologists Richard Pitt and Elizabeth Borland sharpens the definition of bachelor to mean "men who live independently, outside of their parents' home and other institutional settings, who are neither married nor cohabitating" for just this reason. They discovered that these bachelors were more liberal in their attitudes towards women's roles in society; this was not the case for those men who were only "unmarried". Pitt, Richard and Elizabeth Borland. 2008. "Bachelorhood and Men's Attitudes about Gender Roles" The Journal of Men's Studies 16:140-158 During the Victorian Era, the term "confirmed bachelor" often was used as a euphemism for a gay man and is currently still in use in the United States and the United Kingdom. biology - List of sexual slurs Peter Wilby on the Lord Browne saga | Media | The Guardian In spite of the wider acceptance of gay people and same-sex relationships in recent years there are only little changes in this historic usage. Meanwhile, the term "confirmed bachelor" can also refer to heterosexual men who show no interest in marriage or classes of committed relationships. The term "lifelong bachelor" has commonly replaced "confirmed bachelor", especially in reference to middle aged or older men who have never married and especially if they are not known to be in a relationship. "Most eligible bachelor" is a generic term for a published listing of bachelors considered to be desirable marriage candidates. Usually "most eligible bachelor" lists are published on an annual basis and present listed men in a ranked order. Etymology and historical meanings The word is from Old French bacheler "knight bachelor", a young squire in training, ultimately from Latin baccalarius, a vassal farmer. The Old French term crossed into English around 1300, referring to one belonging to the lowest stage of knighthood. Knights bachelor were either poor vassals who could not afford to take the field under their own banner, or knights too young to support the responsibility and dignity of knights banneret. From the 14th century, the term was also used for a junior member of a guild, otherwise known as "yeomen", or university; hence, an ecclesiastic of an inferior grade, e.g. a young monk or even recently appointed canon (Severtius, de episcopis Lugdunen-sibus, p. 377, in du Cange). "Bachelor" can also refer to those holding a "bachelor's degree" from a university (or a four-year college, in the American system of higher education). In this sense the word baccalarius or baccalaureus first appears at the University of Paris in the 13th century, in the system of degrees established under the auspices of Pope Gregory IX, as applied to scholars still in statu pupillari. Thus there were two classes of baccalarii: the baccalarii cursores, theological candidates passed for admission to the divinity course; and the baccalarii dispositi, who, having completed this course, were entitled to proceed to the higher degrees. The term baccalaureus is a pun combining the prosaic baccalarius with bacca lauri "laurel berry" — according to the American Heritage Dictionary, "bacca" is the Old Irish word for "farmer" + laureus, "laurel berry," the idea being that a "baccalaureate" had farmed (cultivated) his mind. The sense of "unmarried man" dates to 1385. The feminine bachelorette is from 1935, replacing earlier bachelor-girl. In 19th century American slang to bach was used as a verb meaning "to live as an unmarried man". Penal laws and customs Bachelors, in the sense of unmarried men, have in many countries been subjected to ridicule and draconian penal laws. In Sparta, citizens who remained unmarried after a certain age suffered various penalties. They were not allowed to witness the gymnastic exercises of the maidens; and during winter they were compelled to march naked round the marketplace, singing a song composed against themselves and expressing the justice of their punishment. The usual respect of the young to the old was not paid to bachelors. In Athens there was no definite legislation on this matter; but certain minor laws are evidently dictated by a spirit akin to the Spartan doctrine. In Rome, though there appear traces of some earlier legislation in the matter, the first clearly known law is that called the Lex Julia, passed about 18 BC. It does not appear to have ever come into full operation; and in AD 9 it was incorporated with the Lex Papia et Poppaea, the two laws being frequently cited as one, Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea. This law, while restricting marriages between the several classes of the people, laid heavy penalties on unmarried persons, gave certain privileges to those citizens who had several children, and finally imposed lighter penalties on married persons who were childless. Isolated instances of such penalties occur during the Middle Ages, e.g. by a charter of liberties granted by Matilda I, countess of Nevers, to Auxerre in 1223, an annual tax of five solidi is imposed on any man qui non habet uxorem et est bache-larius ("who does not have a wife and is a bachelor"). In the United Kingdom there has been no direct legislation bearing on bachelors; but, occasionally, taxes have been made to bear more heavily on them than on others. Instances of this are an Act passed in 1695; the tax on servants, 1785; and the income tax, 1798. In some cultures, the "punishment" of bachelors is no more than a teasing game. In small towns in Germany, for example, men who were still unmarried on their 30th birthday were made to sweep the stairs of the town hall until kissed by a virgin. This "punishment" (Treppe fegen) is still practised today in parts of Northern Germany. Similarly, in Denmark, Norway, Sweden and the rest of Scandinavia, a man is called a pebersvend and may receive a giant pepper grinder on his 30th birthday if unmarried. See also Bachelor's degree Bachelor pad Bachelor party Bachelorette Eligible bachelor Spinster Lad culture Fear of commitment Footnotes | Bachelor |@lemmatized bachelor:27 man:7 age:4 majority:1 never:2 marry:4 see:2 single:1 term:8 sometimes:1 restrict:2 men:11 actively:1 seek:1 spouse:1 personal:2 partner:2 cole:1 david:1 note:1 analyticity:1 definability:1 philosophy:1 department:1 university:4 minnesota:1 duluth:1 february:2 access:1 example:2 committed:2 relationship:4 female:1 male:1 longer:1 generally:1 consider:3 neither:2 married:3 thus:2 broad:1 grey:1 unnamed:1 status:1 emerge:1 concept:1 research:1 sociologist:1 richard:2 pitt:2 elizabeth:2 borland:2 sharpen:1 definition:1 mean:1 live:2 independently:1 outside:1 parent:1 home:1 institutional:1 setting:1 cohabitating:1 reason:1 discover:1 liberal:1 attitude:2 towards:1 woman:1 role:2 society:1 case:1 unmarried:8 bachelorhood:1 gender:1 journal:1 study:1 victorian:1 era:1 confirm:3 often:1 use:4 euphemism:1 gay:2 currently:1 still:4 united:3 state:1 kingdom:2 biology:1 list:3 sexual:1 slur:1 peter:1 wilby:1 lord:1 browne:1 saga:1 medium:1 guardian:1 spite:1 wider:1 acceptance:1 people:2 sex:1 recent:1 year:2 little:1 change:1 historic:1 usage:1 meanwhile:1 also:4 refer:3 heterosexual:1 show:1 interest:1 marriage:3 class:3 lifelong:1 commonly:1 replace:2 especially:2 reference:1 middle:2 old:5 know:3 eligible:3 generic:1 published:1 listing:1 desirable:1 candidate:2 usually:1 publish:1 annual:2 basis:1 present:1 ranked:1 order:1 etymology:1 historical:1 meaning:2 word:3 french:2 bacheler:1 knight:4 young:4 squire:1 training:1 ultimately:1 latin:1 baccalarius:3 vassal:2 farmer:2 cross:1 english:1 around:1 one:2 belonging:1 low:1 stage:1 knighthood:1 either:1 poor:1 could:1 afford:1 take:1 field:1 banner:1 support:1 responsibility:1 dignity:1 banneret:1 century:3 junior:1 member:1 guild:1 otherwise:1 yeoman:1 hence:1 ecclesiastic:1 inferior:1 grade:1 e:2 g:2 monk:1 even:1 recently:1 appoint:1 canon:1 severtius:1 de:1 episcopis:1 lugdunen:1 sibus:1 p:1 du:1 cange:1 hold:1 degree:4 four:1 college:1 american:3 system:2 high:2 education:1 sense:3 baccalaureus:2 first:2 appear:3 paris:1 establish:1 auspex:1 pope:1 gregory:1 ix:1 apply:1 scholar:1 statu:1 pupillari:1 two:2 baccalarii:3 cursores:1 theological:1 pass:3 admission:1 divinity:1 course:2 dispositi:1 complete:1 entitle:1 proceed:1 pun:1 combine:1 prosaic:1 bacca:2 lauri:1 laurel:2 berry:2 accord:1 heritage:1 dictionary:1 irish:1 laureus:1 idea:1 baccalaureate:1 farm:1 cultivate:1 mind:1 date:1 feminine:1 bachelorette:2 earlier:1 girl:1 slang:1 bach:1 verb:1 penal:2 law:6 custom:1 many:1 country:1 subject:1 ridicule:1 draconian:1 sparta:1 citizen:2 remain:1 certain:3 suffer:1 various:1 penalty:4 allow:1 witness:1 gymnastic:1 exercise:1 maiden:1 winter:1 compel:1 march:1 naked:1 round:1 marketplace:1 sing:1 song:1 compose:1 express:1 justice:1 punishment:3 usual:1 respect:1 pay:1 athens:1 definite:1 legislation:3 matter:2 minor:1 evidently:1 dictate:1 spirit:1 akin:1 spartan:1 doctrine:1 rome:1 though:1 trace:1 early:1 clearly:1 call:2 lex:3 julia:2 bc:1 ever:1 come:1 full:1 operation:1 ad:1 incorporate:1 papia:2 et:3 poppaea:2 frequently:1 cite:1 several:2 lay:1 heavy:1 person:2 give:1 privilege:1 child:1 finally:1 impose:2 light:1 childless:1 isolated:1 instance:2 occur:1 charter:1 liberty:1 grant:1 matilda:1 countess:1 nevers:1 auxerre:1 tax:4 five:1 solidus:1 qui:1 non:1 habet:1 uxorem:1 est:1 bache:1 larius:1 wife:1 direct:1 bearing:1 occasionally:1 make:2 bear:1 heavily:1 others:1 act:1 servant:1 income:1 culture:2 teasing:1 game:1 small:1 town:2 germany:2 birthday:2 sweep:1 stair:1 hall:1 kiss:1 virgin:1 treppe:1 fegen:1 practise:1 today:1 part:1 northern:1 similarly:1 denmark:1 norway:1 sweden:1 rest:1 scandinavia:1 pebersvend:1 may:1 receive:1 giant:1 pepper:1 grinder:1 pad:1 party:1 spinster:1 lad:1 fear:1 commitment:1 footnote:1 |@bigram victorian_era:1 eligible_bachelor:3 bachelor_degree:2 pope_gregory:1 gregory_ix:1 income_tax:1 |
5,798 | Robert_Bellarmine | Robert Bellarmine (full name in Italian: Roberto Francesco Romolo Bellarmino) (4 October 1542, Montepulciano, Siena, Italy – 17 September 1621, Rome) was an Italian Jesuit and a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He was one of the most important cardinals of the Catholic Reformation. He was canonized in 1930 and is a saint and a Doctor of the Church. Biography Early years Bellarmine was born at Montepulciano to a noble though impoverished family, son of Vincenzo Bellarmino and wife Cinzia Cervini who was sister of Pope Marcellus II. His abilities showed themselves early; as a boy he knew Virgil by heart and composed a number of poems in Italian and Latin. One of his hymns, on Mary Magdalene, is included in the Breviary. His father destined him for a political career, hoping that he might restore the fallen glories of the family. His mother however, wished him to enter the Society of Jesus, and her influence prevailed. He entered the Roman novitiate in 1560, remaining in Rome three years. He then went to a Jesuit house at Mondovì, in Piedmont, where he learned Greek. Bellarmine's systematic study of theology began at the University of Padua in 1567 and 1568, where his teachers were Thomists. But in 1569 he was sent to finish it at Leuven,near Brussels, where he could obtain a fuller acquaintance with the prevailing heresies. There he was ordained, and he quickly obtained a reputation both as a professor and a preacher, in the latter capacity drawing to his pulpit both Catholics and Protestants, even from distant parts. He was the first Jesuit to teach at the university, where the subject of his course was the Summa of Thomas Aquinas; he also made extensive studies in the Fathers and medieval theologians, which gave him the material for his book "De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis" (Rome, 1613), which was later revised and enlarged by Sirmond, Labbeus, and Casimir Oudin. In Rome - The Disputationes Bellarmine's residence in Leuven lasted seven years. His health was undermined by study and asceticism, and in 1576 he made a journey to Italy that it might be restored. Here he was detained by the commission given him by Pope Gregory XIII to lecture on polemical theology in the new Roman College; Bellarmine saw this as an honour and graciously accepted. Bellarmine devoted eleven years to this work, out of whose activities grew his celebrated "Disputationes de controversiis christianae fidei", (also called Disputationes) first published at Ingolstadt in 1581-1593. It occupies in the field of dogmatics the same place as the "Annales" of Baronius in the field of history. This monumental work was the earliest attempt to systematize the various controversies of the time, and made an immense impression throughout Europe, the blow it dealt to Protestantism being so acutely felt in Germany and England that special chairs were founded in order to provide replies to it. Nor has it even yet been superseded as the classical book on its subject-matter, though, as was to be expected, the progress of criticism has impaired the value of some of its historical arguments. Both were the fruits of the great revival in religion and learning which the Catholic Church had witnessed since 1540. Both bear the stamp of their period; the effort for literary elegance (so-called "maraviglia"), which was considered the principal thing at the beginning of the sixteenth century, had given place to a desire to pile up as much material as possible, to embrace the whole field of human knowledge, and incorporate it into theology. The first volume treats of the Word of God, of Christ, and of the pope; the second of the authority of ecumenical councils, and of the Church, whether militant, expectant, or triumphant; the third of the sacraments; and the fourth of Divine grace, free will, justification, and good works. New duties after 1589 - controversial writings Until 1589, Bellarmine was occupied altogether as professor of theology, but that date marked the beginning rounded the new pope in his life and of new dignities. After the murder of Henry III of France, Pope Sixtus V sent Gaetano as legate to Paris to negotiate with the League, and chose Bellarmine to accompany him as theologian; he was in the city during its siege by Henry of Navarre. The next pope, Clement VIII, set great store by him. Bellarmine wrote the preface to the new edition of the Vulgate, and was made rector of the Roman College in 1592, examiner of bishops in 1598, and cardinal in 1599. Immediately after his appointment as Cardinal, Pope Clement made him a Cardinal Inquisitor. In this capacity he served as one of the judges at the trial of Giordano Bruno, and concurred in the decision which condemned him to be burnt to death as an obstinate heretic. Blackwell (1991, p.47-48). In 1602 he was made archbishop of Capua. He had written strongly against pluralism and non-residence, and he set an example himself by leaving within four days for his diocese, where he devoted himself to his episcopal duties, and put into effect the reforming decrees of the Council of Trent. Under Pope Paul V (reigned 1605-1621), arose the great conflict between Venice and the Papacy. Fra Paolo Sarpi, as spokesman for the Republic of Venice, protested against the papal interdict, and reasserted the principles of the Council of Constance and of the Council of Basel, denying the pope's authority in secular matters. Bellarmine wrote three rejoinders to the Venetian theologians, and at the same time possibly saved Sarpi's life by giving him fair warning of an impending murderous attack. Robert Bellarmine had occasion to cross swords with a more prominent antagonist, King James I of England, who prided himself on his theological attainments. Bellarmine had written a letter to the English archpriest George Blackwell, reproaching him for having taken the oath of allegiance in apparent disregard of his duty to the pope. James attacked him in 1608 in a Latin treatise, which the scholarly cardinal answered, making fun of the defects of the royal Latinity. King James replied with a second attack in more careful style, dedicated to the Emperor Rudolph II and all the monarchs of Christendom, in which he posed as the defender of primitive and true Christianity. Bellarmine's answer to this covers more or less the whole controversy. In 1616, on the orders of the then pope, Paul V, Cardinal Bellarmine summoned Galileo Galilei, notified him of a forthcoming decree of the Congregation of the Index condemning the Copernican doctrine of the mobility of the Earth and the immobility of the Sun, and ordered him to abandon it. Blackwell (1991, p.126). The Vatican archives contain an unsigned copy of a more strongly worded formal injunction purporting to have been served on Galileo shortly after Bellarmine's admonition, and threatening him with imprisonment if he had refused to obey. However, whether this injunction was ever properly served on Galileo is a subject of much scholarly disagreement.(Blackwell, 1991, p.127–128) Galileo agreed. When Galileo later complained of rumors to the effect that he had been forced to abjure and do penance, Bellarmine wrote out a certificate denying the rumors, stating that Galileo had merely been notified of the decree and informed that, as a consequence of it, the Copernican doctrine could not be "defended or held". Blackwell (1991, p.127). English translations of the decree of the Congregation of the Index and of Cardinal Bellarmine's certificate are available on-line. (In 1633 Galileo would again be called before the Inquisition in this matter.) In reply to a posthumous treatise of William Barclay, the celebrated Scottish jurist, he wrote another Tractatus de potestate summi pontificis in rebus temporalibus, which reiterated his strong assertions on the subject, and was therefore prohibited in France, where it agreed with the sentiments of neither the king nor the bishops. In his old age he was allowed to return to his old home, Montepulciano, as its bishop for four years, after which he retired to the Jesuit college of St. Andrew in Rome. He received some votes in the conclaves which elected Pope Leo XI, Pope Paul V, and Pope Gregory XV, but only in the second case had he any prospect of election. During his retirement, he wrote several short books intended to help ordinary people in their spiritual life: The Mind's Ascent to God (1614), The Art of Dying Well (1619), and The Seven Words on the Cross. Saint Robert Bellarmine died in Rome on 17 September 1621. Canonization and final resting place Over the years, the members of his order worked tirelessly to achieve his canonization. Finally he was canonized by Pope Pius XI in 1930; the following year he was declared a Doctor of the Church. He died from natural causes in Rome, Italy. His body rests in the Church of Saint Ignatius, the chapel of the Roman College, next to the body of his student, St. Aloysius Gonzaga, as he himself had wished. Feast day In the Roman Catholic calendar of saints Saint Robert Bellarmine's feast day is on 17 September, the day of his death; but some continue to use pre-1969 calendars, in which for 37 years his feast day was on 13 May. The rank attributed to his feast has been "double" (1932-1959), "third-class feast" (1960-1968), and since 1969 an "optional memorial", all of them equivalent. Footnotes References External links Episodes from his life at Catholic forum web-site. De Laicis (treatise on civil government) in English translation The Seven Words on the Cross The Eternal Happiness of the Saints The Art of Dying Well (archive.org) The Art of Dying Well (text PDF) References | Robert_Bellarmine |@lemmatized robert:4 bellarmine:19 full:1 name:1 italian:3 roberto:1 francesco:1 romolo:1 bellarmino:2 october:1 montepulciano:3 siena:1 italy:3 september:3 rome:7 jesuit:4 cardinal:8 roman:6 catholic:6 church:6 one:3 important:1 reformation:1 canonize:2 saint:6 doctor:2 biography:1 early:3 year:8 bear:2 noble:1 though:2 impoverished:1 family:2 son:1 vincenzo:1 wife:1 cinzia:1 cervini:1 sister:1 pope:15 marcellus:1 ii:2 ability:1 show:1 boy:1 know:1 virgil:1 heart:1 compose:1 number:1 poem:1 latin:2 hymn:1 mary:1 magdalene:1 include:1 breviary:1 father:2 destine:1 political:1 career:1 hop:1 might:2 restore:2 fallen:1 glory:1 mother:1 however:2 wish:2 enter:2 society:1 jesus:1 influence:1 prevail:1 novitiate:1 remain:1 three:2 go:1 house:1 mondovì:1 piedmont:1 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5,799 | Transport_in_Ethiopia | Railways Historic of picture of the Addis Ababa - Djibouti Railway in Dire Dawa with Alfred Ilg (taken sometime in 1902-1906) total: 681 km (Ethiopian segment of the Addis Ababa - Djibouti Railway), all 1000 mm narrow gauge note: At present the railway is under joint control of Djibouti and Ethiopia, but negotiations are underway to privatize this transport utility. Railway links to adjacent countries Djibouti - yes - 1000 mm Somalia - no railways Kenya - no - same gauge 1000 mm Sudan - no - break of gauge 1000 mm/1067 mm Eritrea - no break-of-gauge 1000 mm/950 mm Maps UN map Ethiopian cities served by rail Existing Addis Ababa - national capital Akaki Awash Debre Zeyit Dire Dawa Metehara Mieso Nazret Proposed Several never-built lines were proposed by the Italians after their conquest of Ethiopia in 1935. The newly formed Ethiopian Railway Corporation (ERC) has been tasked to build a network 5,000 kilometers in length connecting different parts of the country. The ERC was established in November 2007 under the supervision of the Ministry of Transport and Communications, by decision of the Council of Ministers, with a paid up capital of US$750 million. This project will comprise in its initial phase building a railway network in Addis Ababa: From Entoto to Kaliti, and from Keranio to Ayat residential estate. Junedin Sado, Minister of Transport and Communications, is also chairman of the Board of Directors for the Corporation. Other directors include Arkebe Oqubay, Mekonnen Manyazewal, and Tadesse Haile, state ministers for Works and Urban Development, Finance and Economic Development, and Trade and Industry, respectively. Mehiret Debebe, general manager of the Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation, is also a director of the Board. The directors have already appointed chief executive officer for the Corporation: Getachew Betru, an engineer trained in the United Kingdom. 2008 A concrete sleeper plant has also been built at Dire Dawa 2006 2 November 2006 - Ineco Spt of Spain has been named the preferred choice for supervision and administration of rehabilitation work on the 781 km Ethio-Djibouti Railway for €2.2 million. Consta - an Italian company - will undertake the actual reconstruction at a cost of €40 million (about R360m). Comazar of South Africa has been awarded the 25-year concession. Rails are to be upgraded from 20 kg/m to 40 kg/m, to carry substantially increased loads. A fleet of new locomotives and freight wagons will be brought in by the concessionaire. RailwaysAfrica History In French. http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/index.html Highways As the first part of a 10-year Road Sector Development Program, between 1997 and 2002 the Ethiopian government began a sustained effort to improve its infrastructure of roads. As a result, as of 2002 Ethiopia has a total (Federal and Regional) 33,297 km of roads, both paved and gravel. The share of Federally managed roads in good quality improved from 14% in 1995 to 31% in 2002 as a result of this program, and the road density increased from 21 km per 1000 km2 (in 1995) to 30 km; however, this is still less than the average of 50 km per 1000 km2 for Africa. "Ethiopia - Second Road Sector Development Program Project", p.3 (World Bank Project Appraisal Document, 19 May 2003) The Ethiopian government has begun second part of the Road Sector Development Program, which is scheduled for completion in 2007. This will involve the upgrading or construction of over 7,500 km of roads, with the goal of improving the average road density for Ethiopia to 35 km per 1000 km2, and reduce the proportion of the country area that is more than 5 km from an all-weather road from 75% to 70%. World Bank, "Second Road Sector", p.11 As of 2006, Ethiopia only had one expressway-the Addis Ababa Ring Road, a four-lane limited-access, divided highway, forming a beltway around the capital. Some portions are still yet to be completed. The majority of its interchanges consist of roundabouts. Pedestrian bridges were constructed every kilometer, to reduce the risk of accidents. While not built to expressway standards, many roads in Addis Ababa and other cities can be considered dual carriageways and have up to 4 lanes in each direction with hardly any junctions. total (Regional and Federal): 33,297 km asphalt: 3,789 km gravel: 27,782 km maintained by Regional government: 16,680 km Major roads include: No 1: north from Addis Ababa 891 km via Dessie to Adigrat, from Dessie to Weldiya, designated part of the Ndjamena-Djibouti Trans-African Highway 6 (TAH 6); No 2: east from Dessie 482 km to Aseb, designated part of the Ndjamena-Djibouti TAH 6; No 3: north from Addis Ababa across the Blue Nile at Dejen and again at Bahir Dar east around Lake Tana 979 km via Gondar and Aksum to Adwa, from Addis Ababa to Gondar designated part of the Cairo-Cape Town Trans-African Highway 4 (TAH 4), and from Wereta to Gondar designated part of TAH 6; No 4: east from Addis Ababa 542 km via Dire Dawa to Jijiga; No 5: west from Addis Ababa 322 km to Nekemte; No 6: south from Addis Ababa 797 km via Shashamene to Moyale, designated part of TAH 4; No 7: south-west from Addis Ababa 336 km via Waliso (Ghion) to Jimma; No 8: south from Nazret 193 km via Asella to Dodola; No 18: north from Awash on No 4 305 km to Mille on No 2; No 30: south-east from Jijiga 696 km across the Ogaden to the Shabelle valley; No 43: south-west from Nekemte 226 km to Metu; No 44: south-east from Shashamene 308 km to Dolo Odo (Doolow). Africa North East, Michelin 2007, Africa North East GeoCenter 1999, Maplandia Ports and harbours None. Ethiopia is landlocked and was by agreement with Eritrea using the ports of Asseb and Massawa; since the Eritrean-Ethiopian War, Ethiopia has used the port of Djibouti for nearly all of its imports. Merchant marine total: 12 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling / (1999 est.); 9 ships (with a volume of or over) / (2003 est.) ships by type: cargo ship 7; container ship 1; petroleum tanker 1; roll-on/roll-off ship 3 (1999 est.), 1 (2003 est.) Airports 84 (2005 est.) Airports - with paved runways total: 14 over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2003 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 68 over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 914 to 1,523 m: 27 under 914 m: 23 (2003 est.) See also Ethiopia List of airports in Ethiopia Notes External links Ethiopian Shipping Lines, S.C. (The Ethiopian Merchant Marine Corporation) Ethiopian Road Authority homepage Further reading "Chapter 8: Transport and Communications" in Richard Pankhurst, Economic History of Ethiopia (1800 - 1935) (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University Press, 1968). | Transport_in_Ethiopia |@lemmatized railway:9 historic:1 picture:1 addis:14 ababa:14 djibouti:8 dire:4 dawa:4 alfred:1 ilg:1 take:1 sometime:1 total:7 km:25 ethiopian:10 segment:1 mm:7 narrow:1 gauge:4 note:2 present:1 joint:1 control:1 ethiopia:11 negotiation:1 underway:1 privatize:1 transport:4 utility:1 link:2 adjacent:1 country:3 yes:1 somalia:1 kenya:1 sudan:1 break:2 eritrea:2 map:2 un:1 city:2 serve:1 rail:2 exist:1 national:1 capital:3 akaki:1 awash:2 debre:1 zeyit:1 metehara:1 mieso:1 nazret:2 propose:2 several:1 never:1 build:5 line:2 italian:2 conquest:1 newly:1 form:2 corporation:5 erc:2 task:1 network:2 kilometer:2 length:1 connect:1 different:1 part:8 establish:1 november:2 supervision:2 ministry:1 communication:3 decision:1 council:1 minister:3 pay:1 u:1 million:3 project:3 comprise:1 initial:1 phase:1 entoto:1 kaliti:1 keranio:1 ayat:1 residential:1 estate:1 junedin:1 sado:1 also:4 chairman:1 board:2 director:4 include:2 arkebe:1 oqubay:1 mekonnen:1 manyazewal:1 tadesse:1 haile:2 state:1 work:2 urban:1 development:5 finance:1 economic:2 trade:1 industry:1 respectively:1 mehiret:1 debebe:1 general:1 manager:1 electric:1 power:1 already:1 appoint:1 chief:1 executive:1 officer:1 getachew:1 betru:1 engineer:1 train:2 united:1 kingdom:1 concrete:1 sleeper:1 plant:1 ineco:1 spt:1 spain:1 name:1 preferred:1 choice:1 administration:1 rehabilitation:1 ethio:1 consta:1 company:1 undertake:1 actual:1 reconstruction:1 cost:1 comazar:1 south:7 africa:4 award:1 year:2 concession:1 upgrade:1 kg:2 carry:1 substantially:1 increased:1 load:1 fleet:1 new:1 locomotive:1 freight:1 wagon:1 bring:1 concessionaire:1 railwaysafrica:1 history:2 french:1 http:1 www:1 franco:1 ethiopien:1 com:1 index:1 html:1 highway:4 first:1 road:15 sector:4 program:4 government:3 begin:2 sustained:1 effort:1 improve:3 infrastructure:1 result:2 federal:2 regional:3 pave:2 gravel:2 share:1 federally:1 manage:1 good:1 quality:1 density:2 increase:1 per:3 however:1 still:2 less:1 average:2 second:3 p:2 world:2 bank:2 appraisal:1 document:1 may:1 schedule:1 completion:1 involve:1 upgrading:1 construction:1 goal:1 reduce:2 proportion:1 area:1 weather:1 one:1 expressway:2 ring:1 four:1 lane:2 limit:1 access:1 divide:1 beltway:1 around:2 portion:1 yet:1 complete:1 majority:1 interchange:1 consist:1 roundabout:1 pedestrian:1 bridge:1 construct:1 every:1 risk:1 accident:1 standard:1 many:1 consider:1 dual:1 carriageway:1 direction:1 hardly:1 junction:1 asphalt:1 maintain:1 major:1 north:5 via:6 dessie:3 adigrat:1 weldiya:1 designate:3 ndjamena:2 trans:2 african:2 tah:5 east:7 aseb:1 across:2 blue:1 nile:1 dejen:1 bahir:1 dar:1 lake:1 tana:1 gondar:3 aksum:1 adwa:1 designated:2 cairo:1 cape:1 town:1 wereta:1 jijiga:2 west:3 nekemte:2 shashamene:2 moyale:1 waliso:1 ghion:1 jimma:1 asella:1 dodola:1 mille:1 ogaden:1 shabelle:1 valley:1 metu:1 dolo:1 odo:1 doolow:1 michelin:1 geocenter:1 maplandia:1 port:3 harbour:1 none:1 landlocked:1 agreement:1 use:2 asseb:1 massawa:1 since:1 eritrean:1 war:1 nearly:1 import:1 merchant:2 marine:2 ship:6 volume:2 est:7 type:1 cargo:1 container:1 petroleum:1 tanker:1 roll:2 airport:4 runway:2 unpaved:1 see:1 list:1 external:1 shipping:1 c:1 authority:1 homepage:1 far:1 reading:1 chapter:1 richard:1 pankhurst:1 selassie:1 university:1 press:1 |@bigram addis_ababa:14 dire_dawa:4 narrow_gauge:1 mm_mm:2 http_www:1 dual_carriageway:1 lake_tana:1 eritrean_ethiopian:1 merchant_marine:2 petroleum_tanker:1 pave_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 external_link:1 haile_selassie:1 |
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